A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF THE TREATMENT OF NEGRO CHARACTERS IN CHILDREN’S PICTURE BOOKS 1930 - 1953 ’ Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. _ MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY JANE, MARIE BINGHAM 1,970 nan/my 3*: Michigan State University “was This is to certify that the thesis entitled A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF THE TREATMENT OF NEGRO CHARACTERS IN CHILDREN'S PICTURE BOOKS 1930-1968 presented by Jane Marie Bingham has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M degree in mm on flgw ,x/ i Major professor] Date Feb. 12, 1970 0-169 LIBRARIES h RETURNING MATERIALS: P ace m o ,r'op to remove this checkout fmm your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. -_..._. — ‘-_ ‘._.- _ ABSTRACT CONTENT ANALYSIS OF THE TREATMENT OF GRO CHARACTERS IN CHILDREN'S PICTURE BOOKS 1930- 1968 By Jane Marie Bingham The Problem m"The purpose of the study was to ascertain how the irican Negro had been depicted in the illustrations of 9 Jane Marie Bingham -.? ',' Do Negro characters interact with a variety of persons fgéig variety of ways? What is the race, sex, and age of the 3%? sons with whom they interact? Is the type of interaction €§§rallel, non-physical, or physical? Does the variety of *Zgéfsons and types of interaction differ markedly during the gimfeur historical periods? " V" Can any statements be made as to the difference in f’ptmeatment of the Negro characters in the several areas of ‘lbsflalysis during the four historical periods outlined in the ‘ D ,. steady? Procedures l ; f; A total of forty-one books which included 1,067 ,f :_' " :151llustrations were found on recommended book lists used w L . fly librarians, teachers, and children's literature special- EESts. The books were grouped into four historical periods: "go-19411, 19115—1954, 1955-1964, 1965—1968. Four major categories were constructed in order to jfiyfiferentiate and describe the treatment of Negro characters faction. ‘9 A coding instrument, constructed for the purpose of ytudy, included sub-categories of the major categories ,, EWere derived from the questions posed, and were based Jane Marie Bingham ‘_l,_‘3; Conclusions gins: .The major conclusions of the study were: Elie. (l) Negro characters were depicted with a variety cdflfi skin colors, hair textures, hair styles, nose, lip, ngumd eye formations and body builds. Characters . _.8howed the least amount of variety in their hair coloring. 3.133hile the variety did not differ markedly during the : .n.'§istor1cal periods there were some differences. Most ‘ _ exaggerations, as in eye and lip formations and body build, "rpccurred in the earliest period (1930-19A4) and seemed to . ,reflect the prevailing social concepts of the time. .1.g.. (2) Almost no important conclusions could be drawn °-Rabout environmental conditions because of the paucity of fialnterior and exterior situations in all historical periods. ,ggeriod four (1965-1968) did include, however, more interior .7gahd exterior details, possibly because of the growing social jigfigncern and demand to show Negroes in more realistic ‘gfiggttings. ‘5L5L (3) Considering all historical periods, there were EEQ§r63Negroes in work roles in the first two periods (1930- ‘ 9 and 1945—195A), than there were Caucasians in the last '211955-1964 and 1965-1968). The Negroes in the first ,ogcupetional. In the second period, more Caucasians Jane Marie Bingham’ *g7tound in all roles——professional, occupational, and rfifneorer. This apparent discrepancy with the social revolu- .;*?:0n of the latter periods might be accounted for as an , attempt to show more complete integration within society =88 a whole. ‘ I. More Negro than Caucasian home roles were shown, with iiimore mothers than fathers being present. Few adults other I [Sghan parents were shown. Understandably, more Negro than -: EGaucasian home roles were shown because almost all of the 3_]Juvenile main.characters were Negroes. (A) Though a variety of types of interaction and hcharacters were identified for all periods, none of the Vi fifiegro main characters interacted in any way or at any time .iegfiith a Negro female teen-ager or a Caucasian baby. Few ‘ '“7395ro male teen-agers, Negro babies, Caucasian male and 3 fifimmale teen—agers, and Caucasian female juveniles were I: ipentiried. ‘j§.. The interaction among a variety of characters did not .$W;;ffer markedly from period to period. However, the variety Ififfifi type of interaction did differ during the four historical :77;'iods. The amount of physical interaction increased from .I‘: ind one (l930-194A) to period four (1965—1968), most sably reflecting the greater amount of interaction which being encouraged in society as a whole. A CONTENT ANALYSIS OF THE TREATMENT OF NEGRO CHARACTERS IN CHILDREN'S PICTURE BOOKS 1930-1968 By Jane Marie Bingham A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements . for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education it of Elementary and Special Education Q 1970 .. To Grayce Scholt, 7i"}iénd and teacher of literature for children, kr‘, ého introduced me to the world of children's I‘ t 7 books,with gratitude and i V: lie”: ‘I ,_fi affection. In ‘. "1t ‘ 1.1“ 7 11 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Grateful appreciation is extended to Dr. Jean M. ?*;;.under whose helpful guidance and assistance this .1..E§§ undertaken. Further appreciation is expressed ;.T° the raters for the study, Miss Susan Kilmer, lfi,:ger of WFBE, Flint Community Schools and Mrs. Karen ékson, Traffic and Operations at WFBE, go sincerest .ffiinks. ‘ ;:T* Appreciation is also extended to Miss Dana Bashore ‘ Z helping to locate some of the children's picture books “.in the study, and to my father, Mr. Ferrell J. Bingham, constant encouragement. ‘ 1.11 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ;JEQICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘ii WOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . 11:1 MS'L'OFTABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . vi upter I.. INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . 1 Need for the Study. . . . .« . . . A Importance of the Study . . . . . 6 Purpose of the Study . . . . 10 Assumptions Underlying the Study . . . 11 Definitions of the Terms Used . . . . 12 Questions. . . . . . . . . 21 Limitations . . . . . . . . . . 22 Overview . . . . . 23 Organization of the Remainder of the1 StUdy c o n o I I I o o o l 23 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. . . . . . . 25 The Importance and Effectiveness of Illustrations. . . . 26 The Function and Brief History of Illustrations in Books for Children . 31 . The Importance of Pictures for the Development of Concepts in Young Children . 33 The Effect of Illustrations in Creating I, -. Racial Awareness and Racial Acceptance in Young Children . . . . 36 The Self-Concept of the Negro Child . . A0 Brief Social History of the American . - Negro o o ' 1‘7 Critical Review of Studies Analyzing -the Treatment of the Negro in Books for Children 0 C O I O O O I I 65 iv DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . . Sampling. . . . . . . . Categorization of Books. . . . . . Constructing Categories. . . . . Justification for Selection of ‘ Categories . Developing Instrumentation. . Using the Instrument. . . . Use of Raters . . . . . ANALYSIS OF RESULTS . . . . . . . . Presentation of the Findings . . . Physical Characteristics. . . . Environmental Characteristics . . Adult Roles . . Character Interaction. . Summarization of the Findings. Physical Characteristics. . Environmental Characteristics Adult Roles . . . Character Interaction. . . Discussion of the Findings. 0 a I o o I t I I SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . ' “._I Conclusions. . . . . . . . “2‘ Recommendations and Implications for Further Study . . . . . . . . i“ .1 ‘f (BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . 150 153 162 171 1811' 203 LIST OF TABLES 'Wable . Page 1. Number and Percentage of Illustrations Containing Negro Characters by Period. . . 102 2. Number and Percentage of Negro and Caucasian Characters Found in Total Number of Picture Books by Periods. . . . . J . . . . 104 3. Number of Types of Settings Found in Books by Period . . . . . . . 105 A. Negro Characters Found to Have Different Skin Colors by Period. . . . . . . . . . 107 5. Negro Characters Found to Have Different Hair Colors by Period. . . . . . . . . . 108 6. Negro Characters Found to Have Different Hair Textures by Period . . . . . . . . . 110 7. Negro Characters Found to Have Different Hair Styles by Period. . . . . . . . . . lll Negro Characters Found to Have Different Nose Formations by Period . . . . . . . . 112 Negro Characters Found to Have Different Eye Formations by Period . . . . . . . . 113 'Negro Characters Found to Have Different Lip Formations by Period . . . . . . . . 115 Negro Characters Found to Have Different Body. Builds by Period . . . . . . . . . 116 Frequency of Interior Environmental Character- istics Found by Period. . . . . . . . 118' Frequency of Exterior Environmental Character- istics Found by Period. . . . . . . . 119 I‘hhhfy Page Percentage of Non—Home Adult Roles Found According to Race and by Period . . . . . 121 Percentage of Home Adult Roles Found According to Race and by Period , , , , _ 121 Number of Non—Home Professional Adult Roles Found by Period . . . . 123 Number of Non—Home Occupational Adult Roles Found by Period . . . . . . . . . 123 Number of Non-Home Laborer Adult Roles Found by Period . . . . . . . . . . 12“ Number of Mother and Father Home Roles Found by Period . . . . . . . . 1214 Number of Relative and Friend Home Roles Found by Period . . . . . . . . . . 125 Type and Amount of Character Interaction Found by Period . . . . . . . . . . 127 -Frequency of Parallel Interaction Between Negro Main Character and Other Characters byPeriod........ 128 Frequency of Non—Physical Interaction Between Negro Main Character and Other Characters by Period. .. . . . . . . . 129 Frequency of Physical Interaction Between Negro Main Character and Other Characters by Period I I O O I I O C I O I I 130 vii . _ ;; CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Present day Americans are struggling with the con— .eept of what it means to be a Negro in America. The under— \standing of this complex concept is crucial to both black and white, young and old. Answers to such questions as: ‘flhat do Negroes look like? Where do Negroes live? What ;: lean Negroes do? How do Negroes act? How do Negroes feel? I ;.§'are important for all young, impressionable children, . . "g‘. regardless of race or ethnic origin. How Negro characters :2 rare treated in the picture books that a young child sees ‘?={may help him in his early formulation of answers to the h n_‘ ”A an early positive racial awareness. In order that young L"‘--.q_vu.est:l.ons posed. Young children may be helped to develop If’lchildren, may become responsible, confident, and construc- ¥tjmive1y contributing members of American society, it is i:j1mperative that during their most impressionable years, iitiall children, particularly black children, who historically gually imperative that young white children, who ;;j§atitute America's racial majority, be imbued with respect I.tfifir and understanding of all members of society, including ‘Ffibgroes. The number of trade books published for children :in the United States continues to increase each year. In ‘A0 1920 there were only 410 trade bOOkS published for chil- ' dren; in 1965 almost three thousand children's trade books were published.1 A significant number of these are books especially designed for young children who have not yet -, llearned to read the printed word. These books use many ,I. illustrations to help children interpret the story as it ”:5 is read to them; they also enable children to create ’5 ;: } their own stories using the pictures as a guide. Most of 7:? these books have a picture on every page and their text ', is quite brief. In the present study the illustrations in children's W Vl‘ '1gafpicture books were viewed as having three important func— ll . lptions: (l) to describe the text, (2) to interpret the f§’%§3t. (3) to decorate the text. The illustration describes ‘éEwthe,text by presenting accurate concepts and accurate fiaedetails in close Juxtaposition with the text. The illus- 3{;;ration interprets the text by adding details, concepts, Antleties, and moods that the text does not describe. '7 lCharlotte Huck and Doris Kuhn, Children's Litera— n the Elementar School (2nd ed.; New York: Holt, 3 J . ( .r ' :idustration may also decorate the text in order to make f 'a I { {mfihe book more aesthetically attractive and create interest ~:.in reading the text. Young children do attend closely to the pictures afound in books that are especially designed for them. Therefore, the content of the books' illustrations becomes ”.' a matter of concern for persons interested in the young 7 child's development. -What a young child sees in a picture zéontributes to his development of both concrete and abstract concepts.2 ;.: It is acknowledged that books alone or the pictures ",i they contain will not cure the many ills of American society ; 2 that serve to infect each new generation with crippling ”ideas and attitudes. As instruments for the transmitting ! :5 or cultural values, books do have the potential to provide ‘3‘};each _new generation with sound information and to foster syfihealthy attitudes. In a small but significant way, books hltfiay-add positive nourishment to the hope of the world--the LTEAEhildren--those impressionable beings who have the time to iffyibok and to learn, and have the potential to create a world ‘— . "peace based on the understanding, respect, and appre- ;;tion of human differences. 2Elizabeth Hurlock, Child Develo ment (4th ed.; New : McGraw-Hill Company, 19 , pp. 92-493. Need for the Study The need for this Study arose most broadly from the ' ;need in the field of children's literature to assess the historical development With respect to societal attitudes '2 toward the representation of American Negroes in books recommended for children. More specifically, this study was concerned with the representation of the Negro in the illustrations in books for young children who have not yet mastered the skill of reading the printed word, but who are capable of "reading" pictures. Just as members of other areas in American society _ are examining themselves in light of the "new Negro mili- :‘ tancy" and civil rights legislation which calls for the positive treatment of black people in American society, people concerned with literature for children have also f;: been examining the content of this literature in terms of :;vvhow the Negro American has been and is presently being :iggtreated. Various methods have been used to assess the ¥f‘literature which includes Negroes, and various aspects of sjithe literature have been considered, but no study has dealt Legexclusively with the text or the illustrations in books fbr young children. Studies that have analyzed a few of he books which are appropriate for young children and are also included for analysis in the present study, were either subjective summaries of the books' contents and the evaluators' Opinion of thebooks‘worth, or analyses of the total content of each book with the illustrations playing a secondary role in the analysis. The need for this study also arose from the inves— tigator's belief that a summary was needed of that which had been written and researched concerning the treatment of the Negro in literature for children. Since the 195” school integration decision, much research has been done and various opinions have been given concerning the treat—’ ment of the Negro American in various sectors of American life. The numerical representation of Negro Americans in a variety of occupations, schools, and geographical regions of the United States have been reported in great detail. Although the numerical representation of the Negro in the books children read has not been as systematically studied, a popular magazine article has pointed out the paucity of the representation of Negroes in books for children.3 2 Teachers of both black and white children have become more and more interested in knowing titles of books which they can use with their children that would depict Negro Americans in a "positive, non-stereotypic" manner. The Children's Catalog has books listed under the separate 3Nancy Larrick, "The All—White World of Children's Books," Saturday Review, September 11, 1965, pp. 63-65. I Bubpheading Negroes. Several resources are devoted to listing books which deal exclusively with minority groups-- the Negro being among the groups represented. Other ref- erence sources deal exclusively with books which include Negro characters, giving a brief annotation of each book recommended. Thus, it seemed important and appropriate to analyze the illustrations in books for young children found on recommended lists of books which included Negro characters. Importance of the Study It is important that books for children be carefully selected and that their pictures be carefully examined. Dr. Patricia J. Cianciolo has attested to the need for accuracy in children's books: Regional, racial, religious or nationality groups should be pictured in an atmosphere which is accurate, She has also stated that it is the responsibility of the book selector: to choose books that will respect the uniqgeness and similarities in the various social groups. The fact that children often need help in interpret- :ing or "reading" pictures,as pointed out by Todd and ”Patricia J. Cianciolo, "Criteria for the Use of a , .Trade Books in the Elementary School Program" (unpublished ‘jg-IPh. D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1963), p. 100. 5Ibid., p. 101. Heffernan,6 is often overlooked. This point was deemed especially pertinent to the present study because the , concept of what it means to be a Negro American may be interpreted by adults in a variety of ways. Adult inter- pretations may be transmitted to children through the discussion of or labeling of elements in a picture found in a child's picture book.7 In order that the significance of the present study be more fully understood, it seemed necessary to examine racial awareness of young children and to reflect upon the possible effect pictures might have in developing positive racial concepts. The fact that young children are racially aware is supported by many studies.8 Hurlock stated that: 6Vivian Todd and Helen Heffernan, The Years Before School: Guiding Pre—sch001Chi1dren (New York: Macmillan, 1964), p. #24. k t 7Hurlock, Child Development, p. 396. b E 8L. Horowitz, "Development of Attitudes Toward Negroes," Readings in Social Psychology, edited by Newcomb Hartly and others. New York} Henry Holt, 1947; C. Landreth and B. Johnson, "Young Children's Responses to a Picture and Inset Designed to Reveal Reactions to Persons of Different Skin Color," Child Development, XXIV (March, 1953), pp. 77—78; J. K. Moreland,’"RaciaI Recognition by Nursery School Child- ? ren in Lynchburg, Virginia," Social Forces XXXVII (December, 1958). Pp. 132—137; M. Radke, H. Trager and H. Davis, ’ "Social Perceptions and Attitudes of Children," Genetic Psychology Monographs XL (November, 1949), p. MAO; H. W. Stevenson and E. C. Stewart, "A Developmental Study of Racial Awareness in Young Children," Child Development, XXIX (September, 1958), pp. 399—409. him As early as the pre-school years, the child can dis- tinguish individuals of different races on the basea of skin and hair color and other physical features. Young children are not only aware of differences in physical characteristics but are also aware of the roles different people perform in society: The child's concepts of race include not only the appearance of people of different racial groups but their occupations, their clothing, their living quarters, and their personalities and abilities. These concepts become increasingly linked with racial concepts as children grow older. The fact that Caucasian children's attitudes toward Negroes as worthy and acceptable members of American society may be affected by the nature of the presence or the absence of Negroes in illustrated material has also been reported.11 1 Importance of the Preservation of Racial Differences Support for the idea that racial differences should be respected and preserved has come from a variety of sources and has indirectly Justified the need for the pre— [ sent study. 9Hurlock, Child Development, p. 396. 10Helen Trager and Marian Radke Yarrow, The Learn What They Live (New York: Harper and Row, 1952), p. 396. 