some FACTORS THAT AFFECT CHANGE IN
WEIGHT or FRESH cmueb POULTRY '

 

Thesis fat the. 099m ofiléhg 599-73:-  .
mquN ,;szTE UNIVERSITY} j 7
'Daniel Eugene-Bigb» V. V. I
11962 .

 

 

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

SOME FACTORS THAT AFFECT CHANGE IN
WEIGHT OF FRESH CHILLED POULTRY

presented by

DANIEL EUGENE BIGBEE

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph . D . POULTRY SCIENCE

degree in

0 Z” EWW

Major professor

Date May 7. 1962

0-169

 

 

LIBRARY

Michigan State
University

 

ABSTRACT

SOME FACTORS THAT AFFECT CHANGE IN WEIGHT
' OF FRESH CHILLED POULTRY

by Daniel Eugene Bigbee

This study was conducted to determine some of the
factors that affect changes in weight of processed poultry,
and to determine whether those factors could be controlled
to minimize changes in carcass weights. Fryers, 8 to 10
weeks of age were slaughtered, eviscerated (roaster style),
the giblets and neck sealed in plastic bags and replaced in
the body cavity. The carcasses were then subjected to various
chilling periods and ice-pack holding conditions.‘ The changes
in carcass weight and temperature were obtained by weighing
the carcasses at various time intervals and by placing
thermocouples in the carcasses and recording their temperature
with a recording potentiometer. The moisture content of
various carcass tissues, as affected by different chilling
and holding conditions, was determined, and the water permea-
bility was determined for chicken broiler skin held in slush
ice.

The increase and decrease in weights during chilling
and storage in ice-pack were directly proportional to the
length of the chill period. A direct relationship was found
between the weight of the carcass and the amount of change
in carcass weight during chilling and storage in ice-pack.

Carcass weight changes were influenced in a positive direction

Daniel Eugene Bigbee

by holding temperatures of 40° F. or above. However, when
the chill time was reduced to 30 minutes similar results were
obtained at 35° F. Carcass temperature apparently influenced
the amount of weight decrease during the first 3% hours of
storage bu ice-pack. An additional factor that appeared to
affect weight changes was’the amount of ice used in relation
to the size of the carcasses, when the fryers were packed in
ice. These results provided a basis for the theory that
weight changes of processed poultry were due to and controlled
by a relatiOnship between length of the chill period,carcass
weight, amount of ice used for ice-pack, carcass temperature
and holding temperature.

Although the data were not conclusive, it appears that
the moisture content of the skin was changed in a positive
direction during storage in ice-pack, regardless of the length
of the chill period. This was supported by the fact that one
hour was required for water to pass through the skin, when
the subcutaneous fat was removed. When the skin was left
intact, 4 to 6 hours of immersion in slush ice were required
before any evidence of passage of water through the skin was
obtained. ‘

A maximum level of water uptake by the fryers was
reached between 72 and 120 hours of slush ice chilling. Car-
casses chilled with giblets increased in weight by 29.9 per-
cent while those without giblets increased in weight by 27.8
Percent during the 120-hour chill period. I ’

SOME FACTORS THAT AFFECT CHANGE IN WEIGHT

OF FRESH GRILLED POULTRY

BY

Daniel Eugene Bigbee

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Poultry Science

1962

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. Lawrence E. Dawson
for his guidance, timely suggestions and enduring patience '
during the conduct of this study and preparation of this
manuscript. My thanks and appreciation to Dr. H. C. Zindel
for his assistance during my studies at Michigan State
University. A

I cannot fully eXpress my appreciation to the following
persons, without whoSe help this study could not have been
accomplished: Mr. Edward H. Farmer, Dr. Joseph H. MacNeil,
Dr. Denny A. Silvestrini, Mr. Raleigh J. Wilkinson, Mr. Gordon
Wells, Mr. Edward J. Wladyka, Mrs. Nancy Sobel and Mrs. Ivory
Johnson. Thank You.

Finally, I wish to thank my wife, Janice, and our
children for their love and understanding which made it
possible for me to devote the time and energy required to

complete this study.

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS

gag;
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii
TABLE or CONTENTS ' 111
LIST OF FIGURES iv
LIST OF TABLES ~ vii
INTRODUCTION ‘ 1
Renew or. LITERATURE ' 3
PROCEDURE . 11
Changes in carcass weight and temperature 12
Water transfer 13
RESULTS 19
Changes in carcass weight and temperature 19
Water transfer _ 49
General results - p 59
DISCUSSION ‘ . 65
SUMMARY . 74
BIBLIOGRAPHY ' ' 77
APPENDIX 79

111

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

1

10

11

Weight Change of fryers Chilled Under Various
Conditions and Held in Ice-pack at 35° F., to
96 Hours. (Experiment 1)

Weight Change of Fryers Chilled Under Various
Conditions and Held in Ice-pack at 35° F., to
96 Hours. (Experiment 2)

Weight Change of Fryers Chilled Under Various
Conditions and Held in Ice-pack at Room
Temperature to 96 Hours. (Experiment 3)

Weight Change and Average Carcass Temperature
of Fryers Initially Placed in Ice-pack and Held
at 35 F., to 48 Hours. (Experiment 4)

Weight Change and Average Carcass Temperature
of Fryers Initially Ice-packed and Held at
60° F., to 48 Hours. (Experiment 5).

Weight Change and Average Carcass Temperature
of Fryers Chilled in Slush Ice for 2 Hours
Placed in Ice-pack and Held at 35° F., to 48
Hours. (Experiment 6)

Weight Change and Average Carcass Temperature
of Fryers Chilled in Slush Ice for 2 Hours and
Held in Ice-pack at 40° F., to 48 Hours.
(Experiment 7)

Weight Change and Average Carcass Temperature
of Fryers Chilled in Slush Ice for 2 Hours
Placed in Ice-pack and Held at 60° F., to 48
Hours. (Experiment 8)

Weight Change and Average Carcass Temperature
of Fryers Chilled in Slush Ice for 30 Minutes
and Held in Ice-pack at 35° F., to 48 Hours.
(Experiment 9)

Weight Change and Average Carcass Temperature
of Fryers Chilled in Slush Ice for 30 Minutes,
and Held in Ice-pack at 40° F., to 48 Hours.
(Experiment 10)

Weight Change and Average Carcass Temperature
of Fryers Chilled in Slush Ice for 30 Minutes,
and Held in Ice-pack at 60° F., to 48 Hours.
(EXperiment 11) '

iv

24

26
27

29

31'

32

34

36

37

Figure Egg

12

13

14

15

16

17 '

18

19

20

21

22

Weight Change and Average Carcass Temperature 39
of Fryers Chilled in Slush Ice for 45 Minutes,

and Held in Ice-pack at 35° F., to 48 Hours.
(Experiment 12)

Weight Change and Average Carcass Temperature 41
of Fryers Chilled in Slush Ice for 45 Minutes,

and Held in Ice-pack at 40° F., to 48 Hours.
(Experiment 13) -

Weight Change and Average Carcass Temperature 42
of Fryers Chilled in Slush Ice for 45 Minutes,

and Held in Ice-pack at 35° F., to 48 Hours.
(Experiment 14) . 1

Weight Change and Average Carcass Temperature 44
of Fryers_Chilled in Slush Ice for 45 Minutes,

and Held in Ice-pack at 40° F., to 48 Hours.
(Experiment 15) - _

Weight Change and Average Carcass Temperature 45
of Fryers Chilled in Slush Ice for 45 Minutes,

and Held in Ice-pack at 35 F., to 48 Hours.
(EXperiment 16)

Weight Change and Average Carcass Temperature 47
of Fryers Chilled in Slush Ice for 45 Minutes,

and Held in Ice-pack at 400 F., to 48 Hours.
(Experiment 17)

Weight Change and Average Carcass Temperature 48
of Fryers Chilled in Slush Ice for 1 Hour, and

Held in Ice-pack at 35° F. to 48 Hours.

(Experiment 18) .

Weight Change of Fryers Chilled in Slush Ice, 50
With and Without Giblets, to 120 Hours. .
(Experiment 19)

Moisture Content of Skin, Muscle, and Total , 51
Tissue of Fryers Held in Slush Ice for 12 Hours.
(Experiment 20, Treatment A)

Moisture Content of Skin, Muscle, and Total 53
Tissue of Fryers Chilled in Ice-pack for 12
Hours at 60° F. (Experiment 20, Treatment B)

Moisture Content of Skin, Muscle, and Total 54
Tissue of Fryers Chilled for 30 Minutes, and - "
Held in Ice-pack at 35° F. to 24 Hours of
Storage. (Experiment 21, Treatment A)

Figure Page
23 Moisture Content of Skin, Muscle and Total 56

24

Tissue of Fryers Chilled in Slush Ice for 2
Hours, and Held in Ice-pack at 35° F., to 24
Hours of Storage. (Experiment 21, Treatment B)

Moisture Content of Skin, Muscle, and Total 58
Tissue of Fryers Chilled in Slush Ice for 6

Hours, and held in Ice-pack at 35° F., to 24

Hours of Storage. (Experiment 21, Treatment 0)

 

LIST OF TABLES

The Respective Chilling Periods, Holding
Temperatures, and Weighing Periods for All
Birds Used for EXperiments 4 Through 18.

The Water Permeability of Chicken Broiler Skin

When Immersed in Slush Ice.

The Correlation Coefficients Between Initial
Carcass Weight and Increase in Weight After

Chilling in Slush Ice for 1/2, 3/4, 1 and 2
Hours.

The Correlation Coefficients Between Initial
Carcass Weight and Loss in Weight After Ice-
packing for EXperiments 6 - 13.

The Accumulated Theoretical Heat Loss, Amount
of Ice Melted by that Heat, and Change in
Weight of 24 Fryer Carcasses Chilled for 30
Minutes in Slush Ice and Held in Ice-pack at
35° F. (Experiment 9)

vii

6O

61

62

63

INTRODUCTION

Chilling processed poultry in slush ice has become an
accepted commercial practice. It provides a rapid means of
removing carcass heat and enhances the appearance and shelf-
life of the poultry. Although, the application of this process
for poultry is relatively new, much attention has been given
to some of the problems considered to be associated with slush
ice chilling.

