égé WIHHNIIIIHIHINHIIHMlHHIIHHIIHWIWHIN’II I)ate if” M “T ‘ LIBRARY Michigan Mate i . University_ \_________ p l f—v This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE EFFECTS OF LOCALIZED EXERCISE ON SKINFOLD AND GIRTH MEASUREMENTS OF THE THIGH AREA OF COLLEGE FEMALES presented by Susan A. Bissonnette has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for 9 Education and Recreation l [Kg/M723: Major professor 0-7 639 25),”, 53 A /7f'/ / / /‘//“’¢C/¢;’L THE EFFECTS OF LOCALIZED EXERCISE ON SKINFOLD AND GIRTH MEASUREMENTS OF THE THIGH AREA OF COLLEGE FEMALES By Susan A. Bissonnette A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Health, Physical Education and Recreation l98l ABSTRACT THE EFFECTS OF LOCALIZED EXERCISE ON SKINFOLD ANO GIRTH MEASUREMENTS OF THE THIGH AREA OF COLLEGE FEMALES By Susan A. Bissonnette Ten female students were subjected to a local exercise pro- gram involving the anterior, posterior and lateral thigh. One leg was designated by random assignment. The opposite leg was used as a control. The exercise program consisted of 4 different exercises involving hip flexion, extension and abduction. Each exercise session consisted of six 5-minute work periods alternated with five 2-minute rest periods. The subjects met for approximately 45 minutes a day, 5 days per week, for 10 weeks. Subcutaneous skinfold thick— ness, thigh girth, and percent body fat measures were obtained prior to and following the training program. Percent body fat was calcu- lated from measurements of body density. Body density was determined by the technique of hydrostatic weighing. Analysis of variance pro- cedures were used to analyze the data. The experimental program resulted in slight, but significant, reductions in pre- to post-test measurements of the anterior, posterior, and lateral exercised leg. Although no significant changes were observed between the exercised and non-exercised leg, a trend was seen toward greater reduction of subcutaneous fat in the exercised leg. To my parents ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My deepest appreciation belongs to my family, for their understanding, encouragement and patience throughout my graduate program. A special thank you is extended to Dr. J. L. Haubenstricker for the continued guidance and assistance he provided as my graduate advisor and committee chairman. Deep appreciation is expressed to the members of my com- mittee, Dr. K. N. Ho and Dr. C. D. Fountain, for their endless hours of help and support. Special thanks is extended to each of these individuals for their concern and understanding, and for helping me to maintain my morale in times of depression and frustration. iii LIST OF LIST OF Chapter I. II. III. IV. TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLES . FIGURES THE PROBLEM Need for the Study . . . Statement of the Problem . Research Hypothesis Research Plan Rationale . Limitations Definitions REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . General Activity Programs Involving Males and Young Females . General Activity Programs Involving College Females : Localized Versus Generalized Exercise Programs Muscle Fiber Recruitment: Relationship to Prolonged Physical Activity . . . . Summary . . METHODS AND MATERIALS . Sample . . Training Procedures Body Composition Measurements Analysis of Data RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Changes in Body Fat Content and Body Weight Changes in Subcutaneous Fat Measurements iv Page vi vii —l \l mm-hWNNN —-'SO\] 13 16 18 19 19 22 23 23 26 Chapter Page Changes in the Birth Measurements of the Thigh . . 28 Comparisons of the Mean Differences Between Exercised and Non-Exercised Leg After Treatment . 30 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . 35 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 LIST OF TABLES Table Page l. Body Weight and Percent Body Fat Before and After a Ten- Week Local Exercise Program . . . . 24 2. Means and Standard Deviations of Skinfold Measurements of the Exercised and Non-Exercised Legs . . . . . 27 3. Means and Standard Devisions of Birth Measurements of Exercised and Non-Exercised Legs . . . . . . . 29 4. The Mean Difference Between Pre- and Post-Measurements of the Exercised and Non-Exercised Legs . . . . . 31 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. The Difference Between Pre- and Post-Treatment Assessments of the Exercised and Non-Exercised Legs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 vii CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Many studies have been conducted to determine the effects of exercise on various parameters of body composition such as body weight, body density, subcutaneous fat and total body fat. However, few studies have examined the differential effects of generalized versus localized exercise on these parameters. Available evidence concerning the value of local exercise or so-called "spot" reduction exercise on body composition is not only limited, but contradictory. Some data collected on localized isometric and isotonic exercises have shown significant reductions in skinfold and girth measurements (23, 28, 35). Other studies have yielded decreases in subcutaneous fat and girth measurements as a result of both localized and gener- alized exercise, but provide no evidence to support the idea that local exercise is the more effective means of reducing fat deposits (3, 7, 27, 31). Research on the body composition of females shows that fat accumulates predominantly in the hip, thigh and abdominal regions (5, 29). In the past, fat deposition in the hip region of females was presumed to be a secondary sex characteristic that was attained with maturity. Recent evidence, however, indicates that development of fat in this area is not a consequence of maturation as formerly thought, but that it is a sex characteristic already present at birth (29). The current literature has shown that periods of physical activity can alter the amount of subcutaneous and total body fat in females (3, 7, 20, 23, 25, 27, 28, 29, 3l, 35, 38, 39). However, the amount of alteration is directly related to the nature, intensity, frequency and duration of the exercise. Need for the Study Further research is needed to determine the effects of prolonged, localized exercise on the reduction of body fat in females. In addition, more data are needed to determine the value of exercise programs utilizing aerobic activities, without simul- taneous dietary control, in reducing body fat in women. Statement of the Problem The purpose of this study was to determine if localized exercise has any measurable influence on reducing subcutaneous fat in the thigh region of college females. The exercise program was designed to overload the aerobic metabolic system. This energy system is associated with increased fatty acid mobilization and utilization. Research Hypotheses It is hypothesized that a localized exercise program without simultaneous dietary control will produce a significant reduction in: l. the post-program percent body fat when compared to pre-program percent body fat, without simultaneous change in body weight. 