11Mary Ellen Goodman, Race Awareness in Young Children, New York: Collier Books, 1968; Bruno Lasker, Race Attitudes in Children, New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1929; John IItcEer and David Johnson, "Changes in Attitudes Toward Negroes of White Elementary School Students After Use of Multi-Ethnic Readers," University of Minnesota (Mineographed copy) n.d.; and Helen Trager and Marian Radke Yarrow, They Learn What They Live. Joseph Durham in the Clearing House stated: . . minorities should not lose their identities in the faceless anonymity of the melting pot. Minor- ities should face the challenge of being different aad yet unite in the achievement of cultural pluralism. As Margaret Heaton has stated, it is, hopefully with the casual acceptance of differences that the understanding that there are common problems, common aspirations, and common values will come. Jennemary Boyd quotes Charlemae Rollins as saying that if the story is about modern times it must "give a true picture of life as it is, now" and that the illus— trations be drawn "with normal proportions of the human frame in mind," not as caricatures.la Leland Jacobs has maintained that validity is a 'hallmark of the finest picture books and validity depends on the artist being true to the fact or fiction that he _ would convey.15 Ruth Korey suggested that Negro children who have been handicapped in academic work by all white textbooks and.children's trade books may be helped to read more l2Joseph Durham, "The Melting Pot," Clearing House xxx1x, (May, 1965), p. 547. 13Margaret Heaton, "Stereotypes and Real People, " '-English Journal, XXXV (June,1946), p. 32 7 l”Jennemary Boyd, "Passports to the Promised Land," Elementary English, XXXV (November, 1958), p. 448. 15Leland B. Jacobs, "Picture Books at Their Best," The Readin ‘Teacher, XII (February, 1959), p. 188. 10 easily if they can readily identify with characters of their own race in a book.16 Hopefully, this investigation will contribute to greater knowledge about the treatment of the Negro in the illustrations of books designed and recommended for young children. It may also contribute more generally to the non—verbal communications field and to the research tech— nique of content analysis. Few content analyses have been done in the area of non—verbal communication, even though non-verbal means of communicating are persistent, powerful, and pervasive. In recent communications theory, it is stressed that it is most desirable to study the total communications L spectrum--the communicator, the communication, and the communique. In the present study, only the communication 'was analyzed (the illustration), but ultimately the illustrator (the communicator) as well as the young child 5 (the communique) should be studied in order to form a total F communication's spectrum. "Purpose'of the Study The purpose of this study was to describe how Negro characters have been treated in the illustrations of recommended realistic fiction picture books designed for young children and published between the years 1930 and 1968. 16Ruth Korey, "Children's Literature for Integrated Classes," Elementary English, XLIII (January, 1966), p. 40. i ll Assumptions Underlying the Study The fundamental tenets which underlie this study and influence its approach, its method, and its recom- mendations Should be pointed out as having important implications for those who are concerned with the nature of humnn communication, the concept of race, and the implications of both for the education of children. This study was based upon the assumption that the treatment of the Negro in the pictures young children study in their books does make a difference in the way in which the concept of what it means to be a Negro in America is formed for young children. It was further assumed that because of the passage of the recent Civil Rights legis- lation prohibiting discrimination toward Negroes, it is the responsibility of each sector of American life to evaluate its own particular treatment of Negro Americans in as objective a manner as possible. Children's books, as creations of authors and illustrators who live in American society, presumedly reflect the society's values and mores. Therefore, the possibility does exist for the Negro to be discriminated against in the illustrations in children's books,especially since the Negro has been dis— criminated against to a serious enough degree in American ~society to cause several laws to be passed to guarantee basic human rights and freedom from discriminatory prac- .tices.' 12 It was also assumed that (l) illustrations in books for young children do influence their values, attitudes, and concepts, (2) trade book illustrations depicting Negro characters contribute to the self-concepts of Negro children, (3) trade book illustrations depicting Negro characters contribute to white children's understanding of and acceptance of racial differences, (u) most young children in the United States have the opportunity to view the illustrations in trade books, and (5) the trade books included in the study have been or are presently found in public and school libraries as well as in many homes. Definitions of the Terms Used The terms that follow have been defined according to the way in which they have been used in the present study. Picture book.—-The term "picture book" has been used to refer to a book recommended by certain children's litera— ture specialists and children's librarians for children from ages three through eight. Such a book contains a majority of functional illustrations on every page or every other page, and has less text than the less amply illus- trated books for older children. Easy Books, Picture Books, Picture-Story Books, and Books for Young Children are the categories often used in lists of children's books. Any book found in any of the four categories was referred to as a picture book for the purpose of this study. 13 Trade book.-—The term "trade book" refers to books found in public libraries that are not classified as text— books. Some controlled vocabulary books which are often labeled trade-text books by children's literature specialists are considered to be trade books for the purpose of this study. Realistic fiction.—-The term "realistic fiction" refers to a story based on conceivable every day experi- ences of young children in a physical environment recognized as characteristic of the social milieu within the United States during the last fifty years. Functional illustration.--The term "functional illustrations" refers to an illustration which contained details of a character's environment as opposed to illustra— tions containing only one full paged object or person or decorative designs. Illustration.--The term "illustration" refers to a drawing, painting, photograph or any other graphic form of non-verbal communication found in books designed for young children. | Picture.-—The term "picture" was used interchangeably with the term "illustration" for the purpose of this study. Young children.--The term "young children" refers to (children aged three through eight. Non—verbal communication.--The term "non-verbal communication" referred to the non-written matter found in 14 books for young children i.e., the illustrations as opposed to the text or physical features of the book's format. Content analysis.-—The term "content analysis" referred to a research technique which may be described as the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication.17 Category.—-The term "category" referred to the part of the whole universe which differentiates and describes the content being investigated. A category has explicitly defined boundaries into which material is grouped for analysis, e.g., physical characteristics. gg££.——The term "unit" referred to the segment of the content to be counted and scored in the analysis. For the purposes of the present study a unit is a sub—division of a category, e.g., skin color. Concept.—-The term "concept" referred to a general— ized idea which includes everything that is suggested to a person by an object, symbol, or situation.18 Stereotype.—-The term "steotype" referred to "a fixed standardized conception of the attributes to a class of persons or social values, that is not readily modified by evidence of its falsity."19 l7Bernard Berelson, Content Analysis in Communication Research (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1952), p. H89. 18Carter Victor Good, ed., Dictionary of Education (New York: McGraw-Hill, l9u5), p. l91bid., p. 389. 15 Definitions of Categories Physical characteristics.-—Physica1 characteristics were considered to consist of a Negro character's skin color, hair color, hair texture, hair style; lips, eyes and nose formation; and body build. Environmental characteristics.—-Environmenta1 char— acteristics included both the indoor and outdoor envion- ment.’ Aspects of the indoor environment included in this category were reading matter, viewing-listening matter, decor items, disorderly conditions, and crowded conditions.20 Aspects of the outdoor, environment included in this cate— gory were single dwellings, multiple dwellings, temporary dwellings, businesses, community buildings, machines, greenery, and crowded conditions. Adult roles.--Adu1t roles included the roles of both Caucasians and Negroes; both at-home roles and work roles outside the home designated as professional, occupational, or laborer. Character interaction.--Character interaction included three ways in which the main character could be shown responding to other characters: parallel interaction, non- physical interaction, and physical interaction. 20Note: Units of analysis are deliberately not parallel because the intent of the present study was to ascertain disorderliness and crowdedness only, i.e., as opposed to the total spectrum of order. 16 Definitions of Units of Analysis Units of Anggysis for Physical acteristics Whiéh’Were Judged E3 the \iewer Skin color.——A Negro character's skin coloring was evaluated on a three point scale ranging from (1) light (tan or gray) through (2) medium (brown or gray) to (3) dark (dark brown or black). Hair_gglgL.——A Negro character's hair color was evaluated as being (1) black or (2) brown, or (3) other (white, red, etc.). ' . Hair texture.——The term "hair texture" referred to the quality of the hair and how it appeared in the illustra— tion. The Negro character's hair texture was rated as (1) crinkly (tightly curled/many narrow waves in each strand of hair, (2) curly (not tightly curled), (3) wavy (not curled but molded or set), (4) straight (no wave or curl at all). Hair style.—-The term "hair style" referred to the ‘way in which the Negro character combed, set, cut, or in general wears, his hair. The hair was rated as (1) braided or put into oneorttwo pony tails; (2) braided into three A 4*; or more braidS; (3) cropped (cut short with scalp showing); ' .11 :E ”21(4)~cropped (cut short with scalp not showing); (5) high I @md natural; (6) loose and natural; (7) pulled back in a $5.50r straight; (8) styled in a non-African, Caucasian V,ican manner; (9) long curls. 1? Eyes.--The Negro character's eyes were rated as (1) normal or (2) exaggerated. Ng§3.—-The Negro character's nose was rated as (1) . flat, broad (Negroid in the anthropological sense); (2) high bridged (Caucasian in the anthropological sense); (3) button (an unformed, infant nose or a cartoon-type "dot" nose). Lip§.—-A Negro character’s lips were rated as (1) thin (a mere line or extremely narrow); (2) medium (not extremely narrow or broad); (3) thick (full, broad, or prominent); (4) exaggerated (disproportionately large or anatomically incorrectly drawn); (5) indistinct. Body build.-—A Negro character's body build was rated as (1) slight (thin. or very slender); (2) average (not thin or fat or extremely tall); (3) large (fat or big or extremely tall); (4) exaggerated (disproportionately fat or large and anatomically incorrectly drawn). Units of Analysis for Environmental Characteristicnghich Were Judged By 'EEE’Viewer. , Reading matter.--Newspapers, books, magazines, and ’f the like constituted reading matter. It was judged by the ::i coder as being (1) barely present (sketchy or only one Vipresent); (2) definitely present (clearly and fully shown l8 Viewing—listening matter.--Radios, televisions, record players and the like constituted viewing-listening matter. It was judged by the coder as being (1) barely present (sketchily presented); (2) definitely present (clearly and fully shown or more than one form of viewing— listening matter present); (3) present and being used i.e., being watched or listened to. Decor items.--Any objects judged by the coder to be serving as decoration for the home interior were rated as (1) barely present (sketchy or only one present); (2) definitely present (clearly and fully shown or more than one present). Decor items included candles, wall hangings of various types, vases of flowers and the like. Crowded conditions.—-Objects judged to be in close juxtaposition were considered to be crowded. Interior scenes and exterior scenes were rated as either being crowded to a lesser (l) or greater (2) degree. Disorderly conditions.—-Objects not in their accus- tomed places and interior scenes in a state of disarray constituted disorderly conditions. Interior scenes were rated as being disorderly to a small (1) or great degree (2). Multiple dwellings.—-Buildings such as apartments and duplexes constituted multiple dwellings. One or two (1) or more than two (2) were the possible ratings for illustrations containing multiple dwellings. 19 Single dwellings.—-One and two story houses were considered to be single dwellings. A rating of (l) was given if the presentation was sketchy and if there was only one present. A rating of (2) was given if the presenta- tion was clear and large and more than one house was shown. Temporary dwellings.—-Trailers, tents, club houses and the like were considered to be temporary dwellings. A rating of (1) was given if the presentation was sketchy and if there was only one present. A rating of (2) was given if the presentation was clear and large or more than one temporary dwelling was shown. Community buildings.--Schools, post offices, fire stations and the like were considered to be community buildings. A rating of (1) was recorded if they were presented sketchily and if only one building was presented. A rating of (2) was recorded if the presentation was definite and large or more than one community building was shown. Businesses.——Food stores, barbershops, repair shops and the like were considered to be businesses. A rating of (l) was recorded if they were presented sketchily and if only one building was presented. A rating of (2) was recorded if the presentation was definite and large or more than one business was shown. 20 Machines.——Cars, bicycles, construction equipment and the like were considered to be machines. A rating of (l) was recorded if they were presented sketchily and if only one was presented. A rating of (2) was recorded if the presentation was definite and large or more than one machine was shown. Greenery.——Trees, lawns, flowers and the like were considered to be greenery. A sketchy or sparse presenta- tion of greenery was recorded as (l). A definite and abundant presentation of greenery was recorded as (2). Units of Analysis for Adult Roles Which Were Judged by the Viewer Non-home adult roles.——Professiona1 (doctor, lawyer, teacher, etc.), occupational (milkman, plumber, storekeeper, etc.), or laborer (farmer, factory worker, cab driver, etc.) and which may be performed by Negroes or Caucasions, males or females constituted non-home adult roles. Home adult roles.--Home adult roles may be performed by adult males or adult females, Negroes or Caucasians. The roles were: mother, father, grandmother, grandfather, relative or neighbor and were judged as such by the coder. Units of Analysis for Character Interaction Parallel interaction.--Parallel interaction may be described as the main character's not looking at or not touching any other character even though the character was present in the same illustration. 21 Non—physical interaction.--Non-physical interaction may be described as the action involved when the main character was facing or looking at another character, but was not touching any other character. Physical interaction.——Physica1 interaction may be described as the action involved when the main character was touching or in some kind of physical (bodily) contact with another character. Delineation of Time Peribds For the purpose of the present study the years between 1930 and 1968 were divided into four historical periods which paralleled major social and economic condi- tions that existed during the periods: 1930-1944; 1945- 1954; 1955—1964; 1965-1968. The books used for analysis were placed in one of the four categories based on their original copyright date. The four time periods will be described and discussed in Chapter II. Questions The major questions that were asked are as follows: Are a variety of Negro physical characteristics shown in the illustrations of the total population of books, and does this variety differ markedly during the four historical periods? Are Negroes shown in a variety of interior and exterior environments, or is there a preponderance of one 22 'type of environment shown? Does this variety differ markedly during the four historical periods? Are Negro adults shown in a variety of adult roles? What is the proportion of Negro adult roles compared to the Caucasian adult roles found in the same population of books? Does the proportion differ markedly during the four histor- ical periods? Do Negro characters interact with a variety of per— sons in a variety of ways? What is the race, sex, and age of the persons with whom they interact? Is the type of interaction parallel, non-physical, or physical? Does the variety of persons and types of interaction differ markedly during the four historical periods? Can any statements be made as to the difference in treatment of the Negro characters in the several areas of analysis during the four historical periods outlined in the present study? Limitations The limitations of the study were recognized as follows: Only recommended picture books were analyzed, thus limiting the ability to generalize. Only four major aspects of the numerous possibilities in the illustrations were analyzed: Physical Characteristics, Environmental Characteristics, Adult Roles, and Character Interaction. 23 Overview The present study was undertaken to ascertain how the American Negro has been treated in the illustrations of children's picture books published between 1930 and 1968. The study seemed worthwhile for several reasons. First, the review of the literature revealed no studies of the pictorial treatment of the Negro in picture books for young children. Although children's picture books constitute a large proportion of books published for children and are in great demand in libraries and pre-school centers, no careful study of the content of these books has been attempted—-neither of the picture or the text. Second, a consideration of the present historical period and the impinging social milieu with respect to the treatment of the American Negro in American society as a whole, com- pelled the investigator to make the study as socially significant as possible within her field of specialization. Third, previous studies in the field of children's liter- ature concerned with the treatment of the Negro needed to be put into perspective, compared, and evaluated. Fourth, if children's picture books can influence a young child's development of concepts then it seemed that it was important to find out exactly what the books he looks at contain. Organization of the Remainder of the Study In Chapter II, the literature pertinent to the present study will be reviewed. The design of the study & 24 ;'discussed in Chapter III. The results of the fare presented in Chapter IV. Conclusions based up- ”.rcsearch findings and suggestions for further study 1 [yen in Chapter v, CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE A review of the literature dealing with various aspects of the treatment of the Negro in children's picture books indicated that pictures have been considered as part of the total analysis of several studies of mass media communication,1 but the sole analysis of illustrations in books containing only Negroes has not formed the basis for any study to date. Studies in the area of social psychology have involved the use of pictures which included Negroes in an attempt to ascertain racial awareness, racial attitudes, and in trying to change racial attitudes. This chapter includes statements concerning (1) the importance and effectiveness of illustrations; (2) the function and brief history of illustrations in chil- dren's picture books; (3) the importance of pictures for the development of concepts in young children; (4) the lMelvin De Fleur, "Occupational Roles as Portrayed on Television," Public Opinion Quarterly; XXXVIII, No. l (1964), pp. 57- 74; Sidney Head, "Content Analysis of Tele— vision Drama Programs," Quarterly of Film, Radio, TV IX, No.2 (1954); pp. 175- 194; Verdelle Lambert, 1"Negro Exposure in Look's Editorial Content, " Journalism Quarterl XLII, No. 4 (1965) pp. 657-659; M. SpIegeIman, C. Terwilliger, and F. Fearing, "A Content Analysis of Sunday Comic Strips: A Study in a Mass Medium of Communication," Journal of Social Psychology XXXV, No. 1 (1952) pp. 37-57. 