When processed poultry began to be transported long
distances to retail outlets, more rapid chilling and more.
satisfactory holding methods were needed. Preservation was a
major problem.and it was found that liquid cooling methods and
packing in ice for storage and shipment could substantially
reduce spoilage losses.

Many systems of cooling were proposed. However, slush
ice was used most frequently due to the relative ease of
procuring ice and the efficiency from a cost standpoint of
this method.

Although plumping1 had been used for some time, there
was an interest in the effects that slush ice chilling might
have on the quality of processed poultry. It was soon deter-
mined that slush ice chilling enhanced quality, particularly
in terms of carcass appearance. Later, it was found that
flavor constituents were leached from carcasses chilled in
slush ice. .The evidence indicates, though, that the leaching
that does occur is not of a magnitude to be significant, so

1 The process where the poultry carcass was held in hot water
to enhance its appearance so that it looked fresh to the
consumer. ,

1

2
long as chilling is not unnecessarily prolonged.

More recently, the problem of carcass weight changes, due
to uptake of water and its subsequent loss during fresh-pack
holding has received much attention., It has been established
that carcasses tend to take up water during chilling, then
lose a portion of that water during ice-pack holding and ship-
ping conditions.

Preliminary studies indicated that carcass weight changes
and their control were associated with the length of chill,
average carcass temperature, and the temperature of the
storage cooler. It was believed that these factors were
dependent, as well as independent in their influence on carcass
weight changes. The assumption was made that the relationship
between the carcass temperature and the cOoler temperature
could be adjusted to provide water, by melting the surrounding
ice, for maintenance of carcass weights. The length of chill
would influence the amount of water to be maintained as well
as the amount Of remaining carcass heat that could be applied
toward the maintenance of that amount of water. On this basis,
the following hypothesis was proposed:

That the changes in carcass weights due
to slush ice chilling are associated
with and can be controlled by a rela-
tionship between the length of the chill
period, changes in the average internal
carcass temperature, and holding
temperature.

This study was conducted to test this hypothesis.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

In 1939, Cook reported that precooling processed poultry
in 320 F. water for two hours would reduce the total cooling
time by about 60 percent below that required for refrigerated
air cooling. Roberts and Robertson (1941), in comparing the
efficiency of dry and wet coOling methods found that 33° F.
water removed carcass heat more efficiently than did refrig-
erated air at a comparable temperature. They were able to
chill broilers and fowl to an internal temperature of 33° F.
in about one hour and turkeys in 6 to 8 hours.

With an increased interest in liquid cooling methods,
other workers began investigating various applications of this
principle to find which would remove carcass heat more effi-
ciently. Sweet and Stewart (1942) suggested that poultry
carcasses be subjected to a 20° F. brine spray for various
lengths of time, depending on the size of the carcass, before
transfer to a refrigerated air cooler. Esselin g§_g;&,(1954)
studied the efficiency of agitated brine at various tempera-
tures. They found that unpackaged broilers could be chilled
to 40° F. in 16 to 27 minutes depending on the temperature of
the brine. It appears that these methods, although relatively
efficient did not prove to be practical at the processor level,
since a large refrigeration capacity was necessary and corrosion
0f the equipment was a serious,problem. Due to a lack of
adequate refrigeration, at that time, many processors began
using a mixture of ice and water for chilling pawltry. Ice as

a refrigerant was obtained with relative ease and the effi-

4
ciency of liquid chilling was accompliShed without expensive
refrigeration equipment.

Bailey, Stewart and Lowe (1948) cooled cockerels which
had been New York dressed, whole eviscerated, or cut-up), in
circulated slush ice. They found New York dressed cockerels
weighing 3.75 pounds each required 110 minutes to chill to
45° F. while whole eviscerated carcasses required 50 minutes
and the average time for cut-up carcasses was 20 minutes. In
1953, Orr reported that agitated slush ice was more efficient
in removing body heat than still slush ice, running tap water
or refrigerated air.

A chilling process in a commercial plant which tumbled
the eviscerated broilers through a 47° F. water pro-chill and
then through 32° F. slush ice was reported by Stratton (1958).
This processreduced the total chilling time to 20 minutes
and the overall chilling and packing operation required only
30 minutes. Klose, Pool and DeFremery (1959), and Kahlenberg
2$_g;g (1960) used this same method and found that the required
carcass temperatures could be obtained in 20 to 30 minutes
instead of the 50 minutes previously reported by Bailey,
Stewart and Lowe (1948) and Esselen et al. (1954).

 

Roberts and Robertson (1941). Williams and Funk (1941).
and Orr (1953) reported that cooling rates were influenced by

the weight, size, shape, moisture content, fat content and

‘ New York dressed - carcasses which have only the blood and
feathers removed, and presently classified as Dressed.
Whole eviscerated - carcasses that are completely eviscer~
ated, and presently classified as Ready-to-cook.
Cut-up - carcasses that have been separated into their
various parts, such as breast, thigh, wings, etc.

5

exposed surface per unit of weight of the carcass. In 1954.
Connolly, Miller and Stewart found that the position of the
carcass in relation to the direction of flow of the cooling
liquid influenced the cooling rate. They stated that when the
flow of the liquid was directed into the body cavity the cool-
ing rate was increased.

When liquid chilling methods first came into use studies
concerning effects on carcass quality, and appearance were
undertaken. Cook (1939) evaluated poultry pre-cooled in cold
water and found no adverse effects on carcass appearance.
Many advantages were attributed to wet cooling methods over
dry methods in terms of carcass appearance (Roberts and A
Robertson, 1941). They found that birds pre-chilled in 35° F.
water for one hour then held in wire baskets over the water
had better market appearance and were equal to or superior in
flavor to those chilled in air.

Bailey, Stewart and Lowe (1948) studied the effects of
circulated slush ice chilling on the quality of processed
poultry. Under their test conditions, they observed no
differences in flavor, Odor, juiciness and tenderness of
carcasses chilled in slush ice and those chilled in refrig-
erated air. They also found that the slush ice chilled
carcasses had slightly higher cooking yields. Gwin (1951)
reported that chilling and holding birds in refrigerated air
resulted in an undesirable carcass appearance while slush ice
chilling and ice-pack storage helped to maintain a desirable
aPpearance. ,

Even though earlier work had indicated no adverse effect

6
on flavor, Pippen and Klose (1955) found that flavor constit-
uonts were leached fromicarcasses held in slush ice for 3 .
hours. Flavor evaluations made on broth from these carcasses.
indicated a loss of flavor from the slush ice chilled poultry.
However, when the fried or roasted meat'was evaluated, no
differences in flavor were detected. Hurley §£_flé‘,(1958)
concurred with these findings. They found leaching of organic
salts from carcasses chilled in distilled water and differ-
ences in flavor of broth made from birds chilled in air for
18 hours. However, they indicated that the differences may
be due to water extraction of flavor constituents during
cooking.

Gwin (1951) reported that water-logging of carcasses,
due to prolonged slush ice chilling, would reduce the accept-
ability of the poultry in regular market channels. Cooking
and thawing losses were increased due to prolonged slush ice
chilling according to Proning, Swanson and Benson (1958).
They also indicated that carcasses chilled for prolonged
periods had higher Juiciness scores but were rated low on
flavor.

Fortunately, the law of diminishing returns can be
aPplied in terms of the economies of prolonged slush ice chill-
ing of poultry as reported by Henry and Fromm (1958). They
found that any_increased returns at the time of_delivery, due
to carcass weight increases during prolonged chilling, were
largely offset by the increased cost of prolonged slush ice
chilling. However, they stated that net returns could be

increased from 3 to 12 cents per hundred weight of unchilled

7
poultry depending on the wholesale price and the extent of
prolonged chilling. Even so, a discount of one-eighth of a
cent per pound would make prolonged chilling unprofitable at
some of the highest wholesale prices eXperienced at that time.

Roberts and Robertson (1941), Bailey, Stewart and Lowe
(1948) and Orr (1953) established the fact that carcasses
chilled in liquid mediums increased in weight due to liquid
uptake during chilling. However, much of the weight increase
due to liquid uptake was lost during storage and cooking as
reported by Bailey, Stewart and Lowe (1948).

It was observed by Fromm and Monroe (1958) that the
amount of moisture uptake was directly proportional to the
time carcasses were held in slush ice and that there was a
direct relationship between length of chilling time and the
amount of absorbed water lost within 48 hours after chilling.
Baker (1959) reported that the greatest loss of moisture
occurred within the first two hours after removing the
carcasses from the chill tank and that the loss in weight had
stabilized after 24 hours of- ice-pack/holding. Leutz and
Rocks (1958) found that approximately one-half of the moisture
uptake was lost during subsequent drainage. The greatest loss
occurred during the first 15 to 30 minutes and the rate of
loss was relatively low after 1 to 2 hours.

,,The degree of agitation of the slush ice also influences
the amount of moisture uptake.during chilling. In 1956,
Tarver, McGhee and Goff studied various methods of agitating
slush ice and found that when carcasses were chilled for the

Same period of time in vats of slush ice, those chilled in

8.
aerated slush gained more than those chilled in pump circulated
or non-agitated slush, in that order. Klose, Pool and
DeFremery (1959), Kahlenberg e§_§;‘ (1960), and Kotula,
Thomson and Kinner (1960a) reported that a rapid chilling
process, which involved a high degree of agitation of both
slush and carcasses resulted in higher carcass moisture uptake,
as compared to carcasses chilled inagitated slush ice in vats
or tanks. However, Kotula, Thomson and Kinner (1960a) indi-
cated that the moisture was loosely bound or held and that
the apparent carcass weight gains differed only slightly from
those of birds chilled in tanks after drainage.

Roberts and Robertson (1941) found that the higher the'
scalding temperature, the greater the water uptake during
chilling, while Gwin (1951) stated that birds scalded at high
temperatures absorbed less water. The results of Tarver,
McGhee-and Goff (1956), and Thomson, Kotula and-Kinner (1961)
indicated that carcass size or weight influenced the amount
of water absorbed. They reported that small-sized carcasses
had a larger percentage increase in weight due to water up-
take than did large-sized carcasses.