2. the skinfold thickness of the exercised leg when compared to the non—exercised leg. 3. the circumference of the exercised leg when compared to that of the non-exercised leg. Research Plan Ten female undergraduate students were subjected to a local exercise program involving the anterior, posterior and lateral thigh. All subjects were volunteers who met a criterion level of having at least 18 percent body fat immediately prior to the start of the program. Each subject exercised one leg designated by random assign- ment. The opposite leg was used as a control. The exercise program consisted of 4 different exercises involving hip flexion, extension and abduction (see Appendix). Each exercise session consisted of six 5-minute work periods alternated with five 2-minute rest periods. The training program was structured for group activity, with all exercise done in unison to pre-selected music. The subjects met for approximately 45 minutes a day, 5 days per week, for 10 weeks. Subcutaneous skinfold thickness, thigh girth, and percent body fat measures were obtained prior to and following the exercise program. Skinfold and girth measurements were taken on both thighs at speci- fically marked sites. Percent body fat was calculated from measure- ments of body density. Body density was determined by the technique of hydrostatic weighing. Analysis of variance procedures were used to analyze the data. Rationale Research indicates that females deposit fat mainly in the hip, thigh and abdominal areas (5, 29). With the present emphasis on fitness and weight control in our society, women have become very interested in programs which bring about changes in body fat. Women interested in reducing fat deposits for cosmetic reasons only may find the idea of local exercise quite appealing. A local exer- cise program may be especially suited for women not accustomed to exercise who are apprehensive about becoming involved in general activity programs. According to Schade (3l), such women may be more motivated to engage in local exercise programs designed to reduce the areas of greatest fat deposition. There is a need for an exercise program designed to reduce fat in the thigh region that will satisfy the participants with results; that can be done without the use of special equipment and facilities; and that can be accomplished within the confines of one's own home. Aerobic or "endurance" training in animals and human beings has yielded alterations in the metabolic characteristics of skeletal muscle by increasing enzyme activity, the concentration of mito- chondria and the ability to oxidize fat (16, 17, 24, 26, 37). Examination of the active muscle groups in endurance athletes has shown a higher percentage of "slow twitch“ or red muscle fibers than "fast twitch" or white muscle fibers in the musculature (9, ll, 30). The "slow twitch" fiber is found to be high in mito- chondria, capillarization and aerobic enzymes, and therefore has a greater ability to metabolize substrates (2, 36). It is hypothesized that continuous, low-intensity activity will result in recruitment of the "slow twitch" muscle fibers used in aerobic activity and associated with increased utilization of free fatty acids in the body. This exercise program is designed to overload the aerobic metabolic system by use of continuous, low-intensity activity. Reduction in thigh fat is anticipated in response to the duration, frequency and aerobic nature of the exercise program. Limitations l. The small sample size may limit the power of the statistical analyses. 2. Optimal durations of treatment for achievement of significant results have not been established. 3. The results of this study are specific to the thigh area of college females. The data apply only to the exercise program used in this investigation. 4. The motivational level of the subjects may influence the results of the study. Definitions Generalized exercise is any form of exercise not concen- trating on a specific body region. This type of exercise is usually some type of cardiovascular activity used for overall physical fit- ness. Examples include activities such as walking, jogging, bicycling and calisthenics. Localized exercise is any form of exercise confined to a specific body region. Local exercise utilizes muscle groups of the specific area to be affected. Aerobic exercise is any form of physical activity that will cause the body to derive needed energy from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins by oxidative metabolism. This type of exercise is associated with the term "endurance." CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE A substantial number of research studies have been completed concerning the effects of exercise on body composition. Many of these studies deal with the effects of general training programs, varying in duration, intensity and type of exercise on such vari- ables as total body fat, skinfold thickness, body weight and lean body mass. The review of literature in this chapter is organized into the following categories: (l) general activity programs involving males and young females, (2) general activity programs involving college females, (3) localized versus generalized exercise programs, and (4) muscle fiber recruitment and its relationship to prolonged physical activity. General Activity Programs Involving