25 26 effect of illustrations in creating racial awareness and racial acceptance in young children; (5) the self-concept of the Negro child; (6) a brief social history of the American Negro (1930—1968) and an accompanying review of the literature discussing the treatment of the Negro in American literature for children with special emphasis on the Negro's treatment in picture books, and (7) a critical review of formal studies analyzing the treatment of the Negro in books for children. The Importance and Effectiveness of Illustrations The role that visual forms of communication have played in the development of our present day civilization is an essential and important one. Much has been made of the invention of movable type in the mid—fifteenth century, but the even earlier discovery of ways to print pictures and diagrams often is ignored or its significance overlooked. The fact that people who could not read the print could "read" pictures was significant in that non-verbal messages could be conveyed without the use of printed words. Even those who could read the printed word, have long benefited from diagrams and charts which helped to make their reading and their research more understandable. A few tangential studies related to the importance (of using pictures would seem to indicate the necessity of thorough, direct analysis of pictures influencing young children. Frank Blume's study used photographs of Negroes & 27 in various social situations and occupational roles to determine how whites would rate the character traits of the Negro shown in the photograph.2 Among other findings, Blume found that photographs were effective in signifi- cantly influencing his subjects' attitudes toward Negroes. A study conducted by Litcher and Johnson signifi— cantly indicated that the use of pictures showing children of different races together was effective in creating more favorable attitudes in Caucasian children toward Negroes in specific test situations. The results of this study of the effect of multi-ethnic readers on Caucasian chil- drenfisracial attitudes cannot be generalized beyond the findings for the two groups of children from an all-white community because the racial attitudes of the children were probably not firmly rooted in either direct experi- ences or reference group norms. The study did indicate, however, that children who were exposed to Negroes in their readers evidenced a reduction in the degree of preference for the Caucasian race shown and the degree of social dis- tance reflected on the "Show Me" test.3 Other investigators have successfully used pictures of Negroes and Caucasians in test situations in order to 2Frank Blume, "The Effect of Negro Pictorial Materials on Racial Attitudes," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Claremont Graduate School, 1966). 3John Litcher and David Johnson, "Changes in Attitudes Toward Negroes of White Elementary School Students After Use of Multi—Ethnic Readers," University of Minnesota, n.d. (mimeographed). 28 study their subjects' racial attitudes, racial awareness, and self-concept. Pictures were deemed to be effective stimulators of reactions and conveyors of information.4 Gertrude Wilcox Griggs studied children's books containing minority group members, including Negroes, in an attempt to promote positive changes in attitude in first grade children toward Mexican-American, Oriental, 5 and Negro minority groups. Her purpose was twofold: to measure attitudes toward various ethnic groups, and to explore the possibility of changing attitudes through the medium of children's literature. Griggs first administered the Show-Me Test using paper dolls depicting the Anglo-American, Mexican—American, Oriental and Negro ethnic groups. For three and one—half months selected children's books were read and discussed. At the conclusion of the experimental treatment an iden- tical Show-Me Test was given and the results of the test compared with the first test. However, Griggs points out “E. W. Amen, "Individual Differences in Apperceptive Reaction: A Study of the Response of Pre—School Children to Pictures," Genetic_Psychological Monograph L (1941) pp. 3—41; R. E. Horowitz, "Racial Aspects of Self—Identifi— cation In Nursery School Children," Journal of Psychology VII (1939) p. 96; C. Landreth and B. Johnson, TrYoung Children's Responses to a Picture and Inset Designed to Reveal Reactions to Persons of Different Skin Color," pp. 77-78; J. K. Morland, "Racial Recognition by Nursery School Children in Lynchbun§,Virginia," pp. 132—137. 5Gertrude Wilcox Griggs, "A Study of Color Prejudice with First Grade Children Through the Use of Children's Literature," (unpublished Master's thesis, Claremont Graduate School, 1959). 29 that the statistical analyses of the Show—Me Tests were "encouragingly close to the point of significance"6 and that she, as the teacher of the group of first graders studied, was able to discern "grOWth of insights and understandings in the group and a deeper sense of empathy toward people of other races."7 The Griggs study is one of the few that attempted to test the influence that books may have on children's attitudes and concepts. The limitations of the Griggs study are numerous and serious. Her choice of children's books designed to affect attitudes (presumably favorably) was poor. (As Glancy has pointed out, only two of the books chosen by Griggs represented Negroes favorably.8) There were numerous problems apparent in the study's design: (1) the investigator also provided the treat— ment; (2) the ethnic composition of the low socio—economic group consisted of twenty-seven Anglo-Americans and five Mexican Americans with no Orientals or Negroes. The com- position of the group did not seem to be taken into adequate 61bid., p. 67. 7Ibid. 8Barbara Jean Glancy, "The Treatment of the Negro in Children's Books" (unpublished M.A. thesis, Ohio State University, 1964), p. 21. 3O consideration when findings were discussed. (3) Only thirty children's books were used and unequal numbers of books used for the various ethnic groups. (4) Three and one-half months seems to be an inordinately short amount of time to expect to affect attitudes toward four ethnic groups. (5) Although Anglo-Americans were considered to be one of the four ethnic groups, no books depicting Anglo-Americans were included during the treatment. The reasons for the exclusion is obvious, but the effect upon the design of the study was unfortunate and is not taken into due consideration in the discussion of the findings or in the conclusion of the study. As far as the illustra- tions were concerned, Griggs states that: . . the stories were judged primarily on the basis of content, rather than illustrative material, the writer did not overlook the importance of colorful and interegting illustrations in affecting group reactions. Whether colorful illustrations would have an effect on the group reactions, as Griggs states, is questionable and is not discussed or supported by research. Furthermore, Griggs did not give any indication of the criteria used to determine whether the illustrations would be interesting to first grade children. Therefore, Griggs' statement concerning illustrations has little meaning for the reader. 9Ibid. "A Study of Color Prejudice" p. 33. The Function and Br'ef History of ' " ’ o s for Children Pictures have long been used to help children in their attempt to understand and more fully recognize and appreciate their surroundings. Orbis Sensualium Pictus, the book usually credited as being the first "picture book" designed for children was a European textbook which made use of relatively crude woodcut illustrations. The first textbooks published for use in America also used crude woodcuts to illustrate such things as letters of the alphabet and animals for explanation and motivation. Twentieth century technology made it possible to produce more sophisticated pictures in greater numbers at lower cost. By 1938 an award, the Caldecott Medal, was created to honor outstanding illustrators, and has been presented yearly by the American Library Association to the creator of the most distinguished picture book for American children.10 Leland B. Jacobs has observed: Picture-story books help a child come into his literary heritage. They induct him into the wonder and splendor or the world of books. They stimulate him visually at a time when visual stimulation for reading is so impor— tant . . . . Developmental, basic reading is reading for enjoyment and knowledge and wisdom. Meanings are the urgency of the reading act. To the extent that loTwo Caldecott award books contain Negro characters. The Rooster Crows by Maud and Miska Petersham won the award inIl946} The bodk was re—issued in 1964 without the illustra- tions which contained Negroes because they were considered to be "derogatory and stereotypic" by many people, especially Negroes. The Snowy Day by Ezra Jack Keats won the award in 19 4. 32 picture-story books give young readers enjoyment and knowledge and truth, such books become basic in inducting the child into his culture through books.ll The belief that children can learn to read more easily and proficiently when the word is accompanied by a picture with which the child can identify is common in the field of reading. Koblitz has stated that "the sense of identi- fication is a most important factor in learning to read and in continuing to pursue knowledge."12 A study by Edman revealed that all children who had limited experience in reading or who had reading difficulties tended to choose picture books with large illustrations and a minimum amount of text. "If this is typically character- istic of the disadvantaged child," says Edman, "then an emphasis on the picture book is not only important for the early reader but also for children at upper elementary and Junior high levels."13 A 1965 report published by the National Council of Teachers of English, stressed the importance of having books in all pre-school and primary school classrooms.lA llJacobs, "Picture Books at Their Best," p. 186. 12 , - Minnie Koblitz, The Negro in Schoolroom Literature (New York: Center for Urban Education, 1966) Forward, u.o. L 13Marion Edman, "Literature for Children Without," in A Critical Approach to Children's Literature edited by Sara Innis Fenwick (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), p. 42 luRichard Corbin and Muriel Crosby, co-chairmen, Langugge Programs for the Disadvantaged: The Report of the NCTE Task Force on Teaching English to the Disadvantaged (Champaign, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, 1965). 33 ance f Pictures for the nt of Concepts in Young Children The important role that pictures play in helping young children develop concepts has been pointed out by Hurlock. Before the child is capable of reading, he learns many meanings from looking at pictures . . . . and his care- ful observation of pictures shows him details 3% objects and persons which he formerly had not noticed. Books with illustrations were seen to be especially helpful in clarifying concepts. As Hurlock has pointed out: Not only does the child learn new meanings from books . . . but he also learns to associate certainfi, labels or names with the concepts he is developing.‘0 Obviously a child's understanding of the world around him depends upon the opportunities afforded him to develop accurately as many concepts as possible. If one would agree that the illustrations in books designed for young children do influence their development of concepts and indirectly influence their attitudes and behavior, it would seem imper- ative that their books be examined to see what kind of con— cepts are being presented. Snider states that "psychologists tell us that naming the objects in a picture is an early 15Hurlock, Child Development, p. 370. 1 6 ’ Hurlock, Child Development, p. 495. 34 essential to the development of perception in child- 3.17 ren . . . And Lasker asserts that the picture fastens into the mind of the child more definite impressions than the text, impressiogs that last long after the text has been forgotten.1 Lasker also pointed out that when pictures reinforce current erroneous conceptions of racial characteristics, the pictures are materially adding to racial mis—education. Even though Lasker's methods of investigation were rather cursory and fragmentary, he did seem to find that children do tend to deride that which is strange in appear- ance. Thus, a race's dark color or other marks of racial distinctiveness produced in the children of Lasker's study an amazing variety of hidden, attendant learnings which usually confirm rather than contradict those major influences that make for aversion and dep— recation.l What might the concept of Negro be if the child-—either white or black--were exposed only to the illustrations analyzed in this study and included in books specifically designed, and expressly recommended for him? Support for the idea that pictures be used when actual contact is not possible has come from Goodman. l7Robert Snider, "Selection and Use of Visual Media," in Research, Principles, and Practices in Visual Communica- tion edited by John Ball and Francis C. Byrnes. (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 1960), p. 123. 18Bruno Lasker, Race Attitudes in Children, p. l60. l9Ib1d., p. 376. 35 When real peOple in all their rich and interesting variety cannot be brought into the child's range of contacts, portraits will have to do. They can do very well indeed, if they are honest portraits. Stereo- types are more or less dishonest; the degree of unne- cessary warmth with which they are defended is a pretty good measure of the degree to which they are felt to be dishonest. Honest portraits of racially or otherwise distinctive types of people are not difficult to come by these days, although they are not often drawn in terms understandable to the young child. There are still very few books for young children in which life— like portraits appear, but there %re some (and Little Black Sambo is not one of them).2 Additional evidence supporting the contention that pictures can and do contribute to concept development in young children, even before the age of two, has been reported by Church in his collection of mothers' biographical accounts of their young children's cognitive growth.21 Concerning Deborah at one year, twelve days, her mother wrote: On some mornings she brings a magazine or a book to my lap and sits there for ten to forty minutes turn- ing pages, looking at pictures, pointing to objects. She can find dogs and babies and noses and eyes and butterflies and 0's and a variety of other things in random2gdvertisements On being asked "Where is the 9 At eleven months, one day, the description of Ruth's behavior read: Ruth recognizes and generalizes from pictures to real things. We taught her to smell the flowers 2OGoodman, Race Awareness in Young Children, p. 219. 21James Church, Three Babies: Studies in Cognitive Growth (New York: Random House, 1966). 22Ibid., p. 51. 36 in her book—~she inhales and then gives a big sigh. Now whenever she sees flowers in a book or outside-— she smells them.2 The seemingly obvious implication here is that if the young child saw a variety of pictures of Negroes in books and was taught to accept them as people to smile at, to "wave bye to", etc., might not this behavior then general- ize to real Negroes without the child showing fear of physical differences? Most of our children made such classifications, either in respect to dolls, pictured people, or real people. The tendency to see the classicatory fea- tures is stronger, however, when the child is look— ing at representations than when he is looking at real peOplg. The view is less obstructed by per- sonality.2 The Effect of Illustrations in Creating Racial Awareness and Racial Acceptance in Young Children Mary Ellen Goodman's studies in 1954 of racial aware- ness in young children indicated that children as early as three years of age are racially aware and that white chil- draias young as four act in a prejudiced manner toward Negro children whom they consider to be inferior. She stated It is precisely this superposition of the whites, tacitly recognized by all and deeply resented by the subordinated browns, which constitutes the biggest single fact about race relations, and the 23Ibid., p. 213. 2”Goodman, Race Awareness, p. 42. 37 most comprehensive idea to which our children are exposed. The idea is pervasive and it pervades silently, like a creeg§ng fog, and it is just about as difficult to stop. The Goodman study would seem to indicate that racial prejudices may be well established by school age. But whether these prejudices inevitably grow proportionately with age is debatable. As Trager and Yarrow were careful to point out, since their data were not longitudinal, they were unable to say whether children become more or less prejudiced as they grow older. However, their data did show that the older children (1st and 2nd graders) were more prone to "stereotyping and expressions of hostility" than the young children.26 The implications of such findings seem to be that if "stereotyping and expressions of hostility" against per- sons of a different skin color are to be discouraged in children six and seven years of age, they must be given an opportunity to see people with a variety of skin colors and other physical characteristics in a variety of social situations and occupational roles. Of course, the mere seeing of such roles and situa- tions in illustrations will not in and of itself produce changes in attitudes of children, but as Hurlock has pointed out 251bid., p. 90. 26Helen Trager and Marian Radke Yarrow, They Learn flhat They Live, p. 346. 38 children enjoy looking at the same books, time after time, . . . they acquire more specific factual mater- ial than if their interest were of a more casual, superficial sort. Added to this . . . they will ask innumerable questions about anything that arouses their curiosity in what they see or hear and, in that way, supplement their information.‘7 An important concept that may be strengthened through the illustrations in picture books designed for young child- ren is the concept that black children do vary. As Nolen wrote in 1942, They vary as widely as do white children and for the same reasons: socio-economic status, educational and cultural background and opportunity; menta'zL8 ability; physical and emotional health . . . . Goodman has suggested that pictures be used to help young children grow in their appreciation of the beauty of non-Caucasian attributes and varied physical types. The idea that human variety can be a source of esthetic interest and satisfaction can do Johnny no harm. And it is important for Johnny to think of variety as attractive because it makes all the shades essential, and equally essential; to the total attractiveness. It will take much more than this to keep him equally appreciative of the looks of Neggges and of whites, but every little bit helps. It is also important that familiar settings and experiences of the children be exhibited in order that comprehension and/or interest be gained. This was pointed out in the Trager and Yarrow study. 27 28W. Nolen, "The Colored Child in Contemporary Liter- ature," The Horn Book Magazine, XVIII (September—October, 1942), p. 351. 29 Hurlock, Child Development, p. 370. Goodman, Race Awareness, p. 225. 39 It was apparent in the experiment that materials with themes which had a familiar setting, and which could be linked by the children to previous experiences, were much more effective than materials which did Bot provide such bases for comprehension or interest.3 Thus, in order to contribute to the improvement of the Negro child's self image it would seem that he must see himself in realistic yet meaningful situations in book illustrations.3* As Dr. James Banks has pointed out in a recent article concerning the treatment of the Negro in Social Studies textbooks: The American child should be exposed to all types and classes of Negroes in American life, with identi- fiable Negroid features, but with illustrations depicting a wide diversity of "Negroid racial traits" . . . .32 Caucasian children have traditionally had an abun- dance of Caucasian models upon which they could build a valid self image that was in turn supported by the society in which they found themselves. It might be added that the Negro American child should be exposed to all types and classes of Caucasians, with identifiable Caucasian characteristics but depicting a wide diversity of "Caucasian racial traits." 