The form the carcass is in at the time of chilling (New
York dressed, eviscerated, or cut-up), also influences the
amount of water absorbed. In general, the water uptake ‘
increases as the amount of processing increases. Bailey,
Stewart and Lowe (1948) stated that in 135 minutes of chill-
ing in ice water, New York dressed, eviscerated, and cut-up
carcasses increased in weight by 1.5, 7.4, and 9.4 percent,

respectively. Tarver, McGhee and Goff (1956) found that

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eviscerated carcasses absorbed more water than New York
dressed birds when cooled in water.

Bailey, Stewart and Lowe (1948) indicated that the
colder the chilling water, the greater the moisture uptake by
the carcass. 0n the other hand, Thomson, Kotula and Kinner
(1961) found that birds pre-chilled in running water (70° F.)
for ans hour then slush ice chilled for 2 hours gained more
than those chilled for 3 hours in slush ice.

Another factor which appears to influence the amount of
water uptake is whether the giblets are in or out of the body
cavity during chilling. Baker (1959) studied this factor and
feund that birds chilled without giblets had less water uptake
than those chilled with the giblets in the body cavity. This
influence was reportedly not due to the presence or absence
of the giblets er se, but that the giblet wrapping material
absorbed water and the shape of the package formed pockets in
the bédy cavity which trapped water. -He also reported that
there was little difference between the amount of moisture
absorbed by carcasses crowded into the chill tank and those
which were not crowded during chilling. h .

Kotula, Thomson and Kinner (1960a,b) pointed out that
the method of opening the carcass abdomen decidedly influenced
moisture uptake. When the skin between the thigh and rib cage
was out while opening the abdomen, water uptake was increased.
This exposed area formed a pocket which trapped water in
relativelylarge amounts.

Lentz and Rocks (1958) determined where the moisture
taken up during chilling was held by the carcass. They

10

reported that 75 percent of the water was loosely held in
lenses or pockets between the thighs and rib cage, muscles,
and the tissues under the skin of the neck and back. The
water content of the skin was increased by 10 to 15 percent,
while that of the muscle increased'by 1 to 2 percent during
24 hours of slush ice chilling.

PROCEDURE

Fryers, eight to ten-weeks of age were used in 19
experiments. In each experiment, the birds were eviscerated
(roaster style) and allowed to hang until the evisceration
process was completed for all birds. The giblets and neck
from each bird were cleaned, sealed in polyethylene bags, and
replaced in the body cavity without regard to which carcass
they came from. Each carcass was then weighed and all car-
casses to be chilled in slush ice were placed in the chilling
medium at the same time. The slush ice mixture was maintained
with at least four inches of ice, and agitated with a Gordon
Johnson circulating pump‘. Those carcasses chilled in an ice-
pack2 were processed as above, and all carcasses were placed
in iceépack at the same time. Upon completion of the pre-
scribed chilling time, those carcasses in slush ice were
removed from the tank, weighed, then placed in ice-pack for
the duration of the experiment. In experiments 1 through 3,

a ten-minute draining period was allowed before the carcasses
were weighed. However, in the remaining eXperiments, the
giblets were removed from the body cavity to facilitate the
removal of any trapped water, replaced, and then the carcasses
were blotted to an acceptable dryness with paper toweling
before weighing. Evaluations of weight changes were made by

1 Manufactured by the Gordon Johnson Company, Kansas City,
Missouri.

2 The commercial practice of packing fresh chilled poultry

carcasses in wire-bound boxes'with a layer of chipped ice
on the bottom and another layer over the tap of the
carcasses.

11

 

 

 

 

 

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12

converting the weights to a percentage of the warm eviscerated
carcass weightt

In experiments 4 through 18, the changes in internal
carcass temperature were obtained by means of copper-constantan
thermocouples and a recording potentiometer. The thermocouples
were placed approximately 1/8th to 1/4th-inch from the rib
cage in the thickest portion of the pectoral muscles of eight
out of 24 carcasses used per treatment. In Experiments 4
through 13 different carcasses were used for the temperature
evaluations and for the weight change determinations. In
BXperiments 14 through 18, the same 24 carcasses were used
for both evaluations.

Changes in Carcass Weights and Temperature

Ezperimgnts 1 and 2:

Ten carcasses were used for each of four treatments.
In Experiment 1 carcasses for Treatment A were initially
placed in ice-pack and held in a room maintained at 35° F.
for 96 hours. Carcasses for Treatments B, C, and D were
chilled in slush ice for 2, 4 and 24 hours, respectively,
placed in ice-pack and held at 35° F. for the remainder of the
96 hour eXperiment. Each carcass was weighed when removed
from the chill tank, and was redweighed at 48 hour intervals
from the beginning of the experiment through 96 hours.

Experiment 2 was conducted in the same manner as
Experiment 1, except that the carcasses for each treatment
were re-weighed at intervals of 24 instead of 48 hours.

E§perimegt 3:

In this experiment, ten birds were used in each of five

\

13
treatments. The carcasses for Treatment A were initially
placed in ice-pack and held at room temperature for 96 hours.
Carcasses for Treatments B, C, D and E were chilled in slush
ice for 2, 4, 6 and 12 hours, respectively, then placed in
ice-pack and held at room temperature through 96 hours. The
carcasses in each treatment were weighed at 24 hour intervals
throughout the experiment.
Experiments 4 through 18:

Twenty-four birds were used for each treatment in these
experiments. The reSpective chilling periods, holding tem-
peratures,-and weighing intervals are reported in Table 1.
Experiment 12: I

Ten birds were used in each of two treatments in this
experiment. The giblets were placed in the body cavity of
the carcasses in Treatment A, while those in Treatment B did
not contain giblets. The carcasses in both treatments were
then weighed, placed in slush ice, and held for 120 hours.
Carcass weights were determined at hourly intervals through
the first 12 hours, then at 24, 48, 72 and 120 hours.

Water Transfer

Three experiments were conducted to determine the mode
in which poultry carcasses take up water during slush ice
chilling. Experiment 20 wasinitiated to study the moisture
content of various carcass tissues as affected by the length
of time the carcass remained in the chilling medium. Experi-
ment 21 was conducted to study the effect of chilling and
storage conditions on the moisture content of various carcass

tissues. In Experiment 22, the water permeability of the

S

.5. a a

 

 

14

Table 1. The respective chilling treatments, holding
temperatures, and weighinngeriods for all birds
thr h 1

 

Weighing times

 

Experiment _ Holding (hours after start
no. Chill treatment temp. 0F.) of chill)
4 Ice packed 35 24 and 48 hrs.
5 " " 60 1-12, 24 and 48 hrs.
6 2 hrs. slush ice 35 . "
7 N I! N I! 40 I1
8 II H II N 60 II
9 30 min. slush ice 35 30dmig.flr2-12, 24
s an s.
q 0 11 11 11 11 4O 11 11 11 II
1 1 H H II N 60 N 11 I! II
12 45 min. slush ice 35 45dmig.£r2-12, 24
an s.
1 3 [I II N 11 4O 11 II I! II
14 " " " " 35 45 min., 48 hrs.
1 5 I! '1 ll ll 40 H 11
1 6 fl '1 '1 fl 3 5 II N
“ 7 fl 9' I! H 40 ' II .1

18 1 hour slush ice 35 l, and 48 hrs.

15
carcass skin was studied.
We;

Twenty-four 8 to 10-week-old fryers were used in each
of two treatments and three birds were used as controls. In
Treatment A, the carcasses were chilled in slush ice for
twelve hours and moisture analysis of the skin, muscle, and
skin and muscle were determined at 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12
hours. In Treatment B, the carcasses were initially placed
in ice-pack and held at 60° F., and tissue moisture analysis
determined as for Treatment A. A moisture analysis of the
various carcass tissues was made of the control birds to
estimate the initial moisture content of all carcasses used
in both treatments.

9 Three carcasses from each treatment were selected at
random for moisture analyses at the different sampling
periods. Each carcass was blotted to an acceptable dryness1
with paper toweling and a e x 5-inch plug of skin and muscle
was taken from the thickest portion of the pectoral muscles ‘
on each side of the breast. Each sample was taken so that
the skin surface consisted of about equal areas of pectoral
feather tract and the lateral trunk space. The skin was
removed from one plug and the separate tissues used to esti-
mate the moisture content of the skin and the muscle of the
carcass. The combined tissues of the other plug were used to
estimate the total carcass moisture content. The various

tissues were redweighed after drying at 100° C: in a h°t air

1 Uniform removal of the excess adhering water to a point
Where the carcass still had an appealing moist appearance.

an

'5‘

AU

’1‘

 

 

16
oven and the difference between the initial and final sample
weights was taken as the moisture content of the various
tissues.
Egperiment 21:

Eighteen 8 to 10-week-old fryers were used in each of
three treatments and three birds were evaluated to estimate
the initial moisture content of all the birds used in the
eXperiment. In Treatment A, the carcasses were chilled in
slush ice for 30 minutes, drained, then ice-packed and held in
a refrigerator maintained at 35° F. through 24 hours. In
Treatments B and C, the carcasses were chilled in slush ice,
for 2 and 6 hours, respectively, then held under the same
conditions as those in Treatment A. A random sample of three
carcasses was taken from each treatment upon completion of the
prescribed chilling period and at 2, 4, 6, 12 and 24 hours
after chilling in slush ice. After treatment, each carcass
was blotted to an acceptable dryness, packed in a Cryovac1 bag
which was sealed, identified, and then the packaged carcass
was frozen in a 0° F. agitated propylene glycol-water mixture.
The frozen carcasses were then held at 0° F. until subsequent
moisture analyses of the skin, muscle, and total carcass were
made.

Prior to moisture analysis, the packaged individual
carcasses were partially thawed in cold running water, allow-
ing the carcass skin to be removed readily. Each carcass was

then removed from the bag and divided into two equal halves

1 Manufactured by the Cryovac Division of W. R. Grace and
Company, Simpsonville, South Carolina.

 

 

 

 

‘.

