This is to certify that the thesis entitled The Preparation of Educational Administrators in Manitoba presented by Carl Bjarnason has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph .D . degree in Minna 1 Administration LIBRARY L. Michigan State E University (Ram? fiféflf . Major professor DateW‘ 0-7839 I} ABSTRACT THE PREPARATION OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATORS IN MANITOBA by Carl Bjarnason The thesis attempts to establish whether there exists a need to extend educational administrator preparation in Manitoba, and to develop the basis for such a program as indicated by superintendents, principals and school inspectors consistent with current research. The Province of Manitoba, with a pOpulation of one million and an area approximately the size of Texas, recently established a system of larger administrative school areas, and thus has had to produce more and better trained school administrators. The study attempts to discern any agreement on the training procedures desired by school practitioners, universities and a Jury of nationally known Canadian administrators. The consensus level was based on eight factors related to training: recruitment of candi- dates for educational administration, program content, program struc- ture, methods of instruction, student research, field experience, graduation standards and program evaluation. From a questionnaire directed to principals and superintendents, responses were compared ‘to those from Canadian and United States Universities. The purpose was to determine the extent to which the needs of Manitoba admini- strators are being met by university programs. Items showing Carl BJarnason consensus were accepted into the proposed program; those in dis- agreement were referred to the Jury. With the eight training factors as criteria, the question- naire consisted of: (a) open-ended questions to identify strengths and weaknesses in existing practices, (b) a classification of re- commended course elements as 'requisites' or 'electives,‘ (c) state- ments designed to clarify training policies and procedures. The questionnaire was administered to all Manitoba superintendents, to a stratified sample of principals and inspectors, to thirteen typi- cal universities in Canada and United States and to the Jury. The data were tabulated on a three-point scale to determine course con- tent and to decide issues of program policy. The results supported a more active and open recruiting policy but a tighter system of selection. Courses Judged to be essential for all graduate candidates were: Group Processes, Ad- ministration Theory, Practice and Principles of Administration, Internship, Introduction to Research, Elementary Statistics and Organizational Behavior. Educational Psychology and Evaluation of Educational Programs were rated as 'virtually essential'. There was a general reaction against compulsion in the choice of courses in the remaining study areas. The presumed need for more extensive training in Manitoba was confirmed by the data; the nature of the needs was identified and the essential principles for the program were established. These principles of training were enunciated in seventy-nine re- commendations distributed over the eight stated categories. Of Carl BJarnason the prOposals, making up the structure of training, the following concerns were considered in the data: (a) recruitment of more non- teachers and women, (b) reduction in the number of compulsory courses, (c) stress on flexibility, (d) relevance of theory, prac- tice and conceptualization, (e) emphasis on interdisciplinary study, (f) need for reality in research, (g) universities' lack of self- evaluative techniques, (h) pros and cons of field experience, (1) place of the dissertation as a research vehicle, (J) abandonment of the foreign language requirements, (k) role of practicing admini- strators in planning the preparatory program (1) and recognition of a variety of training approaches in content and method. THE PREPARATION OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATORS IN MANITOBA by Carl BJarnason A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Administration 1971 \ Copyright by Carl BJarnason 1971 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS For his generous assistance and helpful criticism, the writer expresses appreciation to his Committee Chairman, Dr. Archibald B. Shaw. Thanks are extended also to committee members, Drs. Stanley Hecker, Alice Davis and Peter Manning and to the many Manitoba administrators and other respondents whose cooperation has exceeded expectations. Finally, the writer will be ever mindful of the infinite patience and help of his wife, Edna. Her numerous suggestions and encouragement have made the completion of this project possible. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION Introductory Statement and Background . . . . . . . . 1 General Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Significance of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . lO Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 A Statement of Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l3 Delimitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1h Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Organization of the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 The Changing Nature of Educational Administration . . 21 The Nature of Administrative Preparation . . . . . . . 32 Changes in Administrator Training . . . . . . . . . . 36 III. THE METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A9 IV. DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRAINING PROGRAM . . . . . . . . . . 60 Recruitment and Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Program Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 V. DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRAINING PROGRAM . . . . . . . . . . 89 Program.Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 Methodology of Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 iii CHAPTER Student Research . Experience in the Field VI. RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS Standards and Requirements for Feedback and Self-Evaluation . Recruitment and Selection Program Content Program Structure Instructional Procedures . Student Research Field Experience and Internship Requirements for Graduation Feedback and Self-Evaluation Conclusion . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . APPENDIX . . . . . . A. Introductory Letter to all Questionnaire from Dr. A. B. Shaw Graduation . Respondents Introductory Letter to University Respondents from Dr. A. B. Shaw Introductory Letter to Panel of Twelve from Deputy Minister, Dr. W. L. Lorimer . . Letter of Request for Assistance from C. BJarnason to All Respondents . Questionnaire Letter of Thanks and Follow—up to All Respondents iv PAGE 102 106 110 113 116 117 119 125 129 132 135 139 1b0 lhh 1148 159 159 160 161 162 163 170 TABLE II. III. IV. VI. VII. VIII. IX. LIST OF TABLES Rank Order of Course Elements Indicated by Manitoba Administrators . . . . . . . Rank Order of Course Elements Indicated by Universities . . . . . . . . . . . . Rank Order of Course Elements Indicated by Panel of Twelve . . . . . . . . . . . Classification of Requisite Elements Based on all Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . Rank Order of Electives Indicated by Manitoba Administrators . . . . . . . . Rank Order of Electives Indicated by University Personnel . . . . . . . . . . Rank Order of Electives Indicated by Panel of Twelve . . . . .'. . . . . . . Elements Rated as of Limited Importance by all Criteria Groups . . . . . . . . . Summary of Course Electives for Inclusion in the Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . Level of Agreement with Statements on Policies and Practices . . . . . . . . . PAGE 72. 75 76 78 79 80 81 82 83 92 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Introductory Statement and Background This is a study directed at preparation for leadership. Its purpose is to determine the criteria for planning an administrator- training program based on the needs expressed by school superinten- dents, principals and inspectors in the context of the Province of Manitoba's requirements and resources; such a preparatory program to be consistent with principles of administration reflected in cur- rent theory, and with the practices supported by long-established programs in universities of Canada and United States. The purpose of this chapter is to identify the problem and its background, to set out the delimitations and terms, and to in- dicate the methods to be followed in the dissertation. If, as Wengert states, "Some of the elements of educating administrators are undoubtedly as old as Plato,"l then, in a limited sense, the elements of educating administrators in Manitoba must go back to her entry into confederation precisely one hundred years ago. But, while the original administrative elements ex- isted in 1870, the social, political and economic events since that time have made any resemblance to the demands of present educational 1E. S. Wengert, "Education of the Administrator," A Study of Administration, Keith Goldhammer, ed., (Eugene, Oregon: University of Oregon, 1961). 2 leadership remote indeed. Thus, from the primitive educational ser- vices needed for an isolated and sparsely settled territory with church-Operated schools and a few hundred students located near Winnipeg, a modern, intricate and highly structured system has evolved, serving 2h0,000 pupils and served by more than 11,000 teachers.2 From an educational program in Manitoba whose main task in 1870 was to produce through private or separate schools a modi- cum of literacy for a heterogeneous population, a highly-extended and complex system is in operation with a great deal of power cen- tred in the Provincial Department of Education, and a clearly— defined delegation of responsibility and authority to local school boards and officials. Accompanying this change in administrative structure has come a new set of pressing problems, produced by the socio-economic-political events of the past century. These require skills in decisions, planning and evaluation for which the admini- strators in most divisions had little or no prior preparation. ' "A principal point of reform in a profession,’ states "3 The "point of Anderson, "is at the point of education for it. education" for school administrators lies in their preparatory training and professional experiences. It is toward this "point" of administrative preparation in the context of Manitoba, but with relevance to widely accepted theory and practices of administration, that the focus of this present study is directed. 2Annual Report of Department of Youth and Education, Pro- vince of Manitoba, (Winnipeg: Queen's Printer, 1969). 3G. Lester Anderson, "Professional Education: Present Status and Continuing Problems" in Education for the Professions, Sixty-first Yearbook of National Society for Education, Part III, (Chicago: Uni- versity of Chicago Press, 1962), p. 16. 3 General Background The Province of Manitoba, situated in the centre of Canada, comprises a pOpulation of one million and occupies an area approxi- mately the size of Texas. She spends 125 million dollars annually on elementary and secondary education and employs over eleven thou- sand teachers. The northern section of the province is sparsely populated and as yet under-developed economically. The southern half however, is an area of considerable agricultural wealth and productivity. Apart from agriculture and the industry related to it, the provinces's main economic assets are the extensive produc- tion and potential in minerals and hydro-electric power. With Manitoba lying at the centre of North America's water-shed, ex- ploratory studies and continuous research are proceeding in the in- ternational development and distribution of the vast supplies of unpolluted run-off water. In view of the province's development to date, and the unmistakable signs of social, economic and politi- cal change, the increasing role of education and the need to pre- pare professional administrators are more generally recognized. It is significant that in Manitoba, while the universities do provide graduate administrative training--mostly on a part-time basis--no special preparation is necessary for employment and no certifica- tion or licencing, other than a teacher's certificate, is required. By the terms of the British North America Act of 1867 and _ the Manitoba Act of 1870 by which Manitoba entered the Canadian Confederation, the complete provincial Jurisdiction over education was clearly defined: h In and for each province the Legislature may exclusively make laws in relation to Education. As a result, the Manitoba Legislature by enactments in 1870 and 1892 established a provincial system of public schools. Not unlike their counterparts in United States, school boards by law were to be elected in each school district created by this legis- lation. These school boards were granted fairly specific powers and obligations, and continued to direct Manitoba Schools without much change until 1959. At that time there were almost two thou- sand school districts and nearly 8,000 elected trustees. Their tasks ranged from the mundane duties of repairing the rural school to the complex Operations in the City of Winnipeg with its four thousand teachers. The problem of preparing and hiring educational administrators was not given much importance. Whether for the ru- ral principalship or the superintendency, no formal preparation was considered necessary. Principals were selected from the teaching staff and received their training on the Job-~usually while they continued to teach. Only ten areas in the entire province had locally-employed superintendents: Winnipeg, Fort Garry, St. Vital, St. James, West Kildonan, Charleswood, Norwood, St. Boniface, Flin Flon and Brandon. With one exception these administrators had ad- vanced from the classroom or the principalship with little manage- ment training or internship prior to appointment. "The Organization and Administration of Public Schools in Canada, (Ottawa: Queen's Printer, Dominion Bureau of Statistics, 1988). 5 In 1959 the status of the superintendency was considerably altered. Before this, most school boards operated without superin- tendents or supervisors, and the maJority of principals administered schools and also carried a full teaching load. To complicate mat- ters, the School Act prior to 1959 required trustees to provide edu- cational services only to the eighth grade. Secondary education was offered "at the pleasure of the board." While many districts did provide high schools, approximately half of them-~most1y in rural areas-did not. In summary then, five features characterized the Manitoba School System up to 1959: 1. A multiplicity of school districts in rural areas, most of them too small or poor to offer specialized or even adequate edu- cational service, with the number of local school trustees exceed- ing the number of active teachers. 2. A system of financing that depended largely on local pr0perty taxes, with glaring inequities between districts of high and low economic resources. 3. Unequal educational opportunities from place to place, the most glaring inequity being the absence of high-school facilities in many rural areas. h. An inadequate scale of provincial support to school districts adversely affecting teachers' salaries, building programs, trans- portation, professional development and basic school services. 6 5. A system of local school control-—in non-urban areas--ref1ect- ing the pioneer view Of school Operations: for each community there was a single board, with one school, staff, principal and program. In 1958, a Royal Commissions was charged with the responsi- bility for examining all aspects of public education. Among its many recommendations, the following had special significance for the role of newly-appointed superintendents, and here for the first time appeared some Of the ultimate questions regarding the need for administrator-preparation: 1. That the province be divided into 50 to 60 large school divi- sions, each employing at least 80 to 100 teachers and having a balanced taxable assessment Of 5 million dollars. 2. That school division boards encompassing this larger area be assigned the responsibility to provide high-school Opportunities to every student in the province. 3. That government grants be available to cover a realistic foundation program, defraying most of the costs of teachers' sal- aries, transportation, maintenance, supplies, administration and buildings; and thus relieve the tax burden on real prOperty. h. That the costs for education be partly equalized by a Pro- vincial General Levy, based on an equalized provincial assessment levied on the real property in each division. 5The Report of the Manitoba Royal Commission on Education, (Winnipeg, Manitoba: Queen's Printer, 1959). 7 5. That schools should be provided with more expert supervision through the employment of principals, superintendents and special- ist-supervisors. 6. That teacher supply be improved by a system of teacher-grants paid by the province to each division, on the basis Of professional training, years Of experience and level of instructional or ad— ministrative responsibility. 7. That superintendents should be employed by school divisions as the chief executive officers of these boards. 0n the basis Of the Royal Commission's recommendations, large school divisions were approved by the voters in most areas. Division Boards were elected in 1959, but with responsibility for gnly_secondary education. Since elementary schools,--with the ex- ception Of most urban divisions, remained in the hands of small dis- trict boards, many Of the administrative contradictions and the regional inequalities persisted as before. Some superintendents were appointed, but since the larger areas Of control applied mainly to secondary schools, the advantage Of total reorganization was realized only in part. The administrative uncertainty and the com- munity tensions resulting from the dual authority and the ambiguity between elementary and secondary school boards, led to demands for the establishment of unitary school divisions with complete responsi- bility for all levels of education. The pressure for a single school authority prompted another Royal Commission in 196k. The commission opted for unitary school control. 8 It appears to us that the quality of education can be substantially improved by combining elementary and sec- ondary schools under one administration in each division. ... the consolidation of secondary schools under h5 divi- sion boards left elementary schools largely unchanged from the horse and buggy days in which they had been built and these district boards established. There are still 1,500 district elementary boards, Of which 978 are responsible for a country school of one teacher and a few pupils dis- tributed over eight grades. ... In addition to their pre— sent responsibility for secondary education school division boards should be given the exclusive financial and taxing responsibility for all elementary public schools within their respective division as well as the general administra- tive responsibility for such elementary schools. As a result Of this advice, the provincial Government in 1966 introduced legislation to transfer the Operation of both ele- mentary and high schools into the hands of Unitary Division Boards and a Provincial Boundaries Commission redefined school areas. In each of the forty-eight (subsequently reduced to forty-seven by con- solidation) unitary school divisions, the residents were required by referendum to accept or reJect the legislation authorizing a single school authority through Grade XII. At present, the larger division unit of administration has been approved in forty-three areas, and its adoption in the remaining four is imminent. Thus, the establishment Of large school areas in 1959 and l96h, along with a new foundation support program, has produced an entirely new set of needs and implications for school administrators and a new sense Of urgency about the quality of training: 6Rgport Of the Manitoba Royal Commission, Report on Local (}Overnment Organization and Finance, (Winnipeg, Manitoba: Queen's lPrinter, 196A), p. 81. 9 1. Where there had previously been scant recognition Of superin- tendents and only limited provincial support, school boards now received sizeable government grants to defray a considerable part Of salary costs. 2. Government grants covering the entire cost Of approved build- ings produced many new school plants throughout the province, and also caused a movement toward centralization and specialization of instruction. 3. Annual grants to school boards, up to 12 thousand dollars per teacher, led to higher teachers' salaries, an improved teacher sup- ply, better professional qualifications and increased innovation. A. With larger and more complex school operations, trustees were suddenly caught up in a multi—million dollar business with a vari— ety of educational and management problems requiring the assistance Of skilled administrators. The Royal Commission had anticipated this: We look forward to a closer coordination of all education services, headed by full-time superintendents to assist divi- sional boards in their administration. We also look forward to more economic and efficient use of school buildings, trans- portation and other physical facilities.7 5. The new foundation program of the province provided for approxi- mately 65 to 70 per cent of the total school budget. With only 30 to 35 per cent to be borne by local prOperty owners, it appeared to relieve school boards of some of the pressures caused by local Ibid. 10 property taxes. But provincial support also brought tighter provin- cial controls and budgetting. These necessitated long-range plan- ning for school facilities, educational programs and general services. These five factors together brought an urgent need for in- creased administrative knowledge and skills. The pressures for ex- pertise were inevitably felt in the superintendent's new responsibil- ities and in the expanding role of principals and vice-principals. This therefore directed attention to the kind Of training needed for professional administrators. No university had been geared to meet these new urgent needs. It is then the purpose of this study to provide recommendations for such a program of administrator prepara- tion. Significance of the Study A recent study in educational preparation for the 1970's indicates that one of the maJor problems, was the apparent discrepancy between the training needs of school administrators and the training Opportunities avail- able to them--in other words, the general Obsolescence Of the preparatory programs. It seemed, quite simply, that changes in preparation had fallen behind changes in the so- cietal contgxt Of the schools which our graduates must administer. If societal, economic and technological change is inevit- able, and if the present rate of such change continues, it becomes 8Robin H. Farquhar et al, "Educational Leadership and School (Organization in the 1970's," Symposium Papers American Educational R_esearch Association, (Columbus, U.C.E.A., 1970). ll imperative to devise means for anticipating such change, to plan for it and to provide the means Of using change as an integral part Of the training process in administration. Otherwise, "the general Ob- solescence of preparatory programs"--if it exists—~will inevitably continue. The significance Of this study then, is that it represents an attempt to establish rational criteria for a training program, based on the societal needs of the schools as expressed by practic- ing administrators, and to apply such criteria for training admini- strators in a large provincial system. By such means the study will consider whether a set Of Operating principles can be evolved for the training of educational administrators in Manitoba. Also it will consider whether a basis for self-evaluation and change to counteract Obsolescence, can be included with the recommendations constituting the elements of the training program. Clearly effective administrative behavior is based on a realistic interpretation Of the situation in which the- administrator finds himself and not on misconceptions or stereotypes of the situation.9 Another significant aspect Of the study is that in a limited way it investigates the application of current management research indicating that organizational effectiveness improves, where partici- pants are actively involved in plans and Operations. Where they are not involved Argyris and others suggest that: 9Erwin Miklos, "Role Theory in Administration," The anadian Administrator, III, (November, 1963), p. 7. 12 management controls tend to make employees feel dependent, passive and subordinate to management. As a result . . . they experience pressure, lack Of control over their work environment, barriers to communication. . . . This study is significant in that it raises the question as to whether more of the decisions for administrative training can be profitably shared with administrators in the field. Finally there is significance in that the social and econo- mic development Of a young province like Manitoba is inevitably dependent on the quality of education and therefore on the level Of educational leadership. Such "effective leadership can be described 11 as a force among forces." Since Manitoba universities have only recently introduced graduate studies for administrative training in education, it seems clear that the school leadership patterns established there by administrators during the 1970's will signifi- cantly affect the course that the province ultimately will follow. Hypotheses l. A consensus exists among principals, inspectors and superintend- ents regarding the criteria necessary to structure a satisfactory preparation program for educational administrators. 2. There is a high degree of congruence between the criteria for administrative training indicated by superintendent et al., and the 10Chris Argyris, Personality and Organization, (New York: Harper and Row, 1957). Pp. 22 - 157. llJack Culbertson, Educational Leadership During the 1970's, U.C.E.A. Symposium, American Educational Research Association, 1970. 13 goals supported by administrative personnel in representative uni- versity programs in Canada and United States. A. A training program for educational administrators can be developed that reconciles the criteria established by administrators and the goals Of representative universities. A Statement of Assumptions 1. The effectiveness of a complex organization such as a school system is determined in large measure by the level of leadership pro- vided by its administrative Officers. The successful leader is one who is keenly aware Of those forces which are relevant to his behavior at any given time. He accurately understands himself, the individuals and the group he is dealing with, the company and the broader social environ- ment in which he operates. . . . certainly he is able to assess the present readiness for growth of his subordinates.12 2. More than a training in technical skills and informational knowb how, administration, especially in education, is primarily a process of human relations and personal growth. NO administrator-preparation therefore can presume to supply final answers or complete information. Rather it must nourish the process whereby the administrator comes to seek new insights about himself and those around him; and to im- prove continually those sorts of skills throughout his career; as Rollo May states, 12Robert Tannenbaum and Warren H. Schmit, How to Choose a Leadershingattern, (Harvard Business Review, April, 1958), ' pp. 95 - 101. 1h "the kind of humility . . . that keeps the door Open for new learning and for the discovery of new truth on the morrow."l3 3. There is a substantive and growing body of empirical evidence-- especially in the behavioral and social sciences--to suggest more effective ways to learn about administration and management. It is assumed that field experience alone, without some background in theory and research, is insufficient to cope with the tasks of ad- ministration. Delimitations The topic under study is limited to two obJectives: (l) to receive and analyze information from subJects in the field with a view to establishing criteria most effective in the prepara- tion Of educational administrators, and (2) to design a program of recommendations on the basis of these criteria that is also consis— tent with the goals of administrators and representative universities. The study therefore must be limited as follows: 1. The term "administrator" is confined to principals, vice-princi- pals, superintendents and assistant superintendents. 2. Courses of training that may be taken beyond the auspices of university are not within the purview of this study. 3. Training or preparation is here restricted to include only grad- uate studies. l3Rollo May, Man's Search for Himself, (New York, Signet Books, 1967). p. 216. 15 h. The basic proJection period for establishing the principles of a training program is limited to 1971-1980. 5. The study's criteria universities include ten prominent Canadian and three United States universities. These are supplemented by data from the American Association of School Administrators and the University Council for Educational Administration. 6. Since the study is primarily directed toward a training program for Manitoba, it is limited to an analysis of the data derived from administrators in that area. Definition of Terms 1. The Act. This refers to the Manitoba Public Schools' Act and regulations pertaining thereto, under which the legal status of the Department Of Education, School Boards, professional staff, parents and pupils is spelled out. 2. Administration, Management. These refer to the entire process of planning, decision-making and communicating involved in the management of school and school divisions by superintendents and principals. 3. Criterion University. This implies any university respondent in Canada or United States used as a basis of comparison in evaluat- ing the categories examined by administrators. A. Department Of Youth and Education. This is the all-inclusive term used to denote the structure Of the central provincial agency, ‘which is responsible to the Minister of Education for the over-all <=Oordination Of education throughout the province. l6 5. District School Board. This term indicates a school board re- sponsible for elementary education in a small district which has not accepted the larger area Of administration. 6. Elementary Schools. These are schools accommodating children from Kindergarten to Grade VIII. 7. Inspector of Schools. These are representatives of the Depart- ment Of Education in each school division appointed to provide liai- son, information and assistance for schools, staff or school boards. 8. Unitary School Division Board. This is the body of school trus- tees elected in each of the large school divisions in the province and responsible for all schools in the Division--Kindergarten to Grade XII. 9. Superintendent of Schools. This is the administrative Officer appointed by the Division Board to serve as its chief-executive. Organization of the Thesis Chapter II will review primarily the literature from those writers whose main concern has been the preparation of educational administrators. The work of other writers and researchers in education and educational organization will be included, particu- larly where these relate to behavioral theory and administration. Chapter III describes the procedures used in the study. It will outline the general methodology, the nature of the instrument, the nature Of the sample and the data sought. Chapter IV and Chapter V present the results Of data, the nature and implications of the results with reference to (a) the 17 strengths and weaknesses Of present programs, (b) the course ele- ments suggested and (c) the Policies, Principles and Practices. Chapter VI provides the maJor findings Of the study includ- ing the principles for a tentative program arising from the criteria. This chapter will also summarize the findings, examine them in the context of current research and present recommendations from the study. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The use of the term 'administration' according to Belisle _ and Sargent,1 did not actually go much beyond its familiar meaning until WOOdrow Wilson's statement in 1887. "Public administration," said Wilson, "is a detailed and systematic execution of public law. Every particular application Of general law is an act of administra- tion."2 In the same sense the beginnings Of Educational Administra- tion, as a serious field Of study can be placed at 1950, when the COOperative Program in Educational Administration (CPEA), financed and encouraged by W. K. Kellogg Foundation, came into existence. Running somewhat parallel to the broader movement in management studies, the preparation for school management as described by Callahan and Button3 had followed three stages: (1) scientific management reflecting society's concern for economic productivity 1Eugene L. Belisle and Cyril G. Sargent, "The Concept of Administration," Administrative Behavior in Education, ed. Roald F. Campbell and Russell Gregg, (New York: Harper and Row, 1957). 2Woodrow Wilson, "The Study Of Administration," Political Science Quarterly, (June, 1887), Vol. 2, p. 97. 3Raymond E. Callahan and H. Warren Button, "Historical Change Of Role of the Man in Organizations: 1865-1950," Behavioral Science .gpd Educational Administration, ed. Daniel E. Griffiths, 63rd Year- book, Part II, NSSE, (Chicago Press, 1963), ch. 1:, p. 73-92. 18 l9 and rugged individualism, (2) human relations with the growing concern for peOple and (3) a theoretical and scientific phase with its emphasis on generalized laws and empirical evidence. The most significant development in the CPEA was the move- ment to integrate the philosophical values of administrative leader— ship into an over-all conceptualized structure Of the school admini- strator's Job. This was seen in Funk and Livingston's" three- dimension concept of educational administration: the Job, the man and the social setting; and again in the SSCPEA Competency Pattern. Here the purpose was to develop a clear integrated statement of the essential elements necessary for educational administration. Through the support of the National Conference Of Professors of Educational Administration (NCPEA), the American Association Of School Administrators (AASA), and the Kellogg Foundation, the CPEA concentrated its activities in administration study in eight regional university centres. The results of the CPEA activities were summed up by Hollis Moore. In very broad strokes there is a picture we can paint from the CPEA proJects. The picture is one Of improvements for school administration across the country. . . . we have unleashed so many status studies, pilot centres and experi— mental designs and other means of inquiry into the problems hHoward V. Funk and Robert T. Livingston, A Tri Dimensional View Of the Job Of Educational Administration, (New York, CPEA, March, l96_, Teacher's College, Columbia University), p. 9. 