THESIS Lam! “than “at. University This is to certify that the dissertation entitled CONSEKVATmN STK/l TE G. (E3 0 F NEPAL , 19 s l - t 9 89 presented by UKESH RAJ EHUJU has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for MA STE lg degree in Agricultural gt EKMsicm Em‘ Major proiessor ,9 Date H‘ 9.871 MSU is an Aflirmatiw Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 MSU LIBRARIES _— \— RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. CONSERVATION STRATEGIES 0F NEPAL, 1951-1985 By Ukesh Raj Bhuju A_THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in prtial fulfillment of the remirenents for the degree of Department of Agricultural and Extension Education 1984 ABSTRACT CIJNSERVATICN STRATEGIES OI' NEPAL, 1951-1985 By Ukesh Raj Bhuju The purpose of the study was to describe and analyze conservation strategies advocated by PEG in the national development plans during 1951-85. The strategies, i.e., objectives, priority, budget, organization, technical areas for emphasis, people's participation, and legislation, were chronologically reviewed and compared for each plan period. Conservation was one of the sectors in the plans during the period 1951-85. Its strategies during 19505 and 19608 were inclined towards government control and peeple's participation in implementation. During 19708, the strategies were modified with an appreciation of conservation through the preventive technical measures and the mutual cooperation between government and the people. By the turn of 19805, conservation was upgraded to the tap priority national program supported with appropriate legislation so that people could participate at all levels. Conservation as an integral part of development should be envisaged in other developmental works along with the support through organization, legislation, and peeple's participation. The author is indebted to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations for providing him the fellowship to study leading towards the Masters of Science in Agricultural and Extension Education with emphasis in conservation education extension at Michigan State University (.MSU) . He wishes to express his gratitude to His Majesty's Government of Nepal for the rumination and grant of study leave for the same purpose. The author wishes to express his sincere appreciations to Dr. Otis Donald Meaders, and Dr. Frank Bobbitt for their guidance and help during the entire study. He also wishes to express his sincere thanks to Dr. Melvin R. Kcelling and Dr. Fred J. Peabody for their counsel and advice throughout the study. The staff of the Media Lab and Computer Access Center, College of Education at MSU cooperated by providing a wordprocesscr and graphic lab facilities. The staff of the MSU Library helped to locate the materials. The staff of the Department of Agricultural and Extension Education of NBU provided study room and other facilities. Norma Roller of the Environmental Research Institute of Michigan provided specimens of satellite imageries for duplication. Brother Dinesh Raj Bhuju, colleague Bijay Kattel, and the staff of CFDP and WCEP in Kathmandu cooperated by mailing documents and other information. ii Dr. Rex and Glenna Ray, and Roger Steele helped in editing the thesis. Colleagues Sudhir Vikram Gurung, Narayan Kaji Shrestha, Consuelo Quiroz and others amperated by giving valuable suggestions during the study. The author derived ideas and informations presented by other authors whose names appear in the bibliography. To all of them, and many others, the author wishes to extend his warmest thanks. Finally and with mrdially, he thanks his wife, Byuna Bhuju, for her presence and help during the stay at MSU. The ideas and informaticns presented in this study are the personal views of the author and not of HMS or FAD. These may be used by complete citation. Ukesh Raj Bhuju 921 L Cherry Lane East Lansing, Michigan 48823, USA Nmmber 6, 1984 iii TABLEOFCH‘JTENI‘S LISTCI‘TABLEB ... ...vii LISTOF FIGURES ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ix LISTOFABBREVIATICNS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... x LISTCFSYMBQS ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...xii Chapter I. 311101113104 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Statement of the Problems ... ... ... Patna 0.. 0.. 0.. .0. 0.. .00 0.. .0. .0. Research Questions ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Procedure ... Definitionsof'rerms Sourcesof Informatics ... Limitations ... II. REVIEWOFLI'IERA’IURE ... ... ... ... ... ... ... EnvirormentofNepal Location, Area, andShape of Nepal ... Origin of theHimalaya ... ... mfiimragjy ... ... .0. 0.. 0.. .0. 0.. Climte 0.. DO. .0. .0. .0. 0.. .0. 0.. Flaa 0.. CO. .0. .0. 0.. .0. 0.. .0. 0.. Sometimes dthNNNl-‘H HH «as Fm ... ... ... 0.. 0.. .0. 0.. 0.. 0.. Man andEnvircrment ... ... ... ... Peeple 20 LiMim CO. 0.. .0. .0. 0.. 0.. 0.. 0.. mic um .0. CO. .0. .0. .0. .0. CO. .0. Ecosystem 25 Conservation for Development 27 TheVicious Circle ... 27 Development in Nepal ... ... ... ... ... 29 ConsequencesofDevelcpment ... 30 Natural Environment and Development ... ... 35 Comervaticn Strategy ... ... ... ... 38 Gm Effmts 0.. .0. .0. CO. .0. .0. 0.. 38 National Efforts ... ... ... ... 41 Neppal's Efforts ... 47 Study Procedure ... 53 N O m3 iv Chapter III. (INSERVATICN STRA'IESIES INNEPAL Introduction ... Format ... ... ... National Development Plan Conservation Strategies 1951-1956 Obj ectives/Priority . . . Budget ... ... ... Organization ... Technical Areas for Emphasis Pe0ple's Participation Legislation ... ... Conservation Strategies 1956-1961 Objectives ... ... ... Priority ... ... ... Budget ... ... ... Organization ... ... Technical Areas for Emphasis People's Participation ... Legislation ... ... ... Conservation Strategies 1961-1965 Objectives ... ... ... Priority ... ... ... Budget ... ... ... Organization ... ... Technical Areas for Emphasis PeOple's Participation ... Legislation ... ... ... Conservation Strategies 1965-1970 Objectives ... Priority ... ... ”gt 0.. 0.. 0.. Organization ... Technical Areas for Emphasis Pe0ple's Participation ... Legislation ... ... ... Conservation Strategies 1970-1975 Objectives ... Priority Budget Organization Technical Areas for Buyiasis People's Participation ... Legislation ... Conservation Strategies 1975-1980 Objectives Priority ... Budget ... ... Organization .. . Technical Areas for Emphasis Peeple's Participation Legislation ... 57 57 57 57 59 59 60 60 61 62 63 64 64 64 65 65 67 68 69 70 70 70 71 72 72 73 74 75 75 76 77 77 78 80 82 83 83 84 84 85 87 88 89 91 91 91 92 93 94 96 98 Chapter Conservation Strategies 1980-1985 Objectives Priority ... Budget ... ... ... ... Organization Technical Areas for Emphasis People's Participation Legislation ... ... ... ... ... Comparison of Conservation Strategies 1951-1985 Comparison of Objectives ... ... ... Comparison of Priorities Comparison of Budgets Comparison of Organizations ... ... Comparison of Technical Areas for aphasia... Comparison of PeOple's Participation Strategies Comparison of Legislation ... ...100 ...100 ...101 ...101 ...102 ...104 ...106 ...108 ...109 ...109 ...111 ...112 ...115 ...118 ...120 ...122 IV. SUI/”MARY, mmmvs,momucm1ms ... ... ... ProcedureSuumarized ... ... ... Findings Summarized ... Objectives ... ... ... ... Priority ... ... ... ... ... ... Budget ... ... ... ... ... ... Organization ... ... ... ... ... ... TechnicalAreas for aphasia Reforestation ... ... ForestManagement ... WatershedManagament ... ... WildlifeManagement ... ... ... ExtetnionService ...125 ...125 ...126 00 0126 ...126 ...126 ...127 ...127 ...127 ...127 ...127 ...128 ...128 surwy 0 0 0 ...128 Research III III III III III III ...123 Trainim 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000129 ...129 ...129 ...130 ...132 People's Participation Legislation Implications BIBLICBRAPHY ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Books ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Reports ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Periodicals ... ... ... ... ... ... ... Miscellaneous ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 000134 ...134 000143 ...151 ...154 vi 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. LIST OF TABLES mtd mStmy 000 000 000 000 .0. Physiographical Divisim of Nepal... ... Foir Classification of Nepal's Physiographical Division Climate of Nepal Based on Altitude ... Summary of Climatic Condition ... ... Five Approaches in Vegetationl Division .. . Flora inVarion Region ... Some Characteristic Birds and Animals of Nepal SomeEthnic GroupsofNepal... ... Altitudinal Limitation of Crops and Livestocks Develorment Results in Nepal (1951-1978) Land-Use Change in Nepal (1954-1980) World Conservation Strategy... Similar Conervatim Efforts of China, India, North and South Korea, and Taiwan Union Nationl Efforts of China, India, NorthandSoxth Korea, andTaiwan Conervation Strategies Prescribed for Nepal ... Elements of Conervation Strategy Compared Selected Study Papers: Author (3) , Title, Statin and Year Selected Study Papers: Author (5) , Sources of Information, and Procedure Trained Personnel in 1956 and 1961 Budget of the First Plan (1956-1961) vii 10 13 14 15 17 19 20 22 29 33 41 46 47 51 52 S4 55 62 65 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. First Plan Progress on Conervation Personnel Trained Abroad (1961) Comtrywise Personnel Trained Abroad (1957-61) Yearwise Ridget of the Second Plan (1962-1965) Target and Progress of Forestry Sector (1962-65) Budget of the Third Plan (1965-70) .. ... ... ... ... Target and Progress of Forestry Sector (1965-70) Forestry and Other Technical Mart-Power in 1970 ... ... Budget of the Fourth Plan (1970—75) ... Target 81d Progress of Forestry Sector (1970-75) ... Foresz Projects and Their Major Activities (1970-75) Budgetof theFifth Plan (1975-80).. ... ... ... ... Soil and Water Conervatioi Projects (1975-80) ... Target and Progress of Conervation Activities (1975-80) Major Conervatim Projects of the Sixth Plan (1980-85) Reforestatioi Target of the Sixth Plan (1980-85) in Hectares Target of Conervatioi Activities (1980-85) Some of the Achievements of the CFDP (1980-83) Key Words of the Plan Objectives ... ... ... Priority Given to the Agricultural Sector intmvati” Pm 000 000 000 000 000 000 Forestry Budget in Six Plans ... ... ... Chronlogy of Conervation Organization Since 1951 ... Reforestation Target aid Progress (1956-1980) in Hectares... Chronlogy of People's Participation Strategy (1951-84) .. . viii 67 68 68 71 72 77 79 80 85 87 88 92 94 95 103 105 105 106 111 112 114 117 119 121 LIST OF FIGURES Nepal and Her Neighbors Cross-section Along Annapurna Meridian. . . . . . Physicgraphy of Nepal Satellite Imagery of Central Nepal . . . . . . General Climatic Condition of Nepal . . . . . . thation Of New]- 000 000 000 000 000 National Parks, Reserves and Avian-zoogeography of Nepal... Agricultural Zones and Major CrOps of Nepal Nan - Nature Relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . Vicious Circle of Firewood in Nepal . . . . . . Vicious Circle of Fodder in Nepal . . . . . . Vicious Circle of Potable Water in Nepal . . . biodification of Development Approach . . . . . . Human Relatiornhip with Nature Towards Progress The Framework of the Stockholm Action Plan Planning Process of Nepal (1969) . . . . . . . . . ForestryBudgets inSixPlans Percentage of Forestry Budget in Six Plans Estimated Budget ix 10 11 12 14 16 18 23 26 28 28 28 30 37 38 57 114 115 DF 06084 FAQ ICIWDD IRD mm NAB MF l‘vIE‘SC MSU PF PPF LIST (F ABBIEVIATICNS Asian DevelOpment Bank Central Bureau of Statistics, Nepal Chief Conervator of Forests Center for Ecorrxmic Development and Administration Commity Forestry Development Project Department of Forests Department of Soil Conervation and Watershed Management Department of Soil and Water Conervation Food and Agriculture Organizatim of the UN His Majesty's Government of Nepal Internationl Center for Integrated Momtain Development Integrated Rural Development Internationl Union for Conervatim of Nature Man and the Biospnre Ministry of Forests Ministry of Forests md Soil Conervation Michigan State University Nepal Council for World Affairs Nationl Planning Commission Nationl Planning Concil Panchayat Forests Panchayat Protected Forests X US USA USAID hWF Research Center for Nepal and Asian Studies Resource Conervation and Utilization Project Swiss Association for Technical Assistance Timber Corporation of Nepal Tribhuvan University United Nation United Nation Environmental Program United Nation Economic, Scientific and Cultural Organization United States (of America) United States of America United States Assistance for International Development Watershed Management and Conervation Education Project World Wildlife Fund xi LIST OF SDBOLS Degree C Degree Centigrade ha Hectare kg Kilogram km Kilometer mm till imeter ' Minute m Meter (i Number % Percentage sq km Square kilometer Rs. Rupees (Nepali Currency) xii CHAPI'ERI INI'ROIIL'I‘ION Statement of the Problem From time immemorial the Nepalese people have depended on the country's natural resources such as soil, water and forests for their livelihood. At present, they face a serious problem regarding these resources. The natural environment of the country has been depleted at an alarming rate in the last three decades. This has resulted because of deforestation that has caused soil erosion. Deforestation also has created a scarcity of firewood and fodder. It indirectly has affected the rnatural springs causing them to dry up in the dry season arnd the mountain slopes to slide down in the rainy season. Soil erosion is the result of deforestation, heavy grazing and unscientific cultivation in the already fragile mountain ecowstem. The consequences are decreases in the carrying capacity of the grazing lands, decreases in productivity of soil, arnd increases in siltation of the waterbcdies both natural and man-made. Since the beginning of the new era in 1951, the government has enacted several Acts and Rules pertaining to the conservation of natural resources in Nepal. The application of aerial photography, satellite imagery and the computer also have been introduced . Nepal has experienced six national development plans, and all six have 2 included conservation programs. Several doror agencies e.g. FAO, UNDP, USAID, SATA, etc. have also supported the conservation efforts in Nepal. But, the natural environment of the country has been depleted at an alarming rate form 1951 to 1984. Why has the environment deteriorated in spite of the earnest efforts mnade in conservation ?. To this question, there may be many answers. One answer would include the conservation strategies which govern the conservation programs. The conservation programs of Nepal are financed and controlled by and/or through His Majesty's Government (HMG) . The strategies of conservation programs are governed by HMG. m The purpose of the study was to describe arnd analyze conservation strategies of Nepal that have been advocated by HMG in the period between 1951-1985. The conservation strategies refer to objectives, priority, budget, organization, technical areas for emphasis, people's participation and legislation in the conervaticn programs launched by and/or through Hm. Research Questions The study attempted to answer the following questions: 1. What were the cornervation strategies recommended in the individual national development plan of Nepal during 1951-1985 ? 2. What changes in cornervation strategies occurred in the individual national development plans during 1951-1985 ? mrtance Conservation of the natural resources in Nepal has become an urgent task for providing firewood and fodder because these are ten 3 basic needs of the nation's people. The declining productivity of the soil must be reversed. If this can be accomplished, the nation's food will be sufficient like it was in the 1960s. Another imposing problem that must be solved is erosion and its hazards which threaten the lives and prcperties of the people. Conservation strategies play a major role in the challenging task of conserving the natural resources. Hence, a clear understanding of conservation strategies is important. The historical review of cornervation strategies during the period 1951-1985 will help reveal what changes took place in this period. The review will reveal the picture of conservation efforts during this period. The expectations of HMS in conservation of the natural resources mnay be more apparent. The study will be helpful to the development planners and policy makers of Nepal. Krnowledge of the past and its relationship to present conditions is required to formulate new and effective programn. This study will attempt to add new ideas to the knowledge—base of the conservation strategies. The study can be helpful to the doror agencies which contribute to the conservation efforts of Nepal . Although the donor agencies contribute, the conservation strategies are governed by EMS and the conservation programs are controlled by ENG. It is assumed that there will be further research question after the completion of this study. But even with its limitations, this study will be Lneful to the conservation researchers in Nepal. The fact is that this field of study has yet to be exhaustively explored throngh scientific research. 4 Another important contribution of the study will be to the people of Nepal. It is expected that the study will help them to understand and interpret the conservation strategies which directly or indirectly affect their daily lives. The information gathered in this study can be helpful to carry out similar studies in other desciplines of study. Other countries may firnd this study can be of benefit to them. Procedure The study inncluded a review of six national development plans from 1956 to 1985, annd one pre—plan period of 1951 to 1956. For each of the seven periods, the study included a description of conservation strategies on the following pattern: 1. objectives, 2. priority, 3. budget, 4. organization, 5. technical areas for emphasis, 6. people's participation, and 7. legislation. The specific description of each period was as follows: 1. Objectives: The overall national objectives as mentioned in the development plans , which reflect the importance of the natural resources. 2. Priority: The level of priority given to the conservation programs among other development programs in the development plans. 3. Budget: The anount annd percentage (%) of the total budget allocated for the conservation programs in the development plan. 4. Organization: The organizational structure of HMG body which is responsible for the implementation of the connervation programs. 5 5. Technical Areas for Emphasis: The conservation activities to be performed in the conservation programs during the national development plan focussing on the following areas: i) Reforestation (hectares) ii) Forest Management (activities) iii) Watershed Management (activities) iv) Wildlife Management (activities) v) Extension Service (activities) vi) Survey (field) vii) Research (activities) viii) Training (persons) 6. People's Participation: The level of people's participation in conservation programs. 7. Legislation: The Acts and the Rules enacted by HMG during the period arnd their main ideas. Graphically the description and analysis of conservation strategy was carried out according to the format as slown in Table 1. Table 1 . Format of the Study Periods l951-1956-1961-1965-1970-1975-1980-1985 Strategies 1. Objectives 2. Priority 3. Budget 4. Organization 5. Technical Areas for Emphasis i) Reforestation ii) Forest Management iii) Watershed Management iv) Wildlife Management v) Extension vi) Survey vii) Research viii) Training 6. PeOple's Participation 7. legislation ueld-amd UPld nanJ UPld PJIHI "Pld ”1413 uend unXLs ueld puooas uena uanos Following the descriptions of the strategies for each period, an analysis was made to finnd out the changes from one period to another. 6 Consequently, the changes from one decade to another were revealed such as from 19505 to 19605 and to 19705 and 19805 as well. The numerical data on budget, reforestation and training have been illustrated in grapphic or tabular forms. Definitions of Terms Budget: The amount of money made available for conservation programs in the national develOptent plans . Conservation Program: A project or scheme or combination of projects annd schemes related to conservation of the natural resources; incorporated into the national development plans . His Majesty's Government (HMG): The present-day constitutional government of Nepal ; also refers to the Government of Nepal, as it was formnally called before April 14, 1958 (Agrawal, 1976:196) . Legislation: The Acts annd the Rules pertinent to cornervation of the natural resources, annd enacted by HMG. National Development Plan: A five-year or three-year systematic develcpment plan approved by Hm. Objectives: The long-term goals of the national development plans . Organization: The administrative annd functional structures of HMS which are responnible for the conservation programs. Peeple's Participation: People' 5 involvement in connervation programs at various levels such as decision makinng , implementing , evaluating, benefit sharing, annd maintaining. Priority: A preferential rating of development programs in the national development plans. Technical Areas for Emphasis: The activities in conservation programs such as: Reforestation, Forest Management, Watershed Management, .7 Wildlife Managenent, Extension, Survey, Research, and Training. Sources of Information The sources of information for this study were limited to those which met the following three criteria: 1. Official government reports, plans, or other documents. 2. Research reports or articles based on research which pertained to the general area of the study and authored by government officials, or authorized by the government. 3. Publications with dates startirng from 1951 and ending in 1984. Two of the major kinds of sonrces of information were the several government plans, usually five or three-year plans and the annual reports or the other official reports. Publications from other sources were used to help establish the credibility of the information contained in the government reports. Limnitations The stndy was limited to the description ad analysis, in terms of plans and changes from one period to another, in conservation strategies. It does not purport to evaluate the conservation programs launched by and/or throngh PM; during the period 1951-1985. The study did not attempt to establish a “cause-effect" relationship between conservation strategies and connervation programs. The researcher hopes the study added some new ideas to the knowledge-base of the connervation strategies of Nepal. The study did not also cover the strategies advocated by various international agenncies involved in conservation of Nepal. (IIAPIERII REVEVCI‘HTERAIURE Environment of Nepal Location, Area and Shape of Nepal Nepal is located between 26°22' and 30° 27' North latitudes and 80° 04' ad 88‘ 12' East longitudes. It occupies an area of 147,181 sq Inn in the mid-Himalayan range in South Asia. It has a rectangular shape with the average east west length of 885 km. and the north-south width varyirng from 145 to 241 km. It is ladlocked by China to the north ad by India to the east, south ad west (CBS, 1982:1-2) (Figure 1). Afghanistan China ; Bhutan akistan - fl 5. India Figure 1. Nepal ad Her Neighbors (Based on Barttolomew, John, 1981:102-103) Origin of the Himalaya The Himalaya is connidered to be the world's yourngest mountain range with its own individual history of origin based on the 9 Continental Drift Theory as prOposed by Wegner. Hagen(1961:50—53 and 1963:1-96) explained that it had energed from the Tethys Sea in four mnain phases between the Mesozoic era (70 million years ago) and the late Pleistocene era (200,000 years ago). The drifting plate of the Indian sub-continent pushed the Chinese plate, which resulted the squeezinng of the Tethys Sea and the rising of the Himalaya, the Mahabharat ad the other plnysical structures. Similar view is held by Karan ad Jenkins (1960:15), Pooh and Frank (1970:98-100), Shrestha, C.L. (1973) , Shanna, C.K. (1977:10-16) , zollinger (1979) , and Jhinngran (1981:77-98) . Based on the frequent earthquakes ad the raised river terraces etc., the geologists feel that the Himalaya is still rising. Physiography There are several approaches to pnysiographically divide the environment of Nepal. Gurung (1971: 1-10, 1973: 25-33, 1977: 2) catagorized three mnain east-west ranges and the four characteristics lowlands in between (Table 2). Table 2. Physiographical Division of Nepal Ranges Lowlands Altitude Average Width (meter) (km) Btot 1500—4500 10 to 20 Himal above 4500 15 to 25 Pahar 600-2000 60 to 100 Mahabharat 1500-2700 15 to 20 Dun 600—900 10 to 20 Chure 600-1500 10 to 15 Terai below 300 up to 45 (Sources: Gurung, 1971, 1973, 1977: and Karen et a1, 1983) Similar division were also proposed by Hagen (1961:36-40) , Baidya (1970:5) , and Dobremez (1976:26). The physiographical division of Nepal was viewed in similar but broader ways by Karan and Jenkins 10 (1960:15-16) , Thapa and Thapa (1969:4-14) , Fleming (Jr.) (1971:28) , and Shanna, R.P. (1974:3-11) (Table 3). Table 3. Four Classifications of Nepal's Physiographical Divisions Karan & Jenkins Thapa & Thapa Fleminng(Jr.) Shanna, R.P. Tibetan Zone Inner Himalaya Himalaya Himalaya Highland Himalaya Pass Middle Range Momtain Midland Mountain Valleys Churea Dunn (Innnner Lowland Inner Terai Terai) Terai Terai Terai Both Tables 2 and 3 are equally useful to study the Nepalese environment. The cross section through north-south gives a conoeption (Figure 2) . Chure Mahabharat Himalaya 0 50 100 km Figure 2. Cross-section Along Annapurna Meridian (Based on Dobremez, 1976: 26) Nepal can also be divided into three major watersheds of the rivers viz. the Koshi, the Gandaki ad the Karnali, and their respective tributaries (Hagen, 1961: Thapa and Thapa, 1969:15: Gurung, 1973:25-33: Sharma, R.P., 1974: Bhatta, 1977:40; and Shanna, C.K., 1977:16-43) (Figure 3). The physiography of Nepal is shown in Figure 3. ll Index: BIot Main Himalaya A. Chure "‘""'~“~”.‘.‘."'~ Pahar Mahabharat-~-—-- River’>——- River Systems: l.Kcshi 2.Gardaki 3.Karnali Terai/Dun Figurenh. Physiography of Nepal (Sources: Dobremez, 1976; Hagen 1961) A satellite imagery gives an overall coroept of the pnysiography of Nepal. For referenoe a portion of Nepal is slown in Figure 4 which can be considered as the reliable pnysical map of central Nepal (rather called a picture). The imagery was taken by the Landsat on March 21, 1977 at about 9 o'clock in the morning. Climate Two elements of climate, precipitation and temperature, are mainly affected by two topographical factors: altitude and aspect. Based on Tlornthwaite's nmodel, Naya Va (1975:14-20) classified Nepal's climate by taking an account of thermal coefficienncy and altitide. Such correlation between climate and altitude was prescribed by Kawakita (1956:57) , Hagen (1961:48) , Stainton (1972:16-52), Dobremez (1976:131-257) and Gurung (1977:2-3) . Table 4 gives a general concept Index: A. Blot- 1.,Manang 2 .;Mustang B. The Himalaya— 3. The Manaslu, 4. The Annapurna; C. Pahar- 5. Kathmandu valley, 6. Pokhara valley; D. The Mahabharat; E. Dunn- 7. Chitwan (Rapti dun); F. Chute; and G. Terai. Figure 4. Satellite Imagery of Central Nepal (Sonrce: Roller, N., Environmental Research Institute of Michigan) 13 held by for autlors having different field of expertise. Table 4. Climate of Nepal based on Altitude Altitude Naya Va Gurung Dobremez Kawakita m Climato- Geographer Ecologist Botanist logist Snibnival 5000 Tundra Upper Alpine Nival Tundra Lower Alpine Alpine 4000 Taiga Upper Subalpine Subalpine Micro- Temperate Lower Subalpine Cold 3000 thermal Mountain temperate Meso— Hill Temperate 2000 thermal Moist sub- Upper SubtrOpical Warm trogical Lower subtropical temperate 1000 Humid sub- Upper Tropical Subtropical trOpical 500 Tropical Lower Trapical Tropical Due to extreme topography, the microclimate is very sharp in Nepal. Hagen (1961:12) described the Himalaya as the onesided meteorological unit; e.g. the rain—shadows are the characteristic of the lowland of Blot as seen in Mustang ad Manang. Dobremez (1976:42) presented the view that the isohyetal lines vary temporaly and spatially. Stainton's (1972:7-12) specific observations are closely related to the altitude and aspect. For example, rainfall is less interns but continuous at the higher altitudes while the sonth and east aspects are different from the north ad west ones. Bhatta's (1977:11) observations are also similar e.g. sonthern Mahabharat slopes receive more rain than the Terai does, and western Nepal is drier than eastern Nepal. He also mentioned the microclimnatic effect of the river gorges. Figure 5 slows Nepal's general bioclimatic zones. A sumnary of climatic conditions as derived from the above mentioned moss is presented in Table 5. 