30Trager and Yarrow, They Learn What They Live, p. 360. 31It would seem that this point is also important for white children, particularly poor white children. 32James A. Banks, "The Need for Positive Racial .Attitudes in Textbooks," in Robert L. Green (ed.), Racial Crisis in American Education (Chicago: Follett Educational Corporation, I969), p.5176. ‘ 40 The very fact that the word stereotype is often defined as "a picture in the mind" would seem to suggest that illustrations do significantly contribute to the mental image one carries of a person or group of persons.33 The image one holds of one's self may also be affected by the illustrations that he sees. The Self—Concept of the Negro Child The way in which Negroes are depicted in illustra- tions may influence a Negro child's conception of himself. Jean Grambs has pointed out: [The Negro] has few available models demonstrating effective escape from slum living. A few of those who are no longer on the edge of poverty, like the teacher or the minister, are often apt to reject the child who comes to school knowing nothing except slum— conditioned behavior, which is everything the middle- class person most resents and resists.3 It is often thought that the Negro male child's self— concept is directly linked to lack of adequate male models. Grambs disputed this point of view. 33American Council on Education Committee on Inter- group Education in COOperating Schools, Hilda Taba, director, Literature for Hnman Understanding (Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1948), p. 14. 34Jean Grambs, "The Self-Concept: Basis for Reeduca— tion of Negro Youth," in Negro Self-Concept: Implications for School and Citizenship. Report of a conference spon- sored by the Lincoln for Citizenship and Public Affairs (New York: McGraw Hill, 1965), p. 41. 41 It is communicated to Negro boys, somehow, that they are less wanted, less able to deal with their world, bound to fail in their efforts to be men. We cannot lay the major blame for the way Negro boys develop on the lack of adequate male models. It is highly probable that the trauma suffered by Negro females is passe§56n and displaced upon the males in the situa— tion. To further explain the complexities of the formation of the Negro child's self-concept, she wrote: Although the Ausubels state that 'Negro girls in racially incapsulated areas are less traumatized than boys by the impact of racial discrimination,’ further evidence is needed to support such a statement. One the surface, Negro girls seem more able to cope with some of the demands of middle class society: going to school, behaving in school, keeping out of serious trouble with the law, showing responsibility for child rearing, and keeping a job. It is nevertheless possible that the impact of their situation is just passed on to the men in the household. Certainly a mother is a prime 3/ source, as we have stated, of the child's self—concept. Family situations alone are not the only factors to be considered. School and materials used in schools are extremely significant. Even though Koblitz, in the for— ward to her bibliography of The Negro in Schoolroom Liter— aturg, noted a "marked growth" in classroom materials, demonstrating a sincere effort to accurately portray inte- grated situations and to show Negro mailmen, d6ctors, and truck drivers, she also noted that they do "tend to give "37 an ideal picture. Koblitz was concerned that the 35Ibid., p. 21. 36Ibid. 37Koblitz, The Negro in Schoolroom Literature, For— ward, u.p. 42 "happily ever after theme," which she viewed in a positive light and recognized as having universal childhood appeal, not be used "to obscure the necessity for a child to look upon the world with a realistic and Open mind."38 The Caucasian child's self concept is strengthened by seeing the Negro in a variety of realistic situations because he is better able to react to black people as individuals and does not have to rely on stereotyping and scapegoating to build his self—esteem. If children are led to understand, respect and admire diversity it would seem that they would no longer need to fear differences in color, ability, or life situation. Certain related studies seem to underscore the com- plexity that the Negro child faces in creating a signifi- cant self concept. Social roles tests conducted by Trager and Yarrow revealed that even in young children who had had integrated experiences, the white dolls were given more desirable roles than black dolls and that children ascribed roles to their dolls that paralleled the social roles held by whites and blacks in adult society.39 In addition, Keating has pointed out that the Negro child's being depicted in subservient roles and largely reading about people with whom he cannot identify, adds to the child's 38Ibid. 39Ibid., p. 297. 43 feelings of being on the outside of American society, of being self deprecating and of finding the educational process less than meaningful.“O The importance of showing Negroes in situations that are conducive to positive image building for the Negro child and positive attitudes toward Negroes for the Caucasian child was revealed in the following statement: . . if a Negro is repeatedly represented as a doctor, in situations in which the positive res— ponses to the symbol of doctor are stronger than the negative ones to the color of the skin, this experi- ence will tend to extinguish the unfavorable res— ponseE to the dark skin and to condition more positive ones. 1 The importance of the child's models, the people whom he sees often and from whom he is disposed to learn, has been repeatedly indicated. The fact that implications of a poor self—concept results in poor educational achievement has been pointed to in studies of self concept reported by Brookover and his associates.“2 OTrager and Yarrow, They Learn What They Live, pp. 144—150. ulNeal Miller, Graphic Communication and the Crisis in Education (Washington,“D. C.: National Education ASsoc- iation,—1957), p. 67. Miller cautions that certain variables found to be important in other conditioning studies involv- ing attitude change need to be systematically studied, such as the strength of the "unconditioned drives and the fre— quency, sequence, and spacing of both conditioned and unconditioned stimuli." u2Wilbur B. Brookover and Others, Improving Academic gghivement through Students' Self—Concept Enhancement (Cooperative Research Project No. 1636: Bureau of Research Services, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan). October, 1965. Educational Research Series No. 31. 44 Miller has indicated that identification with the hero facilitates adopting the hero's motives and attitudes.”3 Although the concept of identification probably points to an important effect to which pictures may contribute, it is a somewhat vague concept at present and it would seem that it should be sharpened before it can lead to signifi- cant research. Miller and Dollard's 1941 study involving their theory of imitation seemed to Miller to be a step (albeit all too short) in the right direction. Their theory of imitation led Miller to speculate that more motivation will be aroused when the actors are similar to people whom the students have been rewarded for copying. In general, these will be people of high prestige, unless the prestigeful peOple are completely out of the range copied by the audience. If the characters portrayed are completely unfamiliar to the members of the audience, we would not expect them to have any habits of c0pying such protagonists, and hence would expect little motivational effect. 4 Miller further reasoned that perhaps this factor of identifi- cation is one of the reasons why P. W. Holaday and G. D. Stoddard (1933) and Sturmthal and Curtis (1945) found that familiar settings seemed to help learning from instructional films and why studies by Hoban (1953, 1953a) and C. I. Hovland, I. L. Janis and H. H. Kelley (1953) supported the hypothesis that identification with the protagonists is a significant variable in learning.45 u3Miller, p. 68. qubid. uSIbid. 45 Identification of pictorial content, of course, need not be limited to verbal identification. The value of pictorial impact can be, and often is, identification with personal categories of past experience. Such emotional, cultural, or aesthetic identifications often defy verbal description. In summary, a review of the literature dealing with the pictorial treatment of Negroes reveals that: there have been no studies entirely devoted to the treatment of the Negro in the illustrations of books for children. There is research evidence to support the idea that pictures are an important and effective means of learning a variety oi things—-facts, attitudes and values. It must be pointed out that there is disagreement in the literature on the topic of how Negroes should be treated in books for children.u6 On the one hand, there are those who hold that only the middle or upper class Negro should be depicted in illustrations because it is necessary to try to reverse unfavorable attitudes toward Negroes by show— ing them in the most positive way possible. On the other hand, there is the theory that all classes of Negroes should be depicted in illustrations thus giving a more realistic and honest view of the Negro. “6Studies devoted solely to determining the pictorial treatment of Negroes have not been attempted, although Dr. John Appel of M.S.U. is presently studying the pictorial treatment of Negroes in pictures found at the Smithsonian Institute. 46 Most persons holding the first view suggest that books which contain negative stereotypes (which include realistic depictions of lower class Negro life) either be banned from libraries or at least not be included on lists of recommended children's books. Those persons holding the second view usually main— tain that none of the books about Negroes should be banned from libraries or lists. Some who hold this view feel the books serve as a valid historical record and that more recent books will eventually counterbalance the earlier pictures of the Negro that reflected American stereotypic notions about the Negro. Other persons feel that the earlier books should be consciously used with young child- ren along with later books in order to give them a com— plete picture of Negro life past and present. Marcella Kruger has suggested that the problem of whether to imbue the deprived child (black or white) with middle class values or whether to strengthen the positive aspects of his own unique cultural forms is not the problem at all. Rather, the problem, as she sees it, is to provide him with skills and knowledge that will enable him to select his own future direction.“7 lWMarcella G. Kruger, "Choosing Books for the Dis— advantaged," Chicago School Journal, XLVI (March, 1965), pp. 246-255. 47 Brief Social History of the American Negro Social and Economic Conditions 1930—1944 The social and economic conditions of the first half of the 1930—1944 period were colored by the devastating stock market crash of 1929. The national income in 1929 was approximately $80 billion. By 1932 it had dropped to r! approximately $40 billion.46 By 1930 about half of the United States' population lived in cities. The population was composed of numerous immigrants--both recently arrived and first generation. The period before the stock market crash was characterized by intolerance of foreigners and conformity to middle- class standards. The inequalities that existed between the splendid living conditions of the rich and the squalid living conditions of the poor was great, but the majority of Americans evidenced little concern about the matter. By 1932, however, over twelve million people were unemployed and the American middle class was in danger of being eliminated. Up until this time, Americans had put their faith in a doctrine which held that progress was inevitable, but the severe economic and social conditions of the times caused some to doubt this doctrine. 8Irving S. and Nell M. Kull, A Short Chronology of American History: 1942—1950 (New Brunswick New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1952), p. 250. 48 The 1930's were also characterized by the rise of social protest that was carried out by a minority of individuals primarily through magazines and newspapers. Certain Americans attempted to reveal the grossly inade— quate housing and living conditions that were available to the majority of the people living in cities. On the whole, there was a lack of response to the call for social action. The reasons for the lack of response were many and complex. However, certain gains were made in the area of Negro civil rights. In 1935 a Negro was denied admission to Amherst College, but the U. S. Court ordered that he had the right to be admitted; in 1938, when a Negro was denied admission to the University of Missouri Law School, the school offered to pay his tuition to a Negro law school. The United States Court, however, ordered that he be admitted to the University of Missouri Law School. During the latter part of the 1930's, the Germans were waging war with most of Europe; but the majority of Americans refused to be stirred to war by the minority that continued to point out the magnitude of the injustice being done and to call for active support from the American people. In 1936 Franklin D. Roosevelt was re—elected to the Presidency and continued to devise social action and relief programs designed to alleviate the depressed social and economic conditions which resulted from the 1929 stock market crash. 49 The later half of the 1930-1944 period was dominated by the Second World War. The United States entered the Second World War when the United States naval fleet at Pearl Harbor was attacked on December 7, 1941. The war did not end until 1945. During this war period, the American economy was bolstered by the increase in jobs available in the production of war machinery. Negro Americans migrated to the war production centers to take jobs in war plants. Discrimination against Negroes was evidenced in the job plac ment procedures as well as in firing procedures. The increase in the number of Negroes in the already overcrowded ghetto areas of the major cities made living conditions even worse than they were in the 1930's. The Treatment of Negro Characters in Illustrations in Children's Picture Books 1930-1944 The 1930's marked the beginning of what is often referred to as the Golden Age of Picture Books in the field of children's literature. The reproduction of pictures using off—set printing techniques which were introduced in America after World War I, contributed to the ease with which numerous copies of artisfis' pictures could be repro— duced. Consequently, the number of picture books designed for young children substantially increased during the 1930's. 50 Illustrations in children's picture books of this period reflected stereotypes that were commonly prevalent in American society of the early 1900's. Dharathula Millender has given the following descriptions of Negro characters found in Frawg, a popular children's picture book of the period: They all have big "liver" ips spreading over the lower halves of their faces, wear no shoes any place in the book, and Evvalena's hair is in three shoots coming out of three parted patches. . . . One can see Evvalena looking similar to a brown minia- ture monster. . . . True to Negro stereotype, Frawg has flopped out on the watermelon pile, tired, sleepy, lazy, and too full to move. His house was shown with no screens and a square box propped up on some sort of supports. Five women are all shown looking like big barrels of hay flith string belts around their shapeless, buxom forms. 9 Millender describes the illustrations in Epaminodas and His Auntie as having "horrible illustrations in color with a lot of red and yellow on coal-black creatures, supposed to Negroes. ."50 As Millender points out, there were a few "New Libraries" trying to make more honest books available to children about Negro lifeylbut for the most part the circumstances of the depression were occupy- ing most Americans' attention duiing the 1930's. ¥ ugDharathula H. Millender, "Selecting Our Children's Books: Time for Some Changes," Changing Education I (Fall, 1966), p. 10. 50Ibid., p. 11. 51 Very few books dealt with racial problems during the 1930's. Huck and Kuhn note that Negroes were drawn as stereotypes. They were shown as "bandana-covered, fat mammy and the kinky-haired,thickéfipped 'funny' boy."51 The Nicodemus Series was popular in the 1930's and was described by Millender as "a real disgrace to humanity" because of its stereotyped caricatures of Negroes.52 The segregation of Negroes from whites in the 1930's was reflected in the photographic essay in the picture book Tobe published in 1939 as well as in other books of the period.53 The introduction of the use of photographs, however, in children's picture books was a step in a posi- tive direction away from the negative drawn or painted caricatures. As Morris pointed out in a master's thesis dealing with the treatment of the Negro in books for children, "[photographs] did much to convince readers that Negro children could look like human beings."54 In a similar study, Cohen noted that "the thirties showed a definite tendency toward placing Negro characters in realistic situations."55 51Huck and Kuhn, Children's Literature, p. 87. 52Millender, "Selecting Our Children's Books," p. 11. 53Huck and Kuhn, Children's Literature, p. 87. SuEffie Lee Morris, "A Mid-Century Survey of the Pre- sentation of the American Negro in Literature for Children Published between 1900 and 1950," (unpublished Master's thesis, Western Reserve University, 1956), p. 71. 55Lucille F. A. Cohen, "Study of the Role of the Negro in Children's Fiction in the U.S." (unpublished Master's Thesis, Queen's College, 1962), p. 47. Ul I\) Social and Economic Conditions 1945-1955 The fact that Negroes and Caucasians both fought in World War 11, though mainly in officially segregated units, helped to create a climate of racial awareness and concern in the post-war period. It was not until after 1945, during Harry S. Truman's Presidency, that military and govern- mental units were ordered to integrate. At the same time, the fact that psychologists were emphasizing the importance of the environment in the development of the child coupled with the social scientists' interest in the study of racial and ethnic minorities, led to a rise in the number of studies conducted concerning Negroes in American society. The establishment of the United Nations in 1945 reflected an awareness and a desire on the part of the majority of Americans to work with foreign nations in creating world peace and cultural understanding. Even so, the years between 1950 and 1953 were marked by the Korean War. Negroes and Caucasians fought together in the recently desegregated military units. Dwight D. Eisenhower, a military hero, was elected to the Presidency in 1952 and remained in office until 1961. By 1950, about the same proportion of Negroes as Caucasians were living in cities rather than rural areas. Even though the Employment Practices Commission was estab- lished to help the Negro secure more jobs, higher wages, and a greater diversity in occupations, the Negroe'S social and economic status appeared to have actually changed very little since the days of reconstruction. In 1954 the Supreme Court of the United States declared public school segregation unconstitutional on the grounds that the separation of school children on the basis of race even though the physical facilities may be essentially equal, constituted an inherently unequal sit- uation. This case represented the first time that evidence as to the psychological effects of segregation were admitted as evidence by the court. Treatment of_Negro Characters in the Illustrations of Ch ldren's Picture Books 1945-1955 Books published for young children after 1945 were observed to have improved greatly in respect to the kind of illustrations of Negroes presented. By the 1940's the exaggerated caricatures of Negro children were being replaced by "healthy, clean, happy" youngsters who were seen as "sharing in complete harmony, the play, study, work activities" of white as well as black children.56 In 1948 two important pamphlets were published that commented on the treatment of the Negro in illustrations in books for children: The American Council on Education's 56Betty Banner Preer, "Guidance in Democratic Living Through Juvenile Fiction," Wilson Library Bulletin, XXII (May, 1948), p. 681. k” r- Literature for Human Understanding_and Charlemae Rol‘in' We Build Together. Living and working conditions in the United States during this period often made life uncomfortable for people who found themselves surrounded by crowded condi- tions; disrupted communities intensified their problems. As a result, discrimination and especially racial discrim— ination and especially racial discrimination sharpened.57 In an attempt to help children extend their sensitivity to and their awareness of people different from themselves, the American Council on Education recommended that chil— drenksbooks be used to help children expand their own daily experiences to the point of being able to understand the values, traditions, mind-sets and social expectations of a variety of people. The Council saw the need for under— standing other people as a "practical necessity because none of us can exist in isolation in the modern world."58 The Council was concerned that a variety of differences in family life, economic differences, differences in the variety of ways in which and degrees to which different groups are able to participate in American life be shown in children's literature. Considerable attention was given to the topic of stereotypes in children's literature which 57American Council on Education, Literature for Human Understanding, p. 2. 