17
using a band-saw. The skin was removed from one-half and
placed in a Cryovac bag, after whichthe skinless half was
sawed into chunks which were passed through a 1/8th-inch
grinder plate for three times. The ground mass was placed
_in a separate Cryovac bag and sealed. The other half, with
the skin on, was sawed into chunks, ground and packaged in
the same manner. The skin from the first half was removed
from its Cryovac bag and cut into small pieces with a knife,
then replaced in the bag and sealed. Three 10-gram samples
were taken from each mass of tissue or composite and their
moisture content was determined by means of a Brabender
apparatus. The samples were heated in the apparatus for six
hours at 100° C.
Egperiment 22:

Six 8 to 10-week-old broiler-fryers were sacrificed
and the skin was removed from each carcass. Each carcass skin
was then split in half between the two breast areas. A
section of skin from one-half was kept intact, while the
other half had an area over the pectoral feather tract and
lateral trunk space scraped to remove the subcutaneous fat
layer. The designated skin areas were then placed, exterior
side out, over one open-end of Specially prepared size 303
tin cans, secured with string and the excess skin sheared
away. The loose edges of the skin and the securing string
were then sealed with melted paraffin. The can plus skin
section was weighed and then the exposed skin portion was
immersed in slush ice. Observations were made at 1/2, 1, 1%,

2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 hours regarding weight changes or evidence

18
of water passing through theskin.

RESULTS

The first three experiments were of a preliminary
nature designed to evaluate the effect of length of chill,
and ice-pack storage on carcass weight changes. It became
evident that the critical period for evaluation of weight
changes was during the first 24 hours of chilling and ice-
paok storage. Due to the differences in weight changes
between carcasses initially placed in ice-pack or slush ice
chilled and held in ice-pack at room temperature, and those
chilled and held in ice-pack at 35° F., observations on
changes in carcass temperature were deemed necessary. Experi-/
ments 4 through 18 were conducted to determine the effects
of various chilling times and holding room temperatures on
changes in carcass weights and temperature. EXperiment 19
was carried out to determine the maximum moisture uptake of
broiler carcasses during slush ice chilling under laboratory
processing procedures.

Since changes in carcass weights should be related to
changes in carcass moisture content, it was theorized that
such weight changes might be more closely associated with a
Change in the moisture content of one specific carcass tissue
than another. The last three eXperiments were conducted to
test this theory.

Changes in Carcass Weight and Temperature
Experiment 1:
Ten carcasses were used for each of four treatments.

Fryers used for Treatment A were placed initially in ice-pack

19

20

and held in a refrigerator maintained at 35° F. Those for
Treatments B, C, and D were chilled in slush ice for 2, 4, and
24 hours, respectively, before they were ice-packed and held
at 35° E.

Figure 1 shows the weight changes of fryers chilled and
held through 96 hours in a refrigerator maintained at 35° F.
Carcasses held in slush ice for two hours increased in weight
by an amount equal to 4.75 percent of their initial weight
and those chilled for 4 and 24 hours increased by 5.19 and
8.31 percent, respectively. Initially ice-packed fryers
continued to increase in weight during the entire 96-hour
period at which time they had increased by 2.22 percent of
their warm eviscerated weight. The greatest and most rapid
loss in carcass weights, of the carcasses chilled in slush
ice, occurred during the first 48 hours of the experiment,
when their weights were 4.13, 3.78 and 6.11 percent greater
than the warm eviscerated weights for carcasses chilled for
2, 4, and 24 hours, respectively. These data show that under
the conditions of this experiment, when the maximum chilling
time was 24 hours, the longer the chill time, the greater the
increase in carcass weight and the greater the subsequent
loss during ice-pack storage. This concurs with the findings
of Fromm at 2;, (1958).
Experiment 2:

This orperiment was similar to EXperiment 1, the only
difference was that the weighing intervals were reduced from
48 to 24 hours. Increases in carcass weights of 5.70, 6.12

and 8.95 percent were obtained during the respective chilling

21

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_ 22
periods of 2, 4 and 24 hours (Figure 2).

The most rapid and largest percentage losses in weight,
however, occurred during the first 24 hours of storage in
ice-pack. Carcasses chilled for 2 and 4 hours had net in-
creases in carcass weight of 3.80 and 3.40 percent at 24 hours,
respectively, while those chilled for 24 hours had a net
weight increase of 5.70 percent after having been ice-packed
for 24 hours. However, in Experiment 2, carcass weights
tended to stabilize after the 24th hour of the experiment
rather than the 48th hour as shown in Experiment 1. This
was demonstrated by net increases in carcass weights of 3.86,
2.75 and 4.09 percent for carcasses chilled for 2, 4 and 24
hours, respectively, at the 96th hour of the experiment. As
in Experiment 1, carcasses initially ice-packed continued to
increase in weight through 96 hours of holding at 35° F.
Egperimegt 3:

In this experiment, 10 carcasses were used for each of
5 treatments. The carcasses were initially packed in ice for
treatment A, and were chilled in slush ice for 2, 4, 6 and
12 hours for treatments B, C, D and B, respectively..

The data plotted in Figure 3 show that carcass weights
increased by 3.48, 3.94, 4.75 and 5.45 percent during the
respective 2, 4, 6 and 12-hour slush ice chilling periods.
However, it was found that carcass weights continued to
increase during ice-pack holding at room temperature. At the
termination of the experiment (96 hours), increases in carcass.
weights of 5.20, 6.29, 5.92. 5.95 and 5.90 percent were

observed for carcasses initially ice-packed, or chilled in

23

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24

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25
slush ice for 2, 4, 6 and 12 hours, reapectively. The loss
in weight that occurred between the 24th and 48th hours for
carcasses chilled for 12 hours was due to complete melting of
the ice surrounding those carcasses during that period of the
experiment.
Experiment 4:

Two lots of twenty-four carcasses were used in EXperi-
ment 4 to determine the changes in internal carcass tempera-
ture and carcass weights when initially placed in ice-pack
and held in a room maintained at 35° F. for 48 hours. The
data are presented graphically in Figure 4. The average
initial internal temperature of these carcasses was 63.50 F.
and 17 hours of holding had elapsed before a low of 31.70 F.
had been reached. This temperature was maintained for the
next 8 hours of storage, after which it began to increase at
a very slow rate to 32.20 F. at the conclusion of the 48-hour
chilling and holding period. Carcass weights of birds in the
second lot, chilled and held under similar conditions, in-
creased by 1.10 percent of their initial weight after 24
hours and 1.66 percent after 48 hours of storage.

Epperimept 5:

In this experiment, carcasses were initially placed in
ice-pack in the same manner as those for EXperiment 4 and
held in a refrigerator maintained at 60° F. A minimum average
carcass temperature of 37.80 F. was obtained after eight
hours of storage, from an initial temperature of 73.90 F.
(Figure 5). The average carcass temperature then increased

gradually to 47.80 F. by the 24th hour, at which time the

26

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28
carcasses were re-iced. The average carcass temperature
declined to 37.90 F. in five hours then increased again until
it reached 44.00 F. after 48 hours of storage at 60° F.
Similar carcasses held under these conditions increased in
weight by 3.40, 3.52 and 4.00 percent after 12, 24 and 48
hours of storage, respectively.
E er me 6:

In this experiment, two lots of birds with an average
weight of 2.32 pounds were used to evaluate the effect on
carcass weight and temperature changes of two hours of slush
ice chilling and ice-pack storage in a refrigerator main-
tained at 35° F. One lot of birds was used for weight change
evaluations, and the other for changes in average internal
temperature. The average initial temperature declined from
72.3.0 F. to 33.30 F. during the two-hour chill period
(Figure 6). By the eleventh hour of the eXperiment (2 hours
in slush ice plus 9 hours in ice-pack), a minimum temperature
or 31.50 F. was reached and this temperature was maintained
through the 38th hour. During the remaining ten hours of the
eXperiment, the average carcass temperature gradually increased
to 31.90 F.

During the chill period, similar carcasses had a 5.15

percent increase in weight. After four hours of storage in

ice-pack the birds had lost weight so that the net increase
in weight was only 4.17 percent of the initial carcass weight.
Carcass weights began to increase gradually at this point,

With the result that the net increase in weight after 14

hours was equal to 4.36 percent of the initial warm eviscer-

Anus ~11

 

 

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ated weight. ,During the remaining 36 hours of the experiment
the carcasses gradually lost weight, which resulted in a final
net increase in weight of 3.88 percent.
EXperiment z:

Carcasses with an average weight of 3.19 pounds were
. chilled in the same manner as those in Experiment 6 and held
in ice-pack in a refrigerator maintained at 40° F. Those
carcasses used for temperature evaluations had a decrease in
average temperature from 66.40 F. to 34.00 F. during the
chill period of two hours (Figure 7), however, the lowest
average internal temperature of 33.60 F. was not reached
until the fifth hour of the experiment. The average carcass
temperature then began to increase gradually until a temp-
erature of 34.50 F. was attained at the completion of the
experiment.

The carcasses from which the weight change data were
obtained increased in weight by 2.91 percent during the chill
period, then decreased to 2.54 percent of their warm eviscer-
ated weight by the fifth hour. A gradual increase in weights
was observed after this time so that the net increase in

weight was 2.77, 2.76 and 2.95 percent at 12, 24 and 48 hours,

respectively.

Experimgpt 8:
This experiment was conducted utilizing the same chill-

ing procedures as for Experiments 6 and 7, using carcasses

With an average weight of 2.64 pounds and holding them in

ice-pack in a refrigerator maintained at 603 F. During the

two-hour chill period (Figure 8) the average carcass temp-

L.Oh

 

 

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33

erature declined from 73.9° F. to 32.00 F. At this point,
the carcass temperature began to increase until a temperature

of 41.90 F. was reached at the termination of the 48-hour
experiment.

During the chill period carcass weights increased by
3.25 percent and subsequently declined to 2.86 percent by the
fifth hour of the experiment. After the sixth hour, carcass
weights increased rapidly through the twelfth hour. From the
twelfth hour through the 48th hour carcass weights increased
gradually from 3.64 percent to 4.14 percent, respectively.
Egperiment 2:

Two lots of carcasses, with an average weight of 2.81
pounds, were used to separately evaluate changes in carcass
weights and average internal temperatures. The carcasses
were chilled for 30 minutes in slush ice, placed in ice-pack
and stored in a refrigerator held at 35° F. Figure 9 shows
that the average carcass temperature decreased from 63.50 F.
to 42.50 F. during the 30-minute chill in slush ice. By the
fourth hour the temperature was 31.50 F. and remained there
for the duration of the experiment.

Carcass weights increased by 2.60 percent during chill-
ing and decreased to 2.34 percent by the second hour of the
eXperiment. After the fourth hour carcass weights increased
rapidly through the eighth hour to 2.95 percent of the initial
carcass weights. From the twelfth through the 48th hour the
carcass weights increased gradually to 3.04 percent of their

warm eviscerated weight.

 

 

 

 

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34

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35
W

In this experiment carcasses were chilled as in Experi-
ment 9, but were held in ice-pack at 40° F. rather than 35° F.
The Average weight of the carcasses was 3.07 pounds. The
carcasses increased in weight during the 30-minute chill
period by 2.29 percent (Figure 10), then declined to 1.97 per-
cent by the third hour of the experiment. From this point
the carcass weights increased rapidly through the twelfth
hour to 2.86 percent of their initial weight. A gradual
weight increase was observed through the duration of the
experiment when the net increases in carcass weights were
2.91 and 3.12 percent at 24 and 48 hours, respectively.

The average internal carcass temperature declined from
80.00 F. to 45.90 F. during the 30-minute chill period and
reached a low of 35.10 F. by the 24th hour of the experiment.
During the next 24 hours there was a very slight increase in
average carcass temperature to 35.20 F. '
Egpepiment 11:

The fryer carcasses in this experiment had an average
weight of 2.32 pounds and were chilled in the same manner as
those in Experiments 9 and 10, and after being placed in ice-
Pack were held in a refrigerator maintained at 60° F. A 3.04
percent increase in carcass weights was observed after 30
minutes of slush ice chilling (Figure 11). Carcass weights
increased by 3.61 percent through the 12th hour, after which
there was a slight decrease to 3.56 percent through the 24th
hour of the experiment. There was a gradual increase in

carcass weights to the 48th hour when the net increase in

 

36

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38
carcass weights was 3.84 percent of the initial weight.

The average internal carcass temperature declined from
72.30 F. to 36.90 F. after the carcasses were chilled for 30
minutes. .A low of 35.50 F. was obtained by the second hour,
after which the average internal temperature increased to
41.80 F. by the 21st hour of the experiment. The carcasses
were re-iced and the average carcass temperature declined to
40.50 F. in three hours, then increased. to 46.60 r. by the
termination of the experiment.

Egerimept 12:

Fryer carcasses were chilled for 45 minutes in slush
ice and placed in.ice-pack before storage in a refrigerator
maintained at 35° F. The average carcass weight was 1.91
pounds for the two lots of birds used separately to evaluate
the effect of the above conditions on carcass weight and
internal temperature changes. Those carcasses used to deter-
mine weight changes had a 2.96 percent increase in weight
during the chill period (Figure 12). Carcasses decreased
in weight to 2.45 percent by the third hour and then increased
gradually to 2.79 percent by the 48th hour, at which time the
experiment was terminated.

The average carcass temperature declined from 74.30 F.
to 34.80 F. during the chill period and reached a low of
32.80 F. by the tenth hour. This temperature was maintained
through the 15th hour and then increased to 33.00 F. by the
19th hour, where it remained for the duration of the experi-

ment.

39

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Experiment 3:5.

This experiment was conducted using carcasses with an
average weight of 1.81 pounds and chilling them in the same
manner as those in Experiment 12. The chilled carcasses
were placed in ice-pack and held in a refrigerator maintained
at 40° F. The average carcass temperature decreased from
76.6° F. to 34.20 F. during the 45-minute chill period
(Figure 13), and reached a low of 32.90 F. by the 13th hour.
The carcass temperature then increased gradually to 33.70 F.
at the conclusion of the experiment.

Carcass weights increased by 2.79 percent during chill-
ing after which they decreased to 2.37 percent by the sixth
hour. They remained relatively steady through the ninth
hour then increased to 2.50 percent by the tenth hour. From
the 24th hour through the 48th hour, carcass weights increased
to 2.92 percent of their warm eviscerated weight.

Epperimept 14:

Carcasses averaging 2.09 pounds were used for both
carcass weight and temperature change evaluations in this
experiment. Carcasses were chilled for 45 minutes in slush
ice, placed in ice-pack and held in a refrigerator main-
tained at 35° F. During the 45-minute chill period, the
average internal carcass temperature declined from 73.40 F.
to 34.8° F. (Figure 14), and reached a low of 32.8° F. by the
tenth hour. The average carcass temperature increased
gradually to 33.00 F. by the 19th hour, where it remained to
the termination of the experiment at 48 hours.

There was a 2.89 percent increase in carcass weights

41

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43

during the chill period, with a net percent increase of 3.31
percent at the termination of the experiment.
Epperiment 15;

The carcasses in Experiment 15 had an average weight of
2.02 pounds and were chilled in the same manner as those for
Experiment 14 and were held in ice-pack in_a refrigerator
maintained at 40° F. Carcass weights increased by 2.04 per-
cent (Figure 15) when they were chilled in slush ice for 45
minutes. The net percent increase in carcass weights was
3.08 percent at the termination of the 48-hour experiment.

During the chill period the average carcass temperature
declined from 76.6° F. to 34.3° F. and a low of 32.9° F. was
observed at the 13th hour. The carcass temperature then

increased gradually to 33.70 F. at the termination of the

experiment.

Egperiment 16:
This experiment was conducted using chilling conditions

similar to those used for Experiment 14. The average carcass
weight was 2.33 pounds. A 1.87 percent increase in carcass
weights occurred during the 45-minute chill period (Figure 16).

At the conclusion of the 48-hour experiment, carcass weights

had increased by 2.09 percent.

After the 45-minute chill period, the average carcass

temperature had declined from 74.5° F. to 35.4° F. The 08r-

cass temperature reached a low of 32.9° F. by the 22nd hour,

then fluctuated between 32.9° F. and 33.0° F. for the

remainder of the experiment.

 

44

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46
E e ment 1 °

Carcasses with an average weight of 2.30 pounds were
used to determine the weight and temperature changes of fry-
ers chilled for 45 minutes in slush ice, placed in ice-pack
and stored in a refrigerator maintained at 40° F. The car-
casses increased in weight by 2.31 percent during the chill
period, (Figure 17) and had a net percent increase in weight
of 2.81 percent by the close of the 48-hour eXperiment. The
average carcass temperature decreased from 74.5° F. to 36.9Q F.
during the chill period and reached a low of 34.00 F. by the
13th hour. By the termination of the eXperiment, the average
carcass temperature had increased to 35.40 F.

Epperiment 18:

Carcasses were chilled for one hour in slush ice and
then transferred to ice-pack and stored in a refrigerator
maintained at 350 F. They had an average weight of 2.85
pounds. Figure 18 shows that the carcasses increased in
weight, during the chill period, by 2.46 percent. The net
increase in weight was 2.58 percent at the conclusion of the
48-hour experiment. During the chill period, the average
carcass temperature decreased from 83.80 F. to 35.40 F., a
low temperature of 33.50 F. was observed at the 12th hour and
this temperature was maintained throughout the remainder of
the experiment.

Egperimppt 12:

This experiment was conducted to determine the maximum

level of water absorption for carcasses held for a prolonged

period of time in slush ice. Twenty carcasses, 10 with the

47

 

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49

giblets in the body cavity, Treatment A, and 10 without
giblets, Treatment B, were subjected to 120 hours of slush
ice chilling. Hourly weights were taken for the first 12
hours, then at 24, 48, 72 and 120 hours during the experiment.

The rate at which water was taken up was very rapid
during the first 12 hours in both treatments. During this
portion of the experiment, carcass weights had increased by
16.0 and 13.75 percent for Treatments A and B, respectively
(Figure 19). From the 12th to the 72nd hour the rate of
weight increase was reduced, with net increases of 30.90 and
26.80 percent obtained after 72 hours for the respective
Treatments A and B. A slight decrease in carcass weights
occurred in fryers for Treatment A between the 72nd and 120th
hours, resulting in a net increase in carcass weights of 29.9
percent. However, during this period of time, the carcasses
in Treatment B increased slightly in weight, resulting in a
net increase in weight of 27.8 percent after 120 hours of

slush ice chilling.

\

Water Transfer

Three experiments were conducted in an attempt to
associate the change in carcass weights with a change in
moisture content of various carcass tissues as follows:
Expepimept 20:

In Experiment 20, carcasses were slush ice chilled for
12 hours, Treatment A, or held in ice-pack at 60° F., Treat-
ment B. As shown in Figure 20, the average moisture content

of the skin of carcasses in Treatment A increased from 46.54

50

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52
percent to 65.01 percent during the 12-hour period. However,
the average moisture content of the muscle tissue remained
relatively constant at about 75.0 percent. The average total
moisture content increased only slightly from 70.24 percent
to 73.36 percent during the 12-hour chill period.

When carcasses were held in ice-pack, the average
moisture content of the skin increased from 46.54 percent to
59.67 percent (Figure 21). The average moisture content of
the muscle tissue varied from one sampling point to another
but remained relatively constant throughout the experiment.

An increase from 70.24 percent to 73.36 percent moisture was
observed in the combined muscle and skin tissue.
Egperimept 21:

The carcasses in treatments A, B and C of Experiment 21
were slush ice ohilled for 30 minutes, 2 hours, and 6 hours,
respectively. After thevaere chilled, the carcasses were
ice-packed and held in a refrigerator maintained at 35° F.
through 24 hours from the time they were placed in ice-pack.

The moisture content of the carcasses in Treatment A
decreased during the chill period. The average moisture
content of the skin declined from 45.75 percent to 42.83 per-
cent (Figure 22) while the moisture content of the muscle
tissue and total carcass decreased from.67.17 percent to
55.54 percent, and 64.85 percent to 62.29 percent, respecti-
vely. After being ice-packed for four hours, the average
moisture content of the skin had decreased to 41.69 percent,
then increased to 48.92 percent by the sixth hour. The

average moisture content of the skin decreased to 47.77

53

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55
percent after 12 hours of holding in ice-pack and 47.61 per-
cent by the 24th hour. The average moisture content of the
muscle tissue had decreased to 64.64 percent by the second
hour of storage in ice-pack, then increased gradually through
the 24th hour to 69.10 percent. The total average moisture
content of the carcasses declined to 61.43 percent by the
sixth hour of holding in ice-pack, then increased to 65.24
percent after 24 hours of ice-pack storage at 35° F.