14 Table 5. Summary of Climatic Conditions Climate Topograpny Precipitation Temperature 'C 11m (Annual mm) Summer Winter Cold Arid Blot Alpine High Himalaya snnow -5 Temperate Lower Himalaya 1000-3000 15-18 below 0 Higher Iiahaunarat (maximum) (minimum) Subtrop- Pahar 250-6500 above 25 10 ical Lower Mahabharat (maximum) (average) Tropical Dun, Chure 1000-250 above 30 18 Terai, Bhabar (maximum) (average) (Based on the foregoing discussion) ‘7‘— —- Index. Cold And [:1 Alpine & Subalpine Q Temperate WI“ Subtropical Tropical Figure 5. General Climatic Zones of Nepal. (Based on Dobremez 1976:90) Flora Extreme variation between climatic and pnysiographical division has resulted in a wide variety of flora in Nepal. The standard way of dividing vegetationl types of the country is basically the altitudinal difference. Varion attempts to systematically present the 15 vegetation types were individually mnade by Kitamura (1955:73-77) , Kawakita (1956:57) , Hagen (1961:48) , Stainton (1972:16-135) , Dobremez (1976:131-257), ad by Swan (Bhatta,1977:43). Five approaches in vegetationnal divisions based on the altitude which determines temperature, rainfall, and other microclimatic factors are presented in Table 6. Table 6. Five Approaches in Vegetational Divisions Altitude Swan Dobremez Hagen Stainton Kitamura meter Ecologist Ecologist Geolcgi st Forester Botani st Arctic Permanent Dry Alpine Subnnival Alpine ice & snow forest 5000 Wet Alpine Upper Subalpine Arctic forest Alpine zone Lover Alpine 4000 Conifer and Upper Temperate Alpine Cold Rlododerd- Subalpine Moi st/Dry Temperate ron forest Lower Subalpine Deciduous Upper 3000 and Rrodo- Mountain Tropical Temperate dendron forest Temperate Warm Upper Mon- Hill Temperate soon forest Lover 2000 Temperate Middle Upper Monnoon Subtropical forest Lower Subtropical Lover SubtrOpical 1000 Monsoon Upper Subtropical forest Tropical Lower Trapical Tropical Nepal's vegetation is not so simple to correlate with only the altitude. The other locality factors that affect vegetation are soil, temporall rainfall distribution, aspect, proximity to river, ad moisture. Coniderably detailed study in this field was independently done by Stainton (1972) and Dobremez (1976) . The former specially discnnsed in terms of forests and tree species whereas the later 16 described pnyto-geograpnically. Both of them overlap very closely, as slown in Figure 6. Nepal was connidered as one pinyin-geographical region by Hooker (Bhatt, 1977:58) . Banerji (1978: 13) separated eastern and western Nepal alog 83° East logitude (near Dhaulagiri) . Hara ad Williams (l979:8) used Stearn's three division separated by 83'East ad 8630' East (near Okhaldhunga) logitndes (Figure 6). On the basis of the above and other available information Bhatta (1977: 58) arbitrarily divided Nepal alog the Arm river and the Gandaki river. He mentioned lorimntal and logitndinal transition which were described by Stainton (1972) ad Dobremez (1976) . ----d o ~_-‘----------.Ji P--‘---- I I t 8 n I n .1 A Index: Stainton's Division——- (I.V. = Inner valleys) DObl’EMZ'S Division M .0..- (EAST, CENTER, WEST, and NCRI'H-WEST) Figure 6. Vegetation of Nepal Based on the above mentioned information, flora/vegetation varies north to south ad east to west. The main species occured in varions floristic region are presented in Table 7. Nepal lies at the meeting gromd of the Chinese, Indian, 0—... ed ”...-om.- pom-nu. 17 Mediterranean, and the Siberian flora, and it has almost all climates from subtropical to alpine. Thus it is not a surprise that there are around 6000 Species of plants (Gibbon and Ashford, 1983) and along them are 500 tree species (Dobremez, 1976:15) . Table 7. Flora in Various Regions North West East Subnival High Altitude Species (Herbs) 5000 m ,— _ .. 1m Alpine Juniperus (barren) : lawns : RIododendron squamata .- ----- -. 1 species 4000 m Juniperus : Quercus : Betula :utilis Subalpine indica n species . ' Caragana : Abies : Larix n Rrodcderdron species : pindrow . potanini : species , : Abies n Larix u . spectabilis: griffithii 3000 m Cupressus : : , torulosa I Cedrus n Quercus n Quercus : deodara ' incana : species H111 (NORIH-WEBT) I n Abies . Alnus Mountain ------ J . - - - -' pindrov : nepalensns 2000 m (WEST) : (coma) I (EAST) Oleo . Pinus : Schima cuspidata . roxburghii . wallichii SubtrOpical Pinus : Schima : Castaropsis roxburghii wallichii . indica 1000 m n- - - J n- ----- -‘ ' Storea robusta Slorea robusta, Terminalia :Anogeissus : species, Dillenia indica, Tropical n species : Cycus pectinata, Acacia Grassland Dillenia n catechu, Dalbergia sissoo ------ -’ pentagina : Soith Dry Moist (Based on Dobremez, 1976:244) Fauna The palearctic and the oriental fauna meet in Nepal. Moreover, the varied topography, climate and the vegetation proved to be ideal for faunnal variation ad distribution. Bhatta (1977:70-72) referred to Prater (1928) , Swan and Leviton (1962) and Caughley (1969) in order to divide Nepal into zoo-geographical region. Fleming, Jr. (1971:28) divided Nepal into following three region: 18 i) Palearctic in the northern highland ii) Lido-Chinese Oriental in the midlad,and iii) Indian Oriental in the southern lowland The above division are connpicnous when one studies the description of national parks ad wildlife reserves (Upreti, 1982: 3-8; ad Bhatta, 1977: 79-108) . Prater (1965: 17) found 28' North parallel as the distinnct linne dividing palearctic to the north ad oriental to the south. However, the oriental fauna of the Bardia national park ad the Suklapnanta reserve lies above the said parallel ad the palearctic animals of the Sagarmatha national park lies belov that (Figure 7) . (Numericals refer to Table 8) Index: I Tran-Himalaya National III Midland Park IIIB Rara-Ringmo Wildlife IV Lowlad Reserve IVB Far Western II Himalaya IIIA Mai Valley IIIC Bai tadi-Darchula IVA Far Eastern Figure 7. National Parks, Reserves ad Avian-zoogeography of Nepal (Soirces: Fleming, Jr., 1971: and Upreti, 1979) 19 Some characteric birds and animals found in the parks and reserves are given in Table 8. Table 8. Some Characteristic Birds and Animals of Nepal # National Park (NP) Birds Animnals Wildlife Reserve (WR) Area sq.km. 1. Sagarmatha NP Blood Pheasant, Musk deer, Himalayan tahr, 1243 sq.km. Damphe, Snnow cock, Serov, Snow 1e0pard etc. Snow Patridge 2. Largtang NP Damphe, Monal, Bear, Leopard, Musk deer, 1710 sq.km. Blood pheasant snow 1e0pard, etc. 3. Shey Ptoksundo NP Snow leopard, Blue sheep, 3000 sq.km. Musk deer, Goral etc. 4. Rara NP Damphe, Kalij, Musk deer, Le0pard, Serov, 106 sq.km. Snow cock, Ctokor, Goral, Bear etc. Chir pneasant etc. 5. Khaptad NP Goral, Barking, Deer,Jacke1, — sq.km. Wild Dog, Leopard etc. 6. Koshi Tappu WR Peafowl, Kalij, Tiger, Wild Buffalo, Nilgai, 65 sq.km. Fish eating birds Chital, Dolphin etc. 7. Royal Chitwan NP Hornbill, Ducks, Tiger, Rhino, Gaur, Chital, 932 sq.km. Aquatic birds, fowl Bear etc. 8. Royal Bardia NP " " Samber, Chital, Swamp deer, 368 sq.km. Tiger, Elephant etc. 9. Royal Suklaphanta WR " " Elepahant, Tiger, Swamp 155 sq.km. deer, Hog deer etc. (Based on Upreti, 1979) Bird-life is one of the striking features of Nepal. Fleming et a1 (1976) described more than 800 Species of birds found in Nepal. Gibbonn and Ashford (1983) noted that there were about the same number of bird species. Bhatta (1981:259) noted that there were about 850 species of birds that had been reported in Nepal. Fleming, Jr. (1971: 28) divided Nepal into four main avian-zoogeographical regionn with specific important spots ad subregion (Figure 7). 20 Man ad Environment People Nepal is a country of diverse ethnic groups with their own culture, language and life-styles. The social scientists as well as the naturalists have tried to study these diversified ethnic patternn on the basis of the main natural factor, altitude. Iijima (1964: 93-94) observed that the ethnic identity of the villagers could be predicted to some extent by merely connulting an altimeter. Kawakita (1957: 99) , Hagen (1961:64) , and Karan ad Jenkins (1963:142) divided Nepal into ethnic region on the basis of altitnde (Table 9). The highlanders are influenced by the Tibetan culture and the lowlanders by the Indian culture. The midlanders developed a typical Nepali culture which was influennced to some extent by the two distinct cultures. Table 9. Some Etlmic Groups of Nepal Altitude Topography Ethnic Groups (meter) 4000 Highlad Sherpa, Btotea, Lama, Tamanng, People of Olangchung, Topke, Mustag, Dolpo, and Rautye etc. Midlad Rai, Limnu, Thakali, Chepang, Newar, 2500 Magar, Brahmin, Chhetri, and Occupational castes etc. Lowland Brahmin, Rajput, Tharu, Danuwar, Majhi, Satar, Dhimal, Darai, Rajbanni, 1000 Occupational castes etc. (Soirces: Kawakita, 1957:99: Hagen, 1961:64; and Karan ad Jenkirn, 1963:142) Bista (1976:195) stated that the ethnic groups of Nepal were interlinked with each other on the basis of geographical and cultural factors. Only a few groups had lived in complete isolation. In his view, three altitudinal division are rather arbitrary. He did not 21 prepare an ethnographic map on the ground that the mobility of the pe0ple had increased. In the recent years, the people in the Terai, urban areas and alog the roads are fond to be a mixture of various ethnic groups. The geography of a country can be safely correlated with the sociocultural life of the people. Gurung (1973:25-33) and Shaha (1975: 20-58) found such correspondence in Nepal. Malla and Rana (1973: 1-23) conclnded that geography was the most visible form of the identity of being a Nepali. The emergence of a Nepali culture between the two great cultural and power entities of Asia, China and India, is possibly because of the geographical location of Nepal. Livelihood About 95% of the people in Nepal derive their livelitood from agriculture. The Nepalese agriculture is still mainly a traditional one. Most of the agriculture, especially the hill agriculture lacks modernization in terms of mechanization, application of chemical fertilizers, ad introduction of improved seeds. The basic factors that affect agriculture in Nepal are the natural elements such as climate (rainfall, cloid cover, tenperature, and humidity) and topograplny (altitude, soil, water, aspect, and slopes). The social factors such as religion, attitndes, ad ethics play a side role. For example, husbanding cattle, swine, and buffalo is influenced by religions factors. Kawakita (1956:87 and 1957:20) , Karan and Jenkinn (1963:142) and Bhatta (1977:131) independently observed the altitudinal limitations of varion crops and livestocks (Table 10). Based on the government agricultural statistics, Bhatta (1977:128-129) divided Nepal into six major agricultural zones, i.e. 22 eastern and western Terai, Inner Terai, Kathmandu valley, and eastern and western hills. Hill agriculture is also divided by Ong (1981:3) into three regions based on altitude i.e. low, mid, and high hills. A comprehensive agricultural zonation for the administrative and research purposes was suggested by Amatya (1973-74: 15) (Figure 8). Table 10. Altitudinal Limitations of Crops and Livestocks Altitude Climate Crop Livestock meter Alpine 4000 Potato, Buckwheat, Oat Yak, Sheep, Highland Subalpine Barley Goat, Sheep, Yak 3000 Hill Maize, Wheat Yak Midland Mountain Rice, Temperate Fruits Cattle, Donkey, Buchwheat Goat 2000 Sub— Rice, Millet Buffalo, tropical Oilseed Cattle, Swine 1000 Rice, Tropical Fruits Buffalo, lowland TrOpical Oilseed, Jute Cattle (Sources: Kawakita 1956:87 and 1957:20; Karan and Jenkins, 1963:142; and Bhatt, 1977:131) Apart from agriculture, cottage industry also prevails among the Nepalese. Acharya (1976:74-83) discussed 15 major cottage industries of Nepal: weaving (cotton and wool), leather & shoe, blacksmithing & metal crafts, pottery, wood turning & carpentry, rope making & bamboo products, slate mining & quarrying, Nepali paper, water—mill, and handicrafts. These industries are affected by natural resources in one way or another. Because most of them derive their raw materials from the natural resources. Porterage and trade are also cannon occupation among the Nepalese. Furer-Hainmendorf (1975) described the highlanders as the Himalayan traders. Tourism has resulted in new occupations which changed the life-styles of the Sherpas and other ethnic groups of 23 Nepal. The expanding network of industry, calmmication and services has also absorbed the Nepali mart-power. The military services within and outside the country is yet another occupation for the rural youths . Index: zones Crops E-East I=Hinmal P=Paddy M=Maize CaCentral II=Pahar GaWheat B=Barley W = Wat III = Terai-Dun K = Millet A = Potato F . Far-West O a Oilseed J = Jute Figure 8. Agricultural zones and Major Crops of Nepal (Source: Amatya, S.L., 1973-74:15) Basic Needs A seminar on basic needs for Nepal focused on six aspects - food, shelter, clothing, drinking water, basic education, and basic health services (Ligal, 1980:21-25) . The third objective of the Sixth Plan (1980-85) of Nepal was to meet the minimum needs of the people, such as foodgrains, firewood, drinking water, basic health services, and basic transports (NFC, 1979:18). The basic new are in one way or another linked with the natural environment. Food is a product of agriculture which is closely related 24 with the natural environment, as described previously. The types of shelter differ from highland to midland and to lowland (Karan and Jenkins, 1963:59) . Moreover, the materials e.g. stone, wood, mud, slate, thatch, brick etc. are but the products of the natural system. Shanna, C.K. (1979) explained that the Nepali life is affected by the environment, especially on dress, house, and food. The basic materials like cotton, wool , and leather for making environmentally suitable attire come from nature through agriculture, livestock and other livelihoods. Energy of Nepal at present is mostly supplied from the forests in terms of firewood. About 95% of the energy requirements are met with firemd. Sources of potable water both for the human and livestock consumption and also for the agriculture depend upon the environmental factors such as climate, geology, and vegetation. Human health cannot be completely separated from the local environment. Francois (1962:274—280) explained the beneficial influences of forests on health. WHO (1974) listed 18 common health problems in Nepal such as diarrlroea, malaria, goiter, inadeqnate clean water, poor sewerage system, etc. and these are intertwined with the diverse environmental factors (Thapa,Y.S., 1980:150—152) . Basic transportation in Nepal means trails and suspension bridges. These structures are essentials because of the rugged terrain, turbulent rivers and other environmental factors of the country. Being a farmer by profession and rural by location, the majority of the Nepalese spend their time in farming, husbanding animals, fetching water, collecting firewood and fodder, and other domestic works. Sharma, S.R. (1980:142-144) noted that the value of education 25 had not yet been appreciated. It is obvious that such appreciation would come only when the people find education as a tool to improve their life and not as a 'labor-hijacker'. Naturally, the basic education of Nepal stould be linked with the natural environment and the daily life of the people. Ecosystem The Himalaya is not a mere set of flora, fauna and the people arranged vertically or torizontally, but is a system of the natural elements and the human beings. Based on such complexity, Rieger (1981: 371) sugggested to consolidate the efforts on the study of the Himalayas, so that the present trend of devastation can be stopped. Such complex ecosystem has been studied by Swan (1968: 68-78) , Banskota (1980:21) , Hoffpauir (as cited by Poffenburger, 1980:47) , and Axin and Axin (1981:16) . Focusing on the livelirood and the basic needs, Figure 9 gives a graphical presentation of the ecosystem. The basic factors of the natural conditions are climate and topography which play a major role in the natural system and the peOple's community. The basic natural resources are soil, water, forests, animals (including insects and birds etc.) and energy (solar, wind, hydro—electricity and hydro-mechanics etc.) . These are the products of a natural system which consists of various cycles of water, nutrients, energy and life; the processes like soil building and soil erosion: and the relationship between soil, plant and water. People's community, influenced by natural conditions, produces human resources e.g. knowledge, technology, motivation, labor and population. People's livelilood such as agricultre, pasture, cottage industry, and miscellaneous occupations (tourism, porterage, 26 trade etc.) and conservation depend on the human resources and the natural resources. Thus the livelitood of the peOple depends upon the natural resources combined with their availability and utilization for such basic human needs as food, cloth, potable water, firewood, fodder, shelter and health as well. Finally the commity and human resouress are fedback by the basic human needs as shown in Figure 9. People' 8 Natural Natural System Community Coditions cycles of society, topograpny, nutrients, economy, it geology. water,life: politics, ecol etc . processes of ‘ reli ion soil building, erosion: plant soil water ‘ relation etc. Human3L Livelihood Natural Resources agriculture r-J Resources population, pasture ‘ soil ,water ,air , education, cottage industry, plant,energy, motivation, conservation etcl minerals etc. _ labor etc. ' ' ' Bas c Needs food, cloth, water, firewood, shelter , health, education, transport etc. Figure 9. Man - Nature Relationship (Based on the foregoing discussions) 27 Conservation for Develqment The Vicious Circle Ecologically man is but a part of the natural environment. In a keynote address to the IUCN meeting, Adu (1964:9-18) proclaimed that man was a natural resource. Slatyer (1972:17-26) described man as an animal but different from other living beings. In the context of Nepal, Swan (1968:68-78) described a Tibetan man as a part of the high Himalayan ecology. These views combined together with the ideas presented before emphasize the close relationship between man and the environment in Nepal. However, this relationship has lost its harmony and balance, and turned into a vicious downward spiral. Eckholm (1976:76-82) discussed a vicious circle of fodder - manure - firewood - dungcake - low production - deforestation. Banskota (1980:21) presented a similar circle with more components i.e. soil erosion, food grains, and meat/milk etc. Blaikie et a1 (1980: 214~215) also described a circle which was very similar to Ecktolm's. Hoffpauir (1974), Gaige (1975:64) , Rana, R. (1976:116) , Poffenburger (1980:18-19) , and Rieger (1981:362-364) viewed the affair through socio-econo—cultural and environmental approach. Axin ad Axin (1981:16) expressed similar ideas through the small subsistence farm family ecosystem. A report on Nepal and ICDDD (1983) vividly analyzed the vicious circle ad the downward spiral of the environment of Nepal. (IDS,1983) . These ideas were also reflected in the films viz. The Himalayan Farmer (1975) , Deshlmo Mato (The Land of Nation) (1978) , and the Fragile Momtain (1982) . Figures 10, 11 and 12 give a glimpse of row a farmer in Nepal is caught in the vicious circles of firewood, fodder, potable water and 28 deforestation respectively. 1 Lack of Cooked Food < PeOple -——) Firewood -—> Deforestation ——> Scarcity of Firewood I Increase inTCrOpland Use of Dungcake Lack of Food < Low Yield (———- Loss of Fertility Loss of Farm Labor More Time Spenci' in Firewood Collection Figure 10. Vicious Circle of Firewood in Nepal Erosion Hazards < Heavy Grazing < People ——> Livestock -—-) Fodder -—) Deforestation -—-> Scarcity of I Fodder Food Deficit < Loss of Livestock e—J Figure 11. Vicious Circle of Fodder in Nepal 1, Lack of Potable Water < People > Deforestation —-) Drying up of Water Sources Lack of food etc. Increase in cropland Lack of Irrigation Decrease in Productivity s Figure 12. Vicious Circle of Potable Water in Nepal (Based on the foregoing discussion) In all three Figures 10, 11, and 12 deforestation is the focal point of the other problems. The problem of deforestation prevailed in the country as early as the 19508 (Robbe, 1954:21-25) . Soil erosion was also comnon then, due to fire, grazing, lOpping, deforestation ad shifting cultivation. The UNEOTFE (1961:67-76) report also mentioned 29 such environmental degradation in Nepal. Similarly, the World Bank report also summarized that serious ecological problems were the constraints of deve10pment in Nepal, and that the country was caught in the vicious circle of poverty (Huang et a1, 1979: i) . Development in Nepal Nepal started her systematic develOpment activities with the First Five Year Plan (1956-1961) . By the year 1978, there were some visible results of develOpment efforts (Table 11) . Table 11. Development Results in Nepal (1951-1978) Items Unit 1951 1961 1970 1978 School (all levels) NO. 334 6150 8370 12636 HOSpital Bed NO. . . 797 . . 2495 Road (all kinds) km 376 912 2504 4595 Irrigation ha . . 2000 . . 31554 Tourist NO . . 5954 45970 156 , 123 (Source: Plan Documents, and CBS, 1982) The statistics cannot be regarded as the basis for the progress done by the people. There were remarkable changes in the definition of development. Stiller and Yadav (1979:50-53) described the five stages of realization in development approad'n. Each approach defined development in its own way and a subsequent stage was modified in order to make it more effective (Figure 13) . The modification of development approach can be related to the growing problems of the counntry, irrespective of the development achievements. Lohani (1976) mentioned that even the then prime minister cpenly realized that few infrastructures and few factories were not the sign of development. Improvement of people's cognitive and economic standard stould be regarded as the development measures. 30 This idea is reflected in the works of various autl'ors viz. Gaige (1975) , Calkins (1979) , Rose and Sholz (1980) , Blaikie et a1 (1980) and Poudyal (1983). nu - Growth in Incom Social Progress Integration (Increase in GD (Increase income (margin society ‘ and r ca ita and social changeH and outside from outside) change agent) (trickle down Social Factors Indfierous Chang exist factors exist ness Need . Liberation Consci enti zation of the people 1 Appropriate Government res nse Figure 13. Modification of Development Approach (Based on Lohani, 1976; Stiller and Yadav, 1979: 5053; NPC, documents on various plans) Consequences of Development Based on the previous discussions on ecosystem, the vicious circle ad development in Nepal, several problems stagnating Nepal's development can be visualized. The UN General Assembly catagorized Nepal as one of the 25 "hard-core" least developed countries (Ceres, 1972:13). In 1979 Nepal was placed in the rank of the six poorest conmtries of the world viz. Kampuchea, Laos, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Chad (KC, 1982:101). Harris et a1 (1964 and 1973), Chand (1976), Calkinns (1979) , Pant and Jain (1980) , Poffenberger (1980:10), Blaikie et a1 (1980:17) discussed these problems on socio-economic and enviromental grounds. The problems are in one way another related to the basic needs e.g. scarcity of firewood, fodder, and potable water, 31 health hazards, erosion, food deficit, popnlation explosion, unemployment, illiteracy, poverty, inadequate social services, and low level of infrastructure etc. Thus it is observed that the development activities in Nepal did not help pronote the overall upliftment of the people's living stadard as expected. Moddie (1981: 341-348) fonnd that man was the maker of deserts in the past, even with his bare hands, ad often in the name of progress. He also indicated that such man-made deserts had been spreading from Afghanistan to Bhutan. Furer-Haimendcrf (1975: 11-12,97) fonnd heavy deforestation due to the halting of the Sherpa community's forest management practices of selecting a Shingo naua (a forest guard). Such drastic change occurred following the government's step to enforce the 1957 Private Forest Nationalization Act. Such adverse impact of the Act was also seen in the midland ad other areas of the country where otherwise the local peOple used to conserve, protect ad harvest the local forests. Political changes also have adverse effect on the natural environment of Nepal. For example, inn-migration because of changes in Tibet in the 19503 increased human as well as livestock population in the high Himalayas (IDS, 1983:30) . Nepalization of the Terai cased a loss of natural forests in the region (Gaige, 1975:82). Similarly, in—migration of the Indian origins ad of the Nepalese from varions counntries with political changes had similar impacts. Schild (1976: 8-9) mentioned that several development activities in the mountains caused deforestation, e.g. Langtanng Cheese plant ad Solu Carpet Industry caused deforestation in the localities. Sharnma, C.K. (1979) observed that Nepal was loosing her peace, value, and 32 gravity in the name of development. The observations by Shrestha and Shanna (1980:32-33) was that development invited the new problem of erosion. To be very specific, there are some examples that revealed that development brought environment problems in Nepal. The problems are not like "smog" or ”acid rain“ as experienced in the developed countries but like deforestation, soil erosion and so on. One of the visible development works in the country is road building. Shrestha, R.L. (1980) fonnd that the Tribhuvan Rajpath (Kathmandu - Raxaul Highway) had positive impacts on the national economy. Schroeder and Sisler (1970) also hypothesized that the Sidhartha Rajmarga (Pokhara-Sunauli Highway) would have a significant impact on the cropping pattern ad distribution of incomes in the Pokhara valley. To the contrary Blaikie et a1 (1979) fond that towns grew along the road; imported goods discouraged indigenous crafts and goods: the dealers ad the merchants were benefitted more: and trade increased but not the local production. Stiller and Yadav (1979:170) found that deforestation (and erosion) took place not only during the construction period but even more after the completion. They explained that the illegal truck loads of timber ad firewood used roads to Kathmadu. Devkota (1980: 54) analyzed that because the roads remained under-utilized, the investment was almost a waste. Chapagain (1976) noted that during 1961-1974 there had been an increase in agricultural inputs e.g. land, labor, animal power, fertilizer, inmproved seeds, machinery, and chemicals. The HMG statistics also indicated a rise in agricultural inputs for the period 1965-1977 (CBS, 1982: 55) . But agricultural productivity was declining 33 in the 19603 (Rana ad Mohsin, 1967) . The HM; figures showed that food production declined during 1975-80 by 1.1 %. And the food deficit districts increased from 26 in 1975 to 46 in 1980 (KC, 1982:111) . Joshi (1978:6) also explained that agricultral yield inncrease was due to increase in land under cultivation, which means reciprocal declinne in forest areas (Table 12) . The anomaly of increase in agricultural inputs ad decrease in food production was also analyzed by Podyal (1983) , and Pant and Jain (1980) that the needy snmall farmers could not get benefits from the government services. Table 12. Land-Use Change in Nepal 1954-1980 Land-Use 1954 (a) 1959 (b) 1975 (c) 1980 (a) % % n % Forest 49.17 45.86 34.19 29.06 Cultivation 12.74 21.00 16.49 22.17 Snow Cover 16.72 11.83 14.97 14.97 Pasture 7.87 5.57 12.66 12.66 