58 Ibid., p. l. U ’I U! were considered to be "fixed, rigid ideas about groups of "59 people and their characteristics. Stereotypes, as false and inadequate generalizations, were seen as only one element in the conditioning of people's attitudes toward the Negro, but an important one. The fact that stereotypes were referred to as "pictures-in-your-head," as mentioned earlier, has special relevance for the present study. It was suggested by the Council that racial differ— ences be pointed out early, but in a positive way. In commenting upon the book Two Is A Team, which was included in the present study, the point was made that nowhere in the text was it mentioned that one of the boys was Negro, but the pictures showed a Negro boy and his mother. The kind of statement that was suggested for use if someone remarked that one of the boys was a Negro was: "Why yes, he does have nice dark skin and his mother does, too; see how pretty her dress is against it in the picture?"60 Thus, the physical characteristics were put in a positive light through the use of favorable adjectives and a casual manner of discussion. Charlemae Rollins also reflected the same general concerns expressed by the American Council. She was more explicit, however, in stating criteria for judging books 59Ibid., p. 13. 6OIbid., p. 26. 56 about Negroes for children.61 Little Black Sambo is still on many recommended library lists, but in 1948 Rollins had the following statements to make trying to explain why Negroes were antagonized by the book and why she felt that it may convey wrong or distorted concepts to white children. Few white people can understand how deeply most Negroes resent the name "Sambo" . . . It is almost as offensive to his sensibilities as "Nigger," "Darky," or "Pickaninny". . . . In some cities it is reported, Negro children mutilate and destroy [Little Black Sambo], showing in their own way their rEIection and disapproval.02 She goes on to say that by reading Little Black Sambo well-meaning teachers and librarians "have often given the white children their first opportunity to ridicule a little Negro playmate by calling him_'Little Black Sambo.'”63 Rollins also felt that the illuStrations in many of the "cheap reprints and animated editions" of Little Black f Sambo made it even more offensive.ou The books, pertinent to this study, which were described by Rollins as containing "wholesome, attractive pictures of Negroes in varied phases of life" were: Nappy Has a New Friend, Tobe, Hezekiah Horton and Billy Bates. In summary, the period of 1945-1955 revealed increas- ing concern and awareness on the part of some persons in 61Charlamae Rollins, ed., We Build Together (Chicago: National Council of Teachers of English, 1948), p. 5. 621bid. 53 6U'Ibid. Ibid. 57 the children's literature field in connection with how the Negro was being presented in books for children. It was not until this period which began with the end of World War II that the problem of prejudice was openly faced and that several books for children contained 65 integrated scenes. Two Is a Team, published in 1945, was the first notable picture book for children which showed a Negro and a white child playing together on ostensibly equal terms with no mention being made of the fact that one of the children was a Negro and no issue of race being made. Social and Economic Conditions 1956;1960 By 1956 the effects of the Supreme Court's desegre- gation ruling were being felt most intensely in the Southern states. Many attempts to integrate schools in the South resulted in violence and destruction. By 1958, four years after the court's decision, fifteen out of the 1,354 biracial school districts in the South were inte- 66 grated. In 1956 the Library Services and Construction 67 Act was passed by Congress and enabled school districts to provide improved library facilities for school children. 65 66Merle Curti, The Growth of American Thought, 3rd ed. (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), p. 780. Huck and Kuhn, Children's Literature, p. 229. 67Titie 1 (PL 597). One year after the Russians launched Sputnik I in 1957, the National Defense Education Act68 provided schools with funds to buy more instructional materials (including trade books) in order to strengthen America's educational programs especially in the areas of mathematics and science. The concept of human beings as economic resources for the nation as a whole and the accompanying idea of education as an investment for America's future well-being began to flourish during this period. The production of material goods continued to increase. As more suburban housing developments were constructed, more and more whites migrated from the congested cities to the suburbs. The use of the mass media by the general population increased. Television sets became common house- hold items. In 1958 alone fifteen hundred new children's trade books were published. Madison Avenue advertising techniques and the values and practices of the business world were closely examined and much criticized during this period. Much analysis and speculation was also centered upon the inclination toward conformity evidenced by students and young adults. The anonymity of urban life and the depersonalization of society brought about by rapid automation were often given as two important reasons for the alleged conformity of the period. 68Title I, Title II, and Title VI (PL 85-864). Rebelling against the existing conditions, the Black Muslims preached the racial superiority of blacks and called for complete segregation of blacks and "blue-eyed devels"; at the same time they demanded that provision be made for equal economic and social opportunities.69 Concurrently, there was an increase in the issuance of anti-Negro literature put out by white radical-right groups. Racial tension continued to increase. There began economic boycotts of buses and businesses in the South which refused to serve Negroes in the same manner in which they served Caucasians. "In February, 1960, the sit—ins began. A whole new kind of way of living began, and reached larger 70 masses and groups of Negroes." Treatment of Negro Characters in Illustrations in Children's Picture Books 1956-1960 Like the American economy which continued to prosper after World War II, children's picture books also continued to flourish during the 1950's. There was greater variety in the techniques and media used by the large number of artists who decided to create children's picture books. The number of artists and authors choosing to include Negro characters in their illustrations, however, was not great 69Malcolm Little, The Autobiography of Malcolm X with the assistance of Alex Haley. Introduction by M. S. Handler. Epilogue by Alex Haley (New York: Grove Press, 1965). 70 Grambs, "The Self-Concept," p. 43. 60 during this period. When Negroes were shown, they were shown favorably and in integrated settings. Many studies of race awareness were published in the 1950's as a result of research done to prepare evidence for the 1954 Supreme Court ruling on the segregation of public schools. The 1956-1960 period appears to have been a time of transition. The 1954 Supreme Court ruling on segregation slowly began to penetrate American society; by the end of the 1961-1968 period, the effects of the Supreme Court ruling had pre- cipatated numerous racial confrontations and several acts of Congress designed to discourage unfair treatment partially created by segregation in public facilities and unequal treatment under the law. Social and Economic Conditions 1961-1968 The years from 1961-1968 were marked by much social turmoil in the midst of continued economic prosperity for the United States as a whole. In 1961, during the Presi- dency of John F. Kennedy, Congress established the United States Peace Corps which was designed to train American personnel who were sent abroad to aid developing countries. The American people's support of the Peace Corps reflected a broadening of their concern for peoples of different cultures and economic conditions. In 1962, the United States Court ordered that a Negro be admitted to the Univer- sity of Mississippi; because the state did not comply with 61 federal orders, the federal government sent troops to enforce the law. Similar situations calling for federa troops occurred in other southern states. Race relations were extremely tense. In the year of the assassination of President Kennedy, 1963, a comprehensive civil rights law was passed; in 1964 an additional law was passed guarantee— ing the voting rights of Negroes and "poor people." A massive march on Washington took place in 1963. Blacks and whites demanded firmer and more extensive civil rights legislation as well as better living and working conditions for Negroes. (As of 1963 the median income of non-whites was $3,465 compared to $6,548 for whites.)71 A study made in the 1960's by the Department of Health, Education and Welfare estimated that 60 per cent of the Negro children in America were growing up in poverty stricken families.72 Approximately 56 per cent of the Negro children of school age73 had mothers who worked. During the 1961-1968 period, various "Title Programs" were initiated which provided Federal funds for the pur- chase of numerous trade books for classroom and school libraries connected with pre-school and regular elementary 71Daniel Patrick Moynihan, "Employment, Income, and the Ordeal of the Negro Family," The Negro American edited by Talcott Parsons and Kenneth B. Clark. (Boston: The Beacon Press, 1965), p. 148. 72Ibid., p. 149. 73Ibid., p. 15. 62 77 In the 1967—1968 school year alone, school programs. forty-seven of the fifty American states allocated between fifty and one-hundred per cent of the funds provided by the federal government ESEA Act--Tit1e II on school library resources as opposed to textbooks and other instructional materials.75 Racial tensions in the United States increased. The summer of the year 1967 was marked by numerous racial disorders in many cities throughout the United States. On July 29, 1967 President Johnson ordered a National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders to investigate the riots. The Commission's basic conclusion was that the nation was moving toward two separate and unequal societies—-one black and one white.76 They maintained that there was still time to reverse the trend toward separation if common oppor- tunities would be made available to everyone within the society and if there could be a national commitment to action that would be compassionate, massive, sustained, and backed by all our national resources. It would require that every American acquire new attitudes, new understanding, and new will. The Commission charged: 7“Economic Opportunity Act of l964——Title II, Part A (PL 88-452); Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965-— Title I, Title II, and Title III (PL 89—10). 75Howard S. Rowland and Richard L. Wing, Federal Aid for Schools: 1967-1968 Guide (New York: Macmillan Company, 76U. S. Riot Commission. Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (New York: Bantam Books, 1968), p. I} 0\ LA) What white Americans have never fully understood—- but what the Negro can never forget--is that white society is deeply implicated in the ghetto. White institutions created it, white institutions main- tain it, and white society condones it. Treatment of Negro Characters in Illustrations in Children'sgPicture Books 196I¥1968 By the year 1961, the full impact of the Negro revolution (which Grambs stated began in December 1960 with the sit-ins) was being reflected in the children's book field and noticeably in illustrations in new books. In 1962, Ezra Jack Keats' The Snowy Day won a Caldecott Award. It was the first notable book published for chil- dnnisince 1945 which contained illustrations of a Negro as the main character and did not mention race in the text. The Snowy Day, incidentally, was the first picture book for children containing a Negro main character that won a Caldecott Award. Koblitz pointed out that a greater variety of work roles were also being made available to Negroes in pictures in her 1967 guide to The Negro in Schoolroom Literature.78 Children may see in such pictures a greater variety of roles being carried out by a greater variety of Negroes than previously. 77Ibid., p. 2. 78Koblitz, The Negro in Schoolroom Literature, Forward, u.p. In 1965, after the passage of much Civil Rights legislation and numerous sociological Studies of the treat- ment of the Negro in American society, the Michigan Depart- ment of Public Instruction was quoted in the September 11, 1965 Saturday Review as having stated that education has the responsibility to present America as a multi-cultural, 79 1“ multi-racial, and multi—religious nation. Theodore D. Dolmatch, author of the article, made the observation that whereas older textbooks for children did, indeed, show only "blond children and suburban homes," and no variety, the textbooks presently being published are of the "Color- me—brown" variety. Dolmatch asked whether replacing pink Skins with brown skins or country children with city chil— draiwas the answer to the diversity question.80 Nancy Larrick charged that six million, five hundred thousand black children were trying to learn to read and to understand the American way of life by using books that were almost entirely all white.81 Larrick's charge followed Whitney Young's attack upon trade book publishers who omitted Negroes from children's books which purported to be 82 realistic fiction. Larrick conducted a study in which returns from a questionnaire from sixty—three of the seventy 79Theodore B. Dolmatch, "Color Me Brown-~I'm Integrated," Saturday Review, XLVIII (September 11, 1965), p. 73. 80Ibid., p. 73. 81 p. 63. 82 Larrick, "The All-White World of Children's Books," Dolmatch, "Color Me Brown--I'm Integrated," p. 73. 65 members of the Children's Book Council who published trade books for children, indicated that only an average of 6.7 per cent of the 5,206 children's trade books published included one or more Negroes. Even the figure of 6.7 per cent does not accurately indicate the scarcity of books portraying Negroes, however, because fifty per cent of the books included in the percentage are either set outside the continental United States or before World War 11.83 For the years 1963—1965, Larrick noted that only four-fifths of one per cent of the children's trade books from the sixty—three publishers show contemporary Negro 84 life. Only twelve of the forty-four picture books omitted .— 8: the word Negro. Reportedly, the number of books which would include Negro characters was to increase 1.5 per cent 86 H in 1965 and earlier books were to be "updated. Critical Review of Studies Analyzing_the Treatment of the Negro in Books for Children A study dealing with the treatment of the Negro in children's books written by Negroes conducted by Dorothy 83 p. 64. 8“Ibid. Larrick, "The All-White World of Children's Books," BSIbid. 86Ibid., p. 85. Bernice Wilson in 195687 revealed that books written by Negroes for children were usually limited to some phase of Negro life and most of the books were written for older children. The smallest proportion of the books were in the easy reading and picture book category. Wilson's study provided an annotated bibliography of books written for children by Negro authors. In 1956, Effie Lee Morris attempted to do in the field of children's literature what John Herbert Nelson and Sterling A. Brown had done for the field of adult literature i.e., provide a chronological and objective analysis of the presentation of the American Negro char— ‘ acter from an historical and sociological perspective.88 Morris was interested in ascertaining how the treatment of the Negro in children's literature paralleled the Negro's treatment in American society during six historical periods she set aside for discussion: before 1900, 1900- 1920, 1921-1930, 1931-1940, 1941—1945, 1946—1950. The children's books that Morris selected were either approved 87Dorothy Bernice Wilson, "A Survey and Evaluation of Books Written for Children by Negro Authors," (unpublished M.A. thesis, Western Reserve University, 1956). 8Morris, "A Mid—Century Survey of the Presentation of the American Negro in Literature for Children Published between 1900 and 1950," 1956. 67 or disapproved according to literary standards and were analyzed in respect to role, theme, setting, characteriza- tion, language, and illustration; they were also analyzed in respect to how such literary elements develOped during the historical period within which the books' authors lived and wrote. Morris' study provided an interpretation of the social history of America's children, especially Negro children, as shown through their books, and a non—selective, annotated bibiOgraphy of children's books (current to 1950) which included Negro characters. Morris made the following generalizations concerning the presentation of the Negro in children's literature during six historical periods set aside for interpretation: (1) Before 1900 the Negro was included in children's literature to give regional or historical authen— ticity to stories; his role was that of either servant or slave. (2) From 1900 to 1920, the Negro was used as a source of comic relief in books for children. (3) Between 1921 and 1930, the first stories of the Underground railway appeared, but the predominant picture was still that of plantation days, servant roles, and comic relief. (4) During the 1931—1940 period the first realistic books dealing with Negro children were introduced. Negro characters were found in major roles and non- nostalgic descriptions of slave life were found. (5) Between 1941 and 1945 stereotyped presentations were still present, but the majority of the chil— drens books were gradually departing from a stereo— typed treatment. 68 (6) Between 1945 and 1950, Negroes were treated in a more realistic manner and there was a trend toward interracial stories in children's literature. The disappearance of the inclusion of Negroes for comic relief was noted. In addition, books for children during this period were characterized as having: (a) more southern than northern or western settings (b) more rural than urban scenes (c) more historical than contemporary periods (d) more stories of the Underground Railroad than contented slaves The Morris study was important to the present study in that it provided valuable social-historical background informa- tion. Several of Morris' findings may be supported or denied by the present study. A study done by Mabel Jeter in 1962 was a continua- 89 tion of the 1952 study done by Morris and improved upon it by including specific information on each of the twenty- four books analyzed. In contrast to the Morris study, Jeter's bibliography was selective. All books included for investigation were included in reviews or lists written or compiled by librarians. Added to and based on Morris' findings for the period 1900-1951, Jeter's findings for the 1951-1960 period were as follows: (1) There were as many Middle Atlantic as southern settings. 