In Treatment B, the average moisture content of the
skin increased from.45.73 percent to 50.25 percent during the
two-hour chill period (Figure 23). It decreased to 41.50
percent by the sixth hour of storage followed by an increase
to 44.81 percent by the 24th hour. The average moisture
content of the muscle tissue increased to 69.41 percent from
57.17 percent during the two-hour chill period. This was
followed by a decrease to 63.65 percent after two hours of
storage in ice-pack. The average moisture content or the
muscle increased gradually through the remainder of the
eXperiment to 66.88 percent. During the chill period, the
average total moisture content increased from 64.85 percent
to 68.30 percent. It declined to 60.52 percent after six
hours of ice-pack storage at 35° F. and between the sixth and
24th hour the average total moisture content of the carcasses
increased to 65.40 percent.

The skin of the carcasses in Treatment 0 had an initial
average moisturecontent of 45.73 percent. This declined to
45.05 percent during six hours of chill in slush ice and

increased to 49.42 percent after four hours or storage in

56

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57

ice-pack (Figure 24). The average moisture content of the
skin decreased to 42.77 percent between the fourth and sixth
hours and increased to 47.82 percent after 24 hours of stor-
,age. The average moisture content of the muscle tissue.
declined during the chill period from 67.17 percent to 65.03
percent. It increased to 68.22 percent after four hours of
storage in ice-pack, followed by a decrease to 64.64 percent
by the sixth hour. The muscle tissue average moisture con-
tent then increased to 67.32 percent after 24 hours of stor-
age in ice-pack. After six hours of slush ice chill, the
average total carcass moisture content had declined from
64.85 percent to 63.18 percent. There followed a general
increase in moisture content to 65.02 percent after four
hours of ice-pack storage. The total average moisture con-
tent decreased to 62.83 percent by the sixth hour, only to
_increase to 65.20 percent by the conclusion of the experiment.

These data indicate that the skin may be the primary
carcass tissue involved with changes in carcass weights
resulting from water uptake during slush ice chilling. How-
ever, there was a wide variation in water content between
carcasses within any one treatment at any given sampling
period. Thus the evidence obtained was not sufficient to
BUpport any conclusion as to a relationship between changes
in moisture content of any given carcass tissue or tissues
and changes in weight of the total carcass.
Faggimegt 22: t w p ' '

Sections of skin were taken from both sides of the
breast, so that equal portions of the pectoral feather tract

58

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59
and lateral trunk space were included, attached to specially
' prepared 303 tin cans and immersed in slush ice. In Treat-
ment A,.the subcutaneous fat layer and associated membranes,
were removed from the respective skin section. In Treatment
B, the respective skin section was left intact. Two trials
were conducted for each of the two treatments..

Experiment 22 was conducted to determdne the water
permeability of the skin. The results are summarized in.
Table 2.. It was observed under the conditions of the experib
ment that water passed through the skin in approximately one
hour when the subcutaneous fat layer and associated membranes
were removed (Treatment A). when the skin was left intact
(Treatment B), evidence of water passage through the skin was
not observed until the fourth or sixth hour of exposure to
slush ice, in Trials 1 and 2, respectively. In both trials,
a one-gram.increase in the weight of the skin was associated
with the passage of water through the skin in Treatment A..
.aror Treatment B, an increase in the weight of the skin was
detected prior to the observation of water passing through
the skin in Trial 2, however, the reverse was observed in

Trial 14'.

General Results
It was observed that the percentage increase during the
chill period in the weight of carcasses varied considerably
from one group of carcasses to another for any given length
of chill time. This variation apparently was due to the

respective differences in initial carcass weights. Tarver et al.

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61
(1956) and Thomson gt a;, (1961) found that smaller carcasses
tend to have greater percentage increases in weight due to
water uptake than do larger carcasses chilled for the same
period of time. However, correlation analysis of the presentv
data indicates that larger carcasses had greater actual in-
creases in weight due to water absorption than did smaller.
carcasses. The data from all experiments were subjected to
correlation analysis. Highly significant positive correla- .
tions were obtained between initial carcass weight and weight
increase within each chill period (Table 3). Thus, the
weight increase during chilling was directly proportional to
the initial weight of the carcass.

Table 3. The Correlation Coefficients* between initial
carcass weight and increase in weight after chill-
ing in slush ice for 1/2, 3/4, 1 and 2 hours

 

 

1(2 hour 3(4 hour 1 hour 2 ours
0.97 0.95 0.98 0.95

* Snedecor, G. H., 1956. Statistical Methods, 5th ed. Iowa
State College Press. 162. A

A correlation analysis of the initial carcass weights.
and the respective carcass weight loss after being placed in
ice-pack was made to determine if there was any correlation
between carcass weight and weight decrease during ice-pack.
This was done by calculating the correlation coefficients
for the respective factors for Experiments 6 through 13. .The
correlation coefficients are presented in Table 4. There
appears to be a highly significant positive correlation
between initial carcass weight and weight lost during the

62

initial stages of storage in ice-pack. Thus, the larger the
carcass weight, the greater was the absolute loss in weight

'after initial storage in ice-pack.

Table 4. The Correlation Coefficients* between initial
carcass weight and loss in weight after ice-
packing for Experiments 6-13.

 

Experiment 6 7 8 9 . 10 11 12 13
Coefficient 0.93 0.83 0.79 0.74 0.83 0.76 0.91 0.86

* Snedecor, G. W., 1956. Statistical Methods, 5th ed. Iowa
State College Press. 162.

The data were analyzed to determine the effect of the
remaining carcass heat, after chilling, 0n the amount of‘
water that could be available for absorption during iceepack
storage. This was calculated by use of the following formula:

Q ='m s t x 24 x 0.317
Where
0 = grams of ice melted

221

average initial carcass weight

8

specific heat of the carcass (0.76)
t = degrees F. change in carcass temperature
24 = number of carcasses per treatment

0.317 = BTU's required to melt 1 gram of ice
An estimate of the theoretical amount of ice that could have
been melted during a given period of time within each experi-
ment was determined. The results of this analysis for EXperip
ment 9 are reported in Table 5. Similar results were obtained
for Experiments 6 - 8 and 10 - 13 and are reported in Tables
6 - 12 of the Appendix. From the second to the fourth hour

53

Table 5. The accumulated theoretical heat loss, amount of
ice melted by that heat, and change in weight of
24 fryer carcasses chilled for 30 minutes in slush
ice and held in ice-pack at 35° F. (Experiment 9)

 

A.“

 

Time B.T.U. Ice Melted Wt. Chan e
(hrs) (grams)_ (grams
1 .. .. ..

2 547.05 1,725 - 70
3 573.35 1,808 - 52
4 578.61 1,825 - 71
5 " " - 51
6 " " - 19
7 " " + 34
8 " " +116
'9 " " + 88
10 " " +104
11 " " ‘ + 99
12 " " +104
21; " " +11 1

+154

.1:
CD

 

 

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64
of the experiment, the carcasses theoretically lost 578.61
BTU's of heat that could have melted 1,825 grams of ice.
However, as shown in Table 5, during this same period of
time, the carcasses lost 71 grams of weight. Between the
fourth and 48th hour of the experiment there was no measurable
change in the average carcass temperature that would result
in the melting of the surrounding ice. Even so, carcass

weights increased by 154 grams.

 

 

DISCUSSION

The results from Experiments 1 and 2 indicated that the
increase in weights during chilling and the subsequent weight
loss during storage in ice-pack were proportional to the
length of the chill period. This concurs with the findings.
of Fromm and Monroe (1958). It was found from.Experiments 3
t0 5 that carcasses held in ice-packs at room temperature, or
initially placed in ice-packs and held at 35° F. continued to
increase in weight rather than lose weight during their
respective storage periods. These results indicated that.
changes in carcass weights were related to length of chill
period, holding temperature and changes in average carcass
temperature. A reduction in chill time resulted in less
moisture uptake and subsequently a lower weight to be main-
tained. The.reduced chill time resulted in more heat remainp
ing in the carcass, which could be used to melt the surround-
ing ice to provide water for weight maintenance. Therefore,
it appeared that at a given chill time there was a definite.
-amount of water required to maintain carcass weights. Thus,
maintenance of carcass weights would depend on the relation-
ship between average carcass temperature and refrigerator
temperature due to their influence on the amount and rate of
ice melted.

When weight changes were evaluated at hourly intervals
after carcasses were chilled for 1/2 and 2 hours, it was
found, however, that they lost weight during the first 4.to

6 hours of storage in ice-pack. The carcass weights then

65

66
stabilized or increased under certain chilling and temperature
conditions. Carcasses chilled for 2 hours and held in ice-
pack at 35° F. lost weight during the initial period of ice-
pack storage, after which their weights were relatively stable.
0n the other hand, when they were held at 40° F. or 60° F. the
carcasses had regained a major portion or more of the initial
weight decrease by the twelfth hour in Experiments 6 and 7.
Similar results were obtained for carcasses chilled for 1/2
hour in that they lost weight during the first hours of stor-
age in ice-pack and began to increase rapidly in weight
through the twelfth hour when held at 35° F., 400 F. or 60° F.
In all experiments where ice-pack conditions were conducive
to weight increases, weights were relatively stable from the
twelfth through the 48th hour when the experiments were term-
inated. Thus, it appears that this relationship did not
prevent a major change in carcass weights, but did bring
about a positive adjustment in carcass weights.

These results suggested the postulation that the de-
crease in weight immediately after the birds were ice-packed
was due to_the time required for the temperature of the
carcass and the cooler to begin to melt the ice at a rate
fast enough to offset the loss of carcass moisture due to
drainage and/or evaporation. However, when the average
carcass temperature data were analyzed to estimate the amount
of ice that could be melted by the remaining carcass heat
(i.e. Experiment’9, Table 4), it was found that more ice
could have been melted than the amount of weight lost by the

carcasses during the first 3% hours of storage. This indicates

67

that changes in average carcass temperature tend to influence
the amount of weight decrease during the initial period in
ice-pack. Apparently an excess of water from ice was required
to bring about any change in carcass weights. This was due

to the proximity of the birds to the ice, and ice water lost
by drainage.
' It could be theorized that the decrease in carcass
weights after birds were ice packed could be associated with
relationships within or between the water holding mechanisms
of the carcass. Lentz and Rooks (1958) pointed out that 75-
percent of the absorbed water was loosely held in lenses or
pockets between the thighs and body, muscles and tissues under
the skin of the back and neck of birds chilled for 24 hours.
In Experiment 22, it was found that approximately one hour

of chilling was required before any measurable amount of
water was absorbed by the skin of the carcass. Therefore, it
would appear that the major portion of the water taken up by
the carcasses during 1/2 and 2-hour chill periods was trapped
under the skin of the back and neck as reported by Lentz and
Rocks (1958). Thus, a large part of the trapped water drained
during storage in ice-pack and the amount of water reabsorbed
was not sufficient to off-set the drainage, which resulted in
a decrease in carcass weights during the initial period of
storage in ice-pack.

The stabilization or increase in carcass weights that
occurred after four to six hours of storage could be due to
a minimization of the drainage and the gradual absorption of
water by the skin. The results of Experiment 20 tend to

68
indicate that the moisture content of the skin increased
during ice-pack storage.

It was found that a holding temperature of 40° F. or
above would melt sufficient ice to provide a quantity of
water which would allow an increase in carcass weights in
excess of the chilled weight, regardless of length of chill,
during ice-pack storage. When birds were chilled for two
hours and held at 35° F. only enough water was provided to
stabilize weights after the weight loss which occurred during
the initial stages of ice-pack holding. 0n the other hand,
birds chilled for 1/2 hour increased in weight after the
fourth to sixth hour of storage at 35° F. This would support
the theory that changes in weight of ready-to-cook poultry
could be controlled by adjusting the length of the chill
period so that the loss in weight after the birds were ice-
packed would be equal to the amount of water reabsorbed '
during the remaining period of ice-pack storage. Also, ad-
justments in the cooler temperature might be used to give the
same result by adjusting the amount of water for reabsorption
to the amount of weight lost due to water loss during the
first hours of ice-pack storage. However, it appears that
refrigerator temperatures above 35° F. would not be conducive
to satisfactory shelf-life of the poultry. Therefore, it
would seem that adjustment of the length of the chill period
to the amount of water made available at 35° F. would be the
most satisfactory solution to the problem of controlling

changes in carcass weights.

It was found that carcasses chilled for two hours and

69

held at 35° F. lost weight during ice-pack storage. Carcasses
chilled for 30 minutes and held at 35° F. lost weight and then
increased in weight to an amount in excess of the chilled
weight. It was postulated that these results were due to
nonéequalization of the amount of moisture lost by drainage
and the amount made available for absorption by the skin
'during ice-pack storage at 35° F. Thus, birds chilled for
two hours lost more moisture than the carcass heat and 35° F..
temperature could melt from ice and make available for
absorption. However, the amount of water available at that
'temperature was sufficient to bring about a stabilization of
weights after the fourth or sixth hour of storage. When
carcasses were chilled for 30 minutes the amount of water
made available from melted ice was greater than the amount
lost and resulted in a net increase in carcass weights in
excess of the chilled weight.

Based on the previous results birds were chilled for
45 minutes in an attempt to adjust the amount of moisture
lost to the amount that could be absorbed at 35° F. and 400 F.
As was eXpected, the birds held at 409 F. increased in weight
during the latter portion of the holding period by an amount
in excess of the weight lost during the first 3 to 4 hours
of storage in ice-pack. However, when carcasses were held
at 35~ F. the increase in weight during the latter portion
of the holding period was less than that lost during the
initial period of ice-pack storage. At first, it was assumed
that 45 minutes of chilling was too long, due to the small

8120 of the carcasses resulting in too much carcass heat

 

 

 

70

being removed during the chill period. Thus, two additional
experiments were conducted under the same conditions, using
larger birds. Results similar to those from the earlier
experiment were obtained when carcasses were held at 40° F.
However, carcasses held at 35° F. gained more weight during
the latter portion of the holding period than they lost
during the initial period of storage in ice-pack. This was
contrary to the results obtained in the first experiment
conducted under similar conditions. This led to the conclu-
sion that an additional factor was influencing changes in
carcass weights. Further evaluation of the data indicated
that the only difference between the three experiments was
the average weight of the carcasses used. The data indicated
that with each increase in average carcass weight the amount.
of weight increase more closely approached that of the weight
lost during the first 4 to 6 hours of ice-pack storage at
35° F. The reverse of this phenomenon was observed for birds
held at 400 F. Based on these findings, another experiment
was conducted in which carcasses of high average weight were
chilled for one hour and held in ice-pack at 35° F. It was
found that the increase in weight more nearly approached that
which was lost during the first 4 to 6 hours of holding in
ice-pack than was obtained from smaller carcasses chilled
for 45 minutes.

These results did not concur with previous results
Which indicated that an increase in average carcass weight
had a negative rather than a positive influence on controlling

Changes in carcass weights. A direct relationship was found

71
between carcass weights and changes in carcass weights due to
slush ice chilling and storage in ice-pack. Assuming that
only so much water would be made available from ice for ab-
sorption at any given temperature, it would appear that any
increase in the weight loss would result in a reduced recovery
of weight during the remaining ice-pack holding period. It
could then be assumed that the average carcass weight had
some indirect as well as direct influence on changes in weight
of ready-to-cook poultry.

.In the following theorization, a constant temperature
of 35° F. will be used due to its positive influence on the
shelf-life of ready-to-cook poultry. The proposed theory is
that the average carcass weight indirectly influences the
changes in carcass weights by controlling the amount of ice
in which the birds are packed. In this study, 24 birds per
experiment were packed in wire-bound boxes with a layer of
ice on the bottom of the box and another layer on the top
layer of birds. In this manner, as the weight of the birds
increased the amount of ice per pack decreased. A smaller
mass of ice would melt more rapidly than would a larger mass
of ice. _Thus, the smaller mass of ice surrounding the larger
birds would melt faster supplying a greater amount of water
for absorption by the carcasses in a given period of time.

A greater mass of ice surrounding the smaller carcasses would
not melt as rapidly, which would result in less water avail-
able for absorption.

This might explain why the birds chilled for 45 minutes
and held at 35° F. more nearly maintained their chilled

72
weight as the average carcass weight increased. The smaller
carcasses had smaller weight increases and smaller weight
decreases but the mass of ice surrounding them was too large
for the carcass heat and 35° F. temperature to melt at a rate
sufficient to provide enoughwater for absorption to offset
the weight loss that occurred during the initial period of
storage in ice-pack. As the carcass weight increased the
mass of ice was reduced to an amount where the carcass heat
and 35° F. temperature could melt it at a rate sufficient to
produce enough water so that an increase in weight in excess
of the chilled weight was obtained. When birds of greater
average weight were chilled for one hour and held at 35° F.
the mass of ice was further reduced and the increase in weight
more nearly equaled that lost during the initial stages of
ice-pack holding.

It appears then that the original hypothesis that
"changes in weight of ready-to-cook poultry could be minimized
by a relationship between length of chill period, average car-
cass temperature and holding temperature” was correct. How- '
ever, it was not complete in its scope. 'The results now
indicate that the hypothesis should be expanded, and indica-
tions are the changes in weight of ready-to-cook poultry can
be minimized by a relationship between length of chill,
average carcass weight, the mass of the surrounding ice,
changes.in average carcass temperature, and the holding temp-
erature.

These results indicate that further investigations of

the relationships between the controlling factors already

73
proposed would be justified. Due to the apparent influence
of the mass of the surrounding ice in ice-pack, an evaluation
of the size of the ice particle (i.e. flake or crushed) in.
relation to carcass and holding temperature should be made.
Additional information is needed concerning the mechanism
and/or mechanisms by which the carcass holds water taken up
during the chill period. The method by which the carcass
loses moisture and regains it during holding in ice-pack

should also be determined.

SUMMARY

This study was conducted to test the hypothesis that
the changes in carcass weights due to slush ice chilling are
associated with and can be controlled by a relationship
between the length of chill period, changes in the average
internal carcass temperature, and holding temperature. Fry-
ers, 8 to 10 weeks of age were slaughtered, eviscerated
(roaster style) and the giblets and neck sealed in plastic.
bags and replaced in the body cavity. The processed fryers
were subjected to various chilling periods and ice-pack
holding conditions. The changes in carcass weight and temp-
erature were obtained by weighing the carcasses at various
time intervals and by placing thermocouples in the carcasses
and recording their temperature with a recording potentiometer.
The moisture content of various carcass tissues, as affected
by different chilling and holding conditions was determined,,
and the water permeability was determined for chicken broiler
skin held in slush ice.

The results indicate that the weight increase during
chilling and the weight decrease during storage in ice-pack,
was directly pr0portional to the length of the chill period.
There was also a direct relationship between.the size of the
carcass and the weight increase and decrease_during slush
ice chilling and holding in ice-pack. Holding temperatures
of 40° F. or above were conducive to carcass weight increases
in excess of the chilled weight of the carcass. Similar

results were obtained, however, when carcasses were chilled

74

75
for 1/2 hour and held in ice-pack at 35° F. Indications were
that loss of the remaining carcass heat during the first 35
hours of storage in ice-pack influenced the weight decrease
that occurred during that time. An additional factor which
.appeared to influence changes in carcass weights was the size
.0f the carcass in relation to the mass of ice surrounding the
carcasses in ice-pack. 0n the basis of these findings, it.
may be theorized that changes in carcass weights were due to
and controlled by a relationship between length of chill
period, carcass weight, amount of ice in ice-pack, carcass
temperature and holding temperature.

Experiments were conducted to determine the effect of
various chilling and ice-pack conditions on the moisture
content of different carcass tissues. Although the data were
not conclusive, the indications were that the moisture COD!
tent of the skin was changed in a positive direction during
ice-pack storage at 35° F., regardless of the length of chill.