Males and Young Females Jogging and weight training programs are popular methods for altering body composition in males. Milesis and colleagues (21) studied the effects of l5-, 30- and 45-minute walk-jog programs on the body composition of three groups of male prison inmates. The programs resulted in significant decreases in percent body fat, total skinfold fat and waist girths in all three training groups, along with significant reductions in body weight in the 30- and 45-minute training groups. In l974, Misner and associates (22) studied the effects of two different training programs, jogging (a high repetition-constant load activity) and weight training (a low- intensity progressive load activity) on adult males. Results of the study showed decreases in subcutaneous fat and girth at most sites measured, but the amount of decrease did not prove to be significant. Participation in a season of sports competition has been found to produce changes in the anthropometric measurements of college athletes (33, 34). Thompson and associates (34) estimated body fat in basketball and hockey players. Skinfold measurements were used to assess body fat and were taken during the competitive season. Results showed no change in body weight, but a significant reduction in subcutaneous fat was obtained at all sites measured. Similar changes were found by Thompson (33) in college football players. The intensity of physical activity was found to be the most important factor affecting body composition in a study done by Parizkova (29). Male and female Olympic gymnasts were measured during three different periods: (l) before the start of intensive training, (2) l6 weeks later and (3) after l5 weeks of rest from active training. Results showed that during intense training, body weight remained constant, but subcutaneous and total body fat decreased, with the simultaneous development of lean body mass. Cessation of training produced a rise in body weight due to excess fat accumulation. Substantial decreases in body density suggested reductions in lean body mass along with fat accumulation. Parizkova (29) observed similar changes occurring during the adolescent period (age 13-18 years) in girls. Ten girls involved in a systematic gymnastics training program were measured at different stages from age 13 to 18. One group of girls continued training for 5 years, while the second group discontinued training after 1 year. In this study, skinfold thickness varied directly in relation to the intensity of training. The proportion of fat was found to be significantly higher at the end of five years in the group that had quit the train- ing program. Results resembling those of Parizkova were reported by Jokl (18) for a group of adolescent children, during a 5-month daily exercise program incorporating various types of activity. General Activitngrograms Involving COTlege Females Although most of the research concerning exercise and body composition has involved men, the recent surge of involvement by women in sports has led to greater amounts of data being collected on women. In a study by Moody and associates (25), 11 overweight college women were subjected to a moderate walk-jog exercise pro- gram, 6 days a week, for an eight-week period. Significant decreases were observed in average weight and in the mean thickness of 12 skin- fold measurements. In another investigation, Wallace (39) divided 31 college women into 4 age groups and studied the effects of 4 months of cardiovascular training on body composition. The exercise program consisted of 15-minute bouts of exercise, 3 days per week, at 80 percent physical work capacity. A reduction in percent body 10 fat was observed in all groups, but decreases were significant only in the group that was extremely overweight at the beginning of the study. Further analysis showed no significant decrease at any one body site, rather the decrease in total body fat resulted from a reduction in fat at all sites. No changes in girth measure- ments were reported. Studies involving collegiate female athletes show reduc- tions in body fat during competitive seasons. Working with female swimmers, Wade (38) found no changes in total body weight, but observed significant increases in body density with concurrent decreases in absolute and relative body fat during a 9-week com- petitive season. Significant reductions also were reported in skinfold measurements of the triceps, subscapular and suprailiac areas. The evidence cited suggested that fat loss was mainly subcutaneous and not due to depletion of internal fat stores. Lundegren (20) found similar changes in female field hockey and basketball players. Field hockey players showed reductions in fat at the arm and thigh, with decreases of fat and girth at the umbili— cal site. Basketball players reduced body fat at arm, iliac, and umbilical sites. No changes in body weight were observed in either group of athletes. These findings coincide with Thompson's (33, 34) observations of male athletes and the changes in body fat resulting from a season of competition. In contrast to these findings, Katch and colleagues (19) found no significant changes within or between groups of female swimmers and tennis players in body density or body fat following a 16-week training program. ll Localized Versus Generalized Exercise Programs Surprisingly few studies have been undertaken to compare the effects of local versus generalized exercise on reducing body fat. Studies by Bowes (3) and Noland and Kearney (27) have shown that both local and general exercise are effective in reducing body fat and girths in college females. In both studies, reductions in skinfold and girth measurements were found within each group, but no significant differences were observed between experimental groups. Several methods have been utilized to compare the effects of two exercise programs (localized and generalized) in altering body composition. Carns and colleagues (7) utilized the technique of segmental volume reduction while Schade and associates (31) assessed changes in body fat with photography. The same college women were used as subjects in both studies. Carns found significant differ- ences in body weight and in the volume of one body region. This region was located between the inferior border of the twelfth rib and the greater trochanter of the femur. These differences were observed between the control group and the two experimental groups only. However, no differences were found between the two different exercise groups. Schade also observed significant weight losses, along with reduction of fat in the body segments where adiposity was greatest, regardless of the type of exercise performed. Greater decreases were seen in all body diameters of the local exercise group than in those of the general exercise group, but the results did not reach statistical significance. 