20 of school administration that we have grown accustomed to an intense study of administration.5 Of the publications that have been "unleashed' by CPEA, one Of the most important was that undertaken by the National Conference of Professors of Educational Administration, which treated perhaps for the first time the significance Of administra- tive behavior in education.6 In this work a committee of eighteen professors concluded that many of the traditional concepts of edu- cational leadership lacked the support of scientific evidence. An even more significant outcome of CPEA activities was the establishment of the University Council for Educational Administra- tion (UCEA). This was to be an organization "taking the leadership in stimulating improvement in the preparation programs of school administrators";7 its membership currently consists Of those insti- tutions of higher education engaged in graduate programs in educa- tional administration. The Council encourages basic research, and disseminates findings through numerous publications and through the Educational Administration Quarterly. 5Hollis A. Moore, Jr., "Studies in School Administration," A Report or CPEA, AASA, 1957, p. 21. 6Roald F. Campbell and Russell T. Gregg, (eds.), Administra— tive Behavior in Education, (New York: Harper and Row, 1957). 7Hollis A. Moore, Jr., "Ferment in School Administration," Behavioral Science and Educational Administration, (Chicago Uni- versity Press, NSSE, 19637Yearbook), p. 29. 21 The Changing Nature of Educational Administration The single most important development in the approach to educational administration and tO the preparing of administrators has lain in the efforts toward evolving a framework Of administra- tive theory. The definite emphasis on the practicalities Of edu- cational management was seriously questioned during the later 50's as lacking in scientific rigor. The role of Abraham Flexner8 in raising the professional status of medicine was not lost on educa- tors. As early as 1957 Griffiths had stressed the need for a cautious but positive approach to administrative theory. As one reads the literature Of the social sciences, one fact stands out above all others. This is the quest for theory which is now being vigorously pursued. . . . With this theory as a core, all other sub theories would be related to one another. It would cause all disciplines to come close together and to seek advice and information from one another. . . . Before plunging into the construction of theory Of administrative behavior, it is necessary to develop a common background so that we know what it is we are trying to dO.9 Griffiths adds a note Of caution. There is much confusion concerning the concept of 'theory' in education since most educationists use the term more loosely than do those who are working to develop administrative theory. Modern administrative theorists limit the zone Of their inter— ests and define in a rigorous fashion the area of their inquiry. 8Abraham Flexner, Medical Education in the United States and Canada, The Carnegie Foundation for Advancement of Teaching, Bulletin h, (1910). p. 3h6. 9Daniel E. Griffiths, "Toward a Theory of Administrative Behavior," Administrative Behavior in Education, (New York: Harper and Row, 1957), p. 35h. 22 Theorists in administration see themselves as social scientists who are greatly influenced by the methodology, the purposes and the orientation Of physical scientists.lo In terms less complimentary Simon deplored the ill-defined concepts and the methodology which were suspected Of holding back positive progress toward a sought after theoretical basis for ad— ministration in education. "We talk about organizations in terms not unlike those used by a Ubangi medicine man to discuss disease. At best we live by homely proverbs. At worst we live by pompous inanities."ll Thus theory is a set Of assumptions from which principles rather than immutable laws can be derived. These are not perman- ently valid and cannot be proven for all time by experimentation. In Griffiths' view, they are general assumptions useful in predict- ing or accounting for events with more accuracy than is possible by chance, common sense or intuition. Therefore, theory and practice are not inconsistent for theory is always present in human behavior; whenever it lies in choices or Judgments based on assumptions and generalizations. Generalizations, one is told, are dangerous. SO is life for that matter, and it is built up on generalizations--from the earliest effort of the adventurer who dared to eat a 10Daniel E. Griffiths, "The Nature and Meaning of Theory," Behavioral Science and Educational Administration, NSSE, l96h, p. 95. llHerbert Simon, Administrative Behavior, (New York, Mac- millan CO., 1957), p. 1h. 23 second berry because the first had not killed him. So I will stick to my generalizing . . ." In this study the training of educational administrators is considered as a process demanding more than an inventory Of human traits or a catalogue of skills and responsibilities--important though these may be to the individual involved. It is the presump- tion here that what is applicable and generalizable for social sy- stems will be no less applicable and generalizable for educational systems and for the process of preparing educational leaders. Halpinl3 suggests that any suitable theory for administration should include at least the following: 1. It should be based on Operational and logical accuracy rather than common sense. 2. It should be generalizable. 3. It should regard values as variables, separate from the theory. A. It should be grounded in the basic social and behavioral sciences, recognizing that administrative behavior is in interaction with others. 5. It will stress the complex processes of reaction and interaction rather than any simple cause and effect relationship. 12Freya Stark, The Lycian Shore, (New York: Harcourt Brace and World, 1956), p. 103. 13Andrew W. Halpin, (ed.), Administrative Theory in Education, (University Of Chicago, Midwest Administrative Center, 1958), pp 0 29- 39 o 2h Traditionally much of what was written prior to 1955 about the nature of administration was the product of administrators' per- sonal experiences. These accounts were Often passed along as the rules of success rather than as reflective thought or theory. These descriptive approaches rarely produced new knowledge and rarely de- voloped new relationships which would raise new questions leading to new answers. Furthermore the traditional trait or technique ap- proach to administration made it difficult to synthesize new know- ledge that might arise. The techniques Of administration therefore tended to be specific rather than generalizable. Thus administration was fragmented into military, business, hospital, public or educa- tional. Administration until recently was not conceived as admini— stration per se, with fundamental principles and concepts applicable in large measure to the social relations found in the management Of any organization. The trait approach to administrative behavior concentrated on the intellectual, physical or sociO-psychological characteristics of the administrator as representing the key to success and thus pointing to the traits that should be developed during training. This strategy still not entirely discarded, rests on certain assumptions: (1) that specific elements can be isolated and examined as entities. (2) that these elements or behavior factors Operate independ- ently of one another and external conditions. 25 (3) that the nature O the influence of the trait is constant and predictable.1 But personal leadership characteristics are only one aspect Of the complex leadership situation and it now seems clear that the traits and techniques Of individuals, important though these are, are too limited a base for preparing leaders for tomorrow's schools. Stogdill15 suggests that leadership preparation must Operate in terms of the interaction of numerous variables all in a constant state of flux. This is not to deny or minimize the importance Of personal qualities or even Weber's charisma in administration. On the contrary, leadership ability and personality are frequently Of great moment. But they must be viewed within a total situational approach, for it is common knowledge, states Stogdill,l6 that some individuals are highly effective leaders in one situation but pa- 17 thetic failures in others. Hemphill suggests a constellation of 1hTruman M. Pierce and E. C. Merrill, Jr., "The Individual and Administrative Behavior," Administrative Behavior in Education, (New York: Harper and Row, 1957), p. 318. 15Ralph M. Stogdill, Personal Factors Associated with Leader- ship: A Survey Of the Literature, Journal of Psychology, (l9h8), v01. 25’ PP- 35‘710 161mm. 17John K. Hemphill, Situational Factors in Leadership, (Columbus: Ohio State University Press, 19h9)1 26 traits applicable to the leader, and no less applicable to the group to be led. The criterion treatment Of administrative theory, as exa- mined by the Southern States CPEA,18 was based on criterion measures develOped from checklists Of effective leadership practices. In some ways it is another version Of the integrated approach with the competency pattern made up of three basic elements: the practical know-how, the Job and the theory. Halpin's study at Ohio State University tried to classify performance on the two dimensions Of consideration and initiating structure. There is nothing especially novel about these two dimen- sions Of leader behavior. The principles involved in the con- cepts Of Initiating Structure and Consideration probably have always been used by effective leaders in guiding their behavior with group members, while the concepts themselves, with dif- ferent labels perhaps, have been invoked frequently by philoso- phers and scientists to explain leadership phenomena. Practical men know that the leader must 1ead—-must initiate and get things done. But because he must accomplish his purposes through other people . . . he also must maintain good human relations. .19 . In Bernard's terms he must be 'effective' and 'efficient.‘ Two other means Of incorporating theory Of administration into the preparation of administrators have been the use Of role theory and the application of models from other disciplines. The extreme importance of roles in administrative behavior was examined 18CPEA Center, Better Teaching in School Administration, (George Peabody College, 1955): 19Andrew W. Halpin, Theory and Research in Administration, (New York: Macmillan, 1966), p. 86: 27 some time ago by Campbell20 in discussing the situational factors of administration. More recently Robert Kahn21 expanded the significance Of roles to include the added principle of 'role set' and Likert'322 concept of '1inking pins.‘ Thus a person fulfilling an organizational function is connected or associated with others in order to perform his role. The set Of persons-~superiors, sub- ordinates, peers and outsiders--with whom he has role relationships then constitutes the role set. The organization as a whole therefore, including the leader trained for it, can be regarded as a set of over- lapping and interlocking role sets; and some Of these inevitably ex- tend beyond the boundaries Of the organization to be managed. Another approach to roles in administration.was that of the Midwest CPEA Center based on Getzels'23 description of administra- tion as a social process with hierarchical relationships established on three dimensions: the authority dimension, the dimension of roles and facility and the affectivity dimension. 20Roald F. Campbell, Op. cit. leobert Kahn, D. M. Wolfe, R. P. Quinn, J. D. Snoek and R. A. Rosenthal, Organizational Stress: Studies in Role Conflict and Ambiguity, New York: Wiley, 196A). 22Rensis Likert, New Patterns of Management, (New York: McGraw—Hill, 1961). 23J. W. Getzels and A. P. Coladarci, The Use of Theory ingducational Administration, (Stanford University Press, 1955). 28 The attempt to construct administrative theory from the models of other disciplines has been one Of the more productive recent develOpments. These have included and sought to apply decision-making models,2h models for group dynamics,25 communi— cations models,26 group models,27 systems models,28 performance measurement models,29 influence-change models30 and many others ap- plicable to practically every phase Of administrator preparation. Summarizing the application of models and the findings of other disciplines, Griffiths points out the following: that real- ity is assumed to exist and to Operate in systems rather than 21‘David W. Miller and Martin K. Starr, The Structure of Human Decisions, (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1967). 25Dorwin Cartwright, "Achieving Change in Peeple: Some Applications of Group Dynamics," Human Relations, No. A, (1951), pp. 381-392. 26E. Katz and P. F. Lazarfield, Personal Influence, (Glencoe, Ill.: The Free Press, 1955). 27George C. Homans, The Human Group, (New York: Har- court Brace, 1950). 28A. K. Rice, The Enterprise and Its Environment, (London: Tavistock Publications, 1963). 29Rensis Likert, Measuring Organizational Performance, (Harvard Business Review, March-April, 1958), pp. 141-50. 3OEdgar H. Schein, "Management Development as a Process of Influence," Industrial Management Review, (May, 1961), PP 0 59-77 o 29 isolated acts; that other sciences have independently "discovered" similar phenomena; that the nature of the universe and knowledge about it is an expanding open system; that every person is like all other men, like ggmg_other men and like pg other men; that man's con- trol over his environment increases with generalizable knowledge, and that human behavior, including administrative behavior, can be understood only in terms of complex interaction between the biologi- cal organism and the environment. For these and other reasons, The adoption of the Open, organismic system as a model for the study Of administration might have as wide an influence as the adOption Of the machine by Strayer, Cubberley and Spaulding. If this is so we might be on the threshold Of a new organizational structure for public education. NO review Of the literature leading up to the present scienti- fic trend in administrator preparation would be adequate without brief mention Of the contributions of Chester Barnard, Herbert Simon and Chris Argyris. In his "Functions Of the Executive" Barnard's32 insights are Often regarded as a bench mark in the course of modern management studies. His grasp Of the need for theoretical concepts, his postulates regarding the source Of authority, decision-making and the nature Of planning, formal-informal organizations and 31Daniel E. Griffiths, "The Use Of Models in Research," Educational Research: New Perspectives, ed. Jack A. Culbertson, (UCEA, 1962). 32Chester Barnard, The Functions of the Executive, (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1966). 30 communication all anticipate most Of modern theory. With only slight change in emphasis, his precepts are still in large part acceptable to education, and to administrative study. Herbert Simon33 directs himself to the new concepts Of ra- tionality in organizations, to values, to the psychological basis Of decision-making (which he equates with administration), and the nature of those decisions in the role context, communications and efficiency. Briefly, Simon was concerned with the problem of increasing, though never quite achieving, rationality in organizations. Eventually he applied the Homans' principle Of group interaction to develop a mathematical formula applicable to the tasks Of administration. The Labor and Management Studies at Yale develOped a be- havioral approach to the study Of formal organizations. Argyris3h and Bakke3S formulated certain assumptions about the administrative process. Those Of interest in administrator preparation include: the work-flow process, rewards and penalties, authority, the per- petuation or survival capacity Of the organization, identification, communication and status. Argyris sums up. Theoretically then, if you want to create a situation in which people are loyal and truly committed to the company's interests, then you must find a situation in which, from the 33Herbert Simon, Op. cit. 3hChris Argyris, Executive Leadership, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1953). 35E. Wight Bakke, Personality and Organization, (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1957). 31 outset, people are active rather than passive; in which, instead of feeling subordinate, people can honestly feel that they are thinking and making decisions-~and I don't mean decisions about the location of the water coolers or the color of the wall paper.3 TO accomplish the group commitment advocated by Argyris re- cruires a change-agent in leadership. This is the planned change "thich.Bennis et a1. claim involves the deliberate collaboration of change-agent and client system. We contend that a client system must build into its own structures a vigorous change-agent function, in order for it to adapt to a continually changing environment.37 This calls for a new breed of administrator and therefore a new variety Of administrator preparation. Thus it seems the theorists in turn have regarded administra- tion and the preparation for it as an analysis of traits, tasks, parts, functions, and authority; and they have attempted to define the administrator's role in terms Of planning, organizing, staffing, directing, evaluating, and reporting. But gradually the emphasis has swung to a group approach, with more awareness of informal relations and human relations, without diminishing the importance Of communica- tion, planning or decision-making. Getzels and Cuba 38 have 36Chris Argyris, "The Individual and the Organizational Struc- ture" from Personnel Practice and Policy, (New York: American Manage- ment Association Personnel Series, NO. 156, 1956). 37Warren G. Bennis. Kenneth D. Benne and Robert Chin, (eds.), The Planning of Chapge, (New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston Inc., 1961). ‘ 38Jacob W. Getzels and Egon G. Guba, "Social Behavior and the Administrative Process," School Review LXV, (Winter, 1957), pp. h23—hhl. 32 attempted to reconcile and explain the complexities of administra- tion as the results Observed when the social system reacts on in- stitutions and individuals in the context of different roles, per- sonalities, expectations and needs--"to show that the process Of administration deals essentially with social behavior in a hier- archical setting."39 The Nature of Administrative Preparation Any examination and understanding Of the awesome list of re- sponsibilities demanded of the school administrator gives added em— phasis to the importance Of the training he receives for the Job. The American Association of School Administrators"0 cites ten ex- pected personal qualifications ranging from high intelligence to the ability to see problems in broad context. Also included are twenty critical fields Of study extending from specialized knowledge about adult education to the principles of school finance. Culbertson and Hencleyhl also recognize the growing complexity Of modern society 39Jacob W. Getzels, "Administration as a Social Process," Administrative Theory in Education, ed. Andrew W. Halpin, (Chicago: Midwest Administrative Center, 1958). hOAmerican Association of School Administrators, Profes- sional Administrators for American Schools, (AASA, 38th Yearbook, 19607. l‘lJack A. Culbertson and Stephen Hencley, Preparing Administrators-~New Perspectives, (University Council for Educa- tional Administration, 1962). 33 within which the schools must function, while B. Y. Card"2 pursues the same theme from a sociologist's viewpoint with reference to Canada. In recent years the problem of recruitment and selection of administrators has received increased attention from those in training programs. Hemphill,"3 Whyte,"" and others have suggested that the selection procedures for education candidates, and espe- cially for those entering educational administration, are imperfect 1&5 in their predictive capacities. Hall and McIntyre have examined the common techniques used for selection Of candidates: rating scales, predictive tests and measures, and the common selective de- vices. They conclude that rating scales, records Of academic achieve- ment and past performance may be of limited use in selection. But letters Of recommendation and hasty interviews are of questionable value. Culbertson"6 has also emphasized that selection procedures "2B. Y. Card, Trends and Change in Canadian Society, (Toronto, Macmillan, 1968). "BJOhn K. Hemphill and others, Administrative Performance and Personality, A Study of the Principal in a Simulated School, (New York: Teachers College, Columbia UniverSity, 1962). ""William H. Whyte, The Organization Man, (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1956). "sRoy M. Hall and Kenneth E. McIntyre, The Student Per- sonnel Program, Administrative Behavior in Education, (New York: Harper and Row, 1957). 1‘6Jack A. Culbertson and Stephen Hencley, Op. cit. 3h "7 again in 1965, verifies pre- need to be re-examined and McIntyre vious research by reporting that in eighty-three fields of study, educational administration ranked third from the bottom in attract- ing students of highest academic competence. An earlier survey of the AASAha conducted in 1962-63 reported that the three admission re- quirements most frequently used by institutions preparing administra— tors, were grade-point average, teaching experience, and written examinations. Notwithstanding the general insistence on teaching experience as a condition for admission, recent research seems to sug- gest that previous teaching experience may be less necessary for ad- ministrative training than was formerly thought. Reeves for example, recently Observed that "it is quite conceivable that there could be administrators whose knowledge Of administration per se is strong, yet whose technical skill is not that of a teacher.""9 Culbertson et a1. reflect a similar view and suggest recruitment and selection procedures that place less emphasis on teaching experience as an absolute prerequisite for administrative preparation. Thus the choice of whether or not to become a principal, as a general rule is Open to persons only after they become teachers; the choice concerning the superintendency is Open only to persons "TKenneth E. McIntyre, Selection of Candidates for Profes- sional Training in Fields Other than Educational Administrators, Report of UCEA Task Force, (University of Utah, 19651} P. 3h-52. l‘BThe American Association of School Administrators, The Education of a School Superintendent, (AASA, 1963). l‘9A. W. Reeves, "Trends in Canadian School Administration, The Canadian Administrator, (University of Alberta, October, 1962). 35 after teaching and administrative experience. If the total popu- lation of potential administrators were represented by a tri- angle, it could be said that administrators today are drawn mostly from those represented in the apex of the triangle, and that the much larger number represented at the base of the tri- angle is not actively and systematically considered through existing recruitment procedures. Obviously more effective mech- anisms are needed to inspire talented youth to enter careers in school administration.50 Another significant research study related to administrator recruitment was that of Gross and Herriott,51 who investigated the relationship of the traits of elementary school principals to their executive professional leadership (EPL). The study revealed that principals are generally appointed on shaky empirical evidence since the amount of teaching experience, administrative experience, number of courses in education, sex and marital status did not indicate any significant relationship to the level Of executive leadership. In summary then the literature generally supports McIntyre's52 conclusion that rigorous selection procedures are necessary for the administrative preparation program, but pending more intensive re- search no single device or combination of devices will at present prO- vide a reliable index of adaptability for predicting administrative behavior. 50Jack A. Culbertson and Stephen Hencley, Op. cit. 51Neal Gross and Robert E. Herriott, Staff Leadership in Public Schools: A Sociological Inquiry, (New York: Wiley and Sons, 1965). 52Kenneth E. McIntyre, Selection of Educational Admini- strators, (University of Texas, a UCEA Position Paper, 1966). 36 Changes in Administrator Training The changes that have taken place in society and technology have been reflected in the nature of the preparation. Programs were previously based upon the experiences Of successful administrators. Today however, more stress is placed on concept develOpment, research and the cultivation Of skills and attitudes. In 1962 RellerS3 com- mented on the social change and the implications that this bore for educational leaders. He correctly predicted a rising population mobility, greater involvement by the citizenry in shaping policy, increased and more equalized educational Opportunities, extension in the number and variety of school services, consolidation of school areas, and the growing realization that educational administration was merely one branch of administration. As a result, preparation programs have been challenged to respond to these changes and to as- sume a higher level Of responsibility for the discovery Of new know- ledge about administration and about the education Of future admini- strators. In 1960 the AASAS" lent support to the principle Of a general core of introductory administrative studies and to advanced studies dealing with specialized content and concepts. The content Of 53Theodore L. Reller, "A Comprehensive Program for the Preparation Of Administrators, Preparing Administrators: A New Perspective, eds. Jack A. Culbertson and Stephen Hencley, (Columbus: UCEA, 1962). 5"American Association of School Administrators, Professional Administrators for America's Schools, Op. cit. 37 training programs has therefore been of increasing importance since that time. Miller55 in 1961 pointed out in "Common and Specialized Learnings for Educational Administrators," that the extensive growth Of knowledge about the nature Of administration, the variety of positions Open to graduates, the changes that were taking place in size, structure, and nature of schools had all combined to funda- mentally alter the 1earnings necessary for administration. Leu and Rudman et al.56 also dwelt on the need to distinguish between the learnings common to all administrators and those unique to particular 57 Jobs. Downey and Enns directed their attention toward the observa- tion of using systems theory in education, ordering systems, and theorizing about the relationships between systems and subsystems. A more recent survey Of the Optimal content for administra- 58 in 196A. 0n the basis of a tive instruction came from the AASA comprehensive survey involving two hundred and twelve institutions, there appeared to be little common agreement on specific sets of courses. Offerings frequently required at the Master's level in— cluded those in organization and administration, curriculum, super- vision, educational foundations and elementary research. Those 55Van Miller, Common and Specialized Learnings for Educational Administrators, (A Position Paper, UCEA, 196A). 56Donald J. Leu and Herbert Rudman, Preparation Programs for School Administrators, (UCEA Seminar, Michigan State University, 1963). 57Lawrence W. Downey and Frederick Enns, The Social Sciences and Educational Administration, (Edmonton, University Of Alberta, 19637. 38 included at the advanced level were most frequently finance, business management, school law, administrative theory, school community re- 58 The most apparent changes from the AASA lations and internships. study Of 1960 were seen to be the greater emphasis on administrative theory and the expectation Of student competence in research. Other developments included (a) More use Of related disciplines, particu- larly those of economics, political science and sociology. (b) Four times as many institutions Offered internships. (c) Greater use made of practicing administrators for seeking out and nominating prospective student candidates. (d) A period of full- time resident-study was more Often required. (e) Admission require- ments had generally tightened up. By 1966 several new trends were clearly discernible in prepara- tion programs. The International Intervisitation Conference heard Cunningham stress the new significance of simulated techniques for training educational leaders. My personal view of simulation is that it is the most promising single innovation in administrator preparation that we have available to us currently.59 On the same occasion however, Miklos expressed concern that the high hopes that had been held for the impact of the behavioral 58American Association Of School Administrators, Committee for Advancement of School Administration, The Professional Preparation of School Superintendents,(AASA, 196A). 59Luvern L. Cunningham, Simulation and Preparation of Educational Administrators, International Intervisitation Confer- ence, (UCEA, University of Michigan, 1966). 39 sciences on administration had perhaps not been fully achieved; that the exciting possibilities for educational administration were far from realized. One must wonder why these developments were not more visible if there was as much activity as we would like to believe.60 Halpin of course had expressed the same concern, ". . . why the effort of the past ten years had produced so tiny a mouse."61 One of the most recent and comprehensive analyses dealing with administration, "Preparing Educational Leaders for the Seventies," is the report completed in December, 1969, by a committee of the UCEA under a special grant from U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Stated in general terms the problem of the study is the discrepancy which exists between the professional training Op— portunities which are required by prospective educational leaders, and the tgaining Opportunities which are currently available to them. 2 The committee here suggests that several forces are shaping administrator preparation: (1) The increasing role of the federal government. (2) The Business-Education Interface. (3) The re- search and development occurring in education. (A) Management 60E. Miklos, The Behavioral Sciences and Educational Admini- stration: Some Reconsiderations, International Intervisitation Seminar, UCEA, (University of Michigan, 1966)? 61Andrew Halpin, "Essay Previews:" Behavioral Science and Educational Administration, Education Administration Quarterly, 1.53, (Winter, 1965). 62Jack A. Culbertson, Robin H. Farquhar, Alan K. Gaynor and Mark R. Shibles, Preparing Educational Leaders for the Seventies, UCEA, (Columbus, 1969). hO technologies. (5) The forces unleashed by racial conflict. (6) Teacher militancy. (7) The forces of rapid and widespread social change. "Preparing Educational Leaders for the Seventies" is based on the responses of 180 superintendents and forty-six selected train- ing universities. It reduces the training process to ten criteria, significant in the preparation of all school administrators: (1) Content of the instructional program. (2) Structure Of the program. (3) Recruitment and selection of candidates. (h) Tech- niques and approaches used in instruction. (5) Field-related ex- periences. (6) Student-research. (7) Requirements for graduation. (8) Evaluation and development of the preparation process. (9) De- partmental functions and staffing procedures. (10) In-service for administrators in the field. Among these, the following appear particularly relevant for brief comment in this review of the literature: 1. Content Of preparatory programs. 2. Structure. 3. Techniques of Instruction. A. Field Experiences. 1. Content Of Preparatory Programs: The New York Regents Advisory Committee63 in 1966 reported, on the basis Of a survey to 566 superintendents, that an extremely high value was attached to human relations courses. Technical skills 63New York Regents Of Advisory Committee on Educational Leadership, Chief School Officers: Recommendations and Report Of a Survey, (Albany, The Committee, 1967). A1 such as finance and law rated second; while courses dealing with curriculum, theory, and philosophy were in third position. Goldhammer concurs in this conclusion, stating that "about half of those criticizing shortages in their preparation, wanted more em- phasis on conceptualization. . . . another group felt short- changed in some of the technical skills"6h and some wanted more em- phasis on personnel and organizational management. Goldhammer further found that the main problems surrounding the content Of training programs were related to: educational change, teacher mili- tancy, instruction, community relations, finance and critical social issues. The importance Of the social and behavioral sciences, although already mentioned in this review, can hardly be over-emphasized. Tope in 1965, notes "a growing interest in the contributions Of the 65 and indicates that social sciences to educational administration," there is possibly an analogy with the relationship Of biology and medicine. However, while recognizing and pressing for the incorpora- tion Of social science in administration, Cunningham, Downey and Goldhammer66 Observe problems and dangers in drawing excessively upon 6hKeith Goldhammer et al., Issues and Problems in Contemporary Educational Administration, (Eugene: Center for Advanced Study of Educational Administration, University of Oregon, 1967), p. 111. 65Donald Tope et al., The Social Sciences View School Admini- stration, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965). 66Luvern L. Cunningham et al., "Implications for Administrator Training Programs," The Social Sciences and Educational Administration, (Edmonton: University Of Alberta, 1963), p. 103. A2 the social sciences. One of these is the problem of superficiality and narrowness; another is 'trained incapacitation' and a third is simple economics or the use of resources. There appears to be more evidence and support for including a greater proportion Of humanities study in the content of admini- 67 strator programs. Farquhar has identified at least three ration- ales for supporting the potential of the humanities. These are, based on the belief that in order to develop the special in- tellectual, personal, social, and ethical qualities essential to effective leadership, the prospective administrator must be exposed to the best classical and contemporary expressions of man's relationship to his fellow man, agg to the world Of ideas, feelings, and matter around him. Gregg69 and Miklos70 suggest that the actual use Of the inter- disciplinary approach in educational administration, has been more imaginary than real. Miklos states that the reason for this over- stress on interdisciplinary exchanges, is the fact that those pre- paring administrators may have: (1) under-estimated the size and complexity Of the task. (2) over-emphasized the necessity for 67Robin H. Farquhar, "The Humanities and Educational Admini- stration: Rationales and Recommendation," The Journal of Educational Administration, Vol. VI, NO. 2, (October, 1968), pp. 100—105. 