In one experiment, intact skin and skin with the sub-
cutaneous fat and membranes removed were exposed to slush.
ice to determine the water permeability of the skin. Water
passed through the lateral trunk space in approximately one,
hour when the fat layer was removed. This evidence of water
penetration was accompanied by an increase in the weight of
the skin section. However, when the skin was left intact
the results were variable. Evidence of water penetration
was observed after four to six hours of exposure in each of
two trials. In the first trial, water penetration was .

observed prior to an increase in the weight of the skin

76
section, while the reverse was found in the second trial.

As in the case of the moisture analysis data, these results
indicate that the skin may be the primary carcass tissue
involved with changes in carcass weights.

Fryer carcasses reached a maximum level of water absorp-
tion between 72 and 120 hours when held in agitated slush ice.
Carcasses with giblets in the body cavity took up slightly 7
moreéwater than those without giblets in the body cavity..
During the 120 hour chill period carcasses with giblets in-
creased in weight by.29.9 percent, while those without gib-
lets increased in weight by 27.8 percent of their initial

eviscerated weight.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bailey, R. L., G. F. Stewart and B. Lowe, 1948. Ice slush
cooling of dressed poultry. Refrigerating Eng.
55: 369-371.

Baker, R. 0., 1959. Moisture uptake of water-cooled poultry
carcasses. Poultry Sci. 38: 1186 (Abs.).

Connolly, R. J., R. L. Miller, Jr. and G. F. Stewart, 1954.
Chilling eviscerated poultry in flowing liquid. Refrig-
erating Eng. 62: 54-56.

Cook, H. H., 1939. Precooling of poultry. Food Res. 4:
245-257. -

Esselen, W. H., A. S. Levine, I. J. Pflug and L. L. Davis,
1954. Brine immersion cooling and freezing of ready-
to-cook poultry. Refrigerating Eng. 62: 100-102.

Fromm, D. and R. J. Monroe, 1958. Moisture absorption and .
retention of freshly eviscerated broilers as influenced
by holding time in slush ice. Poultry Sci. 37: 328-331.

Froning, G. H.,.M. H. Swanson and H. N. Benson, 1958. Moist-
ure levels in processed chicken broilers as related to
thawing losses, cookin losses and palatability scores.
Poultry Sci. 37: 1205 iAbs.)

Gwin, J. M., 1951. The weight and quality of freshly-dressed
poultry as affected by dressing, cooling, holding. Am.
Egg and Poultry Review 12: 38- 0.

Henry, H. R. and D. Fromm, 1958. Economic aspects of pro-
longed broiler chilling. A. E. Inf. Series No. 67, Dept.
of Agr. Econ., North Carolina State Univ., Raleigh,
North Carolina. .

Hurley, W. C., 0. J. Kahlenberg, E. M. Funk, L. G. Maharg
and N. L. Webb, 1958. Factors affecting poultry: 1.
Inorganic constituents. Poultry Sci. 37: 1436-1440.

Kahlenberg, 0. J., E. M. Funk, L. A. Voss, L. G. Maharg and
N. L. Webb, 1960. Factors affecting poultry flavor.
2. The effect of a mechanical quick-chill cooling unit.
Poultry Sci. 39: 350-353.

Klose, A. A., M. F. Pool and D. DeFremery, 1959. Effect of
rapid agitated chilling of poultry on quality- Poultry
Sci. 38: 1219 (Abs.). .

Kotula,.A. H., J. E. Thomson and J. A. Kinner, 1960a. Hater
absorption by eviscerated broilers during washing and
chilling. U.S.D.A. Mkt. Res. Report No. 438.

77

78

Kotula, A. H., J. E. Thomson and J. A. Kinner, 1960b. Weight
.increase during chilling of broilers as influenced by
method of opening the abdominal cavity during eviscer-
ation. Poultry Sci. 39: 226-227 (Res. note).

Imntz, C. P. and E. A. Rocks, 1958. What weight changes
occur in eviscerated poultry during immersion cooling
and draining. Food in Canada 18: 24-27.

Orr, H. L., 1953. Ontario Agricultural College carcass cool-
ing tests. Am. Egg and Poultry Review 15: 18-20.

Pippen, E. L. and A. A. Klose, 1955. Effects of iceawater
chiéling on flavor of chicken. Poultry Sci. 34: 1139-
11 .

Roberts, J. and E. I. Robertson, 1941. A comparison of wet
and dry cooling of dressed poultry. Washington Agr.
Exp. Sta. Bull. 403.

Snedecor, G. H., 1956. Statistical Methods Applied to Experi-
ments in Agriculture and Biology, 5th ed. The Iowa State
College Press, Ames, Iowa. 162. . -

Stratton, C. L., 1958. Fryers chilled and packed in thirty
minutes. Poultry Processing and Marketing 64: 12-13, 18.

Sweet, M. H. and G. F. Stewart, 1942. Refrigerated brine
sprays for cooling dressed poultry. U. S. Egg and
Poultry Mag. 48: 261, 308-312.

Tarver, .r. 2., Jr., 0. c. McGhee and 0. s. Goff, 1956. The
rate of cooling and water absorption of poultry held in
various mediums. Poultry Sci. 35: 905-910.

Thomson, J. E., A. W. Kotula and J. A. Kinner, 1961. The
effect of temperature and time of pro-chill immersion
on total moisture absorption by fryer chickens. Poultry
Sci. 40: 1139-1142.

Williams, I. L. and E. M. Funk, 1941. Factors affecting
temperature changes in dressed poultry during refrig-
eration. .Missouri Agr. Exp. Sta. Res. Bull. 334.

APPENDIX

1h

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80

 

 

 

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87

Table 6. The accumulated theoretical heat loss, amount of ice melted
by that heat, and change in weight of 24 fryer carcasses
chilled in slush ice for 2 hours and held in ice-pack at
35°F. (Experiment 6)

 

 

 

Time Heat loss Ice melted Weight change
(hrs) (B.‘.U.'s) (gms) Aggms)
3 42.30 133 - 5
,44 54.99 173 I - 66
5 " " - 9O
6 63.45 200 - 101
7 67.88 213 - 93
8 -- -- - 97
9 11 H - 83
10 " " ' 81
11 76.14 h 240 - 88
12 ’ " " - 81
24 " " 85

48 . 11 ” - 130

 

88

Table 7. The accumulated theoretical heat loss, amount of ice
melted by that heat and change in weight of 24 fryer~
carcasses chilled in slush ice for 2 hours and held in
ice-pack at 40°F. (Eerriment 7)

 

Time Heat loss Ice melted Weight change
(hrs.) (B.T.U.'s) (gms.) figmsi)
3 20.30 64 - 103
4 29.85 94 - 110
5 31.64 99 - 128
6 " " - 102
7 i' H - 119
8 H "' - 98
9 " " - 83
10 " " - 93
11 " " - 53
12 " " " 61
24 " " ‘ - 62

48 " " + 7-

 

89

Table 8. The accumulated theoretical heat loss, amount of ice
melted by that heat and change in weight of 24 fryer
carcasses chilled in slush ice for 2 hours and held
in ice- ack at 60°F. Ex eriment 8)

 

Time Heat loss Ice melted Weight change
(hrs.) (B.T.U.'s) (gms.)_ (gmsg)
3 O 0 - 78
4 24.71 77.94 - 77
5 H .. - 112
6 .. .. - 94
7 " " - 54
3 " " + 7
9 " " + 50
10 .'. .. + 82
11 '5 '7' + 102
12 'l' " + 113
24 1| " + 135

48 H '1 + 256

 

 

9C)

Table 9. The accumulated theoretical heat loss, amount of ice
melted by that heat and change in weight of 24 fryer
carcasses chilled in slush ice for 30 minutes and held

in ice-Back at 40°F. SEerriment 102

 

 

Time Heat loss Ice melted Weight change
(hrs.) (B.T.U.'s) (gms.) (gms.)
1 - - - _ - -

2 321.26 1,013 - 71
3 375.28 1,183 - 109
4 420.10 1,325 + 15
5 454.01 1,432 +7 33
6 475.85 1,501 + 48
7 502.86 1,586 + 114
8 520.67 1,642 + 145
9 540.21 1,704 + 153
10 552.85 1,743 + 163
11 570.66 1,800 + 163
12 583.30 1,840 . + 191
24 621.23 1,959 + 206

48 II " + 278

91

Table 10. The accumulated theoretical heat loss, amount of ice
melted by that heat and change in weight of 24 fryer
carcasses chilled in slush ice for 30 minutes and held
in iceepack at 60°F. (gxgeriment 11)

 

 

Time Heat loss Ice melted Weight change
(Hrs.) (B.T.U.'s) (gms.) (gms.)
' 1
2 60.80 191 - 53
3 56.46 " ' - 72
4 60.80 205 - 21
5 " " + 57
6 " “ + 27
7 .. H + 66
8 .. H + 71
9 1' “ + 88
10 u! “ + 103
11 H " + 127
12 I! " + 145
24 n " + 133

48

92

Table 11. The accumulated theoretical heat loss, amount of ice
melted by that heat, and change in weight of 24 fryer
carcasses chilled in slush ice for 45 minutes and held
in icefipack at 35°F. (Experiment 12)

 

 

Time Heat loss Ice melted Weight change
(hrs.) (B.T.U.'s)r (gms.) (gms.)
2 4.65 . 14 - 87
3 23.60 74 - 105
4 41.48 130 - 88
5 51.49 ‘162 - 97
6 55.06 173 - 91
7 '57.20 180 - 98
8 62.56 197 - 96
9 . 1' 197 - 103
10 68.28 215 - 94
11 " " ' 88
12 " " ‘ 83
24 " " ' 77
.. - 53

93

Table 12. The accumulated theoretical heat loss, amount of ice
melted by that heat and change in weight of 24 fryer
carcasses chilled in slush ice for 45 minutes and held

in ice—Rack at 40°F. gEerriment l3) '

 

 

Time 4 Heat loss Ice melted Weight change
(Hrs.) (B.T.U.'s) (gms.)_ (gms.)
2 1.35 4 ‘ - 64
3 22.02 69‘ - 79
4 ‘ 35.23 111 - 80
5 I 39.97 126 - 80
6 42.34 133 - 83
7 41.32 " - 81
8 42.34 136 - 80
9 43.89 141 - 79
10 42.34 " - 56
11 43.89 145 - 51 .
12 " " - 49
24 'I' " 46

48 H . '7' + 26

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