12 Individual sports such as racket games, in which one arm is predominant, provide ideal settings for research studies. Gwinup and associates (13) compared the subcutaneous fat thickness and the circumference of specific sites on the right and left arms of male and female tennis players. Twenty tennis players and a control group of people with variable activity backgrounds were subjects for the study. The male and female experimental groups contained only tennis players who played no less than 6 hours per week during the previous two years. The differences in circumference between the dominant and non-dominant arms and forearms of the male tennis players were found to be significantly different from those of the control group. Similar results were obtained in the comparison of female tennis players with the female control group. No significant differences were observed in subcutaneous fat between dominant and non-dominant arms in all three groups. In contrast to the findings cited above, evidence indicates that local exercise or "spot" reduction may be possible (23, 27, 28, 35). Mohr (23) observed changes in the subcutaneous fat and girth measurements of women aged 18 to 45 after 4 weeks of exercise.. One minute of isometric abdominal exercise each day produced significant decreases in the umbilical and abdominal regions. A recent study by Vandine (35) subjected two groups of college women to an 8-week activity program. One group performed isometric exercises, while the second group engaged in isotonic activity. Significant reduc- tions in hip and thigh girth were obtained for both groups. Olsen and Edelstein (28) found changes in subcutaneous fat of the upper l3 arm with 6 weeks of local exercise. Thirty-two subjects completed three sets of 7-repetition maximum (7-RM) curls and three sets of 7-RM tricep extensions on a daily schedule. The data indicated that hard exercise in a specific area of the arm resulted in a reduction of subcutaneous adipose tissue in that area. Muscle Fiber Recruitment: Relationship to Prolonged Physical Activity At least two main fiber types have been identified in human skeletal muscle. They are classified as slow twitch (ST) and fast twitch (FT) fibers. Recent research has revealed two subgroups for the fast twitch fibers. These have been labeled FTa and FTb (30). The FTa fibers have a higher oxidative metabolic capacity while the FTb fibers possess greater glycolytic metabolic potential. The slow twitch fibers are small, slow-contracting fibers with a high capacity for prolonged work (14, 36). They have great capillari- zation and numerous mitochondria which contain aerobic enzymes. This enables them to metabolize substrate more efficiently (36). The slow twitch fiber is believed to be associated with endurance activities. The fast twitch fibers are large and fast-contracting (14, 36). These fibers have fewer mitochondria and less capillari- zation, but are high in contractile protein (14, 36). Muscle fibers of the fast twitch type store glycogen and anaerobic enzymes. They are believed to be associated with strength and power activities of high-intensity and short duration (14, 36). Animal studies have shown that endurance training can alter metabolic characteristics of skeletal muscle. This is accomplished 14 by increasing the activity of a series of enzymes, the concentration of mitochondrial protein and the ability to oxidize fat (16, 17). Similar changes have been observed in human skeletal muscle (26, 37). Evidence suggests that there is a selective process for certain types of muscle fibers according to the nature of the move- ment in human locomotion (6, 9, ll, 30). In a study conducted by Gollnick and colleagues (11), muscle biopsies were obtained on 74 men who participated in different sport activities. The men were representative of many different levels of fitness. The results showed profound differences between trained and untrained muscle groups. A high percentage of slow twitch fibers were found in the trained muscles of endurance athletes. The oxidative capacity of both the slow twitch and the fast twitch fibers in the active muscles was found to be higher than in the less active muscles from the same athletes, or in the muscles of the untrained subjects. The highest percentage of slow twitch fibers was found in the muscle which was used most extensively in endurance work. Both fast twitch and slow twitch fiber size was found to be greater in the muscles which performed the work. The relative area of a muscle occupied by a specific fiber type was also different for endurance and non- endurance athletes. The percent of muscle area composed of slow twitch fibers was much greater in the endurance athletes. Fink and associates (9) observed similar results when comparing elite distance runners, middle distance runners and untrained men. Muscle biopsies taken from the gastrocnemius and soleus muscles revealed significantly more slow twitch fibers in 15 the endurance athlete than in either the middle distance runners or the untrained men. On the average, the slow twitch fibers were fOund to be 29 percent larger than the fast twitch fibers in the elite runners. A cross-sectional area of muscle showed that approxi- mately 82.9 percent of the muscle area was occupied by slow twitch fibers. Comparisons made by Saltin and colleagues (30) between sprinters and long distance runners showed a predominance of fast twitch fibers in the leg muscles of sprinters, while those of long distance runners contained mostly slow twitch fibers. Endurance runners were found to have a high occurrence of FTa fibers along with slow twitch fibers in their trained muscles. This evidence suggests that it is not only the slow twitch muscle fibers, but also the FTa fibers that can adapt to specific training regimens. These results coincide with the findings of Gollnick (11) and Fink (9). Muscle bi0psies obtained by Burke and associates (6) on elite cyclists, average cyclists and untrained subjects showed no significant differences in the percent of slow twitch for the three groups. However, the area of slow twitch fibers was found to be larger than the area of fast twitch fibers in most cyclists, but no differences were found between the two groups of cyclists in the area occupied by slow twitch and fast twitch fibers. The nearly equal percentages of slow twitch and fast twitch fibers is attributed to the aerobic ability needed for prolonged activity 16 and the anaerobic ability needed for climbing hills, breaking away and sprinting at the end of a race. Summary Various types of physical activity and their effects on body composition were discussed. Generalized activity programs involving males and females were reviewed. Localized exercise programs were examined to determine their influence on fat reduc- tion in women. Finally, the relationship of prolonged physical activity to the recruitment of muscle fiber types of human subjects was investigated. In most studies, generalized activity programs have produced changes in percent body fat, subcutaneous fat, and girth measurements in both males and females. These changes varied according to the intensity of physical activity required by each of the programs. Research that has compared local with general exercise pro- grams indicates that both types are effective in altering the body composition of females. However, neither type of exercise program has been shown to be more effective than the other. In many of the studies reviewed, localized exercise produced reductions in skinfold and girth measurements. Unfortunately, research in this area is limited and often contradictory in nature. The relationship of prolonged physical activity to recruit- ment of fiber types was discussed. Endurance athletes were found to possess high percentages of slow twitch muscle fibers in their trained muscles. Athletes who engaged in high-intensity, short 17 duration activities showed higher percentages of fast twitch fibers in their active muscles. The oxidative capacity of both fast twitch and slow twitch fibers was enhanced with endurance training. Increased oxidative capacity of muscle fibers is specifically related to a higher capacity to use fat as an energy source. CHAPTER III METHODS AND MATERIALS The duration and intensity of physical activity play an important role in determining which energy system is utilized by the body. Activities requiring maximum bursts of energy for 8 seconds or less rely primarily on the ATP-CP system. The main fuel source for this system is the high energy phosphate bonds of adeno- sine triphosphate (ATP) and creatine phosphate (CP) (36). Per- formances lasting between 30 and 90 seconds are still predominantly anaerobic in nature, however, a greater portion of the energy demand is supplied by anaerobic glycolysis of endogenous glycogen (36). As time engaged in physical activity increases, dependence on the ATP-CP system and anaerobic glycolysis decreases and production of energy must come from other sources. Exercise durations of 35 to 240 minutes derive energy mainly from aerobically metabolized free fatty acids, with lesser amounts obtained from blood glucose (36). Training regimens based on this type of activity are considered "aerobic exercise" and are characterized by continuous or inter- mittent activity. Aerobic exercise is associated with moderate to high caloric expenditure and has been found to utilize more total calories than other forms of exercise (1). This study was designed 18 19 to investigate the effects of low-intensity, aerobic exercise on the amount of subcutaneous fat in the thigh of college females. Sample The subjects in the investigation were 10 female under- graduate students at Michigan State University. All of the subjects were volunteers interested in reducing fat in the thigh area. A minimum criterion level of 18 percent body fat was set for partici- pation in the exercise program. Percent body fat was calculated for each subject prior to the start of the program. Any subject with less than 18 percent body fat was not included in the study. Each subject was required to exercise only one leg, with the non-exercised leg serving as a control. The specific leg to be exercised was designated by random assignment. This experimental design was selected in an attempt to minimize the effects of intrinsic factors between subjects, such as metabolic differences. All subjects were asked to maintain their normal dietary patterns. Traininngrocedures During the experimental period of 10 weeks, the subjects met 5 days per week for approximately 45 minutes per day. The exercise program was administered as a group activity, with the same indi- vidual conducting all exercise sessions. Four exercises utilizing muscles involved in hip flexion, extension, and abduction were used (see Appendix). All exercises were performed in a lying or a hand-knee position on the floor in an effort to reduce fatigue and to limit isometric contraction of the non-exercised leg. Each bout 20 of activity involved alternate repetitions of hip flexion—extension and hip abduction exercises. The duration of each bout of exercise was 5 minutes, with 2-minute rest intervals between each bout. All exercises were done in unison to pre-selected music for the purpose of reducing boredom and maintaining continuous, low-intensity activity. Each subject wore gym shorts during all activity. The foot of the exercised leg remained bare throughout the exercise session to eliminate the possible effects of different weighted shoes on the dependent variables. Body Composition Measurements Measures of body composition including skinfold thickness, thigh girth and percent body fat (estimated by hydrostatic weighing) were obtained prior to and following the experimental program. The mean value of 3 successive measurements for each variable was used as the score for each individual. Procedures for taking measure- ments are explained below. 