68Jack Culbertson, Robin Farquhar, Alan Gaynor and Mark R. Shibles, op. cit. 69Russell R. Gregg, op. cit. 70Erwin R. Miklos, "The Behavioral Sciences and Educational Administration: Some Reconsiderations, Educational Administration: International Perspectives, eds. George Baron, Dan Cooper, and William Walker, (New York: Rand McNally, 1969), p. 3. A3 importing social scientists. (3) under-emphasized the role of the professor of educational administration. (A) failed to learn how to work with social scientists. (5) been too cautious in approach- ing the task. (6) been too structured in developing programs. 2. Program Structure: Of the curriculum in the typical preparatory program, Boyan is less than complimentary. Curriculum development in educational administration today looks very much like the conventional local school system ap- proach. It is disparate, fragmented, uneven, scattered, and mainly non-cumulative.7l To overcome this dysfunctional structuring of increments Of 72 has indicated the need for scienti- 73 learning experience, Culbertson fic content and value content to be complimentary, and Harlow has proposed a "division of the graduate work" Of the prospective ad- ministrator into three components of approximately equal size: (1) empirical social sciences. (2) humanities. (3) technical management skills. Goldhammer however argues for the preparation of 71Norman J. Boyan, "Problems and Issues of Knowledge Produc- tion and Utilization," Knowledge Production and Utilization in Educational Administration, p. 35. 72Jack A. Culbertson, "Common and Specialized Content in the Preparation of Administrators," Preparation Programs for School Administrators, eds. Donald J. Leu and Herbert C. Rudman, UCEA Seminar, 1963. 73James G. Harlow, "Purpose Defining: The Central Function of the School Administrator," Preparipg Administrators: New Per- 3 ectives, eds. Jack Culbertson and Stephen Hencley, UCEA, (1962), pp. 61-71. Ah the administrator as "the clinical student of organization or the clinical student of society."7h Probably the chief problem encountered in organizing the preparatory program is the flexibility vs. rigidity issue. Conant of course, supports the looser attitude. "If I were advising teach- ers I would recommend a totally different approach for some than others. . . . I would be doubtful about their taking many courses in administration."75 On the other hand, Reller supports a highly structured system. "The program should be sharply separated from the general university program Of graduate studies, which has other pur- poses primarily in view. . . . It should have a core designed speci- fically in the light Of its purposes."76 3. Techniques Of Instruction: In 196A the AASA reported that, "One thing professors in- sisted upon saying above all else, is that they are using a variety "77 It was found that simulated Of teaching materials and techniques. situations, game theory, case studies, theory development and problem- seminars were in use, but that the textbOOk—lecture-discussion 7hKeith Goldhammer, The Social Sciences and the Preparation of Educational Administrators, (Columbus: UCEA, 1963). 75James B. Conant, "What Superintendents Lack," School Management, Vol. 7, No. 5, (May, 1963). P. 55. 76Theodore L. Reller, op. cit. 77American Association Of School Administrators, The Education of a School Superintendent, (Washington, D.C.: AASA, 1963). b5 technique was Operating in the maJority of cases. Gregg states with regard to case and simulation study, that "there is little evidence that there has been any marked increase in the use of the method 78 during recent years." One relatively new instructional technique is that Of gaming 79 such as the Bargaining Game developed by Horvat, or the application Of game theory to the analysis of conflict as described by Ohm.8O Another, is the use of computers, particularly in computer-based simu- lation problems.81 For both Of these, prototype problems of simulated materials are now available. Many questions still remain unanswered regarding methods for improving programs, even though more than five years ago the UCEA identified areas requiring careful consideration. For example could greater and more effective use Of in- dependent study be made in training administrators? What methods are most apprOpriate for functionally teaching social science concepts? Can methods be devised that will minimize communication barriers between social scientists and future practitioners? Can television be used to bring the "reality" 78Russell T. Gregg, Op. cit. 79John J. Horvat, Professional Negotiation in Education, A Bargaining Game with Supplementarngaterials, (Columbus: Charles E. Merrill, 1967). 80Robert Ohm, "A Game Model Analysis of Conflicts Of Interest Situations in Administration," Educational Administration Quarterly, Vol. IV, NO. 3, (Autumn, 1968), pp. 70-8h. 81Paul Cullinan and Robert Ruderman, "A Prototype Computer Based System," The Design and Development of Prototype Instructional Materials for Preparing_Educational Administrators, (Columbus: UCEA, Final Report USOE ProJect, NO. 5 - 0998), pp. 86-lh7. h6 of education and administration into classrooms? . . . What in- structional methods are most appropriate for integrating the "is" and the "ought" aspects of administration? What instruc- tional vehicle can transmit c ntent from the humanities in a relevant and functional way?" 2 A. Field Related Experiences: There is general agreement that in some form or another the prospective administrator must experience the reality Of the administrative situation during his period of preparation. The means Of orienting the student is generally classified as "field-re- lated experiences, and "consists mainly Of internships and appren- ticeships, participation in field studies and surveys, and other prac— ticum experiences integrated into the regular course structure Of the preparatory program."83 The usefulness of such experience seems to be now widely accepted, although the patterns may vary from place to place. Goldhammer found that approximately one-half of the institutions visited in his study provided extended Opportunities for students to work in the field. But most Of the field-experience used by insti- tutions involve only that of the internship. Briner stated that "there has been agreement . . . in regarding the internship as an 82 UCEA Committee on "Guides for Improving Preparatory Programs, Improving Preparatorngrograms for Educational Admini- strators in the United States, (UCEA, 1962), pp. 33-33. 83UCEA, Preparing Educational Leaders for the Seventies, op. cit. h? "8h integral part of the total preparatory program and the AASA noted that the number of institutions Offering internships in 1962-63, had increased four times since 1958-59. However criticisms and reserva- tions have been noted concerning the manner in which the internship 85 Operates. Gregg is concerned at the fact that still only half of the institutions offer it; while Lonsdale and McCarty86 have suggested seven "substantive guidelines" for the superintendency internship. UCEA87 has prOposed eighteen action guides and Ramseyer88 has discussed a number Of issues and problems, which must be resolved in designing a meaningful internship for school administrators. One unusual suggestion for the internship is found in the UCEA's suggestion that the field experience might be found in places other than school districts: (a) state or provincial departments Of education. (b) professional associations. (c) special educational field studies. 81(Conrad Briner, "The Role Of Internships in the Total Pre- paration Program for Educational Administration: A Frontier Perspec- tive," The Internship in Administrative Preparation, ed. Stephen Hencley, (Columbus: UCEA, 1963), p. 5. 8SRussell T. Gregg, Op. cit., p. 987. 86Richard C. Lonsdale and Donald J. McCarty, "Learning Ex- periences for Tomorrow's Superintendent," The Internship in Admini- strative Preparation, (Columbus: UCEA, 1963). 87UCEA Action Guides, op. cit. 88John A. Ramseyer, "The Internship: Some Problems and Issues," The Internship in Administrative Preparation, (Columbus: h8 Whatever the final outcome, it appears evident that field experiences will play an increasing part in the training of future administrators. Whether the internship holds the promise that many expect, remains to be seen. It may be that preparation in terms Of being on-the—Job means Just that. A position incumbent representing a real placement in the organizational hierarchy, may not be Just one way 89 practicing administrative training; it may be the only way. In conclusion then, what should the preparatory program for education administrators attempt to accomplish? Certainly as Miklos has suggested, the aims Of those in charge of programs may have been too high. A concept more in touch with reality may be Shaw's Ob- servation in "What is Administration?" Administration is the increasingly specialized activity which plans, organizes, and directs the resources of people and things to the support and enablement of the teaching- learning situations apprOpriate to the institution's goals and tO the needs and purposes of students, faculty, and so- ciety. It is the activity which makes possible those magic moments when ready students, appropriate learning experience, and concerned and competent teacher come together in an en- vironment which gives maximum satisfaction and growth to all involved.90 This is the purpose for which administrative preparation is carried on. 89Conrad Briner, Op. cit. 90Archibald B. Shaw, "What is Administration?" Educational Administration, eds. Walter G. Hack, John A. Ramseyer, William J. Gephart and James B. Heck, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1968). CHAPTER III THE METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY The purpose of this chapter is to define the variables, to describe the instrument, the criteria and the procedures involved in the collection and analysis of data, and to provide a brief de- scription Of the sample. 1. The Variables The number Of variables that bear on the training Of admini- strators is obviously too great to be all-inclusive in this or any other study. But in the light of the main principles relating to the kind and quality Of training, the statements that regularly emanate from AASA, UCEA and CASA, and that recur in most university catalogues or conferences, tend to reduce the categories Of variables to a rela- tively small number. In the use of these variable categories this study has confined itself to the following: a. Recruitment and Selection-~the success of recruiting methods used by educational administration departments, to identify and attract candidates having the personal and professional potential for ef- fective leadership. b. Program Content—-the degree to which the courses Of study and re- lated activities, contribute to the prospective administrator's general and specialized knowledge and to the development of con— cepts, Judgment and skills. c. Program Structure--the ways in which the elements of the train- ing process are organized or structured: the core-sequence of required learnings, the Opportunities fOr relevant electives, the degree Of balance between generalized and specialized study, and the flexibility to meet special student needs and interests. 1&9 50 The Methodology Of Instruction--the variety and effectiveness Of instructional approaches used in the training process: seminars, audio-visual media, laboratories, case-studies, team- teaching, group processes, student—planning, independent study, lectures and in—basket techniques. Student Research-~the extent to which the skills and attitudes Of the scientific method are achieved by administration students: the kinds Of problems selected for dissertations or theses, the Opportunities for students to become aware Of maJor research findings, and the use and regard for research--however modest, as a necessary tool in educational administration. Experiences in the Field--the Opportunities provided for students during the training period to experience real-life problems en- countered by administrators: organized internship, university- sponsored surveys, associations with superintendents or princi- pals, assignments in the solution Of practical problems, attend- ance at administrative conferences or workshops and actual case studies. Graduation Standards--the demands placed on students to qualify for the Master's or Doctoral Degree, or Specialists's Certificate: the minimum period Of residence study, skill in a second language, grade-point average, study in a cognate or related field, require- ments re. dissertation and research, and permissible time for completion of graduate program. Feedback and Self-Evaluation--how the institution determines whether its procedures for preparing educational administrators are really effective: to what extent it possesses a built-in system for self-evaluation and continuous growth-change, whether it regularly seeks out successful administrators to gauge the relevance and effectiveness Of the training program, how procedures are revised on the basis Of these and other evalua- tions, and whether any attempt is made to measure the success of trainees, with a view to examining admission policy, course- structure, content and instructional methods. The Instrument The instrument used was a questionnaire designed to seek out the opinions on items related to the stated variables, from three distinct groups Of respondents: (a) Superintendents and School Principals. (b) University personnel engaged in administrator training. (c) A select "Panel Of Twelve" experienced and 51 recognized administrators outside Manitoba. This device provided responses from which to Obtain a consensus as a basis for a train- ing program consistent with the views Of at least two of the cri- teria groups. The questionnaire was comprised Of three sections designed to indicate any consensus on the items making up the stated vari- ables. (a) (b) Section I of the questionnaire consisted Of eight Open-ended questions, wherein the respondent was directed to enumerate merits or defects found in preparation procedures which he had been able to observe: "On the basis of university programs with which you are familiar please indicate strengths and weaknesses Of current practices related to each of the stated categories of admini- strator preparation." Section II Of the questionnaire included course elements most frequently listed in university catalogues and which indicate some considerable importance in administrative training. Other necessary learnings in cognate or related areas and in the sciences, liberal arts or humanities, were not included. The administration course-elements were limited to thirty- five requisites Or electives and were generally representative Of those frequently Offered in universities Of Canada and the United States. Respondents were afforded the opportunity to indicate additional course elements which they might consider significant in administrative preparation. (e) 3. 52 From the administrative course-elements in Section II Of the questionnaire, the respondent was expected to perform two Operations: first, he was to dichotomize the course-elements as "requisite" or "elective"; second, he was asked to weight the course electives as, (1) important (2) of limited importance (3) Of little or no importance. Section III listed forty-seven declarative statements related to possible university policies and practices and affecting the preparation of administrators, these relevant to university practice in the eight stated variables. The replies here were intended to produce a commitment from the respondent on policy decisions for admissions, internship, student-research, resi- dence requirements and the like. For each Of these policy statements, there was a three-category classification: (1) Strong agreement (2) Qualified agreement (3) Disagree- ment. The Criteria and Method In arriving at the criteria to be used in appraising the training requirements indicated by administrators, it was assumed that there could be established some general agreement on the learn- ings necessary for the role Of the manager-leader. Anderson and Lonsdale1 suggest that the new breed of manager must be a generalist. 1Walter A. Anderson and Richard Lonsdale, "Learning Admini- strative Behavior," Administrative Behavior in Education, eds. Roald F. Campbell and R. T. Gregg, (New York: Harper and Row, 1957). 53 They emphasize that there are concepts and techniques related to the social setting, to the Job, to research and to the whole process of learning itself. Several clear trends indicating such agreement have been frequently noted by the AASA,2 the UCEA, the National Professors Of Educational Administration,3 and various cooperative proJects in educational administration: a. Greater emphasis is being given to the importance of values and ObJectives. b. The leadership role has become a role moving toward improving instruction and facilitating change, rather than one Of direction and coercion. c. There is crucial importance attached to understanding concepts, principles and theory, and to the possession of skills for handling the results Of research. d. The schools exist as a part of the larger community, indicating a trend away from independent self-sufficiency and confining paro- chialism. 2AASA, Professional Administrators for America's School, 38th Yearbook, AASA, (1960). 3Southwestern COOperative Program in Educational Admini- stration, Fourth Annual Southwestern Conference on Improving Preparation for School Administrators,4(Austin, Texas: University of Texas, l95h), pp. l6~50. 1‘Arthur B. Moehlman, School Administration, (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin CO., 1951), p. 9. 5h e. Education appears to be less a matter Of theory and practice exclusively related to education, and has come to rely more on the contributions Of other disciplines. f. Training procedures are being directed toward greater skills in human relations and group processes.5 g. There exists a broader range Of instructional methods: field experience, pre—service, T-Group, workshops, seminars, research proJects, case-studies, and the like. h. Administrative training is conceived as an on-going unending process. 1. There is a growing awareness that continuous and systematic self-evaluation is an integral part Of the training program. Ap- parently not for much longer can it be said that "a university is an institution which applies systematic research to everything under 6 the sun except itself." The Criteria groups then, for comparison with the administra- tive training needs expressed by practicing administrators, were selected as representative of (a) typical university departments Of educational administration and (b) a select group of Canadian admini- strators residing outside Manitoba. The former appear in this study as the "Criteria Universities," the latter are identified as the "Panel of Twelve." 5Warren G. Bennis and Herbert Shepherd, "A Theory of Group DevelOpment," Human Relations, Vol. 9, No. A, (1965), pp. hlS-AST. 6 Theodore Caplow and Reece J. McGee, The Academic Market Place, (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1961). 55 As previously stated, the questionnaire was sent to professors Of educational administration in American and Canadian universities having well-established administration departments, and where the state or provincial educational system bore reasonable resemblance to that of Manitoba. The purpose in the criteria universities was to determine from Canadian and United States training centres, a body Of common knowledge, skills, or theory generally acceptable in the preparation of school administrators. The procedure was thus to de- termine the extent to which the needs and wishes of practicing Manitoba administrators were reflected in the programs and purposes Of university administration departments. The second basis Of comparison was the select group of school executives referred to as the "Panel Of Twelve." These consisted of experienced Canadian administrators, holding the equivalent of doc— toral qualifications and "who had achieved provincial or national re- cognition while actively engaged in the administration of larger 7 school systems." A. Procedures a. As noted previously the Observed strengths and weaknesses indicated in the Open-ended questions in Section I of the questionnaire were tabulated under each of the variable cate- gories. Any recurring trends were noted with reference to (l) the administrator respondents (2) the Criteria Univers- ity Group (3) the Panel Of Twelve. Similarities and dif- ferences were identified within and between the groups. 7See Appendix, Letters to Panel of Twelve. 56 b. The course-elements in Section II were analyzed on the basis of weighted responses and the mean Of each course-element was calculated as related to the entire group and sub-groups. c. The responses to the statements in Section III on policies and principles were examined under the categories of the eight variables. The means Of the individual statements were derived for each group and comparisons made for the congruency between them. d. The tabulation Of the data as revealed in Section I, II, and III Of the questionnaire and also the conclusions drawn from the data are found in subsequent chapters. 5. The Sample Three categories of respondents were used in this study: a. The Administrative Respondents (1) Superintendents (2) Principals b. Representatives of Criteria Universities c. The Panel of Twelve Because this investigation was limited to the preparation of administrators in Manitoba, and since the respondents required con- siderable experience and background for knowledgeable responses, a stratified sample was considered advisable. Thus the criteria, used to select the pOpulation-sample were: (1) the extent to which the subJects appeared competent to supply knowledgeable and representative information. (2) that a considerable range Of viewpoint should be assured and (3) that interest groups (e.g. urban vs. rural 57 superintendents) should be included in the administrator sample in a manner that would consider special needs or interests. Within these limitations the samples of the study were Obtained as follows: a. The Administrative Respondents (l) (2) Superintendents and Provincial School Inspectors-—This was a most significant group in the study because Of the subJects' complete professional involvement in ad- ministration and because the group contained those most directly affected by administrator-training. Of the forty—seven school divisions, forty were represented in the sample. The sample thus included virtually all chief-executive Officers in the province. In addition, ten provincial school inspectors were included with superintendents. Here the respondents, like the super- intendents must have had some exposure to administration and completed at least five years Of service in educa- tional supervision. Principals--A selection of twenty-five principals was made on the basis that: (a) they had at least five years of teaching and/or administrative experience; (b) each was recognized by his professional associa- tion as demonstrating interest and promise in the area Of administration; (c) the sample reflected a fair geographic representation from the whole province. Serious consideration was given to the advisability of including school-board chairmen with the sample Of responding administrators. However, because of their 58 varied backgrounds and the difficulty of Obtaining school trustees knowledgeable in the recent trends of administrator training, this possibility was discarded. The Criteria Universities As explained previously, the sample of those reflecting the expertise of the university consisted of twenty respond- ents from departments Of educational administration repre- senting the following universities outside Manitoba: University of British Columbia, University of Alberta (Edmonton), University of Calgary, University of Saskatchewan (Saskatoon), University Of Saskatchewan (Regina), University Of Toronto, University of Montreal, McGill University, Dalhousie University (Halifax), Memorial University (Newfound- land), Ohio State University, University Of Iowa and Uni— versity Of Wisconsin. The United States' universities were randomly selected to represent institutions comparable in size, geography and function to long-established Canadian universities. The Panel of Twelve The Panel of Twelve served as a Jury for ruling on those items in the program that revealed a lack of university- administrator congruency. The panel consisted of twelve of the more prominent practicing educational administrators in Canada. In consultation with a former president of the Canadian Association of School Superintendents and Inspectors, the Jury composition was selected according to the following criteria: (l) (2) (3) 59 Each member Of the Panel must have had at least five years' experience in a maJor educational administra- tive post. Each must have achieved doctoral status or some com- parable recognition in educational studies. Each must have gained some prominence and recognition as an educational leader in his own province or in the national field. CHAPTER IV DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRAINING PROGRAM Briefly stated, one Of the maJor problems of this study was the discrepancy existing between the training Opportunities needed by prospective educational leaders and the opportunities presently avail- able. Culbertson et al. state that this discrepancy is due to educa- tional and social changes of the past decade and the consequent demand for talented school leadership. Like many other leaders in society, those responsible for preparing educational administrators, anticipated fully neither the character Of societal changes Of the last decade nor the forces which propelled these changes. . . . There now exists a perceived discrepancy of substantial proportions between the training needs of practicing and prospective educational ad- ministrators and the training Opportunities available to them. For this study eight different training foci were considered: recruitment and selection, program content, program structure, methodology of instruction, student research, field experience, graduation standards and feedback or evaluation. The three categories of respondents, Manitoba Administrators, University Personnel and the Panel of Twelve Canadian urban educators were asked to respond first to open-ended questions; next on a class- ification of subJect content for administrator training and finally on questions related to policies and practices of preparation. lJack Culbertson, Robin H. Farquhar, Alan K. Gaynor and Mark R. Shibles, Preparing Educational Leaders for the Seventies, UCEA, (Columbus: 1969), p. l. 60 61 TO the Open-ended questions in the instrument as described on pages A9 and 50, they were asked to reply: On the basis of university programs with which you are most familiar, please indicate briefly the strengths and weaknesses of current practices related to each Of the stated categories Of administrator preparation. 1. Recruitment and Selection. 2. Program Content. 3. Program Structure. A. The Methodology Of Instruction. 5. Student Research. 6. Experiences in the Field. 7. Graduation Standards. 8. Feedback and Self-Evaluation. Thus the replies to these Open-ended questions were designed to identify some of the maJor changes needed in the training program to prepare individuals for the principalship or superintendency during the next five to ten years. This chapter deals with two phases of the problem: recruit- ment and selection as well as program content considered useful for such training. A. Recruitment and Selection The responses to the questionnaire, while differing in em- phasis, tended to reflect the following attitudes relative to recruitment and selection of candidates for administrator prepa- ration: l. The task is so large and complex that only a systematic and continuous program is likely to succeed. 62 2. Some organized system Of recruiting is urgently needed. It must not be left to chance. 3. The emphasis in recruiting must be with the quality Of candidates rather than quantity. A. The necessity for communication with potential candidates and the availability Of adequate student financial support cannot be separated. A number of obstacles to an effective recruitment-selection program became evident in the study. The first, and perhaps the most serious, is the general level of ignorance and lack of information about school administration as a career and field of study for pro- fessional preparation. Baughman suggests that "a dearth of informa- tion about school administration exists in secondary schools."2 A second impediment to recruitment and selection must be the rather haphazard way in which much recruitment is carried on. One writer describes this "as a process of osmosis for attracting candi- dates"; others deplore the common lack of structure in identifying early those prospects of high potential. These queries appear fre- quently in the comments: What recruiting program? What selection process? Candidates are not selected. They Just happen. 2M. Dale Baughman, Sharpening the Image Of School Administra- tors, Illinois School Research, (May, 1966), p. hl. 63 Nor is this problem confined to Manitoba. A study of the Cooperative Program in Educational Administration3 in 1953 stated that (1) No planned or organized program Of recruitment of able talent to prepare for school administration is being conducted by member institutions of the Middle Atlantic Region. (2) Institutions depend to a great extent upon incidental and casual contacts made through catalogues, extension work, conferences, study councils, institutes and semi- nars. Griffiths confirms this appraisal in observing that, "the recruitment Of students to enter graduate schools of education in order to prepare themselves to be superintendents of schools, is practically non-existent. Practically all the universities choose from those who 'knock on the door.‘ Almost all superintendents are self recruited."" Another Obstacle that must be bridged is the limited pool Of talent available for administrative recruitment. This limitation is inevitable in view Of the competition from other professions; but a number Of respondents suggest that the shortage is aggravated by the 3Ross L. Neagley, Recruitment and Selection of School Admini- strators, (New York: Teachers' College, Columbia University, CPEA, March, 1953), p. 32. 1‘Daniel E. Griffiths, The School Superintendent, (New York: The Center for Applied Research in Education, Inc., 1966), p. 53. 6h traditional belief that teaching experience is a necessity for administration and also by the impression that school admini— strators must be males. Increasingly, the insistence on prior teaching as a condition of training must be brought under ques- tion and the traditionalism of most respondents suggests that this is so. As Talbot states, such a belief may be partly a myth. "Training in teachers' colleges and experience as a tea— cher, principal or suburban school superintendent are largely irrelevant preparation for the staggering problems of running an 5 urban school system." The same case is made by Goldhammer6 who calls for a fresh look at the view that teaching experience is necessary for the rigors of administration. One further Obstacle to the recruiting process is the ap- parent perception Of educational administration as less attrac- tive than other administrative fields. Uzmark's study with high school students revealed that the image of the superintendent held by students was one Of considerably lower status than that Of other professionals in the community and that the student saw little appeal or promise in such a career. A final difficulty related to selection and recruitment, is the personal sacrifice that candidates frequently face in SAllan R. Talbot, Needed: A New Breed of School Superin- tendent, Harpers Magazine, (February, 1966), p. 81. 6Keith Goldhammer et al., Issues and Problems in Contemporary Educational Administration, (Eugene: Center for Advanced Studies in Educational Administration, University Of Oregon, 1967). p. 182. 65 undergoing preparation for school administration. Most of the respondents like others in Canada and United States are over thirty years of age; they are established in a career and in the community, with homes, families and personal commitments. To forfeit security or to ignore these personal responsibilities requires a sacrifice that few are able or willing to make. As a consequence, without scholarships or fellowship support, there is a delayed entry into the field of educational administration which makes the recruitment Of promising candidates, a precarious business at best. A significant impression conveyed by those replying to the questionnaire was that universities generally must take the matter of recruiting much more seriously if they expect to com- pete with other professions for a fair share of the limited pool of prospects for administration. Hall and McIntyre suggest that materials placed in elementary and secondary schools as well as in undergraduate university programs should include "guidance leaflets, resource units, colored slides, motion-pictures and other similar devices for portraying school administration as a 7 career." Other agencies seek for talent in high schools and uni- versities on such a basis but those involved in educational administration too Often regard such measures as uncalled for. 7Roy M. Hall and Kenneth E. McIntyre, "The Student Personnel Program," Administrative Behavior in Education, (New York: Harper and Row, 1957), p. 1421. 