89Mabel H. Jeter, "Presentation of the Negro in Children's Books Published Between 1951 and 1960," (unpub- lished M.A. thesis, Atlanta University, 1962). (2) (3) (4) (5) (5) (7) (8) (9) (10) (ll) (12) 69 There were more contemporary than historical time periods. There was an increasing representation of Negroes in other parts of the world. There were more Underground Railroad than plantation descriptions. Most characters spoke standard English in con- temporary settings and few speaking difficult dialect in the historical ones. There were few derisive terms used. There was less emphasis on skin color. There were few even mildly distorted illustrations. The themes dealt mostly with home and community life or prejudice. There were primarily complete family units. Negroes were gaining respect rather than being tolerated. Books for the period were more realistic in that they tend to show the Negro as an integral part or society as a whole. Jeter evaluated twenty-four books and concluded the following: (1) (2) (3) (4) The adult male and adult female appeared most often with the male child, female child, male adolescent and female adolescent following in the order given; Titles which had an adult male appearing, in most instances, had an adult female and vice-versa; The male child appeared more often without the female child; yet, the female child appeared as often with the male as without it; No Negro characters appeared in a major role with- out a subordinate character; 70 (5) Characters appeared more often in major and minor roles in the same titles than in minor roles; (6) A majority of the authors introduced the [Negro] characters in the beginning of the stories; (7) A majority of the authors used a variety of "direct approaches" to let the reader know the characters were Negroes; (8) Only one author used a derisive term in describing a character physically; (9) Mildly distorted pictorial illustrations have almost disappeared. The limitation of the Jeter study lay in the fact that only recommended books were included for evaluation which may mean that the social-historical emphasis of the Jeter study did not as accurately parallel the times as did the Morris study. In addition, the fact that only twenty-four books were evaluated limited the scope of the study. Jeter's evaluations of the books recorded on the checklists were most often ambiguous and confusing. The categories were not always mutually exclusive and the justification given for an acceptable or non-acceptable rating was not clear from the checklists alone, but had to be explained by brief annotations about each book. The result was that the find— ings were difficult to ascertain. A further limitation of the study was that it was highly subjective in that no attempt was made to have the investigator's findings checked by raters. The Jeter study was especially important to the pre- sent study because illustrations were analyzed. However, 71 the analysis was limited in that only one pieture book was included in the analysis of illustrations; the categories included for analysis were broad; the ratings of the illustrations were general; and the descriptions of the illustrations were vague. The Jeter study was important to the present study in that its reported findings regarding sex and age roles may be supported or denied by the findings of the present study. Jeter's finding that "mildly distorted" illustra- tions have almost disappeared may also be supported or denied. In 1965 David Karl Gast's doctoral study was devoted to the investigation of the problem of how several American minority groups have been characterized and conceptualized in children's fiction published between 1945 and 1962 and listed in library guides to children's books.90 The minority groups Gast was concerned with were the American Indians, Chinese, Japanese, Negro, and Spanish Americans. Gast's population consisted of forty—two children's books which contained a total of 114 minority American characters; the books as a whole and the individual characters provided two separate units of analysis; two separate data collection instruments were used. Individual characters for each minority group were analyzed in terms of seven different 90David Karl Gast, "Characteristics and Concepts of Minority Americans in Contemporary Children's Fictional Literature," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Arizona State University, 1965). 72 characteristics and stereotypes imputed to them using the Katz and Braly List of verbal stereotypes. Individual books were analyzed to ascertain explicit and implicit cor- cepts revealed about the minority groups through the stories read. Gast asked three major questions in his study: (1) What are the characteristics of and concepts about present day American Indians, Chinese, Japanese, Negroes and Spanish Americans in contemporary children's fiction? (2) What are the identifiable stereotypes imputed to minority Americans in the literature? (3) How does the treatment of minority Americans in contemporary children's fictional literature compare with that shown in related studies of adult magazine fiction and school instructional materials? Sixteen conclusions were drawn. The ones most relevant to the present study were: (1) Recent children's fiction generally portrays the Negro as having adopted the dominant middle class American values related to cleanliness, kindness, intelligence, ambition, hard work, and success. (2) Recent children's fiction generally contains complimentary stereotypes of present-day Negroes and middle class Anglo—American virtues make up the new stereotypes imputed to them by the authors of the literature. (3) Negroes are portrayed as being evenly distributed as to lower and middle class status rating. (4) Negroes were not found to be occupationally stereo- typed as they were found to represent a wide range of occupations including white collar jobs and professions. 73 (5) Recent children's literature, with one exception, portrays the Negro minority as the only minority whose members seek higher education and attend college. (6) Recent children's literature portrays the Negro minority as being more thoroughly assimilated into the dominant culture and having more social interaction with Anglo-Americans than the American Indians, the Chinese, and the Spanish Americans. (7) Negroes were portrayed as living in integrated neighborhoods. (8) Recent children's fiction presents no disparity between the number or importance of male and female characters. (9) Recent children's literature dignifies the differ— ences in race, creed, and custom of American minor- ities and emphasizes similarities rather than differences between minority and majority Americans with regard to behavior, attitudes, and values. (10) Recent children's fiction is more complimentary to minority Americans when compared with literature analyzed in previous studies. (11) Recent children's literature contains a dreath of books about Negroes in the picture book and primary grade reading levels, while upper grade books are not uncommon. (12) Stories of Negro teenagers are numerous in recent children's literature when compared to a dearth of books concerning the other minority groups. (13) Recent children's literature generally portrays Negroes as being brown skinned people who often have Caucasian facial features and straight hair. Physical differences between Negroes and Anglo- Americans seem to be de-emphasized. Light skinned Negroes are portrayed as representative of the Negro minority. (14) In recent children's literature social acceptance in the dominant Anglo—American culture is the predominant theme in books about the Negro minority. 74 Some of the major contributions of the Gast study to the field of children's literature were that (1) it provided the field with information about several minority groups that have, on the whole, received little attention in the field; (2) it attempted to conduct a systematic, objective, and quantitative study using a more rigorous form of con- tent analysis than previous investigators in the field of children's literature have used; (3) it made use of previous content analyses of adult fiction and other forms of communication outside the field of children's liter— ature which reflected the attempt to treat American children's literature as a part of all American literature and as a valid and vital form of communication of American societal values. The limitations of the Gast study were that (1) its depth of analysis was sacrificed for breadth; (2) in certain cases the number of books used for the analysis of a particular minority group was so small (only two books were used for the Chinese) that the ability to generalize was seriously narrowed and thus the conclusions of the study were questionable; (3) although illustrations were used in the ascertaining of individual charactistics they were only secondary to the text; (4) the procedures used to analyze the books, compile the data, and establish coder reliability were not explained fully and clearly enough. 75 The Gast study pointed to the need for more studies concerned with the treatment of minority groups in American children's fiction. It also reported, within narrow limits, certain findings about Negr Americans that may be con- firmed or denied by the present study. In addition, Gast confirmed the fact that a dearth of picture books were recommended in ALA guides during the period of investigation that contained minority Americans, including Negroes. Finally, the Gast study considered pictures to be important aids in gleaning informotion about individuals, characters, and explicit and implicit concepts about minority groups. In her 1962 study, Lucille Cohen summarized the historical and literary background of seven distinct periods: 1619-1861; 1862-1900; 1901-1920; 1921—1930; 1931-1940; 1941—1950, and 1951—1961.91 In the last four periods, Cohen discussed specific children's books in terms of the Negro's role as revealed through the settings, themes, illustrations, and in terms of the influence historical developments of the period may have had on the authors and illustrators. The Cohen study included a non-selective biblio- graphy of one hundredeighty-two books which included Negro characters written for children from pre—school through 91Cohen, "Study of the Role of the Negro in Children's Fiction in the U.S.", 1962. 76 junior high school age; emphasized more of the adult literary history than the Morris or Jeter studies; and covered the literary history of the period before 1900 more completely and thoroughly than the Morris study. Nine of the books included by Cohen were included 92 in the present study. The Cohen study furnished impor- tant information about the social history of American society and the literary history of the treatment of the Negro in adult literature. Cohen's study did take illus— trations into consideration and included fifteen picture books that are also included in the present study. Her comments about the fifteen books may be either accepted or rejected on the basis of the findings of the present study. A 1966 doctoral study by Gerd Boger was, among other things, concerned with the content of books for young children which included Negroes as main characters.93 The content analysis units were labeled as symbolic, empirical, ethical, and synoptic. The definitions given to the four thought units were as follows: Symbolic thought comprises instances of the main child character communicating intelligibly through elementary forms of active inquiry. 92A list of the books and Cohen's comments about the books are included in Appendix. 93Gerd Bdger, "A Content Analysis of Selected Children's Books on the Negro and Japan," (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Michigan State University, 1966). 77 Empirical thought comprises instances of the main child character increasingly using his personal abilities as tools toward growing insight. Ethical thought comprises instances of the main child character deciding consciously and acting responsibly in an ever widening context. Syngptic thought comprises instances of the main child character comprehending himself integrally and envisioning his future time—life purposes. The degree to which the thought unit in question reflected the main character as the subject of an action, and the degree to which he was the object of an action served to sharpen B6ger's category definitions by providing a further means of qualification. Boger concluded that the books on Japan were slightly more adequate than the books on the Negro in terms of the definition of a realistic story as "a tale that is con- vincingly true to life." Boger interpreted the relative absence of ethical and synoptic thought-units found in the stories on the Negro as a lack of opportunity for the Negro child to grow with respect to ethical and synoptic thought. The main contributions of the Bdger study with respect to the treatment of the Negro in books for children was that it recognized the possibility that children's books may influence a wide variety of modes of thought in children and that it is important to ascertain What these modes might be. It also stressed the importance of the adult reviewer who considers books for children from two points of view: viewing the child as the subject of his own actions 78 and viewing the child as the object in his relations with others. Boger was concerned that children's books help a child see himself in relationship to himself as well as to others. The method he used to analyze the children's books is prodigiously explained and the examples from the books are helpful in explaining how the thought units were scored. In 1964, Barbara Jean Glanoy attempted to counteract certain limitations of the Morris and Jeter studies by using a "statistical approach and dealing only with characteristics which lent themselves to objective analysis" and by "including all the children's fiction which included Negro characters and was published between 1951 and l963."97 It was Glancy's contention that the total characteristics in books of any one historical period should depict char— acters as exhibiting the entire continuum of skin color or socio-economic status found among real people. She was concerned that a desire to break away from formerly negative stereotypes would lead authors toward an idealized character— ization which could, in turn, become a new "positive" stereotype. The study tried to determine whether the chil— drenksfiction published between 1951 and 1963 contained negative stereotypes, and to ascertain whether or not the 9“Glancy, "The Treatment of the Negro in Children's Books," 1964. 79 degree or direction of the stereotype diminished or changed during subsequent periods of study: The findings of Glancy's study were as follows: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) There were some charactistics of the negative stereotype of the Negro in at least fifty per cent of the children's books published between the years 1951 and 1963 and containing Negro characters. Most of the instances of the negative stereo- types found (extremely poor, black-skinned, not socially integrated, living in Confederate states caulivingin.rural settings) were found during the earliest years of the Study. Characterisitics of the negative stereotype which showed diminishing trends during the period studied were: lowest status and extremely poor, Confederate and border state settings, ante bellum period, being called "Auntie" or "Uncle," having slaves depicted as contented, and the presence of multiple minor characteristics. Characteristics of the negative stereotype which did not show diminishing trends were: Civil War periods, homes designated as cabins, and stereo- typed personality traits. A broader range of characterization did not take place during the period studied. Decreasing trends were noted in the range of characteriza- tion for socio—economic status, skin color, language, and degree of integration. An increasing trend of supplying no information about socio-economic status, skin color, language, and degree of integration was noted. The increasing trend of supplying no information about socio—economic status and language was directly related to the increase of books for the youngest readers published in 1963. Four characteristics of the positive stereotype of the Negro (standard English, Union state settings, suburban communities, and contemporary periods) evidenced increasing trends. 80 (9) Seven of the characteristics of the positive stereotype of the Negro (middle-class or wealthy, light-skinned, integrated in a bi— racial society, concerned with solving pro- blems not specifically related to race, and possessing none of the minor characteristics) did not increase. The contributions of the Glancy study to the field of children's literature were as follows: (1) It provided a continuation of the Morris study which ended with the year 1950 by including all books of fiction found on certain book lists but not necessarily selective or recommended ones published between 1951 and 1963 which had included Negro characters. (2) The study provided a non-selective biblio— graphy of one hundred and forty-two books. (3) The study attempted an objective, systematic analysis of books by defining terms, reading books in random order, establishing and defining categories, and quantifying and then interpreting the findings. One major limitation of the Glancy study was that the reporting of the data in the cheeklist table is in many cases ambiguous and inaccurate. Another limitation was that the questions the investigator initially asked were not directly answered in the reporting of the find- ings. In addition, no distinction was made in the selec— tion or analyses of books of historical fiction and modern realistic fiction which would seem to make a significant difference in the kinds and numbers of characteristics 81 found. Also, no raters were used to confirm or deny the reliability of the investigator's findings. The findings of the Glancy study in respect to diver- sity of skin color and socio-economic characteristics, which were based primarily on textual evidence found in books for older children, may be supported or rejected by the findings of the present study which dealt only with the pictures found in books for young children. In Chapter II literature related to the present study was reviewed. In Chapter III the design of the study will be described and discussed. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY The content analysis of non-verbal material, such as pictures, is a fairly recent development in the research field. Comparatively few studies of pictorial materials have been done. There have been no content analyses made of the pictOrial material in children's picture books other than a study done to analyze the trends in the use of various media to produce Caldecott Award winning books.l Several studies within the field of children's literature have analyzed the content of children's fiction that con- tains Negro characters, but the pictures were of secondary importance and were few in number. The justification for analyzing a form of non-verbal communication, such as illustration, stems from the fact that illustrations are, as are other non-verbal forms, power- ful and pervasive means of communication. It is important lJohn Warren Stewig, "Tr ends in Caldecott Award Winners," Elementary English XLV (February, 1968), pp. 218— 223 and p. 260. 82 0') LA) to recognize that visual messages can be manipulated much as words may be manipulated.2 In their explanation of why they felt it was important to study comic strips, Spiegelman, Terwilliger and Fearing took into consideration the theory that "all forms of communication structure the individual's world and provide "3 Using this theory as a basis, a framework for action. it would seem to hold that if comic strips are thought to both reflect and mold cultural patterns and beliefs then picture books may also reflect and mold culture and beliefs. As Spiegelman £3 :1, pointed out, "it is the purpose :1 of content analysis to identify, isolate, and, if possible, quantify any or all of the aspects of a particular communi- cation's content."14 The primary use of content analysis is to provide units of material against which "interpreter effects or producer intents may be audited." Berelson and Salter pointed out in reporting their study of the representation of ethnic groups in popular adult magazine fiction that it is not only the overt and intentional areas of racial discrimination that are important. 2James A. Fosdick and Percy H. Tannenbaum, "The Encoder's Intent and Use of Stylistic Elements in Photo- graphs," Journalism Quarterly XLI (1964) p. 176. 3Spiegelman, Terwilliger, and Fearing, "A Content Analysis of Sunday Comic Strips," p. 39. uIbid. Prejudice also finds its way into innocuous areas where people are exposed to [sources of discrimina- tion] without consciousness that an ethnic problem is being raised at all.5 In order to ascertain whether certain forms of discrimina— tion were present, content analysis was seen by Berelson and Salter as a meaningful and useful techniques for the present study also. Sampling The total population of 41 books for this study consisted of books for young children found on the book lists6 used by librarians, teachers, and children's SBernard Berelson and Patricia Salter, "Majority and Minority Americans: An Analysis of Magazine Fiction," in Mass Culture edited by Bernard Rosenberg and David Manning White (Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1963) p. 235. 