1. Subcutaneous fat: Skinfold measurements were taken at three different sites on the anterior, posterior and lateral thigh of both legs. Anterior and posterior measurements were taken with the subjects standing, feet slightly apart and knees extended. Lateral thigh measurements were taken with each leg elevated so that the knee was flexed and the thigh was parallel to the floor. a. Anterior thigh: The first measurement is taken in the midline, at a height directly in line with the 21 gluteal fold. The two subsequent measures are taken at 2-inch intervals distal to this point. b. Posterior thigh: Measurements are taken in the midline, directly beneath the gluteal fold, with two subsequent measurements taken at 2-inch intervals distal to the first site. c. Lateral thigh: One measurement is taken in line with the crease formed by hip flexion. Two subsequent readings are taken at 2-inch intervals distal to the first site. All measurements were taken with a Lange skinfold caliper, cali- brated to exert a jaw pressure of 10 gm/mmz. Each skinfold was assessed with the crest of the skinfold parallel to the long axis of the thigh. Each site was marked with a skin dye before measure- ment to insure correct location. 2. Thighggjrth: Four circumference measurements were taken on both thighs starting just beneath the gluteal fold and continuing down the thigh at l-inch intervals. All measurements were taken with subjects standing, feet slightly apart, and knees extended. A flexible steel tape, calibrated in centimeters was used for measur- ing. Again, all sites were marked before measurement. 3. Percent body fat: Body density was determined by hydro- static weighing using the technique of Consolazio and colleagues (8) and computed according to the equation developed by Brozek and associates (4). This equation was chosen since the correlation 22 between actual residual volume and constant residual volume has been shown to be extremely high (40). Analysis of Data Changes in body composition were analyzed using two-way analysis of variance to determine significant differences between means on pre-exercise and post-exercise measurements of the exercised leg and also between the exercised and non-exercised leg. A .05 level of significance was used for all analyses. CHAPTER IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The results of this study are presented in four sections. The first section covers the changes in total body fat and body weight that resulted from the treatment. Changes in subcutaneous fat measurements are discussed in the second section, whereas the third section deals with the results of the thigh girth measurements. Finally, comparisons of the mean differences between exercised and non-exercised legs on the variables of interest are presented in the fourth section. Corresponding discussion of the results is offered in each section in an attempt to relate findings of this study to those of other investigations in the literature. Changes in Body Fat Content and Body Weight Data on changes in body fat content and body weight are presented in Table 1. Initially, ten subjects began the exercise program. However, four subjects left the study after two weeks of training because of the time factor involved in participation. Changes in the total body fat content of the remaining six subjects were mixed. Three subjects showed a decrease in total body fat, one subject showed an increase, while the estimated body fat of another subject remained unchanged after treatment. Technical 23 24 TABLE l.--Body Weight and Percent Body Fat Before and After a Ten- Week Local Exercise Program. Body Weight (kg) % Body Fat Subject Pre-Exercise Post-Exercise Pre-Exercise Post-Exercise 59.12 59.80 29.90 26.90 49.32 49.60 22.70 22.70 61.30 60.20 26.90 26.50 64.02 64.65 27.80 --- 66.80 66.80 24.40 22.70 51.01 51.45 18.20 20.20 T: 58.60i7.04 58.75 ”56.93 24.98:4.l8 23.80:2.84 25 problems arose with one subject during the hydrostatic weighing session. The subject became frightened and was unable to remain submerged long enough for a reading to be taken. Therefore, no post-exercise data related to total body fat were recorded for this subject. Although there was a small difference between the pre- and post-exercise group means, this difference was not statis- tically significant. Thus, the first hypothesis that the local exercise program would produce a significant reduction in percent body fat was not supported. Changes in body weight were also mixed. After ten weeks of the exercise treatment, four subjects showed a slight increase in body weight, one subject experienced a slight decrease and the weight of one subject remained unchanged. Again, there was no statistically significant difference between the pre-exercise and post-exercise group means. However, since the dietary intake of the subjects was not controlled, a necessary reduction in body weight was not anticipated. It is well established that regular strenuous exercise results in a change of body composition characterized by a decrease in body fat content and a general increase in lean body mass (3, 5, 13, 18, 20, 22, 25, 27, 28, 29, 33, 34, 38, 39). With limitations, the results of this study tend to be in agreement with these obser- vations. The mean body weights were almost identical between pre- and post-exercise treatment, but there was an average 1.1 percent decrease in total body fat content. 26 In this study, no attempt was made to control the daily caloric intake of the subjects. Also, it is well recognized that there are technical difficulties in the method of hydrostatic weighing and computation of body density for toal body fat content. For example, the use of a constant or predicted residual lung volume in assessing body density, as was done in this study, has been shown to have severe limitations. Unfortunately, other more accurate techniques, such as the nitrogen dilution method, were not avail- able for this study. These factors may well have contributed to the lack of a significant decrease in total body fat content after the exercise treatment in this study. In addition, the small number of subjects who completed the program undoubtedly reduced the power of the test statistic to detect a significant difference that might actually have existed. Changes in Subcutaneous Fat Measurements The skinfold measurements for the estimation of subcutaneous fat are presented in Table 2. Significant changes in skinfold thickness were found in the anterior, lateral and posterior aspects of the thigh for the exercised leg after the exercise treatment. On the anterior aspect, skinfold measurements of both the proximal and distal areas had significant reductions, while the medial area showed a significant increase in skinfold thickness. Only the distal area on the lateral aspect of the thigh had a significant decrease in skinfold thickness, although the values for the proximal and medial areas were also less following the exercise program. On 27 TABLE 2.--Means and Standard Deviations of Skinfold Measurements of the Exercised and Non-Exercised Legs. Area of Treatment Pre-Exercise Post-Exercise Paired Measurement Group (mm) (mm) t Anterior Thigh: Proximal Exercise 28.25 i 8.20 21.53 i 5.09 3.62* Non-Exercise 26.81 t 8.56 20.03 i 5.99 2.49 Medial Exercise 29.78 i 8.83 33.36 i 6.06 5.43* Non-Exercise 28.31 i 7.42 22.81 i 5.70 3.18* Distal Exercise 30.19 i 9.11 22.22 i 5.48 5.09* Non-Exercise 29.19 i 8.68 22.22 i 5.28 3.16* Lateral Thigh: Proximal Exercise 29.11 t 5.97 25.11 i 4.72 1.48 Non-Exercise 29.11 i 5.62 26.19 t 4.57 1.13 Medial Exercise 30.22 i 5.39 26.03 i 4.93 1.60 Non-Exercise 30.66 i 7.60 27.14 i 2.83 1.38 Distal Exercise 29.61 i 4.67 23.17 i 4.06 5.47* Non-Exercise 30.69 i 6.30 25.86 i 4.25 2.45 Posterior Thigh: Proximal Exercise 32.33 i 6.61 24.86 i 2.57 3.09* Non-Exercise 33.72 i 4.69 28.08 i 4.03 2.48 Medial Exercise 31.58 i 7.45 24.55 i 1.72 2.54* Non-Exercise 34.11 i 6.07 27.69 i 2.85 4.04* Distal Exercise 29.89 i 7.91 22.19 i 2.20 3.09* Non-Exercise 32.00 t 7.42 25.31 i 4.64 4.49* *Significant difference at 0.05 level. 28 the posterior aspect, the proximal, medial, and distal areas all showed significant reductions in skinfold thickness after the exercise treatment. The medial and distal areas on the anterior and posterior aspects of the non-exercised leg also showed a significant reduction in skinfold thickness after treatment. It is of interest to note that the medial and distal girth measurements of the non-exercised leg also were significantly smaller after treatment (see Table 3). At present it is very difficult to interpret the results of the significant changes in skinfold measurements observed at the anterior and posterior aspects of the thigh. It seems that the daily exercise routine employed in this study (see Appendix) may have specific effects on these two aspects, but not on the lateral side of the thigh. The significant reduction in girth and skinfold thickness of the non-exercised leg supports the theory that static muscular contraction may have occurred at the contralateral leg during daily exercise performance. There was support for the second hypothesis in that the skinfold thickness of the exercised leg was significantly reduced at numerous sites. However, since the skin- fold thickness of the non-exercised leg was also reduced, the effects of the exercise program may have been general rather than local in nature. Changes in the Birth Measurements of the Thigh The data from the thigh circumference measurements are presented in Table 3. Statistically significant decreases were 29 TABLE 3.--Means and Standard Devisions of Birth Measurements of Exercised and Non-Exercised Legs. Area of Treatment Pre-Exercise Post-Exercise Paired Measurement Group (cm) (cm) t Proximal Exercise 56.78 i 4.56 57.88 i 4.27 1.92 Non-Exercise 57.12 i 4.48 57.53 t 5.03 .61 Medial Exercise 54.83 t 3.81 45.92 i 3.94 .65 Non-Exercise 55.75 i 4.12 54.72 i 4.12 2.90* Distal Exercise 51.27 i 3.26 50.62 i 3.17 1.22 Non-Exercise 51.88 i 3.50 51.15 i 3.47 3.00* *Significant difference at 0.05 level. 30 found in the medial and distal measures of the thigh for the non- exercised leg after treatment. However, no significant decreases were found in the exercised leg as a result of the exercise treat- ment. These results are the reverse of what was predicted in the third hypothesis of this study. This outcome suggests that the role of the non-exercised leg in providing the support for the body during the exercise regimen may have benefited more than the free leg doing the exercises. On the other hand, other plausible explanations such as measurement error should not be overlooked. Comparisons of the Mean Differences Between Exercised and Non-Exercised Leg After Treatment The differences of various pre- and post-exercise measure- ments between exercised and non-exercised legs are compared and presented in Table 4 and Figure 1. Although no statistically significant differences were found when gain scores were compared, it is important to point out that seven out of nine skinfold sites on the exercised leg showed a greater amount of reduction in skin- fold thickness when compared to those on the non-exercised leg. A trend toward greater reduction of subcutaneous fat in the exercised leg may have been established. Physiological and anatomical evidence on so-called "spot reduction" of subcutaneous fat are not available at present. No direct circulatory connection between the working muscles and the immediate adjacent subcutaneous fat has been identified. It is 31 TABLE 4.--The Mean Difference Between Pre- and Post-Measurements of the Exercised and Non-Exercised Legs. Variable Non-Exercised Leg Exercised Leg Circumference (cm) Proximal .417 1.100 Medial -l.O33 - .367 Distal - .733 - .650 Skinfold: Ant. Thigh (mm) Proximal -6.778 -6.722 Medial -5.582 -6.370 Distal -6.973 -7.972 Skinfold: Lat. Thigh (mm) Proximal -2.918 -3.998 Medial -3.527 -4.193 Distal -4.833 -6.438 Skinfold: Pos. Thigh (mm) Proximal -5.637 -7.470 Medial -6.415 -6.363 Distal -6.693 -7.698 32 ..m...z. moo. 32966132 uco 33866 9: .6 2558634 .5889...ng 9.6 19.6 5628 85.615 of. u. mmnoi mozumuuinoma each—2.1m 61.9536 01.9553 10. 1% 16.1... moiwhgn. 10.1... ..<¢u...<.. 10.1... 1059.24 7255— 393 713cm Tina 12.824259... _ .355. is! 1333i 7455 743.! 736i om... oumfimmxméoz D 8.. 890536 I (“010111011119 33 generally believed that fat mobilization during exercise is through the general circulation of the body. In spite of this, however, one should not rule out the possibility that specific adaptation in the body can be the result of various exercise regimens or may take place under certain pathological conditions far beyond those which people have recognized. For example, muscle fiber splitting has been reported in the skeletal muscle after weight-lifting exercise (12, 15), and collateral circulation is developed in the cardiac muscle after myocardial infraction (32). Therefore, the hypothesis that the increased demand of energy metabolism during local exercise may stimulate specific adaptation between the working muscles and the immediate adjacent subcutaneous fat deposition for more rapid energy substrate delivery is still tenable. In addition, it was the intention of this study to use long endurance, aerobic type exercise in order to use the slow contracting motor units to facilitate fat energy metabolsim in the working muscles. In reviewing the exist- ing literature, none of the previous studies have employed this approach. The small sample size of this study, lack of control of the caloric intake of the subjects during the experimental period and the lack of consistency in finishing maximal repetitions of the exercise routine are all limiting factors of the current study. These factors may contribute to the statistical non-significant differences when the gain scores of the exercised and non-exercised legs were compared. 34 Summar The mean body weight of the subjects remained almost the same and there were no significant changes in the girth measurements for the exercised leg after treatment. There was an overall 1.1 percent decrease in total body fat content and a significant reduc- tion in eleven out of eighteen subcutaneous fat measurements for both the exercised and non-exercised legs. Thus, it seems reasonable to conclude that the exercise treatment employed in this study pro- duced a general decrease in body fat content and possibly a slight increase in lean body mass for the subjects. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary This study was undertaken to determine if localized exercise has any measurable influence on reducing subcutaneous fat in the thigh region of college females. Ten undergraduate students were subjects for the study. All subjects were volunteers and met a criterion level of at least 18 percent total body fat. The exercise treatment consisted of four exercises involving hip flexion, exten- sion and abduction. The program attempted to overload the aerobic metabolic processes in each subject by use of continuous low- intensity activity. Ten subjects were brought into the laboratory and randomly assigned a leg to exercise. The opposite leg was used as a control. The subjects met for approximately 45 minutes a day, 5 days per week, for 10 weeks. Body composition measurements were obtained prior to and following the program. No significant differences were observed between group means in body weight and total body fat content. Significant changes were seen in subcutaneous fat measurements of the anterior, lateral and posterior aspects of the thigh. These changes were observed in the exercised leg after treatment. Significant differences were also 35 36 seen in the medial and distal areas of the anterior and posterior aspects of the non-exercised leg. Medial and distal girth measure- ments of the non-exercised leg also were significantly smaller after treatment. No significant differences were found among comparisons of the mean differences between the exercised and non-exercised legs after treatment. sions: Conclusions The results of this study have led to the following conclu- No significant reductions were observed in percent body fat as a result of the local exercise program. No significant differences were observed between the skinfold thickness of the exercised leg and non—exercised leg following treatment. However, both legs showed a significant reduction in skinfold thickness subsequent to the exercise program. No significant changes were seen in the circumference measurements of the exercised leg when compared to the non-exercised leg. Recommendations The present study should be repeated to investigate further the effects of localized exercise on anthropo- metric measurements of the female thigh. 37 In any follow-up study using a local exercise program, treatment should be maintained for a longer duration, with greater frequency and intensity. Future exercise programs of this type should attempt to combined some type of dietary control with the exercise regimen. The present study should be repeated using a larger sample size. The present study should be repeated using a more accurate means of measuring body density. APPENDIX DESCRIPTION OF EXERCISES 38 Body Position: Phase I: Phase II: Body Position: Phase I: Phase II: Body Position: Phase I: Phase II: Body Position: Phase I: Phase II: DESCRIPTION OF EXERCISES . . . . * H1p Flex1on-Extens1on Exerc1ses Subjects assumed a hand-knee position on the floor. Flexion of the designated leg and movement of the knee toward the chest. Movement of the knee away from the chest until the leg was completely extended. Leg extension was considered complete when the leg was extended past a position parallel to the floor. Subjects assumed a side-lying position on the floor. The bottom arm was completely extended and used to cushion the head. The top arm was used to help maintain body position. Flexion of the designated leg and movement of the knee toward the chest. Movement of the knee away from the chest until the leg was completely extended. Leg extension was considered complete when the leg was extended past the original starting position. Hip Abduction Exercises* Subjects assumed a hand-knee position on the floor. Leg remained in a flexed position and the knee was moved sideways away from the body (abducted). Leg was returned to the original starting posi- tion. Subjects assumed a side-lying position on the floor. The top leg was abducted (toe moved toward the ceiling). The leg remained straight. 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