66 Then too, if the usual rather late age Of recruits militates against securing them in sufficient numbers, it seems logical and necessary to focus the recruiting efforts on a prOportionately higher number of younger students before their personal commit- ments make this impractical. This view is supported by Goldhammer and others who seek to identify administrators quite early in their college careers so that programs of instruction can be geared to their acquiring that knowledge which will form the bases upon which their skills as diagnosticians and applicators will be develOped. Un- questionably the fields Of the social sciences and the humane arts must become the recruiting ground from which will come the individuals who wgll be participants in the administrators' preparatory programs. Finally it seems logical to expand the pool Of talent by in— cluding at least some persons outside the public school system whose competencies are related to education. To extend the re- cruiting procedures and also to attract competent women into the field are legitimate means for adding to the candidates eligible for administrator training. Selection is Obviously inseparable from the initial task Of recruitment, for if the stock Of available candidates is qualita- tively unsatisfactory to begin with, the selection process can- not be completely effective. McIntyre states that the obstacle is not so much that strong candidates for training are unavail- able as much as that weak candidates are admitted into the pro- gram. 8Keith Goldhammer, The Social Sciences and the Preparation Of Educational Administrators, (Columbus: UCEA, 1963). 67 Although we are fortunate in attracting into our field a few people who would undoubtedly compare favorably with the best in any other field, the average student in educa- tional administration is so far below the average student in most other fields, in mental ability and in general academic performance that the situation is little short of being a national scandal. Responses to the questionnaire seem tO suggest grave doubts about the energy shown in recruitment as well as some misgivings about the selection process awaiting those who do present them- selves. While these reactions are far from unanimous, they occur with sufficient frequency to lend some credence to the charge: -- The weakest students tend to present themselves. -- Administration faculties equate teaching experience with the potential for management. -- Grade—point average is surely not the only criterion for selection. ' -- To be charitable, the screening process leaves room for doubt. -- Personality and character appear unnecessary for admini- stration. -- To be a woman eliminates you as a suitable applicant. -- There is no attempt to identify the promising candidate early. -- Practicing administrators could help a great deal in recruiting. -- Candidates with unsuitable temperament should be weeded out at the start. -— Early specialization discourages a broad general educa- tion necessary for a good administrator. 9Kenneth E. McIntyre, Selection of Administrators, (Columbus: UCEA, 1966), p. 17. 68 These and other Observations in a similar vein give support for McIntyre's view that there is little evidence of a really concerted effort "to admit to preparation only those persons who rank in the upper quartile in learning ability." 10 A number Of statements specifically related to recruiting and selection were put to respondents in Section III of the ques- tionnaire dealing with policies and practices. The results of these replies as shown in Table X are examined here. 1. Successful previous experience in Education should generally be required for admission into Educational Administration. Strong support from Administrators, Universities and Panel of Twelve. Verdict: Strong agreement. The admission regulations for Educational Administration should provide special appeal procedures for students who lack some formal requirements, but who appear to possess other com- pensating abilities. Strong support from Universities and Panel of Twelve. Qualified support from Administrators. Verdict: Strong agreement. An adequate rating in the Miller's Analogy, Graduate Record Examination, or some other reputable scholastic aptitude prediction is a necessity for admission to the program. Only qualified support from Administrators, Universities and Panel Of Twelve. Verdict: Only qualified agreement. It is necessary to expand the pool of suitable candidates for Educational Administration by seeking them out and also by re- evaluating the effectiveness Of present admission requirements. Strong support from Administrators. Only qualified support from Universities and Panel Of Twelve. Verdict: Only qualified support, but noteworthy that admini- strators feel need for more active recruitment. 1oibid. 69 5. A program's recruiting and screening procedures largely deter- mine the degree Of freedom and flexibility that can be prO- vided in planning each student's activities. Qualified support from Administrators and Universities. Dis- agreement from Panel Of Twelve. Verdict: Qualified support; indicating that only limited con- nection is seen between the degree Of possible flexibility and the calibre Of student recruited. 6. A minimum grade-point average at the undergraduate level (except in unusual cases) must continue to be one important criterion for admission into Administration. Only qualified support from Administrators and Panel of Twelve. Strong support from Universities. Verdict: Qualified support, raising a question Of dissonance between university's admissions and views Of candidates. 7. There is a negative influence on the quality and quantity of recruits for administrative training because the great maJor- ity of those recruited are not identified until after they have had experience in teaching or administration. Only qualified support from Administrators and Panel Of Twelve. Strong disagreement from Universities. Verdict: Qualified approval, indicating only mild concern for refusing non-education candidates; this tends to confirm the Judgment indicated in Statement 5. It thus appears that beyond the grade—point average and a period of employment experience in education three common selection procedures apply, and they possibly Of questionable value: the personal interview, letters of recommendation and rating scales. Perhaps tOO harshly McIntyre Observes; "Self-selection is still the only selection that is to be found in many of our institu- tions. Taking all our programs over the nation as a whole, the main admission requirement is that the person be present. On second thought, he doesn't even have to be present-~we'll take him sight unseen."ll The fact that this condemnation of the llIbid. 7O selection process is unJustified in many institutions is perhaps not important. That it is generally believed to be true, is the main cause for concern. To paraphrase Lord Acton's commentary on law and Justice, "not only must selection be valid it must be seen to be valid." In summary then it seems that the existing procedures Of re- cruiting and selecting are accepted by the respondents, but with little enthusiasm. To the present time, administrators, univers- ity personnel and the Panel Of Twelve are reluctant to search far afield from the school system to find administrator-trainees. They are prepared to tolerate the Miller's Analogy or some other predictor such as the undergraduate grade-point average as a criterion, but only with some reservation. The necessity for expanding the pool Of candidates does not seem too important to them and the possibility Of achieving more flexibility in the training program by improving the input does not suggest any direct connection. In short the respondents perceive some inadequacies in recruiting and selection but they regard better selection tech- niques as only of limited importance in the over-all business of administrator preparation. Program Content The content of the program for preparing administrators was probably the subJect most discussed by those replying to the ques- tionnaire. Yet as Gregg has Observed, "there is no general agree- ment among institutions on a specific set of courses which could 71 comprise a particular type of program."12 Nonetheless it is possible to generalize about apparent trends and needs in the content of principal and superintendent preparation, and the re- spondents did produce some general agreement on sets of courses that might constitute this program for Manitoba. Griffiths has Observed that "the typical program consists of course work in the organization and administration Of education, the curriculum, supervision, finance, history and philosophy of education, school law, research, educational psychology, human growth and development, school plant and personnel."13 The respondents to the questionnaire recognize two aspects to content: that involving the skills required to face problems of principals and superintendents and also the acceptance Of the disciplinary basis of a defined curriculum. Among the strengths of traditional programs the following were noted in the replies to the Open-ended questions: 8 l. The importance of theory when balanced with practical con- ceptualization was in large measure approved. 2. A high value was placed on courses dealing with human re- lations. 3. The content Of courses should be under constant revision. l2Russell T. Gregg, "Preparation of Administrators," The Encyclopaedia Of Educational Research, (Fourth Edition, 1969). 13Daniel E. Griffiths, The School Superintendent, (New York: The Center for Applied Research in Education, Inc., 1966), p. 53. 72 The tendency toward increased interdisciplinary study was approved. The apparent trend toward the reduction in the number of required or compulsory courses was commended. Some weaknesses were also noted in the general commentary: Many Of the courses offered to administrators need more practicality. There is too much stress on compulsory courses and these 'requisites' themselves often lack intellectual rigor. There is too little use made of simulated materials, realistic work experience and internship; this tends to make the learning process Often artificial. Courses in administration sometimes reflect a kind of "intel- lectual in-breeding." An extension of interdisciplinary activities would lessen this. There is need for a more clinical approach through problem- oriented courses and possibly activities implementing games theory. A number of respondents demanded increased recognition of personnel problems and more consideration Of organization skills to handle situations involving human relations with staff and students. Surprisingly, none Of the Open-ended responses called for course-content to deal with "conflict as a normal routine and 73 normal occurrence within the administrative process."lh Possibly however, this was implied in the frequent suggestion for "clearer recognition of the politics of education." In Section II of the survey, an attempt was made to establish content priorities for the thirty-five areas Of study most com- monly Offered in Canadian and United States universities. During the study only the Politics Of Education appeared sufficiently Often to warrant addition to the inventory. Respondents, in other words, regarded the catalogue listed as adequate for the task. The following represents in summary form the degree of importance attached to the various courses by the three criteria groups: practicing Manitoba Administrators, twenty-two representatives of University Departments of Educational Administration and the Panel Of Twelve comprised Of prominent administrators across Canada. 1"Ronald G. Corwin, "Professional Persons in Public Organi- zations," Educational Administration Quarterly, Vol. 1, No. 3, (Autumn, 1965), p. 18. 71 TABLE I RANK ORDER OF COURSE ELEMENTS INDICATED BY MANITOBA ADMINISTRATORS Rank Course Element Mean 1 Group Processes 2.89 1 Educational Psychology 2.89 3 Principles and Practices Of Administration 2.71 A Theory Of Administration 2.59 5 Evaluation of Educational Programs 2.56 6 Internship and Field Experience 2.h7 7 Principles and Practices of Curriculum 2.h3 8 Introduction to Research Methods 2.37 9 Public Relations 2.29 10 Personnel (Staff and Students) 2.2h 11 Elementary Statistics 2.19 12 Theories of Learning 2.10 13 Organizational Behavior 2.06 1h Administration of Institutions 2.01 15 Educational Law 2.00 16 Theory and Practice Of Communications 1.97 17 Community Problems 1.9h l8 Dynamics of Change 1.90 19 Finance and Economics of Education 1.89 20 Crucial Issues in Education 1.73 21 Business Administration Of Schools 1.68 22 Social Psychology 1.65 23 Independent Study 1.53 23 Sociology Of Education 1.53 25 Foundations of Education (History and Philosophy) 1.52 26 Computers, Systems, Operational Research l.h9 27 Relations with Local, Provincial and Federal Govts. l.h7 28 Administration Of Educational Media 1.33 29 School Plant 1.30 30 Special Programs (Art, Music, Vocational, etc.) 1.27 31 Comparative Education 1.2h 32 Administration Of Education in Canada and U.S.A. 1.23 33 Advanced Statistics 1.03 3h Educational Administration in other countries .76 35 Administration of Higher Education .75 Legend Requisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.50 to 3.00 Important electives . . . . . . . . 1.50 to 2.h9 Electives Of limited importance . . .00 to l.h9 75 TABLE II RANK ORDER OF COURSE ELEMENTS INDICATED BY UNIVERSITIES Rank Course Element Mean 1 Theory of Administration 2.89 2 Organizational Behavior 2.78 3 Introductory Research Methods 2.7h h Elementary Statistics and Research 2.58 5 Principles and Practices Of Administration 2.50 6 Internship and Field Experience 2.05 7 Finance and Economics of Education 2.00 7 Principles and Practices of Curriculum 2.00 7 Personnel (Staff and Students) 2.00 10 Dynamics of Change 1.8h 11 Social Psychology 1.83 12 Evaluation Of Educational Programs 1.78 13 Relations with Local, Provincial and Federal Govts. 1.68 1h Independent Study 1.61 15 Administration Of Education in Canada and U.S.A. 1.53 16 Sociology of Education 1.50 17 Educational Law l.h7 18 Theory and Practice Of Communications l.h2 18 Advanced Statistics l.h2 20 Computer, Systems, Operational Research 1.39 20 Community Problems 1.39 20 Group Processes 1.39 23 Crucial Issues in Education 1.28 2h Business Administration of Schools 1.21 25 Administration of Institutions 1.11 25 Theories Of Learning 1.11 25 Educational Psychology 1.11 28 Foundations of Education (History and PhilOSOphy) 1.06 29 Public Relations 1.05 30 School Plant .95 31 Administration Of Educational Media .89 32 Comparative Education .79 33 Administration of Higher Education .67 3% Special Programs (Art, Music, Vocational, etc.) .50 35 Educational Administration in other countries .39 Legend Requisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.50 to 3.00 Important electives . . . . . . . . 1.50 to 2.h9 Electives of limited importance . . .00 to 1.h9 76 TABLE III RANK ORDER OF COURSE ELEMENTS INDICATED BY PANEL OF TWELVE Rank Course Element Mean 1 Theory Of Administration 2.92 2 Principles and Practices of Administration 2.83 3 Organizational Behavior 2.75 h Finance and Economics Of Education 2.58 5 Introduction to Research Methods 2.50 5 Internship and Field Experience 2.50 7 Principles and Practices of Curriculum 2.33 7 Elementary Statistics 2.33 7 Group Processes 2.33 7 Dynamics of Change 2.33 7 Foundations Of Education (History and Philosophy) 2.33 12 Independent Study 2.25 13 Relations with Local, Provincial and Federal Govts. 2.15 13 Evaluation Of Educational Programs 2.15 15 Educational Psychology 2.08 16 Theory and Practice of Communications 2.00 16 Theories Of Learning 2.00 16 Public Relations 2.00 16 Personnel (Staff and Students) 2.00 16 Crucial Issues in Education 2.00 21 Community Problems 1.92 21 Sociology of Education 1.92 21 Social Psychology 1.92 2h Computers, Systems, Operational Research 1.75 2h Comparative Education 1.75 26 Business Administration of Schools 1.67 27 Administration of Education in Canada and U.S.A. 1.58 27 Advanced Statistics 1.58 29 Educational Law l.h7 30 Administration Of Institutions l.h2 31 Administration of Educational Media 1.33 32 School Plant 1.25 33 Special Programs (Art, Music Vocational, etc.) .75 33 Administration of Higher Education .75 35 Educational Administration in other countries .66 Legend Requisites . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.50 to 3.00 Important electives . . . . . . . . 1.50 to 2.h9 Electives of limited importance . . .00 to 1.h9 77 Next it was necessary to obtain a dichotomized classifi- cation of the Course Elements. It was assumed that a small core of elements provided a necessary basis for all trainees prepar- ing for the role of principal or superintendent. Thus there should be a limited number of Requisite Courses and a rela- tively broad classification of Elective Courses. Those ele- ments in which the mean response was at least 2.50 ($.05) were established as 'Requisites'; those with means from 1.50 - 2.h9 as 'Electives' and those below 1.50 were deemed of only minimal importance. 1. On this basis the elements described as 'Requisites' by the three criteria groups and as indicated in Tables I, II and III, were as follows: a. Requisite Course Elements as determined by Administra- tors: (1) Group Processes (2) Educational Psychology (3) Principles and Practices of Administration (A) Theory of Administration (5) Evaluation of Educational Programs (6) Internship and Field Experience b. Requisite Course Elements as determined by University Personnel: Theory of Administration Organizational Behavior Introduction to Research Methods Elementary Statistics Principles and Practices of Administration AAAAA \n :w m H vvvvv c. Requisite Course Elements as determined by the Panel of Twelve: 78 Theory of Administration Principles and Practices of Administration Organizational Behavior Finance and Economics of Education Introduction to Research Methods Internship and Field Experience AAAAAA O\U‘l :00 M H VVUVVV It was significant that Elementary Statistics was rated as 'Requisite' by Universities, as 'virtually Requisite' by the Panel of Twelve but seventh in importance by Administrators. This would suggest Elementary Statistics as a justifiable re- quirement for all trainees even though Administrators were some- what borderline in this decision. The summary of Requisite classification would thus be: TABLE IV CLASSIFICATION OF REQUISITE ELEMENTS BASED ON ALL CRITERIA Course Element Admin. Univ. Panel Verdict Group Processes Yes Yes —-- Yes Theory of Administration Yes Yes --- Yes Prin.-Prac. of Administration Yes Yes --- Yes Internship and Field Experience Yes No Yes Yes Introduction to Research Mehods No Yes Yes Yes Elem. Statistics No Yes Yes Yes Organizational Behavior No Yes Yes Yes Educ. Psychology Yes No No No Evaluation of Ed. Programs Yes No No No Note: A Jury verdict was resorted to only where two criteria were not in agreement. 79 2. Electives As mentioned previously, the Elective course offerings to meet the various needs and abilities of administrators in training were determined by a rank order of the means from 1.50 to 2.h9. The three groups of respondents were found to have established the following priorities: TABLE V RANK ORDER OF ELECTIVES INDICATED BY MANITOBA ADMINISTRATORS Rank Course Element Mean 1 Principles and Practices of Curriculum 2.h3 2 Introduction to Research Methods 2.37 3 Public Relations 2.29 h Personnel (Staff and Students) 2.2h 5 Elementary Statistics 2.19 6 Theories of Learning 2.10 7 Organizational Behavior 2.06 8 Administration of Institutions 2.01 9 Educational Law 2.00 10 Theory and Practice of Communications 1.97 11 Community Problems , 1.9h l2 Dynamics of Change 1.90 13 Finance and Economics of Education 1.89 1h Crucial Issues in Education 1.73 15 Business Administration of Schools 1.68 16 Social Psychology 1.65 17 Independent Study 1.53 17 Sociology of Education 1.53 19 Foundations of Education (History and Philosophy) 1.52 20 Computers, Systems, Operational Research 1.h9 21 Relations with Local, Provincial and Federal Govts. 1.h7 22 Administration of Educational Media 1.33 23 School Plant 1.30 2h Special Programs (Art, Music, Vocational, etc.) 1.27 25 Comparative Education 1.2h 26 Administration of Education in Canada and U.S.A. 1.23 27 Advanced Statistics 1.03 Legend Important electives . . . . . . . . 1.50 to 2.h9 Electives of limited importance . . .00 to 1.h9 80 TABLE VI RANK ORDER OF ELECTIVES INDICATED BY UNIVERSITY PERSONNEL Rank Course Element Mean 1 Internship and Field Experience 2.05 2 Finance and Economics of Education 2.00 2 Principles and Practices of Curriculum 2.00 2 Personnel (Staff and Students) 2.00 5 Dynamics of Change 1.8h 6 Social Psychology 1.83 7 Evaluation of Educational Programs 1.78 8 Relations with Local, Provincial and Federal Govts. 1.68 9 Independent Study 1.61 10 Administration of Education in Canada and U.S.A. 1.53 11 Sociology of Education 1.50 12 Educational Law l.h7 13 Theory and Practice of Communications 1.h2 13 Advanced Statistics l.h2 15 Computers, Systems, Operational Research 1.39 15 Group Processes 1.39 15 Community Problems 1.39 18 Crucial Issues in Education 1.28 19 Business Administration of Schools 1.21 20 Administration of Institutions 1.11 20 Theories of Learning 1.11 20 Educational Psychology 1.11 23 Foundations of Education (History and PhilosoPhy) 1.06 2h Public Relations 1.05 Legend Important electives . . . . . . . . 1.50 to 2.h9 Electives of limited importance . . .00 to l.h9 81 TABLE VII RANK ORDER OF ELECTIVES INDICATED BY PANEL OF TWELVE Rank Course Element Mean 1 Principles and Practices of Curriculum 2.33 1 Elementary Statistics 2.33 1 Group Processes 2.33 1 Dynamics of Change 2.33 1 Foundations of Education (History and Philosophy) 2.33 6 Independent Study 2.25 7 Relations with Local, Provincial and Federal Govts. 2.15 7 Evaluation of Educational Programs 2.15 9 Educational Psychology 2.08 10 Theory and Practice of Communications 2.00 10 Theories of Learning 2.00 10 Public Relations 2.00 10 Personnel (Staff and Students) 2.00 10 Crucial Issues in Education 2.00 15 Community Problems 1.92 15 Sociology of Education 1.92 15 Social Psychology 1.92 18 Computers, Systems, Operational Research 1.75 18 Comparative Education 1.75 20 Business Administration of Schools 1.67 21 Administration of Education in Canada and U.S.A. 1.58 21 Advanced Statistics 1.58 23 Educational Law 1.h7 2h Administration of Institutions 1.h2 25 Administration of Educational Media 1.33 26 School Plant 1.25 Legend Important electives . . . . . . . . 1.50 to 2.h9 Electives of limited importance . . .00 to 1.h9 82 It was assumed that mean scores lower than l.h9 (with a possible maximum of 3.00) indicated course elements of lesser importance for administrator training. As a result the follow- ing elements were judged by all three criteria groups as of limited use for the training of principals and superintendents: TABLE VIII ELEMENTS RATED AS OF LIMITED IMPORTANCE BY ALL CRITERIA GROUPS Mean Rating Course Element Admin. Univ. Panel Administration of Educational Media 1.33 .89 1.33 Special Programs (Art, Music, Vocational, etc.) 1.27 .50 .75 School Plant 1.30 .95 1.25 Administration of Higher Education .75 .67 .75 Educational Admin. in other countries .76 .39 .66 Almost within this non-applicable category were: Advanced Statistics 1.03 l.h2 1.58 Comparative Education 1.2h .79 1.75 The decision to include or reJect a course element was made on the basis of agreement between practicing administrators and university personnel engaged in training administrators. Where consensus was lacking between these two, the Jury verdict from the Panel of Twelve was the determining factor. The decisions therefore on this basis, as to whether or not a course should be included in the training program are summarized in Table IX. 83 TABLE IX SUMMARY OF COURSE ELECTIVES FOR INCLUSION IN THE PROGRAM Course Element Admin. Univ. Panel Verdict Admin. of Institutions Yes Yes —-- Yes Business Admin. of Schools Yes No Yes Yes Admin. of Education in Canada and U.S.A. Yes Yes --- Yes Educational Law Yes Yes --- Yes Finance and Economics of Ed. Yes Yes --- Yes Foundations of Education Yes No Yes Yes Sociology of Education Yes Yes —-- Yes Relations with Local, Prov. and Federal Govts. Yes Yes --- Yes Community Problems Yes No Yes Yes Theories of Learning ‘ Yes No Yes Yes Educational Psychology Yes No Yes Yes Social Psychology Yes Yes --— Yes Prin. and Prac. of Curriculum Yes Yes -—- Yes Public Relations Yes No Yes Yes Personne1(Staff and Students) Yes Yes -—- Yes Evaluation of Ed. Program Yes Yes --- Yes Independent Study Yes Yes --- Yes Crucial Issues in Education Yes No Yes Yes Computers, Systems, Op. Res. Yes No Yes Yes Theory and Prac. of Communic. Yes No Yes Yes Dynamics of Change Yes Yes --- Yes Admin. of Special Programs No No --— No Admin. of Higher Education No No --- No School Plant No No —-- No Advanced Statistics No No ~-- No Comparative Education No No —-— No Ed. Admin. in other countries No No --- No Admin. of Educational Media No No --- No 8h It is of interest and perhaps raises some questions for universities, that the Panel of prominent practicing administra- tors supported the 'Elective' choices of Manitoba Administrators over those of Universities, in all nine cases in which a jury verdict was necessary. The question of program content was examined still further in Section III of the questionnaire wherein respondents were re- quired to deal with policies and practices relating to the sub- Ject matter contemplated in the preparation program. These are summarized in Table X. The following is an analysis of the con- sensus of these items based on the mean scores for the criteria groups as shown: 10. Strong Agreement-——-- Mean Score of 1.50 to 2.00 Qualified Agreement—- Mean Score of .75 to l.h9 Disagreement --------- Mean Score of .00 to .7A The socio—psychological elements of group processes, and the develOpment of skills in group situations, deserve high priority in the preparation of school administrators. Strong agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Strong agreement. Some part of the preparation of every educational administra- tor should be in studies clearly directed toward a more liberal education: literature, art, history, philosophy, etc. Qualified agreement from Administrators and Universities; agreement from Panel of Twelve. Verdict: Qualified agreement. The content of programs in educational administration should shift from the traditional description of administrative traits and practices, and move toward a theoretical and conceptual framework based on the application of the social and behavioral sciences. ll. l2. 13. 1h. 15. 16. 17. 85 Qualified agreement from Administrators. Strong agreement from Universities and Panel of Twelve. Verdict: Strong agreement. A year-long seminar in the Literature of Education might partly meet the need for developing "specialized-general- ists" in Educational Administration. Qualified agreement from Administrators and Panel. Disagreement from Universities. Verdict: Qualified agreement. A background in social psychology is indispensable for educational administrators in the 70's. Qualified agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Qualified agreement. A sound background in the Foundation of Education (Philos— Ophy, History of Education, Comparative Education) is essential for developing a broad perspective of present educational issues. Qualified agreement from Administrators and Universities. Strong agreement from Panel of Twelve. Verdict: Qualified agreement. The field of Community Relations and Community Problems (quite apart from public relations or Educational Sociology) today suggests a separate study, by all who will administer educational organizations. Qualified agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Qualified agreement. Considerably more importance should be attached to develop- ing skills in planning, decision-making and communications. Strong agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Strong agreement. The increasing role played by local, provincial or state, and federal governments suggests the Politics of Education as a necessary study in educational administration. Qualified agreement from Administrators. Strong agreement from Universities and Panel. Verdict: Strong agreement. Certain specialized but related areas cannot be conveniently handled by the department of educational administration. 86 For this reason more encouragement must be given to inter- disciplinary studies by means of visiting professors or by students' registering in departments other than Education. Qualified agreement from Administrators. Strong agreement from Universities and Panel. Verdict: Strong agreement. 18. More prominence should be given in educational administra- tion (apart from the uses in research) to the development of skills for the practical application of systems-analysis, computers, data processing, etc. in school systems. Qualified agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Qualified agreement. 19. The theoretical bases and practical techniques of modern management studies, used successfully in business and industry and often directly applicable to school admini- stration, should become subjects of study. Qualified agreement from Administrators and Universities. Strong agreement from Panel of Twelve. Verdict: Qualified agreement. 20. Administrators will be less able to c0pe adequately with the growing incidence of student unrest and teacher- militancy, unless understandings of the problems and counter strategies are developed during their training period. Qualified agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Qualified agreement. A number of general trends thus appear from these data, that bear directly on any program for the preparation of admini- strators who must assume increasing challenges and responsibil- ities: 1. The evaluation of individual courses consistently reveals that importance is being attached to human relations and group processes 87 Certain technical skills directly and regularly connected with the administrative process rate fairly high in im- portance, whereas others less frequently used such as School Plant, Computer Science, etc. do not. The more specific the element, the less general was its appeal. Thus Educational Media, Administration of Higher Education and Administration in other Countries appeared to have only limited demand. There is a recurring need expressed for some form of in- ternship and real-life experience prior to or during training. There is almost a general acceptance of the necessity to achieve skill in Elementary Statistics and Research. There is however virtually no support among superintendents and principals for the inclusion of Advanced Statistics. The apparent support of the expert administrator in large school systems for the views of the less sophisticated Manitoba administrators, suggests perhaps a natural dis- tinction between the pragmatic approach of the Operative in the field and the more theoretical context of the univers- ity. The recruitment and selection of candidates is likely to be influenced by the further differentiation of researchers, developers and administrators.15 tional lsRobin H. Farquhar and Jack Culbertson, "Preparing Educa- Leaders," UCEA Newsletter, (October, 1970). 88 8. There will probably be a reduction in the number of 'Requisite' courses demanded of trainees and an expan- sion in the variety of ‘Elective' courses, including new and different ways of conceptual learning. 9. With a probable deceleration in the number of new ad— ministrative posts available in the future, univers- ities will probably broaden the pool of candidates and greatly refine their selection procedures. 10. The many complex social forces closing in on administra- tors, and the increasing demand on them to provide skills and insights will likely necessitate—~at this crucial time in history--added emphasis being paid to non-cognitive qualities. Such may well suggest a re-activated emphasis on the humanities in the preparation of educational lead- ers for the seventies. One of the reasons why most mature peOple are apt to learn less than young people is that they are will- ing to risk less. . . . By middle age most of us carry in our heads a tremendous catalogue of things we have no intention of trying because we tried them once and they failed--or tried them once and did them less well than our self-esteem demanded.16 Perhaps it is thus with the humanities and educational administration—-"Plus 9a change. Plus c'est la méme chose." 16John W. Gardner, Self Renewal, (New York: Harper Colophon Books, 1965). CHAPTER V DEVELOPMENT OF THE TRAINING PROGRAM In addition to the selection of students and course elements discussed in the preceding chapter, six other training factors re- main to be examined regarding the questionnaire and the nature of administrator preparation. These are: A. Program Structure B. Methodology of Instruction C. Student Research D. Experiences in the Field E. Standards and Requirements for Graduation F. Feedback and Self—Evaluation Statements pertaining to each of these categories were in- cluded in Section III of the questionnaire which dealt with the policies and practices in operating a training program. Respond- ents described their reaction to each statement in the six cate- gories: 1. "Yes, I definitely agree." 2. "I agree with certain qualification." 3. "No, I do not agree." The Arithmetic Mean for each statement was then calculated for the three criteria groups: Practicing Manitoba School 89 90 Administrators, Representatives from Departments of Educational Ad- ministration from the selected Universities and the Panel of Twelve prominent Canadian Administrators. The degree of congruency within the groups was established between the stated criteria on the basis of: Strong Agreement ----- Mean Score of 1.50 to 2.00. Qualified Agreement-- Mean Score of .75 to l.A9. Disagreement --------- Mean Score of .00 to .7A. Once again the Jury (Panel of Twelve) was used for verdicts only when the Administrators and Universities were at variance. On this basis complete agreement resulted in twenty-two of the forty— seven items, including those related to Selection and Program Ele- ments described in the previous chapter. These included statements 1, 3, 8, 12, 1A, 15, 18, 20, 23, 2A, 25, 27, 28, 31, 35, 37, 39, A0, A1, A3, A6 and A7. Agreement between only Administrators and Universities ap- peared in seven other statements 5, 9, l3, 19, 29, 38 and A2. Split decisions between these two groups required a Panel verdict on eighteen statements 2, A, 6, 7, 10, 11, l6, 17, 21, 22, 26, 30, 32, 33, 3A, 36, AA and A5. A "strong" positive and unanimous agreement was observed with all criteria groups in statements 1, 8, 15, 25, 27, Al and A6. "Strong" positive agreement was noted between two of the three groups in statements 2, 10, l6, 17, 21, 26, 33, 36 and AA. 91 The six training factors are now considered in additional detail along with the summary of items in Table X. A. Program Structure Beyond the components of subJect Content and Student Selec- tion already discussed in an earlier chapter, the first factor for consideration is that of Program Structure, and here it should be noted that the develOpment of the operational framework of typical training programs has tended to grow by installments rather than by any pre-arranged plan. As a result the program process often seems to have lacked a unity and has missed what Culbertson calls the "need for scientific value and content to compliment each other in preparation,"1 One of the maJor obstacles in trying to evolve a more sy- stematic organization of the structure has of course been the persistent issue over flexibility vs. rigidity. Conant urges an extremely loose unstructured kind of arrangement: ". . . for the teacher who aspires to be a superintendent . . . I would recommend a totally different approach for some than for others. It would depend on their total educational experience . . . and I should be doubtful about their taking many courses in administration."2 0n 1Jack Culbertson, "Common and Specialized Content in the Preparation of Administrators," Preparation Programs for School Administration--Common and Specialized Learnings, (Columbus: UCEA, 1963i p.—A7. 2James B. Conant, 0p. cit. 92 TABLE X LEVEL OF AGREEMENT WITH STATEMENTS ON POLICIES AND PRACTICES Quest Quest No. Admin. Un. Panel Verdict No. Admin. Un. Panel Verdict l S S S S 25 S S S S 2 Q S S S 26 S Q S S 3 Q Q Q Q 27 s s s s A S Q Q Q 23 Q Q D Q S Q Q D Q 29 Q Q S Q 6 Q S Q Q 30 Q S Q Q 7 Q D Q Q 31 Q Q Q Q 8 S S S S 32 S Q Q Q 9 Q Q S Q 33 S Q S S 10 Q s s 3 3h 5 Q s s 11 Q D Q Q 35 S S S S 12 Q Q Q Q 36 s Q s s 13 Q Q S Q 37 Q Q Q Q 1A Q Q Q Q 38 D D Q D 15 S S S S 39 Q Q Q Q 16 Q S S 8 A0 Q Q Q Q 17 Q S S S Al S S S S 18 Q Q Q Q A2 Q Q S Q 19 Q Q S Q A3 Q Q Q Q 20 Q Q Q Q AA Q S S S 21 Q S S 3 A5 8 Q Q Q 22 Q S Q Q A6 S S S S 23 Q Q Q Q A7 Q Q Q Q 2A Q Q Q Q Legend Quest No.-- Questionnaire Statement (Policies and Practices) Admin ------ Manitoba Administrators Un --------- University Personnel (Department of Ed. Administration) Panel ------ Panel of Twelve Strong Agreement (Mean 1.50 to 2.00) Qualified Agreement (Mean .75 to l.A9) Disagreement (Mean .00 to .7A) U!) U) 93 the other hand Reller suggests that "the program should be sharply separated from the general university program of graduate studies. It should have a core specifically designed in the light of its purposes. It should be an entity and have a life of its own."3 It appears that a meeting place must exist between these extremes and most training institutions aim for a balance, with core blocks of study in sequence and also with scope for individual differences and individual needs. Other areas of concern in considering the preparation pro- gram must include the following: 1. Does the structure provide significant service to active administrators in the field? 2. Should definite periods of time be clearly laid out for the Master's and Doctoral program to cover the maJority of trainees? 3. In the absence of satisfactory evaluative criteria and techniques, how much reliance should be placed on grade- point average? A. What options should be open between a program designed for research or a university career, and one for the practi- tioner in the Operation of schools? 5. Are the Departments of Educational Administration attempt- ing, in their program structure, to be all things to all 3Theodore L. Reller, "A Comprehensive Program for Preparing Administrators," Preparing Administrators: New Perspectives, (Columbus: UCEA, 1962), p. 110. 9A people and thus failing to recognize the limitations im- posed by time, staff, facilities, and knowahow? 6. How far toward the extremes of rigidity or flexibility should the university be prepared to go, in order to develop the type of educational leader needed for the challenges of the 70's? Most of these "concern areas' appeared in the respondents' replies to the Open-ended questions and also in the more specific statements that follow. In regard to Program Flexibility, there appeared to be gen- eral agreement between the three criteria groups that the degree of structuring should be as flexible as possible. Here however, the Administrators and Panel of Twelve indicated a stronger demand than did the Universities for a "common core of basic learning exper- iences, supplemented by related obJectives plus a background in other disciplines." Nevertheless the insistence on replacing most of the rigid program requirements with content more meaningful to the student, was unmistakable. An interesting insight into the need for such flexibility is the mild administrator support for univers- ity assistance to practitioners in the field, even though University personnel and the Panel of Twelve voiced a strong demand to aid ad- ministrators "serving in the area of combat." In relation to Program Sequence, the replies of respondents-- particularly administrators answering the Open-ended questions-- stressed the need for a logical progression of course elements as the candidate advanced through the program. Several respondents 95 ' of "patches and referred to the pitfalls of "cafeteria programs,‘ snatches," and the danger of administrators becoming "Jacks-of—all- trades and experts in none." This suggests that while flexibility is the 'sine qua non' in the preparation of school administrators, many perceive in the trend toward course fragmentation, a necessity for some unifying, on—going sequence; that which has been called the "Gestalt conception of the total preparatory experience."h No clear consensus appeared in the mix that was recommended between the 'Requisite' and 'Elective' courses other than that dis- cussed in Chapter IV. There was the over-all impression that the structure should provide a minimum but unstated number of study fields, arranged in some logical developmental sequence but de- manded of all candidates. These would probably lie in the areas of Group Processes, Administrative Theory, Practices and Principles of Administration, Introduction to Research Methods and Organiza- tional Behavior. But the extent of specialization in these, along with the treatment of other important components, would be largely a matter of individual choice. The university however, would ob- viously require a reasonable balance between the mandatory and optional offerings. The most suitable length of time required for preparation was posed in the questionnaire. There was qualified support by all groups for a four-year program (two years for the master's re- quirements and two years for the doctorate). The stress on "Robin H. Farquhar, Allan K. Gaynor, Mark R. Shibles and Jack Culbertson, Preparing Educational Leaders for the Seventies, (Columbus: UCEA, 1969), p. hoe. 96 flexibility mentioned previously, was again evident. It thus ap- pears that four years for most candidates is a reasonable period to complete the course. It seems equally evident that special provi- sion must be made for those who can finish the program in less time as well as for those who may require more. A similar attitude of qualified acceptance was noted for the grade-point average as one significant criterion of course structure. This also suggests a cautious attitude in that academic achievement is probably seen as a necessary but certainly not sufficient condition for success. An analysis of these Section IV statements dealing with Policies and Practices and relevant to Program Structure is included here. 21. Some dissatisfaction has been expressed at the lack of meaning- ful in-service for helping superintendents. The university has a responsibility to superintendents and principals, after they have entered the administration field. Qualified agreement from Administrators. Strong agreement from Universities and Panel. Verdict: Strong agreement. 22. The common structure requiring approximately two graduate years for the B.Ed. - M.Ed. in administration, followed by two years of doctoral study and practice, appears to be most acceptable. Qualified agreement from Administrators and Panel. Strong agreement from Universities. Verdict: Qualified agreement. 23. While the disadvantages and weaknesses of grades are well- known, there still remains no better alternative to an evalua- tion indicated by a grade-point average. Qualified agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Qualified agreement. 97 2A. There should be a fundamentally different approach between the program designed to prepare researchers and that intended for administrators in administration. Qualified agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Qualified agreement. 25. It has been said that most university administration depart- ments spread themselves too thin, by trying to do too much and doing few things well. Educational administration, in its planning and programming should determine what it is uniquely qualified to do and then give top priority to these areas. Strong agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Strong agreement. 26. The trend in the structure of educational administration is to demand a common core of basic learning experiences, supplemented by related electives, plus a background in other disciplines. This principle is generally preferable to a more structured series of courses with prerequisites, etc. Strong agreement from Administrators and Panel. Qualified agreement from Universities. Verdict: Strong agreement. B. Methodology of Instruction The method of instruction used in the preparation of educa- tional administrators received possibly the most clear-cut reaction from respondents. The administrators not unnaturally proved to be the most critical of practices currently used in universities or those they perceived were used. However all groups in the open- ended questions supported to some extent the following short-comings, as characteristic of many though not all institutions: 1. There is a lack of skill in group processes to the point that many group activities are a mere pooling of divers- ity and frequently of ignorance. 2. Numerous respondents cited a lack of equipment or a reluc- tance to use modern techniques including the media. When 98 these techniques are attempted they are frequently in- effectual. There is a good deal of variety in the methods used by instructors but individuals sometimes show a lack of flexi- bility in using special techniques for particular learning situations. The instruction often tends to be too theoretical rather than conceptual; thus the concepts of theory are not readily applied to real situations. A number of replies indicated that too many instructors mistakenly fear rigidity and thus avoid all structure. In attempting to achieve flexibility they frequently permit courses to degenerate into a petty concern for intellectual trifles. One correspondent charged that "much of the so— called seminar discussion is an exercise where elephants tug at gnats." Paradoxically, in spite of the doubts raised about seminars, a significant number of open-ended responses complained that the lecture technique is still the prevalent method of in- struction "interspersed with a little discussion to create the illusion of group participation. It was pointed out by at least twenty respondents that a frequently overlooked factor of instruction is that of class size, and of using methods unsuited for the size of the class. It was stated that techniques for small group sessions may be entirely ineffectual with large groups. 99 8. The amount of content to be covered in educational admini- stration is too vast and too technical for any individual instructor or even a department to cover adequately. Thus respondents frequently claimed that educational administra- tion suffers from "departmental-inbreeding" and too little interdisciplinary activity. 9. A critical observation was that "techniques often tend to precede the outcomes being sought; that the methods ap- peared to precede the obJectives. This of course is the old question of confusing ends and means, but the replies to the questionnaire suggest that too many respondents-- particularly administrators--detect a sort of childlike faith among administration faculties that good results must inevitably follow noble aims. Administrators apparently in all cases do not share that view. An inspection of the replies to the Policies and Procedures statements 27 to 30 indicates nothing inconsistent with the fore- going conclusions. The three groups strongly agree that the in- structional methods used successfully in various universities-- problem-solving, models, media, critical path techniques, group processes, in-basket devices and others--must be extended and re- fined to become standard procedures of administrator training. There is also a strong belief that the ways in which medicine and management faculties have used hospitals and industry as labora- tories for research study, are techniques no less applicable to public schools for training administrators. 100 The reaction to the questionnaire statement on the possible obsolescence of the traditional lecture needs further study. The writer concludes that the respondents are by no means prepared to completely discard the lecture form of instruction. 0n the con- trary they probably have written off the traditional one-way recitation of subJect matter; but had the question stressed the use of media, of relevance, concepts and group participation, the replies may well have given strong support for that type of "lecture." In summary then, there is "qualified agreement" in op- position to the kipd_of lecture rather than lecture per se. Un- fortunately as one administrator observed: "There are those lec— turers who know their subJect and their presentation; there are those who know their subJect g£_their presentation and there are some who appear to know neither. I naturally enJoy and profit from the first." On the question of computers as an aid to instruction, the use of Game Theory and the greater application of media, the reac- tion was again one of "qualified agreement." But the strong sup- port by the Panel of Twelve for computerized instruction and that of Universities for Game Theory indicates that the degree of enthusiasm or apathy for these new techniques depends more on the opportunity to be familiar with their capabilities than anything else. All of which points out the need to dispell some of the in- hibitions and fears of the unknown; as the Roosevelt adage suggests "there is little to fear but fear itself." 101 Proceeding then to the disquieting statement that "Instruc- tors in educational administration often fail to use in their own instructional procedures, many of the very principles that they expect administrators to apply on the Job," it was significant that the administrators supported this stongly. The Universities not unnaturally, questioned it mildly as did the Panel of Twelve. Again, whether or not administrators are correct is unimportant. The fact that they perceive this kind of dissonance in university behavior is sufficient reason for more vigorous self-evaluation. The specific reactions of each criteria group are provided in statements 27 to 33. 27. Methods involving problem-solving, the examination of models, in—basket techniques, critical path approaches, group-processes and the like, need to be used a good deal more in the instruc- tional process of educational administration. Strong agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Strong agreement. 28. The traditional lecture (however well it is presented) has been made obsolete by such techniques as seminars, field—studies and laboratory experiences. Qualified agreement from Administrators and Universities. Dis- agreement from Panel of Twelve. Verdict: Qualified agreement. 29. Quite apart from their application to administrative tasks, the computer and modern techniques of storing and using information are not being sufficiently stressed in the day:to-day instruc- tion of future-oriented educational administrators. Qualified agreement from Administrators and Universities. Strong agreement from Panel of Twelve. Verdict: Qualified agreement. 30. The use of Game Theory can make a significant contribution to the present methods of instruction in educational administra— tion. 102 Qualified agreement from Administrators and Panel. Strong agreement from Universities. Verdict: Qualified agreement. 31. In their instructional procedures, departments of educational administration do not make sufficient use of the comprehen- sive multi-media technology that is available. Qualified agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Qualified agreement. 32. The administration of organizations is often viewed as a learning process for developing new behavior; yet instructors in educational administration often fail to use in their own procedures many of the very principles and techniques which they expect administrators to apply on the Job. Strong agreement from Administrators. Qualified agreement from Universities and Panel of Twelve. Verdict: Qualified agreement. 33. The Colleges of Medicine and Management Studies have success- fully used the hospitals and industry as their laboratories and research centres. In too few cases educational admini- stration has applied comparable research techniques in examining the school and the community. Strong agreement from Administrators and Panel. Qualified agreement from Universities. Verdict: Strong agreement. C. Student Research Among the preparation components considered in this study, the place of student research is as troublesome as any for depart- :ments of educational administration. Research and research- related activity have unquestionably consumed a large share of student time and energy, but only limited attention seems to have ‘been given to any rational consideration of what kinds of research, for what purpose, for whom and with what results. As a conse- quence, the importance of student research often appears to be taken on faith. Nevertheless it was obvious in the comments on course 103 elements that all three groups-~Administrators, Universities and Panel--agree that research is and must continue to be one of the skills demanded of all graduates. Reller estimates that ten per cent of the responsibilities of superintendents involve "the character and potentialities of research, research design, administration and utilization as ap- plied to a wide variety of issues in education and related areas."5 However, despite its importance in the administrative task and its apparent role in the preparation program, the field of research has not in Gregg's words "been distinguished—~whether done by students or professors."6 Whatever the reasons for the dissatisfaction, one of them must be related to the conflict of interests between research for researchers and that needed by practitioners. The present study is of course, primarily concerned with the preparation of princi- pals and superintendents. It must therefore be the student re- searcher in preparation for practice that is important at this time. Thus if the administrator trainee is to be essentially concerned as a consumer and promoter of research, several considerations appear to be worth noting. First, it seems fairly obvious that a prime objective of training is to provide a grasp of statistics suffi- cient for interpretation and appraisal. Also the administrator as a decision maker must perceive the relationship that knowledge, ’STheodore L. Reller, op. cit., p. 110. 6Russell T. Gregg, The Preparation of Administrators, (Draft of article for Enclepaedia of Educational Research, Ath Edition, 1969), p. 20. _LLL 10A skills and attitudes developed by research practice, bear to the decision-making process in which he is involved. To accomplish this end, Culbertson7 advocated the concept of a differentiated preparation for researchers and administrators. This can be done in three ways: 1. A supervised internship supplemented by independent readings and periodic seminars. 2. A develOpmental strategy with a team of students and pro- fessors selecting and defining a maJor administrative pro- blem, generating a solution to it and evaluating the various solutions. 3. An Option in which a team of administrators in training devotes the final year of preparation to study of systems analyses and Operating research concepts by identifying pro- blems and engaging in field work with apprOpriate techniques for decision making. The general dissatisfaction of questionnaire respondents with much of the student research revolved about the above-mentioned fea- tures: the gap between researcher needs and practitioner needs, the kinds of research and the relevance to the immediate tasks of edu- cation-- a. The research it is claimed, Often deals with trivia; it is stilted, contrived and inconsequential, and is 7Jack Culbertson, Differentiated Training for Professors and Educational Administrators, (Paper prepared for Vice-Presidential address, American Educational Research Association, 1968), p. 13. 105 described by one administrator as "too much contemplation of administrative navels." b. There is insufficient field work permitted or arranged to find, prepare and complete the research requirements. c. The research thesis should not be a requirement for all Master's candidates. d. There is a necessity to perform research apart from the dissertation. e. The nature of dissertation tOpics does little to extend the frontiers of human knowledge. f. Part-time students are short-changed when it comes to research activity. Four specific questions were posed for respondents concern- ing the direction that research should follow in administrator preparation: whether there should be a distinction in training be- tween researcher and practitioner; whether all candidates should be required to cultivate understanding and skills in research pro- cedures; the emphasis on the practical application of research, and finally the requirements for research vis-a-vis,the disserta- tion. The findings are summarized in questions 2A, 3A, 35 and A3: 2A. There should be a fundamentally different approach between the program designed to prepare researchers and that intended for administrators in education. Qualified agreement by all three criteria groups. Verdict: Qualified support. 3A. All students should be expected to develop an understanding of and basic skills in the fundamental procedures of research-- whether or not they proceed to more sOphisticated research and experimentation. 106 Strong agreement from Administrators and Panel of Twelve. Qualified support from Universities. Verdict: Strong support. 35. For the manrity of students_preparing for administration, the emphasis should be on the understanding, use and application of research findings, including actual problems confronting superintendents and principals rather than on pure research. Strong agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Strong agreement. A3. The preparation of a maJor thesis or dissertation, supported by demonstrated research skills, is an indispensable part of the doctoral program. Qualified agreement by all three criteria groups. Verdict: Qualified agreement. D. Experiences in the Field There is little disagreement that some form of internship or practical field experience is necessary for administrator prepa- ration and that like the weather something should be done to improve it. However, again like the weather there is little agreement as to what should be done or how to go about it. As late as 1962 Gregg pointed out that "less than one half of the institutions offered internship, and then only a very small percentage of students were involved."8 Then Briner also states that there is extreme diffi- culty in establishing any consensus on this problem. There has been little agreement among educators as to what pattern of experience should constitute the internship, with the result that internships, where in- cluded in the preparation programs, vary significantly in their scope and administration. . . . Assessment of the present status of internship prompts the conclusion that internship represents a response to little or no 8Russell T. Gregg, Op. cit. u /— _, 107 direction in preparation. The internship may be more an end in itself than facilitative of explicitly designed purposes.9 That the internship program and field experience are neither universal nor effective would not be seriously questioned by most training centres. The problem of universality must probably await widespread administrative and organizational change in school areas and in universities, but attempts to make field experience more effective can be readily tackled by any university at the local, state or provincial level. The maJor criticism of the program for example, is simply that there is not enough experience in the field. One respondent stated succinctly: "The university is too isolated in identifying the problems and Opportunities that lie in field experience." An- other remarked that "the field experiences afforded to trainees by universities are conspicuous by their absence." It was observed particularly by administrators that part-time students are more or less automatically deprived Of appropriate field experience and that they proceed through the program with all too little contact 'with principals and superintendents. A number of principals ‘volunteered the information that they had never been asked at any time to receive an administration student for any type of field experience. What is equally disconcerting is that none of them in- dicated that they had offered their services. Thus the omission 9Conrad Briner, "The Role of Internships in the Total Prepa- ration Program for Educational Administration: A Frontier Perspective," The Internship in Administrative Preparation, ed. Stephen P. Hencley, (Columbus: UCEA, 1963), p. 5. 108 appears to be a case of professional neglect by the universities as well as those in active administrative service. The comment was also made that not only were field exper- iences rarely presented, those that were tended to be "sheltered and unreal." However this defect may be inescapable as long as trainees are placed in an artificial role attempting to Operate as non-employees in the school system. Two respondents advanced the interesting proposition that field experience must necessarily be of limited value "unless it is followed by a systematic period of de—briefing." Improvement in internship then, lies not in the mere repetition of others' mistakes, but rather in a hard and critical look at the entire internship procedure and a painstaking analysis of what is wrong and what is right about it. From the consensus of respondents, it appears that there ‘will be no lasting benefit from field service and/or internship if the process merely provides experience artificially that could be more authentically obtained in the real world. To paraphrase Gertrude Stein "experience is experience is experience." A further suggestion from the respondents was that the schools, unlike the physical sciences and the technologies, do not generally turn to specialized research teams to help them solve their problems. .As a consequence of communication gaps between public schools and departments of educational administration, many Opportunities for authentic experience in field service are missed. Without casting ‘blame at school systems or universities these respondents emphasized ‘that "there are Just too few Openings in school systems for 109 internship or meaningful field experience related to real-life situations." It would surely be too sanguine to presume that this can be due to any lack of educational problems. In the specific statements in the questionnaire relating to policy and practice re. field experience, several trends appear. First, Administrators and Panel strongly favor a period of intern— ship prior to or during training; the Universities are less emphatic. All three groups see internship and field experience as merely one adJunct to a thorough grasp of theoretical principles and they ex- press reservations about trainees being extensively involved in many real-life situations. However, Universities and Administrators part company with the Panel, who favor the infusion of federal funds for the purpose of field training and interns. The results on these points are summarized herewith. 36. A defined period of administrative internship, prior to or during the period of training, is necessary to achieve a level of competency comparable with other professions. Strong agreement from Administrators and Panel. Qualified agreement from Universities. Verdict: Strong agreement. 37. The examination of problems and crucial issues in educational administration by on—the-Job visitations, analysis of research findings, resident seminars, workshops, simulated materials, and supplemented by current research, cannot be a complete sub- stitute for a rigorous emphasis on theory. Qualified agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Qualified agreement. 38. If field experiences are necessary in administration prepara- tion, it will require the inJection of large sums of federal and provincial funds to conduct them on any meaningful basis. Disagreement from Administrators and Universities. Qualified agreement from Panel. Verdict: Disagreement with the statement. ‘ _ ._.,.,,,,a 110 39. Administrators-in-training require the Opportunity to be involved during their preparation (quite apart from any continuous internship) in more real-life situations, for which they will be held accountable. Qualified agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Qualified agreement. E. Standards and Requirements for Graduation Most of the issues concerning the graduation requirement for administrator training revolve around five points: a required period of internship, residence regulations, the demand for skill in a sec- ond language, proficiency in some related minor and/or interdisci- plinary field and the requirement for the student to have completed a research dissertation. The consideration of an internship requirement did not appear prominently in this study. As explained in the previous section there is here little consensus among institutions; this Ramseyer confirms: It is not the custom among institutions who prepare ad- ministrators to require an internship experience to complete the program. None of the fifty states of the United States requires the internship for certification for an administra- tive position in the public schools.10 Thus although some kind of field experience has come to be regarded as highly desirable, no clear requirement emerges and will ‘therefore not be enlarged upon in this study. 0n the question of whether or not to demand a minimum period of resident study, the results are not surprising. Administrators 10John A. Ramseyer, "The Internship: Some Problems and Issues," The Internship in Administrative Preparation, (Columbus: UCEA), p. 139. 111 find a period of residence expensive and inconvenient since they must absent themselves from their employment. Consequently they tend to Oppose it. The Panel of Twelve and Universities are adamant that advantages accrue from study in residence and these are poss- ible in no other way. This view is consistent with the AASA study of 1963, wherein 90 of the 103 institutions offering the doctoral program required a year of residence.11 There appears to be no division of Opinion on the foreign language requirement. All groups strongly favored drOpping any demand for language proficiency as a requisite for graduation. It was the unanimous feeling that the time and energy devoted to lan— guage study, other than for the pursuit of its cultural or literary value, presents a mere hurdle for graduation, and would be better applied to research, the behavioral sciences or to additional field experience. The graduation requirement for an interdisciplinary or minor study was less decisive. The Panel gave strong support in demand- ing a solid background in some additional discipline other than edu- cation, and one member described this need in these words: I feel that most master's and even doctoral requirements in educational administration are too thin. We pay lip-service to the interdisciplinary nature of the training often without requiring any depth or real understanding in any discipline related to administration. Every student should be required to take serious in-depth studies of at least one behavioral, quantitative or finance field, even if his aspirations are no more than supervisor or elementary principal. 2 llRussel T. Gregg, op. cit. 12Panel of Twelve Respondent to Questionnaire. 112 Nonetheless Administrators and University Personnel could only conditionally support the suggestion of requiring a graduate to have completed 25 per cent of his time in areas outside educa- tional administration. With respect to the insistence on a dissertation to be com- pleted at both master's and doctoral level, two somewhat surprising results appeared. First, the three groups did not strongly support the suggestion of waiving the master's dissertation in favor of extra course offerings in research, behavioral sciences and other areas; they thus suggested support for the master's thesis. How- ever, when queried as to the necessity for a research dissertation at the doctoral level, this met with only partial support. The explanation for the apparent incongruence can perhaps be found in a general lack of enthusiasm for the dissertation; the implication being that it is seen as a necessary evil of doubtful value. Why the Universities in particular did not indicate strong support for the dissertation appears, to say the least, somewhat anomalous. The specific reactions to the statements are as follows: A0. The graduation requirement for a maJor dissertation at the Master's level should be replaced by a minor thesis with additional supporting course work or learning experience. Qualified agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Qualified agreement. Al. There is a trend toward less emphasis on the requirement for a second language, but more attention to research, the behavioral sciences and field experiences. This enhances the relevance of the course without reducing the rigor. Strong agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Strong agreement. 113 A2. For graduation, a student should be required to complete at least 25 per cent of his course in disciplines other than Education or Educational Administration. Qualified agreement from Administrators and Universities. Strong agreement from Panel of Twelve. Verdict: Qualified agreement. A3. The preparation of a maJor thesis or dissertation, supported by demonstrated research skills, is an indispensable part of the doctoral program. Qualified agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Qualified agreement. AA. The requirement of at least one graduate year in full-time residence is needed, if a professional program in educational administration is to be achieved. Qualified agreement from Administrators. Strong agreement from Universities and Panel of Twelve. Verdict: Strong agreement. F. Feedback and Self-Evaluation Of all the questions considered in this study on administra— tor preparation, none appeared to indicate a greater consensus than the impression that universities Obtained little feedback on their program, and that there was limited or no systematic effort toward self-evaluation. Numerous respondents indicated that they were unaware of any planned feedback or self-evaluation. One person calls it "probably the weakest point in the present program." A second decries the fact that "there is no organized procedure to establish liaison between the trained administrators and the in- stitution, and another refers to the "university's tendency to Godhood--the Faculty of Education and the University appear the only group not in some way accountable to society." An interesting suggestion is raised that "there is too much sensitivity re. aca- demic freedom and that any attempt at accountability is regarded 11A as a threat." Among the criticisms posed by respondents is the disturbing charge that "self-evaluation and feedback are made more difficult since the in-breeding of their own graduates is not con— ducive to self-criticism or self-evaluation." Obviously much of the criticism and dissatisfaction at this lack is exaggerated and distorted. Nevertheless that such Opinions are widespread gives substance to the belief that programs designed fOr training educational administrators no less require continuous evaluation than any other complex organization. "Departments of Educational Administration," states Gregg, " should make thorough appraisals of preparation programs. There should be a critical review of obJectives, an inventory of problems and needs, a criti- cal appraisal of present activities and utilization of pertinent resources for program develOpment."13 The respondents' replies to policy statements are set out below with reference to Feedback and Self-Evaluation. With re- gard to the possible necessity for a professional certificate for administrators based on experience and graduate experience, the approval was a qualified one from all three criteria groups. A5. University departments of educational administration have generally failed to apply to their own administrative pro- cedures, the research techniques which they design for others. Viz. to direct significant time and resources to the administrative need for planning and self-evaluation. Strong agreement from Administrators. Qualified agreement from Universities and Panel of Twelve. Verdict: Qualified agreement. 13Russell T. Gregg, op. cit. 115 A6. Administrators, in spite of training and experience, need more skill and understanding to evaluate with accuracy the procedures and processes for which they are to be respons- ible. Strong agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Strong agreement. A7. A system of certification, based on experience and graduate study, is necessary for the preparation of professional administrators. Qualified agreement from all three criteria groups. Verdict: Qualified agreement. In summary then the content of this chapter has examined and attempted to analyze the replies of the respondents in the six cate- gories of program structure, methodology of instruction, student research, experiences in the field, graduation requirements and feedback-evaluation. Certain trends have been clearly evident in the replies for these six categories, and on this basis it would ap— pear that a training program consistent with these findings is now feasible. It remains therefore in the final chapter to reconcile these views wherever possible and to formulate a training program for Manitoba consistent with the evidence and with the accepted find- ings of administrative research to date. At a crisis in my youth he taught me the wisdom of choice. To try and to fail is at least to learn; to fail to tfy is to suffer the inestimable loss of what might have been.1 11‘Chester I. Barnard, The Functions of the Executive, (Cambridge: Harvard Press, 1966). CHAPTER VI RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS This study was undertaken to establish working principles for a program to train educational administrators in Manitoba. It remains to examine the implications of the data, to make recommenda- tions and to draw conclusions from which such a training program might be evolved. It is therefore the purpose of this chapter to summarize the findings for each of the eight training variables: Recruitment and Selection, Program Content, Program Structure, Methodology of Instruction, Student Research, Field Experience and Internship, Graduation Requirements and Feedback-Evaluation. On this basis there will be set out those characteristics of administrative preparation deemed appropriate by the three criteria groups--Administrators, Universities and Panel of Twelve, and gener- ally accepted by the research and literature in the field. 0f the eight components for preparation considered in this study, by far the greatest amount of coverage in the literature and questionnaire replies is that accorded to Program Content. The Pro- gram Structure, Student Research, Graduation Requirements and Program Evaluation have evoked less response. As Farquhar et a1. indicate, this may be explained . . . by the likelihood that the latter have been viewed . . . as matters peculiar to the concerns and constraints of individ- ual universities whereas program content, which defines the body 116 117 of knowledge that is 'educational administration,‘ has been viewed more than other components as the property of the profession at large.1 A. Recruitment and Selection Several factors strongly indicate the need for educational administration to compete for the limited number of suitable grad- uate candidates: (a) The relatively small number of intellectually outstanding ap- plicants has not created the impression that educational administra- tion is one of the more prestigious academic callings. (b) Little if any planned and systematic recruiting has been ob- served in most universities. (c) The selection procedures on the whole are thought to be of questionable validity. Among these the Miller's Analogy, or the Graduate Record Examination along with a satisfactory academic re- cord are presumably useful but scarcely sufficient criteria for admission. (d) There is little evidence that the recruiting of competent women has been undertaken seriously. (e) The general insistence on prior teaching or administrative ex- perience as a condition for acceptance has almost certainly impeded the intake of promising prospects. (f) The lack of sufficient financial support has apparently blocked many in the 25 to 35 age-bracket from seriously considering educa- tional administration as a permanent career. 1Robin H. Farquhar, Jack Culbertson, Alan K. Gaynor and Mark R. Shibles, Preparing Educational Leaders for the Seventies, (Columbus: UCEA, 1969), p. A75. 118 In assessing responsibility for the recruiting and selec- tion procedures which according to respondents and the literature, are not particularly effective in securing sufficient numbers of suitable administrative candidates, the main burden can be assigned to two sources: the university departments and the administrators active in the field. To correct this situation, several approaches are nec 98 sary . Recommendations A vigorous and systematic program for expanding the pool of suitable administration candidates shall be undertaken and continued by the Department of Educational Administration. Principals and Superintendents shall be placed on the de- partment's mailing list and shall regularly receive bro- chures listing course-offerings in administration and descriptions of the available university services. The superintendents of school-divisions each year shall nomi— nate a teacher, supervisor or administrator as a promising candidate for training in educational administration. If ad- mitted to graduate study these nominees shall be eligible for fellowships and/or sabbatical allowances to the value of not less than two thirds of their regular teaching stipend. Special incentives and recognition shall be provided for com- petent female prospects in order that the pool of potential talent can be enlarged and improved. Practicing administrators shall be called upon to assume a larger professional role in the recruitment of future school administrators. In special circumstances, students with outstanding ability and displaying exceptional promise, shall be admitted into the training program, notwithstanding their lack of formal experience in teaching or administration. Screening procedures shall be carried out on a five-point scale in at least the following categories: a. Academic achievement b. Scholastic aptitude 119 c. General knowledge d. Level of social maturity e. Educational and other experience 8. Within one year of undertaking the master's degree students for whom the course of study is unsuitable, shall be coun- selled out of the program. 9. Candidates, once firmly accepted and committed to the course, shall Openly communicate with staff and colleagues without fear of being drOpped, even though on occasion some may choose "to write themselves out." 10. The training program shall provide for some experimental selec- tion of students and for a continuous evaluation of such ex- perimental selection procedures. 11. The preparation program shall evaluate applicants and students in training for divergent vs. convergent thinking, for open vs. closemindedness and for other elements of creativity. 12. Tests of cognitive ability shall be placed in a relatively lesser position to the appraisal of human qualities: the ability to work with people, motivation, initiative, self- confidence, ambition, courage, emotional stability, physical endurance and tolerance for ambiguity. B. Program Content There is no general agreement on specific sets of courses which could comprise a particular program for training administra- tors. There is however support for the view that the content should promote conceptualized theory, an understanding of the behavioral sciences, group processes and human relations, an increased em- phasis on interdisciplinary studies and the fundamentals of research. There is also a general consensus that the number of compulsory courses should be diminished and that the amount of flexibility in programing the course content should be increased. The courses considered as requisite or at least very im- portant by criteria groups--and supported by most of the research 120 literature-~included: Group Processes, Theory of Administration, Practices and Principles of Administration, Internship and Field Experience, Introduction to Research, Elementary Statistics and Organizational Behavior. It seems clear that while administrative training should be theory-oriented, it should also be problem-oriented with the results couched in terms realistic for practicing administra— tors. Thus while the administrator-training program must provide for the use of research and for the training of researchers, the emphasis for practitioners in the field shall be on interpreting and valuing research as well as developing the research attitude. As one respond- ent said, "administrators must be functionaries rather than digni- taries." Notwithstanding the obvious need for a pragmatic approach to theory, this cannot be construed as a lessening of the necessity for comprehensive theory in administrative studies or for research de- sign in the program elements. Neither the replies of respondents nor the literature would Justify any such conclusion. Unless a sub- stantial portion of the training procedure is in research design, administration will lose its direction. "Some part of every prepara- tory program must be based on some theory of administration related to program design with evaluative feedback for program develOpment, change or improvement."2 Certainly schools of administration must 2Walter G. Hack et al., Report of the 1985 Committee of the National Conference of Professors of Educational Administration, (Lafayette: 1970). 121 counteract rather than contribute to the notion that theory is the opposite of reality. Several studies were recognized as useful for some parti- cular needs but nevertheless rated as of minimal importance by all criteria groups: Administering Educational Media, Administration of Special Programs, School Plant, Administration of Higher Education and almost within this category were Comparative Education and Ad- vanced Statistics. The findings revealed only limited concern for student unrest or teacher militancy, but such a trend was perceived in the approval expressed for the inclusion of Politics of Education. Similarly, there is strong support for increased emphasis in decision-making and communications, while the growing pressure for internship and field-related experience is quite clear. This again, tends to be supported by most of the literature and research. Little in the evidence suggests that early specialization is conducive to the cultivation of broad general education presumably necessary for modern educational leaders. The program content can- not be based on the belief that mere cognition is the most produc- tive type of learning. Rather it must be based on ways of knowing and organizing knowledge, no less than the apprOpriate methods of studying it. This type of learning then calls for conceptual tools as well as cognitive organization. With these, future administrators can learn to handle the broad issues as well as the specific items in their work. Thus the content of the preparatory program shall view the schools, not as some institution apart, but as a socializing 122 agent which both affects and is affected by the interacting social determinants. While the matter of interdisciplinary studies is perhaps more relevant to Program Structure and Methodology, some note should be here made that there is considerable support in the data and in the literature that administration students receive exposure to one or more disciplines outside of education. Whether Justifiable or not there is a fairly general belief, particularly from administra- tors, that a degree of "intellectual in-breeding" exists in some university departments and that such a condition can be partly counteracted by a greater commitment to interdisciplinary study. Related to this is the likelihood that developing research learning--psychological, sociological, anthr0pological, chemical and physical--will create difficult problems of values for administra- tors. As the involvement with human behavior is extended, difficult issues of policy will crop up more frequently and with more effect on individuals. All of which points to the need for producing school administrators with an understanding of the importance of values and with greater skill in research and human relations, since the administrator of the future will be confronted by an increasing array of paradoxes and dilemmas with larger non-rational components. For example the paradox of the trend toward central control of logistic support in large educational systems and the pluralism of better organized special interest groups among constituents leading to bargaining and negotiation, requires a link- age that only research can provide. Ibid. 123 In summary then, there is apparent agreement that the real worth of administrator training can be evaluated in large part by the presence or absence of four main strengths: (a) the conceptual and theoretical nature of the content. (b) the variety, the breadth and the generalizability of the content. (c) the degree to which the content was relevant to practice-- "What is in fact really out there." (d) the interdisciplinary nature of the content and particularly the content from the social and behavioral sciences. Recommendations 13. The following study areas shall be considered as the requisite core for all students pursuing a preparatory program in educa- tional administration: (a) (b) (e) (d) (e) (f) (5) Theory of Administration Practices and Principles of Administration Introduction to Research Methods Elementary Statistics Organizational Behavior Group Processes Internship and Field Experience 1A. The following areas of study shall be made available on an elective basis: (a) (b) (e) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (J) (1:) Administration of Institutions Business Administration of Schools Administration of Education in Canada and U.S.A. Educational Law Finance and Economics of Education Foundations of Education Sociology of Education Relations with Local, Provincial and Federal Governments Community Problems Theories of Learning Educational Psychology 15. 16. 17. 18. 12A (1) Social Psychology (m) Principles and Practices of Curriculum (n) Public Relations (0) Personnel (Staff and Students) (p) Evaluation of Educational Program (q) Independent Study (r) Crucial Issues in Education (8) Computers, Systems, Operational Research (t) Theory and Practice of Communications (u) Dynamics of Change The following shall be offered if and when the demand for such instruction Justifies inclusion: (a) Administration of Special Programs (b) Administration of Higher Education (c) School Plant (d) Advanced Statistics (e) Comparative Education (f) Educational Administration in other countries (g) Administration of Educational Media It shall be presumed that, notwithstanding the respondents' priorities, Advanced Statistics shall be available at all times for faculty and students interested in study or research. The number of compulsory courses in the training program shall be kept at the minimum; and without sacrificing academic rigor, the university shall be as flexible as possible. The program shall be based on the view that school administration consists of a diversity of tasks. These can be arranged in various pack- ages suitable for different kinds of students entering admini- stration, and all such tasks are inter-related. Every graduate student shall have the opportunity to be engaged in some sort of meaningful internship or real-life experience in administration, without sacrificing any of the theoretical bases of the program. Such experience shall emphasize situa- tional analysis and the relation of the individual and others to the situational forces. A part of the student's learning experience shall involve the skills required for self-assessment. In this way the student can learn to look more obJectively at his own behavior, as the first step in looking obJectively at others. Such experience in situational analysis and the relation of self to others during interaction, shall be deemed to be an indispensable part of the preparation for educational leadership. 125 19. The program content shall make specific provision for communi- cation between individuals with differences. Such procedures will not only prove more stimulating for the trainee, but will also develop a higher level of tolerance for ambiguity and dissonance, a necessary skill to meet the complexities of the organization. 20. The university shall establish and maintain a special depart— ment or service for practicing administrators to pursue grad- uate studies and also for former graduates to receive in-service training and relevant information. 21. The training process shall include and require an intensive learning experience in at least one cognate field separate and distinct from educational administration. 22. The program shall provide, though not require, the Opportunity for cross-cultural experience preferably in another country, to enable the student to inter-relate with peOple of other cultures. 23. The course shall make specific provision for what Halpin calls a more tolerant, a more catholic view of the various ways of knowing . . . the heritage of the humanities . . . a re-affirmation of intellectual tolerance, a recognition that 'knowledge' about human beings whether as individuals or as members of formal organizations cannot be secured cheaply and certainly not through the blandishments of a single discipline. . . . My plea is for a moge balanced appreciation of the various ways of knowing. C. Program Structure The trend in the structure of the program as supported by respondents--and generally by the literature and research--was not so much a matter of 'required' vs. 'non—required' courses. Rather it underscored the conclusion that the training process must possess sufficient flexibility to accommodate the needs of a great variety of students, not to mention the extensive changes in educational and scientific knowledge. 1‘Andrew W. Halpin, Theory and Research in Administration, (New York: Macmillan Co., 1966), p. 296. 126 There was a general reluctance to abandon certain core ele- ments as 'requisites' in the program structure. While supporting the principle of flexible structure, the respondents obJected to ' of "patches and snatches" and the wide-open "cafeteria programs,' possible tendency toward a "fragmentation of subJect matter areas . . . (which) has led to intolerance among the disciplines about the ways of knowing peculiar to each area."5 No clear definition of core programs emerged but, as men- tioned previously, there was the over-all impression that the struc- ture should provide a minimum but unstated number of study fields arranged in some logical developmental sequence. This would include the conceptualized understanding of theory, a grasp of the behavioral sciences including group processes and human relations, an increased emphasis on interdisciplinary activity and a mastery of the basics of research. However the demand for a "common core of basic learn- ing experiences supplemented by related electives" plus a background in other disciplines was unmistakably clear. Four years appeared to be Optimum approximate time that should normally be required to complete the training process and of this two years would be devoted to master's studies and the re- mainder for the more advanced and specialized requirements of the doctorate. During this period, it was the view that the grade- point average should be used but sparingly and with caution. The respondents--and again their views are substantiated by the Ibid. 127 research literature--were not especially impressed with the degree of validity and reliability of grade-point assessments; nor were they satisfied that the grade-point should be the only or necessarily the maJor criterion in determining student success. The participants did not accept the suggestion that the training for researchers should be "fundamentally different . . . from that intended for administrators." One is consequently led to conclude that there is implied here a difference in emphasis rather than in the basic structure of the program. The preparation programs for those planning to specialize as researchers and for others who will be developers, disseminators or practitioners shall not be dis? tinctly identifiable other than in the obvious areas of specializa- tion. In summary it appears that two seemingly Opposite trends are in operation-~one toward greater flexibility and the other toward increased structure, and implicit in these two seemingly antithetical trends there appears a third tendency--toward the achievement of a functional balance between structure and flexibility-- represenged in the common cores of experience within the program. Recommendations 2A. A high degree of flexibility shall be maintained in the struc- ture of the program. 25. The training experience shall normally require four years for the completion of the master's and doctoral degrees. In ac- cordance with the previous recommendation, this period may vary according to the student's experience, abilities and needs. 6Robin H. Farquhar et al., Op. cit., p. 1A7. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 128 The grade-point average shall constitute one maJor provision but shall not represent the main thrust of the program. The structure shall provide for individualized learning exper- ience perhaps to the extent of one third of the entire Opera- tion. Thus few courses shall be formally required, and as already stated they shall constitute a small core in the basic areas. In these the student will be expected to enroll. The program shall be a socialization process designed not to make individuals satisfied with the status quo, but rather motivated to make improvements in the educational structure. The preparation procedures shall constitute an open instruc- tional subsystem linked to related subsystems within the uni- versity, the school system, emerging institutions, industry, management associations and others. The content shall also provide for relationships with professional groups, unions, institutes, government agencies, as well as contact with local, provincial, federal, international and other non-educational agencies. There shall be specific provision for internship for students and also for in—service training for administrators in the field. The structure shall provide a high degree of specialized preparation for researchers but shall not dilute the general administrative content expected of all candidates. Obviously as administration departments manage to achieve some dif- ferentiation in the programs for researchers, developers and practitioners, they will be called upon to achieve a greater differentiation in staffing patterns. This in turn points to an increasing need for instructors with different substantive bodies of knowledge and the ability to use this knowledge in very special ways. This degree of specialization of course is dependent on the number of graduate students and the availa- bility of university funds. Within the limitations of the program there shall be a maximum utilization of cross-discipline studies. The structure of the program shall concern itself with the understanding of values and the part they play in human be- havior. The training components shall aim at developing an awareness of changes in values, how individuality, independent thought, creativity, compassion and self-renewal are all in- tegrally bound up with values. Thus if administration is in- volved in the motivation of human behavior to achieve societal 129 and organizational goals, the program for training administra- tors is also of necessity concerned with "something of a value orientation, a philosophical mooring as a guide to administra- tive action."7 D. Instructional Procedures Three basic trends are discernible in the responses to questionnaires and in much of the current literature and research on the preparation of administrators. First there is a decided im- pression that future administrators must be more active in the pur- suit of knowledge and more responsible for the attainment of their own findings. Second these learnings must more closely reflect what Halpin says is "really out there" if administration is to represent the application of theoryto problems. Finally the instructional methods must take greater cognizance of research findings about the learning process, and thereby apply such techniques using the schools as the laboratory situation to deal with administrator training. In the light of these developments the respondents supported the move- ment away from formal lectures and textbooks and toward greater stu- dent participation in the learning experience. Such a movement toward experiential learning suggests the possible setting up of learning teams; some made up of students dealing with research and development or the solution of fundamental problems; some made up of students from different professional schools and some consisting of administrators and students working on problems of the school system. 7Lawrence W. Downey and T. Barr Greenfield, Leadership Train- ipg for Educational Administrators, (Edmonton: University of Alberta, 1961). p- 15. 130 It seems then that students must be encouraged to take a greater responsibility for their own learning and thus the instruc- tional arrangements must be such that trainees can to a great extent pursue their own interests and inclinations in a variety of situa- tions. Thus professors and students share the learning process. This implies a series of reality-oriented materials, which will en- able students and instructors to make the kinds of decisions and pursue the kinds of analysis most directly related to the real world of administration. Such materials and techniques--case studies, simulated matter, management games, data processing, comp puter operation, application of models and the like--can of course never be a substitute for theoretical concepts and vicarious exper- ience. But they may well provide bases for bridging theory and practice. Recommendations 3A. The instructional staff shall be made up of specialists in the maJor social and behavioral sciences, in the humanities and in other disciplines and of generalists and specialists in educa- tional administration with experience in different branches of educational activity. The faculty shall be diverse and large enough to be capable of considerable role differentiation and specialization. 35. Due emphasis shall be placed on instructional experimentation with group processes, in—basketry, game theory, systems analy- sis, simulated materials, micro-teaching, the use of models and critical path analysis. 36. The maximum effective use shall be made of tapes, films, tele- vision, radio and other devices of the media. 37. Instruction insofar as possible shall be theory-oriented and conceptualized. 131 38. The lecture method of instruction, "despite its many weak— nesses and abuses can be apprOpriately employed for certain purposes."8 But it shall be used only under circumstances that create a favorable learning environment. 39. The internship in some form shall be regarded as an indis- pensible part of the instructional process. What form this first-hand experience will take depends on many factors in- volving the students, and the work situation. Suffice it to say that the internship offers a promising possibility but little certainty for what happens to the intern while he is on the Job is notoriously difficult to control. Even the long experience of the medical profession has not come pletely solved that problem and the literature of the medical internship is full of personal abuses to which the intern is often subJected. Whatever we may hope to achieve in the improvement of administrap tor preparation through the internship will be more likely achieved when we can specify precisely what we expect from the internship experience, and then proceed to develOp a design for the internship on that basis.9 A0. Much of the instructional process shall revolve around case studies, particularly in application to the real administra- tive problems of the schools. Therefore the schools shall be used for administrative studies, in much the same way that medicine and management schools have used hospitals and in- dustry as their laboratories and research centres. Al. Insofar as possible instructors in educational administration "shall use in their own procedures the very principles and techniques which they expect administrators to apply on the Job." 8Kenneth E. McIntyre, "The Current Scene: HOw We Are Now Instructing Tomorrow's Educational Administrators," Strategies in the Preparation of School Administrators: Annual Report of Na- tional Conference of Professors of Educational Administration, (196A ) . 9Michael P. Thomas Jr., "Stratggies in the Preparation of School Administrators, Annual Report of National Conference of Professors of Educational Administration, (196A), p. A6. 132 E. Student Research It was apparent in the study that the importance of re- search training and the necessity for future administrators to esta- blish research attitudes were not questioned by respondents. There was however little agreement in the data, nor is there any consensus in the literature to conclude what the most effective research ex- perience should be. It was charged by respondents that much of the research in which trainees were engaged dealt with trivia. This sentiment is echoed by Halpin. "We are sometimes in such a hurry to count things, that we fail to decide whether or not what we count is indeed worth counting. . . . The temper of the scientist must become more and more that of an artist, not that of the businessman and the engineer."10 It was also suggested that there is insufficient re- search activity by students in the field on questions directly bear- ing on education, and it was the view that a conflict of interest exists as to what researchers want and what practitioners think they need. Support was usually advanced by all three criteria groups for the requiring of the research dissertation. Nevertheless mis- givings were noted concerning the real significance to education of many of the topics and respondents frequently raised doubts about the freedom of choice exercised by students in electing these top- ics. The query as to whether researchers should receive a program fundamentally different from practitioners has not been fully 10Andrew W. Halpin, op. cit. 133 resolved. There is agreement that the training for the two should not be essentially dissimilar but that the researcher should have a great deal more Opportunity for specialization. One final maJor concern of many respondents was the belief that the bulk of research activity during the training period re- volves about the dissertation. It was urged that the entire course should be oriented toward research and that candidates must come to use research techniques in the field, in their readings and in their day-to-day activities. "A scientist," says Halpin, "is not one who sees better but one who watches more intensely." The conclusions drawn from the data and from the literature tend to support the following proposals. Recommendations A2. The research training embodied in the dissertation shall be required from all doctoral candidates and from all master's candidates who intend to continue to the doctoral degree. A3. Master's candidates not proceeding to the doctorate shall be permitted to waive the dissertation. They shall then en- gage in additional studies related to research in administra— tion in lieu of the thesis requirement. AA. For prospective researchers the dissertation shall involve the essential principles of research design and shall be in- tended primarily to "extend the frontier of human knowledge." For practicing administrators the dissertation may be pre- sented with more flexibility and thus contribute directly to informed and effective administrative behavior. A5. A thorough grounding in the basic principles and techniques of statistics and research shall be required of all candi- dates. A6. Maximum freedom shall be extended to the student in the development of his dissertation research, providing the topic satisfies the criteria of rigor in extending the frontier of knowledge and/or developing demonstrable information on ad- ministrative and leadership behavior. 13A A7. For students not primarily training as researchers, the main emphasis of the course shall rest in the understanding, use and scientific application of research findings. A8. Field research and the application of research techniques to actual administrative problems shall occupy the thought and time of the trainee no less than the preparation of the dissertation. In addition to the regular course work, this shall include the attendance at research conferences, the writing of qualifying papers, enrollment in various research methodology programs, employment as research assistants, participating in research seminars and functioning with school administrators. A9. There shall be the maximum possible coordination and integrap tion of the various student proJects including emphasis on team research. Staff and students can thus prOperly benefit from shared experiences and techniques, and also avoid the waste of time, resources and learning Opportunities that in- evitably occur when there is a needless duplication of re- search activity. This tendency is noted by Farquhar et al. in the "lack of coordination or integration among research proJects of different students, or of students and professors, with the consequence that results tend to be isolated and fragmented."11 50. Arrangements shall be made to provide a definite Opportunity for any part-time students in the Master's program to partici- pate in meaningful research activity. 51. There shall be some part of the department's research funds-- a kind of risk capital--set aside to underwrite promising researchers without restricting them to a contractual agree- ment and without thereby limiting their creativity. Suffice it to say that "men of science are not made by teaching but by awakening their interests and permitting them to pursue their interests on their own." llRobin Farquhar et al., op. cit. p. A15. 12F. Galton, Epglish Men of Science, Their Nature and Nurture, (London, 187A, as cited in Morris J. Stein and Shirley J. Heinze, "Creativity and the Individual," Glencoe: Graduate School of Business, University of Chicago, 1960), pp. 90 - 91. 135 The stress on the creative process and the importance of individual creativity is in some ways the heart and soul of re— search. Ross Mooney advances this idea as he recognizes the cli- mate of research activity, the need for a minimum of rigidity in research training and of course the necessity for research ex- perience. We make the mistake too often of teaching the science and not the potential scientist. . . . We need to reconstruct important phases of graduate education in order to give place to cultivation of the potential scientist as creator of his science, his truth, his reality, his generalization, his observations, and so on. We need to give science back to men and to give men's minds back to men. It is the essence of our Job if we are engaged in the teaching of research workers.13 F. Field Experience and Internship The implications of the study findings relative to Field Experience and the Internship, have been previously considered as they applied to Program Elements, Instructional Procedures and Research. The main conclusion on this point has been that in the view of respondents and from the evidence in the literature, there simply has not been enough attention given to the quality and quantity of field experience. Related to this consensus, the find— ings indicate that what little field training there is, also tends to be somewhat sheltered and unreal. 13Ross L. Mooney, "Problems in the Development of Research Man," Educational Research Bulletins, 30, (Columbus: The Ohio State University, September, 1951), p. 1A5. 136 However the solution is more intricate than the simple introduction of internship and field service on a vast scale, and it has already been shown in this chapter that "what happens to the intern while he is on the Job is notoriously difficult to control."l" Nevertheless the challenge of relating practical ex- perience to the process of administrative training is perhaps sec- ond only to research in importance during the next decade. This is true in part because, despite the importance that experience and conceptual learning hold for the future, little is known about the precise goals of the internship and probably less about the results. It is the heart and emotion that speak out for the internship; it is not because of any scientifically derived body of know- ledge that we invest human and material resources in support of this form of field experience in preparation. . . . In searching for the meaning of internship then, we would do well to approach it with a skeptical viewpoint rather than with naive acceptance.1 The recommendations therefore, emanating from this study and from the literature must reflect something of this cautious skepticism. Nevertheless the internship and other types of pur- poseful experience must be Justified by the primary assumption that the science and art of administration learned in classrooms and lib- raries represent only partially developed tools to be applied l"Michael J. Thomas, Jr., Op. cit. lsConrad Briner, The Role of Internships in the Total .Preparation Program for Educational Administration," The Intern- ship in Administration Preparation, ed. Stephen P. Hencley, (Columbus: UCEA - CASA, 1963), p. 7. 52. 53. 5A. 55. 56. 137 in field practice. Experience in the field is certainly necessary to maximize the student's grasp of administra- tion.1 Recommendations A period of internship in the preparation of administrators shall be considered essential to the training process, along with the other areas of research activity and academic.study. Quite apart from any formal period of internship, trainees shall have ample opportunity to engage in a variety of real- istic administrative experiences for which they shall be held accountable. As one criterion of future success candidates shall be coun- selled to remain in or withdraw from the program on the basis of their effectiveness in the internship and/or field service. Rather than a mere exposure to the administrative milieu, all field experience shall be designed to develop in the student the conceptual and theoretical framework necessary for problem solving and for modifying his own behavior. Since the value of the internship and field experience is directly related to the kind and quality of leadership in the school agency receiving the student, he shall be in large measure responsible to that school district or agency. As stated by Hooker, The willingness of the superintendent to accept an intern is often a more important consideration than the quality of experience available in the district. . . . there would thus be less frustration and hypoc- risy about the university supervision of the intern. Supervision of the work of the intern would reside with the sponsoring district where it belongs. The role of the university coordinator would be limited largely to educating practitioners about internships.l7 l61b1d. 17Clifford B. Hooker, "Developing Internship Programs in .Local School Districts: Patterns for the Future," The Internship in Administration Preparation, ed. Stephen B. Hencley, (Columbus: UCEA - CASA, 1963). p. 25. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 138 The sponsoring district or agency shall be an equal partner in selecting from a number of candidates, those interns or trainees deemed most suitable for particular field experience. Internship and field activity shall provide a meaningful ser— vice to school areas no less than to the student or university program. In no other way can this type of training be actually authentic to the sponsoring district and thereby to the student. The internship program will probably never be a significant factor in preparation programs unless boards of education sense an opportunity to improve their schools in the process. This improvement may be in terms of direct services from the intern, leadership development of interns who are employees, or of recruitment opportunities.18 Students engaged in the internship or in field service shall have the opportunity to experience the normal risks of failure, to get the emotional feel of the real thing. Unless the student really participates in the administrative act, it is unlikely that such exposure will be anything more than that--a mere ex- posure to a somewhat artificial experience--a situation not easy to avoid. The university shall prepare and publish a directory of school districts and agencies willing and able to cooperate in field service proJects with administration students. The cost of internship and field training service shall be borne equally by the university, the school district and the Manitoba Department of Youth and Education, except in those cases where the student is an intern or otherwise in the regu- lar employ of the school board. The internship shall not constitute a mere apprenticeship in which the trainee is expected to pattern his behavior after a "successful" administrator. Since the employing admini- strator is simply behaving and responding to unique situa- tions, the student shall be expected to examine all behavior critically and scientifically, to evaluate it, and to reJect or accept it. But this learning process shall hopefully be on the basis of conceptual and human relations skills set in the context of the forces of the total administrative act. The intern shall not be a mere reflection of what he sees. 18Ibid. 139 G. Requirements for Graduation Many of the graduation requirements suggested in the data and the literature have already been tacitly implied in the exa- mination of the findings on Recruitment, Course Content and the other criteria. These have included items related to: (l) The need for flexibility and the elimination of false hurdles. (2) The necessity for internship and field experience. (3) Study in disciplines outside the field of education. (A) The dissertation and other requirements for research. The proposals applicable to training in Manitoba must in- clude not only these in reference to the Requirements for Gradua- tion, but also the requirements with regard to residency, foreign languages, the elimination of false hurdles and a directive on come prehensive examinations. These are included at this time. Recommendations 63. Since the graduate program is to be a flexible one, the student shall be expected to enroll in sufficient course work based on a four-year program and related to his needs. No fixed course load shall be prescribed but a student will be expected to submit a proposed study and activity outline for the ap- proval of his advisory committee. 6A. Every student shall complete some systematic period of super- vised internship and/or field experience. This may be under- taken prior to, during or in special circumstances following the other course work. However in all cases the field service shall be research oriented and precede the final approval of the dissertation. 65. To qualify for graduation at the doctoral level, the student shall have completed a sequence of study suitable to his ad- visory committee in some discipline other than education. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. H. 1A0 The student shall demonstrate by course work and practical research, a reasonable proficiency in statistics and research procedures. To qualify for doctoral graduation, the trainee shall have completed and defended a research dissertation at both master's and doctoral level. Master's students not intending to pursue the doctoral route may in special circumstance, opt for addi- tional study or research in lieu of the dissertation. To qualify for graduation, doctoral students shall normally complete two years of study in residence. Master's students, to be eligible for admission into the doctoral program, shall have spent not less than one academic year in residence. While supporting the principle of bilingualism as an element of general or liberal education, fluency in a second language shall not be deemed a requirement for graduation. A comprehensive examination in the essentials of administrative theory and practice shall be required of all students prior to the dissertation. Insofar as possible, false hurdles or irrelevant barriers shall be removed from the requirements for graduation. This state- ment presupposes the relevance of and necessity for expertise in research, field experience, research dissertation, a reason- able period of continuous residence study, adequate general or liberal education and a high level of competence in the area of administration and in some other discipline or cognate area. A predetermined grade-point average shall not be required at the doctoral level. However academic and professional compe- tencies will obviously be criteria during the earlier portion of the master's program. Students lacking the necessary aca- demic and personal aptitudes will be counselled out of the pro- fession and/or barred from proceeding beyond the master's degree. Feedback and Self-Evaluation From the respondents as well as from the literature it appears evident that there is a growing need for improved and ex- panded techniques in the planning, evaluation and develOpment of administration preparation programs. It would be incongruous in a profession primarily based on goal-setting, planning and evaluation, 1A1 if this were not done. Yet the data and research literature imply that the degree of planning based on systems and other rational de- vices is often limited, and that the efforts at evaluation are even less. The general reaction to the evaluation of existing programs by the respondents in the study was "What evaluation or feedback? I was not aware that any existed." Farquhar et a1. obtained simi- lar results to those in Manitoba and concluded that this was part of the general pattern. . . . significant proportions . . . perceived that little or no evaluation or development is conducted (and that) only a few universities commit professorial time and funds to the assessment and refinement of their preparatory programs. It is further apparent that what little program evaluation and development are conducted tend, in general, to be sporadic at best.19 The responses in the present study clearly confirm this Observation. There appear to be at least four reasons for the above stated condition: (1) a lack of appropriate criteria by which to Judge the product. (2) a lack of carefully planned programs with meaningful .and measurable obJectives. (3) a lack of support funds to develop and refine evaluative procedures. (A) a lack of staff time to conduct the evaluative tech- niques deemed necessary. 19Robin H. Farquhar et al., op. cit., p. A6A. 1A2 It will thus be probably some time before any really ef- fective evaluative and feedback process is applied universally and with reasonable hopes fOr success. Notwithstanding these obstacles, certain conclusions can be drawn from the data and generally sup- ported by the research literature. On this basis several proposals are advanced whereby the training program in Manitoba shall at least begin to take cognizance of the extreme importance of feedback and evaluation in the development of administrator preparation. 73. 7A. 75. 76. Recommendations A systematic follow-up procedure shall be established wherein recent graduates shall provide regular feedback and evaluation concerning the training that they have received. The alumni of the training program--superintendents, princi- pals, supervisors and others-~shall be consulted periodically for suggestions and proposals for the improvement and revision of training procedures. Students during their period of training shall be consulted for course appraisals on at least three occasions: (a) Immediately following the completion of any course for which they have enrolled. (b) At the conclusion of the second year of the master's program. (c) At the conclusion of the doctoral prOgram immediately following the presentation of dissertation. The entire period of training shall provide for the continuous evaluation of student performance. Some students may be coun- selled out of the program on the basis of regular course per- formance, but particularly in those appraisals that include the dimensions of conflict tolerance, culture shock, future shock and of levels of ambiguity. In addition to evaluating student suitability, such data will serve to modify incon- gruities and deficiencies in the program itself. 77. 78. 790 1A3 The training procedure shall make use of some apprOpriate form of a planning-programing-budgeting system, which at- tempts to relate costs to purposes. Such a system should undoubtedly help to provide a more rational approach for the acquisition of funds and for the most efficient allocation of them to achieve the obJectives of the program. Hack et a1. argue that It seems reasonable to expect that the group that pro- fesses (expertise) in the field of organization (should) have something to contribute to the shaping of the fu— ture university. The expertise of professors of edu- cational administration ought to enable them to work within the conflicted and indeterminate universitg0 system to secure the necessary financial support. At regular intervals external consultants shall be invited to evaluate and to make recommendations concerning the effec- tiveness of the entire area of administrator preparation. Invention teams, as contrasted to committees, shall be set up in the program, designed primarily to overcome the barriers to innovation. Clark and Guba note that efforts to effect change in university programs tend to be ad hoc, part-time, poorly supported efforts which hardly represent a planned program of intra—institu— tional change. . . . The posture of the higher educa- tion community today in regard to systematic, planned change is neither logical, sound nor tolerable. 20Walter G. Hack et al., Op. cit., p. 25. 21David L. Clark and Egon G. Guba, "Effecting Change in Institutions of Higher Education," Educational Administration International Perspectives, (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1969), passim, pp. 223 - 2A8. 1AA Conclusion As stated at the outset this has been a study directed at the preparation of administrative leadership in education. It was the premise that a common viewpoint existed among principals, in- spectors and superintendents regarding the characteristics needed for the design of a preparatory program; that these were reasonably congruent with the views of universities and finally that from them there could be developed the bases of a training program appropriate to Manitoba. While such a level of congruence was not complete, there was enough similarity in the categories examined to establish a consen- sus. When these were viewed in the context of current theory and research, there was sufficient consistency to formulate principles appropriate for administrator preparation. However the conclusions are drawn only in reference to Manitoba. They are enunciated in the form of seventy-nine recommenda- tions in the familiar categories of Recruitment, Content, Structure, Instruction, Research, Field Experience, Graduation and Evaluation. All recommendations are consistent with the data and with the available research or literature. On the basis of these recom- mendations, the necessary training policies can be developed, which will constitute the essentials of a suitable program. It has already been indicated that the present investigation was necessarily confined to the pre-training of superintendents and principals before they entered educational service. Notwithstanding 1A5 this delimitation, there remains an aspect of administrator de- velOpment perhaps as significant as the basic preparation, and which merits brief comment. This is the apparent need for univers— ity leadership to provide administrators with in—service and other special programs designed to foster the professional develOpment of educators actively engaged in the management of schools and school systems. Three factors impel departments of educational administration to expand their scope of training: (a) the expo- nential rate of social, technological and educational change, (b) the complexity of the skills and knowledge needed for the Job, precluding the possibility of final methods or absolute solutions and (c) the inevitable limitations of the advance training, which is at best merely an introduction and frame of reference for the kinds of learning that can ultimately take place only on the Job. Consequently it is apprOpriate to stress that preparatory or advance training and post- or in-service training have actually become inseparable. Both must be viewed by university administra- tion departments as two sides of the same coin. What happens to trainees after they enter administrative employment is no less the concern of universities than those experiences occurring before employment. During the next few years such a dichotomy of empha— sis seems consistent with educational events and with the available body of research. The writer would conclude from the evidence that this extension of obJectives to serve practicing as well as fledgl- . ing administrators is already overdue. The universities' expanding 1A6 involvement with the problems of administrative practitioners pre- sents one of the significant challenges to those institutions really intent on stimulating innovative and enlightened procedures among educational leaders. If there is any one over-riding conclusion resulting from this study, it surely is that the training of administrators must be viewed as a multitude of complex forces and experiences in which the trainee develops. There is no single formula or ration- ale for training. Rather there is a set of interlocking systems and subsystems. Thus the training process can be best understood in the total milieu of change and growth, of sociological, psychological, physical and economic forces--all in a state of flux. To attempt to comprehend the training process by examining and treating the ob- vious and superficial forces, is analogous to tending the plant without understanding the hidden sources from which it draws its strength. If men Judge that learning should be referred to action, they Judge well; but in this they fall into the error de- scribed in the ancient fable, in which the other parts of the body did suppose the stomach had been idle, because it neither performed the office of motion, as the limbs do, nor of sense, as the head doth; but yet notwithstanding it is the stomach that digesteth and distri- buteth to all the rest. So if any man think philosophy and universality to be idle studies, he doth not consider that all professions are from thence served and supplied. And this I take to be a great cause that hath hindered the pro- gression of learning because these fund- amental knowledges have been studied but 11:7 in passage. For if you will have a tree bear more fruit than it hath used to do, it is not anything you can do to the boughs, but it is the stirring of the earth and putting new mould about the roots that must work it.22 22Francis Bacon, Of The Proficience And Advancement Of Learning, Book II, Section 8, (1605). BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS Anderson, G. Lester. "Professional Education: Present Status and Continuing Problems" in Education fOr the Professions, Sixty- first Yearbook of National Society for Education, Part III. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1962. Anderson, Walter A. and Richard Lonsdale. "Learning Admini- strative Behavior," Administrative Behavior in Education. (eds. Roald F. Campbell and R. T. Gregg). New York: Harper and Row. 1957. Argyris, Chris. Executive Leadership. New York: Harper and Brothers. 1953. Argyris, Chris. Personality and Organization. New York: Harper and Row. 1957. Bacon, Francis. Of the Proficience and Advancement of Learning, 1605. Book II, Section 8. Bakke, E. Wight. Personality and Organization. New York: Harper and Brothers. 1957. Barnard, Chester I. The Functions of the Executive. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 1966. Bennis, Warren G., Kenneth D. Benne and Robert Chin (eds.). The Planning of Change. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston Inc. 1961. Better Teaching in School Administration. CPEA Center, George Peabody College. 1955. Boyan, Norman J. "Problems and Issues of Knowledge Production and Utilization," Knowledge Production and Utilization in Educational Administration. 196A. Briner, Conrad. "The Role of Internships in the Total Prepara- tion Program for Educational Administration: A Frontier Perspective," The Internship in Administrative Preparation. (ed. Stephen Hencley). Columbus: UCEA. 1963. 1A8 1A9 Caplow, Theodore and Reece J. McGee. The Academic Market Place. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 1961. Clark, David L. and Egon G. Guba. "Effecting Change in Institutions of Higher Education," Educational Administration Inter- national Perspectives. Chicago: Rand McNally. 1969. Culbertson, Jack. "Common and Specialized Content in the Prepara- tion of Administrators," Preparation Programs fOr School Ad- ministration--Common and Specialized Learning_. Columbus: UCEA. 1963. Culbertson, Jack. Educational Leadership During the 1970's. U.C.E.A. Symposium, American Educational Research Association, 19700 Culbertson, Jack, Robin H. Farquhar, Alan K. Gaynor and Mark R. Shibles. Preparing Educational Leaders for the Seventies. University Council for Educational Administration. Columbus: 1969. The Education of a School Superintendent. The American Associa- tion of School Administrators. 1963. Farquhar, Robin H. et al. "Educational Leadership and School Organization in the 1970's," Symposium Papers,_American Educational Research Association. UCEA. Columbus: 1970. Fourth Annual Southwestern Conference on Improving Preparation for School Administrators. Southwestern COOperative Pro- gram in Educational Administration. Austin, Texas: University of Texas. 195A. Galton, F. English Men of Science, Their Nature and Nurture. (London, 187A, as cited in Morris J. Stein and Shirley J. Heinze -- "Creativity and the Individual." Glencoe, Ill.: Graduate School of Business, University of Chicago. 1960. Gardner, John W. Self Renewal. New York: Harper Colophon Books. 1965. Getzels, J. W. and A. P. Coladarci. The Use of Theopy in Edu- cational Administration. StanfOrd University Press. 1955. Goldhammer, Keith. The Social Sciences and the Preparation of Educational Administrators. Columbus, Ohio: UCEA. 1963. 150 Goldhammer, Keith et a1. Issues and Problems in Contemporary Educational Administration. Center for Advanced Study of Educational Administration. Eugene: University of Oregon. 1967. H Gregg, Russell T. "Preparation of Administrators, The Encyclo- paedia of Educational Research, Fourth Edition. 1969. Griffiths, Daniel E. The School Superintendent. New York: The Center for Applied Research in Education, Inc. 1966. Griffiths, Daniel E. "Toward a Theory of Administrative Be— havior." Administrative Behavior in Education. New York: Harper and Row. 1957. Gross, Neal and Robert E. Herriott. Staff Leadership in Public Schools: A Sociological Inquiry. New York: Wiley and Sons. 1965. Hall, Roy M. and Kenneth E. McIntyre. The Student Personnel Program, Administrative Behavior in Education. New York: Harper and Row. 1957. Halpin, Andrew W. (ed.) Administrative Theory in Education. Chicago: University of Chicago, Midwest Administrative Center. 1958. Harlow, James G. "Purpose Defining: The Central Function of the School Administrator," Education Administration Quarterl . Winter, 1965. Hemphill, John K. Situational Factors in Leadership. Columbus: Ohio State University Press. 19A9. Homans, George C. The Human Group. New York: Harcourt Brace. 1950. Hooker, Clifford B. "Developing Internship Programs in Local School Districts: Patterns for the Future." The Intern- ship in Administration Preparation. (ed. Stephen B. Hencley). Columbus: UCEA - CASA. 1963. Kahn, Robert, D. M. Wolfe, R. P. Quinn,J. D. Snoek and R. A. Rosenthal. Organizational Stress Studies in Role Conflict and Ambiguigy. New York: Wiley and Sons. 196A. Katz, E. and P. F. Lazarfield. Personal Influence. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press. 1955. 151 Leu, Donald J. and Herbert Rudman. Preparation Programs for School Administrators. UCEA Seminar, Michigan State University, 1963. Likert, Rensis. New Patterns of Management. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961. Lonsdale, Richard C., and Donald J. McCarty. "Learning Experiences for Tomorrow's Superintendent," The Internship in Administra— tive Preparation. Columbus: UCEA, 1963. May, Rollo. Man's Search for Himself. New York: Signet Books, 1967. Miklos, Erwin R. "The Behavioral Sciences and Educational Admini- stration: Some Reconsiderations. Educational Administration: International Perspectives. (eds. George Baron, Dan Cooper, and William Walker). New York: Rand McNally, 1969. Miller, David W. and Martin K. Starr. The Structure of Human Decisions. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall Inc., 1967. Moehlman, Arthur B. School Administration. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin Co., 1951. Organization and Administration of Public Schools in Canada. Ottawa: Queen's Printer, Dominion Bureau of Statistics, 1966. Pierce, Truman M. and E. C. Merrill, Jr. "The Individual and Administrative Behavior," Administrative Behavior in Edu- cation. New York: Harper and Row, 1957. Professional Preparation of School Superintendents. American Association of School Administrators, Committee for Advance- ment of School Administration. AASA, 196A. Ramseyer, John A. "The Internship: Some Problems and Issues," The Internship_in Administrative Preparation. Columbus: UCEA. 1963. Recommendations and Report of a Survey. New York Regents of Advisory Committee on Educational Leadership, Chief School Officers. Albany: The Committee, 1967. Reller, Theodore L. "A Comprehensive Program for Preparing Administrators," Preparing Administrators: New Perepectives. Columbus: UCEA, 1962. 152 Shaw, Archibald B. "What is Administration?" Educational Admini- stration. (eds. walter G. Hack, John A. Ramseyer, William J. Gephart and James B. Heck). Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1968. Simon, Herbert. Administrative Behavior. New York: Macmillan Co., 1957. Stark, Freya. The Lycian Shore. New York: Harcourt Brace and World, 1956. Tope, Donald, et al. The Social Sciences View School Administra- tion. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965. Wengert, E. S. "Education of the Administrator," A Study of Administration. (eds. Keith Goldhammer et a1). Eugene, Oregon: University of Oregon, 1961. Whyte, William H. The Organization Man. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1956. B. PERIODICALS AND ARTICLES Annual Report of Department of Youth and Education, Province of Manitoba. Winnipeg: Queen's Printer, 1969. Argyris, Chris. "The Individual and the Organizational Structure" from Personnel Practice and Policy. American Management Association Personnel Series. No. 156. New York, 1956. Baughman, M. Dale. Sharpening the Image of School Administrators. Illinois School Research, May, 1966. Bennis, Warren G. and Herbert Shepherd. "A Theory of Group Development," Human Relations, vol. 9, no. A, 1965. Callahan, Raymond E. and H. Warren Button. "Historical Change of Role of the Man in Organizations: 1865-1950," Behavioral Science and Educational Administration. (ed. Daniel E. Griffiths), 63rd Yearbook, Part II, NSSE. Chicago: Chicago Press, 1963. Cartwright, Dorwin. "Achieving Change in People: Some Applica- tions of Group Dynamics," Human Relations, No. A, 1951. Conant, James B. "What Superintendents Lack," School Management, Vol. 7, No. 5. May, 1963. 153 Corwin, Ronald G. "Professional Persons in Public Organizations," Educational Administration Quarterly, Vol. 1, NO. 3. Autumn, 1965. Culbertson, Jack. Differentiated Training for Professors and Educational Administrators. Paper prepared for Vice- Presidential address, American Educational Research Associa- tion, 1968. Cullinan, Paul and Robert Ruderman. "A Prototype Computer Based System," The Design and Development of Prototype Instructional Materials for Preparing Educational Administrators. Edmonton: University of Alberta, 1963. Farquhar, Robin H. "The Humanities and Educational Administration: Rationales and Recommendation." The Journal of Educational Administration, Vol. VI, No. 2, October, 1968. Farquhar, Robin H. and Jack Culbertson. "Preparing Educational Leaders," UCEA Newsletter. October, 1970. Flexner, Abraham. Medical Education in the United States and Canada. The Carnegie Foundation for Advancement of Teaching, Bulletin A. 1910. Funk, HOward V. and Robert T. Livingston. A Tri-Dimensional View of the Job of Educational Administration. New York: CPEA, TeachersT College, Columbia University. March, 1963. Getzels, Jacob W. and Egon G. Guba. "Social Behavior and the Administrative Process," School Review LXV. Winter, 1957. Griffiths, Daniel E. "The Nature and Meaning of Theory," Behavioral Science and Educational Administration. NSSE, 196A. Hack, walter G., et a1. Report of the 1985 Committee of the National Conference of Professors of Educational Administra- tion. Lafayette, 1970. Halpin, Andrew. "Essay Previews: Behavioral Science and Educa— tional Administration," Education Administration QuarterLy. Winter, 1965. Likert, Rensis. Measuring Organizational Performance. Harvard Business Review. March - April, 1958. McIntyre, Kenneth E. Selection of Candidates for Professional Training in Fields Other Than Educational Administrators. Report of UCEA Task Force. University of Utah, 1965. 15A McIntyre, Kenneth E. "The Current Scene: How We Are Now Instruct- ing Tomorrow's Educational Administrators," Strategies in the Preparation of School Administrators. Annual Report of National Conference of Professors of Educational Administration. 196A. Miklos, Erwin. "Role Theory in Administration." The Canadian Administrator, III. November, 1963. Miller, Van. Common and Specialized Learnings for Educational Administrators. A Position Paper of UCEA. 196A. Mooney, Ross L. "Problems in the Development of Research Man." Educational Research Bulletin, 30. Columbus: The Ohio State University. September, 1951. Moore, Hollis A., Jr. "Ferment in School Administration," Behavioral Science and Educational Administration. Chicago: Chicago University Press, NSSE Yearbook. 1963. Moore, Hollis A., Jr. "Studies in School Administration," A Report of CPEA - AASA. 1957. Neagley, Ross L. Recruitment and Selection of School Administra- tors. New York: Teachers' College, Columbia University, CPEA. March, 1953. Ohm, Robert. "A Game Model Analysis of Conflicts of Interest Situa- tions in Administration," Education Administration Quarterly, Vol. IV, No. 3. Autumn, 1968. Reeves, A. W. "Trends in Canadian School Administration," The Canadian Administrator. Edmonton: University of Alberta. October, 1962} Schein, Edgar H. "Management Development as a Process of Influence," Industrial Management Review. May, 1961. Stogdill, Ralph M. Personal Factors Associated with Leadership; A Survey of the Literature. Journal of Psychology, Vol. 25, l9A8. Talbot, Allan R. Needed: A New Breed of School Superintendent. Harpers Magazine. February, 1966. Tannenbaum, Robert and Warren H. Schmit. How to Choose a Leader- ship Pattern. Harvard Business Review. April, 1958. 155 Thomas, Michael P., Jr. "Strategies in the Preparation of School Administrators. Annual Report National Conference of Professors of Educational Administration. 196A. Wilson, WOodrow. "The Study of Administration," Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 2. June, 1887. C. MISCELLANEOUS READINGS Andrews, J. H. M. Emerging Trends in Administration of Canadian School Systems. Paper given at Western Canadian Educational Administration Conference. Calgary: University of Calgary. 1970. Baron, George, Daniel Cooper and William Walker. Educational Administration: International Perspectives. UCEA Inter- national Seminar. Lincolnwood: Rand McNally and Co., Col- lege Department, 1966. Baron, George and W. Taylor. Educational Administration and the Social Sciences. London: Athone Press, University of London. 1969. Bee, Clifford Paul. Description and Analysis of Study Develeped by Michigan Department of Education for Conducting State Wide Assessment of Education Needs. 1969. ‘ Behavioral Science and Educational Administration. National Soci- ety for the Study of Education, 63rd Yearbook. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 196A. Berelson, Bernard and Gary A. Steiner. Human Behavior an Inventory of Scientific Findingy. New York: Harcourt Brace and World. 196A. Blauner, Robert. Work Satisfaction and Industrial Trends. Complex Organizations. New YOrk: HOlt Rinehart. 1961. Block, Herbert A. and Melvin Prince. Social Crises and Deviance. New York: Random House. 1967. Callahan, Raymond E. Education and the Cult of Efficiency. Chicago: University of Chicago. 1962. Card, B. Y. Trends and Change in Canadian Society. Toronto: Macmillan. 1968. 156 Carnahan, A. T. and Donald Young. The Changing Role of Supervision. The Emerging Role of Superintendents. Yearbook of Canadian Superintendents. Toronto: Ryerson Press. 1968. Changing Role of Supervision. Canadian Association of Superintend- ents and Inspectors. Toronto: Ryerson Press. 1968. Conant, James B. ShapinguEducational Policy. New York: McGraw- Hill. 196A. Costello, Timothy and Sheldon Zalkind. Psychology in Administration. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall. 1963. Culbertson, Jack and Stephen Hencley. Educational Research: New Perspectives. Paper presented at regional research seminars. Danville, Ill.: Interstate Printers and Publishers. 1961. Culbertson, Jack and Stephen Hencley. Preparing Administrators: New Perspectives. Columbus, Ohio: University Council for Educational Administration. 1962. Cunningham, Luvern L. Simulation and Preparation of Educational Administrators. International Intervisitation Conference. UCEA, University of Michigan. 1966. Cunningham, Luvern L., et a1. "Implications for Administrator Training Programs," The Social Sciences and Educational Admini- stration. Edmonton: University of Alberta. 1963. Downey, Lawrence W. and Frederick Enns. The Social Sciences and Educational Administration. Edmonton: University of Alberta. 1963. Downey, Lawrence W. and T. Barr Greenfield. Leadership Training for Educational Administrators. Edmonton: University of Alberta. 1961. Flower, George E. and Freeman K. Stewart. Leadership in Action. Toronto: W. J. Gage. 1958. Gardner, B. B. and D. G. Moore. Human Relations in Industry. Homewood, Ill.: Irwin and Co., 1952. Griffiths, Daniel E. Human Relations in School Administration. New York: Appleton Century Crofts. 1956. Gross, Bertram M. Organizations and Their Meuegiug. New York: Free Press. 1968. 157 Gross, Neal, Ward S. Mason and Alexander W. McEacheran. Egplora- tions in Role Analysis. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. 1966 o Hampton, David R., Charles E. Summer and Ross Webber. Organiza- tional Behavior and the Practice of Management. Glenview, 111.: Scott, Foresman and Co. 1968. Handy, H. W. and K. M. Hussain. Network Anelysis for Educational Management. Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice-Hall. 1969. Harris, Robin S. Changing Patterns of Higher Education in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto. 1966. Hencley, Stephen P. The Internship in Administration Preparation. Columbus, Ohio. 1963. Jay, Anthony. Management and Machiavelli. New YOrk: Bantam Books. 1968. Johnson, F. Henry. A Brief History_of Canadian Education. New York: McGrawaHill. 1968. Katz, Robert L. Skills of an Effective Business Administrator. Harvard Business Review. January, 1955. Kerber, August and Wilfred R. Smith. (eds.) Educational Issues in a Changing Society. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 1968. Knesevitch, Stephen J. Administration of Public Education, 2nd edition. New York: Harper and Row. 1969. Koontz, Harold and Cyril O'Donnell. The Principles of Management-- An Analysis of Managerial Functions. New York: McGraw-Hill. 196A. Liberman, Myron. The Future of Public Education. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1967. Lippman, Walter. The Public Philosophy. New York: Mentor Books. 1956. Malik, Anand. (ed.) Social Foundations of Canadian Education. Scarborough: Prentice-Hall. 1969. McIntyre, Kenneth E. Selection of Educational Administrators. UCEA and University of Texas. 1966. 158 Miklos, Erwin. The Behavioral Sciences and Educational Admini- stration: Some Reconsiderations. International Intervisita- tion Seminar. UCEA, University of Michigan. 1966. National Teachers' Examination in Educational Background and Administrative and Supervisory Aptitude. Princeton: Princeton Educational Testing Service. 1963. Phillips, C. E. The DevelOpment of Education in Canada. Toronto: W. G. Gage Ltd. 1957. Presthus, Robert. The Organizational Society. New York: Vintage Books. 1962. Professional Administrators for America's Schools. 38th Yearbook. American Association of School Administrators. 1960. Report of the Manitoba Royal Commission on Education. Winnipeg: Queen's Printer. 1959. Report of the Manitoba Royal Commission on Local Government Organ- ization and Finance. Winnipeg: Queen's Printer. 196A. Rosenthal, Alan. (ed.) Governing Education. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books (Doubleday and Co.). 1969. Schein, Edgar H. Organizational Psychology. Toronto: Prentice- Hall. 1965. Sears, Jesse B. City School Administrative Controls. New York: McGraw—Hill. 1938. Sutermeister, Robert A. People and Productivity. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1969. Toward Improved School Administration--A Decade of Professional Effort to Improve Administration; Understanding and Skills. W. K. Kellogg Foundation. Battle Creek: Sequoia Press. 1961. Walker, G. William. Trends and Issues in Preparation of Educa- tional Administrators. Intervisitation to University of Michigan. 1966. APPENDI CES MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY EAST LANSING - MICHIGAN 48823 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION - DEPARTMENT OF ADMINISTRATION AND HIGHER EDUCATION BRICKSON HALL Re: Research Study by Carl Bjarnason Preparation of Educational Administrators Few things in public education are of more concern than the preparation of educational leaders for tomorrow's schools. Like you, the Department of Educational Administration at Michigan State University is vitally interested in improving methods for training school administrators. We are seeking the benefit of your experience and knowledge in a research study that is being conducted by Carl Bjarnason, a Manitoban with wide experience in education and administration and who is attached to the staff Of the University of Manitoba. It deals with the preparation of administrators generally, but especially in the context of Manitoba. We are primarily interested in getting from a select sample of those who have been actively engaged in the administration of schools, their views on questions related to the training of school administrators. Through this study it is hoped to determine whether a consensus can be established between the thinking of those engaged in administration and the training principles now Operating in universities of Canada and the United States. Should this be possible, it may assist in planning preparatory programs that reflect the actual needs of administrators and incorporate more quickly practices and techniques that appear to hold promise. You will receive in the near future a questionnaire designed to get your best judgments on how professional administrators should be prepared. As a long-time school administrator, I know how busy you are--e3pecially at this time of the year. Nevertheless I hope that we can count on your support in this venture directly related to our common concern--the preparation of administrators for effective public service and the develOpment of the profession. Yours sincerely, \ W% J Archibald B. Shaw, Professor Administration and Higher Education ABS/lvh 159 MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY EAST LANSING . MICHIGAN 48823 COLLEGE OF EDUCATION . DEPARTMENT OF ADMINISTRATION AND HIGHER EDUCATION ERICKSON HALL Re: Research Study by Carl Bjarnason Preparation of Educational Administrators This is a request for assistance from you or your department in a research project being undertaken by one of our graduate students. Carl Bjarnason, who is a member of the staff of the Department of Educational Administration, University of Manitoba and a former superintendent of schools, is examining the problem, "The Preparation of School Administrators in Manitoba." He is attempting to establish a consensus between the practices of United States and Canadian Universities and the expressed needs of Canadian administrators as to how school administrators should be prepared. Since he requires a cross-section of current university views on administrator preparation, I am soliciting the cooperation of one or two members of your staff in replying to the questionnaire that Mr. Bjarnason wishes to direct to your office. In view of the general concern with improving our programs of leadership preparation, and the fact that many of our problems in educational administration are similar to those encountered in Canada, I would appreciate any support that is possible. The questionnaire is directed at many of the issues recently raised by the UCEA in "Preparing Educational Leaders for the Seventies." If for any reason this request is inconvenient or an imposition on you or your colleagues, please let me know. Yours very truly, Archibald B. Shaw, Professor Administration and Higher Education ABS/lvh 160 MNNI'Hflri DEPUTY MINIS'I'FR OF EDUCATION wumu‘rCl September 23, 1970 Re: Research Study--Carl Bjarnason Preparation of Educational Administrators Few things are of more pressing concern in public education than the selection and preparation of imaginative leaders for tomorrow's schools. All of us engaged in public education are interested in any activity that focuses attention on this problem. At the present time Carl Bjarnason, a staff member of the Department of Educational Administration, The University of Manitoba, and a former school—administrator, is engaged in a doctoral research study with Michigan State University—-”The Prepar— ation of Educational Administrators in Manitoba." We ask for your support in the project. Very briefly the research, focused on Manitoba but applicable to Canada generally, attempts to determine whether a consensus regarding the content and methods used in administrator—preparetion can be established between those guiding education-— Superintendents, Principals, and School Bonrds-—nnd the universities who must ultimately provide the professional training. One of the criteria in the research will be the professional judgments from a select "Panel of Ten” experienced Canadian administrators residing outside of Manitoba, holding doctoral qualifications and who have achieved some provincial or national recognition, while actively engaged in the administration of school systems. The opinions of the "Panel of Ten," stating how they think educational leaders should be trained in Canada, will be used as a basis for reconciling the practices and attitudes of universities with the needs expressed by school admin- istrators in Manitoba. Your willingness to serve on this panel and your cooperation in responding to the questionnaire, which you will shortly receive from Mr. Bjarnnson, would be of real assistance. It is expected that nothing further will be required of you. We appreciate your support and extend our thanks. Yours very truly, /{€2%Q3ajéE;/txt4nnZL W. C. Lorimer, Deputy Minister. wCL/b 161 THE UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA FACULTY OF EDUCATION WINNIPEG, CANADA September 25, 1970 Re: The Preparation of Educational Administrators: A Research Study by Carl Bjarnason. A short time ago you received a letter soliciting cooperation in a study dealing with university programs for training school administrators. While this project is primarily concerned with training superintendents and principals in Manitoba and Western Canada, the questions raised are relevant to administrator-preparation in general. . I now request your professional assistance in responding to the enclosed question- naire designed to obtain data from experienced administrators, lay people involved in education, and university personnel. Your views and suggestions-on the selection and preparation of administrators - if they are to cope with the challenges of the seventies - will be invaluable. The questionnaire, while not complex, is rather demanding because it attempts to seek out: (a) your most candid appraisal of strengths and weaknesses in current programs, (b) a summary of the course content that should be provided either on a required or optional basis, and (c) an enuncia- tion of policies, principles and practices to be considered in the training process. I am confident that, like myself, you have a vital interest and concern in the development of the administrative profession. Your ideas and opinions, therefore, may help to identify basic principles useful in the design of programs for training educational leaders in Manitoba. The aims of the study are supported by my coll- eague, Dr. J. Peach, Director of Educational Administration, The University of Manitoba; Dr. W. C. Lorimer, Deputy Minister, Manitoba Department of Education and my advisor Dr. A. B. Shaw, Department of Educational Administration and Higher Education, Michigan State University.< Your response and support in this modest venture are greatly appreciated; I thank you for participating and regret the demand on your time and energy. Yours sincerely, Carl Bja son, Associate Professor, 7 Department of Educational Administration. 162 QUESTIONNAIRE THE PREPARATION OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATORS Developed as a Research Study Michigan State University Department of Educational Administration The questionnaire on the following pages has been designed to obtain from superintendents, school principals, and trustees of Manitoba, from university departments of Educational Administration and from administrators' associations, information which will pro- vide judgments on programs for preparing school administrators. The information provided is particularly significant to Manitoba and Western Canada but is also relevant to educational administration, generally. The questionnaire consists of three parts: Section I deakswith a broad appraisal of the general Strengths and Weaknesses observed in present programs. Section II is directed at the Content of Programs; and the elements are examined as 'Requisites' or 'Electives' with their relative importance. Section III requires definition of those particular Policies, . Principles and Practices which appear most appropriate for administrator preparation at the graduate level. (B.Ed.-M.Ed.; Ph.D.; and Specialist) NAME: ' DATE:~ POSITION: ADDRESS: CB-9-70. 163 _ 2 _ Section I Strengths and Weaknesses of Present Programs On the basis of university programs with which you are most familiar, please indicate briefly the strengths and weaknesses of current practices related to each of the stated categories of administrator preparation. 1. Recruitment and Selection--the success of recruiting methods used by Ed. Admin. Departments to identify and attract candidates having the personal and professional potential for effective leadership. Strengths: Weaknesses: 2. Program Content-—the degree to which the courses of study and related activities contribute to the prospective administrator's general and specialized knowledge and to the development of concepts, judgment and skills. ' Strengths: Weaknesses: Section I cont. 3. Program Structure--the ways in which the elements of the training process are organized or structured: the core-sequence of required learnings, the opportunities for relevant electives, the degree of balance between generalized and specialized study, and the flexibility to meet special student needs and interests. Strengths: Weaknesses: The Methodology of Instruction--the variety and effectiveness of instructional approaches used in the training process: seminars, audio-visual media, laboratories, case—studies, team- teaching, group processes, student-planning, independent study, lectures and in—basket techniques. Strengths: Weaknesses: 16h Section I cont. 5. Student Research-~the extent to which the skills and attitudes of the scientific method are achieved by Administation students: the kinds of problems selected for dissertations or theses, the opportunities for students to become aware of major research findings, and the use and regard for research, however modest, as a necessary tool in educational administration. Strengths: Weaknesses: Experiences in the Field--the opportunities provided for students during the training period to experience real—life problems en- countered by administrators; organized internship, university- sponsored surveys, associations with superintendents or principals, assignments in the solution of practical problems, attendance at administrative conferences or workshops and actual case studies. Strengths: Weaknesses: Section I cont. 7. Graduation Standards--the demands placed on students to qualify for the Master's or Doctoral Degree, or Specialist's Certificate; the minimum period of residence study, skill in a second language, grade-point average, study in a cognate or related field, re- quirements re dissertation and research, and permissible time for completion of graduate program. Strengths: Weaknesses: Feedback and Self-Evaluation--how the institution determines whether its procedures for preparing educational administrators are really effective: to what extent it possesses a built—in system for self—evaluation and continuous growth-change; whether it regularly seeks out successful administrators to gauge the relevance and effectiveness of the training program; how pro— cedures are revised on the basis of these and other evaluations; and whether any attempt is made to measure the success of trainees with a view to examining admission policy, course— structure, content and instructional methods. Strengths: Weaknesses: 165 _ 6 _ Section II Program Content in the Major Administration Area Listed here is an inventory of the course elements frequently offered by universities in their programs preparing principals and superintendents for careers in education. Some of these learnings can be classified as 'requisites' and required of all students majoring in Educational Administration. Others are options or 'electives' from which the student elects a certain number of credit hours in consultation with his advisory committee. The student will undoubtedly complete additional studies in related areas of Education and in other disciplines. 1. Please classify each subject-field as 'requisite' or 'elective' by circling R or E in the space provided. ii. For each element that you classify as 'Elective', also indicate the relative importance that you attach to it, by circling in the appropriate column one of the following letters: a = Important b = Limited Importance c = No Real Importance iii. Space is provided to add other elements of study if you so desire. EFT W Requisite Elective Course Elements R E a b c 1. Theory of Administration . . . . . . . R E 'a b c 2. Practice and Principles of Admin. . . R E a b c 3. Admin. of Institutions (El. School, Sec. School, Community College, etc.). R E a b c 4. Business Admin. of Schools . . . . . . R E a b c 5. Admin. of Special Programs (Aud-Vis., Voc. Ed., Music, Art, Guid., Special Ed., etc.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R E a b c 6. Organization Behavior . . . . . . . . . R E a b c _ 7 - Section II cont. M Requisite ElectivefiJf Course Elements R E a b ,9 7. Admin. of Ed. in Canada (or U.S.A.) . J R E a b c 8. Admin. of Higher Education . . . . . . R E a b c 9. Educational Law . . . . . . . . . . . R E a b c 10. Finance and Economics of Ed. . . . . . R ‘ E a b c 11. School Plant . . . . . ... . . . . . .I R i E a b c 12. Intro. to Research Methods . . . . . . R E. a b c 13. Elementary Statistics and Research . . R E a b c 14. Advanced Statistics and-Research . . . g R E a b c 15. Foundation of Ed. (History & Phil.) . .f R E a b c 16. Comparative Education . . . . . . . . . R E a b c 17. Sociology of Education . . . . . . . . R E a b c 18. Relations with Local, Provincial (or i State) & Federal Governments . . . . . R g E' a b c 19. Community Problems (Race, Poverty, i Crime, Drugs, Inequity, etc. . . . . . R E a b c 20. Theories of Learning . . . . . . . . . R g E a b c 21. Educational Psychology . . . . . . . . R E . a b c 22. Social Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . R E a b c 23. Group Processes and Behavior . . . . . R E a b c 24. Principles and Practices of Curriculum . A R E a b c 25. Public Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . R E a‘ b c 26. Personnel (Staff and Students) . . . . . R E a b c 27. Ed. Admin. in Other Countries . . . . . R E a b c 28. Evaluation of Educational Programs . . . R E a b c 29. Internship and Field Experience . . . . R E a b c 30. Independent Study in Educational Admin. R E a b c 166 Section II cont. Section III Policies, Principles.and Practices and Practices that should be considered in planning administrator- . training programs for the 70's. From the three possible responses, Listed below are statements relating to Policies, Principles 'A', 'B' or 'C', circle the letter in the appropriate column that best describes your reaction to each statement: Yes, I definitely agree. I agree but with certain qualifications. No, I do not agree. A B C l-=============:I Elective Course Elements 8 b 31. Crucial Issues in Education . . . . . R a b 32. Administration and Use of Ed. Media . R a b 33. Computers, Systems, Operational Research, Data Processing, etc. . . . R a b 34. Theory and Prac. of Communications .. R a b 35. The Dynamics of Planned Change . . . R a b 36. (other) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R a b 37. (other) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . R a b * a * * * * 2. Successful previous experience in Education should generally be required for admission into Educational Administration . . . . . . . . . . The admission regulations for Educational Admin. should provide special appeal procedures for students who lack some formal requirements, but who appear to possess other compensating abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . An adequate rating in the Miller's Analogy, Grad. Record Examination, or some other reput- able scholastic aptitude prediction is a nec- essity for admission to the program . . . . . . . . Section III Cont. 4. 10. 11. 12. 13. “W—u—o’.‘ - —.- .- — —A- - -———-. —-—— It is necessary to expand the pool of suitable candidates for Ed. Admin. by seeking them out and also by re-evaluating the effectiveness of present admission requirements . . . . . . . A program's recruiting and screening procedures largely determine the degree of freedom and flexibility that can be provided in planning each student's learning activities . . . . . A minimum grade-point average at the under- graduate level (except in unusual cases) must continue to be one important criterion for admission into Administration . . . . . . . . . There is a negative influence on the quality and quantity of recruits for administrative training because the great majority of those recruited are not identified until AFTER they have had experience in teaching or administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The socio—psychological elements of group processes, and the development of skills in group situations, deserve high priority in the preparation of school administrators . . . Some part of the preparation of every ed. administrator should be in studies clearly directed toward a more liberal education: literature, art, history, philosophy, etc. . . The content of programs in Educational Administration should shift from the traditional description of administrative traits and practices, and move toward a theoretical and conceptual framework based on the application of the social and be- havioral sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A year—long seminar in the Literature of Education might partly meet the need for developing ”specialized-generalists" in Ed. Admin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A background in social psychology is indis- pensable for Ed. Administrators in the 70's . A sound background in the Foundation of Ed. (PhilOSOphy, History of Ed., Comparative Ed.) is essential for developing a broad perspective of present educational issues . . . . . . . . . ..t‘...—_.;.-s ——- -,~—.¢———‘- '3’Vw" _—.._ A 167 _ 10 _ Section III cont. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. The field of Community Relations and Community Problems (quite apart from public relations or Ed. Sociology} today suggests a separate study, by all who will administer ed. organizations. . . Considerably more importance should be attached to develOping skills in planning, decision- making and communications . . . . . . . . . . . . The increasing role played by local, provincial or state, and federal governments suggests the Politics of Education as a necessary study in Ed. Admin. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Certain specialized (but related) areas cannot be conveniently handled by the Dept. of Educational Admin. For this reason more en- couragement must be given to interdisciplinary studies by means of visiting professors or by students' registering in departments other than Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . More prominence should be given in Ed. Admin. (apart from the uses in research) to the devel— opment of skills for the practical application of systems-analysis, computers, data processing etc. in school systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . The theoretical bases and practical techniques of modern management studies, used success- fully in business and industry and often dir— ectly applicable to school administration, should become subjects of study. . . . . . . . . . Administrators will be less able to cope ade- quately with the growing incidence of student unrest and teacher-militancy, unless under— standings of the problems and counter strat- egies are developed during their training period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Some dissatisfaction has been expressed at the lack of meaningful in—service for helping superintendents. The university has a re- sponsibility to superintendents and principals, after they have entered the admin. field. . . . . The common structure requiring approximately two graduate years for the B.Ed.-M.Ed. in Admin., followed by two years of doctoral study and practice, appears to be most acceptable. . . . . . _ 11 - Section III cont. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. While the disadvantages and weaknesses of grades are well—known, there still remains no better alternative to an evaluation indicated by a grade-point average. . . . . . . . . . . . . There should be a fundamentally different approach between the program designed to prepare researchers and that intended for administrators in admin. . . . . . . . . . . . . It has been said that most University Admin. Depts. spread themselves too thin, by trying to do too much and doing few things well. Educational Admin., in its planning and programming should determine what it is uniquely qualified to do and then give top priority to these areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . The trend in the structure of Ed. Admin. is to demand a common core of basic learning experiences, supplemented by related electives, plus a background in other disciplines. This principle is generally preferable to a more structured series of courses with prerequisites, etc. I O I I O O I O O O O O I O O I C O O O O 0 Methods involving problem-solving, the examin- ation of models, in—basket techniques, criti- cal path approaches, group—processes and the like, need to be used a good deal more in the instructional process of Ed. Administration . . . The traditional lecture (however well it is presented) has been made obsolete by such techniques as seminars, field-studies and lab. experiences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quite apart from their application to administra— tive tasks, the computer and modern techniques of storing and using information are not being suf- ficiently stressed in the day-to-day instruction of future—oriented Educational Administrators. . The use of Game—Theory can make a significant contribution to the present methods of in- struction in Ed. Admind O O O O O I O O O O O I O In their instructional procedures, Depts. of Ed. Admin. do not make sufficient use of the comprehensive multi-media technology that is available. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. ...... -..—... ...... H... A -—_--- 168 - 12 _ Section III cont. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. The Administration of organizations is often viewed as a learning process for developing new behavior; yet instructors in Ed. Admin. often fail to use in their own procedures many of the very principles and techniques which they expect adminis- trators to apply on the job. . . . . . . . . . The Colleges of Medicine and Management Studies have successfully used the hos- pitals and industry as their laboratories and research centres. In too few cases Ed. Admin. has applied comparable re- search techniques in examining the school and the community. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . All students should be expected to develop an understanding of and basic skills in the fundamental procedures of research-- whether or not they proceed to more soph- isticated research and experimentation. . . . For the majority of students preparing for administration, the emphasis should be on the understanding, use and application of research findings, including actual pro- blems confronting superintendents and principals rather than on pure research. . . . A defined period of administrative intern- ship, prior to or during the period of training, is necessary to achieve a level of competency comparable with other pro- fessions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The examination of problems and crucial issues in Ed. Admin. by on—the—job visita- tions, analysis of research findings, resi- dent seminars, workshops, simulated mater— ials, and supplemented by current research, cannot be a complete substitute for a rigorous emphasis on theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . If field experiences are necessary in admin. preparation, it will require the injection of large sums of federal and provincial funds to conduct them on any meaningful basis. . . . . ' J - -.A- _ - 13 _ Section III cont. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. Administrators-in-training require the oppor- tunity to be involved during their preparation (quite apart from any continuous internship) in more real—life situations, for which they will be held accountable. . . . . . . . . . . . The graduation requirement for a major dis- sertation at the Master's level should be re- placed by a minor thesis with additional sup— porting course work or learning experiences. . . There is a trend toward less emphasis on the requirement for a second language, but more attention to research, the behavioral sciences and field experiences. This enhances the relevance of the course without reducing the rigor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . For graduation, a student should be required to complete at least 25 per cent of his course in disciplines other than Education or Ed. Admin. . The preparation of a major thesis or disserta— tion, supported by demonstrated research skills, is an indispensable part of the doctoral pro— gram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The requirement of at least one graduate year in full—time residence is needed, if a pro- fessional program in Ed. Admin. is to be achieved. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . University Depts. of Ed. Admin. have generally failed to apply to their own administrative procedures, the research techniques which they design for others. viz. to direct significant time and resources to the administrative need for planning and self-evaluation. . . . . . . . Administrators, in spite of training and exper— ience, need more skill and understanding to evaluate with accuracy the procedures and pro— cesses for which they are to be responsible. . . A system of certification, based on experience and graduate study, is necessary for the pre- paration of professional administrators. . . . . 169 THE UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA FACULTY OF EDUCATION WINNIPEG. CANADA October 27, 1970 Dear Colleague: Re: The Preparation of Educational Administrators This is to extend my sincere thanks for your participation to date in the research study under the auspices of Michigan State University and directed at the preparation of school administrators. The questionnaire sent to you two or three weeks ago required considerable concentration and time, and your generous professional support is certainly appreciated. All respondents are assured that their suggestions and opinions are proving invaluable in this study designed to consider the preparation of educational leaders. If you have not yet found an opportunity in your busy schedule to complete all or part of the questions, might I respectfully suggest that your res- ponses to the issues raised are still needed to reflect a proper cross- section for our stratified sample. It is, of course, not imperative that you answer all questions; in Section I, for example, this portion could be largely omitted if it does not appear applicable or if you are reluctant to evaluate existing programs. Certain other questions could similarly be qualified if you desire. The important point is that we are seeking opinions rather than final answers, on those things that need to be considered in designing programs for the training of school administrators. Your opinions, therefore, regardless of experience or background, reflect the views of superintendents and principals, university personnel, and lay people with some knowledge of schools and school-boards. Again my thanks for your excellent response and for the interest that you continue to have in education. Yours sincerely, CEE:{/”/fi?"x"”"”""”"‘“"\~’) C. Bjarnason, Associate Professor. CB/esa 170