6American Library Association, Books for Children: 1960-1965 (Chicago: American Library Association, 1966); American Library Association, A Basic Book Collection for Elementary Grades (Chicago: American Library Association, 1960); Augusta Baker, Books About Negro Life for Children (New York: The New York Public Library, 1961 and 1963); Muriel Crosby, ed., Reading Ladders for Human Relations (4th ed.; Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education, 1964); Estelle Fidell and Emily Bradshaw, compilers, Children's Catalog: 1968 Supplement to the 11th edition (New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1968); Rachel and Estelle Fidell, compilers, Children's Catalog (11th edition; New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1966); Mary Gaver, ed., Tpp Elementary School Library Collection: Phases 1-2-3 (3rd ed.; Newark, New Jersey: Bro-Dart Foundation, 1967); Ruth Giles and Dorothy Cook, compilers, Children's Catalog (8th ed.; New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1951); Charlotte Keating, ed., Building Bridges of Understanding (Arizona: Palo Verde Publishing Company, 1967); Koblitz, The Negro in Schoolroom Literature, 1966; Charlamae Rollins, ed., We Build To ether (Chicago: National Council of Teachers of English, 1978 and 1967); Rachel Shor, compiler, Children's Catalog: 1967 Supplement to the 11th edition (New York: H. W. Wilson Company, 1967 ; Dorothy West and Rachel Shor, compilers, Children's Catalog (10th ed.; New York: H. W. Wilson Com- pany, 1961). 85 literature specialists. The books included for analysis had the following characteristics: (1) Conformed to the specifications of a picture book as the term has been defined for the purpose of this study, (2) Were recommended for children aged three through eight, (3) Had an original COpyright date from the year 1930 through 1968, (4) Con- tained illustrations of one or more Negro characters, (5) Were classified as realistic fiction as the term has been defined for the purposes of this study, and (6) Were published in the United States of America. With certain exceptions, each book which met the above specifications and which was included in the recommended book lists was analyzed. The exceptions were as follows: (1) Rowena, Teena and Tot and the Blackberries was substituted for Rowena. Tenna and Tot and the Runaway Turkey. The books have the same author—illustrator and were published within five years of each other. The substitution was made because Rowena. Teena and Tot and the Runaway Turkey was not available for analysis, but Rowena, Tenna and Tot and the Blackberries was available. (2) The 1944 edition of Hezekiah Horton which con- tained drawings was substituted for the 1942 edition of Hezekiah Horton which contained photographs. The sub- stitution was made because the 1942 edition could not be found. While it was realized that the 1942 edition which contained photographs would yield different data than the / 1944 edition with drawings, the substitution was considered to be justified on the grounds that the book with drawings is more readily available to children. (3) Peppermint, Good—bye Tonsilp, How Can We Get to the Zoo? and Andy were not located in libraries in the United States and the Library of Congress suggested that they be obtained from the publisher. Since the present study was concerned with recommended books available to children in libraries, the books listed above were eliminated from the study. (4) Beef Stew and Patrick Will Grpw were eliminated from the study because in the first case, only one Negro adult role of teacher was included. In the second case, the frequency of the white child's parallel or non-physical interaction with black female characters did not warrant inclusion in the study. (5) Hand-Me-Down House was not available at the State of Michigan Library, State of Ohio Library, The Detroit Public Library, the Chicago Public Library and the Library of Congress. (6) Crosby Bonsall's Case of the Cat's Meow was not included because it could not be found at the time of analysis and later was considered to be enough like Bonsall's two other books that were included in the study that its inclusion did not seem to be crucial to the identification of the variety of the treatment of Negro characters in the illustrations of children's picture books. -\ 57 Categprization of Books All books classified as realistic fiction by the researcher and found on lists of recommended children's books which had a Negro character or characters in them and were set in the United States during the years 1930- 1968 were recorded on separate cards. Complete biblio- graphic information was recorded and each book was given a code number after they were sorted into four historical periods. Some books were recommended by all the compilers and some books were recommended by only one compiler. Note was also taken of the number of books with Negro characters that were recommended out of the total.number of books in the non-specialized bibliographies such as Bro-Dart, Children's Catalog, ALA's Children's Books-- 1960—1965 and Basic Book Collection for Elementary Schools (1960). The earliest date of publication for any book found on the lists and considered for inclusion was 19307 and this date coincides with the beginning of the "Golden Thirties" of American picture‘book publication. It was decided to include works during the depression years and the war years in one category which meant the years 1930- 7None of the lists recommended any picture books previous to 1936 which were classified as contemporary realistic fiction and included Negro characters. 88 1944. Beginning with the year the war ended (1945) and including the year the Supreme Court Decision on segrega- tion was made, the books published during 1945 through 1954 comprise another category. The sequential years 1955-1964 include the passage of National Defense Educa- tion Acts and Civil Rights Acts which combined brought both funds for more books and pressure for more books with Negroes in them. In 1965 more Civil Rights laws were passed and the number of books published continued to increase to the most recent year included which is 1968. Every illustration in every book was examined and when appropriate, analyzed for physical characteristics, environmental characteristics, adult roles, and/or physical interaction. Constructing Categories Categories were constructed to differentiate and describe the treatment of Negro characters in the illustra- tions in books for young children. These categories were based upon the nature of the research problem, the questions to be answered, the content that was analyzed, and the type of analysis chosen. They were constructed in such a way that questions asked might be answered, the treatment 89 of the Negro would be assayed as fully as possible, and that the categories would be mutually exclusive. In order to assure that the categories would be mutually exclusive every major category, sub-category and every dimension of the sub-categories were completely and thoroughly defined in writing and referred to often through- out the_ana1ysis. During the preliminary analysis certain revisions had to be made. Some items were eliminated because they were virtually non-existent and some items were added because they had not been anticipated and did not fit, by definition, into any of the established cate- gories. In certain cases minor changes in the definition of a sub-category or dimension of a sub—category allowed for the inclusion of unanticipated items. The present study was primarily concerned with the characteristics of the content of picture book illustrations. Four basic categories were chosen as important aspects of the treatment of the Negro in illustrations in books for children: physical characteristics, environmental char- acteristics, adult roles and character interaction. Sub- categories were then established. The sub-categories of Physical Characteristics were: skin color, hair color, hair texture, hair style, eye formation, nose formation, lip formation and body build. The dimension of a sub- category was noted through the use of a number code with equivalents. For example, skin color had three dimensions: 9O 1 = light skin color; 2 = medium skin color and 3 = dark skin color. When appropriate,provision was also made for listing the nonexistence of a particular characteristic. The sub-categories of Interior Environmental Charac- teristics were: reading matter, viewing-listening matter, decor items, crowded conditions and disorderly conditions. The dimensions of the sub-categories were noted through the use of numbers: 1 = barely present; 2 = definitely present; and 3 = present and being used (not appropriate for disorderly crowded conditions). The sub-categories of Exterior Environmental Conditions were single dwellings, multiple dwellings, community buildings, businesses, machines, greenery and crowded conditions. The dimensions of the sub-categories noted through numbers were: 1 = barely or scarcely present; 2 = clearly or abundantly present. The sub-categories of Adult Roles were home and non- home. The various roles in each sub-category were designed by recording the appropriate numeral in the appropriate column when the role was found in an illustration. For example, if a Negro mother was shown at home and the number for NFa (Negro Female Adult) was one, then the numeral one would be placed in the Home column. The sub-categories for Character Interactions were: parallel, non-physical and physical. Three columns so labeled were provided. 91 Possible dimensions of each of the major categories were listed and sub-categories were selected on the basis of those dimensions which promised to yield the most information in terms of the questions being asked. Pro- vision was made in most sub-categories for recording the non-existence of a particular characteristic. Codes were devised in order to facilitate the record- ing of the desired information. Justification for the Selection of Categories Physical Characteristics It was deemed important to know how the Negro appears in recommended picture books because the illustrations may contribute to the child's development of the concept of what it means to be a Negro in America. This is an important concept for both Negro and non-Negro children. The reason the type of physical characteristics were noted as they were was to determine whether a variety of physical characteristics were present in the sample studied, and to ascertain if the variety of physical characteristics shown in the four periods under consideration differed. One might hypothesize,for example, that during the earlier periods, before 1960, there was less variety and the characteristics stressed would be the most distinctively stereotypic Negroid ones started by Charlamae Rollins in We Build Together--dark skin, crinkly hair, flat nose, thick lips, large body build in adults and many pigtails for children. ' 92 Environmental Characteristics It was deemed important to note the kinds of environ- mental characteristics shown in books which included Negro characters because the context in which a character is shown may influence a person's feelings or opinions about the character by association. It was decided to divide environmental characteristics into interior and exterior categories for convenience and clarity. Interior environ.enta1 characteristics that were considered to be important designators of the kind of living environment the characters were found in were: reading matter, viewing-listening matter, decor items, crowded conditions, disorderly conditions. Exterior environmental characteristics that were considered to be important designators of the kind of neighborhood the characters were found in were: single dwellings, multiple dwellings, temporary dwellings, community buildings, machines, greenery and crowded con- ditions. A great frequency of community buildings, businesses and machines was expected in the illustrations in books of the later periods to correspond to the rise of cities and the rise of the Negro population in cities. It was also expected that community buildings, busineses and machines would be three of the most common items that would be included in an illustration depicting a city environment. 93 The frequency with which greenery was found in the illustrations was thought to be an indicator of exterior environment also, with a greater frequency of greenery in the illustrations reflecting a more urban environment. The earlier periods, therefore, were expected to have a greater abundance of greenery than the later periods. Crowdedness was though to be an important aspect of city living conditions, and therefore a greater fre- quency of crowded exterior environmental conditions were expected in illustrations of books in the later periods than in the earlier ones. It would seem that in the earlier periods which held the Negro in a tight economic framework there would be found a greater frequency of crowded and disorderly conditions in the interior illus- trations reflecting the majority of the Negroes' status. In later years it seemed that the Negro would be shown in interior situations where there was more reading matter, more viewing-listening matter and more decor items reflecting a more expansive picture of the Negro as American society became more informed about the Negro through the mass media and more social contact after the passage of the Civil Rights Acts. It was presumed that the exterior environmental characteristics would also reflect the obvious social and economic conditions of the times. A greater frequency 94 of single dwellings was expected in the earlier period reflecting a rural environment, and a greater frequency of multiple dwellings was expected in later books of the period because 01 the rise of the Negro population in cities where multiple dwellings are abundant. Adult Roles Non-Home--It was thought to be important to analyze non-home adult roles of both Negroes and Caucasians because it has been stated in the literature that children need to see adults in roles of power and influence outside the, home. It is thought that the roles of Negro adults influence the Negro child's concept of himself and also influence his aspirations for later life work roles. It was felt to be important to find out how many males and how many females were in such roles because it is usually thought that the female Negro has access to a greater number of societal work roles than the male. Whether this is reflected in the roles Negro female adults are given in children's picture books or not was one of the questions this study sought to answer. Home--It was thought important to analyze home roles to determine whether the adults pictured in the illustra- tions reflected social statistics that often indicate that Negro homes are female dominated, have relatives living with them, and lack fathers. 95 Whether more or less Caucasian than Negro adults were pictured in each of the four periods was of interest because it was assumed that more Negro adults would be pictured in books that have Negro children as main characters. Character Interaction It was deemed important to note the kind of inter— action that takes place among characters in children's books illustrations because human contact and communication are crucial aspects of human understanding and conceptual- ization. Interaction was evaluated by looking at degrees of interaction ranging from mere presence, through non- physically communicating, to physically touching one another. The sex, age, and race of the character with whom the main character interacted was noted in order to have a more complete picture of the interaction processes depicted in the illustrations. It was expected that all forms of interaction would be more frequent in the later periods than in the earlier periods in an attempt to reflect and encourage interaction within American society. Developing,Instrumentation An instrument needed to be developed which would enable the investigator to consistently and completely record the frequency with which the sought after charact- eristics within each of the four major categories were 96 found in the picture book illustrations. In the process of developing the instrument several children's picture books were used to determine how the information might best be organized on the recording sheet.* It was decided to use a separate sheet for each major category. The sub- categories were listed horizontally across the tOp of each page. The illustration page number was recorded down the left hand side and the degree to which an item was present or other sought after characteristics of the sub-categories were recorded in he proper column by using a number that corresponded to the desired information. The number code for each sub-category was provided on the right hand side of each recording sheet as was theletterH HHH He H Hmooa Amomfinmmmfiv Azomfiummmfiv Axmmflnmzmmv A::mfilommav ooaooo .mpOfiLog an mxoom oLBQOfld no noneoz Hmooe CH pcoom whopompmno :mwmmoomo pom ogmoz do ommpcoonom ocm LobEBZII.m mqmH HRH HH H mfimooe Ammmmnmmmmv Azommnmnmav Azmmfiln:mmv A::mfilommfiv wcfiooom moaned 1 .COwLog an mxoom CH ocooa mucfippom do momma mo ponEBZIz.m mqmH HHH Ha H ooutoa .pofipcd hm mLoHoo :me ucmmmywfia o>mz on ozooa mumpompwno onuoznl.: mqmH HHH HH H oloom .UOHLoH >9 mHoHou LHm: pcmgmmmHQ o>mz on ocsom mpouomnmno onwo2||.m mamae 109 Hair texture.——As indicated in Table 6, the greatest proportion of Negro characters with crinkly hair texture was found in the first period (1930-1944) and the last two periods revealed a greater proportion of curly or wavy and straight hair textures. The last period (1965-1968) dis— played a slightly greater variety of hair textures than the third period (1955-1964). The least amount of variety of hair textures was revealed in period two (1945-1954). It had the fewest straight hair textures and the greatest percentage of indistinct hair textures of all periods. Hair style.-—Tab1e 7 reveals that the first period (1930-1944) had the greatest percentage of Negro characters with three or more braids, but it did not have any "styled" hair styles. The fourth period (1965-1968) had the great- est percentage of "styled" hair styles as well as the greatest variety of hair styles of all periods. Npgg.--More flat nose formations were identified in the first period (1930-1944) than in any other period reported in Table 8. The second period had the greatest percentage of high—bridged nose formations. The greatest variety of nose formations was found in the fourth period (1965-1968). Eyp§.--As Table 9 shows, a greater percentage of eye exaggeration occurred in the early period (1930-1944), and no exaggeration appeared in the last three periods (1945—. 1954, 1955-1954, 1965-1968). 110 so mm me am mpouompmno no .oz Hoooe m HH OH m a m a HH NH : Hz 3H czorm ooz HH om em OH my mH a no w: m Hm A oocHomHocH : aH 0H m mH : m . m m a m othonom OH mm :m m :m w a m s m o m >>m3 no proo 0 HH 0H m a m m oH m m mm a stcHho mxoom a .o: mgoom a .on are a a .ox mgoom a .o: mo .0: mgwuomgmnc do .on mnonorprn; do .om whooonnoro an .o: mnouomnwzo opopxoe HHm: mHuoxoom Heron HH mxooh Heoop n.m nor Heoon m mgoor Hoooe HmoaH-momHv AsooHummOHv HzmaHuhrHHv HeemHuommHv >H HHH HH H m.. Hum; an monopxoe LHmm pconmuan o>mm Op pcsom mumpomgmco otwo:--.o mamas lll HO OH On am whooomuono no .oz Hoooe O Om am e Om OH O mm mm O OO OH oHOOCHsnoooocH HH mm HO O O m a O a O O O ooHsom a s a O OH O O eH HH O OH O room OOHHsa O O O s OH O m m m H m H Hmtzomz AH OH OH H Om OH O OO OO O mm HH oooooho H H H O O O O e O O OH O Hmvooonum : O O H m H H a z o o o Hvamonnm mxooO a .o; mxoom m .o: mxoos u .o: mxoom O .o: mo .oH whopomnmnu no .on mumpomnogu do .oz mgouomnmnc do .0: mpouomnmno mmHzpm LHmr OH mxoom Heooe HH mgooO Heron enmxoor Hasty O mxoom Heooe HOOOHuOOOHO HHOOHuOOOHO HOOOHIOOOHO HOOOHuOOOHO >H HHH HH H poHpoH .oloom so moHHoO pHO: phonoOuHO more on Ocsom whooomtocO otmo21u.e mHmae 112 Om mm mO :m mumpompmco no .02 Hmuob O mm mm m Om O 3 OH MH m OH O pocHomHocH O OH OH : Hm O m om OH o o o couusm O OO OO O OH H O as HO O OH O OOHO O HO OO O OO OH O OH OH O OO mm oon mxoom w“ .0: mxoom mo .0...” mxoom m .0: mxoom mm .02 mo ,oz mpouomgmhu mo .0: mumpomnmhu no .o: mLoHougsno do .0: whopompmzo Egon mmoz OH mxoom Hmooe HH mnoom.Hmpou Onmuoom Haoon O mxoom Hmooe HOOOHIOOOHO HOOOHnOOOHO HOOOHnOOOHO HOOOHIOMOHV >H HHH HH H TCHCHQM .poHnod an mcoHmebom mmo: HcmnouuHi _ o oss: oo oczoa whoooeusho ohmozuu.O mamaa 113 HO OO OO 3O whooompmho no .oz Hmooe O OH OH O OH O O OH O O HO O oocHomHocH O O O O O O O O O O NO HH ooomtowmexm OH HO OO HH HO OH O OO OO O O: OH Hasnoz OxooO O .o: muoom m. .o: meooO O7 .o: oxoom O .oz go .02 whopombmno go .o: whopompmhu no .6; mHoHomHmno mo .0: mumpompmno Epom mam OH muooO Hmooa HH wrooO Heron O meoor Hsoon O muooh Hsooa HOOOHuOOOHO HOOOHIOOOHO HOOOHnOOOHO HOOOHIOOOHV OH HHH HH H .00?ng HAD wCQHUdEcHolm whfl UmechLrHHQ $32,031 OP UCSOb mhmpomhmflu OLM®ZII.