MSU ‘ LIBRARIES -_ RETURNING MATERIALS: P1ace in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES wil] be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. LOSSES OCCURRING IN MARKETING CATTLE, AND EFFECTS OF REGAIN ON LIVE WEIGHT AND CARCASS COMPOSITION IN TROPICAL AREAS By Cheick Abagouro Bocoum A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Animal Science 1984 ABSTRACT LOSSES OCCURRING IN MARKETING CATTLE, AND EFFECTS OF REGAIN ON LIVE WEIGHT AND CARCASS COMPOSITION IN TROPICAL AFRICA The production and marketing of livestock and related products is one of the largest and most important industries in tropical Africa. Unfortunately little research on marketing systems in general and transport and related problems in particular has been done. In Africa historically, cattle have been moved to urban markets by trek, but recently cattle have been shipped in trucks and railroads in order to minimize losses. There are many kinds of losses occurring in market cattle during transportation. The well known losses are shrinkage, bruising, crippling, lost animals and death. Shrinkage may take place while the animal is in transit, at the market or in holding pens of the packers. Some of the more eVident factors affecting shrinkage are the amount of fill, time of transit or distance shipped, weight of the animals, type of transportation, disturbance of animals, temperature- weather. Losses from bruising, death and crippling are largely influenced by the type of transportation used and by many other factors such as the distance and time of shipment, the season. Where a choice of transport methods is possible among trekking, trucking and railroad, it should be worth making careful assessment of losses to be incurred and the costs they represent. There is no standard recommendations to be applied to every situation. In any method of transportation, lack of care and poor judgement might increase losses and lower the net return. Thus, much should be done to control excessive losses by adequate preparation for shipment. To be efficient, the marketing system as a whole must allow cattle to be assembled, transported, bought and sold with minimum delay, movement and cost; timely marketing information must be available to help buyers and sellers channel meat to consumers in an orderly manner and consumer demand must be reflected back to enable producers to effectively plan resource allocation, production and marketing. Restricted nutrition at any age not only retards growth in general but also affects the tissues differentially. The organs with an early period of maximum growth can draw on or have prior claim on, the nutrition of those having a later period of growth. However when restricted cattle are slaughtered after a period of realimentation and at the same weight as unrestricted cattle, there have generally not been significant differences in body composition although some differences exist in fatness. Cattle on natural grasses without supplemental feeding in West Africa may loose 10 to 33 percent of their weight by the end of the dry season, but within four to six weeks on the young grass of rainy season they may regain their weight. For practical implication in regain there is a need to identify cattle of different growth potential and to match them to appropriate feeding systems. However, in many areas in West Africa adaptation to the specific climate and environment conditions is much greater significance than size as such. A TAKEL MA DEFUNTE MERE ET A SA FOI ETERNELLE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author is very appreciative and grateful to Dr. Robert J. Deans for his guidance during this study and to Dr. Harold Riley for his interest and critical reading of the thesis. Special thanks is also expressed to Dr. David Campbell and Dr. John Staatz for the useful inputs they provided to improve this study. The author wishes to thank sincerely the African-American Institute AAI/AFGRAD for the opportunity given to him to undertake such a very exciting experience of training in the United States of America and hopes that this investment will be beneficial to the Republic of Mali and the cooperation between the United States of America and Mali. Finally the author wishes to extend a special gratitude to his wife and children for their sacrifice and support. TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE LIST OF TABLES vi LIST OF FIGURES vii LIST OF MAPS viii INTRODUCTION 1 PART I: Analysis and Discussion on the Cattle Marketing Systems in West Africa. 1 CHAPTER 11: Background 6 Livestock Producing Zones 6 Livestock Deficit Areas 9 Breeds of Livestock 9 Livestock Numbers 10 Livestock Production and Trade 10 Per Capita Meat Consumption 13 Livestock Markets in the Surplus Producing Zone 15 Terminal Markets in the Deficit Countries 18 CHAPTER III: Transitory Phase 20 Trekking 20 Rail Transportation 29 Truck Transport 31 Combination Method 34 CHAPTER IV: Losses 36 Shrinkage 38 Type of Shrinkage 38 Factors Affecting Shrinkage 40 Forecasting Procedures for Shrinkage 54 Conclusin on Shrinkage 6O Bruising, Death and Crippling 61 CHAPTER V: Comparative Advantages and Disadvantages and Costs of 77 Transportation Methods Trekking 79 Trucking 84 Rail 88 Conclusion ' 92 Research Needs 99 CHAPTER VI: Technical Recommendations CHAPTER VII: Transport of Meat vs. Live Cattle CHAPTER VIII: Marketing Policy Low Cost Distribution Responsiveness to Production and Demand Conditions Pricing Efficiency Cost and Benefit Assessment of the Different Actions Conclusion PART II: Regain CHAPTER IX: A. Regain Definition and Concept Short Term Restriction Short Term Regain Long Term Restriction Effects of Restriction and Regain on Body Composition Conclusion B. Honduras Project Background Description Analysis Results and Discussions Conclusion LITERATURE CITED APPENDIX PAGE 100 108 112 113 114 114 116 133 134 135 135 135 136 137 140 144 145 146 146 147 149 153 149 161 166 LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE I. PRODUCTION AND TRADE IN LIVESTOCK FOR SLAUGHTER 11 II. CATTLE TRADE BY COUNTRIES - 1971-78. 12 III. TIME AND LABOR REQUIREMENTS FOR EXPORTING FIFTY HEAD OF CATTLE FROM NIONO TO ABIDJAN UNDER DIFFERENT OPTIONS. (In Man-DayS) 22 IV. COSTS OF TRANSPORTING CATTLE ON FOOT. 30 V. TRANSPORT COSTS OF EXPORTING CATTLE BY RAIL FROM OUAGADOUGOU TO ABIDJAN (3-7 DAYS TRANSPORT TIME). 32 VI. COST OF TRANSPORTING FIFTY HEAD OF CATTLE FROM KOUTIALA (MALI) TO ABIDJAN BY TRUCK 1976-77 (IN F CFA) 35 VII. SHRINKAGE LOSS DUE TO DIFFERENT HANDLING CONDITIONS 39 VIII-IX. EFFECTS OF STARVATION ON CATTLE LOSSES FROM 0 TO FOUR DAYS. 41 X. BRUISE LOSS PER 100 HEAD BY TYPE OF CATTLE AND CARCASS LOCATION 63 XI. BRUISE LOSS PER 100 HEAD BY CARCASS LOCATION. 64 XII. MAJOR CAUSES OF CATTLE BRUISES - According to Livestock Conservation Inc., cited by Fowler, I961. 67 XIII. COST OF TRANSPORTING FIFTY HEAD OF CATTLE FROM KOUTIALA (MALI) TO FERKESSEDOUGOU BY TREK AND RAIL FROM FERKESSEDOUGOU TO ABIDJAN 74 XIV. COST OF EXPORTING FIFTY HEAD OF CATTLE FROM NIONO TO ABIDJAN IN 1977 (S = lI50 FM) 86 XV. COSTS OF TRANSPORTING CATTLE BY TRUCK. 87 XVI. COSTS OF TRANSPORTING CATTLE BY RAIL. 91 XVII. TIME AND LABOR REQUIREMENTS FOR TRANSPORTING FIFTY HEAD OF CATTLE FROM NIONO TO ABIDJAN - (In Man-Days) 94 vi LIST OF TABLES (continued) TABLE PAGE XVIII. COST OF TRANSPORTING FIFTY HEAD OF CATTLE FROM TINGRELA TO BOUAKE BY TREKKING AND BY TRUCK: 1976-77 (IN CFA F) 97 XIX. RECOMMENDED NUMBER OF CATTLE TO BE LOADED PER TRUCK 103 XX. RECOMMENDED NUMBER OF LIVESTOCK TO BE LOADED PER RAILROAD CAR. 104 XXI. The following schematic Table describes the experiment plan 148 XXII. REGAIN (WEIGHT GAIN MEANS IN KG). 157 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1. 2. Shrinkage Increases as Hours in Transit Increases Comparisons of Shrink of Cattle From Green Pastures with Cattle From Dry Range Proportions of Losses Regained During Feedback Periods vii PAGE 45 52 139 MAP LIST OF MAPS Main Cattle Export Movements in Africa Cattle Flows in Upper Volta Malian Principal Cattle Routes Livestock Flows in Niger viii PAGE 23 26 28 PART I INTRODUCTION The production and marketing of livestock and related products is one of the largest and most important industries in tropical Africa. Millions of producers depend upon livestock raising and marketing for a livelihood. Unfortunately little research on marketing systems in general and transport and related problems in particular has been done. Marketing systems differ from country to country and variations occur within countries, but all have one primary purpose that is to move products from producer to consumer as efficiently as possible. In Africa historically, cattle. have been moved to urban markets by trek (on foot), but recently cattle have been shipped in trucks and by railroads because it was assumed that trekking resulted in large weight losses in cattle and often deaths. The growth of urban areas with the increasing proportion of the population unable to supply their own food has led to greater movement of stock from the producing to consuming areas. Since the distances involved are often very great, this movement has led to various effects such as shrinkage, bruising, crippling, mortality, straying, carcass weight loss, change in carcass composition. Consequently, transportation costs represent a large part of the total expense of marketing livestock. Several alternative methods of livestock transportation are available: trekking (on foot) railroad trucking The best method will depend within the specific conditions of each area upon the relative costs, services and convenience. Cost includes not only the out-of pocket cash paid for the transportation service but also opportunity cost of tied capital, losses from death, bruising, crippling and shrinkage of the live animal, the deterioration of meat quality and carcass weight loss in transit. Some of these losses such as shrinkage or meat deterioration and carcass weight loss can be minimized by resting and feeding practices (Harston, 1959). The net production of animal protein from any sector is a result of the yield of the production system of the animal less the losses which occur through the marketing channel. In most tropical countries, capital and technical inputs are being directed toward increasing the production efficiency of the livestock pepulation by increasing or improving quantity and quality of feed production, improved management, disease control, and breeding improvement. The net gains obtained in production by these efforts may be drastically offset by the losses incurred in moving livestock to points of processing and consumption. These losses will affect the various segments of the beef industry, depending upon where and to what extent they occur. They will be reflected back to the producer in lowering the prices he is paid and will be costly to the trader and to the processor, limiting their margins and affecting the flexibility of the market for meat. Governments are concerned about the losses incurred in marketing livestock and are interested in reducing such waste, but have little objective information at their disposal with which they can plan effectively. There is relatively little information on what the losses are, the basic factors causing them and the requirements for minimizing losses of cattle moved long dis- tances. Research on livestock marketing has been given a low priority and even among these studies done on the subject most have been conducted by economists having little background in animal science. Unless reliable and accurate information on the specific context of tropical areas is available it is difficult to plan strategies to reduce these wastes and to improve beef production and distribution policies. There is a need to know specifically what is required to get maximum benefit for livestock investments. An awareness of actual losses may also serve to motivate governments to act in providing adequate cattle transit schemes. Moreover, research on regain is lacking and needs to be carried out in order to determine its economic importance and its feasibility. There are many works done in developed countries on the different patterns of losses and regain but unfortunately there is no attempt to extrapolate their outcomes to tropical areas characterized by very hot weather, poor management systems, a dominantly on hoof transportation system and very stressed animals. This study geographic area of focus essentially involves eight countries: Mali, Niger, Upper Volta which are the major producers, and exporters of cattle in West Africa and Ivory Coast, Nigeria, Ghana, Benin and Togo which are the major consumers and importers of cattle of the region. Together the eight countries handle almost the totality of cattle trading in West Africa. OBJECTIVES This study will be directed at two components: 1. Description of the cattle marketing systems in eight West African countries with the following specific objectives: a. To describe the different marketing/transportation systems for cattle in West Africa. b. To describe and identify the nature and causes of losses occurring in marketing cattle and to make recommendation for their reduction. c. To estimate and compare the costs associated with marketing losses for each system of transport. d. To identify current approaches used to reduce losses for the purpose of making recommendations for the African situation. e. To identify the strategies, priorities, interventions and policy implications for the improvement of the marketing system. 11. Regain a. To analyze patterns of short-term and long-term regain and their effects on cattle composition and yield. b. To Analyse cattle regain experiment study with market animals in Honduras. METHODOLOGY Source of Data Needed data was obtained from available secondary sources and interpreted in the light of my personal experience as a chief of the marketing division in a livestock project in Mali. Descriptive data for Part I are based on reports by international consultants, international organizations, researchers and academic texts. Method of Analysis Part I Part 11 Objective (c) will be met by comparing simple averages and percentages in order to estimate the financial and economic costs per unit of each method of shipment. Costs include freight cost or driver fees, shrinkage cost, mortality costs, capital costs, bruising, crippling and taxes. Objective (a) will be met through comparing approaches used in Africa to reduce losses and technology a ailable elsewhere and applicable in Africa. Objective (b) will be dealt through discussion on statistical report from Honduras Project. Chapter 11 Background A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF CURRENT WEST AFRICAN LIVESTOCK PRODUCTION, DISTRIBUTION, AND CONSUMPTION SYSTEM Livestock Producing Zones In West Africa, as shown in Map I, there is a northern surplus producing zone which sends cattle, sheep and goats to the south. This zone includes Niger, Upper Volta, Mali and northern Nigeria. This is a semi-arid region, with a long dry season and a short wet season, and as a result there is a low density of livestock population. Pastures are abundant during the rainy season, which is irregular, but generally extends from June through September. After the rains stop, the moisture soon disappears and the movement of livestock to the south begins. With the exception of a few low areas near the major rivers and lakes, there is no green forage available for seven to nine months of the year. During this period, the breeding stock remaining in this region suffer greatly from malnutrition, resulting in high mortality and low calving rates. Also, it is estimated that l+0 percent of the calves born never reach maturity (Bishop, 1972). The offtake rate or the proportion of animals slaughtered annually in relation to the total livestock population is approximately 12 percent for Map 1. MAIN CATTLE EXPORT MOVEMENTS: AFRICA 1957-59 / If ' uuooo . "AV” 7 0 2‘ "'"Li. I: ficw "”7” O . t a" "'7 ‘1 . ' . . I . ’pov ; . I; H _._§ “ . . r a... ~.‘. ‘3 4. - _ -- _. D - .00.... .70.... ’ O .. .-. I} I 0 "9 J. l‘. f; .‘;_ “n.5. l " ‘ ,v” . f one" “no" j I .D . “In—o ‘. . 3. . \ o I o v o ' o _- 'I‘ ..I !- ..O - ‘1' I,” n: s..~.. .- _.n n - - e. I .I " D \. I O 35 o i a.‘ - , \ -. O . I O . | ’ I O H 2 I. ‘1 J O - ‘ n L. .' . "J'"‘.‘ .1 .. “ .‘ , ..' I _. . II. ‘ jun" 35;" '. ‘. ‘7'1‘ . =l noun on.“ nun-I X. "‘~..../" ’T’.‘ O O I O 0 Ham"... 3‘ h ' . . . . . 11.0.00... \\....-./_ ' ’ ‘ O 0.0 x ? ~ k-.. g . o | o o o o j'.x...n. I b H-w"" 3 “F.” ' o F‘” ‘ - o i 40 a . “out i . ‘ 'v‘. 3 : nub-nee 1‘ .~‘ ; g. . -...... ..... 00 Imam a“; h 7 ~ .' ~........,.:....-~-’.:.._ no 5 ' ‘ ' I tunnel. I, '0 9 O r. I ' E m . f ‘ v 5 7 .. .l o e '. "nun-y" ‘ ' v ~ .. ' 0 I \ . 7 é ' . .. - ‘ I . o i . Q 1 - Io ‘ ' O ‘. ~ "t O Q Number: In thousands , 72 ”' 'L—J" ‘ .5. .' 0-0-- . \——.-20m0 ‘ . Q . "A". . g o 'M- D o -- - .. 0-- . 7" . O. -c """V . ' ‘ ' ~~u ‘ . I . i \ ‘. .. . '- OI "I. n n u a Source: Mittendorf, 1961. Sahelian cattle, and 10 percent for Savannah cattle (Delgado, 1980). Under the harsh prevailing weather conditions and low output per animal unit, producers have been unable to adopt modern methods of livestock husbandry. Practically the entire region is one vast open, public range. Privately owned, fenced, ranch type operations are virtually nonexistent. Livestock owners are free to move and graze their animals almost anywhere without interference, or at least within those areas where they have traditional and tribal grazing rights. This type of land tenure has resulted in overstocking the ranges often beyond their carrying capacities. Overgrazing by sheep and goats is becoming more prevalent throughout the region. When land in the northern, more arid part of this region is overgrazed, it does not respond or responds poorly to the next wet season and becomes a barren sand dune in some Sahelian zones. Most of the human population in this region live in rural areas, and the majority of these are engaged in livestock raising. There is about one head of cattle and two head of sheep and goats per inhabitant* (Bishop, 1972). this means that there are only a few head of livestock per operator. Converting the present system into units large enough to permit the use of modern techniques would leave the majority of the rural population unemployed and displaced from land to which they have traditional tribal rights. *Household data not available. Livestock Deficit Areas A southern zone composed of Ivory Coast, Togo, Benin, Ghana, and Nigeria is a livestock importing area. Although the northern part of Nigeria produces a substantial surplus of livestock for shipment to the southern part, the country as a whole is a deficit zone. The southern zone as a whole has abundant forage most of the year and adequate water supplies. The limiting factor in practically all of this region is the prevalence of the Glossina Tse—Tse fly which infects cattle with Trypanosomiasis, a generally debilitating disease. Only cattle that are resistant to this disease can be raised successfully in this region. These resistant breeds (N'dama and other Taurin breeds) are considerably smaller than those raised in the northern, semi-arid region. Cattle numbers in the southern zone are low, and a large part of the abundant forage produced is unutilized. The zone as a whole produces only two thirds of its cattle requirements but over 90 percent of its sheep and goat requirements. Breeds of Livestock In the northern zone various types of Zebu cattle are raised, some with long horns (Bororo breed in Niger) and some with short horns, Maure breed. There are some which attain a carcass weight of over 200 kilos, but the average Zebu of this region seldom exceeds 150 kilos. The taurin breeds of cattle which are resistant to Trypanosomiasis are raised in the southern zone (south of Mali), Ivory Coast, Ghana and Nigeria. The carcass weight of these average less than 100 kilso. Sheep native to the semi-arid region are large types which produce meat of relatively good quality. The sheep in the southern region are Trypanosomiasis and humidity tolerant and survive well under adverse conditions and are of small size. The type of goats follow the same pattern that is, large breeds in the north and small ones in the south. Livestock Numbers According to FAO figures, the cattle population for the eight West African countries considered in this study was approximately 26.5 million head in 1981. Most of the 12.5 million head of cattle in Nigeria are located in the northern part of the country and are of the Zebu breeds. The Tse-Tse fly zone extends across the southern' part of Upper Volta and Mali and as a result an important number of the cattle in those countries are of the Taurin breeds, while the largest number are Zebu. Virtually all of the cattle in Niger are Zebus, while practically all in the Ivory Coast, Ghana, Togo and Benin are Taurins, since the Tse-Tse fly zone covers all of these countries. Livestock Production and Trade The three exporting countries (Mali, Niger, Upper Volta) produce appro- ximately l.3 million head of slaughter cattle annually and export about 3396 of the production to the five coastal countries, as shown in Tables I and II. Niger exports the largest proportion of its production or about 40 percent. Upper Volta exports 21 percent and Mali l7 percent. 10 II TABLE 1. PRODUCTION AND TRADE IN LIVESTOCK FOR SLAUGHTER CATTLE Production Export Trade Exporting Countries 1,000 head 1,000 Percent Niger 480 190 40 Upper Volta 311 66 21 Mali 523 111 17 TOTAL 1,314 367 22 I CATTLE Production Import Trade Importing Countries 1,000 head 1,000 Percent 1 Ivory Coast 61 147 71 Togo 27 8.6 24 Benin 85 1.7 1.96 Ghana 87 1.3 1.4 Nigeria 950 330 26 TOTAL 1,210 489 29 Source: Bishop, 1972; and CRED Volumes I, II, and III, 1975, 1976. 12 .HHH use HH mmeafio> ammo “mmaz .aocmnm "auosom 6cm A cmz LHH as 65H AH emu: ooo.~ mmHmezsoo quemomzH Hmuoe enema ease “Hm: moHo> downz Ifiusmz wean: mMHMBZDOU UzHfimomxm .wmlfinmd.ummHmez:oo rm MQHo>afi Hmufiamo 659 a .mum>ouw How «an: on Ho>muu cuaumu use .umwmuu new Ho>muu afiuuvasou .mofiumxuna .wnfivmoacn nonnaode .omaH .HHH assao> ammo an @6646 .hmv you ex ea muo>oo who: a unfiu mafiasmmm vmumasoamo mum awed» wcfixxmuu .Amawfiuaox ou ocoaz Eouu mo nunmv wcfimmws ma mumv ouosz .mum>ouv can muovmuu sues m3oa>u0uca no woman .Axam umuawnov whoa .Nummum Scum dogma mmeqe ”mongoom mhmvluo>ouo ea when ma m%wv HN mum>ouv N x m>mw m mmmviumvmuu HH muo>ouv N x mama m ICI- mhdpiuoumuu N mznvium>ouv qu mane ma when no muo>ouv N x mane m mmmciuovmuu Ha mum>ouc N x when N mum>ouc m x mama me mmmciuovmuu N mhmvluo>ouv mwa mace ma mean an muo>ouv N x mama m mmmwiuovmuu HH muo>ouc N x amen N muo>oun m x m>mv mm mmmviumvmuu N confisvmm mhmnium>ouo mo Honasz wouaswom manniumvmuy mo Honssz an: vows ma Hmufimmo when we Hoganz mamfiena< an waaumxumz you confiscmm oaHH mcfinawnm new emufiacmm mafia wcfixxmua you vmufiavmm asap ommsounm umumm wmfiuaamauom :mNHmz pow vmuwsvmm mafia aafienn< ou soaps cmfienn< on Hana easy .aouaovommmxuom ou sous aafiena< ou Hana coco .mxesom ou sane Am>mniamz :Hv .monHmo HZMMMMth MMQZD ZmzoIDO O ........:..:::—_. O .0” DOwDOD<0 Inna: \. <._.._O> MmmmD Z_ mBOIE m..:L.666 6.6 66. 6.N 66. 6.6 66. 6.6 66. 66666666 66666 6.66 66.6 6.66 66.N 6.66 66.6 6.66 66.6 6666 666666666 6.66 66.6 6.66 66.6 6.66 66.6 6.66 66. 6666 666>666 6.6 66. 6.6 66. 6.6 N6. 6.6 66. 6666 66666666: Hagen. “6666.: m Hmuoe camp: 66 H650“. E69: a .2309 6669: m .Cowoumu 66 N 6666 66 N 6666 66 N 6666 66 N 6666 umnm on... 06 :Eom .6nt 938 acuom 66663 on» 06 0:3— 6.663 0:6 3 ouoxom Boom zo MAHLZU ozHHMOmmzsa. mo mhmoo .>H mania The second line Lagos-Kano in Nigeria a distance of 1,126 kilometers carries about 200,000 cattle a year. The railroad is used in general to ship cattle long distances and meet short term and seasonal fluctuations in demand. But the percentage of cattle handled by rail is declining in all lines due to the frequent unavailability (often for two weeks) of cattle cars and also due to the long time averaging 3 — 4 days that the cattle spend in transit without feed or water between the time they are loaded and when they are unloaded at final destination. The labor required is generally one caretaker per car of 27 cattle average capacity. The costs of moving cattle by rail, as shown in Table V, fall into the following categories: - Caretaker's fees and living expenses. - Rail car renting costs and unofficial costs (bribes) to get a car - Cattle loading and unloading costs. - Forced sales at low prices at final destination. - Shrinkage. - Death loss. - Crippling and bruising. - Import taxes for international shipments. Truck Transport The movement of cattle in West Africa by truck is not well organized. There is no schedule of rates as on the railways, and charges vary according to supply and demand. The main constraints to the extended use of this flexible and time saving method of transportation are the lack of good roads which 31 32 .mumoo uuoamamuu Hmuou Baum wumoo mmoH mo mmmuamouwmk6 .cmwsaoca no: mum mumou owmxcuuzmk .Awn0av .cmaumm human "mouaom A0000 + m00.0 6666.666 + 666.666 A4909 oN 066 6666 65666665 666N666 666.6 666.66 666666662 666-6 666.66i6 6666666 66666 6666666666 666.6 666.666 666666 666 0Nm 000.0 Nuoamm van voom 00H 000.6 00063 no soaumumamum 0m 0mm mums mauuwo wcwvmoq 6666; 666 can: new 0605 Hum «mumoo .AmzHe 66666z666 6666 6-66 z mqm<9 reduce the effective life of a truck to 12-18 months that makes its amortisation rates high, unpassability during wet seasons and inadequate bridges. Therefore, road transport of cattle in West Africa is limited to short distances over good roads, especially in those areas where there is no rail line or in response to a temporary shortage of cattle in a consumption market or in the forest one where trekking becomes difficult and costly because of the dense vegetation and heavy Tse-Tse infestation. However, there is an increasing use of trucks to move export cattle in Mali, Niger and Upper Volta, since their capacity increases from 10 to 20 and even 25 head by the use of semi-trailer units, and because of the decline in rail use. Trucking is being used mainly from Mali to Ivory Coast and from some northern domestic markets of Ivory Coast to Bouake or Abidjan. A very few cattle are transported by truck in Nigeria compared to rail and trekking. A trip from Kano to Lagos by truck takes about 3 l/2 days and it takes almost the same time from Bamako or Niono (both in Mali) to Abidjan. The labor required in trucking is generally one or two drovers per truck of 25 head capacity, to take care of any animals that fall down. 33 The costs, as shown in Table VI, involved in truck transport include: - Fees of drovers and their living expenses. - Rental of truck. — Cattle loading costs. - Forced sales at low price. - Weight losses. - Crippling and bruising effects. - Death loss. - Payments (bribes) to police. Combination Method of Transportation This combination method (trek-rail or truck-rail) is used mainly for export cattle, from Mali to railroads at Bouake, Ferkessedougou, or Ouangolo- dougou in Northern Ivory Coast or Bobodioulasso in Upper Volta or for cattle from Niger and Northern Nigeria at Kano. The advantage of this combination method is to reduce the time of shipment and overcome feed shortage or other danger in certain areas. For those reasons, some traders switch methods of transport depending on the season - e.g., trek in wet season, trek plus rail in dry season. 3‘} TABLE VI. COST OF TRANSPORTING FIFTY HEAD OF CATTLE FROM * KOUTIALA (MALI) T0 ABIDJAN BY TRUCK 1976-77 (IN F CFA) Expense* 1. Salary of drovers 2 @ 5,000 = 10,000 200 2. Food of drovers 1,000 20 3. Return trip for drovers 2 @ 6,000 = 13,000 260 4. Roundtrip for owner 13,000 260 5. Food for owner in Abidjan: 7 days @ 200 CFAF/day 1,400 28 6. Health certificate 4,000 80 7. Indemnity for damaged fields -0- -0- 8. Salt for animals -0- -0- 9. Loss of animals 2.0% of 50 animals @ 40,000 CFAF per animal = 40,000 800 10. Forced sales 1.0% of 50 animals @ 20,000 CFAF (4%)“ loss per - animal a 20,000 400 11. Cattle market tax: Abidjan 25,000 500 12. Malian cattle merchants' license, vaccination, and export taxes 220,000 4,400 13. Transport charges Rental of truck/train car 2 trucks @ 350,000 =700,000 14,000 Straw -0- -0- Loading/Unloading 2,500 50 Other8 -0- -0- 14. Unofficial charges 100,000 2,000 15. Gift to the landlord 0-5,000 0-100 TOTAL COST (excluding weight losses): Days in transit 1,149,900-1,154,000 22,998-23,098 Source: Staatz, 1979; pp. 234-5. Cited by CRED Volume III, 1980. aIncludes unofficial payments to RAN employees for reserving a train car and other services. * Excluding weight losses. it Percentage of lost costs from total transport cost per head. it ** One CFA Franc = $2.50. 36 Chapter IV LOSSES Although studies exist on beef production in tropical Africa because of food concerns, unfortunately little is known about the patterns of losses occurring in market cattle during transportation and about the effects of regain on total shrinkage or on carcass composition in tropical areas. The little that is known about death, weight and quality losses and costs of different methods of transport and their related losses comes from economic analysis of transportation as part of total costs. Mittendorf (1961) found that transportation is one of the most difficult marketing problems in Africa and described four methods (truck, rail, air and boat) of livestock transport. Ferguson (1967) reported in "Nigeria Beef Industry" that transportation fees favor on hoof marketing. However, he found also that losses from deaths and shrinkage were much less when cattle were shipped by rail (p. 67). Heever et al. (p. 150; 1967) observed very little effects of losses due to prolonged rail transportation on slaughter cattle in South Africa. Kellogg (1971) described several model experiments that identify the likely consequences that alterna- tive policies may have on the beef distribution system. Larry Herman (1978) observed the problems involved with long distance train transportation of cattle. John Staatz (1978), John Holtzman et al. (1979) described three means of moving cattle in Cameroon and in Ivory Coast. Delgado (1980) found in Mali that the principal problems facing herdsmen when cattle are shipped on the hoof are lack of watering points in the north and crop damage conflicts with farmers in the south. From the above studies one notes that there is little reference to the patterns of losses occurring during the transportation in tropical Africa. Although some interesting studies have been conducted outside Africa, Kirton et al. in New Zealand (1966, I968, 1970, 1979) found the percentage of cattle live weight losses is greatest in all cases over the first two days of starvation, even if they have access to water. Raikes (1979) found differences in live cattle shrinkage during transportation due to feeding practices (housing conditions), distance, time of transit, weather and other effects of manage- ment. Other authors such as Brotherton (I957) Brownson (I956) Henning (I962); Harston (1959) found the same effects in their studies on shrinkage. Heever (1967) and Carr (1970) found that fasting up to four days did not affect carcass yield or marketing grade. Although shrinkage is a very important variable, it is not unique. Many other kinds of losses occur in transporting cattle. The most important among them are: bruising, crippling, lost animals and death. An understanding of factors influencing and effects of these losses will aid traders in making marketing decisions since these losses have cost significance to the businesses. In this chapter, losses will be analyzed in detail not in terms of percentage but rather in terms of trend since in general, data obtained may vary from one experiment to another according to specific conditions of each experiment. 37 l. Shrinkage Every farmer or trader knows that in most cases, cattle weight less when they reach final market than they did when they left the origin (farm, range or feed lot). Such loss in weight is called shrinkage. Shrinkage may take place while the animal is in transit, at the market or in holding pens of the packers as shown in Table VII. When the shrinkage represents a loss in tissue weight, it may be classed as a direct economic loss that affects the return to the producers or traders and it may be considered as a part of total marketing costs. However, excretory shrinkages can also be a loss to the trader if it affects the appearance of the animal and hence its sale price if it is sold "onsight" or on a live weight basis. 1.1. Types of Shrinkage Weight in cattle can be classified according to two types of shrink: a) Excretory Shrink. The excretory shrink or loss of fill occurs when cattle are held off feed and water for a relatively short period. It constitutes a loss in live weight but does not change the weigth of the carcass. It takes a relatively short period on feed and water to refill the stomach and bring an animal's weight back to normal if shrinkage was due only to excretory shrink (Brownson, 1976). During the shipment, the excretory shrink takes place at a rapid rate (about 4%) in the early part of the transit period (the first 2 or 3 hours, particularly for fat cattle), to increase at a decreasing rate as time in transit increased. The maximum excretory shrinkage is reached around 10 to 12 hours of shipment. However, at an undefined stage in the movement, both excretory 38 39 TABLE VII. SHRINKAGE LOSS DUE TO DIFFERENT HANDLING CONDITIONS Hours in Treatment Percent Shrink 8 hours dry hot stand 3.3 16 hours dry hot stand 6.2 24 hours dry hot stand 6.6 8 hours in moving truck 5.5 16 hours in moving truck 7.9 24 hours in moving truck 8.9 Source: Roger Brownson, 1976. and tissue shrinkage losses occur simultaneously. During the latter part of the shipment, tissue shrinkage is relatively more important. b) Tissue Shrinkage. Tissue shrinkage can be defined as a decrease in the carcass weight of the animal. Tissue shrinkage occurs on long extended hauls or during long periods of fast. It takes longer for cattle to recover from tissue shrink than from excretory shrinkage. Tissue shrinkage begins at an undefined but early stage during the shipment and continues until cattle reach the plant to which they are shipped for slaughter (Brownson, 1976). Kirton (1972) found in an experiment on effect of pre-slaughte‘r starvation in cattle that live weight loss was greatest over the first two days of the experiment and then slowed for the third and fourth days of starvation. Live weight had been reduced by 10% of the initial weight after 4 days of starvation. The estimated carcass loss presented in Table VIII indicated that starvation had no effect for the first 3 days but began to cause carcass loss by the fourth day. The data obtained after 8 days starvation, live weight losses were 1596 of initial weight, and loss of carcass weight was estimated as 14% as shown in Table IX. 1.2 Factors Affecting Shrinkage Studies of shrinkage in transit of cattle have revealed some factors that tend to affect the rates at which it takes place. Some of the more evident among these are: amount of fill, time in transit or distance shipped, weight of the animals, type of transportation, method of loading railroad cars and trucks, the disturbance of the animals and the temperature and weather (climate). 40 41 TABLE VIII. EFFECTS OF STARVATION ON CATTLE LOSSES FROM 0 TO FOUR DAYS. Days 0 I Live Shrink Z - 4.7 Cattle Dress Z 47.6 46.4 Mean Age (years) 4.3 5.3 Source: Kirton, et al., 1972. TABLE IX. EFFECT OF "STARVATION ON CATTLE LOSSES FROM FOUR TO EIGHT DAYS. Time (Days) Weight Loss (Z) Edible Meat (Z) 60.42 Carcass Loss (kg) Excess Fat (Z) 11.82 Perinephric Fat (Z) Dressing (Z) 49.3 Source: Kirton, et al., 1972. New Zealand Shrinkage also is likely to be affected by physical characteristics of the animal. Some of these factors are however, difficult to evaluate accurately. 1.2.1 Shrinkage in Relation to the Amount of Fill The amount of fill at the time of weighing is one of the most important factors that determine the amount of shrinkage between the farm, range, or shipping point and the market or slaughterhouse. Since shrinkage is generally measured by the difference in weight between the point of origin of the shipment and its destination, the heavy or light fill of the animals when either weight is taken will in itself make the shrinkage appear large or small. If the fill of the animals at the point of origin is greater than the fill when they are weighed at destination, the rate of shrinkage will appear relatively large. Conversely, if the fill at destination is greater than the fill at the point of origin, the shrinkage figure will appear relatively small, or a gain in weight may even be shown. It is evident, therefore, that the difference between the shipping weight and the weight at destination may be entirely accounted for by a difference in fill instead of shrinkage in body weight. If the animal when weighed at destination has the same amount of fill as when weighed at point of origin, the net difference in weight will be shrinkage, or, more correctly, tissue shrinkage. In Africa, the opinion is common among export traders of livestock that animals transported to market will stand shipment better and lose less weight in transit if they are not heavily filled when loaded into cars or motor trucks. This also is supported by studies of shrinkage, and of the best methods of handling livestock in transit. And according to Harston (1959), the larger the 42 fill at loading time, the larger will be the off-car shrink. The practice is rather common at public markets so as to make them weigh more when sold. Cattle handled in this manner are likely to have small shrinkage and may actually show a gain in weight at the market compared with the weight when shipped. Some shipments, however, contain animals that have a heavy fill at the point of origin and may not be fed at the market, or may not take much feed if they are fed upon arrival, and they will show high shrinkage. Such overfilled cattle are uncomfortable and often become sick during the shipment. Discomfort brings nervousness, excessive pushing and crowding. However, some preconditioning by feeding hay a few days before shipment may be useful for the fillback at the sale yards. The merit of the practice, common at terminal markets, of giving livestock feed and water before offering them for sale is that it offsets, as far as possible the loss in weight between the farm or shipping point and market, so that the different lots of animals will tend to have nearly the same amount of fill when sold. However, when an animal consumes feed and water at a market, it increases its live weight, but the carcass weight is not increased. The dressing yield of filled animals decreases because the weight of the carcass becomes a smaller percentage of the live weight. It is the weight of the carcass when slaughtered that a butcher should have in mind when he bids on livestock, and this has not been changed by feeding at the market. However, the butcher's perception of the carcass weight may have been changed since the sale is on an on-sight basis. 43 1.2.2.Shrinkage in Relation to Time. The increase in shrinkage as time in transit increases applies both to tissue and excretory shrinkage. As stated earlier, and shown in Figure l. (Brownson, 1976; p. 34), the greatest proportion of the loss in weight during the early part of the transit period is due to excretory shrinkage. Tissue shrinkage, on the other hand, tends to continue throughout the period in transit. In some studies, shrinkage was found to increase with the increase in the distance shipped. Shrinkage is probably more closely associated with the time in transit than with distance, but comparisons have shown that the distance moved and the time required to ship livestock between two given points are closely associated. Finally, distance to market and time in transit are the two big single factors having an important bearing on shrink, although, there are some exceptions in trekking associated with adequate grazing. According to Bjorka (1941), the loss in tissue weight is presumably caused by the disturbed condition of the animals while they are in transit. Trekking, loading and unloading, the jostling about in transportation by rail or motor truck, the handling by strangers, some of whom are inclined to be careless, and the continual change from one environment to another tend to produce nervous disturbances in the animals, and this in turn causes shrinkage of tissue. Unusually hot or unusually cold weather when the livestock are enroute or confined in uncovered stock pens, in railroad cars, or in motor trucks also affects adversely the comfort of the animals. Then, too, when several animals are together, there is a tendency for some to fight and thereby to disturb not only themselves but others in the lot. 44 PERCENT SHRINK 45 FIGURE 1. SHRINKAGE INCREASES AS HOURS 1N TRANSIT INCREASE (FAT CATTLE). o" FEED AND REST STOP SHIPPING WEIGHTS MINUS OFF CAR WEIGHTS —————‘ f—flfl‘ SHIPPING WEIGHTS MINUS "AFTER FILL" WEIGHTS OI l l I L 4 l 1 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 HOURS IN TRANSIT Source: Brownson, 1976. 1.2.3. Shrinkage in Relation to Cattle Characteristics a) _W_ei_gl_1£. According to many studies, shrinkage does not seem to be closely associated with weight of cattle except as the weight is correlated with the degree of fatness (Brownson, I976; Harston, 1959). Animals of different weights but with a comparable degree of finish shrink about the same percentage under the same marketing conditions. However, highly finished cattle shrink less than those with less finish. Here are possible reasons: 1) the inside of a highly finished animal is small because of the fat deposits and because a smaller stomach capacity required to handle concentrates, 2) fat animals are heavier than thin animals of the same type and age and the same number of pounds of shrink represents a smaller percentage of total weight, and 3) fat cattle have a lower water content than thin cattle. Shrinkage of fat cattle would be lower except that they heat up more than others during transit if they have been on concentrates. Grass-fed cattle usually are better travelers than grain-fed cattle of camparable finish. In tropical Africa most market cattle are grass-fed and only a small percentage of cattle from feed lots are grain- fed. b) E. Number of studies found that heifers shrink more than steers but the difference is not great and may be due to the difference of amount of belly content. However, bulls usually shrink a lot because of disturbing circumstances and strange animals nearby. c) Breeds. The breeding line does not significantly affect shrinkage according to some studies, but others indicate that animals inherit a tendency for heavy or light shrink. (Brownson, 1976). 46 1.2.4.Shrinkage in Relation to the Climate Extreme temperatures (hot and cold) have an effect particularly on fat cattle shrinkage during marketing. But in general, other things, wind, rain, snow, humidity, and other weather conditions seem to have more effect than temperature alone. In tr0pical Africa, shrinkage tends to increase when temperature tends to be high from March to May in association with the dry Harmattan wind from Sahel. Moreover, the big thunderstorms of the southern part of West Africa are very stressing for trekking cattle. But the relative discomfort due to cold from November to January may not have a real effect on shrinkage. However, a change in climatic conditions and grasses eaten by trekked cattle during marketing as it often occurs to export cattle from dry and hot Sahelian regions to humid and rainy coastal regions, can have a greater effect on shrink than constant climatic conditions and same types of grasses. Moreover, it is worthwhile to note that the feed consumed during the rainy season includes relatively less proportion of dry feeds than those consumed during the dry season. The consequence is that tissue produced by succulent feeds tends to be less firm than tissue produced by dry feed and the softer tissue of rainy season shrinks at a more rapid rate than the firm tissue of dry season. 47 l.2.5.Shrinkage in Relation to Type of Transportation The available data on shrinkage of cattle shipped by rail, truck or on foot are not conclusive in general and particularly in tropical Africa. Opinions are divided on the economics of each among the three methods of transportation. It seems that the mode of transportation has less effect on shrinkage than the time in transit and the manner of transport management. Often the method of transportation has been credited or blamed for shrinkage incurred when other things were the real cause. This lack of definiteness in the conclusions of studies on this point was emphasized by the fact that considerable variation existed in shrinkage among individual lots shipped by the three methods. a) 1e}, M. G. Fenn found in marketing livestock and meat (about Africa) "on some very long and arduous routes, the loss in live weight can be 2096 or more, representing a serious shrinkage of fat and tissues." Kellogg* uses 2.596 live weight shrinkage per 100 mile approximately in his study. In other circumstances there may be no serious loss in weight, but a significant loss of carcass quality. John Staatz found in his study (Livestock and Meat Marketing in Ivory Coast) even a gain of weight if cattle are trekked slowly. Harston claimed that amount of feed on the trail, availability of water and ease of handling affect shrinkage. Even some experienced cattle traders agree *Kellogg, 1971; p. as. 48 that feeder cattle shrink less when trailed easily and gently than when trucked. Mittendorf after finding live weight losses ranging from 15 to 30 percent in a study on the stock route from Upper Volta to Accra (Ghana) in 1952 claimed "It is clear that losses can be reduced if the cattle were driven carefully and received sufficient food, water and rest". b) M. The shrinkage of trucked cattle depends, in addition to the manner of transport management, on the state of roads, truck shock absorber systems and speed and the load. Poor roads and bad shock absorber systems, and truck conditions, increase considerably the jostling of cattle in transit which in turn may foster the shrinkage. In addition to the jostling, the time in transit may increase in case of poor roads that would lead to more shrinkage since time in transit has been found to be closely associated with the rate at which animals shrink weight. In tropical Africa, with the exception of Nigeria and Ivory Coast's road networks, most of the roads are in very poor condition and even sometimes impassible during the entire rainy season. Therefore, trucking cattle in these areas appears to engender a higher level of shrinkage. Figure 1. shows a relationship of live weight shrinkage to time in transit in trucking. 49 c) Rail. The exact level of rail transport shrinkage depends of course on the manner of transport management (loading, unloading, handling, etc.) but also on the conditions of the rail cars, availability of facilities for feeding and watering and the time in transit. It is obvious that poor ventilation of cattle cars will lead to overheating and bad condition of the railroad system increases the time in transit. Both are very important factors of shrinkage and are common to African rail systems. Another factor of weight loss in transit frequent in Africa, is the poor management system in cattle cars. Cattle often are not packed tightly in the wagon to prevent their lying down and being trampled on. Moreover, cattle are kept in the train often more than 30 hours without unloading for rest, feeding and watering. In a general manner, all data found about weight losses in Africa in both, rail and truck shipment, seem unrealistic, thus, they are not reported here. 1.2.6.0ther Factors Affecting Shrinkage A number of other factors apparently affect shrinkage in transit. Among these are: a) The number of animals loaded in a rail car or motor truck. It is estimated that shrinkage will increase about 15% higher than normal shrinkage in both overloading and underloading by 15 to 25% of full capacity, (Harston, 1959). 50 b) Handling, loading, and excitement in shipment. They all have a greatest influence on shrinkage because of disturbance and excitement occurring during miscellaneous operations in transit. c) The kind of feed and the time of feeding. The kind of feed cattle receive before shipment affects the amount of shrinkage. As shown in Figure 11, animals taken from green pasture have the most extensive shrink. Cattle being fed hay shrink less during marketing than those on any other type of feed. There are times when cattle should be fed an increased amount of dry feeds, particularly hay, for a few days before shipment. It is evident that the comfort of the animals is very important in keeping shrinkage at a minimum. d) Housing condition, marketing arrangement, interaction of housing condition and marketing arrangement, and rate of gain during the final month of feeding. Those factors associated with shipping distance have been found affecting significantly live weight shrinkage of fed cattle by Raikes et al. (1979). Moreover, the same factors (except shipping distance) associated with quality grade, yield grade and final feedlot weight do affect hot carcass weights. Thus, shipping distance does not affect hot carcass weight but does affect live weight. On the other hand, final feedlot weight, quality grade, and yield grade do affect hot carcass weights but do not affect percentage of live weight shrink. 51 Percent Shrink 52 FIGURE II. COMPARISONS OF SHRINK OF CATTLE FROM GREEN PASTURES WITH CATTLE FROM DRY RANGE. 12 . f— Green Pas ture 11i_ . 5 N I Dry Range 10 a 8; 7 _ u 9 3‘ 5" 5+- 1&3‘ .3 1 : :0 4, ,e:.o ._ . . . 1 i 0 .‘u 3;?— {:3 $33.: 2;. $3, ~. 2:93 .‘ 3. 0 1—2— ~:-. DELI-vi ..‘.. 2 6O - 83 Hours in Transit Source: Harston, 1959. The impacts of housing conditions, marketing arrangements, and rate of gain have been found affecting both live weight shrink and hot carcass weights. It is useful to define what housing condition and marketing arrangement stand for: - Housing condition refers to shelter with three alternatives: no shelter; partly sheltered; and confinement. - Marketing arrangement refers to feed and water supplies with five alternatives: hold at farm without feed and water; hold at farm without feed; hold at plant without feed and water; terminal markets; and no restrictions. These factors discussed in this part (d) have been used by Raikes et al. (1979) in forecasting procedures for live weight shrink and hot carcass weight. 53 FORECASTING PROCEDURES FOR SHRINKAGE Since some variations were found between the different experiments conducted on live weight losses and carcass weight losses, (in particular the influencing factors and their manner of occurring, as seen in this chapter), it is not easy to project exactly how much animals will lose at any given distance and at any given time. Nevertheless, Ronald Raikes, Gail M. Sieck, H. L. Self and M. Peter Hoffman in "Weight Loss of Fed Steers and Market Decision Implications" (1979) using factors discussed above have attempted to set up a procedure for loss forecasting which is very useful for both feeders and buyers in making marketing decisions. The following formula for forecasting has been preposed by them: (1) Formula For Live Weight Shrink Forecasting Shrink = 3.06 + housing conditions impact estimator 4» marketing arrangements impact estimator 4» interaction of housing conditions and marketing arrangement impact estimator + (0.15 x daily rate of gain in pounds) + selected or calculated shipping distance impact estimator. 54 (2) Formula For Hot Carcass Weight Prediction H.C.W.P. = -43.79 + housing condition impact estimator + marketing arrangement impact estimator + (-2.99 x daily rate of gain in pounds) + (0.63 x feed lot weight in pounds) + (0.84 x quality grade code) + (6.52 x yield grade). All impact estimator values are reported in worksheets conceived by authors and are attached. Data 3.06 in live weight shrink forecasting and - 43.79 in hot carcass prediction are constants. Moreover, for making comparison between live weight bids and hot carcass bids, the authors have developed some guidelines for feeders. For that, it is necessary to first express bids on a comparable basis. (a) To convert live weight bids to a comparable basis, the following expressions has been elaborated. [1.0 - (pencil shrink + predicted shrink)) x live weight bid per CWT - IOO transportation cost per cwt. of live weight = adjusted live weight bid per cwt. 55 (b) To convert carcass weight bids to a comparable basis with live weight the following equation is used: (predicted hot carcass weight) x (hot carcass weight bid per cwt. of feedlot weight carcass) - transportation cost per cwt. of live weight = adjusted carcass weight bid per cwt. Although these procedures are very interesting, they are not as such applicable in West Africa livestock production conditions. Some parameters need to be adjusted to fit among other tropical realities, the grazing system of production, and the quality and yield grade variables. Research to determine appropriate parameters for tropical areas may be worthwhile, particularly for parameters such as marketing arrangement, interaction housing condition, marketing arrangement and constant impact estimator coefficient. It should be remembered that in West African countries, shrinkage is not explicitly taken into account to justify the use of this kind of marketing arrangement. 56 57 LIVE WEIGHT SHRINK PREDICTION WORKSHEET I Impact Impact estimator Variables estimators entries Constant 3.06 3.06 Select on impact estimator for each housing condition, marketing arrangement and two-way interaction. Housing condition No shelter 0.14 0.14 Partly sheltered 0.36 Confinement «0.50 Marketing arrangement 1 - Hold at farm without feed and water 0.26 2 - Hold at farm without feed -0.39 3 - HDld at plant without feed and water 0.93 0.26 4 - Terminal market 0.04 5 - No restrictions -0.84 Interaction (housing condition x marketing arrangement) No shelter x l -0.08 No shelter x 2 0.37 No shelter x 3 0.07 No shelter x 4 0.44 No shelter x 5 -0.06 Partly sheltered x 1 -0.08 -0.08 Partly sheltered x 2 0.87 Partly sheltered x 3 -0.16 Partly sheltered x 4 -0.15 Partly sheltered x 5 -0.48 Confinement x l 0.16 Confinement x 2 -0.50 Confinement x 3 0.09 Confinement x 4 -0.29 Confinement x 5 0.54 58 Multiply the daily rate of gain in lbs. by the impact estimator. Rate of gain 0.15 x 2.1- 0.315 Select the impact estimator for distance or enter miles and determine impact estimator. Shipping distance Less than 40 miles -0.46 40 - 79 miles -l.04 + (0.0415 x) -0.17 80 - 119 miles -.032 + (0.0055 x) greater than 119 miles 0.34 Total the column of impact-estimator entries. Predicted live weight shrink percentage. 3.525 59 HOT-CARCASS-WEIGHT PREDICTION WORKSHEET II Impact Impact estimator Variables estimators entries Constant -43.79 -43.79 Select one impact estimator each for housing condition and marketing arrangement. Housing condition No shelter -3.19 Partly sheltered -4.30 -3.19 Confinement 7.49 Marketing arrangement 1 - Hold at farm without feed and water —0.76 2 - Hold at farm without feed 8.75 3 - Hold at plant without feed and water -3.85 -0.76 4 - Terminal market -2.64 5 - No restrictions -1.50 Multiply the daily rate of gain in 1b., feedlot weight in 1b., quality grade and yield grade by their corresponding impact estimators. Rate of gain -2.99 x 2.1 = -6.28 Feedlot weight 0.63 x 1087= 684.81 Quality grade 3/ 0.84 xig = 5.04 Yield grade 6.52 xi; = 13.04 Total the column of impact estimator entries. Predicted hot-carcass-weight. 684.87 3] Code quality grade as follows: Low standard -1. Average standard -3. Low good -4. High prime -12. CONCLUSION From the factors identified as major variables influencing shrinkage, the following function may be used as a conclusion. 5 = f (ti, d, hm, f, s, tm, en, c1, pc, hc, fc) 1 ti = time in transit 2 d = distance shipped 3 hm = handling and management 4 f = amount of fill 5 s = length of starvation 6 tm = method of transport 7 pc = physical characteristics 8 hc = housing conditions 9 fc = feeding conditions 10 en : environment 11 cl = climate 60 2. Bruising, Death and Crippling Losses from bruising, death, and crippling that occur during the marketing process represent a part of the cost of marketing cattle. Such losses result from a great variety of causes. But they are largely influenced by the type of transportation used and by many other factors such as the distance and time of the shipment, the season, etc. Knowledge of the nature and causes of these losses can help establish practices for reducing the extent of such losses. For the purpose of reducing such losses, a set of recommendations have been made in Chapter VII along with recommendations on shrinkage reduction. 3) Bruising. Live cattle, during the process of marketing, are often injured by bruising. Bruising may result from accidents or from improper handling and may be done to different parts of the animal. The cattle may be injured while being loaded onto motor trucks or onto railroad cars at the local shipping point; while en route to market or slaughterhouse; or while being handled at the market or after delivery is made at the plant. All meat that is damaged from bruising should be condemned as unfit for human food, even though, this is not in practice in West Africa. The bruised parts of carcasses may be cut out and used for various inedible by-products. Since bruising usually cannot be detected until after the animals have been slaughtered, it is not practicable, under the live weight method of marketing, to charge the loss to those who are responsible for it. However, packers in developed countries take the probable losses into account in the prices that are offered for the live animals. Losses from bruising, therefore, are shared by all producers -- those whose animals are free from bruises and those whose animals are badly bruised. In Africa, however, these probable losses generally are not taken into 61 account in the prices offered for live cattle, unless in cases of big gashes or cuts. Lypes of Bruises Bruises may exist in a number of forms, but the only types that are usually possible to detect in the live cattle are those in the form of cuts and gashes. However, of greater economic importance are those bruises which occur as inflamed spots and areas (fire bruises) and as deep—tissue bruises. These constitute the major portion of bruises, and they cannot be detected until the hides are removed at slaughtering time. The deep-tissue bruises cannot be detected until the carcasses are broken down into the wholesale or retail cuts. Some of the worst bruises occur when cattle go down in cars or trucks and are trampled by other cattle. Location of Bruises The greatest amount of bruising is most often located in the region of the higher priced cuts (Dowell, 1941) and (Fowler, 1961). Most of them are on the ribs, loins, and rounds. A survey conducted by USDA (Rickenbacker, 1959) and presented in Tables X and XI, revealed that the hip and shoulder areas account for about 68 percent of total trim bruises and about 70 percent of untrimmed fire bruises. The rib area sustained only 12 percent of the trim bruises and 7 1/2 percent of fire bruises. 62 63 TABLE X. BRUISE LOSS PER 100 HEAD BY TYPE OF CATTLE AND CARCASS LOCATION. Type of Cattle Number Number Pounds and "trim" "fire" Trim Carcass Location Bruises Bruises Tissue Hip Steers 29 25 21.0 Heifers 19 29 10.1 Rib Steers 13 7 6.6 Heifers 5 8 1.8 Shoulder Steers 29 42 15.1 Heifers 29 34 10.0 "Other" Steers 16 21 8.1 Heifers 15 21 5.3 Whole Carcass Steers 87 95 50.8 Heifers 68 92 27.2 Source: Rickenbacker, USDA. 64 TABLE XI. BRUISE LOSS PER 100 HEAD BY CARCASS LOCATION. Number Number Pounds Carcass "trim" "fire" Trim Location Bruises Bruises Tissue Hip 25 26 16.9 Rib 10 7 4.8 Shoulder 29 39 13.2 "Other" 16 21 7.0 Whole Carcass 80 93 41.9 Source: Rickenbacker, USDA. Causes of Bruising The causes of bruises are varied and many. According to Dowell and to Fowler, an important part (10%) of all bruises are man made resulting from careless use of clubs, canes, or whips, as shown in Table XII. In addition to these man made factors responsible for bruises, there are some major factors which are: - Trampling as a result of failing to select the size of cattle in some cars and trucks (weak cattle, crippled and lowered resistance animals are vulnerable to bruises). - Overcrowding in cars and trucks. - Underloading cars and trucks without precautions to prevent excessive jostling. — Placing upper decks too low for the size of the cattle in the lower decks. - Failing to open gates wide when driving cattle through. - Hooking by horned cattle. Because of the many factors involved, it is difficult and in many cases impossible to determine the specific cause. However, according to Fowler (1951), the high percentage (two-thirds) of bruises in the hip area of cattle may be largely accounted for by cattle being rushed and crowded through gateways and alleys and into and out of cars and trucks. the horn-bruise damage for cattle usually varies in direct proportion to the length of time that horned cattle are confined in close contact in the loading pens, cars, or trucks, or in 65 the sales pens or packer's pens. The horns rake and bruise the sides when cattle that are crowded closely raise and lower their heads. A survey of Livestock Conservation, Inc. cited by Fowler (1961) revealed that about three percent of the bruises in cattle are the direct result of horns. This percentage may be more heavy in the case of African long horn range cows. 66 67 TABLE XII. MAJOR CAUSES OF CATTLE BRUISES — According to Livestock Conservation Inc., cited by Fowler, 1961. Crowding, Bumping, 66Z and Rushing Trampling 14Z Cane-Whip-Club 10Z Horned Cattle 3Z Other Causes 7Z According to this table one would deduct that in Africa bruising may be considerable in truck or car transported cattle since they are subject to much rough handling throughout the marketing process. This is due, in part, to failure to appreciate the effect on the carcasses and hides since damage from bruising usually cannot be detected in the live cattle and, also because it does not appear as an item of cost in the account of sales. Thus, there is no reason for traders to adOpt practices that would reduce or eliminate such losses if they are not associated with other losses such as shrinkages. However, bruise losses have a great effect on butchers' margins, on consumer prices (discount price) and on total supply of edible meat. Some studies are needed to assess the proportions of bruise damage in the African cattle marketing process according to each of the main factors used in Livestock Conservation Inc.'s table and their impact on the meat supply side -- and on consumer's price. b) Losses From Death and Crippling. In addition to extensive bruise losses, many cattle arrive at the market or plant either dead or crippled from injuries received in loading or in transit. Others are injured or die after arrival at the market and before they are sold and slaughtered by the butchers. Part of-these on-the-market deaths are due to the condition of the cattle before shipment (diseases, hunger) others are due to fatigue, diseases (e.g. trypano- somiasis in trekking) to injuries received in transit (rail and truck shipment in particular) or at the yard. The cattle that are crippled en route to the plant or the the market are sold at a lower price, but cattle that die on the way to market or at the market or to the plant are a total loss to the owner. However, the total loss cases are rare. Usually animals are sold before they die. The term crippled is sometimes very confusing. Indeed it has a very broad definition. Usually an animal that arrives in such condition that it cannot walk into the pens unassisted is recorded as a cripple. In some instances, cattle that limp badly and those that show evidence of pain are recorded as cripples at the time of unloading, even though they are able to move out of the cars or trucks without assistance. In addition, cattle that are 68 unable to move through the yards with the rest of the lot because of emaciation or exhaustion frequently are recorded as crippled. In general, however, a crippled animal may be defined as one that must be hauled regardless of whether the difficulty is due to injury, emaciation, or exhaustion. Note that in Africa all the losses from death and crippling of cattle are not due to improper handling in transit or in the yards. There is a common practice among stockmen (not traders) to ship emaciated and crippled cattle of the herd to market as a means of salvaging them. Relationship of Losses to Distance Normally, losses from death and crippling would be expected to increase with the distance that cattle are transported. This is based upon two assumptions: first, that for a given type of transportation, distance reflects the time en route and second, that all factors other than distance (loading, care, speed, etc.) remain constant. If the first assumption is reasonably correct (it may require about twice the time to haul a truck or car load of cattle a distance of 100 kilometers as to haul the load 50 kilometers) the second assumption, that factors other than distance remain constant, on the contrary, does not hold true for shipments to many markets. In some instances losses may decrease with distance, in others, losses may increase. According to Dowell (1949) and Fowler (1961) losses from death and crippling are often lower on shipment than on those moving much shorter distances. The explanation for this lies in the fact that it is a human failing to be less careful in observing the rules of good shipping when the distance to market is short. 69 On short shipments, less care is exercised in bedding, loading, droving, and cattle trucks and cars are often overloaded to save transportation costs. Relationship of Losses to Time of Transit Losses from death and crippling that occur between the time of loading or departure at the local shipping points and the time of unloading or arrival at the markets or plants vary by condition of cattle and by type of transportation. A survey conducted by National Livestock Loss Prevention Board, Union Stock Yards, Chicago (Smith, H. R., 1938) found that death losses up to the time of unloading were two times higher and crippling losses were three times higher among cattle when shipped by truck than when shipped by rail. The same survey found also that losses from death and crippling in transit are higher among thin, emaciated cattle than among cattle that have been properly fed. Although the reason for these differences between effects of type of transportation on losses has not been given, it seems that they may be due to the poorly-equipped truck condition and the state of the roads at that time. That assumption is supported by the survey conducted by Rickenbacker which showed that in 1956 in the same Midwestern area death losses are only one time higher and crippling are almost equal in truck and rails shipping. However, in Africa, the negative influencing factors still remain, since in most African areas, the state of roads and other conditions prevailing are equal or even worse than conditions prevailing in the U.S. in 1938. Moreover, the condition of the cattle in Africa, in general, at the time of marketing is influenced by the feed supply situation. Drought and dry season conditions may result in the marketing of emaciated cattle, which are therefore, more exposed to losses; while an abundance of feed during the rainy season and the 70 post harvest period usually results in feeding to heavier weights, thus, cattle in these periods are less subject to losses from death and crippling. Losses In Relation To Season In the case of most animal species there is a fairly pronounced seasonal variation in losses from death and crippling. In the case of cattle there is much less seasonal variation in death losses. However, there is a fairly pronounced seasonal variation in losses from crippling (USDA, Rickenbacker, 1958), likely due to snow and ice in winter. However, for West Africa, that may not be true and death losses may be higher in the dry season because of lack of fodder and water supplies. Losses In Relation to Consignments The amount of loss from death and crippling during the marketing process is also influenced by the method of feeding during the growing and/or the finishing periods and by the uniformity (same size) of the cattle shipped in the same car or truck, or on trek. Cattle that are emaciated because of lack of feed or disease and those that carry excess weight or are deficient in bone development are more subject to crippling than normal cattle. Those in cars or trucks that go down en route frequently are trampled and badly injured or killed before reaching the market. Even though they are able to move out of the cars or trucks into the unloading pens, they may be so exhausted that it is necessary to haul them to the slaughterhouse. Losses from death and crippling are in general higher in mixed loads of cattle containing bulls or other unruly 71 animals (Dowell and Bjorka, 1941). Losses In Relation to Bedding The kind and condition of the bedding used in cars and trucks have an important effect on losses from death and crippling. Crippling is more common in cars with slippery floors than in cars where good footing is provided. The objectives in bedding cars and trucks, therefore, are to add to the comfort of the cattle and to prevent slipping. But attention may be paid to the kind of bedding to be used. Sometimes the use of much straw bedding or sand during hot weather may cause a higher rate of death losses than other types of bedding. Losses In Relation To Handling Care Some of the losses from death and crippling are due to careless handling during the marketing process. This occurs at the local loading point or between the time of loading and the time of slaughter. Staatz (1975) has estimated 0.6 percent of losses in trekking 1,618 cattle and 8 percent in mixed trek-train transport of 442 head, all from Mali. Lost Animals Through Strayingand Theft Losses from straying and theft are encountered only among cattle on hoof. These phenomena are unfortunately more and more frequent when the herds reach dense vegetation areas and around big cities. The deterioration of social conditions of populations in African big cities such as Bobodioulasso, 72 Bouake, Lagos, etc. are some of the reasons that can explain the increase of banditry. Both straying and theft are financial loss to the owner since the total value of the animal is lost. But contrary to the death, they are not an economic loss to society; only a transfer of ownership. Data on the incidences of losses and forced sales of cattle during trekking and mixed rail-trek transport are from Staatz (1979) and presented in Table XIII. Meat Quality Losses In addition to shrinkage, bruising, death and crippling occurring during the marketing of cattle, it is also necessary to consider the possible effects on the eventual quality as distinct from the weight of the°meat carcass. In some cases, a reduction in quality may be directly associated with tissue shrinkage, since the ratio of the relative weights of meat and bone in a given weight of carcass are unfavourably affected. Also, if an animal has been kept in a state of nervous tension, physically strained and not properly fed and watered for a long time before slaughter, it loses fat and the texture of its carcass is adversely altered. The muscular parts become more watery due to a significant depletion of the equilibrium level of muscle glycogen. This can be caused by prolonged road or rail transport (Howard and Lawrie, 1956; Shortose, Harris and Bouton, 1972).* * R. A. Lawrie, "Problem of Beef Quality in Relation to Transportation," 1974. 73 74 TABLE XIII. COST OF TRANSPORTING FIFTY HEAD OF CATTLE FROM KOUTIALA (MALI) TO FERKESSEDOUGOU BY TREK AND RAIL FROM FERKESSE- DOUGOU TO ABIDJAN Expense* TOTAL PER ANIMAL 1. Salary of drovers 2 @ 15,000 + 1 @ 12,5008 = 42,500 850 2. Food for drovers 25,000 500 3. Return trip for b drovers 3 @ 2,500 = 7,500 150 4. Round trip for owner 13,000 260 5. Food for owner in Abidjan: 7 days @ 200 CFAF/day 1,400 28 6. Health certificate 4,000 80 7. Indemnity for damaged fields 250 5 8. Salt for animals 500 10 9. Loss of animals 1.5Z of 50 animals @ 40,000 CFAF per animal = 30,000 600 10. Forced sales 2.0Z of 50 (IOZ)** animals @ 20,000 CFAF loss per animal = 20,000 400 11. Cattle market tax: Abidjan 25,000 500 12. Malian cattle merchants' license, vaccination, and export taxes 220,000 4,400 13. Transport charges Rental of truck/train car 2 H12 cars @ 62,558 = 125,000 2,502 Straw 1,000 20 Loading/unloading 2,500 50 Otherc 2,500 50 14. Unofficial charges -0- -0- 15. Gift to the landlord 0-5,000 0—100 TOTAL COST (excluding weight cost): 517,266-517,266 10,345-10,445 Days in transit: .31 Source: Staatz, 1979; pp. 234-5 Cited by CRED Volume III, 1980. 3Three drovers accompany the cattle to Ferkessedougou but only two continue on from Ferkessedougou to Abidjan by train. bThe RAN provides free return transit to Ferkessedougou for the two drovers who accompanied the animals to Abidjan by train. The cattle merchant has only to pay their passage between Ferkessedougou and Koutiala (2,500 CFAF per person). cIncludes unofficial payments to RAN employees for reserving a train car or other services. 75 * Excluding weight losses. ** Percentage of lost costs from total transport costs per head. The quality of a carcass can also be seriously damaged if the animal has recently suffered knocks and bruises. This consideration is often neglected because the damage cannot be seen until after the animal has been slaughtered and dressed. Bruised areas then show up as dark, bloody patches in the flesh and must be removed before the meat can be sold. It is worthwhile to recall what quality in beef means. In the present context this will mean eating quality and freedom from microbial spoilage (Lawrie, 1977). Eating quality involves four attributes: - The color, which is largely due to the muscle pigment myoglobin. - The water holding capacity and juiciness, which are determined by the physico-chemical state of the muscle proteins. - The texture of tenderness, which is a function of the size of muscle fibres and the degree of their cross-linking. - The flavor, which comprises taste and odor and is due to derivatives of fat, proteins and carbohydrates. All these four attributes of eating quality are variable and may be influenced by many factors such as breed, sex, age, stress, plan and nature of nutrition, etc. 76 77 CHAPTER V COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES AND COSTS OF TRANSPORTATION METHODS The special characteristics which make livestock producers depen- dent upon an adequate and flexible transportation system may be grouped into three major categories. One is the extent to which livestock products depend on geographic movements to acquire their market value. In West Africa these move- ments are over long distances, and perishable livestock products have very short time tolerances. The second, even more critical, is the extent to which natural factors determines where, when and in what quantities transportation services will be needed. The third is the costs and the high level of losses involved in the shipments. Therefore, the choice of any appropriate method of transport should take into account these special characteristics. The three major methods of transporting cattle from producing areas to consuming regions in tropical Africa that we have discussed in this study are trekking, rail and trucking. These methods will probably continue to be important for a long time. Therefore, information about advantages and disadvantages and about the costs of losses involved in these methods is important to policy makers and cattle traders interested in improving beef transportation. Some studies on various aspects related to transport cost of trekking, rail and trucking in West Africa have been done, but very little information is available on costs of losses. Policy makers and cattle traders can identify in this study major advantages and disadvantages and major cost categories within each method, compare the same data item among methods, and compare total differences among the various methods. The data given in this study should not be considered highly accurate; more studies, more research on more areas and on the various parameters and relationships must be done to attain higher levels of accuracy. However, the information used is the best available. Organizing this information into an integrated framework should help in the policy process and decision making that seek to improve the performance of the West African cattle transporta- tion system. 78 l. Trekking a) Advantages and Disadvantages. In most of West Africa, especially in the Sahelian zone that includes: Mali, Niger, Upper Volta and Mauritania, it is common for cattle to cover all of the long journey to market on foot. Herds assembled by traders in the remote cattle producing areas of Mali, Niger, Upper Volta or Mauritania may be driven more than 1,500 miles, taking several weeks to reach their terminal markets or transfer points to truck or rail transport. Much of this traffic crosses international boundaries; for example from Mali through Upper Volta into Ghana or from Niger through Upper Volta to Ivory Coast. In many cases, there is no feasible alternative to droving since the producing areas are remote and thinly populated, and are not served by all- season roads. The herdsmen and their cattle are accustomed to long seasonal treks over the rangelands, and so the eventual journey to markets or transport terminals is just an extension of their normal way of life. The marketing of cattle on foot has special advantages where good grazing conditions are found all the way to the abattoir, particularly in the rainy season (July to September) or during the post harvest period, October to December. Under those conditions stock can be expected to gain weight during their journey to market in almost all areas if driven slowly (Mittendorf, 1961; Fenn, 1977; Staatz, 1978). 79 By contrast, there are cattle evacuation routes which involve great hardships and result in serious losses of weight and quality because they pass through areas where fodder and water are scarce, particularly in the Sahelian areas in the dry season, February to June, or where lack of common lands, high density of population and busy motor traffic cause the herds to be harrassed and hurried along their way, particularly in the southern cultivated or forest zones of West Africa. The traditional market routes from Sahelian producing countries to deficit coastal countries Nigeria, Ghana and Ivory Coast have these disadvantages, and also pass through areas infested with Tse-Tse fly. Consequently, in recent years cattle consigned from the north to these coastal markets have increasingly been transported by road or rail at least when they reach the southern stages of their journey. b) Direct and Indirect Costs. In assessing the costs of moving cattle on foot, the question of relative transport costs, loss of weight and 'quality' and the risk of casualities (bruising, crippling, death) may well outweight all other factors in econoimc importance. African traders normally know from experience what costs they incur in droving over particular routes in various seasons, and if there were a better alternative means of transport, they would no doubt use it. However, the adoption of road, rail or other means in place of trekking may not be possible without prior investment or provision of services by the public authorities. Even the improvement of existing facilities for droving may call for public investment in stock routes, watering points and supporting services. Therefore, it may be necessary for the policy makers also to know as accurately as possible the costs of evacuating cattle, in particular 80 the costs arising from losses of weight and 'quality' and from casualties. It is worthwhile to note that in most West African markets for meat, there is not a high premium paid for high quality meat, so loss of quality may not be a large economic loss. It is difficult to measure these costs by experimental work under practical conditions, but in some instances the observations and information provided by traders may be sufficient to show whether investments in new transport methods are justified. However, special experiments may be conducted if it is feasible to weigh a selected group of slaughter cattle before they begin their journey, and record the experience of the journey itself and the live weights and condition of the animals at point of slaughter. Such an experiment of course has more immediate value if it is possible to test an alternative means of transport with a similar herd of cattle at the same time. In those conditions the carcass weights and qualities of the two groups can be analyzed and compared in order to judge how live weights, death losses and carcass quality are affected by the alternative methods. But this is not the case in most of the studies conducted so far in West Africa. In general, the costs involved in trekking live cattle fall into the following categories: drover's fee, food money, marketing fee, salvage costs, shrinkage costs, loss and mortality costs, investment costs, water and supplementary feed costs, trade cattle tax, and indemnities for damaged field. It is obvious that all these variables do not have the same value in all West African countries and even within the country, they may change according to time periods, to areas and to methodology of data collecting. Therefore, data will be presented country by country and the focus will be on costs of losses specifically imputable to trekking. The other costs will be found in Appendix Tables. 81 Mali Ombevi (Paper No. 100, 1978) reports a 5 percent loss of live weight for herds moving on foot in the dry season between Mopti and Bouake a distance of 800 km. John Staatz (1980) charged the opportunity cost of tied-up capital at 20 percent per annum, pro-rated to reflect the number of days involved in trekking, and 1 percent cost for loss of animal and 1 percent cost for forced sales from the overall percent of investment in exporting fifty head of cattle from Niono to Bouake. Dirck Stryker (1975) estimates 0.5 percent of death and forced sales losses and shrinkage is estimated at 10 percent. Upper Volta Larry Herman (1983) estimates 1.5 percent of forced sales loss, 0.6 percent for lost animal and 0.6 percent for death losses from the total costs of trekking cattle within Upper Volta. Ivory Coast John Staatz (1980) reported 0.4 percent cost for indemnity for damaged fields and 1.6 percent cost for lost animals and forced sales of total costs of transporting fifty head of cattle from Tingrela to Bouake. 82 Nigeria Kellogg (1971) reports in eight surveys covering all of Nigeria 46 percent of the total transport cost for shrinkage, 12 percent for loss of value and 5 percent for mortality cost. The large shrinkage, salvage and mortality losses (which account for approximately 63 percent of the total transport cost in this report are apparently due to a great extent to the trypanosomiasis disease contracted as the cattle walk through the Tse-Tse fly belt.* Note that Kellogg based his findings on secondary data. c) Conclusion Obviously, there is very little information available on the subject of losses during trekking. The data given above did not help very much to increase the understanding of the economic significance of losses. Neither the clear magnitudes nor the exact nature of the losses have been well established in these studies. Moreover, the shrinkage which is the main component of losses in trekking is ignored except in Staatz and Kellogg's studies. And even in those cases, excretory and tissue shrinkage are not considered separately to appraise the conomic significance of the shrinkage since only the loss in tissue reduces the weight of the edible carcass. More research is needed to obtain higher levels of accuracy of economic variable's values in the trekking transportation system. *Kellogg refers to Frederick Hunger's unpublished manuscript, "Analysis of Cost Structure on Hoof Transport." 83 2. Trucking a) Advantages and Disadvantages. The advantages of truck trans- port of cattle arise mainly from its speed and reliability over good roads and the fact that it enables traders to exercise more freedom as to the time and place of marketing. The great increase in its use in recent years has therefore depended on the extensive development of all weather (international) roads between cattle producing area's markets and main population centers. Once good motorable roads are built, vehicle-transport of cattle can greatly reduce the time of transit and thus losses of weight and quality that are associated with trucking in unfavorable conditions. Other reasons for increases in the use of trucks in recent years are in response to some special brisk demands in coastal countries, to avoid poor trek routes due to the drought'and the lack of rail cars for cattle during a long time. By far the most important disadvantages of truck shipment are high shrinkage, mortality, freight charges, due to the lack of good domestic roads and inadeqate bridges in most areas. Other factors causing losses are poor mechanical condition of trucks, overloading and driver stress from driving too long without rest. b) Costs of Losses in Trucking. The direct loss costs involved in trucking are mainly: mortality costs, shrinkage costs, forced sales of animals and severe bruises, causing a discounting in price or a trimming out of much valuable muscles at the abattoir and for which a value estimation 84 is generally not made in Africa, although that have a very important economic significance. But here again, the following data should be treated with reserve as well as in trekking data. John Staatz (1980) reports 9 percent mortality cost and 4 percent for forced sale cost of 50 head of cattle shipped by truck from Niono (Mali) to Abidjan, a distance of 1,100 km, as shown in Table XIV. No data on shrinkage is reported. Meanwhile, Sedes (1973)* reports 10 to 20 percent of total costs per head due to weight loss in truck shipment from Mall to Ivory Coast or to Ghana. Staatz (1980) in "Meat Supply in Ivory Coast 1967-1985" estimates an average of 5 to 7 percent of carcass weight loss per head, an equivalent of 12 to 13 percent of total cost per head; 4 percent for mortality cost; an equivalent of 2 percent per 24 hours; carcass weight loss, and 2 percent for forced sale cost in a truck shipment of 50 head of cattle from Koutiala (Mall) to Abidjan (distance of 600 km). In trans- porting cattle within lvory Coast from Tingrela to bouake by truck, he reports 1.6 percent cost for mortality, 0.6 percent cost for forced sales and about 3.5 percent to 5.5 percent carcass weight loss per head. Earl Duane Kellogg (1971) reports in his Nigerian survey an average total cost per head of 4.6 percent due to mortality cost and 30.7 percent due to shrinkage cost. Figures are present in Table XV. *Stryker (1975) Marketing of Malian Cattle, p. 23, Table V. 85 86 TABLE XIV. COST OF EXPORTING FIFTY HEAD OF CATTLE FROM NIONO TO ABIDJAN IN 1977(5 = 450 FM) Transportation Costs* Truck to Abidjan Salary and expense of drovers 48,000 FM Ivorian health certificate 8,000 FM Indemnities for damaged fields -0- Salt for animals -0- Loss of animals 150,000 FM (13%)H Forced sales of animals 60,000 F M Truck transport charges 1,400,000 FM TOTAL 1,666,000 PM Source: CRED Volume III, 1980. *Shrinkage cost is not included. **Percentage of loss from total transport costs. 87 H>0fim N<. nowam ow Hw>meOWHHZQ o>afifim 0% exam” Hz ZHnmw0> morono no nrm 80mm xmno no n50 20mm 0on5: no "rm Smmn woman no n00 mmmn 0mnmmonw N nomn N Om N nomn N om N noun N Om N nomn N 00 \ooz Honm0 \oot Honm0 \ooa eonm0 \nos HOnm0 zonnm00n0 nomn .00 0.0 .00 0.00 .00 0.0 .00 0.0 mrn09wmmm 00mm 0.00 00.0 0.00 00.00 0.00 00.0 0.00 00.0 onrmn mxvmammm .00 0.0 .00 0.00 .00 0.0 .00 0.0 0Hm005n nomnm 0.00 00.0 0.00 00.00 00.00 00.0 00.00 00.0 Hoe>b 00.00 000.0 00.00 000.0 00.00 000.0 00.00 000.0 mocnnmu 0000o00. 0000. VIII-I‘ll lIll‘.l|l1 3. Rail a) Advantaggs and Disadvantages. A railway's ability to compete for cattle transport largely depends on the level of freight rates, the speed and frequency of the services it can offer over longer distance and on the relative security against delays and breakdowns. Ideally, the railway may provide entire cattle trains of properly equipped wagons. Competent handling of the cattle at loading and unloading and adequate supervision and care during the shipment are also essential. If the shipment takes longer than about 30 hours, it may be appropriate to provide a stop for feeding, watering and rest to reduce the shrinkage. The convenience of rail transport is also greatly increased if proper holding grounds or pens with fodder and water can be provided at the loading and unloading points. Cattle should be allowed to begin their hard rail shipment in the best condition (and not be made to wait for departure under starving conditions), and to have a regain before sale. Unfortunately in West Africa, the two major lines of railway (Kano-Lagos and Ouaga- dougou-Abidjan) for cattle transportation are both inefficient. On both lines, cattle cars are frequently unavailable for two weeks or more, forcing cattle traders to truck or walk their animals or incur additional expenses in maintaining the herds while waiting for cattle cars. After the cattle are loaded, the train usually waits several hours for customs clearance (case of Ouagadougou-Abidjan railway) or for other reasons before being able to depart. The trips also take much longer now than they did about 10 years ago because of the bad condition of the trains. For example, the journey of about 950 km from Kano to Apapa takes 72 to 80 hours, while it took 50 88 hours in 1960 (Fenn, 1977) and the journey of about 1,200 km from Ouagadougou to Abidjan takes 72 to 96 hours while it took only 48 hours in 1965 (Bishop, 1972). During the shipment time, cattle are neither fed nor watered. The cattle cars do not have adequate ventilation so that animals become overheated while in transit. All those factors contribute to increased shrinkage, death losses, and casualties in rail shipment. b) costs of Losses in Railing. Like in trucking, the direct loss costs fall into the following categories: shrinkage costs, mortality costs, forced sales of animals and severe bruising costs. According to Herman (1978) the carcass weight loss is estimated at 10 percent per head on the rail trip from Ouagadougou to Abidjan. This 10 percent is equivalent to about 16 percent of purchase price. The mortality and forced sale losses are estimated at 2.25 percent of purchase price. He estimates mortality at 2 percent, an equivalent of 21 percent of total per head cost, and forced sales at 2.16 percent of total 94 herds. (Herman, 1983.) Staatz (1979) estimates 9 percent loss of carcass weight for the Ouagadougou-Abidjan trip (the largest single cost in rail per head except taxes). This represents 26.7 percent of the total cost per head. The cost of mortality and forced sales is estimated to be 5 percent of the total costs per head. According to Kellogg (1971) mortality and shrinkage losses account for approximately 40 percent of the total transport costs for rail shipment on important market routes of Nigeria. 89 Mortality cost per head is about 2 percent, and shrinkage cost is about 45 percent of total per head cost. Those figures are presented in Table XVI. 90 91 .0000 .0000000 "mousom 0.000 00.00 0.000 00.00 0.000 00.0 0.000 00.0 0<000 0.0 00. 0.0 00. 0.0 00. 0.0 00. umou uamvcmuu< 0.00 00.0 0.00 00.0 0.00 00.0 0.00 00.0 mumou u£00mum 0.0 00. 0.0 00. 0.0 00. 0.0 00. mwmcmmxm Hanuo 0.00 00.0 0.00 00.0 0.00 00.0 0.00 00.0 umoo mmmxa0uzm 6.N 6N. 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