Water body, settlements 13.50 9.74 3.05 3.05 Others 6.00 18.64 18.09 (Source: a - Robbe,1954:2; b - Elliott,1959:61-62; Table 12 provides an information of the lad-use change in Nepal. The differences between the sonrce and mettodology of data collection are not considered. Certain epidemic deseases e.g. malaria ad smallpox were eradicated from Nepal. The result being possible because of destruction of the Terai forests which otherwise was ”protected" with “malaria" infection. Population explosion ad socio-economic factors led seasonal and permanent migrations. Moreover, the projects like Rapti Dun development also attracted the hill pe0p1e to migrate into the Terai ad Dnm areas. IIIN (1971) reported that the decade 1950-61 34 was calamitois to the wildlife in Nepal due to deforestation. Gaige (1975) , Dobremez (1976:112) , Bhatta ad Shrestha (1977) , and Blaikie et a1 (1980: 19) independently observed that the resettlements in the Terai led to deforestation, erosion, and floods. Tourism is a prospective growth industry in Nepal. It has changed or improved to some extent the living standard of the local people in terms of inoome. A Sherpa earnned 12 to 14 times more than the average Nepalese earnings through this industry (Hendel, 1983) . However, Shrestha, (1976:88-91) , Eckholm (1976:99) , Moddie (1981:348-349) , and Hendel (1983:1-17) fomd direct ad indirect adverse impacts of "new nomadism'. These impacts were deforestation (mainly for firewood), and pollution alog the trails. The film "Tongh Near the Top" pictured the pollution due to garbage in the high altitude region near the Sagarmatha, the highest peak on the earth. UNECAFE (1961) mentioned the hydroelectrical potential as the greatest resource of Nepal. Acker (1981:92-94) suggested to develop hydro-electricity in order to save Nepal's dwindling forests. But a hydro-electric project cannot always be clean. Forests are destroyed for the creation of impoundmennt, high tension lines and for the construction materials. Though speculative, Hedel's (1983) view that electrical light muld keep the people awake until late night which means more consumption of firewood to keep themselves warnm, is not improbable, because electricity for heating ad cooking would remain comparatively costlier than the freely available firewood. This discussion leads to the connclusionn that every development effort has its own kind of environmental dis-effects. It is not uncomon in Nepal that in the name of deve10ping agriculture, natural 35 resources ad other similar sectors, large complex of buldings have been created on the fertile soil. Natural Environment and Development From the preceding discussios it has been clear that the natural environment has a dual input to the development efforts. The natural resources e.g. soil, water, forests, and minerals are fundamentally needed for development. Basic needs are directly or indirectly supplied by nature. And, the “waste" of development works is recycled or absorbed by nature and again fed into the fundamental resources. However, there is a limit to this recycling by nature. In an agricultral country like Nepal, the basic natural resources are soil, water, forests, minerals. The individual ad combined role of these resonrces is of utmost importanoe. Even in a developed country, these rseources have more value than before. Forestry became the focal point of community and rural development in China (F110, 1978, 1981, and 1982). Madan (1967:30-32) bronght a conoept of Gandhi in rural development, in which case a cottage would be built of materials obtainable within couple of tours' walk. The inherent idea was to integrate forestry in farming. Singh (1976:367-370) exprienced that forestry was an inseparable part of hill agriculture. Dobremez (1976:107) discussed the developing the medicinal plants in Nepal. The World Bank (1978) ad FAO (1978) also emphasized the importance of forests in rural development. IDS (1983) reported that forestry can be a good opportunity for employment. Acharya (1976) also found a contributory relationship of forestry with the cottage indnstries. Along with the fulfillment of the basic nneeds ad contribution to 36 the rural deve10pment, the natural resources (especially the forests) have an equally important role in other developmental sectors . For example, river valley projects nneed forested watershed for their maximum utilization. The Trishuli hydro-electric plant and the Koshi barrage have suffered from heavy siltation (15 to 30 centimeters per year) becanse of deforestation in the upstream watersheds. For the development and the construction of roads (eSpecially in the hills), the construction materials e.g. timber, soil, stonne and sand are reqnired and the forested hill sides protect the road. The industries need raw materials ad fuel. A cigaret factory needs a single tree for drying of enough tobacco for making 300 cigarets. About 800 kg. of wood is used as fuel for making 200 sheets of Nepali paper (Acharya, 1976) . Raw materials play a crucial role in the industries. Some forest based industries of Nepal produce matches, medicines, timber, katha, rosin ad turpentine, bamboo goods (Joshi, 1978) . Their survival depends on the sustained yield of forests. Daniel Wolfstone said, "Nepal is a Tourist Magnet” (Hm, 1970: 12). But tonrism basically depends on clean enviroment (Dasnmann et a1, 1973) . Thus a rational use of natural resonrces is needed for development. Figure 14 clarified that a harmonions relatioship of humans with nature pronotes progress, whereas the human domination over nature spirals down to declinne. Henoe conservation practices are vital for the human progress. And conservation is not just for the sake of nature, but for the benefits of the entire biosphere. Similarly, conservation is neither a touctstone for success nor a panacea of all the human problems. But, jnst as it is obvions that development efforts which ignore socio-economy and technology are 37 likely to flonnder, so is it obvions that development efforts that are not harmonious with nature are bound to suffer adverse consequences (Figure 14) . Fulfillment of Basic Needs. r Progress] _ food, cloth, firewood, Sustained water, shelter, health, Yield from education, transgrt the Nature )[Positive Impact S tem on Human Syst fHarmony with Natur—l Nature System Human Syst Cycles of Community Nutrients , (e .g .Soci ety, Water, Ennergy Culture, and Life etc., Economy, Resources e.g. . Relationship of Politics climate, tOpo- E Man with Nature Religion) graphy, soil, Resour water, forests, education, minerals, air, motivation, energy etc. , labor, popu- Processes of lation, etc.) soil formation Livelilood' and erosion etc (e.g.farming, indus F Domination over NaturefijL I Over expldli tatTon of nnatural resources and ‘ Initial fulfillment of _ Declinne in] Basic Needs ){ Negatia "quality'S. ' L Impacts ”quality" Human Syst of Nature Human Problems ' ' (deforestation . Scarcity of erosion, drought“ Basic Needs flood, famine, disease. were) Em Figure 14. Human Relationship with Nature Towards Progress or Decline (Based on the foregoing discussions) 38 Conservation Stratgy Global Efforts The UN Conference on Human Environment, held in Stockholm in 1972, brought up an Action Plan later endorsed in UN General Assembly Resolution 2994 (XXVII) 1972 (Holdgate et a1, 1982:8) . The 280 recommendatios of the plan have been grouped into three parts which relate to each other. Figure 15 gives a framework of the major elements and their links to conservation strategies. Environmental Assessment Environmental Management Evaluation and Review 1 x Goal Setting and Planning Research, Monitoring, ‘ ’ International Consultation Information Exchange and Agreements Supporting re‘easures l Education and Training Organization Public Information Financing Technical C00peration Figure 15. The Framework of the Stockholm Action Plan Similarly the IUQI meetings discussed various topics on conservation strategies of global importance. Dasmann (1973:131-136 and 1975:263-269) prOposed ecological principles for development with a view of ”conservation as if people mattered and development as if nature mattered". Bannikov and Bogdanov (1973:121-130) put forward the essentials of conservation strategies e.g. legislation, implication of scientific knowledge, conservation measures, and education etc. The IUCN Secretariat (1975:228-229) emphasized the need of reassessment of renewability of natural resources. Ovington (1975:230—242) came out with the strategies dealing with the people's awareness and continuing education on environment. Neto (1975:258-262) found the strategy to be the utilization of nation's drives e.g. politics, economy, and pnblic 39 Opinion in conservation. These views are also in harmony with ttose which appeared in the FAO documents. Wilm (1962: 226-239) found the forest policy as a part of socio-economic policies ad the strategies for forest development to be people's participation, technical and material assistance ad inoentives. Bresford—Peirse (1968:1-24) added aesthetic value on the wedding of forestry with rural development by considering the suitable strategies like commitment, priority, integration, ad motivation (FAD, 1978:17, 1981:26-33) . Worou (1982:8-10) and Chandrasekharan (1983:2-11) pointed out provisions for alternatives, denonstratios, and initiation of the local organizations. The reonnnmendatios by the World Bank (1978) also matched with ttose considered by the IIIN and the FAQ. The communist view in the affair was explained by Robinson (1973) to be that the natural resources should be developed for the sake of all the people and not for the few profit oriented individuals or gronps. In his conservation strategies, Riddell (1981:198) covered ideology, politics, socio-economy, and ecological principles. USDS (1981) report to the US President also described the enviromental problems that were plaguing many countries around the world and emphasized on the formulation of conservation strategies. The global future report to the US President presented similar view but with a remark that there had been positive changes in the government actios (Barnney, 1980:3-5) . But UNEP (1982) report mentioned that the overall state of the natural environment in the world had not improved during 1972-1982, indeed deterioration accelerated in varions aspects. However, the report further said that notable advancement in conservation tools, e.g. remote sensing etc., 40 had taken place so far. IIIN (1979) report noted that environmental laws were not sufficiently shaped and too little information, training and education on conservation still exist. Holdgate et a1 (1982: 630) conoluded their report with a remark that there was still less confidence in the managerial capacity of environmental agencies to apply known principles and techniques. Along with the individual initiatives, there have been two remarkable efforts to formulate the conservation strategies through joint ventures. The m and the Coservation Fund jointly sponsored the formulation of ecological principles for economic developments e.g. carrying capacity, limiting factors, ecological balaoe, natural funnctions (Dasmann et a1, 1973:15-49) . More enthusiastic efforts were initiated by the Environmental Coservation Group of the organizatios like Itm, UNEP, WWF, FAO and UNESCO while preparing the World Coservation Strategy (UNEP, January 1978 and October 1978) . The strategy was presented in the three parts: Introduction, National Action , ad International Action. The first part defined the key words like development and conservation, and discussed the vital importance of conservation for human survival. The second part laid a foundation for the development of national ad sutnational conservation strategies. The main elements prioritized were national framework, policy making and integrating conservation ad development, environmental planning and rational use of allocation, legislation and organization, training and research, people's participation and education, ad conservation based rural development. The third part prioritized international coOperation between nations in regional ad global problems (mow, 1.980) (Table 13). 41 Table 13. World Coservation Strategy 1. Introduction : living resource conservation for sustainable development The objectives of conservation ad requirements for their achievement 2. Maintenance of essential ecological processes ad life—support system 3. Preservation genetic diversity 4. Sustainable utilization of species and ecosystems 5. Priority requirements: ecological processes and life-support system 6. Priority requirements: genetic diversity 7. Priority requirements: sustainable utilization Priorities for national action 8. A framework for national and subnnational conservation strategies 9. Policy making ad the integration of conservation and development 10. Environmetal planning and rational use allocation 11. Improving the capacity to manage: legislation organization 12. Inmproving the capacity to manage: training and research 13. Building support for conservation: participation and education 14. Coservation-based rural development Priorities for international action 15. International action: law ad legislation 16. Tropical forests ad drylands 17. A global program for the [rotection of genetic resource areas 18. The global commons 19. Regional strategies for international river basins and seas 20. Towards sustainable development (Source: IIIN - UNEP - W, 1980) National Efforts Every nation in the world is unnique in its natural environment, socio—economy, ad political system. Yet the fundamental goal of conservation is basically the same everywhere, because the basic natural cycles, processes and the relatioships are fundamentally the same everywhere. However, the strategy to achieve the said goal might vary from country to country or even within a country. For example, reforestation was the main drive of the war-striken countries like 42 China, India, North Korea, Sonth Korea and Taiwan during the post World War II period. But the strategy of reforestation varied among these countries. For example, China ad North Korea totally mobilized their respective peOple in plantation; Sonth Korea and Taiwan used local organizatios; ad India mnainly applied government efforts (Tables 14 & 15) . In China, the guidelines of the early 19503 were afforestation for erosion control, harvesting of natural resources, and planting of fast-growing trees (FAO, 1982) . The fonr-sided forestry started in the late 19503 (FAQ, 1983) . Some of the Chinese accomplishments are : forest areas doubled since 1950 (FAO, 1983) , the sorrowful river Huang He and others were tamed to become sources of prosperity (Cheng,1974) , the shelterbelts were planted to establish the so—called "Green Wall of China" (Gaping and J innchan, 1981) . The basic strategies behind their achievements are: sound forest policies for forest protection, large-scale afforestation, forest utilization, and forest based indnstries, forest education and research, and enviromental aspects. Other inherent aspects are rural, urban, industrial ad agricultural developments. The Chinese also adopted a nationwide plantation p:ogram in 1981, under which every able person has to plant 3 to 5 trees every year (FAO, 1982) . Coservation efforts in Taiwan are equally remarkable. The country experienoed rapid land-use changes with deforestation in the late 19403 ad in the early 19503. However, afforestation was given a tOp priority in nnational development. The major accomplishments are afforestation, scientific management of forest, ad application of science and technology in conservation. The strategies behind these 43 are: strog conservation policies, government commitment, initiation of the local farmers, international cooperation, and so on. For the purpose of soil conservation, forest exploitation was restricted ad consequently national targets of timber production were not met during 1977-1980. Aroud 4,800 farmers associatios have more than a million members ont of total 18 million population. Thus the flexibility of the national plan for the sake of conservation ad the initiation of the local organizations had a significant impact to restore the natural environment of the country (Hsia, 1958; Shen, 1966: Yuan, 1981; (EPD, 1982: and Yuan, 1983). Both the North and Sonth Koreas have their own story to tell about conservation efforts. Sonth Korea started forestry programs in the early 19603 with emphasis on reforestation, erosion control, seedling production, and forest protection. The volnuntary participation of the wtole cross—section of the society made the ”Unification Garden Movement” a success. The private sector was given a special attention in reforestation. The investment in forestry sector was in proportion of 5:4 as government is to private expenditures. For the mobilization of the private sector, the local associatios were initiated ad subsidies ad loans were also envisaged. The logrange program included pollution control, research and development, and other recreational aspects of forests (Government of ROK, 1966 and 1971; Korea Development Institute, 1975 and 1978: and FAO, 1983) . North Korea's notable conservation strategy included total mass mobilization in afforestation. Enterprises directly related to forestry have to form an afforestation team consisted of at least 5% of the total workers, whereas tlose indirectly related enterprises 44 have to form such team consisted of at least 3% of the total workers (FAO, 1983) . India has been a leading country in scientific forest management with her century old plantatios. As in China, Taiwan, and Korea, afforestation was given a top priority in India's national development plans. However, the National Forest Policy of 1952 was not successful (Saxena et a1, 1981: 196) . Afforestation received about 60% of the forestry sector bndget during 1969-1974. It is even more emphasized these days. The basic policy inncludes plantation for conservation, energy and industry, and with fast growing species. India's achievements in forestry are: scientific management plans for the two thirds of the state forests which comprise about 97% of the total forests in the country, and initiation in social forestry. However, the overall state of the forests and other natural resources remained unsatisfactory (Lanly/FAO, 1981: FAO, 1983: Saxena et a1, 1981) . The 'Chipko" movement (hugging trees so that the contractors cannot fell then) spread over the Himalayan region in the 19703. Such a movement indicated the vital conoern of the local people for participation in forestry. In plantation, Thailand comes in the middle rank of the tropical Asian contries (Lanly/FAO, 1981) . About one-fifth of the forestry sector budget was spent in plantation and that was close to the forest-revenues indicating that there was a leakage in revenue (James, 1974) . James' (1974) report indicated strategic needs of Thai forestry, such as national policy, research, survey, management, extesion, education, demonstration, watershed management, forest based industries, massive tree plantation, and control of revenue 45 collection. The CENT!) (Central Treaty Organization) Seminar on Watershed Management held in Pakistan in September 1977 recommended several strategic guidelines for the respective countries like Pakistan, and Turkey, as follows: Integration of conservation in development, training/education in conservation, use of incentives, pronotion of research (Kislali, 1977). R30 ad Chandrasekharam (1983:11-21) gave their strategic views on the following aspects of the Asian and Pacific forests: protection of forest resources ad environment, socio-economical and environmental impacts of fuelwood production, national plan ad policy for production ad trade, and research on agro-forestry. Jacobs (1981) presented environmental strategy and action report for Canada. It was based on the World Coservation Strategy prepared by men. According to Jackson (1976) , the enviromental issues received priority among many activities and the Canadian actions were as follows: research, organization, legislation, comprehensive planning, international activities, conference and others. Lnudquist (1974) compared Canada, Sweden ad the USA on the enviromental policy matters. He fond basic areas and the content of the three countries as follows: research and development, conservancy (park/reserve) , pollution/erosion control, management of resonrce ad waste. In the US, the Enviromental Education Act of 1970 (Public Law 92—516) came into effect by the early 19703 (Marcus, 1981:359-371) . Rowe (1978) came with strategic suggestios that in the US, a single national policy was difficult and that there slould be changes in “standard” , the benefit—cost ratio of enviromental management stould 46 be positive, and more policies were required to control pollution. Greenlad's (1983) guidelines for modern resonrce management placed emphasis on sound decision, best possible planning, efficient technical measures, ans so on. He also discussed legislation ad concluded that the Acts were created in the US after the people learned from their mistakes. Bannikov and Bogdanov (1973) reported to the IUCN meeting that environmental conservation was an inseparable part of social program. Trey mentioned the basic strategies as follows: legislation, scientific recommedatios, quality control, conservation measures, and information & education. Pryde (1972) found similarities in the conservation policies of the USSR and the USA, such as high degree of federal enconragement in conservation activities, federally fnuded research organizatios, high level academic interest, lesser but significant amounts of private conservation efforts, ad large wasteland for conservation purposes. Pryde also mentioned that the Russians learned from their "Great Plan for the Transformation of Nature" , and that the economists had begun to consider enviromental conservation even tough it lowers country's gross national product. Table 14. Similar Coservation Efforts of China, India, North and Sonth Korea, and Taiwan l. Plantation 2. Watershed management 3. Coservation Policy 4. Research ad Training 5. Extension ad People's participation 6. Integration of Coservation with Development (Based on the foregoing discussions) 47 Table 15. Unique National Efforts of China, India, North and South Korea, and Taiwan Country Unique Efforts China Total mass mobilization Individual plantation movement Four-sided forestry Grain production as the key link National movement to control soil erosion Scientific forest management Recent social forestry 'Chipko" movement Total mass mobilization Plantation team in every enterprise Scientific management of private forest Local forest associatios ”Unification Garden Movement” Subsidies and loan facilities Local farmers' associatios Flexibility of national policy for the sake of conservation Government commitnent and subsidies International cooperation India North Korea South Korea Taiwan .50) NHfiNNHNHUNHmbUNH O (Based on the foregoing discussios) Nepal's Efforts Recently, ICDDD was established to envi romentally ad economically develOp the Hindukush—Himalaya mountain system. Its expectations are fairly enthusiastic, covering food, energy, cottage industry, and transport sector of development. The main activities are research, training, dissemination, documentation, and expertise. Its role has been emphasized to close the gaps in knnowledge, technology, and institutios. The knowledge gap exists in ecology, conservation, natural resources, environmental problems, and demography. The technological gap exists in the areas of crop productivity, irrigation, livestock, fodder, compost, improved stove, afforestation, biogas, mini-hydroelectric works, cottage and other industry, and soil conservation. The institutional gap has been experienced in 48 community participation in conservation ad management of natural resources, and national level research and development of forestry, agrionlture, cottage industry, etc. (IDS, 1983) . FAD/INEP (1981:331-341) fond the situation of Nepal's forests as follows: inadequate information, unsatisfactory plantation, ad unscientific utilization, alog with deforestation. This indicated where conservation strategy sl'ould fit. Chakroff's (1979) report gave an impression that Nepal had a considerable amount of strategies to conserve the natural resources. The 1976 National Forestry Plan (DF, 1978) covered a wide range of forestry and related activities. It focused on five strategy-areas: enviromental conservation, economic mobilization through forestry, scientific forest management, developing technology and knowledge, and public participation. For implementation it emphasized communication, organization, motivation, and evaluation. It also formulated forest policies for national development e.g. forestry for conservation, for fulfilling basic needs, promoting industries ad so on. Moreover, it technnically outlined twentybtwo major forest management programs and procedures. The Natural History Seminar held in Kathmandu in 1976 discussed and recommended that the study of natural scienoe should be geared towards the national development. The suggestios brought up in the seminar were coordination and integration of government agenoies on research ad other common interest activities, ad not to keep the university separate from such agenncies (Bhatta; Malla: Rajbhandary: Sharma, C.K.: Shrestha, T.B.: ad Pradhan, B.M.: 1976). The other seminars on basic needs (ILO-ARI'EP, 1980) ad on rural development (Banskota, 1980) identified the need of conservation as a strategy to 49 fulfill the basic needs ad to develop rural areas respectively. Calkins (1979) suggested five fudamental arsenals (as he called them) for conservation ad development in Nepal: taxation on firewood, subsidies on kerosene, regulation of firewood, prohibition of cutting trees, ad government assistaoe on reforestation and other public works. Handel (1983) suggested conservation programs and tourism development in the Solukhumbu region of Nepal needed community action to conserve ad reforest, ad adequate alternate energy should be develcped alog with restriction in cutting trees, and regulation ad education of trekkers. There were other sporadic efforts suggesting conservation activities in Nepal. Shrestha, K.K. (1976) emphasized conservation alog with tourism develcupment. Acharya (1976) suggested in a similar way for the cottage industry development. Shrestha, C.B. and Shanna, P. (1980) commented that there had not been any specific policy measure during the last four national development plas i.e. from 1956 to 1975. They fond very general land-use policy in the Fifth Plan, ad that the lad-use policy for the hills was mainly coroerned with conservation. They added that success of implementing lad-use policy rested on coordination among the government agencies. Joshi, M.D. (1981) pointed out that prevention of environmental degradation was cheaper than reconstruction. Some critical observatios on conservation strategies were made by several researchers. Furer-Haimendorf (1964) fond that following the nationalization of the forests, the selection of the community forest guards among the Sherpas (called Shingo naua) ceased to continue. One of the CEDA publications (1970) pointed out the following a3pects of the forestry sector: it was not development 50 oriented, more attention towards Terai than towards the hills and the nmomtains, nmjustifiable budget allocation for conservationist approach, forest land should be cleared for agriculture and other land-use, regeneration of forests takes a log time and hence economically suspect. The above comment reflected the attitndes of the development planners ad the policy-makers of the government agencies. Sterling (1976) also mentioned in her article that the development planners actively favored, and indeed sponsored, the felling of trees, and they consistently focussed in other directios than conservation. She also noted that clearing Terai forests was the strategy of agriculture development. Gaige (1975:82) and Blaikie et a1, (1980: 227,236) observed that the government policies sometimes appeared contradictory, such as Nepalization of the Terai ad protection of forests. Such contradiction resulted in tensios and clashes between the armed forest guards ad the landless people. One such events at Jhora (eastern Terai) left one person dead (according to the government sonrce) and 75 (according to the press) (Gaige, 1975:82) . "Lack of consciousness" on the part of the villagers had been advanced as the reason for the shortfall in enthusiasm for volunntary participation in development works (Stiller ad Yadav, 1979:136-137) . Rana, P.S.J.B. (1971) and Lchani (1980) critically analyzed people's participation in development and independently came to the connclusion that the poor people were "forcefully‘l employed to "volunteer" in the programs which mainly benefitted the rich. Uphoff ad Ilchman (1973) explained the level of people's participation i.e. decision-making, implementation, evaluation, and benefit-sharing. Manandhar et a1 (1982) disossed government efforts on forestry extension to promote 51 people's participation. On the part of the people, there had been conscionsness about the environmental degradation. The people from Sindhupalchok district of Nepal responded that they were experiencing soil loss ad they would plant trees if they could get benefits from those planted trees (SATA, 1976:159-161) . D'Silva (1982) bronght similar observation from Nuwakot district. There had been efforts to formulate and analyze conservation strategies which, however, had yet to be clearly stated and envisaged in all develcpment works. The informations in Table 16 give perceived problems and suggested solutios. Table 16. Conservation Strategies Prescribed for Nepal Formulator Perceived Problems Suggested Solutions ICINDD/IDS Knowledge gap Research, Dissemination, (1983) Technology gap Training, Expertise, and Institutional gap Documentation National Deforestation, Scientific management Forestry Environmental Developing tednnology Plan degradation, Public participation (1976) Ineffective Organizational reform, organization, Communication, Unscientific Motivation, Evaluation management Other Deforestation Integrating forestry Sonrces Contradictory with other development policies, People's participation Mismanagement, Drastic charge in Misutilizaticn, organization, policy, Adverse impacts of development ad others (Based on the foregoing discussios) Coservation was also envisaged in the political ad educational activities in Nepal. The 'Go to Village" national campaign had its eighth task, to involve the local people in plantation (M‘AER, 1970: 248). However, as commented by Rana,P.S.J.B. (1971) and Lohani (1980) , the task could nnot benefit the lower strata of the society. The 52 National Development Service of TU, under which every masters level student had to serve ten months in a village, inncluded conservation as onne of the main activities (Razzaque, 1978) . Both the Campaign ad the Service, do not exist at present (i.e. 1984). There had been a rising enthusiasm among the non—governmental organizatios viz. Nepal Scouts, Nepal Redcross Society, and Yonth Activities Coordination Committee etc. They inncluded conservation as a part of their activities. The strategic elements developed by the researcher for this stndy match with the World Coservation Strategy (Table 13), efforts (Tables 14 8 15), varions sources for Nepal the national and with the strategies prescribed by (Table 16) . All these fonr views are put together in Table 17 for the purpose of comparing the strategic elements of this stndy with the standard already published. Table 17. Elements of Conservation Strategy Compared This Study World Conservation National Efforts Prescribed (Table 1) Strategy (Table13) (Table 14 & 15) for Nepal (Table L61 Objective Policy Policy Policy Piority Bndget Budget/Sutsidy/Loan Organization Organization Organization Organization Technical Areas Utilization Reforestation Management for Emphasis Training Erosion Control Technological (reforestation Research Management development forest management Extension Extension Commmication watershed management Publicity Motivation wildlife mannagement Training extesion survey Reasearch research training) Participation Participation Participation Participation Legislation Legislation Legislation legislation (Based on Tables 1, 13, 14, 15, and 16) 53 Study Procedure As presented in Chapter I, the basic procedure of this study was to describe ad analyze conservation strategies advocated by HMG during 1951 to 1985. The sonrces of information were governmental, and government authorized documents, ad reports. This section of Chapter II brings 12 similar studies together (Tables 18 and 19) . Two stndies were doctoral dissertatios submitted to MSU viz. the dissertatios by Meaders (1957) and Assadollah (1981) . The authors deve10ped their respective frameworks in order to focus on the chronological studies. Such frameworks facilitated the researchers to observe the gradual change on the time-scale. Assadollah (1981) used the Iranian Government documents as the primary source of information plus theUN and the other documents as secondary sources. Meaders (1957) used the publicatios of the selected national organizations and the opinios of the prominent educational leaders. Studies by Devkota (1980) ad Gurung (1982) were similar to each other. The former used HMG budget allocation for transport sector during 1968-1978, and the later used Hm: census data for the period 1971-1981. Simple statistics, tables, grains and maps were used to present their respective works. IDS (1983) ad Chakroff (1979) did similar efforts to describe ad analyze conservation strategies of Nepal. In both the works, EMS and other autroritative documents were referred to. IDS (1983) was activity oriented ad Chakroff (1979) was infornmation oriented. A paper by Manandhar et al (1982) was not a research work but a counntry paper describing the forestry extesion of Nepal and was presented throngh the HM; ad the FAO. It was an information based article. 54 Table 18. Selected Study Papers Autror(s) , Title, Status and Year # Author (8) Title Status Year 1. Asian Nepal Agricultural Sector ADB Study 1982 DevelOpment Strategy Study Report Bank (ADB) (Volume I & II) 2. Assadollah, z. A Study of Recommendatios Doctor of 1981 for Agricultural Education Philosopny and Agricultural Extension Dissertation in Iran (1950-1975) (MSU) 3. Chakroff, M.S. Draft Environmental Report Official Report 1979 of Nepal (USAID/MAB) 4. Devkota, B. Government Expenditure on Research Study 1980 Road Transport in Nepal (CEDA/T‘U) 5. Gurung, H. Population Increase Research Study 1980 in Nepal (1971-1981) (New ERA) 6. Huang, Y.: Nepal: Development Working Docnment 1979 Borthwick, J .: Performance and of the World Bank Jamison, D.: PrOSpects Kadel, S.: Roy, S.;and Tillman, J. '7. Integrated Nepal and ICINDD - Working Paper 1983 Development A Draft of Expectatios IIB/ICINDD System (IDS) 8. Lohani, P.C. Some Observations on Discussion 1976 Economic Growth in Nepal Paper (LENA) 9. Manandhar,P.K.: Extension and Training Nepal Comtry 1982 Pelinck,E.: and Components of Comnnunnity Paper Gecolea, R.H. Forestry Development in EMT/FAD Nepal 10. Meaders, O.D. Practices Advocated by Doctor of 1957 Selected National Agenncies Education and Organizations for Dissertation Implementing Local Programs (MSU) of Vocational Agriculture, 1836-1954 11. Podyal, S. Planned Development in Research 1983 Nepal Study 12. Stiller, L.F. Planning for People: A Research 1979 ad Yadav, R.P. Study of Nepal's Planning Stndy Experience (RCNAS/TU) The studies by Lohani (1976) , Stiller ad Yadav (1979) , ad Podyal (1983) were analytical in nature. They used government ad non-government documents to describe, analyze ad review the development strategies (including conservation) of Nepal. The World 55 Bank report analyzed Nepal's overall development based on the HMG and other publications. It also covered an environmental situation of the conmtry (Huang et al, 1979) . The MD report stndied the agricultural strategy (including forestry and soil conservation) of Nepal. The report was based on the HMG, ADB, ad other informations and the discussion and review by the HM; ad the ADB autnorities. Table 19. Selected Study Papers Author (5) , Sonrces of Information, and Procedure it Author (5) Sonroes of Information Procedure l. ADB Publications by EM}, AIB Review, discussion of draft and other organizatios papers and final reporting 2. Assadollah Iranian Government, UN Review ad presentation of and other autl'orized government recommendations sonrces, published for agricultural education between 1949 and 1978 and extension during 1950-75 3. Chakroff Hm; publicatios ad Preliminary review, other informations compilation of enviromental available in the US, infornmatios published in the 19703 4. Devkota Hm budget allocation Review ad analysis of during 1968-1978 transport sector budget during 1968-78 5. Gurung ms census data (mainly Review ad analysis of 1971 ad 1981 data) population dnanges during 1971-81 6. Huang et a1 an; and other autrorized Review, discussions analysis publicatios of Nepal's development and presentation of evaluation framework 7. IDS an ad authorized Review & analysis of present sources ad discussios development strategy related to the envi roment 8. Lohani Hm and other sonrces Review and analysis and discussios of Nepalese economy 9. Manandhar Inc/FAD sonrces Description of forestry et al extension in Nepal 10. Meaders Publicatios of selected Analysis ad comparison of national organizatios practices ad concepts for and opinions of the implementing vocational educational leaders agriculture program 11. Pondyal an: ad other sonrces Review & analysis of Nepalese economy 12. Stiller Hm and other public- Review & Analysis ad Yadav ations ad interviews of Nepalese economy CHAPTER III (INSERVATICN STRATEGIES IN NEPAL Introduction Format The purpose of Chapter III is to describe ad analyze conservation strategies advocated by HM; in the period sinnoe 1951 to 1984. The description focuses on the following seven aspects of the national development plans in regard to conservation strategies: 1. Objectives, 2. Priority, 3. Budget, 4. Organization, 5. Technical Areas for Emphasis, 6. People's Participation, and 7. Legislation. The above format is presented on the basis of chronological divisios which fit into the national development plas, such as: Pre-plan 1951 - 1956 First Five—Year Plan 1956 - 1961 Second Three-Year Plan 1962 - 1965 Third Five-Year Plan 1965 - 1970 Fonrth Five-Year Plan 1970 - 1975 Fifth Five-Year Plan 1975 - 1980 Sixth Five-Year Plan 1980 - 1985 The period 1961-62 is discussed uder the Second Plan period. Finally, a chronological comparison is made for each of the seven aspects of the plans. For example, the national goals advocated byHrG for each plan period are compared. National Development Plan The Planning Commission, formed in 1955 with a View to exploit the resources of the counntry in a planned manner, drafted the First 57 Plan (1956-61) (NPCl, 1963:48-49) . The Plan was sent to the varions departnments ad ministries which were responsible for the execution (Pant, 1969:166). The National Planning Council (NPCl) , constituted in 1961, was responsible for preparation, approval and implementation of nnational development plans on the basis of prOper stndies. In 1968 NPCl was replaced by the National Planning Commission (NPC) . The NPC consisted of the Prime Minister as the ex—officio Chairman, a Vice-Chairman, and fonr other fulltimne members. Unlike its predecessor NPCl, it had essentially an advisory role and was no loger involved in daily execution activities of a plan. Its recomnedatios acquire the necessary sanction only after they are approved by the Council of Ministers. Within the framework of the approved plan, each ministry prepared a detailed program. These programs were reviewed ad revised, if nnecessary, by the NPC in consultation with the coroerned ministry. It also evaluated the implementation and the progress of a plan (Pant, 1969: 167-169) . The above discussion gives a picture of the planning process ad the status of the plan itself as a government affair. It is presented graphically in Figure 16. Council of Ministers draft prOposalT approval ad sanction National Planning Commission (NPC) I} > evaluation plan detailed revision reporting framework programming review M nistgl Implementation J——> Figure 16. Planning Process of Nepal (1969) (Based on Pant, 1969:166-170) 58 Before the establishment of the above pattern of planning, there were numeros changes within the government. For example, the Ministry of Planning and Development was created in 1952. The 1957 Planning Board Act created the Planning Board, and dissolved the Ministry. In 1959 the Board was dissolved but the Ministry was revived. In 1961 the NPCl was established which was renamed as the NPC in 1968 along with the dissolution of the Ministry of Economic Planning (Pant, 1969: 166-170: ad Agrawal, 1976:172,l95). Under the Chairmanship of His Majesty King Biredra Bir Bikram Shaha Dev, the National Development Council was established in June 1972. The Council consisted of the political leaders from the district chairmen to the ministries and others. It directs the NPC with regard to basic policies ad effective implementation of the Plan (Stiller and Yadav, 1979: 209-211) . The ministries ad the departments also fornmed their individual planning cells within their organizational structures, such as the Planning Cell of the ME‘SC, the Survey ad Planning Section of the DSOM, ad the Planning and Development Section of the DF (DF,1978: 77 and 81: and DSOM, 1982:21) . Under the basic prinnciples as developed by the NPC ad as approved by the National Development Council, the departmental plans are prepared by the coroerned field or project staff in cooperation with the departmental planning staff. Such departnmental plas are revised and coordinated by the ministerial planning cell ad finally submitted to the NPC for the final approval and sanction. The NPC also issues annual strategies ad priorities amog the ministerial plans. It also sponsors seminars on planning (Stiller ad Yadav, 1979:211) . 59 In the panchayat sector of the plan, the village and district panchayat plans are prepared by the coroerned panchayat committees, according to the 1982 Decentralization Act. However, the NPC supports, examines and approves such plans (IDS, 1983: 53-54, and Shrestha, B.P., 1981: 266-274). Moreover, the conservation plans of the DSCPM are subjected to be discussed in the respective conservation committees at the district ad the village level (DSCWVI, 1982:34-35) . The above discnssion gives a picture of the national development plans which are controlled, supported and authorized by HIVB. Hence, any activity within the plan has its bearing on the unified effort towards national develOpment. It is also clear that the beneficiaries can participate in planning on the basis of the 1982 Decentralization Act, the 1982 Soil ad Watershed Coservation Act, ad the 1980 Panchayat Forest (First Amendment) Rules. But the plan as such was finally to be approved by the NPC for the government support in terms of finance, technical luncw-how, and mnaterials etc. Thus, this study focuses on the strategies advocated by the government in the plans. Conservation Strato 1951-1956 On February 18, 1951 the century old Rana autocracy ended in Nepal. This political upheaval bronght a new life for the Nepalese wl'o used to be treated as the passive subjects of the Rana rulers. The 1951 Interim Government of Nepal abolished the evil practices such as the forced labor ad traffic in human beings. Objectives/Priority The period 1951-56 passed wittout any systematic development plan for the country. However, there were a few initiations towards planned 60 development in the country. In 1952 the government proposed development Irograms with high priority on roads, airports, postal service, radio, education, and industry (Mihaly, 1965:26) . During this pre-plan period suggestios were pr0posed by the experts. For example, the advisor of the US Technical Cooperation Mission to Nepal, Paul W. Rose gave ten—point development program in which forestry was sixth amog the ten priority items (Mihaly, 1965:30-31) . Bndget The Nepal Gazzette (Vol. I, No.26) published government budget and expenditure for the years 1950-51 ad 1951-52 (Joshi ad Rose, 1966:162) . The portion of the bdget for the forestry sector could not be made available. Organization Under the Rana-Congress Coalition Government of 1951, the MI? was onne of the ten ministries, and was headed by the Rana representative (Gorkhaptra, February 16, 1951 as cited by Agrawal, 1976:157) . In 1951 a new organizational plan was adopted to divide the forests of Nepal into 2 circles, 9 divisios, 36 ranges ad 180 beats. By 1952 there was the Ministry of Forests and Revenue, and it had two conservation related departnments viz. Forests and Botany. The FAO forestry expert, Ernest Robbe (1954: 56-59) proposed to completely reorganize the Forest Service. He proposed three ”conservatios“, with 6 to 12 divisios in each “conservation", 5 ranges in each division, and 6 beats in each range. In 1955 the post of Chief Forest Officer was established to lead the DF (DF, 1978:10) . On the training aspect, the Three Year Plan document (NPCl, 1963: 141) mentioned that the forestry institute was started in 1947 ad 61 transferred to the Singh Durbar Secretariat, Kathmandu in 1951, but remained closed unntil 1956. But the 1976 National Forestry Plan document mentioned that the rangers school was organized around 1951 (DF, l978:7). Technical Areas for Emphasis Robbe (1954: 42) noted that trees were marked and sold during 1950—51 season according 1E. A, Smithies' Plan of 1941-47. He also mentioned that timber marking lists were drawn up in 1952+53 by the Kathmandu authorities of forestry and in 1953-54 by the circle officers. The FAO Mission 'was established on .July 27, 1951 for the purposes of advising the government on two areas, such as: i) to establish a longrange forest policy, legislation for implementation, organization of forest services, and training the forestry personnel ii) to advise the government on forest protection, reforestation, soil conservation, and management and utilizationnof forests The Nepalese forestry was led by P. D. Ratauri for the period 1947-52. 'The political disorders during the early' 19508 upset everything including the forest working plans and the logging operation. The 1976 National Forestry' Plan also.noted that forest demarcation was discontinued in 1950 (OF, 1978:10) . Robbe (1954:5-6) carried out a.prelimdnary survey of the forest conditions and soil erosion problems in the selected areas such as the ‘western hills, the»Terai and Kathmandu. There'were 47 rangers and 56 foresters trained until 1956 i.e. the beginning of the First Plan. These figures are calculated from the two sources viz. the existing technicians for the Second Plan and the output of the First Plan (Table 20). Robbe's (1954:13-14, 27-37, 60) report gave a picture of the 62 forestry activities of 1950-54 in Nepal. He gave five major areas for emphasis: soil conservation, reforestation, forest management, forest utilization, and study of other countries. Specifically, he proposed 12 points to initiate the forestry works in Nepal, such as survey, mapping, delimitation of land—use, control of shifting cultivation, reforestation, people‘s nneed fulfillment, extension/education, demostration, formal education, grazing control, and soil conservation. He also strogly recommeded to implement Smithies's Plan to begin with. Table 20. Trained Personnel in 1956 and 1961 Personnel Before Second First Plan Output Before 1956 Plan (1961) (1956-61) Foresters 135 79 56 Rangers 70 23 47 Specialists 37 . . . . (Sonrce: NPCl, 1963:56, 232) People's Participation The 1951 Interim Constitution of Nepal abolished the traditional Rana systems. One of the striking features of the constitution was abolition of forced labor ad traffic in human beings, according to its Article 19 (Agrawal, 1976:150) . The compulsory unnpaid labor, called "Jhara”, was the obligation of the entire adult male to the state or to the Rana rulers. According to Regmi (1971) , the main pnrpose of Jhara was to transport arms, ammunition, military sumly, ad to relay postal service, to reclaim wastelad, to build irrigation channels, to control floods, to maintain bridge, to capture wild elephants for the palace, to supply fodder for the royal elephants, to supply forest products ad other materials to the palace, to contribute unnpaid porterage and so on. 63 Robbe (1954:26-37) strongly emphasized the need of people's participation in forestry (conservation) works. The strategies he suggested were to impart responsibility of controlling shifting cultivation to the villagers, to educate, to demonstrate, to train, to reward, and to financially support. His report thus revealed that in 1951-54, there was a potential of peOple's participation in conservation. During 1951-56 the indigenous system of forest ad pasture management was in practice. Furer-Haimendorf (1975: 11-12, 97) described the Shingo naua system of the Sherpa community. (A Shingo naua is a forest guard selected and auttorized by the assembly of the local community. A Shingo naua nsed to control and regulate the forestry works e.g. grazing, lOpping, and firewood gathering.) Similarly, the Nuwakot dwellers nsed to control fire in the surrouding forests. The priest of the temple used to keep watch over the forests. In case of fire in the forests, he nsed to ring a bell. The villagers immediately responded the bell ad carried ont nnecessary actios. Allocation of grazing land, construction of river embankments, plantation of shade trees alog the trails, and similar other conservation oriented works were at one time considered social welfare ad religions matters. Legislation Robbe (1954:13) recommended the promulgation of scientific forest laws instead of then existing forest laws. His suggestios covered policies on lad-capability, lad-use, private ad pnblic properties. These suggestions were derived from the Sixth Session of the FAO Conference held in Rome in December 1951 and the then India's Forest 64 Policy. Coservation Strategy 1956-1961 Objectives The First Five Year Plan drafted by the Planning Commission formed in 1955, came into effect in 1956 until 1961 (NPC1,1963:48-49) . The main objective of the First Plan, as qnoted by Pant (1965:48) , was “to raise production, employment, standard of living, and general well being thronghout the country". The essence admitted by the First Plan was ”simultaneous advance on all fronts". The objective was very general ad could be applicable for the forestry component of development as well. For example, the objective conld be generalized to raise forestry production, ad employment in forestry. But it did not specifically reflect forestry development. On the other had Pant (1965:53) noted that a commission for forest demarcation in the Terai stould be immediately depnted because the Terai forest land could be turned over for colonization. The remark demonstrated that the objective of forestry development was more toward the colonization pnrpose. Priority The order of priority given by the First Plan was as follows: I Transport ad Communication II Agriculture and Allied Subjects III Social Services IV Other Development Programs (Sonrce: NPCl, 1963:49) NPCl (1963:55-56) dooment discussed forestry with agriculture ad irrigation. But forestry was inclnded in the sector of irrigation and power, as stown by Pant (1965:51-52) . However, Pant (1965:53) 65 again described forestry alog with the agricultural sector. The order of priority for forestry was second when considered as a part of the broad agricultural sector. Budget The total estimated budget for the First Plan was Rs. 330.0 million ad for forestry component, Rs. 20.0 million (NPCl, 1963:52: and Pant, 1965: 52) . The actual total expenditure of the plan was only Rs. 214.5 million, which was 65% of the estimated figure. The actual expenditure of agriculture ad forestry combined was only Rs. 6.9 million (NPCl, 1963:52). The separate figure for the forestry component could not be made available. The estimnated budget for the agriculture component was Rs. 12.0 million (Pant, 1965:52). Thus actual expenditure for agriculture and forestry combined was only 3.24% of the actual total expenditure (Table 21) . Table 21. Budget of the First Plan (1956-61) Area Estimated Allocation Actual Expenditure Rs. million % Rs. million % Agriculture 12.0 3.6 ... .. Forestry 20.0 6.1 .. Subtotal 32.0 9.7 6.9 3.24 Total Plan 330.0 100.0 214.5 100.0 (Sonrce: NPCl, 1963:52; ad Pant, 1965:51-52) Organization The first step taken under the First Plan was to systematize the forestry organization by dividing the forests into 7 circles rnunning from north to sonth and comprising of 13 ad 9 divisios in the Terai and in the Hills respectively. The division was further split up into rages and the range into the beats. Yet two third of the hills were 66 beyond the purview of the forest service (NPCl, 1963:231-232) . In 1958 forestry was reorganized by merging the Office of the Chief Forest Officer into the MF. The five directors of the MF began controlling the forests. But after a few months, problems arose in that management, and again the DF was reconstituted in 1959. The 1959 reorganization revived the original 7 circles and 22 divisions. The CCF was at the top of the department, a conservator of forests in each circle, and a divisional forest officer in each division. The T01 was established in 1959. In 1960 the change-over from the Parliamentary Democracy to the Panchayat System bronght about policy shifts in the political setting (Shrestha,M.K., 1969:6-7) . In 1961 the government bodies were reorganized ad as a result the Ministry of Forests ad Agriculture was fornmed alog with 13 other ministries. Shrestha, M.K. (1965:27) noted that the Ministry of Forests ad Agriculture had four departments viz. Agriculture, CCF Office (Forests), Food , and Botany. The 1976 National Forestry Plan document mentioned that, in 1961 the CCF Office was expanded into five major sectios such as forest development, forest utilization, forest research, wildlife management, ad plantation. The Forest Resonrces Survey Office was established in 1961 (DP, 1978:8) . In 1961 the Botany Department was renamed as the Department of Medicinal Plants. It had five sectios viz. Royal Drug Research Laboratory, Royal Botanical Garden, Herbal Farnms, Botanical Survey, ad Trading Centers (NPCl, 1965:81) . The Institute of Forestry (also called forestry scl'ool) was reopened in 1956 and transferred to Hetauda in 1959, from where it shifted to Bhimnpnedi (NPCl, 1963:141) . During the First Plan period, 67 the Rural Institute was established in Rapti valley in order to give training in health, forestry, and village development. Technical Areas for Emphasis In Spite of the frequent organizational changes in the forestry component, the First Plan initiated several technical works in conservation, as given in Table 22. Table 22. First Plan Progress on Conservation # Items Unit Number 1. Reforestation ha 61.5 (i) Nursery ha 8.1 2. Forest Management (i) Demarcaticn knm 153 (ii) Fireline knm 79 (iii) Paths Ian 58 (iv) Buildings number 28 3. Wildlife Management (i) Deer sanctuary number 1 4. Survey (Office established) 5. Research Experimental Plot ha 518 6. Extension Service (i) Saplings distribution number 1800 (ii) Forest Festival (Ceremony) 7. Training (i) Rangers person 23 (ii) Foresters person 79 (iii) Specialists person .. (Sonrce: NPCl, 1963:58) In Table 22, item 3(i) indicated the establishment of the King Mahendra Deer Sanctuary in Chitwan. The Second Plan document mentioned the observance of the Forest Festival by the government (NPCl, 1963:233) . This indicated that the Festival was initiated in the First Plan period. The item 7(iii) altlough not snowing any figure was included in order to indicate that such training existed (probably abroad). During and before the First Plan, there was an arrangement for the forestry training abroad. The number of agriculture and 68 forestry technicians trained abroad during 1957-61 is given in Tables 23 and 24. A separate figure for the forestry component could not be made available. Table 23. Personnel Trained Abroad (1961) Countrywise Comtry India USA USSR United Kingdoms Others Total Number 268 39 5 2 59 373 (Source: NPCl, 1963:136-137) Table 24. Personnel Trained Abroad (1957-61) Yearwise Year Upto 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 Total Number 116 32 54 50 46 75 373 (Source: NPCl , 1963 : 136-137) People's Participation The sapling distribution ad the Forest Festival were efforts to involve local people in afforestation ad other conservation works. However, Furer-Haimerndorf (1975: 11-12, 97) observed that the indigenous conservation efforts of the people e.g. the Shingo naua system disappeared in the late 19508 when the government nationalized the forests ad changed the organization to manage them. The Plan as a wtole was drafted by the Planning Commission established in 1955. According to the Second Plan document it (the First Plan) played a role in mnaking the people conscions (NPCl, 1963: 49). The same document mentioned that the peOple did not have anything to say in the formulation of the program which was imposed on them from above, and that it did not tonch off enthusiasm and cOOperative Spirit amog them (NPCl, 1963:104). In the agriculture sector, 378 cooperatives were established nuder the First Plan in order to kindle a sense of participation (NPCl, 1963:55) . In overall, people's 69 participation in conservation was not seriously considered during the First Plan period (1956-61) . Legislation By enacting the 1957 Private Forest Nationalization Act the government nationalized all kinds of private forests witlout any compensation. Its Section 2.1.a excluded fruit orchards, and individually raised patch of forests (1.3 ha in the hills, and 3.3 ha in the Terai) (LED/[2,1983 :143-144). The 1958 Wildlife (Protection) Act contained 17 Sections and its main features were prohibition of hnunting wildlife witlout licence, procedure of obtaining such licence, and prohibition of exporting or moving wild animals (Shaha, 1970:Appendix I) . Another landmark in forestry legislation was the promulgation of the 1961 Forest Act. The main features of the Act were as follows: - declaring the adjoining forests and the fallow land left for 2 or nmore years as the government forests - declaring illegally cultivated land inside the government forests as part of the government forests - protection of government forests - control over trading forest products - government claim over driftwood - repeal of the Rana timne forest laws e.g. Timber Removal Section, Forest Inspection Rules, National Forest Utilization and other ad noc rules ad circulars. (Source: LEM), 1983:146-171) The 1956 Lad Act fixed the rental, levy ad interest payable by the farnmers. The 1959 Birta Abolition Act did away with system of Birta (tax exempt lands) (NPCl, 1963:69-70) . Chakroff (1979:31-32) also listed the following three Acts related to the environment: 1. the 1956 Ancient Monument Protection Act, 2. the 1956 Export Import (Control) Act, ad 3. the 1961 Lad Acquisition Act. 70 Coservation Strategy 1961—1965 Objective The primary objective of the Second Plan (1962-65) was to develop the basic infrastructures required for sustained development. In addition to this primary objective, the Plan laid down four long-term socioeconomic objectives such as: 1. Expansion of national production in agriculture ad industry 2. Maintenance of economic stability (e.g. price control) 3. Expansion of employment opportunities by promoting ”labor-intensive" projects, and 4. Establishment of social justice by promoting agrarian refornm and social services (Source: NPCl, 1963:1-6) The above objectives indirectly related to conservation such as the reference to inncreased production ad expansion of employment Opportunities. However, they did not clearly reflect the importance of conservation of natural resources. The forestry section of the Second Plan document emphasized the discreet use ad scientific conservation of forests. The section clarified that there had been an irregular and uncontrolled use of forests such as the contract system ad unrestricted grazing (NPCl, 1963: 230—231). The other directly related sector was resettlement. It had an objective of rehabilitation (by cleaning the Terai forests) of the peasants do were tiought to destroying the hill forests (NPCl, 1963:225) . Thus the Second Plan objectives did not have a strong policy of conservation. Priority The priority in the Second Plan were attuned to the main objectives. Thus the top priority was assigned to the projects which provide basic knowledge of the national economy, which affect refornms in organizational structure, and which build infrastructure. The less 71 prioritized projects were time which aim to promote agricultural and industrial p:oduction, and which consolidate the system of social services. Emphasis was given to a better system of data collection inclnding a survey of country's physical resources. High priority projects also inncluded training personnel to fulfill the man—power requirements (NPCl, 1963: 6-10). In the above order of priority, conservation was not among the tOp items. In the finanncial resources allocation of the Plan, Agriculture, Irrigation and Forestry combined received fourth priority amog five major sectors (NPCl, 1963:25) . Budget The total estimnated and actual expenditures of the Second Plan were Rs. 600.0 million ad Rs. 596.81 million respectively. The forestry and botany component budget was estimated as Rs. 13.4 million and the actual expenditure was Rs. 14.6 million (Table 25) . Table 25. Budget of the Second Plan (1962-1965) Item Estimnated Allocation Actual Expenditures Rs. million % Rs. million % Forestry & Botany 13.40 2.23 14.60 2.45 Plan Total 600.00 100.00 596.81 100.00 (Source: NPCl, 1965:3) As shown in Table 25 forestry ad botany component comprised of only 2.45% of the total budget. The inncrease in actual budget was due to innclusion of survey and training expenditures which were separately estimated in the Plan. The budget for resettlement and sinmilar indirectly related components was not incorporated with the forestry and botany component. 72 Organization The MP was separated from the Ministry of Forests and Agriculture in 1965. The departments under the new Ministry were the CCF Office, and the Department of Medicinal Plants (Shrestha, M.K., 1975:60) . The respective sectios under the departments were also automatically transferred. In 1964 the Nepal Resettlement Company was formed in order to carry out rehabilitation programs in a systematic ad organized mnanner, and to handle big projects which plan for trousands of families (NPC, 1972:63). Technical Areas for Ennphasis The target ad progress of the forestry sector in the Second Plan are shown in Table 26. Table 26. Target ad Progress of Forestry Sector (1962-65) # Items Unit Target Progress % Progress 1. Reforestation ha 4049 2454 61 2. Forest Management (i) Demarcaticn knm 7944 3840 48 (ii) Firelinne km 634 448 71 (iii) Paths km 39 480 1231 (iv) Buildings number 571 ... .. 3. Wildlife Management (1) Wildlife Refuges site 3 3 100 4. Survey division 3 .. .. 5. Training (i) Rangers person 50 112 224 (ii) Foresters person 150 214 143 (iii) Specialists person 6 18 300 (Source: The Three Year Plan ad the Third Plan Documents) Progress of the buildings (item 2.iv) could not be made available. The wildlife refuges (item 3.i) at Chitwan, Kanchanpur, and Biratnagar were established. The aerial ad other survey initiated in the Terai divisios and in the hills. Soil survey for agriculture ad 73 water survey for irrigation were also carried out during the Second Plan period. Similarly, botanical, mineral, industrial, town planning, airports ad roads were also the programs envisaged in the Plan. Abrogation of the contract system ad initiation of working plans in the Terai were also important steps during 1962-65. Herbal development and other related works were also carried out. People's Participation The panchayat sector was introduced in the Second Plan in order to promote people's participation in overall development including conservation. The procedure of the panchayat sector as mentioned in the Second Plan document was as follows: (i) The local panchayat would apply for the departmental projects according to the departmental prescriptions (ii) The local panchayat could also apply for the financial supports for the projects within the government oiority (iii) The local panchayat could freely frame ad implement the programs which were to be implemented only through the local resources And, onne of the activities of a village pannchayat was to plant trees. (Source: NPCl, 1963:105-106). In the beginnnning, the document of the Second Plan stated that the panchayat system had been adopted for the purpose of enlisting active participation of the entire populace in the execution of the plan and to mobilize the latent energy of the people (NPCl, 1963:1). In the forestry section, it stated that the hill forests would be handed over to the care ad management of the local panchayats (NPCl, 1963:231). But the records of implementation of this policy could not be found. The policies mentioned in the main objective ad in the panchayat sector indicated that people's participation was sought at the implementation level. The projects were formulated and gioritized by 74 the policy makers. The local people did not seem to have control over the government funded or assisted projects. The Forest Festival, as stated in the plan document, was observed by the onvernment as a part of the campaign to focus the attention of the people on the need of afforestation (NPCl, 1963:233) . The program appeared to be the fundamental step towards securing peOple's participation in conservation. But the Plan did not fornmulate any target ad strategy for that. Legislation The Second Plan stated that nnecessary reforms would be introduced in the existing forest regulatios (NPCl, 1963:231) , but only minor amendments of the Acts were promulgated. The amendments of the 1961 Forest Act were conversion of few words into simple Nepali words. The amending Acts were the 1963 Nepal Laws (Amendment Revalidation) Act, the 1964 Judicial Administration (Miscellaneous Arrangement) Act, and the 1965 Local Administration Act (IBNC, 1983:146-171) . The 1962 Wildlife (Protection) (First Amendment) Act changed several items inclnding addition of Section 11A which empowered to stoot the offeder(s) below the knnee, and the removal of five animals from its Schedule 1. The 1964 Nepal Laws (Anmedments Revalidation) Act changed few words into Nepali. The government banned exports of certain wildlife ad its products by publishing the 1965 Notification of the Ministry of Forests and Agriculture (Shaha, 1970:65-79) . The other related Acts promulgated in 1962-65 were as follows: 1. The Village Pannchayat (Representation) Act, 1962 (One of the activities of a village panchayat was to plant trees) (NPCl, 1963:106) 2. The Town panchayat Act, 1962 (Its activities included the provision of safe clean drinking water ad other services to the people) 75 3. The Lad (Survey and Measurement) Act, 1963. (survey, measurement ad grading of land) 4. The Export Import (Control) Rules, 1963 5. The Highway (Costruuction Arrangement) Act, 1964 (acquisition of land for highway construction) 6. The Mills Act, 1965 (pertained to the location ad operation of the mills inncluding sawnmills) (Chakroff, 1979:15—32) The basic features of the 1964 Land Act were the ceiling on the lad ownnership, tenant's security, abolition of "Jimindary" (estate), and the compulsory savings (zaman, 1973) . Coservation Strategy 1965-1970 Objective The social objectives of the Third Plan (1965-70) were derived from the Costitution of Nepal and were originated with the First Plan in 1956. the main elements of the objectives were welfare, justice, and equal opportunities. The Third Plan also had as a primnary objective to deve10p the prerequisite for rapid economic growth. Similarly, it had six general objectives: 1. Agriculture Production: to boost food production by introducing modern techniques in agriculture 2. Institutional Reform: to improve the condition of tillers by effectively implementing the lad reform program 3. Economic Infrastructure: to develOp trasportation ad power in order to increase agricultural output and to pronote market system 4. Industrial Development: to p:omote public and private industries through financial ad technical assistance 5. Foreignn Trade: to pronote trade diversification by developing agriculture and industry 6. Social Justice: to allocate the benefits of economic growth and social services to large number of people, to introduce land reform, the Mulki Ain (the social justice Act) and so on. (Source: NPCl, 1965:11-12, 15-17) The above objectives (social, primary and specific) did not clearly envisage conservation of natural resources. The importance of the role of conservation has to be assured in the above objectives. 76 For example, one prerequisite for rapid growth is conservation of natural resources, and likewise it has its bearing on agriculture and industry as well. The concept of regional development planning was brought by Gurumg (1969) in order to graduually eliminate regional desparity in the Terai, Kathmandu, and the rest of the coumtry. The Operational aspect of the conoept gave importance to the balanced utilization ad conservation of the natural resources. The wtole concept was based on the ecological divisions of the country. Okada's (1970) report contained fairly detailed technical outline of the regional develcpment concept. Priority The order of priority in the Third Plan was as follows: I Agriculture (innclunding forestry) 11 Transport ad Power III Industry (Source: NPCl, 1965:17-18) But according to the allocation of the public sector expendituure, the agricultural sector got only second priority following the sector of transport, communication ad power (NPC, 1965:23). The agricultural sector inncluuded resettlement, lad refornm, cadastral suurvey, food, panchayat cooperatives, forestry, medicinal plants, ad irrigation. However, as a mnain ingredient of agricultural development, forestry and medicinal plants were not listed amog the other items (NPCl, 1965:17). The industry sector at least mentioned that its development depend on transport ad power, and on the availability of raw materials ad other resources. Again, soil conservation was attached to irrigation amog the 77 five major areas of agricultural development, such as irrigation ad soil conservation, improved seeds, fertilizer, crop protection, and improved techniques (NPC, 1965:57-58) . Thus altl'ough not mentioned in the priority items, conservation was considered necessary in the Third Plan. Budget The data in Table 27 give the budget allocation and the actual expenditure of the Third Plan and of the forestry sector in the Plan. Table 27. Budget of the Third Plan (1965-70) # Items Allocation % Actual Expenditure % Rs. million Rs. million Forestry 45.0 2.59 . . . . . Medicinal Plants 7.5 0.43 ... .. Plan Total 1740.0 100.00 1779.1 100.00 (Source: NPCl, 1965:23: NPC, 1972:9) A separate budget for the soil conservation component of agricultural development 00qu not be mnade available. The above budget was also for the training of forest technicians. But the man-power required for the medicinal plant development did not include in the above mentioned budget. Tribhuvan University, founded in 1959, started a Master of Science in Chemistry, Biology, and other fields during the Third Plan period. So expenditure on training could not be explicitly presented. Organization The Third Plan document aimed to inmprove ad stregthen the organization ad administration of the forestry department (i.e. the CCF Office) (NPCl, 1965:81) . In 1967 the CCF Office was expanded into 14 circles ad 75 divisios in order to respectively match 14 zones 78 and 75 districts according to the general administration. Buut the scheme reverted back after a few months to the originnal 7 circles, and 22 divisios due to lack of manpower. The same year, the autononous Office of the Bagmati Zone Afforestation Scheme was established under the CCF Office. In 1969 a drastic change in forestry organization occurred when the Pradhan Van Karyalaya (Major Forest Office) system was adopted (DF, 1978:8-9). According to the Anmerican Embassy reports (1967: 22 and l969:9) , the (IF Office had four sectios viz. Forest Resources Survey, Assistant CCF, Forest Development, and Forest Utilization in 1967. Whereas in 1969 the sectios added were wildlife, administration ad huunting, but the section of utilization did not appear. The Forest Products Sales and Distribution Corporation was fornmed in 1968 (Nepal Gazzette, June 24, 1968) and HM; dissolved it again in 1969 (Nepal Gazzette, February 10, 1969) . Thus the Third Plan experienced several strategic organizational structures, which demostrated an experimental effort. Technical Areas for Empnasis The target and progress of the forestry sector of the Third Plan are given in Table 28. The actual figuures for target ad progress of buildings (item 2.iv) , extension (item 5) , and research (item 7) could not be made available. The target of working plans (item 2.v) was not clearly mentioned in the Third Plan, but the Fourth Plan document noted that they were inmplemented in four divisions viz. Birguunj, Biratnagar, Kandnanpur and the TC)! area (not a Specific division) (NPC, 1972: 109) . Preliminary soil conservation works ad survey in the Trishuli Watershed were started. In July 1969 six Royal hunting 79 reserves in the Terai ad one in the mountain were gazzetted for the protection of wildlife. But in the absence of proper legislation and bylaws the conservation of wildlife remained ineffective. In December 1970 two national parks viz. Royal Chitwan and Langtarg were established (Upreti, 1979: 7-8). The survey program (item 6) covered a wide area and subjects e.g. forest survey in the Terai and the hills, soil survey in five divisions of the Terai viz. Chitwan, Birgunj, Janakpur, Banke and Bardia, and preliminary botanical survey througtout the ouuuntry (NPC, 1972:109-110) . Table 28. Target and Progress of Forestry Sector (1965-70) f Items Unit Waget jProgress % Progress 1. Reforestation ha 10121 4150 41 2. Forest Management (i) Demarcation km 4000 1493 37.3 (ii) Fireline km 480 237 49.4 (iii) Paths km 1200 547 45. (iv) Buildings number as required (v) Working Plan division 4 .. 3. Watershed Management (i) Soil Protection ha selected areas 4. Wildlife Management (1) Parks site 2 2 100 (ii) Reserves site .. 7 .. 5. Extension Service 6. Survey 7. Research station 3 .. .. 8. Training (i) Rangers person 175 61 34.9 (ii) Foresters person 350 96 27.4 (Source: NPCl, 1965:80-Bl; and NPC, 1972:109) Notably, the conservation p'ogram was included in agricultural development, e.g. soil conservation with minor irrigation works was targeted to cover 21,400 ha. in order to protect soil, and pasture development to encourage sheep farming (NPCl, 1965: 557-58, 62). Similarly, the Nepal Gazzette (August 18, 1969) published the HM} 80 decision of June 5, 1969 to protect the forests in Hetauuda to conserve water sources for conmercial fish farming. The forestry ad all other man-power available at the end of the Third Plan is compiled in Table 29. It gives a glimpse of the strength of the forestry sector in terms of man-power which was a very low percent of the total man—power in the technical field. Table 29. Forestry and Other Technical Man-Power in 1970 Subject High Level Middle level Lower Level Total Number % of Number % of Number % of Number % of all all all all Forestry 99 1. 29 231 30. 35 360 8 . 31 690 5. 42 All (a) 7648 100 761 100 4333 100 12742 100 Note: A11(a) includes forestry technicias (Source: NPCl, 1972:27 and 28) In summary, altlough much efforts were spent in forestry sector, the actual conservation output was not p'omising. Progress was not achieved to its maximum. People's Participation The forestry extension program of the Third Plan aimed to avoid forest depletion by stimulating village interest in forest protection and by ednucating them on modern plantatios. The medicinal plant program aimed to provide financial ad technical assistanoe to encouurage the peOple to grow medicinal plants (NPCl, 1965:81) . These policies reflected the intention that the people stould be involved at the implementation level of conservation programs. The panchayat sector of the plan stated "to orient traditional thinking patterns, ad promote self reliance, ad create a sense of cooperation to achieve the goals of nnational development” (NPCl, 1965:90) "the mobilization of labor ad other resources through the pannchayat sector is extremely important for social and 81 economic development. . . .greater auttority will be given to the panchayat organizatios. ...major responsibilities will be given to the zonal, district ad gram(village) panchayats” (NPCl, 1965: 20) The above statements indicated that the local peOple would be involved in development works through panchayat organizations . The importance given to the "mobilization of labor" indicated that the level of participation would mnainly be at the innplementation level. Nevertheless, the development activities to be conducted through the panchayat sector listed agriculture, irrigation, eduucation, building construction, road construuction, cottage industries, ad drinking water projects (NPCl, 1965:19) . The list did not have any conservation program. On the basis of the Luinciple that the common desires of the peOple can be conoeived of only from below rather from above, Shrestha, B.P. (1966:285-286) proposed that planning first be started at the village, be passed through the district ad zonal levels, and the finnal decision be mnade at the national level. Shrestha, B.P. (1966:290) also observed that "a very large potential sugply of free and voluunteer labor power can be harnnessed for local development works". The analysis clearly indicated that peOple's participation would be sought only at the implementation level. A notable ladmark in the peOple's participation was the “Go to Village” National Campaign of 1967, which inncluded afforestation as the yardstick of political leaders' activities. One of its ten basic guidelines was ”to acquaint the people with the importance of conservation of forests and wildlife". There were eight further guidelines to elaborate the above basic guideline (Shah Dev, His Majesty King Mahendra Bir Bikram, 1971: 51, 59-60) 82 Legislation Tte 1967 Forest Protection (Special Arrangement) Act was enacted in order to protect the forests from encroachment. It will be in effect until the last day of Chaitra, 2043 (mid—April 1987) . The First Amendment in 1970 amended Section 7 which empowered the Forest Protection Official to Snoot the offeder(s) below the knnee LBIVC, 1983 :172-180) . Infornmation on the 1968 Panchayat Rules could not be made available. The 1970 Hunting Rules were promulgated according to the power conferred by the 1958 Wildlife (Protection) Act as amended in 1962 (Shaha,1970:80-109) . The 1970 Forest Products (Sales ad Distribution) Rules were promulgated to control forest harvesting (Chakroff ,1979: 20). The Second Anmendment of the 1962 Wildlife (Protection) (First Amendment) Act was promulgated in 1967 by changing ad adding Sectios regarding penalties, punishment, and by inncluuding the Impeyan Pheasant in Schedule 1 of the protected wildlife (Shaha, 1970:71-77) . The 1967 Nepal Laws (Anmedment) Act changed few words into Nepali ternms in the 1957 Private Forest Nationalization Act ad the 1961 Forest Act. Chakroff (1979:13—15, 27-33) noted several conservation related legislation enacted during the Third Plan period as follows: 1. The 1966 Nepal Mines Act empowered HM; to own all kinds of mineral deposits ad resources 2. The 1966 Water Tax Act (no information made available) 3. The 1967 Export Import (Control) Rules banned such items as cows, bulls, rhino-trophies, boulders etc. to export. 4. Tie 1967 Lad (Survey ad Measurement) Rules 5. The 1967 Irrigation, Electricity and Related Water Resources Act repealed the 1961 Irrigation Act ad the 1963 Electricity, Motor or Power (Trasfer and Removal) Act. 6. The 1968 Highway (Costruction Arragement) Rules. 83 Coservation Strategy 1970-1975 Objective The basic objectives of the Fourth Plan (1970-1975) were consistent with the Panchayat system ad the guiding principles of the Costitution. They were as follows: 1. To mnaximize output i.e. to inncrease production in order to create society free from exploitation 2. To establish the base for sustained ad logternm economic growth (viz. transport, communication and power) 3. To expand ad diversify international trade for economic development 4. To secure accelerated pace of development with maximum stability by controlling price level 5. To make effective use of man-power resources ad to control population growth 6. To create conditios conduucive to the emergence of a society free from exploitation (Source: NPC, 1972:1-3) Among the above stated objectives, population control was somewhat related to conservation. However, the objective was stated on the grouds that cultivable land was limited. Consistent with the maximization of output, one of the agricultural programs was reclamation of additional cultivable land (NPC,1972:42) . The Plan objective did not emphasize the role of conservation in maximization of output or in sustained economic growth. The forestry sector of the Plan, however, had as its sectoral objective to conserve ad develop the forest resources in order get the maximum benefits (NPC,1972:110) . The sectoral objective of forestry was not applicable in the other sectors e.g. agriculture, trasport ad industry. The conoept of regional development and growth axes reflected the Plan's consideration of ecological diversity of the country ad that of conservation of natural resources (NPC,1972: 281-291) . The conoept was brought by Gurung (1969) ad elaborated in terms of resource allocation (Rana, P.S.J., 1973:17-21), administrative inmplicatios 84 (Pradhan, G.B.N., 1973:42—46), organization (Pradhan,P., 1973:47-61), socio-economy and politics factors (Sainju, 1973:97-100) . Priority The order of priority in the Fourth Plan was as follows: I Transport ad Communication II Agriculture (including forestry) III Industry ad Power IV Social Services In addition to the above priority order, the Plan also gave general priority to the continuing projects started during the Third Plan or to ttose projects related to foreign aid (NPC, 1972:10-11) . The sector with top priority, trasport and communication, laid down its sectoral objectives covering socio-economic ad political signnificance in the national development. Similarly, the sectoral objectives of agriculture focused on economic aspects e.g. level of consumption, purchasing power, savings, exports, and industrial raw materials. The objectives of the industry ad power sector gave its importance to forest based industries and to utilization of water resources. The tourism industry emphasized development of facilities in the national parks. Among the sectors with low priority, social services, the proposal for developing science education was fairly close to conservation (NPC, 1972:194, 214, 226, 245) . Forestry was also a part of agriculture sector as nmentioned in the allocation of expenditures (NPC, 1972:11 ad 12). Budget The data in Table 30 give the budget allocation for the forestry and medicinal plants sector, and the total plan budget during 1970-75. 85 Table 30. Budget of the Fourth Plan (1970-75) Items Allocation Actual Expenditure Rs. million % Rs. million % Forestry 61.1 1.73 .. Medicinal Plants 19.7 0.56 . . . . . Plan total 3540.0 100.00 .. (Source: NPC, 1972:12-14) The above allocation of bdget for forestry and medicinal plants was solely in the public sector only. The Plan total was the grad total of the public, panchayat ad the private sectors. The total plan budget in the panchayat sector was Rs. 120.0 million, in the oivate sector was Rs. 870.0 million and in the public sector, Rs. 2550.0 million. There was no specific budget for forestry in the private and the panchayat sectors. In the private sector, the forest based industries to be set up during the Plan were pulp and paper, saw mills, plywood, and pharmacy. These were class C industries with low investments. (There were other 19 class A, 1 class B, and 11 class C industries that were proposed). Thus the conservation projects were primarily financed by the government, i.e. the public sector only. Organization The Resettlement Department was established in the early 19703. Its aim was to carry out small-scale resettlement programs (involving less than 200 families) through the Zonal Resettlement Committees. The large-Scale resettlement programs were uunder the responsibility of the Nepal Resettlement Company (WC, 1972:63) . In 1971 the Nepal Forestry Institute was renamed as the Institute of Forestry and transferred to TU (DF,1978:9-10) . In 1972 a commission was formed to regulate hapnazard settlements in specified areas of Sarlahi district (in the Terai) (Nepal Gazzette, February 28, 1972) . 86 In 1973 the autoomos Office of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation was establisned under the con Office. In 1973 and 1974 two more forest divisios were created, viz. Surkhet and Karnali (DF, 1978:9-10). In 1974 the 13an was established uunder the MF. It had three divisios viz. engineering, agriculture and forests, and four sectios viz. survey & planning: training, research and publicity, administration; and account (WCEP, 1982:15 and 21) . In 1975 a three mnember commission was fornmed in order to conduit ennquiries and submit a report within 5 weeks to HM; regarding the theft of timber from forests in the forest divisions of Jhapa, Biratnagar, and Kabhre-Palanclok (Nepal Gazzette, September 9, 1975) . During the Fourth Plan period, the forestry administration began recruiting retired army and police personnel to replace the forest guards by the armed forest guards. By 1975 the MF grew into a large organization with the two resettlement agencies transferred from the Ministry of Food ad Agricuulture. Thus it consisted of 4 departments viz. forest, soil and water conservation, medicinal plants, and resettlement, and 4 corporatios independently dealing with timber, drug, fuuelwood, and resettlement. The expansion of the CG? Office was not systematic (DF, 1978:8-10, 77) . The events described above revealed that the forestry (conservation) organization grew in size, but its effectiveness never materialized. Because on the one had new departments and territory offices were created and on the other hand various inquiry commissions were also created to investigate ad regulate forestry related programs. The transfer of the training component did not hamper the 87 effectiveness of the forestry organizatios, on the contrary it did a commendable refornm by linking the executive organization with the educational institutions . Technical Areas for Eunphasis The data in Table 31 give a picture of technical areas for emphasis during the Fourth Plan period (1970-75) . Table 31. Target ad Progress of Forestry Sector (1970-75) # Items Units Target Progress % Progress 1. Reforestation ha 8000 7300 91.25 2. Forest Management (1) Demarcaticn km 4000 .. (ii) Buildings number as required (iii) Forest Development (iv) Working Plas division 6 .. 3. Watershed Management location 2 . . . . . 4. Wildlife Management park 5. Extesion Service 6. Survey 7. Research 8. Training (i) Rangers person 125 .. (ii) Foresters person 350 .. (Source: NPC, 1972:111-115, and FAQ, 1981:344) The Fourth Plan actually had nine different forestry projects. Their technnical activities overlaped each other in some cases. For example, afforestation (reforestation) program was included in two projects viz. Afforestation ad Jiri Multipurpose. Survey, research and other activities were inncluuded in other projects. A list of projects ad their major activities is given in Table 32. The projects (4 5 and 6) were new in the Plan ad the rest were all continuation of the Third Plan projects. 88 Table 32. Forestry Projects and Their Major Activities (1970-75) # Project Activities 1. Forest Inventory Aerial survey, working plans for 6 divisions, Management Country revisios of working plans for 3 divisions, wide (Preparation forest industry survey, soil ad land-use of the working plans) survey of 8 divisions, soil conservation in Kathmadu watershed, Silvicultural research etc., climatological data sapling, timber grading, building construction etc. 2. Implementation of (Activities could not be made available) Working Plans 3. Afforestation 4000 ha in the hills, 4000 ha in Terai, and maintenance of old plantation 4. Forest Training Every year 25 ragers ad 70 foresters, orientation training for the new officers 5. Royal Nagarjuung Working plan ad management (29 km fencing, Forest (prOposed) 20 forest guard posts, 8 ha reforestation) 6. Forest Demarcaticn 4000 knm demarcation, maintenance of 4000 km (proposed) old demarcation 7. Building Costruuction Maintenance and new construction 8. Forest Development Pr0posal for forest based industries 9. Jiri Multipurpose Silvicunltural operation, nursery, afforestation, and forestry extension (Source: WC, 1972:113-115) PeOple' s Paticipation Anmong the Fourth Plan policies, the fifth policy of social justice concluded its prinnciple by stating that "...attempts will be made more effectively to make involve panchayats of varios levels in the process of both plan fornmulation ad implementation in order to make participation of the people in the local development work more active and dynamic." (WC, 1972:7). In the panchayat sector of the Plan, an emphasis was given to promote initiation at the zonal, district and at the village level programs. These statements slowed that peOple's participation was sought at the project formulation ad implementation through panchayat organizatios. Such projects, however, did not inncluude conservation as an inmportant item. Also there was no one forestry program prOposed to launch in c00peration with the local people. The discussion can be 89 further elaborated by viewing the forestry situation as it was developing . - Increasing illegal encroachment damaged forests - privileges such as Harghar Sangha (a tradition under which the government issues permits to the public for cutting certain trees for domestic purpose) had an adverse effect on the forests forestry services did not fully cover the hill forests forest management works e.g. forest paths, fireline, etc. were not properly utilized lack of coordination between the departments of land, survey, revenue, forest and resettlement. (Source: WC, 1972:11) A general remark by Rana, P.S.J.B. (1971:43) supported several commendable achievements in varios local developments (e.g. roads, scnools etc.) through voluntary labor contributios. But, he noted, the weak design and the lack of supervision on tl'ose efforts resulted in frustation, wastage and anger. Pradhan, P. (1973:59) observed that the Fourth Plan did not visualize the substantial contribution by the panchayat sector for the contribution of peOple'S participation. Similarly, Uproff ad Ilchman (1973:31) suggested for every development project ad social investment that one must ask five questios such as ”Win has dosen this project? Wto will implement it? Wto consumes its products ? Wto does not participate in its benefits? and Wlo pays directly or indirectly for it ?" The observatios foud that people's participation was not prOperly harnessed for the development works in general. Legislation The Fourth Plan realized that "...there slould be strict judicial arragements and good administrative management supporting the forest demarcation once it is fixed." (NPC, 1972:111). The First Amendment of the Forest Protection (Special Arrangement) in 90 1970 revised mainly the sectios related to the penalties ad punishments procedures. The 1971 'Jtora" Lands Act ternminated the rights of a landowner to lad circumscribed by the forests (i.e. 'Jtora") and not cultivated for two years (Regnmi, 1976:215) . Such land acquired by the Act was to be allotted to cultivators, and not converted into the forests. The 1972 Precise Workprocess Act amended the 1961 Forest Act by removing few undesirable words (IBNC, 1983:146-171) . In 1972 HRS enacted the Plant Quarantine Act. T'te National Parks and Wildlife Coservation Act of 1973 was enacted repealing the 1958 Wildlife (Protection) Act. In 1974 the First Annendment of the Act specified the deadline of getting a certificate for the animal trophies already in possession (ram, 1983:185-197) . Several Rules were also formulated after the enactment of the Act, e.g. the 1974 National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Rules, the 1974 Royal Chitwan National Park Rules and the 1975 Royal Nagarjung Forest (Entry and Sale of Forest Products) Rules (Chakroff, 1979:24-27) . The legislation pertaining to wildlife conservation created the national parks, the wildlife reserves ad the necesary rules to govern them, and also protected the endangered animals and birds. The legislation became the landmarks in conservation of the natural resources. Chakroff (1979:14, 29-30, 33) also listed three more Rules pertaining to conservation, such as the 1972 Gift Parcel Rules (dealing with animal trophies etc.) , the 1974 Canal Management Rules (for the protection of canal banks from biotic effects), and the 1975 Land (Survey and Measurement) Rules (for proceeding in case of complaint, and grading of urban lads etc.) . 91 Coservation Strategy 1975-1980 Objective The objectives of the Fifth Plan (1975-80) were derived from the Costitution, as were done in the previous plans. However, the Fifth Plan envisaged more a Specific objective as follows: To maximize output consistent with the minimum felt needs ad paripassu increase in purchasing power of the comnon people by involving them in actual process of production. Thus the Plan introduced the ”twin objectives" of ”production" and “participation". The other general but notable objective envisaged by the Fifth Plan was the concept of regional development based on the natural resources and labor force scattered all over the coumtry. The policy behind the objective of balanced development was the consideration of the natural enviroment of the country, such as to develop livestock in the northern highland, horticulture in the central midlads, and the foodgrains ad cash—crops in the southern lowlads (NPC, 1975:7-8). In its introductory chapter, the Fifth Plan stated that ”agriculture is linked with the natural resources and climatic conditions ..." and "an agricultural strategy based on ecological specialization could contribute both to production increase ad the regional balance." (WC, l975:3) . Thus the objective of the Fifth Plan reflected the importance of conservation for sustained development of to country. But the Plan did not have any Specific objective pertaining to conservation. Priority The priority areas singled out in the Fifth Plan were population control, employnment generation, scientific land-use ad fuller exploitation of water resources (WC, l975:3) . Based on the financial resource allocation of the Plan, the order of priority was as follows: 92 I Agriculture, Irrigation, Land refornms, Forests etc. II Transport and Communicatios III Industry, Commerce and Power, and IV Social Services (Health, Education, Drinking water etc.) (Source: NPC, 1975:9-10, 24-25) The forestry component was also among the priority items of the Fifth Plan. Among the items of the agricultural sector main emphasis was given to the direct agriculture development (i.e. agricultural inputs) and resettlement (i.e. expanding the cultivable land). The other major programs were irrigation, and lad reform & survey. The forestry component (including soil conservation, wildlife muanagement etc.) was the last prioritized item which received a little less than one-tenth of the government allocation for the entire agricultural sector. However, in the Fifth Plan, the conservation programs received more theoretical support than in the previos plan. Budget The total plan bdget and its allocation for the forestry sector are given in Table 33. Table 33. Budget of the Fifth Plan (1975-80) Items Average Allocation Actual Expendfture Rs . million % RS . million % (1975-80) (1975-79) Forestry 196 . 2 1. 91 141. 45 l. 42 Plan total 10298 . 5 100 . 00 9939 . 20 100 . 00 (Source: WC, 1975:26: (:38, 1982:156-157: Manadhar,l982:3) About one third of the forestry subsector bdget was set aside for conservation of soil ad water resources (WC, 1975:15) . The public sector allocation of the Plan was average Rs. 6857.5 million. Coservation was a public sector activity ad hence its share of the 93 government (i.e. public) sector was 2.88%. The panchayat and the private sectors respectively covered 10.2% and 23.2% of the total plan bdget. These sectors did not have direct expenditures in conservation. The indirect expenditures wouuld cover some private efforts in conservation and ”by-products" type activities while performing other development works such as irrigation canals, water mills, agriculture etc. Organization The changes within the forestry organization in 1976 were as follows: 1. Fornmation of Board for Resettlement in Forest Areas of Jhapa and Biratnagar, 1976 (Nepal Gazzette, March 24, 1976) 2. Tne CCF Office was renamed as the DF as decided onApril l, 1976 (Nepal Gazzette, April 26, 1976) 3. The Nepal Forest Service was administratically reorganized to suit the general administrative pattern of as (Nepal Gazzette, July 14, 1976) 4. Fornmation of the Forest Products Development Board, 1976 (Nepal Gazzette, October 25, 1976) 5. Fornmation of the Shivpuri Watershed Area Development Board, 1976 (Nepal Gazzette, October 25, 1976) According to the 1976 National Forestry Plan (DF, 1978:77-93) , there were 9 circles, 40 divisios ad 174 rages uunder the DF. Alog with these territorial offices to cover the wtole couuntry, the DF also had functional offices viz. Forest Resources Survey and Research, National Parks and Wildlife Reserves, and Afforestation (previously called as the Bagmati Zone Afforestation Scheme) . Tl'ese functional offices had their own autoomcus organization that linked with the DF. The original 1974 organization of the nswr: remained unchanged. But it expanded in ternms of projects in four development regios as per the objective of regional development envisaged in the Fifth Plan. T‘l'e period of operation ad the location of the projects are given in 94 Table 34. The projects were directly responsible to the Director General of the DSGM. It did not have pernmanent territorial offices. The projects were Operational during the Plan period and they might or might not be continued in the following plan. The Renote Sensing Center was established uder the D698 in 1979. Table 34. Soil ad Water Coservation Projects (1975-80) # Project Name Fifth Plan Location 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 l. Bagmati Kathmadu 2. Biring Ilam ad Jhapa 3. Daksinkali —— Kathmandu 4. 1m country wide 5 . Ktor ke etc. Sur khet 6. Lamidanda —-—- Kabhre 7. Lothar Chitwan 8. Phewatal Kaski 9. Publicity etc. ——- country wide 10. Rasuwa etc. Rasuwa and Nuwakot 11. REIJP Gorkha,Makawanpur , Mustang, and Myagdi 12. River Control Terai l3. Sagarmatha Udaypur l4. Tinau Palpa Note: # 4. IN“! a Integrated Watershed Management, Torrent Control ad Land-use Development Project # 5. Ktorke etc. = Knorke, Itram ad Jhupra Watershed Project # 9. Publicity etc. = Publicity, Extesion and Research Project # 10.Rasuwa etc. = Rasuwa Nuwalmot Integrated Ruural Development Soil Coservation Project (also called the Divisional Soil Coservation Office) # 11.101P - Resource Coservation ad Utilization Project (Source: DSCMI, 1982:71-80) Technical Areas for Emphasis The conservation activities perfornmed during the Fifth Plan are stown in Table 35. Reforestation was the major technical effort in conservation but could hardly succeed to meet 50% of the target. The mortality percent of the reforestation has yet to be considered. 95 Details of forest management activities could not be made available. The reciprocal increase in cultivated area from 23,260 Sq km in 1975 to 31,268 sq km in 1980 coincided with the loss of forest areas from 48,230 Sq km in 1975 to 40,997 sq knm in 1980 (KC, 1982:10) . The watershed management activities established conservation plots in varios project areas which p:oved to be promising denonstration plots in order to convince the local peOple. Two national parks ad to wildlife reserves were gazzetted in 1976. Education ad extension activities were initiated in soil conservation and wildlife conservation. The reconnaissance inventory (survey) of the major ecological land units ad their watershed conditions was completed in 1980. The remote sensing activities were started in 1980 (DSCWM, 1982: 42-43, 48-49) . Table 35. Target ad Progress of Coservation Activities (1975-80) # Items Unit Target Progress % Progress 1. Reforestation ha 20000 9864 49.32 2. Forest Management (i) Demarcaticn km 8080 .. 3 . Water shed Management (i) Plantation ha 1517 1181 77.85 (including fruits and grasses) (ii) Checkdams number 1135 1199 105.64 (iii) Terracing ha 378 166 43.92 (iv) Embankment meter 5476 12292 224.47 4. Wildlife Management 5. Extension 6. Survey 7. Research 8. Training (i) Ragers person 178 .. (ii) Foresters person 644 ... .. (iii) Graduates person 15 .. (Sources: NPC, 1975:28; [80“, 1982:71-80; AIB, 1982:12; and IDS, 1983245, 63-65) The research activities could not swiftly advance. Some research 96 on silviculture, agro-forestry, soil conservation were initiated but the efforts seemed to be the weakest in forestry development (113, 1983:63-64). The training institute come under TU. The Fifth Plan document mentioned a supply of 204 forest graduates (WC, 1975:48) whereas the National Council for Science and Technology (1977) listed only 155 forest graduates. The supply of rangers was 380 and of foresters was 1133 in the Fifth Plan (NPC, 1975:48) . The actual progress in training could not be made available. PeOple's Participation The Fifth Plan document mentioed in its concluding remarks that ”it (development) is a continuous process, no doubt. But the development process must inspire the popular confidence and sustain it all the time, since the cooperation or forebearaoe of the people are more significant than other physical inputs ad resources.” (WC, 1975:22). It also mentioned to finacially and technically support the local people's efforts to repair, reovate and extend the very small but remarkably useful and operational irrigation channels ('kulos') (WC, 1975:13). The Local Development Department had a target to construct more than 400 km of hill trails in cooperation with the local peOple (NPC, 1975:16) . Hunt the Plan failed to Specify the vitally important component of soil conservation ad reforestation through people's participation. The 1976 National Forestry Plan outlined 22 programs ad procedures for forest development. The let item was the people's cooperation ad participation program. Tie section described the direct benefits from forests would be made available to the general public (partioularly in backward areas). A public c00peration and participation program would be carried out to involve the public in 97 the use and management of local forests (DF, 1978:68-70). Thus the fudamental principle of managing forest only through the government agencies began to change. Lohani (1980:93) remarked that no sustained effort on the part of the mnasses to tackle the problem of soil erosion and landslides had become possible because of the existence of constraints in people's participation. More strikingly he remarked that people's participation in Nepal remained a concept that was nmch discussed rather than practised and that it was limited primnarily to semi-voluntary forum of rural road construction during a few days in te off season with nmch political zeal ad propaganda (Lohani, 1980:97) . A government sponsored seminar recomnended that mobilization of rural labor at the local level stould be increased. It also emphasized that the participation of the poor in decision making at the community level on muatters that affect their own well-being Slould be promoted and encouraged (HO-ARIEP, 1980:271). Fearnside et a1 (1979) proposed a nationwide conservation education program for the Mole cross-section of the people i.e. farmers, policy makers etc. Another observation based on the research by Pradhan, P. (1980:83-84) was that the root cause of failure of the government initiated rural development program was bureaucratic ad toydcwn approaches to reacln the rural population. In contrast, he gave examples of successful programs (the suspension bridges in Baglug and the hill road in Ilam) in which the local people had their voice in decision making and iumplementation. He also mentioned the National Development Service of TU which significantly contributed in mobilizing the local people to build sclool buildings, drinking water 98 schemes, pit latrines and so on. One of the five objectives of the Service was to help the villagers in the task of preserving forests. Coservation was given more attention as the Service program progressed. However, the Service was suspended following the political events in May 1979 (Pradhan,P., 1980:63 and 66) . As a part of involving the entire cross-section of the people in reforestation, the Afforestation Office freely distributed tree saplings. Every year the MF used to observe the "Forest Festival“ ad the D898 used to observe the "Coservation Week.“ Participation of the local peOple and of the non-governmental organizatios e.g. Nepal Scouts, Nepal Red Cross Society, the Youth Activities Coordination Committee, and other local clubs was an indication of people's awareness of conservation. An evaluation of such efforts has yet to be muade systematically, and yet to be organized for the effectiveness. Legislation The Nepal Forest Service (Classification, Gradation, Appointment, and Pronotion) Rules of 1976 were published on the Nepal Gazzette (July 14, 1976) . Tie Shivpuri Watershed Area Development Board (Formation) Order of 1976 was formulated in order to develop Shivpuri watershed (Nepal Gazzette, October 25, 1976) . The Forest Products Development Board (Fornmation) Order of 1976 established such Board for the management of forest products p:ojects, sale/supply depots, supply of raw materials to the forest based industries, and research on demand of timber and firewood (Chakroff, 1979:21) . The Forest Protection (Special Arrangement) (Second Anmendmennt) of 1977 added, revised and removed several sectios ad subsectios in order to make them clearer and nmore specific than before. The Third 99 Amendment of the Act in 1978 revised the case procedure (Section 10) (LBNE, 1983:172-180). The Forest (First Amendment) Act of 1977 revised the sectios pertaining to the community forests ad it legally approved local peOple to manage, deve10p ad conserve the forests. The Forest (Second Anmendment) Act of 1978 further revised the sections mainly dealing with the private forests (LBNC, 1983:146—171). By exercising the power conferred by the Forest (Second Anmedment) Act of 1978, HRS also fornmulated three Rules as folows: 1. The Lease Forest Rules, 1978: HM; might lease barren areas for forestry development. (NAFP, 1978:129-141) 2. The Panchayat Protected Forest Rules, 1978: a local village or town panchayat could protect the government forest for the benefits of the local peOple. 3. The Panchayat Forest Rules, 1978: a local panchayat couuld manage forest in order to benefit the local people. (LBBC, 1980) The 1978 Pachayat Forest Rules repealed the 1968 Panchayat Forest Rules. The First Amedments (1980) of both the PF/PPF Ruules specified the areas ad boudaries of the PF and the PPF. It alsomnade provision of free distribution of tree saplings by mas (1.81%, 1980: l-14) . Thus HM; promulgated the radically new Rules which returned the ownership of the forests to the people. Tie 1976 mountaineering Expedition Regulation also provided the carping rules which emphasized environmental consideratios. Tte 1976 Narcotic Drug (Control) Act was also related with the enviroment as well (Chakroff, 1979) . The amendment of the Tribhuvan University Act in 1979 made the National Development Service optional for students (Pradhan, P. , 1980:63) . Tie consequences of this amendment are yet to be experienced, because the Service has not yet resumed. 100 Coservation Strategy 1980-1985 Objective The four major objectives of the Sixth Plan (1980-85) were as follows: 1. Gradual elimination of absolute poverty through employment Opportunities 2. Fulfillment of minimum basic needs 3. Social restructuring 4. Coservation and development of natural resources (Source: WC, 1979:17-19) Thus for the first time in the development history of Nepal, the national development plan incorporated ”conservation ad development of nnatural resources" as oe of the mnain national goals. The Sixth Plan realized that "the perpetual progress ad prosperity of Nepal and the Nepalese depend upon conservation..." ad that "...Plan aims at maintaining proper balance between nature, population ad ecology..." (WC, 1979:19) . The agricuulture sector consisted of 25 sectoral policies and amog them the last seven dealt with forest management, resettlement, watershed management and wildlife management etc. The tourism subsector mentin "to preserve ad protect natural endowment of the country...” But the other sectors did not mention the role or importance of conservation in their sectoral development e.g. in agronomy, norticulture, pastuure, fishery, industry, power, irrigation, transportation, and social service (WC, 1979:35-53) . Thus, conservation was conceived as the subsectoral responsibility of forestry and soil conservation rather than as the integral part of development as a whole . The relatively new concept of IRD did not envisage the vital component of conservation. But in practice, soil conservation became 101 one of the mnajor components of theIRD and the DSCVM as the responsible agency to carry out the technical activities (DSCWVI, 1982:52-59) . The Five Year Plan of the panchayat sector also included a program to control soil erosion (NPC, 1979:57-72) . Priority In the Sixth Plan, the first priority was given to the agricultural sector, which was consistent with the objectives of the Plan. Within the agriculturae sector, conservation was given a greater emphasis than was done in the Fifth Plan. The emphasized conservation projects were nmcstly afforestation, ad watershed management. The other sectors, social services, industry, ad transport followed the agricultural sector in priority. In the panchayat sector of the Plan, the top priority was given to agriculture and followed by transport, social service and industry. The non-governmental sector prioritized agriculture, industry, and trasport. Conservation was a government sponsored program (NPC, 1979:30-33) and in general, it was placed in a high priority sector of the Plan. Budget The total bdget of the Sixth Plan was estimated to be Rs. 28,000 millios. Tie approximate total expenditure of conservation sector was estimated to be Rs. 764.0 million. The expenditure was to cover forest development, soil ad watersned conservation, medicinal plants and drug development, and others. It was approximately 2.7% of the total plan bdget (NPC, 1981:Table 21.4). According to the fourth function of the National Resource Coservation Commission, development projects dealing with the natural resources had to allocate a certain portion of their total bdget for 102 the sake of conservation (DCSVM, 1982:29) . This decision, when implemented, would have a strategic as well as positive impact on the conservation efforts of Nepal. Organization In 1980 the men was renamed as the DSGuM and its River Control Project was transferred back to its original Ministry of Water Resources. Thus by the start of the Sixth Plan, the DSOM began to concentrate on soil conservation and watershed management. Similarly, the name of the MF was renamed as the MFSC (DSCwM, 1982:15). By the beginnning of the Sixth Plan, two departments and one corporation were established uder the MFSC as follows: 1. Department of National Parks ad Wildlife Conservation, 2. Department of Drug Administrations, and 3. Herbal Production ad Processing Company Limited. But in 1982 Hm annouunced the merger of the three corporatios into one. The merged corporatios were the TCN, the Fuelwocd Corporation, and the Forest Product Development Board (Manadhar, 1982: 4) . In 1984 there were 6 departments ad 6 corporations (counting the three merging corporatios separately) uder the MFSC umbrella: Departments: 1. Forests, Medicinal Plants, Soil Coservation ad Watershed Management , Resettlement, Drug Administratios, and National Parks ad Wildlife Managment. . Timber Corporation of Nepal, Fuelwocd Corporation, Forest Products Development Board, Royal Drug Limited, Nepal Resettlement Conpany, and Herbal Production and Processing Company Limited Corporatios: O‘U‘lnbUJNl-‘Olmnwa The MFSC also had the Training Wing which was responsible for the inservice training of the staff. Each department had its own set of orgnnization, such as the neon had 11 projects (Table 36) and the DF had 15 projects (Table 36) . 103 Table 36. Major Coservation Projects of the Sixth Plan (1980-85) # Project Name Cost Period Major Activities Responsible Rs. Department (3) 1. Afforestation 17.50 1980-85 reforestation DF 2. Bagmati — 1974-85 reforestation Water shed gully control DSCWVI 3. Commuunity 29.74 1980-85 reforestation DF Forestry forest management Development sapling & stove distribution 4. Environmental - 1981-85 drafting enviromental DSCWVI Impact Study laws ad policies 5. Forest Survey 2.44 1982-83 survey and research DF ad Research 6. Karnali Bheri 3.46 1981-85 reforestation DF, DSGVM IRD soil conservation 7. Koshi Hills 7.50 1979-84 reforestation DF Area Development 8. Mahakali IRD — 1980- reforestation DF, DSCvM soil conservation 9. Nepal Australia 14.00 1978-83 reforestation DF Forestry 10. Nepal Remote — 1979- analysis of imageries, DSOM Sensing Center training 11. Rapti IRD 36.00 1980-86 reforestation DF, DSGuM soil conservation 12. Rasuwa Nunwakot 7.21 1976-82 reforestation DF, DSOIM IRD soil conservation 13. Ratunwamai 10.92 1979-85 reforestation DF Afforestation l4. Resin ad 36.13 1981-85 resin tapping DF Turpentine 15. Resource 30.20 1980—85 reforestation DF, DSCM Coservation soil conservation and Utilization l6. Sagarmatha IRD 1.05 1979-85 reforestation DF, DSOuM soil conservation 17. Sagarnath 13.21 1978-91 reforestation DF Forest Development 18. Tinau Watershed - 1977- reforestation USO/N, DF soil conservation 19. Watersted 73.76 1981-84 reforestation neon Management ad soil conservation Coservation extension Education 20. (details of wildlife t projects uunder the Department of National Parks ad Wildlife Coservation could not be made available) (Note: IRD = Integrated Rural Development) (Sources: Am, 1982:Appendix 2.33, DSCWM, 1982:83-96) 104 The IRD projects have both the components of soil conservation and forestry. The integrated watershed management projects (led by the DSOn'M) also had a forestry component. There were 7 national parks and 2 wildlife reserves under the jurisdiction of the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation. HM; auoumced in July 1983 that the old division units would be abolished uder a phased program ad each district would be muade a territorial office uunit (comparable to division) (Monitoring ad Evaluation Unit, CFDP, 1983:1). (In 1984 there were 75 districts in Nepal). A strog coordinating unit in the MFSC was prOpcsed in order to control and coordinate all the conservation related institutions (WC, 1979:41) . Such a unit was established under the provision of Section 15 of the 1982 Soil and Watershed Conservation Act, by the name of the National Resource Coservation Commission. The Section 16 of tie Act provided for the organization of the District Soil and Watershed Committees (IBM), 1983:206) . One of the functios of the District Committees was to form village and ward level conservation committees (DSCM, 1982:35) . (There were nine wards in each village panchayat.) The above district ad village level conservation committees come uder the jurisdiction of the DSCwM. Such committees were formed in selected project areas of the DSOM, ad are yet to be fornmed in all the 75 districts, 4022 village pannchayats, 29 town panchayats ad their (of village ad town pancl'nayats) respective wards. Technical Areas for Buphais The Sixth Plan document covered such aspects of conservation as the protection, maintenance and development of forests, soil 105 conservation, forest based industries, resettlement, herbal development, wildlife conservation, and extension. (NPC, 1979:40-42). The target for reforestation during the Sixth Plan is given in Table 37. Table 37. Reforestation Target of the Sixth Plan (1980-85) in Hectares Department of Forests DSCVM Total Conservation National Forests PPF PF Farnm Forests Plantation 12,258 41,113 14,856 3,200 1,600 72,027 Note: PPF == Panchayat Protected Forest, PF = Panchayat Forest (Source: Am, 1982:261 and DSCwnM, 1982:83-96) The overall target of all technnical areas during the Plan is given in Table 38. Table 38. Target of Conservation Activities (1980-85) # Item Unit Target 1. Reforestation ha 72,027 2. Forest Management (i) Protection ad Improvement ha 82,189 (ii) Inmproved Stove Distribution number 15,000 3. Watershed Management (i) Gully Control number 154 (ii) Terracing ha 258 4. Wildlife Management 5. Extension 6. Survey 7. Research 8. Training (i) Certificate (ragers) person 1,310 (ii) Diploma (graduuates) person 384 (iii) In-service person 2,140 (Source: A113, 1982:261, DSCMM, 1982:83-96, ad Manandhar, 1982:13-15) The item 4 of Table 38 (Wildlife Management) includes development, improvement and extension of national parks. The extension programs (item 5) would support the reforestation ad soil 106 conservation programs. Siumilarly, survey of wildlife, watershed, ad forest would continue, and research on wildlife, soil conservation, herbal development, forestry ad other areas would also continue (NPC, 1979:40-42) . The certificate level training includes both the middle-level and lower-level technicians of forestry, soil conservation and wildlife management. In both the levels, i.e. certificate and diploma, the courses on forestry, soil conservation and wildlife management were taught. The in-service training covers all the staff working uder the MFSC umbrella (Manandhar, 1982:15) . Thus, within the Sixth Plan period, the Institute of Forestry unnder TU was expanded up to tie diploma level courses and the Training Wing under the MFSC was established for the in-service training. Previosly, the graduates in forestry were trained abroad. Some of the CFDP achievements are given in Table 39. Table 39. Some of the Achievements of the CFDP (1980-83) Item (Unit) Project Target Achieved Percent Percent of Target upto upto Achieved Project upto 1983 1983 upto 1983 Target 1985 Achieved Nursery Operated (if) 408 367 350 95 88 Total Plantation (ha) 15,660 5,470 4,044 74 26 Sapling Distribution (million) 0.9 0.36 10.75 299 119 Demarcaticn (km) 4,500 2,825 1,455 52 32 Stove Distribution (:3) 144000 2,775 2L630 95 18 (Source: Monitoring and Evaluation Unitf‘cmp, 1983:44) People's Participation The people's participation was the key strategy of conservation in the Sixth Plan. Its implementation strategy, in general, was to widen the pandnayat sector through peOple's participation ad also to 107 further strengthen the public opinion ad participation in the district level projects (NPC, 1979:26) . Mobilizing people's participation was the major policy of forestry and soil conservation programs (NPC, 1979:40—41). Under the radically new principle of forestry by the peOple, HM; was committed to share approximately 45% of the total national forests with the local people. Such forests called the PF/PPF were to cover approximately 1.84 million ha in due course of time (Manadhar, 1982: 9) . Similarly, the watersted management and soil conservation projects were to be implemented in collaboration with the district ad village level conservation committees (DSGuM, 1982:34-35) . In this way, the local peOple could participate to decide, to control ad to mnanage the conservation p:ojects, through their representatives. Moreover, the general public meeting of a village panchayat we another platfornm where the local people could freely participate. (The film "Fragile Mountain“ has pictured such meetings). Anotter expectation of the participation we that the local peOple could equally Share tl'e benefits of the projects. The ICINDD working paper stated that the people and the leaders were unaware of tie ecological problems in the country (IDS, 1983: 8-9) . Such kinds of observations were not rare. However, Campbell ad Bhattaai (l983:vi) foud from their evaluation surveys 1982—83 that interest in forestry and plantation we universally high and awareness of community forestry activities had increeed substantially in panchayats exposed to the program for over a year. Such observation we equally true in the waterst project aree. The technical know-now of conservation is not the panacea of ecological disaster. 108 Tne participation of tie local people (including the entire cross- section of a community) is vital to the success of a conservation program (DSGnM, 1982:15-16). Legislation One Of the policies envisaged in the Sixth Plan we the proposal to build up some legal provisions in order to control and coordinate all tie relevant institutios or units using lad and also to keep them from contaminating the atmosphere (WC, 1979:41) . The 1982 His Majesty King Mahendra Nature Coservation Fund Act we enacted to provide funds for the conservation ad research on wildlife. Under the guuardianship of His Majesty the King, the fud we to be handled by a 15 member committee (18bit, 1983:198—201). T‘l'e 1982 Soil ad Waterst Conservation Act provided auttority to the Catchment Coservation Officer to carry out technical meeures in a protected watershed. T‘ne Act also established tie National Resource Coservation Commission, and the District Soil ad Watersted Committees. The Act also provided for land clesification and environmental esessment of the industrial, commercial, or resettlement colonies (IBIVC, 1983:202-208) . Tie 1982 National Park and Wildlife Conservation (Second Amendment) Act provided facilities to the local people to enjoy the forest products according to the Section 16A. The amendment also revised the pertinent Rules and policies (IBMZ, 1983:185-197) . According to the Finance Minister's bdget speech made on July 8, 1984, the interested families could grow forests for 50 years e leeed by EMS. Tie 1984 Private Forest Rules were fornmulated under the 1961 Forest Act. Tl'e Rules provided the forest growers with free 109 saplings, technical advice and the financial facilities (Nepal Press Digest, July 16, 1984) . T‘l'e 1982 Decentralization Act we enacted with the objective of ensuring people's participation, equitable and balanced distribution of development benefits, institutional development of the panchayats, and more effective planning and implementation of development programs at the local level on the basis of local potentials and problems (IDS, 1983:53-54). The Act also fornmulated functios/duties of the local panchayats that included conservation e one of the 11 major activities. It also organized five local level planning committees ad amog them we the Industry, Forest ad Soil Conservation Committee (IDS, 1983:53-54). Comparison of Conservation Strategies (1951 to 1985) This section of Chapter III presents the comparison of conservation strategies advocated by an; in varios plan periods. In fact, this section is a consolidation of tie preceding sectios. The format mentioned in Table 1 is oactized in this section also. an the basis of the analysis and description e presented in the previos sectios each of the seven epects of conservation strategy is chronologically compared in the following manner. Comparison of Objectives Tre period 1951-56 passed wittout any development plan e such. Tne main objective of tie proposed government program of 1952 could not be made available. he First Plan (1956-61) objective we to raise production, employment, stadard of living and general well being througrout tlre couuntry. 110 The primary objective of tie Second Plan (1962-65) we to develop tte basic infretructures, and the four longternm objectives were the expansion of agricultural and industrial production, economic Stability, employnment Opportunities, and social justice. Tte objectives of the Third Plan (1965-70) were close to tlose of the preceding plan. Trey also considered agricuulture production, institutional reform, economic infretructures , industrial development, foreignn trade, and social justice. Tne objectives of tie Fourth Plan (1970-75) were not different from ttose of the previos plans. The key ternms of tie objectives were synonynmos to tnose used in the previos plans. T'te six objectives were stated in terms of maximization of output, establisnment of economic base, expansion and diversification of international trade, economic stability, and creating conditios for the exploitation free society. In tie Fifth Plan (1975-80) , the objectives were stated differently than in the previos plans. Its ”twin objectives" were to maximize output ad paripassu increee in purchasing of the people. Basically, tte objectives were concerned with the improvement of tie living standard of tie people. T'ne Sixth Plan (1980-85) became more precise and realistic in terms of objective statements which dealt with tie elimination of poverty through employment, fulfillment of the basic needs, social restructure, and conservation of natural resources. Tre key words of tie Objectives of various plans are given in Table 40 for comparison. 111 Table 40. Key Words of tie Plan Objectives Plan Key Words (period) First Five Year Raise production, Employment, Standard of living, (1956-61) General well being, and Simultaneous advance on all fronts etc. Second Three Year Economic and social infretructures, Expansion of (1962-65) national production, Economic stability, Employment opportunities, and Social justice Third Five Year Agriculture production, Institutional reforms, (1965-70) Economic infretructures, Industrial development, Foreign trade, and Social justice etc. Fourth Five Year Maximuizing output, Economic base (viz. transport, (1970-75) communication, power etc.) , International trade, Economic stability (price control), Use of manpower, Population control, and Society free of exploitation etc. Fifth Five Year Maximization of output, Basic needs of the people, (1975-80) People's purcheing power, Involvement of the peOple, Regional development, and Ecological concept of development etc. Sixth Five Year Elimination of poverty, Employment opportuunities, (1980-85) Fulfillment of basic needs, Social restructuring, and conservarion ad development Of natural resources etc. (Source: varios plan documents) Comparison of Priorities Tne prOposed program of 1952 prioritized the infretructures ad sevices e.g. roads, airports, postal service, radio, education, and industry. Forestry we in the sixth position among the ten priority aree for develOpment e suggested by Rose. In the First Plan, forestry programs were discussed in tl'e agricultural sector. Thus it received the second priority in the Plan. Tie Second Plan gave tne fourth priority to the sector consisting of agricuulture, irrigation ad foretry. The Third Plan described agriculture e the highest priority sector but according to the allocation of tie public sector expendituure, it received only second priority. In tie Fourth Plan, the agricuultural sector received the 112 second priority. The Fifth Plan ad the Sixth Plan gave the highest priority to the agricultural sector. The infornmation given in Table 41 Snows the order of priority given to tie agriculture sector (including forestry and conservation) in tie varios plans. Table 41. Priority Given to the Agricultural Sector in the Varios Plas Plan Period Sectoral Spread Priority First 1956-61 Agriculture, Irrigation, Forestry second Second 1962-65 Agriculture, Irrigation, Forestry fourth Third 1965-70 Agriculture and Village Development (including Forestry) second Fourth 1970-75 Agriculture, Land refornm, Irrigation, Forestry & Botany second Fifth 1975-80 Agriculture, Resettlement, Irrigation, Land reform, Forestry first Sixth 1980-85 Agriculture, Irrigation, Soil conservation, Land refornm first (Source: varios plan documents) According to Stiller ad Yadav (1979:265) , the agriculture sector we given high priority in all plans but oe, and agriculture we only one unit in Us sector. Thus they gave e a reeon why the development of agriculture did not match the high priority that planners esigned it we the simple fact that agriculture never ranked as high e planners said it did. Simuilar tlought can be provoked in the case of forestry (or conservation) as well. Comparison of Budgets Tle bdget allocation for conservation in the proposed p:ogram of 1952 could not be muade available. The First Plan (1956—61) allocated Rs. 20.0 million for forestry and Rs. 12.0 million for agriculture, which were respectively 6.1% and 3.6% of the total plan bdget. However, the actual expenditure in forestry ad agriculture combined 113 we Rs. 6.9 million (i.e. 3.2% of the actual total expenditure). The actual expenditure of tie Plan we only 65.0% of the estimate. Tie allocation of bdget for forestry & botany in the Second Plan (1962-65) we Rs. 13.4 million (2.2% of the total allocation) and the actual expenditure we Rs. 14.6 million (2.5% of the actual total expenditure). The total actual expenditure we 99.5% of the estimate. Tte Third Plan (1965-70) allocated Rs. 45.0 million for forestry and Rs. 7.5 million for botany, which were respectively 2.6% and 0.4% of the total estimate. Tl'e actual total expenditure we 102.2% of tie estimate, but the figures for forestry ad botany could not be made available. In the Fourth Plan (1970—75) the allocation for forestry ad medicinal plants (previosly called botany) were respectively Rs. 61.1 million and Rs. 19.7 million (i.e. respectively 1.7% and 0.6% of the total investment). Tie actual expenditures could not be made available. Tie average allocation for forestry in the Fifth Plan (1975-80) we Rs. 196.2 million (1.9% of tie total average allocation) and the actual expenditure we Rs. 141.5 million (for 1975-79) which we 1.4% of the total expenditure for 1975-79. The total expenditure for 1975-79 we 96.7% of the estimate for the plan period of 1975-80. Tl'e Sixth Plan allocated about Rs. 764.0 million for the sector of conservation (forestry). The sector consisted of forest development, soil and watershed conservation, medicinal plants ad drug development, and otters. Tne allocation we approximately 2.7% of tie total plan estimate. The allocation and actual expenditures for forestry (including 114 botany, soil conservation and wildlife management etc.) in various plans are ounmpared in Table 42. Table 42. Forestry Buudget in Six Plans Plan Period Allocation of Budget Actual Enpenditures RS. million % Rs. million % Total Plan Forestry Total Plan Forestry First 1956-61 330. 0 20. 0(a) 3.6 214.5 6.9 (b) 3.2 Second 1962-65 600.0 13.4 2 2 596.8 14.6 2.5 Third 1965-70 1740. 0 52. 5 3 0 1779. 1 . . . . . Fourth 1970-75 3540. 0 80.8 2 4 . . . . . . . . Fifth 1975-80 10298 . 5 196 . 2 1. 9 9939. 2 (C) 141. 5 (d) 1. Sixth 1980—85 28000 . 0 764 . 0 2 7 Total 1956-85 44508. 5 1126.9 2 5 Note: a - tie figure includes only for the forestry sector b - tie figure includes for agriculture and forestry c and d - the figures include only for 1975-79 (Source: varios plan documents) Based on Table 42, the forestry bdget is graphically illustrated in Figures 17 and 18. Figure 17 illustrates the allocation of bdget for forestry in varios plans ad Figuure 18 illustrates the percentage of forestry allocation in the total plan estimate. 800 Forestry 600 bdget in Rs. 400 million 200 0 Plans I II III IV V VI Figure 17. Forestry Budget in Six Plans (Based on Table 42) Figure 17 indicates a sharp rise in the forestry bdget since the Fifth Plan. But Figure 18 slows that the percentage of the forestry bdget in the total allocation of a plan had a declining trend. This calculation does not consider the inflation rate which also may have a 115 Significant impact on the real value of Rupees (Rs.) . 4 % X of forestry \ x bdget in ‘ a? as?“ total 2 x allocation c_ Plans I II III IV V VI Figure 18. Percentage of Forestry Budget in Six Plans Estimnated Budget (Based on Table 42) Anotner observation made in the bdgetary epect of strategy is that conservation we considered solely a governmental sector ad hence neitler tlre panchayat nor the private sector had any direct allocation for forestry so far. Comparison of Organizatios During 1951-56 there we a separate muinistry for forestry which had two departments dealing with forests ad botany respectively. Tte forest territory we divided into 2 circles, 9 divisions, 36 ranges, and 180 beats. T'he forestry sctool (or institute) we establisned in 1947 but remained closed for 1951-56 period. The territorial organization we created into 7 circles ad 22 divisios, which underwent dnanges in 1958 but revived again in 1959. The TC}! we establisl'ed in 1959, and the Institute of Forestry we reOpened in 1956. A new ministry we formed to deal with agriculture and forestry in 1961. The same year tne Forest Resources Survey we established ad tte Department of Botany we renamed as tl'e Department of Medicinoul Plants. The Office of the Chief Forest Officer (DF) we 116 also expanded in 1961. In 1965 a separate MF we created. The Nepal Resettlement Company we establisned in 1964. Tie territorial organization we expanded into 14 circles ad 75 divisions but after a few months again reverted into tre original 7 circles and 22 divisions in 1967. The Office of the Bagmati Zone Afforestation Scheme we established in 1967. Tne Major Forestry Offices were created in 1969. The wildlife, administration ad hunting sectios were added to the CCF Office. Tte Forest Products Sales and Distribution Corporation we fornmed in 1968 and dissolved in 1969. The Resettlement Department we establisned in the early 19708. The Institute of Forestry we transferred to TU. The Office of the National Parks and Wildlife Conservation we fornmed in 1973. Two more forest divisios were added by 1974. Commissions were fornmed to reguulate resettlement in the Terai in 1973 and in 1975. In 1974 tne Dswr: we establisted uder the ME‘. The Nepal Resettlement Company ad the Resettlment Department were trasferred to tie W. Tl'e armed forest guards were recruited. The Resettlement Board for Jhapa ad Biratnagar, tte Forest Products DevelOpment Board, ad the Shivpuri Watersted Area Development Board were formed in 1976. The CCF Office we renamed e tie DF. The Nepal Forestry service we administratically organized. Tie DSVCwe renamede the DSCquin 1980.The MFwas also renamed as the MFSC. In tne early 19808 2 departments and 1 corporation were establisned uder the MFSC e follows: 1. Department of National Parks and Wildlife Coservation 2. Department of Drug Administratios 3. Herbal Production ad Processing Company Limited 117 HMG announced tre merger of three forestry corporations into one, they were tl'e T'CN, tie Fuelwocd Corporation, the Forest Products Development Board. The district forest offices were created by gradual elimination of to forest divisios. The National Resource Coservation Commission and the local waterst committees were formed. A chroology of conservation related organizations since 1951 is compiled in Table 43. Table 43. Chronology of Coservation Organization Since 1951 1951:February 18, 1951 - A new era began in Nepal with the end of the Rana family rule. Tie MF we formed. The forestry institute remained closed. 2 circles, 9 divisios, 36 ranges ad 180 beats were created. 1952:T1'e Ministry of Forests and Revenue we created. 1955:T'te post of Chief Forest Officer we created to lead the DF. 1956:Expansion of territorial organization into 7 circles ad 22 divisios. The forestry institute reopened. 1958:Tre Chief Forest Officer we merged into the MF and the five directors began to administer the forestry organization. 1959:The original 7 circles ad 22 divisios were revived and the CCF we created to lead the Department of Forests. The TC‘N we established. l960:T1'e Ministry of Forests ad Agricuulture we formed. 1961:The OCF Office we expanded into five major sectios viz. forest development, forest utilization, forest research, wildlife management, and plantation. Tne Forest Resources Survey Office we establisl'ed. The Department of Botany we renamed e the Department of Medicinal Plants 1964:Tne Nepal Resettlement Company we formed. 1965:The MF we separately created. 1967:The forest territory under tte CCF Office we expanded into 14 circles and 75 districts. After a few months, the original 7 circles ad 22 divisios were revived. The Office of tie Bagmati Zone Afforestation Scheme we fornmed. 1968:Tte Forest Products Sales ad Distribution Corporation we fornmed. 1969:The above Corporation we dissolved. The Major Forest Offices were created. 1971:T1'e Resettlement Department was establisted in the early 19708. Tte Nepal Forestry Institute we renamed e the Institute of Forestry ad transferred to TU. 1972:Tte Sarlahi District Resettlement Commission we formed. 118 Table 43. (Continued) l973:The National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Office we formed. The Surkhet Forest Division we created. 1974:The Karnali Forest Division we created. The USMC we established. 1975:A forestry investigation commission we formed. 1976:The Jhapa Biratnagar Resettlement Board we formed. The CCF Office we renamed e the DF. The Nepal Forest Service we administratically organized. The Forest Products Development Board we formed. The Shivpuri Watershed Area Development Board we formed. 1980:The DSVC we renamed e the DSOWI. 1981:The Department of National Parks ad Wildlife Conservation, the Department of Drug Administratios, and the Herbal Production ad Processing Company Limited were established in the early 19808. l982:The MF we renamed e the MFSC. The T'CN, the Fuelwocd Corporation and the Forest Products Development Board were merged into one body. The National Resource Coservation Commission and the district and village level conservation committees in selected watersheds were formed. 1983:The district forest offices were created by gradual elimination of the forest divisios. Comparison of Technical Aree for Empheis As mentioned by Robbe (1954), the technical activities during 1951-53 were marking and sale of standing trees, and preparatios of timber marking lists. Due to political disorders, all the forestry activities e.g. working plans and the logginng Operation were upset. Robbe (1954) suggested five major aree: soil conservation, reforestation, forest management, forest utilization ad study of other countries. Durinng the First Plan (1956-61) , reforestation, forest management and training personnel were initiated. Comparably, the Second Plan (1962-65) achieved more mysical targets than did the First Plan. The plantation aree, forest management activities and the number of trainned technicians increeed. The Third Plan (1965-70) expanded the plantation works, but the rest of the activities remained almost 119 unchanged. The watershed management we also initiated. The area unnder new plantation we expanded in the Fourth Plan (1970-75) . The watershed management works were also initiated in two spots. The actual progress of the Plan could not be made available. There were nine forestry projects during the Fourth Plan. The Fifth Plan (1975-80) launnched 14 soil conservation projects. The area under new plantation inncreeed in comparison with the area planted in the previos plan. But the actual progress we not encouraginng. The Sixth Plan (1980-85) had 20 conservation related oojects, most of them were continuation of tlose started during the Fifth Plan. Reforestation we considered e the major technical area for emphasis towards conservation. The data in Table 44 gives the figures for the reforested aree during each plan. Table 44. Reforestation Target and Progress (1956-1980) in Hectacers Plan First Second Third Fourth Fifth Total period 1956-61 1962-65 1965-70 1970-75 1975-80 1962-80 Target — 4, 049 10, 121 8, 000 20,000 42,170 Progress 61. S 2, 454 4, 150 7,300 9,864 23,768 % Progress — 61 41 91 49 60. 5 (Based on Tables 22, 26, 28, 31 and 35) During 1954-80 the total deforestation we approximately 29,000 sq km. During 1975-80 alone it we 7,233 sq km (Table 12) . Thus the rate of reforestation in the let three decades we insignificant in comparison with that of deforestation of the same period. The soil conservation projects in varios parts of the country had stown good results, but their significant impact on the total enviroment of the comtry he yet to come. As stown in Table 39, the CFDP showed a remarkable progress. Technically, the large scale 120 plantation and soil conservation meeures through peOple's participation have to be empneized for the decades to come. Comparison of PeOple's Participation Strategies In 1951 the forced labor "Jhara” we abolished. People's indigenous efforts like the Shingo naua system of the Sherpas were effective in keepinng the local forests conserved. During the First Plan (1956-61) , the local people were not involved in planning. There were government efforts to motivate the local people in reforestation. But the policy of nationalizinng the forests adversely affected the participatory attitudes of the people in forestry. In the Second Plan (1962-65) , the panchayat sector we created in order to close the government-people gap in development works. But the level of participation we expected only at the implementation stage. The projects freely designed and implemented by the panchayats were tlose which need not have any government support in terms of finance, techniel know-hon ad material. The Third Plan (1965-70) expanded the panchayat sector with the emphasis on "the mobilization of labor". The panchayats were involved mostly at the implementation level of the government projects. The "Go to Village" campaign brought peOple's participation in plantation programs. Planninng from the below we also theoretically accepted. However, the final decision on the programs formulated from below remained with the policy makers. Moreover, forestry or conservation we not among the priority list of the panchayat sector. During the Fourth Plan (1970-75) also people's participation did not materialize at the varios levels of a program. On the contrary, 121 illegal encroachment to the forests increeed. Several troughts were published in order to enlarge the participation base of the development projects. Specifically, the suggestions inclnded to expand people's participation to the levels of decision making and benefit sharinng. A chroological review of people's participation during varios plans is listed in Table 45. Table 45. Chronology of People's Participation Strategy (1951-84) 1951-56: The ”Jhara" we abolished. The ”Shingo naua" ad similar indigenous system of local conservation systems were in practice. 1956-61: The ”Shingo naua" etc. gradually eroded following the policy of forest management through government bodies. 1962-65: The panchayat sector we created in the national development plan. Pe0p1e's participation in forestry we not encouraging. 1965-70: People's participation we mostly sought at the implementation level. The "Go to Village“ national campaignn empneized people's participation in afforestation. 1970-75: PeOple's participation in conservation could not practically materialized. Illegal encroachment to the gwernment forests increeed. Ttoughts on the strategy of people's participation in development were provoked. 1975—80: HM; principally agreed to conserve forestry by the people. Awareness in conservation among the social organizatios and the general peeple increeed. The participation base of some conservation projects we expanded to the levels of decision making and benefit sharing along with implementation. 1980-84: ENG practically envisaged peOple's participation at all levels of develOpment by promulgating appropriate legislatios. The conservation projects fundamentally envisaged people's participation e the main strategy. The planners of the Fifth Plan (1975-80) realized that people's participation we no less important than any other pnysical resources. Theoretically, many practical tloughts were advanced in order to promote people‘s participation in development. People's participation we seriously considered important in all conservation related works. 122 The remarkable initiatios during this period were increeing involvements of nongovernmental organi zatios, students and others. The community forestry and the watershed management programs of the Sixth Plan (1980—85) were prinncipally based on the active participation of the local people at the levels of decision making, implementation ad benefit sharing. The evaluation surveys stowed that people actively participated in conservation programs. In comparison with the previos plans, the Sixth Plan practically involved people in conservation right fronn decision making to benefit sharing. The Acts pertinent to peOple's participation were also promulgated. Comparison of Legislation Durinng the pre-plan (1951-56) period there we not any scientific forest legislation in the mmtry. The First Plan (1956-61) initiated three important Acts viz. the 1957 Private Forest Nationalization Act, the 1958 Wildlife (Protection) Act, and the 1961 Forest Act. These Acts inncreeed government auttority and responsibility over the forests covering almost half the land area of the country. Moreover, these Acts repealed the Rana timne rules and circulars bat also adversely affected the attitudes of the people towards forests. During the Second Plan (1962-65) , amendements of the 1961 Forest Act, and the 1958 Wildlife (Protection) Act, further strengthened the forestry legislation. During the Third Plan (1965-70) the 1967 Forest Protection (Special Arrangement) Act, the 1970 Hunting Rules, and the 1970 Forest Products (Sales ad Distribution) Rules were created. The amendments of the forestry Acts were also promulgated in order to make them more 123 precise and effective. The important Acts and the Rules promulgated during the Fonrth Plan (1970-75) were the 1971 'Jlrora" Lands Act, the 1973 National Parks and Wildlife Coservation Act, the 1974 National Parks ad Wildlife Coservation Rules, ad the 1975 Royal Nagarjnmg Forest (Entry and Sale of Forest Products) Rules. The amendments of the Acts were also promulgated. During the Fifth Plan (1975-80) the following Orders and the Rules were formulated: 1. The Nepal Forest Service (Clesification, Gradation, Appointment, and Promotion) Rules, 1976 2. The Shivpuri Watershed Area Development Board (Formation) Order , 1976 3. The Forest Products Development Board (Formation) Order, 1976 4. The Leee Forest Rules, 1978 5. The Panchayat Forest Rules, 1978 6. The Panchayat Protected Forest Rules, 1978 In 1980 the amendments of the Rules pertaining to the PF/PPF were promulgated. These Rules provided that the panchayats manage the local forests for the benefits of the local people. The Sixth Plan (1980-85) enacted the 1982 Soil and Watershed Coservation Act which provided technical inputs ad the arrangement of conservation committees at the local level. The 1982 His Majesty King Mahendra Nature Coservation Fund Act and the 1982 National Parks ad Wildlife Coservation (Second Amendment) Act were also enacted. The 1984 Private Forest Rules were formulated. Other related Acts were also enacted and amended during 1956- 1982, such e the Acts pertaining to the lad administration and 124 reform, the 1976 mountaineering Expedition Regulation, and the 1982 Decentralization Act. Based on the above review and the discussions made under the sumeadings of Legislation, two ere of legislation can be visualized. The first era (1956-76) had the policy of protection through laws and had the legislation which empowered the government agencies to protect the forests. The 1957 Private Forest Nationalization Act, the 1958 Wildlife (Protection) Act, the 1961 Forest Act, the 1967 Forest Protection (Special Arrangement) Act, the 1973 National Parks ad Wildlife Conservation Act, and the Rules and the Orders pertaining to these Acts were aimed to protect the forests throngh strict legislation which also inclnded armed forest guards. The second era (1977-1984) emerged to protect the forests through peOple's participation. The remarkable points of this era were the Rules pertaining to the PF/PPF ad the private forests, leee forests, free sapling distribution, the Acts pertaining to the formation of the local conservation oxmmittees. The remarkable fact we that the 1982 National Parks and Wildlife Coservation (Second Amendment) Act provided facilities for the local peOple to enjoy the forest products from the parks. QIAP'IERIV SUM‘GARY, melons, AND IMPLICATIONS Procedure Summarized The purpose of the study we to describe ad analyze conservation strategies of Nepal advocated by HM; during the period 1951-1985. The strategies were identified e objectives, priority, budget, organization, technical aree for empneis, people's participation, and legislation. Two research qaestios that were advanced for this study were e follows: 1. What were the conservation strategies recommended in the individual national development plans of Nepal during 1951-1985 ? 2. What changes in conservation strategies occurred in the individual national develOpment plans during 1951-1985 ? In an attempt to aswer the above questios, Chapter III presented a description, analysis, and comparison of conservation strategies on the basis of the format shown in Table l. The primary sonrces of information were the plan documents ad the other government or government autlorized pnblicatios. Similarly, information from secondary sources were also used by crediting both the government e well e the respective autnor(s) . 126 Findings Summarized Objectives Durinng the 19503 ad the 19605 the objectives of the national development plas were focused on infretructures, raising production, employment Opportunities, economic stability, foreignn trade, social justice, etc. Durinng the 19703 the objectives innclined towards the appreciation of conservation along with the other developmental needs. By the turn of the decade 19805 one of the five national objectives we for conservation. Priority Forestry (or conservation) we placed within the Agricultural Sector which received second priority in the First, Third and the Fourth Plans, the fourth priority in the Second Plan ad the first priority in the Fifth and the Sixth Plans. However, the sectoral priority did not reflect the actual priority given for the conservation sub-sector. Coservation we only one of several sub-sectors within the wide sector of Agriculture, e.g. agronomy, norticulture, livestock, irrigation, land—reform, resettlement and others. Budget Except for the First Plan which allocated 3.6% of the total plan bdget to forestry (but we not all spent), the other plans allocated between 2 to 3% of the total plan bdget to forestry. The amounnt of forestry budget increeed by nearly 60 timnes from the Second Plan to the Sixth Plan. The total plan bdget also increeed by nearly 50 times durinng the same period. The inflation rate we not considered in this calculation. The actual expenditures could not be made available. 127 Organization The MFSC we a separate organization for most of the period durinng the 19506. It we attached to agriculture for the period 1960-1965. Sinoe 1965 it remained a separate HM; body. During the 19508 and the 19603 it had two departments and a corporation. It we rapidly expanded during the 19705 and the 19803. In 1984 it consisted of six departments ad four corporations (counting one for the three forestry corporatios that were merged in 1983) . Technical Aree for Enmpheis Reforestation The activity we initiated e early as the late 19503 ad the area under new plantation gradually increeed. However, only about 60.5% of the total target for the period 1962-1980 we achieved. By 1980 the total accumulated plantation area we about 23,768 hectares witnout considerinng their mortality factor. From 1980 to 1983 the CFDP alone added about 4000 hectare of new plantation. The total target for the period 1980-85 we around 72,027 hectares. Forest management During the period 1956-70 the main activities were focussed on demarcation, fireline, path, and buildinngs. The activity of demarcation continued for the period 1970 to 1984. The working plas for the divisios were initiated during the period 1965-75. Such plans for the PF/PPF were also initiated by CFDP durinng 1980—84. Watershed management Soil conservation works in a few places were initiated during the period 1965-75. Durinng 1975-80 there were 14 soil conservation (or 128 watershed) projects launched in different parts of the country. The number of such projects we 11 for the period 1980-85. The major activities of such p'ojects were plantation, gulley control, and terracing, etc. Wildlife management The sancturies and refuges were established durinng 1956-65. The national parks and the reserves were established and managed during 1965-70. Management of the parks and the reserves continued in the 19708 and the 19803. In 1984 there were seven national parks and two wildlife reserves; in addition, fonr hunting reserves were proposed. Extesion service The Forest Festival we started in the First Plan (1956-61) . Durinng 1965-75 some sporadic efforts were initiated in order to focus people's attention on tree planting. Extesion education in wildlife management ad soil conservation we initiated during the 19708. Sinoe 1980 extesion we included e the complementary part of reforestation and other conservation activities. even An extensive survey of the natural resources we started in the 19608. Aerial potograpny in forest survey we introduced in 1962-65. Interpretation of satellite imageries began in the late 19708. Detailed surveys for the specific pnrposes were proposed ad implemented sinoe 1980. Research Initiation we taken in the late 19508 and also in the late 19608. Durinng the 19708 ad the 19808 research activities were included in the conservation projects. 129 Trainigg Traininng of the middle- and lower-level forestry technicias we restarted in 1956. Until 1980 the higher-level forestry technicians were trainned abroad. Durirng the period 1980-85 the training institution we expanded in terms of number and up to the graduate level. In-service training we also institutionalized in the 19808. People's Participation The local indigineons system of conservation by the people gradually disappeared. in the late 19508. The panchayat sector we created in the national deve10pment plas in the early 19608. People's participation we songht mainly at the innplementation level of develOpment works. The nmodern tl'oughts of people's participation were develOped in the early 19708. The government prinncipally agreed to conserve forests through peOple's participation. By the turn of the 19808 HIVG practically envisaged peOple's participation at varios levels of conservation programs. Legislation Durinng the period 1957-1976 HMS enacted and ameded six Acts, five Rules, ad two Orders that were directly related to the conservation of the natural resources. That legislation we intended to conserve the natural resources through strict laws and regulatios. Since 1977 to 1984 PM; radically changed policy by creating new legislation and by amending the old ones. The objectives of these changes were to conserve the natural resources through mutual cooperation between the local people ad the government officials. Since 1977 there had been two Acts and fonr Rules pertaining to conservation of the natural resonrces. 130 Conclusios l. The national deve10pment plan incorporated conservation in the main objectives sinoe 1980. 2. The Agricultural Sector which also included conservation received first priority since 1975. 3. A priority specifically for conservation we not clear in the plans. 4. The amounnt of budget allocation for the conservation programs increeed over the years in the varios plans. 5. The proportion of the conservation budget to the total plan budget remained constant between 2 to 3%. 6. Frequent changes of major organizational structures were conspicnons througtout the period 1951 to 1984. 7. During the 19708 and the 19803 organizational expansion took place more rapidly than during the preceeding decades. 8. The technical mneeures taken before 1980 were less effective in keepinng pace with the population explosion and in competing with other land-nse developments e.g. resettlement, agriculture, roads, etc. 9. Preventive tednnical meeures e.g. reforestation, soil conservation and wildlife management began to be empneized durinng the 19708. 10. Sporadic efforts in extesion were initiated in the 19508 and the 19608, but were institutionalized only since the late 19708. 11. The technical mneeures, altnough ineffective in bringing out signnificant impact, included adoption of contemporary technologies such as aerial potography in the early 19603 and satellite imagery 131 interpretation in the 19708. 12. Througnout the period, since 1951 to 1984, research we given the leet attention among the other technnical efforts. 13. Before 1980 the in-country training institution did not supply the sufficient number of middle- and lower-level technicians. The expansion of traininng facilities including graduate level stndy of conservation in the early 19808 may contribute in future. 14. The training of higher-level (graduate and post-graduate) technicias we made available abroad. 15. The in-service training we institutionalized in the early 19808. 16. The indigenons conservation efforts of the local people, e.g. the Shingo naua, disappeared in the 19503. 17. Durinng the 19608 people's participation we sought only at the inmplementation level of conservation projects. 18. Durinng the 19708 people's participation at all levels e.g. decision-making, and benefit-sharing we felt nneeded in conservation. 19. People's participation at all levels we institutionally recognized in the 19808. 20. Until 1976 the legislation empowered the government agencies to have an autloritative control over the natural resources and the greatly increeed their responsibility. 21. sinoe 1977 a radical change in government policy resulted in the enactment and amendment of legislation by autlorizing the local institutios to have more control over the conservation programs. 22. In the early 19808 the Act pertaining to land-use we enacted for the first timne. 132 23. Coservation we handled e an individual development program in all the national develOpment programs. Eplications Several implications can be drawn based on the conclusios of this study. The conclusios were drawn up from a study of development plan cbcuments and the reports of conservation programs within such plas. Many other HM; development programs, non-governmental activities, and the bi- and multi-lateral Hm projects with the international agencies have probably formulated specific strategies that were also relevant to the conservation of the natural resources. Hence, the conclusios do not nnecessarily reflect the strategies advocated by EMS in other developmental fields, and tl'ose advocated by [ms in collaboration with the other international agencies which were involved in conservation of Nepal. Within these linmitatios of this study, the following inmplicatios are drawn up: 1. If conservation of natural resources is to significantly contribute towards the sustainned development of the country, conservation strategies stould be envisaged in all developmental programs, rather than promoting conservation e an individual program. Findings of this stndy indicated that the individual efforts in conservation were technnically appropriate ad timnely but ineffective in restoring the deteriorating environment e there we a competetion for other lad—use developments e.g. resettlement and agriculture. 2. If conservation is a continuous process, especially in a mountainnous country like Nepal, the DSOM sl'ould be expanded by establishing permanent offices at the village, district and regional levels. The study findings stowed that the DSOM had only the project 133 offices at the village or district levels and they were temporarily established for the periods of the projects. 3. If one of the strategies of the present conservation efforts is to develOp scientific land-nse througtout the country, the legislation pertaining to land—reform snould contain land-use policy e well. The study findings snowed that the conservation oriented legislation did not cover all the agricultural and resettled lands in the country. 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Datta, N.R. 'Coordinaion of Forestry and Mineral Development in Forest Areas” Jonrnal of Soil and Nate; Coservation in India. Volume 15 No 3 and 4, July-December 1967: 30-34. D'Silva, Emmanuel. "Nepal Passed by No Longer." Report (News and Views from World Bang) March-April 1982: 6. Fleming, Robert L., Jr. “Avian Zoogeography of Nepal.“ The Himalayan Review. Volume 4 No. 1971: 28-33. ”Forest Development." Nepal Press Digest. Volume 28 No. 29, July 16, 1984: 240. “Forestry on Human Level.” Unasylva. Volme 35 No. 140, Rome: FAO, 1983: 18-19. Gaping, On and Jinchan, Li. “Environmental Management in China." Unasylva. Volume 33 No. 134, 1981: 6-18. Gurung, Harka. “Landscape Pattern of Nepan.’ TheHinmalayan Review. Volume 4 No. 1971: 1-10. Hoskins, Marilyn. ”Mobilizing Rural Communinitie." nasylva Volume 35 No. 142, 1983: 12-13. Iijima, Shiigeru. “Ecology, Economy, and Social System in the Nepal Himalayas." The Develcging Economics. Volume 2 No, 1, March 1964: 93-94. 152 Madan, U.S. "Role of Farnm Forestry in Soil and Water Conservation." Journal of Soil and Water Coservation in India. Volume 15 No. l and 2, January-June, 1967: 30—32. Maddruddin, S.M. "Social ad Economic Aspects of Soil Coservation in the Machlmmd Basin." Jonrnal of Soil and Water Conservation in India. Volume 15 No. l and 2, January-June 1967: 85-90. Manadhar, P.K.: Pelinck, E.; ad Geonlea, R.H. “Extension and Comnunication in Nepal: Reforestation Program Uses Media Support.“ Development Communication Report. No. 40, December 1982: 1-2, 14. Misra, D.K.: Prasad, Ram; and Bhan, Suraj. “Impact of Soil Coservation Practices on Crap Production in India” Journal of Soil and Water Coservation in India. Volume 17 No. 1 and 2, January-June 1969: 52-57. Murty, V.V.N. "Task System of Payment for Soil Coservation Works” Jonrnal of Soil ad Water Conservation in India. Volume 16 3 and 4, Jay-December 1968: 27-28. No. Naya Va, Janak L. “Climates of Nepal“ The Himalayan Review. Volume 7 No. 7, 1975: 14-20. Nepal Gazzette. Volume 18 No. 11, June 24, 1968. . Volume 18 No. 43, Fertxuary 10, 1969. . Volume 19 NO. 19, August 18, 1969. . Volume 21 No. 44, February 28, 1972. Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume 24 No. 25 NO. 25 No. 26 NO. 26 NO. 26 NO. 26 NO. 38 (Extranrdinary) January 6, 1975. 28 (Extraordinary) September 9, 1975. 59A (Extraordinary) March 24, 1976. 2, April 26, 1976. 9A (Extraordinary) July 14, 1976. 222 (Extraordinary) October 11, 1976. 27, October 25, 1976. Nepal Jwrmlpf Forestry (Nail Foresters' Conference Special Issue). Volume 5 No. 1, January-June 1981. Nepal Press Digst. July 16, 1984. Ovington, J.D. ”Continuing Education in Forestry for a World Environment of Rapid Teonnological, Economic ad Social Change.“ 153 Australian Forestry. Volume 38, 1975: 49-58. (cited by Ovington and Slatyer, 1975: 230-242) . Pandey, S.N. "Need of Extension Training in Soil Coservation.” Jonrnal of Soil ad Water Coservation in India. Volume 16 No. 3 and 4, JuIy-December 1968: 56-59. Patil, R.G. and Sohoni, D.K. “Long Term Economic Benefits of Soil Coservation Programme.“ Jonrnaigf Soil and Water Coseravtion in India. Volume 17 No. 1 and 2, January-June, 1969: 22—26. Ran, v.3. and Chandrmekharem, C. ”The State of Forestry in Asia and the Pacific.“ Unasylva. Volume 35 No. 140, 1983: 11-21. Shatter , M.G. “Development of WatersheE of River Valley Projects throngh Soil Coseravtion Measures" Jonrnal of Soil and Water Coservation in India. VolumelS No.1&2, January-June 1967:33-36. Shrestha, S.H. “A Review of Land Use Pattern in Nepal.“ The Himalayan Review. Volume 7 No. 7, 1975: 31-42. Singh, R.V. ”Forest Coservation is Newssary for the Development of Agriculture in Hills.“ Indian Foresters. Volume 100 No. 6, June 1976: 367-370. Spears, John. “Preserving Watershed Environments.“ nasylva. Volume 34 No. 137, 1982: 10-14. Sterling, Claire. “Nepal.“ The Atlantic. Volume 238 No. 4, October 1976: 14-25. Stevens, William K. "Out of Lad, Nepal Turns to Rivers." The New York Times. Wednnesday, December 7, 1983. Swan, Lawrence W. ”The Ecology of the High Himalayas. “Scientific American. Volume 205 No. 4, October 1968: 68-78. Tamhane, R.V. “Watershed Protection and Flood Prevention in the River Valley Projects." Journal of Soil ad Water Cogervation in India. Volume 15 No. 1 and 2, January-June 1967: 20-27. UNEP. “A Global Coservation Strategy Planned.” Uniterra. Volume 3 No. 1, January 1978: 1. . “Meeting Discusses World Coservation Strategy.” Uniterra. Volume 3 No. 9, October 1978: 1-3. Wolfstane, David. ”Awakening Nepal : Special Survey of the Himalayan Kingdom Where India ad Chinna Meet.“ Far Eastern Economic Review. (Nepal Supplinment) Volume 28 No. 22, June 2, 1960: 1101-1127. Woron, L. and Nao, Tran Van. 'Orienting Forestry towards the Needs of People.“ Unasylva. Volume 34 No. 136, 1982: 8-10. 154 Miscellaneons Assadollah, Zamanipour. ”A Stndy of Reoommendatios for Agrigultural Education ad Agricultural Extesion in Iran 1950-1975.“ Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1981. Axin, George H. and Axin, Nancy H. “Materials Flow ad Ennergy Transformation on Small Farms of Nepal: A New Approach to Comparative Annalysis of Rural Family Ecosystem." Paper contributed for the Annual Meeting of the Rural Sociological Society, Burlington, Vermont, August 24P26, 1979. (Revised Draft July 2, 1979). Social Igct, Economic Change, and Development-With Illustratios from Negl. Farming Systems Research Group, Michigan State University, May 1981. (Working Paper No. 13) . Banskota, Mahesh. ”The Nepalese Hill Agro-Eocsystem: A Simulation Analysis of Alternative Policies for Food Production ad Environmental Change." Ph.D. disseration, Cornnell University, 1979. (cited by Banskota, Mahesh, 1980). Bartholomew, John. The Observer's World Atlas. London: Fredrick Warne, 1981. Calkins, Peter H. ”Silent Slopes: Environmental Economics for the Nepalese Hills." Paper presented at the 8th Wisconsin Conference on Sonth Asia in Madison, Wisconsin, November 2-3, 1979. Chakroff, Marilyn S. Draft Environmental Report of Ngal. Springfield, Verginia: National Technical Information Service, United States Departnment of Commerce, PB 82-131012, 1979. (Microfiche). 'Deshko Mato" A Nepali documentary film produced by Royal Nepal Film Corporation for the Departnment of Soil ad Water Conservation, Kathmandu, 1979. Gogah, Tejeswar Babu. "Tribhuvan Rajmarga: Social Impact Analysis." Term paper prepared for the Coarse Applied Anthropology - 870, Michigan State University, Spring 1982. Gogah, Tejeswar Babs. “Village Panchayat: Rural Development Aquisition System in NE?!" Ternm paper prepared for the Conrse Non-formal Educat on or Rural Development ED 870, Michigan State University, Fall 1981. Gurung, Sndhir vikram. ”The Strategies for Teaching Adults: A Manual for the Rural Development Workers of Nepal.“ Term paper prepared for the Conrse Strategies of Teaching Adults-EAL: 882, Michigan State University, Spring 1983. Hendel, ChristOpher. "The Impact of Tonrisnm ad Morntaineering Expeditios on the Sherpa Community of Khumbu, Nepal." Paper 155 presented to the 12th Annual Conference on Sonth Asia, Madison, Wisconsin, November 4-6, 1983. Hoffpauir, Robert."The Wating of Paradise: An Ecological View of Sutsistence in Nepal Himalaya." Paper presented at the Conference on Nepal, Claremont, California, 1974. (cited by Poffenberger, Mark, 1980: 47). Joshi, M.D. Environmental Damage: Prevention is Cheger. Kathmandu: Watershed Management and Coservation Education Project, 1981. (Leaflet). Karan, Pradyumna P.: Pauer, Gyula; and Iijima, Shiggeru. Map - The Kingdom of Nepal. Tokyo: Institute for Stndy of Laguages ad Cultures of Asia and Africa, 1983. (Monumenta Serindica No. 11) . 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"Strategy Plan of Coservation Education." Kathmadu: WVCEP, 1983. (Ml-Willi” . "The Fragile Mountain." Documentary film produced by Sadra Nichols Productions, 1982. "Tongh Near the Tap" Documentary film, 1983. Upreti, Biswa N. Coservation of Wildlife Reouress in Nepal. Nepal: National Parks ad Wildlife Coservation Office. (Paper presented at the First International Pheasant Symposium, Kathmandu, November 22-23, 1979).