® mdmdB 114 L1p§.--The greatest proportion of thick and exagger- ated lip formations appeared in the first period (1930- 1944) as is shown in Table 10. No exaggerated lip forma- tions appeared in subsequent periods. The last period (1965-1968) showed the greatest variety of lip formations. Body build.--As Table 11 indicates, the greatest percentage of exaggerated body builds was found in the first period (1930-1944), but the greatest proportion of large body builds was found in the third period (1955- 1964). The last period (1965-1968) did not show any greater variety in body builds than the second or third periods, but it was the only period which did not show any exaggerated body builds. Environmental Characteristics Five interior environmental characteristics were analyzed to ascertain the kind of interior environment in which Negro characters were found and the items with which they were associated in each historical period, and to note any differences that were present. Seven exterior environmental characteristics were included to ascertain the type of exterior environment in which the Negro characters were found in each historical period and to note differences. Interior.—-The scant frequency with which environ- mental characteristics appeared in the illustrations made it impossible to draw any conclusions about the read- ing matter, viewing-listening matter, decor tems, and 115 :0 mm OO 2m whopomnwno ao .oz Hmooe O OO HO O OO OH O OH OH O O O oocHomHocH O O O O O O O O O O OO O ooomhommmxa O OO mm s OH O : hH OH O OH OH OOHze OH HO Om O OO OH O nO O: H HO O ssHooz O OO OH O O O O o O O O O cHnO mxoom m .o: mxoon M! .o: mxoon w .o: mxoon O .o: wo .oz nLoHomgmco go .o: mgouomgmho O0 .02 whopompmho Oo .oz whopombmno Epom QHH OH mxooO HmooO HOOOHaOOOHV >H HH mgooO HOooO HHOOHuOOOHV HHH \ “mxoon Hmooe mumxoor HauoO HHOOHuOOOHO HOOOH1OOOHO HH H O UOHLQQ .ooHnom Op mnoHpOnpom f O QHH ocogoOuH; o>m: on meson memooOthO onworuu.OH OOOOO 116 :0 mm OO 2m whooompmno no .oz Hmooe s OH NH H O H N O O O O czorm ooz O O O N O N H O N ON O emomnommmxm O a a N NH O O O O O N OOHNH OH NO OO HH OO ON O NO HO NO HN Ommho>a H H H H O H N a O O O ohOHHO mxooO O .oz muooO O .o: mxoor O .oz mxooO O .oz mo .02 whopompmno go .02 whopomnmno no .02 whopomgmno mo .02 mpouomnmno UHHom zoom OH mnooO HmooO HH wrooO HmooO O mgoom HmooO O mxooO Hmooe HOOOHIOOOHO HHOOHuOOOHO HOOOHuOOOHO HOOOHuOOOHO >H HHH HH H ooHnom .mpOHnoa Op moHHsm moon HooLoOmHQ o>mm on pcoom mpopompmco osmoZII.HH mHmH oloon .8 HNN O O N H N O O O O O H O HHOOH-OOOHO A“ HHH ooHton ONN O O O O H H N H O O H O HHOOHIOHOHV HH ooHpoO OOH H N H. H N N H O O N O H HHHOHnOOOHv H ooHtoO N H N H N H O N H O N H noose: wCOprmeSHHH m0 mCOHpOUCOO mCOHp.wUCOO wEmuH mCflCOpmHH hound: «HmnESZ -mmporr HchHGUcHOWHQ COUSOLO cHOomwQ MmCfi3®H> mCHUmmm .poHpog Op pcoom OOHHmHHopombmro HmpcoECOLH>cm HOHHoch mo Oonosoopmll.mH mnge 119 OOO.H OH H HO ONN HN NO HN NO O HN OH HN O HH Haooe HHH ON O NH HO NH NH HH HH . H O ON HH N O HOOOHuOOOHV , >H ooHtom HNN OH O OH OH O O N O O N OH O . O OH HHOOHuOOOHO HHH ooHooa 0mm m 0 HH mm m m O OH m 2H m m s OH HammHlmzmHv HH OoHooa OOH N H OH OH N OO O H N O H H . O O HHHOHIOOOHV H ooHuoN N H N H N H N H N H N N H O N H wcoHomtomsHHH no mcoHOHocoOrH . . a, a .7 maeHoHHsm m.:HHHon m :HHHon stoeal ooozoto nmcoopo mocHroes tomtocHtoO OOHcsesoO mHoHoHoz onch .ooHch an @230; OOHpmHLoaowbmno HancoeconH>cm noHnmuxm mo Oocmsoophnl.mH mqmH HHH HH H HOOOHIOOOHO HHOOHnOOOHV HHOOHIOHOHV HHHOHIOOOHO oosm - OOHHom .OoHnoa Hm Ohm roam oo acHOtoooa ocooa OoHog HHHOO oso: no OOOocoohoanu.OH :HOHO mm mm H: HH cmfimmosmo O OH mm mm osmoz >H HHH HH H AOOOHIOOOHV AzOmHlmmmHv AzmmHnmzmHv AzzmHlommHv comm ooHtoO .ooHtoa Om new comm ow wchLooo< oczom moHom pHop< mEo:|coz mo ommpcoogomll.:H mHmH HHH HH H AmomHlmomHv AzmmHImmmHv AzmmHImzmHv AzzmHlommHv mpHso< cloom - .CCwLQL hm CCSOHH v.0 FOK QEHHC< QEOEICOZ waOHQ‘mQSOOO #0 LOQESZII.\.H SAME/5H. w m o o onEom cmHmwoswo m o o o mHmz cmHmmosmo H o w o onEom osmoz c o m o onz OLmoz >H HHH HH H - AmmmHummmHv AzomHummmHv AzmmHzmzmHv AzzmHsommHv mpHse< ooHLom .eofihmm an acne; mmHom pHso< ago:ncoz Haconmmhocm do tonesz-n.mH mqmqe m o o o Lmmem CmHmmosmo OH 2 H o Lonpoz cmemosmo 0H : m H Lospmh ouaoz NH m m : bio: onmmz >H HHH HH H AmomHummmHv HammHzmmmHv AsmmHumzmHv szmHaommHv pHso< UOHLwL .GOHLom zm hocsom moHom oEo: Lozpwm ocm Lozpoz do Lobeszsl.mH mqm<8 H o o o onEom :mHmmozmo :H m m o onz :onmosmo o H o H onEom onwmz o H H w mHmz opmwz >H HHH HH H AwomH-mmmHv AzmezmmmHv AzmmHnm:mHv AzzmHuommHv pHso< COHLom .ooHme mm ocsom mmHom pH3o< oEom|coz LoLOQMH do Lobssznl.wH mqmH HHH HH H AwmmHlmomHv AzomHlmmmHv AzmmHtmzmHv AzzmHlommHv ®HOL pHSU< ooHLom .UOHLQL >.D UCSOEr mwflom QEOZ UflmficHrA USN ®>Hpmflwm @O LQQESZII.ON Mdmx‘rfi 126 Character Interaction Three forms of character interaction were examined for the four historical periods covered by the present study. Six hundred n‘nety instances of character inter- action were observed. The amount and types of interaction by periods are shown in Table 21. Parallel character interaction.--The study revealed that parallel interaction between Negro characters and Caucasian characters was greater in the last period than in the first period. Table 22 reveals these findings. The characters with which the Negro main character showed the highest frequency of parallel interaction in the last period (1965-1968) as compared to the first period (1930- 1944) are: Negro male juveniles, Negro female juveniles, Caucasian male juveniles, Caucasian group, and mixed Caucasian groups. on.--The study H Non:physical character interact revealed that the frequency of non-physical interaction between the Negro main characters and Caucasian characters was greater in the last period (1965—1968) than in the first (1930—1944) period. The points of difference are evident in Table 23. Physical interaction.--As Table 24 reveals Negro main characters interacted physically with more Caucasian characters in the last period (1965-1968) than in the first period (l930-l94fl), but the greatest frequency of physical interaction between Negro main characters and mm mm oH : Hmoamscm mo :3 mm mm Hwoamscmncoz m. maH a» amH a: HmHHatma >H HHH HH H AwmmHlmmev A200Hlmanv AzmmHlmzmHv AzzmHlommHv COHquLopCH go make newton .GOHLom an ocsom COHpompmch topompmzo do pcsoE< 6cm mazBII.Hm mqm<9 128 HH H m o QSOLm ompmtwmch Hm : mH o QSOLw :mHmmosmo ootz m m m m asopw cpmoz ootz mH m m: mm Qsopm opmoz Hm mm H o QSOLw cmemosmo c o c o Hhmn :wmeosmo o o o 0 Comp mHmEoH :memosmo o o H 0 Comp mHmE :mHmmosmo o m H o oHHsm>sfi mHmEoH :memosmo mm HH mH o mHHcm>3n oHME cmHmmosmo m H H 0 pHde onEom cmHmmosmo m m m m szom onE cmHmmosmo m o H o znmn onmmw o o c 0 Comp onEom Ohmoz H o o 0 Comp onE opmoz mH 0 MH 0 oHHcm>3n onEmH opmoz mm H m m oHHco>zn mHmE opmoz a m m : pHsom onEom otmoz m m m : uHsom meE onmoz >H HHH HH H HmmenmomHv AzomHsmmmHV AzmmHzmzmHv szmHlommHv whopompmco UOHLQL .ooHtom HQ mLopowpmco Locpo ocm Lopomtmho :sz otmoz cooZQom :oHpomtouCH HoHHmhwm do Hocosompmll.mm mqm<8 9h 1... o o H o adopw copmtmoch : o H o d30tm :mHmwosmo @mtz o o c m dsotm ogmoz ootz m H m mm QSOLm Opmoz H m o o dsotu :mHmooswo o o o o Hhmh :mHmmosmo H o o 0 Comp onEoH :wmeosmo m o c 0 comb meE :mHmwosmo o m H o oHHcm>zm onEoH cmHmmosmo mm :H m o oHHco>zn onE :mHmwosmo n m H o pHsom mHmEoH :mHmmosmo m m m m pHscm onE :mHmwosmo H c H o szL ogwoz o o o o coop onEoH opmoz o o c o coop onE Otmoz mH c m o oHHco>5m mHmEod Otmoz MH 0 z m oHHco>3m onE oumoz \H H z a uHsom onEod oumoz m m H m pHsom onE otmmz >H HHH HH H Am©OHlmomHv AzomHlmmoHv AzmmHnmzmHv AzzmHlommHv mpmuomtmzo COHLod .ooHtom Hp mpouompmho tohpo ccm Lopomtmho :Hmz opmmz coozpom :oHpowLoucH HonmHLmlcoz no Hocozootmnl.mm adm3m onEom oHHcm>5n mHmE pHsom mHoEoH szow onE MGOOOOMOQOOOONHOOO OHHOOOONOOOOOOOOOOO .H'. ~ -* -‘ msonm Umpmtmmch azogm cmewosmo notz QSOLw onwoz omtz QSOtm outoz. :mHmmosmo :memosmo cmHmwozmo cmHmMozmo :memosmo cmemosmo cmHmmosmo cmHmwosoo anon otmoz coop mHmEoH opmoz coop onE Ohmoz oHHco>3m onEoH onmoz oHHco>3n onE Otwoz pHsom oHeEou otmoz uHscm onE osmoz >H HHH HH H AwmmHnmmmHv AzmmHsmmmHv AzmmHlmzmHv AzqulommHv mhmpoopmho ooHpom r .UOHLQQ kn WLQPOGLGSU QQCPO ohm Louombmco :Hmz Otmoz coozpom COHuomLopCH HmonHLm Ho Hocmsoopmnl.zm mqmmum pnwwamua Uflfism wbom .HHH> mapwcHEmmpmocHuoH mamso wcofium pmampmnm gown omnflsaus Hansen: new mmooflnm ngspmc ohm zwfihnm Azohm p.2mmop damomv pmddogou: Amzogm manomv pmqqomoum AmmoE so mv pmpfimppum a .8 : mafim» neon CH go omofimgpna «Axum twee csohm pocu: A.opm .pmh .muficsv gmzponm CBOCHDHN xomfinufl moHoo mfimm .>H .HH pseuumaocuum ompmmmwwmxmu: pocfipmfiocau: gouapnm ceppspum sauemEnm emmefihn nwficum :anuH emote .pmfluug mafia .HH> mmoz .H> pocfiumflpcflum pmuwpmwwmxmum Haemocua mmmnm .> CSOhm Bogus Amcfifipso Amman mpfiflom no: moaoov pocfipmflpcfinm AgoHoo pwfiomv pocflpmfipgflum AHHw um HLBO go m>m3 ocv scwfiwgpmu: ApmpHoE pap pmagzo pogv m>m3um ApmHLSo zapgwfip pocv handoum Agnes do pcmgpm numb :H mm>m3 zcme Lo omflpso mauhwfipv zflxcfipona mLprmB Lfimm .HHH Axomfin go czogn xLMUv xpmoum Azwgw mo czognv Esfimenm Ammgw ucwfifi Lo cmuv unmaaua nofioo cme .H moapmfipmpomgmho Hwowngd 09 Mom .H .oz @600 IIIA pIIna Kpoa IIA sdti IA BSON A sefig AI GIKAS JIEH III aanaxai JIBH II JOIOO JIEH I JOIOO uxxs saeioeieqo 181 .opm .mgmzoam .mcsmH .mmmgp I zpmcmwpo .cofipmoqmuxsn mmofio :fi mpomnpo I mcofipfiocoo omozopo .opm .mmcfigome cofiposgumcoo .mmfiozofin .mgmo I mmcficowz .opm .mmofiuuo umoa .mHoonom I mwcfipfifism mpfiCSEEoo .opo .mmmso: psao .mucmp .mgmafimpp I mmcfifiamzo mumLOQEme .mmmsoz ALOpm 03p go mco I mmcHHHmza mamcfim .oum «moxmadso .mpcmEumem I mmcfififlmsa mfidflpasz goflgmuxm .ommmggmmfip mmomaa Hmsm: CH no: muommpo I chHpHUcoo magmpgomfia .cofipfimoampxzh mmoHo CH muomwno I whoauflpcoo pmpsouo .mgmzoau do mmm> .mwcfiwcmc Hams .mmfipnao I mEmpH goomo .oum .memaa whoomp .>B .ofipmg I Emppwz wcficmpquImcfizmfi> .oum .mmcfiwmwme .mxoon .mgmqmdmzmc I pmppw: wcflpmmx gofigmch II ("V“) AmHDwOHaddm mgmhsv pom: wcfimn pew pcmmmgi Apcmmmgd who cane whoa Lo agonm mafisu new mflgmmfiov pcmmoha zfimpficfiuma II II v-1 (\1 Apcmmmga mco zflco go mhopmxmv ucmmmgd mfimgmm ucmmmgm uo: II 0 mpoo pmoEn: Loflgmpxm I Lofigmch mofipmfigbuomgmho Hmucwecogfi>cm ob mpg .HH Lofigmpxm hoahmucH O D ”A H O L “W. 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U S T: O U u u 3 3 u 3 S 3 S T: S S O U S 182 mHmEmg n mama u 020.. :mammosmo u ogmm: II r. .oum .po>ann nmo .Loxpoz anouomu .LmELmu I pronmq .ouw .hmamoxmLOpm .LmnEBHQ .cmExHHE I HmcoHumasooo .opm .hwcommu .gmzzwa .Louoou I HMCOHmmwu0hm mEomlcoz I mcofiuficfiuwm wfiom ponswawz so o>upmflom souNH Lonzwfiw: go m>aumflmm :zuHH nonswfiwz no m>HumHom monOH nonsmamz no o>aumfimm mznm pwnpmuocmno Eoum pwnuosucmuo guns pmnumupcmgu zzuw Amzuoevcmpo azum umnpmm Eon: kwnuoz moum mmcumm Ezum ponpoz mzufi ouoo umuompmno mac: ammonmq monmfi I Loponmq EouHH Lwaonmq mzuoa gmhonmq E:nm Hmcofiumazooo moum HmcoameSooo Eons Hmcoupmasooo mzuw Hmcofiummsooo zznm Hmcofimmwuogm mun: Hmcofimmweonm scum Hmcofimmmuopm mzum Hmcofiwmououm :zuH ocoo LoquAmco monlcoz oEomlcoz 0E0: 183 zuomxuuomvno: new“ 3035 o: mmoomez egos mLo crane: mechwmz o: ”madammosmo once no ozbnoo HmE«:nzc¢ maoo ouomxzuomvuzz anmnun cwouuu uaacm>swun Chammoswouo 0wazu: .quomgmzo umnuozm Lea: upmacoo fimufimaga :« ma Lo mcmnozou ma quumgmzo :nmz I fimofimac; .Lwaoanmzo.gmnpo zcm wcfizosoa go: uzn um Nguxoofi quomnmcu chm: I HmoawchIco: .meomnmco nacho zcm mzazu30a 4mm .um wcfixoofi uoc Louomgmno can: I ngamnm; coaaomnoucn go mcoHaficaum: Lmoomnmco can: Locomgmco moon coauomnouca Amuamhcm codpumnwocm HMOHmzzmIcoz ceauumawucm Hwammnwm .oz .mauaH *0 'U ENDIX B 18A O O O m C) O O O C) I! O H H O C) if O O O O O -:T H r-1 H O O 3 H O H O O :T O O O O r-I O O O O O O H O C) 0 CD H C) C) O O O O O H H O O O O O N O O O r-1 0 O O O O (\J O O O O O N O O r—I C) H H O O O H 0 CD 0 O (\l O m \0 O H C) H m Ln O O O O O H C) O O O C) H O O O O O r-i O O O O O (\I O O O O O (\I O O C) O O (\l O C) O O m L“ O O O r-1 (\1 Ln 0 O O O m LO O O O H O O C) O C) H O C) O O O H O O O O O-‘JOOI—I O \QONMO O 00 (\J ("J r-1 (Y) O O O (\J O :1’ (\J H O O O O :T m C) O O O O H \O O :T 0 L0 3 :T m (\J (\J O O (\I r-1 0 O O O C) O H C) O O O O O F". O C) O C) O O O H I—i m C) O H C) H C) r—i m O H H O H c—i O O r-4 O O O O (Y) H r—i r—1 0 O C) m O O O O O O H O H O Ln C) (13 O\ \D H (\1 C) O (\J O C) CD (\1 H O C) O O H O (\1 O O O H O H H O C) O O r-I O H (\1 O O O O m 0 O O O H O (\J [\ H O H O H r—i CO H C) H H O C) m m O m (\J O O C) O O C) O H (\l H C) C) C.) C) O (\l O O O O C) O m \0 O C) O [\ C) C) 0 LT (Y) O O (\J Q3 H ("J O H O O O H O O C) r“! C) O LIN O O r-‘I LO Q C) H :7” O O r—i :T O O O -:T O O O (\J C) O m (\J m O O 0 Cd H m C) O O m C) O O O O m O :J" C) O O m C) O O m O C) O O C) C) m O O O H O C) (\l (\l O O H (\l (\J (\I (\l O O C) O O H H m N m :T m m m m on CD O m O O C) mm ooCQ moHpmflmeomgmco Hmofimznm mxoom Hmsofl>fich do whoaumzam>m m.gmumm Hmmspmz Ucm wcoqu Hauspmz cam :meIm Amvpmddopola Aavpmddopolm Amvcmefimmem Am.HvemeHmmeH mwxmmlmmmm czosm pOZIs AuvpocfiumfiocHIm AmvuocfipmfiecHIm pnwfimnme: m>m3lm mausolm sflxcfipoIH mgszme Lfimm czonm pOZI: LmBDOIm czopmlm xomHmIH mmmmmImmmm thoIm saueszm panQIH g3 pmnESZ mooo xoom 186 \O Lflr—lOO OLflr—ioo OkOOOO OHNOO p. \OHOO O\Or—iOO ONOOO Nmr—{HOO N \OHOO 00500 05000 <£ONOO HH 0 O O Or—{NON r—i \OUWOO (\J H: [\LflOI—i MNf—‘ON O : m r-iNOO CHI—{OH OMOOO Or—Ir-iOO m OMOOO HNOOO r-ir—ir—iO r-iCQOr-iOH (\1 ooom OOOOM OMOOO ¢lm panHmIH oafism zoom museumfichIm ompmmmwmmxmlz xofizelm - Ezfipmzlm cHnBIH mum pocflpmfiogHI: coupzmlm emmeawnIanmIm among .pmHmIH amulz mfinmcfishmpmocHloa mamzo wcoqlm emfismem xomn omaasmIn 187 Eater's Totals-Physical Characteristics of All Ten Books Compiled A B C Skin Color Light l6 16 17 Medium 39 43 53 Dark 13 13 13 69 73 5“ iair Coior Blaox 45 57 7& Brown 12 12 1 Other 8 1 2 Not Shown _£_ _; ._Z 59 73 8% Hair Texture Crinkly 22 2o 11 Curly 16 8 11 Wavy E 8 3 Straight 9 6 10 Indistinct(s) 9 14 2O Indistinct(f) O 3 12 Not Shown _§ u 17 O\ \O x] LA) 0) J2." 188 Braided(l) Braided(3) Cropped(l) Cropped(2) Loose and Natural Pulled Back Styled Long Curls lndeterminable High-bridged Button Indistinct Lios Thin Medium Thick Exaggerated Indistinct |,_.: [\J O\ \D N F.) FJ O \D f.) .4 W Pl: MWWO .\] w Bodl Build Slight Average Large Exaggerated Not Shown E es l-Normal 2—Exaggerated 3-Indistinct }_.| W U1 \0 O\ 12 149 12 :190 m o m%HoHocoo zHLooLomHQ C.) C r-«CJ HS Cl C1 C) cm LoHmecHlmHopob C C) m OJ C‘OC‘ CAI C.‘ MH 0 m mcoHpHocoo rotsopo C' C) C C OC' C; C. [L C C C O C.‘ cm r-(Or—i (r (L r—1 <1’IOr—4C‘. C) UCOO NmH m: o 0 H00 utmxoom HmsoH>HocH pom mmHocosdmLm m.pmpwm Lopomz mchooqunucHzmH> O m m H swoon: mcflommm LoHLouxm LoHmecH HnH I Hm I ¢ 191 O DOC) O [\CDOO O DOC) m mmoo O 01—10 C mmoH 0 000 (\J o o o o H o H o o o o o o o o o o o o o o H o o o o o o o o o o o o o m o o O NH m m q H w o o o o a H m 0H :H o mH w 0 mm mH o o o o H o m c o o o o o H H H m o o o m c H o o o o o m o o o H o H m H o o o o o o o o o H o H z o o m m o m m H o m o o o o H m o o o o o o o m m o o o o m H o a o o o o o o o o o o o c c o o o o o o o o o o c o o H H o H H c o o o H o o o o o H H m c o H o o o o o m c o o c o H o o w o o o o o o o o c w c o c o a o H o o o c o o o o o o 0 NH m m m m H m < o m < o m < o m < o m < o m mm mm NH mH m LoHLopxm mCOHpHocoo prcmecopH>CMImHmuoe m.Loumx om OH HO O mmoo m H mQOHpHocoo ooUBOLo m H Apmcmmno m H mmcHSQME m H mommochsm m H meHoHHsm mpH23€Eoo m H mwcHHHmzm HLwLOQEmB m H mmcHHHmzo mHaHoHsz m H mmcHHHozo mech 192 a m mCOpHocoo ooozopo :N mm mm zpmcmopo 3H NH NH o m wH Hm o mH N m o mmcHoHH5m mmcaHHmzo mochomS mommochzm szCSEEoo szLOQEmB moHpmHmeoopmzo HmpcoEcopH>cm LoHmexmlmHmpoe m.pmpmm m HH mH mwcHHHoBQ mHQHquz mH mH mm meHHHmza mech h 193 Eater's Evaluations of Individual Books Total Non-Home Book A B Code No. 3 O O 8 O 6 l6 2 2 l7 1 l 23 ll 9 29 O O 32 l l 36 O O 5“ 6 5 71 l 1 Total 22 25 25 Number of Adult Roles Home Book A Code NO. 3 l 8 2 l6 1 17 2 23 6 29 2 32 u 36 2 SM 2 71 1 Total 23 [\J 20 2O 19H (\1 mmNOHOHONOOOO O (\l p~.: :r H r4 0 r4 0 cm 0 c: o 0 CL (\1 NKONr—ir—iOr—{OMOI—ir-{m HumHmm mHmS cmHmmosmo.mH o o o Lopcmwm: Lo m>HpMHmm mHmS opmmz.HH : H m LoosmHoz m>HpmHom mHmEom :mHmmosmu.oH o o o LoocmHoz m>HpoHom onEmm oummz.m : N H pogummocwpo mHmz cmemozmo.m o o o mepoeocmpo mHmEok cmHmMoomo.N m m m Lospouocogo onE opmoz.w m m m pmzpoEocmLc mHmEmm oummz.m m H H Lozpmm on: cmHmmosmo.: m m m mepoz onEod cmemosmo.m o o o Looumm meS opmoz.m : m m Locuoz onEom opmoz.H : z :. oEoz o m < mmHom onoa Hmsofi>flocH do pmnssz Hmpoe mcoHpmsHo>m m.pmpmm HMpOB pmpoomq mHmEmm cmHmmosmo.mH poponmq oHoz :mHmmOzmo.HH pmpopmq mHmEmm opwmz.OH pmponmq mHmz Opwoz.m HmCOHumozooo onEmm cmHmmosmo.w HmcoHmeSOoo oHoz cmHmmosmo.N HmcoHpoQSooo mHoEmh onwoz.m HmCOHmeSooQ mHmz Opmmz.m HmQOHmmomopm.mHmEmm cmHmMozmo.: HMCOmethLm mfimz CMHWQODMO . m HwCOHmmmmopm meEmm opwoz.m Hmcowmmmmogm mHmz oumwz.H mEomlcoz 195 OOOOr—IOOOOOOOO r-4 [\CQOOOr—IOOOOOOOO HocH mo mCOHumsHm>m m.pmumm pmpopmq mHmEom :memosmo.mH meoomq mHmz cwHwoosmo.HH pmpooma mHmEmm opwmz.OH noncomq mHmz opmoz.m choHpmazooo mHmEmm :mHmmosmo.m HmcoHpmazooo mHmz cmHmmosmo.N HmCOHmeSooo mHmEmm opwmz.m HmcoHpmdsooo mHmz ogwmz.m Hmconwmmopm mHmEom cmemosmo.: HmCOHmmmmopm mHmz :MHmmoswo.m HmCOHmwmmopm mHMEmm opwmz.m Hmconmmmopm mHmz opwmz.H Lopezz mooo xoom 196 QHHOOOOOOOOOO H [\CQOr—{HOOOOOOOOO QOHOOOOOOOOOO OHHOOOOOOOOOO -:T LDCUOOHHOOOOOOOQ HocH no mCOprsz>m o LooLme2\m>HpmHmm mHmz cmHmmoSwu.mH o poncmeZ\m>HpmHmm mHmz onmmz.HH uooocmHmZ\m>HumHmm mHmEmm cmHmmosmo.0H o poocwfimzxm>fipmHmm mHmsmm opmmz.m o documwocmpo onz :mHmmosmo.w o Lmnpoeocmpu mHmem cmHmwosmo.N o nonpmmocmpo onz opmmz.w o ammuoEocmLo meEmm opmmz.m o Locpmm mHoz cmHmmOsmo.: o Locpoz mHmEom cmHmoozmo.m o Locumm mHmz opwmz.m H Locuoz mHmEom opmmz.H < MCCJHOOOOOOOI—sOOO Lonssz mooo xoom m.amuwm 197 Eater's Totals-Adult Roles Non-Home Adult Roles Home Adult Roles A B C A B C 22 25 25 23 2O 2O :rm 0 O O H O O O C O O O 0 C O O :—. O O m H Ni: O O r—1 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 <7; 0 O H O O O O O O O O O O O (\1' C) O (\i H O N O r-1' 0 O O O O O O O O O C) O (\l -:I' H 0 <3 0 O O O CD C) CD O O O O O O O O O O O C) O C) O H O O O O O O r-i O O O O O O O O C) < O O on O O O C O O r-i O O O C) O O O O O H \O LflOOOOOOOOOOOOOr—{HOO OH 0 o o o o o o o H H H H m m o o o o o o H-mH o o o o o o o o H H H N o m o o o o o o ozuwH H H o o o H H H o o o o o o o H H o o o zanH H H H o o :H HH MH 0 o o o o 0 mm mm mm o o o ozuoH o o o o o o o o m H H H H m o o o o o o ooamH o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o oo-:H o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o omosmH o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ozoan o o o o o o o o H H H o o o o o o o o o HmouHH o o o o o o o o :H mH :H H m m o o o o o o HzUIOH o o o o o o o o H o o o o o o o o o o o amoum o o o o o o o o H o o o o o o o o o o o azouw o o o o o H o H o o o o o o o o o o o o azaN o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o Hez-o o o H o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o ozzum o o o o o o o c c c o o o o o o o o o o Hezuq o o o o o o o o o o o o o o m m m o o 0 sznm m o o o o a m m m m o H H H o o o H m o aezum .H H o o 0 NW N m o -H H o o o .H H H o 0 Ho mzz-H a a o m a o m < o m < o m < o m H o m < mm mm mm NH SH w m HoHHmpomlcoHpomLoch mxoom HmooH>HocH mo mCOHpmsz>m m.poomm 199 ONOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOONO o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o H H o m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o H H H o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o H H o o o o o o o o H H H H H o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o H o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o H o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o H H H o o o o o o o o o m o o o o c o o o o o m w m m N N o o o o o z m z o o o o o o H H H o H H o o o o o H H m o o o o o o o o o o o o o H o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o w o m o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o m m m o o o z w q H H H m m m o o o o o o m m o o o o o o H H H o o o o o o o o o o o o m < o m < o m < o m < o m < o m < o m < o m < HN :m mm mm mm mm NH wH HoonznmICOZIcoHpomgoch mxoom Hm5©H>HocH Ho mCOHpmus>m m.pmpmm OHHMOOOOOOOOOOOOI—IOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOHOOO 'q- N (flint—1H Ho2H mo mCOHpmsHm>m m.popmm OOOHOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO CD‘DOONOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO