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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled
A SURVEY OF PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTATION

AND OF ITS APPLICATIONS
IN EDUCATION, EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION

presented by

Richard Burtschi

i
has been accepted towards fulfillment }
of the requirements for

Doctorate degree in Philosophy
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Date April 18, 1977

 

0-7639

 

© 1978

RICHARD JUL I US BURTSCHI

ALL RI GHTS RESERVED

A SURVEY OF PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTATION
AND OF ITS APPLICATIONS
IN EDUCATION, EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION

By

Richard Burtschi

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum

l977

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(VJ/{Q

ABSTRACT

A SURVEY OF PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL INSTRUMENTATION
AND OF ITS APPLICATIONS
IN EDUCATION, EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION

By

Richard Burtschi

This study addresses the question of the diffusion of existing

innovative, electronic and non-electronic instrumentation in areas where
The study develops, first, a
Then it

it is under-used or not used at all.
picture of the types of instrumentation that are available.

focuses upon useage being made of five specific types of physiological

Applications are then suggested for those five types
Finally, the

instrumentation.
in areas where they are under-used or not used at all.

results of the study are summarized and discussion is included of an
organizational structure which might help bridge the gap between teachers
The goal of

or researchers and the technology discussed in the study.
the study is, therefore, to attempt to identify and then recommend to

teachers and researchers tools to which they may, previously, have had
no introduction or access, and to propose means through which they might

get that introduction and access.
To accomplish the above goal seven objectives were planned and

accomplished for the study.
A taxonomy of available electronic and non-electronic instru-

1)

mentation was developed.
A taxonomy of instrumentation applications and research problems

2)
which are addressed by the above instrumentation was developed.

Richard Burtschi

3) A multi-disciplinary literature survey was done to determine
who, in general, uses the types of instrumentation shown in
the instrumentation taxonomy, and to determine how the instru-
mentation is used. This survey focused upon the first five
categories of the instrumentation taxonomy, i.e. five forms of
physiological instrumentation: brain waves (theta, alpha, and
beta), muscle voltage measurement (EMG), skin conductance
measurement (GSR), biofeedback and telemetry.

4) A narrower literature survey was done to determine within the
fields of education, educational psychology and communication
what uses are being made of the above five types of instrumentation.

5) A Coding Matrix was developed: a) to help categorize types of
instrumented research, b) to identify and display areas for which
the surveys did not find citations (suggesting, in some cases,
what may be new areas of instrumentation application), c) to code
the bibliography to facilitate location of citations dealing with
a specified type of instrumentation application.

6) Interviews were held with researchers in education, communication
and educational psychology to see if additional instrumentation
applications could be added to those identified in the surveys
conducted for objectives three and four.

7) An 'instrumentation resource center' structure was described
and discussed. This structure could mediate technology to
'non-technical' persons.

Conclusions. The first conclusion is that there are, indeed, useful

applications in the social sciences of the five types of instrumentation

focused upon by this study. A variety of applications were identified for

Richard Burtschi

the fields of education, educational psychology and communication.
It appears that a number of those applications have, to date, hardly
been explored.

A second conclusion arises from interviews held with a variety
of researchers and department heads at Michigan State University while
this study was being done. These persons are aware of the potential
usefulness of instrumentation in their areas and, without exception,
expressed the desire to gain access to it. The conclusion arising
from this is that it would be desireable to provide such persons access
to instrumentation. Interest was expressed by persons in education,
communication, physical education and recreation, music, osteopathic
and human medicine, athletics (e.g. track and tennis), dietetics and
speech and hearing. A number of teachers, e.g. of relaxation classes,
communication, business and psychology classes indicated interest.
Interest was expressed by clinical psychologists in private practice and
connected with a pain clinic at a medical center. The diversity of persons
expressing interest parallels the findings of the study as to where the
most useful applications are being made, or are beginning to be made.

Recommendations. First, it is recommended that surveys such as

 

those done for this study be done for other areas of the social sciences

to identify instrumentation applications in those areas. Second, it is
recommended that the taxonomies of instrumentation and research problems

be further developed. Improvement of those taxonomies would make possible,
for example, construction of a more thorough matrix for a field such as
communication or education, identifying existing research and displaying

areas where new activity might be initiated. Third, it is recommended

that steps be taken to implement some form of 'instrumentation resource center'

Richard Burtschi

activity to mediate technology to teachers and researchers who wish to
undertake use of new technology but who need assistance in acquiring
and using it.
It is believed, based on the results of this study, that the areas
of social science surveyed comprise a ready and fertile ground for efforts

to diffuse innovations in instrumentation.

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my parents

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writer wishes to express his appreciation to the many
persons who have helped in the various stages of development of this
study.

Particular thanks are expressed to Dr. Allan Abedor for his
excellent counsel while chairman of the guidance committee and during
earlier phases of the doctoral program. Thanks are expressed to the
other members of the guidance committee for their unique insights and
their generous assistance. Drs. Abedor, Norman Bell, Richard Farace
and James Nord each brought unique and invaluable perspectives on the
subject of technological innnovation.

Special thanks go to Dr. Lawrence Alexander, Director of the
Learning and Evaluation Service, for providing assistance in defining
the role which an instrumentation resource center can play at a university
such as Michigan State, and for providing a work environment within which
the first resource center type services were attempted by the writer.
Using the experience and insights gained while working with Dr. Alexander
an attempt will be made to initiate an instrumentation resource center on
a broad scale. Thanks go to Dr. Stephen Yelon for his helpful insights,
and to Dr. Stephen Sachs for his advice on thesis writing. The writer
expresses gratitude to the Jesuit Order for financial support for this
doctoral program.

This thesis was assembled and typed by Mrs. Pat Sweet. A more
competent person technically, or one more gifted in good humor and

interpersonal skills, would be difficult, indeed, to find.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES ...........................
APPENDIX ..............................
Chapter
I. BACKGROUND .........................
Need for the Study .....................
Generalizability ......................
Objectives and Methodology .................
Limitations of the Study ..................
Definition of Terms ....................
Overview of Chapters to Follow ...............
II. AN OVERVIEW OF AVAILABLE INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES .

III.

Comments on Taxonomies in General .............
Development of a Research Instrumentation Taxonomy .....
Development of a Research Problem Taxonomy .........

THE MULTI-DISCIPLINARY SURVEY OF LITERATURE ........

Results of The Survey ...................
Instrumentation and Biofeedback in Education and

Educational Psychology ..................
Instrumentation and Physical Education ...........
Instrumentation and Counseling ...............
Instrumentation and Reading Education . . . .......
Instrumentation and Research in Intelligence ........
Instrumentation and the Hyperkinetic Child .........
Instrumentation and Instructional Technology ........
Instrumentation and Medicine, Psychiatry and

Psychology ........................
Biofeedback Applications Other Than Those Of Interest

To This Study ......................
Applications of Telemetry Instrumentation .........
A Listing of Instrumentation Applications Identified

In This Review of Literature ...............
Summary of the Multi-Disciplinary Review of Literature. . .

vi

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flog->00

10
14

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31

Chapter Page

IV. LITERATURE REVIEW FOR THREE SELECTED DISCIPLINES ...... Sl
Survey of Journals in Educational Psychology ........ 5l
Survey of Journals in Education .............. 60
Survey of Journals in Communication ............ 66
Summary of the Surveys ................... 68
Listing of Research Applications Identified in

the Surveys ....................... 70
A Coding Chart for Classification of Types of

Instrumented Research .................. 74
An Application of the Coding Chart ............. 77
Arranging of Interviews and a Formal Discussion Group

With Three Researchers .................. 80
Summary of the Results of the Surveys of Chapters

Three and Four ...................... 84

v. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 85

Development of an Instrumentation Resource Center
Structure ........................ 85
Summary of the Results of the Study ............ 88
Conclusions and Recommendations .............. 90
APPENDIX. . ............................ 93
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................ 95

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page
l TAXONOMY OF INSTRUMENTATION ................... 22
2 A RESEARCH PROBLEM TAXONOMY JUXTAPOSED WITH THE INSTRUMENTATION
TAXONOMY .......................... 27
3 APPLICATION OF THE RESEARCH FACTOR TAXONOMY TO A RESEARCH
PROBLEM .......................... 28
4 INSTRUMENTATION APPLICATIONS IDENTIFIED IN CHAPTER 3 ...... 45
5 INSTRUMENTATION APPLICATIONS IDENTIFIED IN CHAPTER 4 ...... 7l

6 CODING CHART FOR CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTED RESEARCH . . . . 75

APPENDIX
Appendix Page
A SOURCES OF DATA FOR THIS STUDY ............... 93

vi

Chapter I

BACKGROUND

Within the last two decades a technological revolution has
occurred which has touched virtually every area of our lives. There
have been substantial improvements, as well as entirely new developments,
in measurement instrumentation and the research procedures used with it.
Norton (1969) writes:

The rapid growth of the instrumentation field
during the past decade has few parallels in
history. The sophisticated electronic measurement
systems now in routine operation in many countries
would have appeared of marginal credibility as
recently as the mid-1950's.

These developments have supplemented or transformed research
activities in some areas of study, but not all. Some of the researchers
who might have applications for such instrumentation, e.g. in the
fields of education, communications, etc., are still experiencing the
frustration of the technological communication barrier which must be
crossed before they can reliably use such instrumentation. In this
connection Wolff (1970) emphasizes the need for researchers to be

aware of instrumentation:

Most...people will simply not pose problems unless

they are at least marginally aware of the technology
which might be capable of producing a solution. What
is needed, therefore, is someone who can say: "This or
that new engineering technique is now available: My
preliminary thinking and experimentation suggest that
it ought to be useful to solve this or that...problem."

Beyond the fact that people need to know of instrumentation
before being able to raise certain types of questions, there is another
important fact related to its use. In some research situations, as in
psychophysiological measurements, instruments can detect, record and
process data in ways that the unaided human researcher cannot. For
example, the human observer tends to forget and to distort data:

So much of our raw data consists of brief impressions

of evanescent, fleeting moments of behavior. They

are here and gone in a flash, never to recur, never to
be re-enacted or re-lived in exactly the same way....

It is this fleeting moment which must be studied. For
this purpose it would have to be perceived, recorded

and recalled with precision. Yet, we know that during
the whole experience the observer himself is emotionally
involved ..... Yet, when we are involved emotionally,

we are hardly free to make precise, objective, obser—
vations, to record them accurately, or to recall them
without bias ..... Parents and teachers and psychiatrists
have all been dependent for their basic data upon their
imperfect and fallible memories of visual and auditory
perceptions which are themselves subject to distortion
(Kubie, l964).

Lawrence (l967) writes of the need for this type of study from
the perspective of one in the Audio Visual field:

Unfortunately, as it stands, the increased AV-type
research activities supported in the past several

years both by major educational foundations and by

the Federal Government, especially under the

provisions of Title VII of the National Defense
Education Act, include no elaborate studies on the
instrumentation philosophy and application of the
bio-physical type systems to audiovisual use. Instead,
due to a lack of something better, responsible personnel
continue to wring out the semi-fixed possibilities of
antiquated machines and Gestalt-type psychological
concepts.

Need For The Study

 

It is important that researchers in the social sciences know
Of new, or improved, instrumentation. The primary reason for this is
that new, or improved, instrumentation should yield new, or more
refined, data. This, in turn, should enable researchers to get better
answers to their research questions and, perhaps, to ask some new or
better questions.

To provide researchers with an overview of available instrumen-
tation it is necessary that they have access to some sort of inventory,
or survey, Of instrumentation useage. Such a survey should indicate
possible applications, the types of data which can be acquired, and
give an indication of the types of interpretation which can be placed
upon that data. This survey should give researchers a better perspective
as to what expectations might be placed upon such equipment. They
Should know both the strengths and limitations of their instrumentation.
Finally, that survey can serve as a point of departure for efforts to
identify research areas in which instrumentation, of the types reviewed,
is used very little, or not at all.

Another critical need is to communicate to developers of
instrumentation technology some of the unique needs Of various areas
of research, such as education, educational psychology and conmunications.

Finally, it is important that innovative research instrumentation
be made available to researchers who might benefit from it. With a given
instrument a researcher in communications or education is likely to
generate different questions from what an experimental psychologist

would generate. A study is needed, therefore, to promote the broader

use of available technology, i.e., the diffusion of innovations in
instrumentation. Rogers (1971) states:

An innovation (italics) is an idea, practice, or
object perceived as new by an individual. It

matters little, so far as human behavior is concerned,
whether or not an idea is "objectively" new as
measured by the lapse of time since its first use

or discovery. It is the perceived or subjective
newness of the idea for the individual that deter-
mines his reaction to it. If the idea seems new to
the individual, it is an innovation.

A study is, thus, needed which addresses the question of

diffusion of instrumentation innovations.

The Generalizability_pf This Study

 

A survey of research instrumentation in education, educational
psychology, and communications will be of interest to a variety Of
researchers outside those areas, whether in the social sciences,
engineering, etc.. The research problems in any given area will

dictate what forms of instrumentation are of value there.

The Objectives and Methodology of This Study

 

Seven objectives have been set for this study which are
described in this section along with the methods employed to achieve
them. In general, this study develops, first, a broad picture of the
types of research instrumentation that are available (Chapter 2,
Objectives l and 2). It then focuses upon useage being made of
several types Of psychophysiological instrumentation (Chapter 3,
Objective 3: Chapter 4, Objectives 4 and 5). Applications are then
suggested for those psychophysiological tools in areas where they
appear to be little used (Chapter 4, Objective 6). Finally, the results

of the study will be summarized and some discussion included of an

organizational structure which might bridge the gap between
researchers and the technology discussed in the study (Chapter 5,
Objective 7).

The primary goal of the study is, therefore, to attempt to
innovate through identifying and, then, recommending to researchers tools
to which they may, previously, have had no introduction or access
(Chapter 5, Objective 7, deals with means through which researchers
might get that introduction or access).

Objective 1. The first objective of this study was to develop
a taxonomy of research instrumentation and techniques. This taxonomy
provides a listing and categorization of available instrumentation and
serves as a background for chapters to follow. The instrumentation
ranges from non-physiological to physiological and, within each
category, from simple to more complex.

The procedure used to develop the taxonomy included the follow-
ing: a) discussion of the rationale for an instrumentation taxonomy,

b) searching through psychological, educational, medical, technical

and other sources in an effort to locate instrumentation types, c) plan-
ning and justifying of the arrangement and 'ordering' of instrumentation
within the taxonomy.

Objective 2. The second objective of this study was to
develop a taxonomy of research problems which are addressed by the
previously identified instrumentation. This taxonomy lists and categor-
izes a wide variety Of research problems. For example, a variety of
research problems can be identified under the heading of motor

performance: fatigue, skill in manual performance, muscle tension,

and hand-eye coordination. The research problem taxonomy will be

used in juxtaposition with the instrumentation taxonomy to Show
applications of instrumentation.

The method used to develop the research factor taxonomy includes
the following: a) discussion of the rationale for a research problem
taxonomy, b) searching through psychological, educational, medical,
technical and other sources in an effort to identify a variety of
categories of research factors, c) arranging of the research problems
according to the rationale developed.

Objective 3. The third objective of this study is to determine
who, in general, uses the types of advanced instrumentation to be
described, how it is used, and with what results. The method used to
get this data was a multi-disciplinary survey of literature, including
both manual and computer searches. The sources manually searched and
the seven computer searches initiated were: a) any considered likely
to contain citations about use of instrumentation and, b) those
related to social science areas to be focused upon in Chapter 4. To
facilitate follow-up study, details of the computer searches are given
in Appendix A. Other information sources were used also, e.g., Disserta-
tion Abstracts and various indexes to periodical literature.

The outcome sought from the above searches was citations describ-
ing research using the types of instrumentation focused upon by this
study. The questions asked of the citations for objective number 3
were: Who uses advanced instrumentation, how, and with what results?
A citation will be considered to be ‘of value! to this study if it

provides answers to one or all of those questions.

Objective 4. The fourth objective of this study was to determine
within three selected subject matter areas who uses advanced instrumenta-
tion, how they use it, and with what result. The selected areas were
education, communication and educational psychology. Education and
communication were selected because they are areas in which little
advanced instrumentation, if any, is being used, and because there are
numerous potential applications there. Educational psychology was
selected because it is an area in which some use of such instrumentation
has been made but where there are further potential applications.

The method used to collect the needed data was a selective
literature review of five research oriented journals within each of the
chosen areas. Selection of those journals was based upon the recommen-
dations of Michigan State University faculty within each of the areas
and upon the results of the computer and manual searches in identifying
potential sources.

The outcome sought from this intra-disciplinary survey was
citations describing research using types of instrumentation focused
upon by this study. This survey sought to determine: a) who, if anyone,
within the areas searched has used advanced instrumentation, b) how they
have used it and, c) what results they have reported.

Objective 5. The fifth objective of this study was to develop
a coding system, in a matrix format, which will aid in identification of
instrumentation applications and in selection of appropriate instrumenta-
tion for one's own research. Specific applications of the coding matrix
in this study are: a) identification (coding) of types of instrumented
research located in the computer and manual searches done for this

study, b) identification and display of areas for which available

research was ngt_found in the surveys (empty cells in the matrix will,
therefore, suggest either that research has not been done in a particular
category or that it simply was not found in the surveys done for this
study), c) coding the bibliography of this study to aid in the location
of information involving the use of a particular type of instrumentation
with a specified type of research problem.

The method used to develop the coding system matrix included the
following steps: a) establishing a rationale for the coding system,

b) selection of a matrix format, c) construction of the matrix.

Objective 6. The sixth objective of this study was to identify
research applications in the three subject matter areas surveyed.

Having determined by reviewing journals what is being done in those
areas, and using the results of the broader search done for Objective 3,
interviews were held with one experienced researcher in each of the

three areas. This was, in effect, a 'consultant-consultant' interview

in which the knowledge of interviewer and interviewee were pooled. The
researchers interviewed were familiarized with the types of instrumenta-
tion being focused upon and with the results of the literature surveys
conducted for purposes 3 and 4. After the above private interviews

the three participated in a group discussion conducted with the intention
of identifying new instrument applications.

The data being sought from the interviews and the discussion,
therefore, was the judgment of subject matter experts and of the inter-
viewer concerning new instrument applications in the fields of communi-
cation, education and educational psychology.

Objective 7. The seventh objective of this study was to present
the theoretical and functional structure of an 'instrumentation resource

center', the purpose of which would be to provide the organizational

structure needed to disseminate instrumentation and technical assistance
to researchers. As in the preceding objectives, the method used was to
develop a rationale then to discuss an organizational structure. Based
upon that structure it will be possible to draft a proposal for the
testing of that structure at a major university. The drafting of the

proposal itself is not, however, a part of this study.

Limitations Of This Study

 

This study does not deal with all electronic instrumentation,
or non-electronic instrumentation, that is available. It focuses upon
a few types which appear, on the basis of relative inexpensiveness and
ready availability, to be transferable to use by social scientists and
other 'non-laboratory' type researchers. It is not suggested that those
types of instrumentation will be applicable to, or will improve the
quality of data gotten in, all types of research or measurement. The
instruments to be focused upon by this study are: l) alpha wave and
theta wave monitoring instruments, 2) skin conductance monitoring
instruments (galvanic skin response), 3) muscle voltage monitoring
instruments (electromyographic measurement), 4) physiological feedback
techniques (provision of feedback to the person from whom measures are
being taken), 5) physiological telemetry techniques.

This study will not deal with legal considerations important in
instrumentation use. There are, for example, laws relative to researchers
and personswho serve as research subjects. These are concerned with
the types of research done, the procedures used, the competency of the
researcher. Also, laws are being drafted concerning the types of

instruments that will be considered safe for human research. For example,

TO

the United States Congress is currently preparing for passage of the
Medical Device Amendments of 1976 (see Federal Register, Vol. 14, NO. 173,
Friday, September 3, l976) which is concerned with the safety'of devices
and with the determination of the real therapeutic value of devices to

be used for medical purposes.

Definition of Terms

 

Because some readers of this study will be unfamiliar with some
of the terminology of the study this section will include elaborated
definitions. Several definitions are accompanied by references to the
taxonomy of instrumentation in Chapter 2. Reference to that taxonomy
will facilitate understanding of the definitions given.

Bioelectricgpotentials. These are voltages generated by

 

electrochemical activity in certain types of cells in the body. Such
identifiable voltages are produced by systems in the body as they carry
out their functions. They provide a good deal of information on various
aspects of system function. For example, bioelectric potentials are
f0und in connection with such activities as heartbeat, brain activity,
muscle activity and nerve conduction.

Alpha waves. Electroencephalography is the term used to describe

 

the process of detecting voltages on the surface of the head. Alpha

waves are one type of bioelectric voltage measured there which will be
discussed in this study. Alpha waves appear as a series of waves occur—
ring at the rate of approximately 8 to l2 waves per second. The frequency
ranges of voltages appearing on the head have been arbitrarily assigned
Greek letter names (Delta, voltages below 4 waves per second; Theta,
voltages at 4 to 8 waves per second; Alpha, voltages at 8 to 13

waves per second; Beta, voltages above 13 waves per second). The functions

ll

within the brain producing these waves are not fully understood. How-
ever, they appear to be related to responses to sensory stimuli, visual
activity, relaxation, anxiety, attention and fatigue. Subjects seem

to be able to exercise a remarkable degree of voluntary (indirect) control
over the rate and amplitude at which these waves are produced and, cons-
equently, over the factors listed above.

Electromyography. This is the technique by which bioelectric

 

voltages developed within muscles are measured. These voltages are
proportional to muscle activity or tension. They can be measured at the
surface of the skin above the muscles of interest or through use of
needles which penetrate the skin. Research has shown that subjects can
exercise voluntary, but indirect, control over the level of activity in
some muscles. They can, for example, condition themselves to 'relax'
muscles and, thus, perform motor functions more efficiently.

Feedback and classical conditioning. These two terms are listed

 

together not because they mean the same thing but, rather, because they
have a common function. The autonomic nervous system cannot be directly
and voluntarily controlled but conditioning and feedback are two
techniques through which that system can be influenced indirectly. In
Pavlovian conditioning a stimulus which, initially, is neutral, such as
a sound, can be caused to get the same response from an animal as a
natural stimulus, such as the sight of food, if the neutral stimulus is
presented to the animal several times just prior to the natural stimulus.
This is Pavlovian 'classical' conditioning.

Biological feedback is another means of indirectly influencing the
autonomic nervous system. If an autonomically controlled activity is

monitored by an instrument and a subject sees, hears or feels immediately

12

when a change in that function has occurred then the individual can,
in some cases, learn to influence the function. For example, if a
subject hears the sound of the heartbeat research indicates that some,
but not all, persons can learn to influence the rate of the beat
upward or downward. Such influence has been claimed over skin tempera-
ture, alpha waves (and other brain waves), heart rate, skin conductance,
muscle activity, blood flow in certain parts of the body, insulin
production, urine production and stomach acidity.

Galvanic skin response (GSR). This is the measurement of
electrical resistance of the skin and tissue path between two points
on the surface of the skin. The resistance might vary from lOOO to
greater than 500,000 ohms. These variations are influenced by the
activity of the autonomic nervous system. Changes in emotional state,
various reactions, such as fear or anger, cause measurable changes.
These changes can be made observable as meter needle movements, changes
in pitch of a sound, changes in lights, or in recordings on a chart
recorder. This instrument is one used in 'lie detector' systems. Use
of feedback of skin conductance is made to enable subjects to indirectly
control the conductance. In controlling conductance one exercises
indirect control over states that cause the changes. For example, some
subjects can learn to reduce the amount of conduction change occurring
when confronted with various types of stressful stimuli. In other words,
the person is learning to 'relax', to show less of this particular

response to those stimuli.

13

Instrumentation. This term describes 'tools' used in the

 

acquisition of research data. In this study the term includes research
techniques, software and hardware. For example:

l. Non-hardware data gathering tools: e.g. questionnaires, self-
report formats, discussion formats, simulation and games,
designed for the purpose of generating research data. In the
taxonomy of instrumentation, Chapter 2, see categories 17
and 18.

2. Procedures, software and hardware used for observation
(monitoring) of characteristics of research subjects
through visual, aural, tactile, and other means, using
instruments to aid in observation and/or storing,
processing and displaying of data (e.g., cameras, audio
telemetry, recorders, computers, etc.). These types of
instrumentation are shown in the taxonomy of instrumentation,
Chapter 2, categories 9 to 16 and 19 to 21.

3. Physiological measuring and monitoring instruments which
measure, record, process and/or display data relative to
physiological and emotional activities of research subjects.
See the taxonomy of instrumentation categories 1 to 8. As
stated earlier, this study will focus its attention on
categories 1 to 5.

In the course of this study the terms 'advanced instrumentation'
are used frequently to describe the physiological instruments in
categories 1 to 5. The word 'advanced' implies that they require
special background information and a knowledge of techniques which most

researchers, social scientists, etc., will not initially have. This

14

study discusses, in Chapter 5, ways in which that information can be
gotten by them.

Psychophysiolggical measurements. Some cognitive or affective

 

activities are reflected in measurable physical effects, e.g., a change
in a voltage or some other change at some location in the body. A
psychophysiological measurement is one made of that physical effect
with the purpose of interpreting the effect in terms of the mental
activity.

Researcher. This term is used to describe the target audience

 

of this study. It is meant to include researchers in the fields of

education, communication, educational psychology, music and physical

education, or any other area which can benefit from instrumentation use.
Telemetry. This word means 'to measure at a distance.’

Any sound, pressure, acceleration, temperature or physiological measure

can be transmitted to a distant monitoring point, whether inches or

miles away. The transmission can be by radio wave, wires, light,

sound or infra-red. When the measurement is of a physiological or

biological activity the term used to describe it is 'biotelemetry.'

One of the principal advantages of telemetry is that it can free subjects

from wires and lab restraints so that research is less obtrusive upon

the natural activity and behavior of the subject.

Overview Of The Chapters To Follow

 

Since the first intention of this study is to develop a
picture of types of research instrumentation and techniques that are
available Chapter 2 will take the first steps in that direction. It
will contain taxonomies of research problems, and of instrumentation

and techniques.

15

Chapters 3 and 4 of this study will present the findings of
two literature surveys. The first survey was a broad one intended to
locate as many sources of information as possible on the types of
instrumentation of interest to this study. It was desired to learn
what types of research have been done and what findings have emerged.
The second survey asks the same questions only with attention focused
on three selected areas of study where it is suspected little use has
been made of the instrumentation. Both of the surveys will seek to
find either what has been done or what is being done in the areas
searched.

Using the information found above as a point of departure,
Chapter 4 will,also, seek to identify new research applications for
instrumentation. Personal interviews with subject matter experts in
three disciplines were arranged to assist in that process. Based on
the research of Chapters 3 and 4, and on information gained in the
interviews, charts were developed showing applications of instrumentation
to research problems in the areas searched. Also, a coding system was
developed to identify the types of application contained in the sources
listed in the bibliography, to provide a convenient classification system
for instrumented research (in this study and elsewhere), and to identify
areas where the surveys indicate new applications of instrumentation
might be made.

The final chapter will, first, describe an 'instrumentation
resource center' type activity which could provide researchers and
teachers in educational institutions with access to information and

instrumentation appropriate to their needs. This activity would serve

16

to bridge the information gap which exists between many researchers
and the area of instrumentation technology.
The final chapter will, then, review the outcomes of the study,

and present conclusions and suggestions for further research.

Chapter II

AN OVERVIEW OF AVAILABLE INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES

The purpose of this chapter is to develop two taxonomies, one of
research instrumentation and one of research problems. The taxonomies
contain instrumentation and research problems relevant to the fields of
education, educational psychology, communication and other areas. The
instrumentation taxonomy contains a continuum of instruments ranging
from physiological (where measures are taken directly from the subject)
to non-physiological (where measure are taken indirectly, e.g. by
observation of the subject at a distance). This study will focus upon

several of the physiological measures.

Comments on Taxonomy Development

 

Since this study presents two taxonomic structures to help achieve
its objectives it is important that some problems related to the nature,
strengths, and limitations of such structures be briefly addressed.
During the literature searches a variety of articles and books were
encountered in which 'taxonomies' of one sort or other were presented.
Among those found there was some_agreement on the definition of what
a taxonomy is. Some sources first define the word according to its
earliest etymology, its origin in the Greek words taxis (arrangement or
classification) and nomos (law). Others do not stop to define the word
but merely proceed to develop their structure in terms of what is needed
fOr a particular application. In sum, though, the definition implied
in the word 'taxonomy‘ is that of a science of classification according

17

18

to certain laws and principles. In practice the rigidity of the word
laws is sometimes softened to allow the term 'taxonomy' to be applied
to 'convenient and useful schemata' which may contain some useful though
occasionally'arbitrary classifications.
There is some potential for misunderstanding in the building and
use of taxonomies if one applies the meaning of 'taxonomy' used in
certain of the natural sciences inappropriately in the social sciences.
In biology and botany, for example, 'natural' hierarchies are recorded,
e.g. kingdoms, phyla, superclasses, infraclasses, etc.. Those sciences
have developed very detailed classification codes for themselves, e.g.
The International Code Of Nomenclature For Cultivated Plants. Taxonomies
encountered during this study in social sciences were based upon some
observed natural divisions, some constructural content, and some
categorizations which appeared to be prompted by the particular intentions
of the author and by needs in the field of the author in organizing and
displaying the information.
An example of a taxonomy developed for use in the social sciences
is the Taxonomy Of Educational Objectives in the affective domain
(Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia, 1973). The authors state:
We should note that any classification scheme represents an attempt
to abstract and order phenomena and as such probably does some
violence to the phenomena as commonly observed in natural settings.
The value of these attempts to abstract and classify is in their
greater power for organizing and controlling the phenomena....
It was evident in our work that, although one could place an
objective very readily in one of the three major domains or classes,
no objective in one class was entirely devoid of some components

of the other two classes. The domains evidently represent emphases
and perhaps even biases in the statement of objectives.

19

It is important, therefore, that it be understood that taxonomies,
such as those prepared for this study, represent a convenient way of
organizing and displaying information. But the arrangement of instru-
mentation and research factors derives partly from norms arising from
the nature of the information and partly from the needs of this study.
Therefore, norms such as the principles of 'exclusiveness' or of 'natural
hierarchy' cannot be used as the principal tests of the instrumentation
and research factor taxonomies. The taxonomies have been developed
for the purposes and requirements of this study and remain open to

further development according to the needs of other researchers.

Development Of A Taxonomy Of Instrumentation

The taxonomy of instrumentation has been developed to provide an
operational description of types of research instrumentation relevant
to the needs of education, educational psychology, communication, and
other fields, that are available. It lists and categorizes instruments
ranging from simple and non-physiological (e.g. use of the technique of
'oral questioning' to get data) to more complex and physiological (e.g.
use of skin conductance to measure affective responses).

The basic rationale for this taxonomy, the reasoning offered to
justify its development, is based upon its usefulness in describing
available instrumentation and upon its usefulness to researchers who
wish to apply those tools in their work. In the words of Krathwohl,
Bloom and Masia (1973): "...The value of these attempts to abstract and
classify is in their greater power for organizing and controlling the

phenomena...."

20

A variety of sources were consulted to determine the entries
included in the taxonomy. None was found which attempted, systematically,
to include the array of tools listed here in any sort of continuum.
Especially, none was found which included physiological instrumentation
in a continuum with non-physiological types. Such effbrts may well
exist in the literature but they were not located in the searches done
for this study.

Finally, a word needs to be said about the arrangement and 'order-
ing' of instrumentation within the taxonomy. The listings fall into two
main categories: instrumentation which is physiological (such as galvanic
skin response), and those types which are non-physiological (such as
various forms of standardized written eXamination).

The arrangement of the taxonomy with the physiological measures at
the higher end of the list is based upon the fact that data taken with
physiological instrumentation is taken directly from the research subject
and is to some extent 'objectively' quantifiable in electrical, mechanical,
etc., terms. Also, the difference in 'distance' between the research
subject and the measuring instrument used leads to important differences
in the type of distortion likely to occur in the data acquired. For
example, studies have been done of the subtle movement of facial muscles
during human interaction. There is a difference in 'distance' from the
subject between having an observer scrutinize a video-tape for various
movements as contrasted with direct measurement of the voltages appearing
in those muscles during the same interaction. Both types of measure

have advantages and disadvantages. But the distortion in data due to the

21

limitations of the human observer are less easily definable than those
introduced by a muscle voltage measuring instrument.

The taxonomy lists and categorizes instruments as: a) physiological
or non-physiological and, b) where possible, in order of technological
complexity, or complexity in format or materials required. Some of the
listings in the taxonomy were arbitrarily assigned a place when no
order was apparent since the primary purpose of the taxonomy is to display
the instrumentation and techniques in a format useful to this study. To
assist in defining the types of data and types of process relevant to
each form of instrumentation columns have been included in the taxonomy

describing the input to and processed output from each instrumentation

 

type. In summary, the instrumentation taxonomy displays a broad range
of available instrumentation and relates those to be focused upon in
this study, categories 1 to 5, to others that are available. Further

use of the taxonomy will be made later in the study.

22

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23

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25

As mentioned earlier the principal divisions in the taxonomy are:
a) physiological and non-physiological instrumentation, b) technology of
higher complexity, producing data in which some of the distortion is
'objectively' quantifiable, versus technology of lower complexity,
producing data in which quantification of distortion is more difficult.
As predicted, some of the listings were arbitrarily assigned higher
positions in the taxonomy where no clear precedence in complexity was
apparent. A description of some of the kinds of input which are
utilized and of some of the processing which occurs within instrumentation
has been included. Such details are helpful in the differentiation of
instrument types. Also, they will provide some of thee groundwork for
later development (not in this study) of a more thorough description

and philosophical study of instrumentation.

Development Of a Taxonomy 0f Research Problems (Factors)

 

The taxonomy of instrumentation attempts to classify and describe
some of the types of instrumentation that are available for research.
To help in showing applications of the instrumentation listed, particularly
the roles of newer, less known, instrumentation, it was decided that
it would be useful to include a taxonomy of research problems, or research
factors. Such a taxonomy, used in conjunction with the instrumentation
taxonomy, provides a scheme in which one can see clearly the range of
available instrumentation displayed opposite the range of potential
research problems. This section will provide such a juxtaposition of
the two taxonomies. Practical applications of this type of arrangement

are made in Table 3 and in Chapter 4, where it will be used as a vehicle

26

for displaying the results of this study and for display of a coding

system which identifies the contents of this study's bibliography.
The taxonomy of research factors was developed through a search

of literature in psychology, education and other areas. Two sources

which proved useful were: a) The Thesaurus of Psychological Index Terms

 

(1974), an alphabetical index of psychological terms developed for use
with the Psychological Abstracts computer system (Appendix A describes a
Psychological Abstracts search made for this study). Some terms describ-
ing research problems related to the fields of education, communication
and educational psychology were selected out of this source: b) The

Thesaurus of Eric Descriptors (1975), an alphabetical listing developed

 

for use with the ERIC (Educational Resources InfOrmation Center) computer
system (Appendix A describes two ERIC searches made for this study).

Once again, terms describing research problems related to the fields of
education, communication and educational psychology were selected out of
the listings.

As a convenient framework within which to list groupings of research
problems three categories are used: cognitive/intellectual problems,
affective/emotional problems, and psychomotor problems (sensory perception
was placed under this heading although it is related to both of the other
categories). The categories of cognitive, affective and psychomotor
were used for a different purpose (categorization of educational
Objectives) by Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia (1973).

This juxtaposition of the two taxonomies makes it possible to select
a research factor from the research factor taxonomy and then to search
the instrumentation taxonomy to identify the range of tools applicable

to that factor.

27

TABLE 2
A Research Problem Taxonomy Juxtaposed With

The InstrumentatiOn Taxonomy

 

 

Taxonomy Of Research Factors

Instrumentation 3 Techniques for Data Gathering. Storage.
Processing and Display

 

111.

IV.

Cognitive. Intellectual Factors (Note: Sec I. ll 8
III overlap depending on the research being done)

 

Ability. achievement. attention (span. etc.). attitudes
(nature of. content. formation. change). beliefs.
cognitive learning style. concentration. judgment.
learning. forgetting (mechanism and rate of). motor
skill learning. non-verbal learning, opinions, transfer
of learning. trial 5 error in learning. verbal
learning.

Emotional. Affective Research Factors

Emotional development. maturity. adjustment. control.
emotiona1.intellectual response parameters
(amplitude. duration. frequency. generalization.
latency. sets. time. variability). emotional states
(anxiety. aversion. boredom. confusion. d0ubt.
fatigue. fear. frustration. panic. pleasure.

stress. tension,. personality traits.

 

Psychomctor. Physiological Research Factors

 

A. General phys1olggical factors: body nevement
Tgross or minute. e 9. types. patterns
frequency. speed. etc . as in Subvocalization.
non-verbal communication. etc.) development
(growth. maturity). environmental factors
(physical adaptation. to temperature. radiation.
deprivation. etc.). fatigue. motor measurements
(e.g. level of performance in manual skills.
walking. running. working), muscle factors
(tension. tone. pressure exerted. e.g. in
writers cranp). psychomotor processes (fine 0r
gross motor skill learning processes (e g.
agility. dexterity. coordination).

 

B. Sensory Perception:

TT' Visual perception: acuity. discrimination
(of color. space. distance. size). distOr-
tion. eye movement (frequenCy and direction
of). blinking. pupillary response. reading
(ability. comprehenSion. speed). viSOal
attention, visual feedback (forms. effects
and value of).

2. Auditory perception: auditory sense 8
attention. concentration, feedback (forms.
effects and value of). auditory stimulation
effects. discrimination (pitch. loudness.
location. Quality. thresholds). masking
effects. noise. sensitivity. speech
(structure. perception and processing)

 

3. Tauch. taste and smell: smell and taste
(effects of stimulation. qualitative judg-
nents: e.g. good-bad. strong-weak.
qualified gradations). touch (effects of
stimulation thrOugh pressure. temperature:
Qualitative judgments: e.g. hot-cold.
light-heavy. smooth-rough. present-absent).

Various Factors Which May Require Measurement

A. Frequency of occurrence of an event in a
specified time period (e.g. the number of
problems worked per minute). This a 'rate'.

B. Sum total of events occurring (e.g. a student
worked ten problems correctly).

C. Tabulation of qualitative aspects of data
(good-bad. right-wrong. etc.).

20.

21.

Electroencephalography (EEG): brain voltage mea5urement,
e.g. alpha I theta

Electromyography (EMG): muscle voltage mea5urement
Galvanic Skin Response (GSR): skin canductance measurement

Biofeedback techniques: visual. auditory. tactile. smell.
taste. etc.

Biotelemetry techniques: physiological data transmitted
by radio. wire. light. scund. infra-red. etc.

Plethysmography: girth a volume mea5urement. e.g. to mea5ure
ambunt of blooo flow in finger tip during stress

Temperature measurement of vari0us body areas: e.g. as a
mea5ure related to stress or motor actiVity

Respiration measurement: observation of changes in rate.
volume, etc.

Pupillometry: Observation of changes in pupil diameter
during affective responses. e.g. to taste. smell

Feedback techniques (non-physiological): prOvision of verbal.
printed. etc.. feedback. e.g. in progranmed instruction

Telemetry techniques (non-physiologlcal): e.g. to transmit
language patterns

Computer techniques: e.g. for display. processing. recording.
controlling and managing instruction

TV techniques: e.g. for mediating instruction

Photographic techniques: e.g. slides. still pix. movies.
study of affective response with infra-red film (light or
dark images from warm or cool Surface)

Audio techniques: e.g. to record. play. expand or compress
rate

Othei Audial-Visual techniques: e.g. sound to light
translators. audio synthesizers

Verbal/Interpersonal techniques and formats for data
gathering: e.g. group discussion, simulation. games

Print. standardized. etc.. techniques 8 formats for data
gathering: e.g. tests. scales. surveys: written. oral.
tactile. etc.. for achievement. comprehension

Chronography: mechanical or electronic time measuring
instruments

Quantification techniques: e.g. counting. indication of
amount. amplitude. degree. displacement. force.
velocity

Environmental measurement techniques: e.g. sound level.
li ht, temperature. vibration level. atmospheric pressure.
re ative humidity

28

A practical application of Table 2 is made in Table 3 where a single research factor. 'motor skill learning'. is

listed opposite the instrumentation toxonomy.

TABLE 3

Application of the Research Factor Taxonomy to a Research Problem

 

 

l. FOr this example the research problem for which

instrumentation is needed is 'motor skill learning'.

2. A check-mark is placed next to each type of
instrument which might be applied to motor skill
learning. You will note that for this problem
nearly all the instruments listed might. depending
0n circumstances. be relevant.

3. A verbal description of how a few of the instru-
ments might be used is now given.

Muscle voltage mea5urement can provide measurement
of level of exertion. aid in evaluation of perform»
ance. aid in training for muscle relaxation.

Galvanic skin response measurement can record
arousal level during confrontation with and
performance of a motor task. Also, it can aid in
conditioning for relaxation when confronted with
anxiety producing tasks or the need for high levels
of performance.

Biofeedback techniques can be used in optimizing
motor performance through conditioning of
muscles for efficient motor output.

Biotelemetry techniques will allow monitoring of
performance in a variety of natural settings.

The other forms of instrumentation which have
been checkomarked each offer their unique
capabilities. The choice of instrumentatiOn
will be based upon the particular needs of the
researcher

Taxonomy of Instrumentation for Data Gathering. Processing And

 

Display

1. Electroencephalography (EEG): brain voltage measure-

ment. e.g. alpha 1. theta

I 2. Electrouyography (ENG): muscle voltage measurement

I Galvanic Skin Response (GSR): skin conductance
measurement

J 4. Biofeedback techniques: visual. auditory. tactile.
smell. taste. etc.

I S. Biotelemetry techniques: physiological data transmitted
by radio. wire. light. sound. infra-red. etc.

6. Plethysmography: girth 6 volume meaSUrement. e.g. to
measure amount of blood flow in finger tip during
stress

I 7. Temperature measurement of various body areas: e.g. as
a measure related to stress or motor activity

I 8. Respiration measurement: observation of changes in
rate. volume. etc.

9. Pupillometry: Observation of changes in pupil diameter
during affective responses. e.g. to taste. smell

/ 10. Feedback techniques (non-physiological): provision of
verbal. printed. etc.. feedback. e.g. in programmed
instruction

I ll. Telemetry techniques (non-physiological): e.g. to
transmit language patterns

I 12. Computer techniques: e.g. for display. processing.
recording. controlling and managing instruction

I 13. TV techniques: e.g. for mediating instruction

I 14. Photographic techniques: e.g. slides. still pix.
movies. study of affective response with infra-red
film (light or dark images from wane or cool surface)

I 15. Audio techniques: e.g. to record. play. expand or
compress rate

/ 16. Other Audial-Visual Techniques: e.g. sound to light
translators. audio synthesizers

J 17. Verbal/Interpersonal techniques and formats for data
gathering: e.g. group discussion. simulation. games

I 18. Print. standardized. etc.. techniques a fonmats for
data gathering: e.g. tests. scales. surveys: written.
oral. tactile. etc.: for achievement. comprehension

/ l9. ChrOnography: mechanical or electronic time meaSUring
instruments

I 20. Quantification techniques: e.g. counting. indicatiOn
of amount. amplitude. degree. displacement. force.
velocity

21. Environmental measurement techniques: e.g. sound level.

light. temperature. vibration level. atmospheric
pressure

29

Use of the instrumentation taxonomy in the manner demonstrated
in table 3 will require some knowledge of the function and applications
of the instruments listed. For most users of instrumentation consultation
with knowledgeable persons will be necessary. One of the purposes of
this study, however, is to provide an introduction to such functions
and applications, though specifically for the first five categories of
instrumentation.

It will be noted that in the research factor taxonomy some factors
might have been listed under more than one of the three major headings,
e.g. eye movement observation as used in research concerned with the
level of physiological arousal of subjects. Although the taxonomy is
not exhaustive or definitive in its presentation of research factors it
is adequate for the purposes of this study. As mentioned earlier a
practical application will be made in Chapter 4 of the juxtaposition of
instrumentation versus research factors. In that case the listings are
not taxonomic but, rather, narrowed down for the specific purposes of the
study.

This chapter has provided an introduction to a wide range of
research problems and instrumentation. The following chapter will
narrow its focus and show research applications made of the first five

instruments listed in the instrumentation taxonomy.

Chapter III

THE MULTI-DISCIPLINARY REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
This chapter will accomplish the fourth of the seven objectives
of the study: to determine who. in general, uses the types of advanced
instrumentation to be focused upon by the study, how it is used. and
with what results.
As stated in chapter 2 the instruments and techniques being focused
upon are:

1) Brain wave monitoring instruments (specifically those
measuring alpha and theta waves)

2) Skin conductance monitoring instruments (galvanic skin response)

3) Muscle voltage monitoring instruments (electromyographic
measurement)

4) Biofeedback techniques

5) Biotelemetry techniques

The survey of literature showed that the first three of the above
categories of instrumentation are commonly used in conjunction with
biofeedback techniques. Accordingly, this section deals, first, with
research applications involving those instrument types with biofeedback.
It should be noted that the three instrument types are ngt_always used
with feedback to the subject. Next, survey results concerning telemetry
will be presented. Telemetry is treated separately because the survey
shows that it is an underused research tool. None of the citations found
in social science sources reported its use to transmit biological

information. Reasons why telemetry is not commonly used by researchers

30

31

to transmit either biological, or non-biological, data will be discussed.
For the convenience of the reader a chart has been included to
allow a rapid review of the research reported in this chapter. This
chart lists research in the order in which it appeared in the chapter.
In the final section of the chapter the results of the multi-

disciplinary survey are summarized.

Results of the Multi-Disciplinary Survey Of Literature

This section begins with a caution. expressed by a psychotherapist.
Birk (1973):

It is my own belief that biofeedback has already been proven
to have very considerable clinical value in certain clinical
situations... and it seems. also, to have great promise in some
other areas, but that it is in clear danger of being oversold, to
the point of counter-movement revulsion. unless balance can be
reintroduced.

This citation is presented first in the review of the cross-
disciplinary survey of literature because popular and professional
literature does. indeed, contain a wide variety of assertions about the
use of biofeedback and instrumentation. At this time in the development
of instrumentation technology the reader must exercise caution in forming
Opinions as to what is to be accepted as sufficiently substantiated by
research. The above citation was taken from a journal issue which
contains one of the most thorough treatments of biofeedback, and associated
instrumentation, found in the survey of literature done for this study.

A researcher planning to use feedback techniques and instrumentation will
find it useful (see Birk, 1973).

Instrumentation and Biofeedback In Education. Mulholland (1973)

states that many biofeedback researchers have already demonstrated the

potential value and uses of their technology for education and that it's

now time for educators to take advantage of it. He asserts that through

32

creative and intelligent application of the new biofeedback technology
the educational community may achieve major advances in the processes of
communicating, teaching and training. He points out that one of the
obvious potential uses of biofeedback techniques is 'attention', the
basic requirement for learning. In his laboratory. prototype systems
exist "with which children can view television, film-strips, or light
shows, regulated by their control of their own alpha rhythm, or visual
attention (1973)." With such displays, which are sensitive to the level
of attention of students, Mulholland claims that a variety of reinforce-
ments can be built in and alternate paths for instructional presentation
included. The role of such methods in development of instructional
strategies remains uncertain, however.

Lavach (1973) reports research in which galvanic skin response
(skin conductance measurement) was used by him in research investigating
whether learners have better memory recall when the learning was done in
a state of high arousal. He states that his research supports that
hypothesis.

...forgetting occurs under low arousal conditions while a
strong reminiscence effect is observed if acquisition is
accomplished under high arousal. It appears. then. from the
present, as well as cited, research, that educators must
reexamine their priorities in any given learning situation.
Evidence seems, in general, to support the notion that ante-
cedent behaviors exert an important control over the formation
of correct associations during the learning process. This
further suggests that emotional arousal. novel stimuli,
questions. and a myriad of other variables may affect the
acquisition and retention of a response (1973).

Fisher and Kotses (1974) used galvanic skin responses in investi-
gating responses of research subjects to differences in the sex of the

researcher. Galvanic skin response measurement indicates that subjects

participating in research show significant differences in their

33

physiological response to the researcher if the researcher is of the
opposite sex. Such research suggests that the sex of a teacher may have
some effect on arousal level of learners. Other paralells in education
and communication might be found.

Shapiro and Schwartz (1972) point out that the application of
biofeedback to processes germane to education and learning has been
suggested. They describe research in which retarded children, rewarded
with candy for producing GSR orienting responses to stimuli of different
visual forms. improve their performance on form-board tasks. They
point out that this is an influencing of the physiology of attention
and that "the goal here is to use the feedback training to increase
attention and therefore increase transfer of learning (1972)." They
describe research with alpha feedback which is attempting to influence
'creativity' through generation of mental reverie states in which
hypnagogic imagery (pictures or images that come to mind but are not
consciously or deliberately generated) is produced.

Noodruff (1975). a psychologist, reports her research in which the
relationship between alpha wave production and reaction time was studied.
She suggests that higher rates of brain wave activity appear to be
accompanied by faster reaction time. Plotkin (1966) reports research
in which subjects are given different sorts of instructions while their
alpha production is being monitored. Some received instructions addressed
to cognitive activities in the subject, e.g., they might be told to relax.'
Others received instructions related to oculomotor activity, e.g., blur
your vision or focus your vision. This research explores the reasons why

oculomotor activity can cause alpha wave production to 'block' or stop.

34

This type of research is related to such educational problems as
'attention' and 'concentration.‘

A study showing the effects of monetary rewards on alpha production
was done by Kondo. Travis and Knott (1975). It was found that subjects
offered rewards of $5 and $10, as compared to subjects offered $5 or no
reward at all, produced significantly more alpha. From the point of view
of the educator use of incentives to increase motivation to work and
learn is an area of great interest.

Danskin and Walters (1973) point out that while Skinner's behavioral
engineering by external controls has been receiving much attention, the
last few years have seen the development of biofeedback and the concept
of self-regulation of one's own psychological and physiological processes.
They feel this represents a breakthrough to truly voluntary self-regulation,
with social and philosophical consequences. Also, biofeedback use may
lead to keeping of each student's physiological record in order to provide
truly individually adapted programs based upon each student's patterns of
alertness and attention. cognitive style and special skills. Danskin and
Walters claim that the effects of self-regulation in individuals will be
of incalculable significance. They state that persons with voluntary
control over their own behavior would not only NOT be a problem, but
they would also make it easier for others to attain a more stable and
yet creative life.

Toomin and Toomin (1973) state that the value of biofeedback instru-
ments is that they provide an immediate indication of relevant internal
cues associated for each individual with a particular physiological
condition. The person may then follow the path of these cues to reach

the desired altered state of being. They point out that this is a

35

self-regulated process, an active one, as opposed to the passive process
involved in 'pill-popping'. This self-regulating aspect of biofeedback

is the same factor that Danskin and Walters feel is so important. Toomin
and Toomin make another pointed observation. Since biofeedback is based
upon self-regulation. on enhancing natural processes, on inward focusing
and on perceiving man as a mind-body unit. then a popular conception comes
under question, the claim that technology de-humanizes people. They
state: "At a time when technology and humanism seem to be pulling in
different directions, biofeedback provides man with a way to use
technology in the most personal ways possible - to lead to self-discovery,
self-awareness, self-control, and self-determination (1973)."

Blanchard and Young (1974) describe research in which biofeedback
of muscle tension and brain waves was used in an effort to relieve college
students of test anxiety. On the post-treatment assessment on one study
"the experimental group showed less test anxiety as measured by the
questionnaire (P<.Ol) but did not differ on the performance measures or
on end of term grades." They describe another test anxiety research
project in which "The case was succesSful as the patient passed an
examination that she had avoided even taking several times because of
high anxiety levels." Blanchard and Young. after presenting a thorough
review of the types of biofeedback research that has been done. sound
a warning. They point out that solid research is needed before some of
the claims being made for biofeedback can be evaluated. They state that
some poor research has been done and that some claims are being made

which do not find support in available research.

Instrumentation And Physical Education. In the field of physical

 

education an important area of research is kinesics, or kinesiology, the

36

study of bodily movements and muscle activity. Electromyographic, and
other measures have been used in that area. Cavanaugh (1974) describes
some of the research questions asked and cautions against potential
misinterpretations of the information gotten from electromyographic
measurements in that area.

As will be discussed in the section on telemetry, application of
electromyographic, cardiac. and other measures are being made in conjunc-
tion with telemetry techniques, e.g., to monitor the activities of
swimmers while diving and while in the water.

The science of kinesiology involves a variety of measures but the
cross-disciplinary survey of the literature produced few citations

relating to that science or to the field of physical education.

Instrumentation and Counseling. Danskin and Waters (1973) were

 

described earlier as pointing out that biofeedback training "stands out

as a real breakthrough to truly voluntary self-regulation with philo-
sophical and social consequences (1973)." They state, further. that
professional literature in counseling and education "is nearly devoid
(1973)" of even casual reference to biofeedback training for self-
regulation and self-development. One of the most important considerations
for counselors is that there are a variety of useful consequences arising
from the control by individuals of certain states and processes. Danskin
and Walters emphasize that "this is the real impact of biofeedback - man's
enhanced sense of worth, self-reliance. and autonomy (1973)." This, they
argue, is sufficient reason for exploration of such techniques by persons

involved in counseling in education.

37

Henschen (1976). a counseling psychologist, reports using biofeedback

training to stimulate the unconscious of subjects during counseling.

Patients are taught to increase their theta brain waves (waves in the 4

to 8 hertz, i.e., 4 to 8 cycles per second. range). This wave is normally

produced when a person is drowsy or nearly asleep. Henschen states that
...people undergoing theta training frequently report

seeing images of faces, people. animals, geometric shapes,

colors and lights. These images just seem to spring into

awareness (1976).

Henschen encourages patients to confront their imagery directly
and dialogue with it, expressing "the immediate feelings he or she has
toward the confronted object (1976)." This approach may substitute for
use of drugs in some counseling situations. Henschen uses electromyo-

graphic feedback, also, in inducing relaxation during counseling.

Instrumentation and Reading_Education. Danskin and Walters (1973)

 

describe the application of biofeedback to the problem of subvocalization.
the tendency to mouth words silently while reading. Using electromyography
and feedback (measuring larynx muscle voltages, then presenting a sound to
the subject based on those voltages) "helps most subvocalizers overcome
the habit in from one to three hours (1973)." Blanchard and Young (1974)
describe how "Hardwyck. et al., reported on,a rapid treatment technique
utilizing EMG feedback... In one 30 minute feedback session the entire
sample of 17 subjects reduced EMG activity to baseline (at rest and not
reading) levels. Most subjects showed complete reduction within the

first five minutes. Follow-up tests at one and three months with no
feedback showed no return of subvocalization." They cite other studies

in which attempts were made to supress subvocalization, without the use of

biofeedback, which were unsuccessful.

38

Instrumentation And Research In Intelligence. Some research is

 

being done to learn whether production of alpha waves can be somehow
related to the intelligence of research subjects. Ellingson and

Lathrop (1973) state that "the rationale for exploring a possible
relationship between alpha frequency and intelligence lies in the
evidence that the alpha rhythm may reflect a cerebral gating or
excitability cycle... Higher alpha frequencies might therefore reflect
more rapid information processing, and this. in turn. would be reflected
in improved performance in at least some of the operations which are
conceived to be related to the construct 'intelligence' (1973)." Toomin
and Toomin (1973) cite other research which provides "some slight evidence
that increasing the percent of alpha and its amplitude has some positive
effect on mental efficiency (1973)." This type of research is of direct

interest to researchers in the social sciences and other research areas.

Instrumentation and The Hyperkinetic Child. Work is being done to

 

determine whether alpha training might affect the behavior and performance
of hyperkinetic children. Mall (1973) found in research with such
children that alpha could not be claimed to produce a reduction in the
hyperkinetic syndrome, although some temporary relaxing effects were
achieved. Such training also failed to cause measurable gains in
achievement in such children. As for whether alpha produced any unique

effects for these children, the results are inconclusive.

Instrumentation and Instructional Technology. Knirk and Spindell

 

(1975) relate use of instrumentation and biofeedback techniques to

applications in the field of instructional technology.

39

One of the newer techniques of measuring the effects of

instructional methodology relates to a class of measurements

called “indirect (biofeedback) measures" of behavioral change

and/or learning. These indirect indices include those measured

by the electroencephalograph (EEG), electrocardiogram (EKG),

galvanic skin response (GSR), heart-rate, blood pressure instru-

ments, voice analyzers and blood analysis tools. These measures

can provide useful data for the educator concerned with design-

ing learning environments and associated instructional materials.

They point out the potential usefulness of such measures in
individualizing of instruction. If it is possible to determine a
learner's state of awareness, whether alert, tired, bored, anxious, etc.,
then a large part of the message loss could be avoided. They suggest
that using instrumentation to determine the points at which a learner
begins to become bored, at one extreme, or unduly pressured, at the
other, might enable the instructor to better 'individualize' instruction
for that person. Such a determination might be made through monitoring
of three categories of brain waves; 1) theta waves: produced when a
subject is very relaxed, near sleep, sometimes experiencing hypnagogic
(spontaneously arising) imagery, 2) alpha waves: produced when a subject
is relaxed but alert, 3) beta waves: produced when a subject is at a high
level of mental arousal, perhaps due to stress. Knirk and Spindell (1975)

feel, once again, that there is usefulness in measuring the above states

so that instruction can be adapted to the state of mind of students.

Instrumentation and Medicine, Psychiatry_and Psychology. Shapiro
and Schwartz (1972) report that some use is being made of biofeedback
instrumentation for clinical purposes and that "initial exploratory
work... leads us to feel optomistic about the possibilities (1972)."
They describe work with hypertension, cardiac arrhythmias, tension head-

aches and other psychophysiologic disorders. In treatment of snake-phobic

40

subjects, where subjects were rewarded for controlling their GSR

(skin conductance) while being shown pictures of snakes, they write that
”data suggested that subjects could gain some control over their
physiologic responses to fearful stimuli in a single session, and that

this was accompanied by a relative decrease in fear as indicated by a post-
experimental questionnaire (1972).” They describe, also, clinical
applications of alpha feedback or self-regulation and relaxation.

Plotkin and Cohen (1976), psychologists, describe research into
the nature of the "Alpha experience', that is, the psychological and
physiological correlates of the pleasant feelings and relaxation which
accompany increased production of alpha waves. Sterman (1973) reports
his research into the psycho-physiological bases of alpha activity.

Coursey (1975) details some applications made of electromyography.

(Some applications are )... enhancing the control of
voluntary muscles where that control has either not been
developed (Scull & Basmajian, 1968) or where it is diminished
through dysfunction (Harrison & Connolly, 1971). The second

area consists of attempts at achieving low levels of muscle

tension (Green, Halters, Green, & Murphy, 1969) with patients

who experience chronic tension headaches (Budzynski, Stoyva, &

Adler, 1970) and chronic anxiety (Raskin, & Johnson, Rondestvedt,

1973). Other possible uses include the treatment of bronchial

asthma (Davis, Sanders, Creer and Chai, 1973), insomnia (Raskin,

et al., 1973), or any disorder that is associated with muscle
tension.

Coursey (1975) conducted research using electromyography. He states
that the research "showed rather clearly that EMG feedback is more
effective in lowering tension in a specific muscle throughout training
than either simple verbal instructions or the reduction achieved by the
subject's own unaided efforts." He states,however, that generalization
of the relaxation to other muscle masses in the body does not occur, and

that to date the relative value of EMG in comparison with other relaxation

techniques is not yet clear.

41

Applications of Biofeedback With Instrumentation Other Than That

 

Focused Upon By This Study. Heart rate: a subject's heart rate can be

 

detected by use of a microphone, photocell, electrodes or cuff. Some
subjects, given feedback,have been able to exercise remarkable control
over the rate.

Sexual function: Using photocells, temperature sensors, and
various electro-mechanical arrangements, along with feedback of sound,
etc., to the subject, researchers claim that control over some aspects
of sexual function has been achieved (Laws and Rubin, 1969; Henson and

Rubin, 1971).

Applications of Telemetry Instrumentation to Research

 

As defined in Chapter 1 'telemetry' means to measure at a distance.
Sound, bio-electric activity, temperature, or any other measurable
quantity can be transmitted by radio, wire, sound, etc., to a point miles
away or inches away. When telemetry is used to transmit biological
activity it is called 'biotelemetry'. Such transmitters can be smaller
than the circumference of a pencil. The most commonly available types,
sold in popular electronic stores, are about the size of a package of
ciagarettes. They make possible the relatively unobtrusive monitoring
of research activity.

Hoshiko and Holloway (1968) state that the cost and availability of
instruments indicate that speech and language research with radio telemetry
is now possible. "We are able to demonstrate the feasibility of collecting
verbal data from a preschool child in his everyday environment using
inexpensive, readily available, radio equipment." They emphasize the

value of telemetry in conjunction with the type of instrumentation

42

described in the first part of this literature survey: "Of greater
interest than the data was the feasability of a telemetry system
consisting of inexpensive, readily available radio instruments. An
extension of this technique into the telemetering of physiological data
during speech activity offers further research and clinical observation
of verbal behavior in a natural setting." Hoshiko and Holloway (1968)
provide a discussion of what is needed to do research with telemetry.
This should be useful to researchers setting up a system. Miklich,
Purcell and Weiss (1974) also provide a thorough treatment of what a
researcher needs to know and do in planning for experimentation with
telemetry. Frampton, Riddle and Roberts (1976) describe a system for
telemetering physiological information from swimmers both when they are
in and out of the water. This makes possible study of the swimmer's
physiological activity during dives, various types of strokes, etc.
They state that the system described will be commercially available.
Swain (1970) used telemetry to study the arousal responses of
students to specific structured classroom activities and events. He
found, through telemetry of cardiac rate and amplitude that:
...Students can be aroused physiologically as a result of
experiencing certain structured classroom activities and events.
...Classroom situations which provide for the interaction
of student and teacher create a more arousing environment
than does a situation in which the student is passively
involved (e.g., listening to a lecture)
...Students become physiologically aroused in an inter-
action type of classroom situation even though they,
themselves, are not overtly interacting with the teacher or
with other students.
...Students become more physiologically involved...

when placed in a classroom situation in which they know they
are expected to participate overtly... (1970).

43

N. H. Pronko (1968) states that biotelemetry offers greater
controls for man or beast, and that "in the same way as the jet is
superseding the wheel (at least the propellor). so the wire is obsoles-
cent in light of the technological advances being made with the wireless
(1968)." He suggests its applicability in studies ranging from remote
monitoring of the results of operant techniques (e.g., transmission of
data that a rat wants to push the lever will be sufficient data) to use
with children in school or the playground. Pronko describes (1969)
potential applications in measurement of EKG, EMG, EEG, pH, blood
pressure, gastronintestinal pressure, movement, pressure, temperature,
foetal heartbeat and infant toilet training.

Drinkwater and Flint (1968) report using telemetry in measurement
of eye blink rate as an index of generalized muscular tension. Grunewald-
Zuberbier, Grunewald and Rasche (1972) have done research using telemetric
measurement of motor activity in maladjusted children in play situations,
in task-free waiting situations, and in a task-structured situation.

Rugh (1971) describes a telemetry system for measuring chewing behavior .
in humans.

Henley (1976), a physician, emphasized the underuse of telemetry
in medical and other research.

Biotelemetry has been underused in medicine in the past

and present at all levels: human clinical monitoring on a

routine basis. basic and clinical research iriman and the

experimental animal, and in the every-growing necessity of

the understanding of the medicine of health and prediction

of disease which would make prevention a possibility and

preparation a certainty (l976).

Moos (1968) emphasizes the importance of the careful evaluation of

the behavioral effects of being observed. He studied the reactions of

subjects to being observed while carrying telemetry transmitters.

44

Soskin and John (1963) used telemetry as a data collecting medium using
two husband-wife pairs in a vacation setting. Purcell and Brady (1966)
monitored vocal behavior of 13 adolescents in a cottage environment.
Herron and Ramsden (1967) describe research using telemetry in which
overt human body movement was monitored. They observed "such behavioral
phenomena as gestures, tics, motor learning, "relevant" and "irrelevant"
motion, "activity" patterns, laterality and motor skills, among others
(1967)."

Nordquist (1971) used telemetry and videotape to observe and record
verbal behavior in free play settings. Gardner (1973) used telemetry in
research evaluating speech and language patterns in preschool children.
She describes potential applications of telemetry techniques:

Radio telemetry is a highly dependable scientific tool

in the study of communicative disorders of most age groups,

whether for clinical application (such as evaluation or

carry-over), developmental study (such as language,

stuttering, or voice), or experimental research (such as
control situations without experimenter intrusion), (1973).

Listing of Research Applications Identified in the Multi-Disciplinary
Survey

For the convenience of the reader the research described in thisi

 

chapter will now be presented in chart form. The research and applica-
tions are listed in the order in which they occur in the chapter. A
breakdown of the research located for the whole study into categories
of instrumentation versus application is accomplished by the coding
chart in chapter 4. That chart provides a code for the bibliography so
that research and applications relating to a particular instrumentation

type can be identified and located.

45

Table 4

Summary of Research Applications of

Instrumentation Identified in the Multi-disciplinary

Literature Search
(Listed in order of appearance in this chapter)

Research Applications

Author(s)

 

Clinical use of biofeedback

Educational use of biofeedback
(in teaching, training, communi-
cating, study of attention,
reinforcement. instructional
design)

Use of galvanic skin response
to study arousal, memory
recall

Use of galvanic skin response
to study effects of differences
of sex of researchers upon
research subjects

Use of biofeedback in
researching retardation, reward
vs. performance, attention,
creativity; clinical use of
biofeedback

Use of alpha waves in study
of reaction time vs. age

Study of the value of
various kinds of instructions
in affecting amount of alpha
produced

Effects of monetary reward
upon alpha production

Study of biofeedback in self-
regulation of psychological
and physiological processes,
e.g. EMG in regulating
subvocalization

Biofeedback as a cue to learning
self-control, contrasted to

drugs, humanization of technology;
effects of alpha production on
mental efficiency

Birk 1973

Mulholland 1973

Lavach 1973

Fisher & Kotses 1974

Shapiro & Schwartz 1972

Woodruff 1975

Plotkin 1976

Kondo, Travis, Knott 1975

Danskin & Walters 1973

Toomin & Toomin 1973

Summary of Research Applications continued....

Research Applications

Author(s)

 

Biofeedback and reduction of
muscle tension and test anxiety;
thorough review of field of
biofeedback research; EMG and
subvocalization

Use of electromyography in the
area of Kinesiology: muscle
activity, body movement, etc.

Use of biofeedback of Theta waves
as an aid to producing imagery
during counseling sessions

Study of relationship between
alpha production and intelligence

Study of the effects of alpha
training upon hyperkinetic
children

Use of biofeedback in measuring
behavioral change, learning;
importance of instrumentation

to instructional technologists;
use of instrumentation in
measuring fatigue, alertness,
anxiety; individualization

of instruction based on knowledge
of the above

The nature of the 'alpha
experience', pleasantness &
other subjective responses
to it

The psycho-physiological bases
of alpha activity

Enhancement of muscular control
through use of EMG feedback; EMG

use with headaches, anxiety, asthma,

insomnia & other conditions
related to muscular tension

Use of biofeedback in affecting
heart rate, sexual function

Blanchard & Young 1974

Cavanaugh 1974

Henschen 1976

Ellingson and Lathrop 1973

Mall 1973

Knirk & Spindell 1975

Plotkin and Cohen 1976

Sterman 1973

Coursey 1975

Laws & Rubin 1969,
Henson B Rubin 1971

47

Summary of Research Applications continued....

Research Applications Author(s)

 

Use of telemetry in language

research: speech patterns,

physiological activity during

speech; unobtrusiveness in

research; practical problems

and solutions Hoshiko & Holloway 1968

What researchers need to know
to plan and implement use of
telemetry in their research Miklich, Purcell, Weiss 1974

Telemetering physiological
information from swimmers Frampton, Riddle, Roberts 1976

Use of telemetry to study

arousal of students in specific

structured classroom activities;

relative arousal resulting from

different instructional strategies Swain 1970

Use of telemetry for unobtrusive

gathering of physiological and

other data, e.g. from children

in playground Pronko 1968

Use of telemetry in study of

behavior; discussion of reasons

for limited use of telemetry

techniques by researchers Schwitzgebel 1964

Telemetric measurement of

motor activity in maladjusted

children during play Grunewald-Zuberbier, Zuberbier,
Grunewald and Rasche 1972

Use of telemetry to study
chewing behavior Rugh 1971

Discusses underuse of telemetry
in clinical and other research Hanley 1976

Discussion of the behavioral

effects of being observed during

research, e.g. while telemetry

is being used Moos 1968

48

Summary of Research Applications continued....

Research Applications Author(s)

 

Use of telemetry in studying
husband-wife interaction Soskin & John 1963

Use of telemetry to monitor
vocal behavior of adolescents Purcell & Brady 1966

Use of telemetry to study body
movement, e.g. gestures, tics,
motor learning Herron & Ramsden 1967

Use of telemetry and videotapes
to study verbal behavior in
free play settings Nordquist 1971

Use of telemetry in evaluating
speech and language patterns in
preschool children Gardner 1973

 

Summary of the Multi-disciplinary Review of Literature

 

The questions posed by objective number 1 will now be answered:

1.

Who uses the instrumentation focused upon by this study?

The survey indicated that the bulk of research is being

done in the areas of medicine, psychiatry, psychology and
physiology. Biomechanics and kinesiology are specialized
areas in which such instrumentation is being used. Research
is being done and/or applicationsdiscussed in the areas of
counseling, education, instructional technology, and speech
and hearing. It must be noted that the areas mentioned are
those which turned up in the survey of literature. It is
probable that research is being done and/or applications
discussed in other areas as well. With regard to telemetry
the survey showed its use in speech and hearing, physical
education, educational research, medical research and clinical

applications.

49

How are researchers using the instrumentation and techniques
focused upon by this study? Medical and psychiatric researchers
are asking questions primarily of clinical interest. Psycholo-
gists are asking questions of clinical interest but, in addition,
questions regarding human learning, behavior, perception, etc.,
which are of considerable interest to researchers in education,
communications and other areas. The types of research problems
being addressed are detailed in the first section of this
chapter and will not, therefore, be listed here.

Telemetry, as reflected in the survey, has been used for
research in speech and language patterns, for the monitoring
of freely moving subjects,in physical education research and
for monitoring of patients in clinical situations. The survey
reflects the fact, stated earlier in the study, that telemetry
is underused.
What results are being obtained from the use of the instrumen-
tation and techniques focused upon by this study? Some useful
results related to voluntary self-regulation of physiological
processes, formerly believed to be inaccessible to voluntary
control, are claimed in all the areas identified in which
instrumentation is being applied. However, because the psycho-
physiological phenomena with which the instrumentation deals
are not fully understood it is necessary to exercise caution in
evaluation of research being published. Some researchers warn
that poor studies have been done, as well as some, apparently,

very sound ones.

50

With regard to telemetry, the principle results arising
from its use are, as reflected in the survey: a) It adds to
the unobtrusiveness of research by making it possible to keep
most of ones instrumentation at a distance and out of view,

D) It allows the research subject to move about freely and in
practically any desired environment, c) While it can add a

great deal to some kinds of research it may, for other research.
add unnecessary complexity, d) None of the research found in
social science sources uses telemetry to measure internal
physiological activities. Research located was concerned with
such things as voice transmission. Such uses fall under head-
ing number 11 in the Instrumentation Taxonomy of chapter 2,

that is, non-physiological applications of telemetry.

The preceding paragraphs have summarized the outcomes of the multi-
disciplinary survey of literature. After the presentation in Chapter 4
of the results of the survey of education, communication and educational
psychology,a coding chart is presented which will categorize the outcomes
of the two surveys. That categorization will systematically display areas

in which research and applications were and were not found.

Chapter IV
THE LITERATURE REVIEW FOR THREE SELECTED DISCIPLINES AND A SUMMARY OF
RESEARCH APPLICATIONS IDENTIFIED IN THIS STUDY

This chapter will accomplish the fourth, fifth and sixth objectives
of this study.

For the fourth objective it will describe the results of a survey
of journals in the fields of education, educational psychology, and
communication. Five journals were reviewed for each field, covering the
years of 1970 through 1976. Some of the journals are of interest to

researchers in more than one field. For example, AV Communication Review

 

is of interest to researchers in both education and communication. For
this search it was listed under journals searched for the field of
education. Another journal. Perceptual And Motor Skills, contains a
great deal of research which is of interest to educators and was listed
as a journal searched for that field even though it might have been
listed for the field of educational psychology. The citations from the
journals searched were those which dealt with research and applications
involving use of the instruments and techniques focused upon by this
study. In the psychological journals only those citations were taken
which involved research judged to be of practical interest in the fields
of education, educational psychology and communication. That is, those
types of research were taken which might lead to testing and application
of the principles involved in educational or communication settings, e.g.

approaches to evaluation of responses or of performance.

51

52

For the fifth objective a coding system was introduced which will
be used to classify the types of research identified by the study, to
identify and display some areas of instrumentation application for which
available research was pot_found in the surveys, and to allow coding
of the bibliography of this study to assist in identifying the content
of the citations listed.

For the sixth objective this chapter will report the results of
interviews and of a discussion group which was arranged with researchers
in educational psychology, education and communication. The purpose of
the interviews and discussion was to identify instrumentation applications
which this study had overlooked or which, to the knowledge of the persons

interviewed, had not been done.

Survey of Journals in Educational Psychology_(and Psychology)

1. The first journal searched was American Psychologist, journal

 

of the American Psychological Association. With the exception of one
special instrumentation issue and two research articles this journal
did not provide the type of brief research report, suggestive of cross-
disciplinary instrumentation applications, that were being sought.

One research article located, authored by Kimmel (1974), provides
and excellent discussion of instrumental conditioning of autonomic
responses. He points out that as of the time of writing of the article
about 95 experiments had been published dealing with instrumental
autonomic conditioning in humans "with over 90% reporting positive

results (1974)."

53

Kimmel points out that data available are subject to differing
interpretations and that, hopefully, a theoretical structure to adequately
explain the results achieved to date will emerge.

....a great deal of additional data has been collected, in both the
basic research and applied areas, but only the most preliminary
theoretical conjectures have emerged. My own view is that the
traditional categories of conditioning must be reexamined and new
categorizations developed and evaluated. Perhaps another few years
may be all we need; perhaps we will need more than a few years.
In either case, the rapidly growing interest and experimentation in
the field of instrumental autonomic conditioning, from the not-so-
distant past. when it was "not so much imaginary as impossible," to
the present, when biofeedback machines for home use are being
recommended, must go down as a most remarkable scientific about-face
1974 .

Mckinney (1976), in an article in the same journal, provides some
insight as to why the location of materials for this study has not been
easy. Much of the research done using the instruments focused upon by
this study is conducted by the physiological psychologist. McKinney
provides a brief history of publication patterns in that field.

For physiological psychology, there was negligible citation of

papers in 1927, but there has been a sizable increase since then.

It is, however, not among the more popular fields of psychology as

judged by number of journal publications. However, in the

November 1975 issue of Contemporary Psychology. 10 books in the

area of physiological psychology were reviewed, and 5 were reviewed

in the December issue. Psychopharmacology is 12th, but Physiological

and Comparative is 24th in rank among the 33 divisions in the 1975

APA directory (1976).

The above citation may be of considerable value in explaining the
course that has been followed in research in the fields of educational
psychology, general education (e.g. in assessing the physiological and
psychological effects of communication) and other fields. 'McKinney asks

the question this way.

54

Is the low output in physiological psychology due to psychologists'
preoccupation with environmental variables at the expense of organic
variables? Will we see a movement toward a greater balance of
influence? Are the psychologists who regard the organism as a host
to the environment, with a tendency to favor certain stimulating
situations over others, increasing? Are not organisms dominated at
times by bodily processes and at other times by the environment?
(1976)
The special instrumentation issue of American Psychologist was
published in March, 1975 (Volume 30, Number 3). Reprints of the issue
are available and are, from the point of view of this study, highly
recommended. The articles in the instrumentation issue survey a variety
of instrumentation areas and attempt to describe the state of the art
in each area. Some subjects dealt with are: Instrumentation and Computer
technology (with articles on a variety of areas of computer technology
and use, e.g. minicomputers, real-time computing, computer language for the
psychologist and computer graphics in research): Biopsychology instrumen-
tation and techniques (e.g. NASA contributions to biomedical telemetry;
blood pressure and cardiovascular considerations): Sensory information
systems (e.g. eye movement recording, human performance study): Clinical
and applied research techniques (e.g. biofeedback techniques, electro-
anesthesia, instrumentation and sexual responding, radio telemetry
applications). This study will not attempt to review the contents of all
of the above but, rather, strongly recommend reference to that source.
In terms of this study's search for instrumentation applications that
issue of American Psychologist corroborates applications reported in this

study and, in addition, opens for consideration areas of instrumentation

application and development barely touched upon here.

55

2. The second journal searched was the Journal Of Applied Psychology,

 

published by the American Psychological Association. This journal, did
not provide the type of brief research reports that were being sought for
this study. Nor did it provide articles concerned, primarily, with the
types of instrumentation focused upon by this study.

3. The third journal searched was the Journal of Educational

 

Psychology, published by the American Psychological Association (the 1971

 

and 1972 issues were missing and could not be reviewed). As with the
previous journal this one did not provide the types of report desired.

One citation, however, was taken which deals with morning-to-afternoon
changes in cognitive performances and the reflection of those changes in
the electroencephalogram, (Mackenberg, Broverman, Vogel and Klaiber(l974)).
Based on the research described in this citation they state:

It is interesting to speculate on the pedagogical implications of
these results, at least for males. For instance, teaching procedures
that seem to involve automatized behaviors, for example, drills
oriented toward skill acquisition via sustained repetitive practice,
might best be conducted in the morning. Similarly, such content areas
as speed and accuracy of reading, spelling and simple additions and
subtractions, which have been found to be related to automatization
ability...might be most effectively taught in the morning.

On the other hand, subjects that seem to require cognitive-
restructuring behavior might best be taught in the afternoon.
Proficiency in abstract thinking, mathematics, and in technical
science courses, which have been related to perceptual-restructuring
ability...might be such subjects. However, much more work is needed
to determine precisely which classroom subjects and behaviors corre-
late with, or involve, automatization and perceptual-restructuring
abilities. Unfortunately, the present study cannot be generalized
to females. Again, more work is needed.

The above citation summarizes basic research which. due to its
complexity, is not likely to be reproduced by most researchers in
education, communication, or educational psychology. However, the

citation was taken because the instrumentation and techniques treated in

56

this thesis might be used to test some of the experimental conclusions
of that research in working educational or communication environments.

4. The fourth journal searched was The Journal Of Psychology,
published by The Journal Press. This journal provided one useful citation,
describing research utilizing galvanic skin response measurements. As
emphasized earlier, citations have been defined as useful for this study
if they describe research which depends primarily upon the use of the
five categories of instrumentation focused upon by the study, and if the
research described seems to have some practical applicability or testability
in education or communication. The Journal of Psychology contained several
articles involving GSR use but only one was considered useable according
to the above norms.

In the research article selected Peretti (1975) describes use of GSR
equipment in researching the effects of music upon anxiety, differences in
the responses to music of males and females, and differences in the responses
of music majors and nonmusic majors. He reports that his research resulted
in findings that: music majors, male or female, showed a greater decrease
in anxiety than non-music majors; females showed a greater reduction in
anxiety whether music majors or not. Peretti states: "These results
suggest that being female had a greater effect on performance than being
a music major (1975)."

5. The fifth journal searched, one providing an abundance of useful
citations, was Psychophysiology, published by The Society For Psycho-
physiological Research. A variety of research reports are available in
this source which describe applications of the instrumentation and techniques

of interest to this study. In addition, research is described using a

57

variety of other types of instrumentation which have potential applications
in education and communication, e.g. instruments for measuring heart rate,
skin temperature, respiration, etc..

Epstein, Boudreau and Kling (1975) report research in which
measurement of skin conductance and heart rate were monitored while subjects
were engaged in different levels of motor activity and while they were
being exposed to various stimuli. This study makes some interesting
comparisons between heart rate measurements and skin conductance measurements.
Those comparisons might aid a researcher in deciding which forms of
instrumentation to use in research involving motor activity and the input
of various stimuli to research subjects.

Klorman, Wiesenfeld and Austin (1975) describe research in which
subjects were shown slides of three categories of affective content:
neutral, incongruous and depictive of mutilated humans. Measures of
skin conductance, heart rate and respiration were taken to determine
reactions to viewing of the slides. This research exemplifies a typical
application of the instruments and provides a good example of the
research methodology and analysis of results appropriate for such research.

Hare, Wood, Britain and Shadman (1971) used slides of homidice scenes,
nude females and ordinary objects while measuring skin resistance,
respiration, heart rate. They found that these stimuli produced an
increase in skin conductance, cardiac deceleration, etc.. Studies such
as this provide a model for research.into the effects of either the media
used (the content and quality of the slides themselves) or the responses
of subjects to such media presentations. This brief summary does not
attempt to elaborate the details of the research done or the specific

physiological findings gotten.

58

A particularly interesting piece of research done by Barland and
Raskin (1975) describes efforts made to evaluate the accuracy of field
techniques used in the detection of deception. Typical 'field model'
polygraphs measure skin resistance, respiration and cardiovascular
activity. 'Guilty' and 'innocent' subjects were interviewed with the
authors concluding: "It is apparent that in this experiment the poly-
graph technique discriminated between 'guilty' and 'innocent' subjects
at levels well beyond chance." Research such as this deals with the
physiologically measurable aspects of a type of communication behavior,
deception. Communication researchers might find such research useful
in identifying pertinent physiological measures and in identifying fresh
approaches to the study of communication behaviors involved in 'deceptive'
communication; e.g. message construction, verbal and non-verbal communi-
cation behaviors displayed, group dynamics which might be involved.

Bower and Tate (1976) describe research in retarded and nonretarded
youth studying the relationship between reaction time and heart rate.
Skin conductance and pulse amplitude measures were taken, also. The
authors state that "this study presents a consistent picture of retarded
subjects as debilitated in comparison to their (chronological age) peers
both physiologically and behaviorally during a (reaction time) task (1976)."
This type of research, although involving a variety of instrumentation
types not dealt within this study still is of interest to educators.

Some research reports available in Psychophysiology_are concerned with

 

Alpha wave production. Brolund and Schallow (1976) report research in
which subjects were given reinforcement beyond just hearing auditory
feedback of their alpha sounds. Some subjects were offered a choice of

monetary reward or extra experimental credit. Others received false

59

feedback. Subjects receiving feedback plus monetary, or other reward,
were "clearly more effective in enhancing alpha than any other treatment
condition (1976)." Such use of rewards or other backup reinforcement by
researchers applying alpha, e.g. for relaxation training, provides an
additional testable variable in social science research.

In addition to the types of research described so far, issues of

Psychophysiology since 1970 describe a variety of other kinds of research

 

relevant to this study. Alexander (1975) describes research in which
assumptions relating to the use of electromyographic biofeedback as a
general relaxation technique are tested. Alexander, French and Goodman
(1975) report research in which they compare auditory and visual feedback
in biofeedback assisted muscular relaxation training. Haynes, Moseley and
McGowan (1975) report research into relaxation training and use of bio-
feedback, from muscle voltage measurements, in the reduction of tension
in the forehead (frontalis) muscle). They found that use of biofeedback
is significantly more effective than simple verbal instructions, and
several other techniques, in achieving relaxation of the forehead muscle.
Herron and Ramsden (1967) report use of a simple telemetry transmitter
placed into the heel of a shoe for measurement at a distance of human
locomotor activity. Erwin (1971) reports research using telemetry to
study changes in cardiac rate during cigarette smoking.

Several other types of research are reported in Psychophysiology

 

which involve instrumentation not among those focused upon by this study.
Pupillometry, photographic recording of changes in size of the pupil of
the eye, appears to be gaining in interest as a measure of arousal and

affective response. Stelmack and Mandelzys (1975), for example, report

60

research relating pupillary response to extraversion and to the response
of subjects to affective and taboo words. Tryon (1975) lists a variety
of factors believed to influence pupillary response and the sources of
research into each of those factors: e.g. research cited states that
alertness suggestions decrease and relaxation suggestions increase pupil
size; alcohol dilates the pupil; sexually stimulating material dilates
the pupil; pleasant tastes cause dilation; solving difficult problems
causes increasing dilation. All these are worthy of pursuit and are
mentioned because of their relevance to educational, communication, etc.,
research but the instrumentation for such research is not to be dealt
with in this study.

In summary, Psychophysiology provides numerous examples of
instrumented research using all the instruments focused upon by this
study (Muscle voltage, brain voltage and skin conductance measurement,
and use of biofeedback and telemetry techniques). In addition, it includes
examples of research designs which might be useful in followup of such
research in educational and communication settings. Also, research
involving instrumentation using instruments other than the types picked

for emphasis in this study is described.

Survey of Journals in Education

 

l. The first journal searched for the field of Education was
American Educational Research Journal, published by the American Educational
Research Association. In the issues reviewed (1970 through 1976; 1973
issues were not available) one article was found which was, primarily, a

report of instrumented research. That article, in the Spring 1972 issue,

61

was concerned with photographic recording of eye movements during
reading. Since it did not deal with the types of instrument focused
upon by this study it will not be elaborated upon.

2. The second journal searched was AV Communication Review, published
by the Department of Audiovisual Instruction, Inc., of the Association for
Educational Communications and Technology. No articles were found which
consisted, primarily, of a report of research using the instruments and
techniques focused upon by this study. Some research abstracts dealing
with use of capillary blood pressure measurement as an indicator of
affect were cited in Volume 18, No. 3, Fall 1970 issue, pages 351-352.

An article dealing with analysis of eye-movement recordings which were
taken from samples of underachieving secondary and primary students,
Brickner (1970), was the only one found in the survey concerned, primarily,
with instrumented research.

3. The third journal searched was Educational Technology. This

 

publication provided an article by Knirk and Spindell (1975). They
discuss possible applications of electroencephalographic measurements
(which include alpha waves). electrocardiograph (EKG), skin conductance
(GSR), heart rate, blood pressure, voice analyzers and blood analysis.

They state that "These measures can provide useful data for the educator
concerned with designing learning environments and associated instructional
materials." They state that such measures can reduce observer error in
the making of "behavioral observations (1975)." This article was a

general discussion of instrumentation rather than a report of research

findings of their own.

62

4. The fourth journal searched was the Journal of Educational Research,
published by Heldref Publications, Washington, D.C. This journal did
not provide any citations concerned, primarily. with the reporting of
instrumented research of the type needed for this study.

5. The fifth journal searched, Perceptual And Motor Skills, might

 

have been listed under journals searched for educational psychology.
But, since it includes such a wide variety of research reports useful to
researchers in the field of education, it has been listed here instead.

Grynol and Jamieson (1975) report on their research using alpha
feedback. They emphasize the need for caution in evaluating the effects
of alpha conditioning. Their research indicated the desirability of using
a placebo control group in such research. This is needed so that claims
will not be made for benefits from alpha conditioning when environmental
factors or psychological factors within subjects are responsible for
post-treatment results observed. Other studies relating to alpha
feedback can be found in Perceptual And Motor Skills.

A number of research reports relating to use of skin conductance
(galvanic skin response) measurement were found in this journal. Thompson
and Dixon (1974), for example, used GSR to demonstrate that stimulus
pictures, pornographic pictures in this case, produced graded physiological
responses in subjects.

They summarize this research as follows:

Functional relationship between emotional reactions as measured by

GSR and perceptual response was demonstrated. The power function

demonstrates that in a carefully controlled situation, where a

psychometrically defined normalcy can be ascertained through

pretesting, a reliable index of response to a series of photographs
illustrating human sexual activity can be demonstrated. The findings

substantiate the theoretical position that psychological functions
can be shown for psychologically defined modalities...(l974).

63

Of particular interest to researchers in media and instructional
technology is research reported by Jacobs and Hustmyer, Jr. (1974).

They studied the effects of four psychological primary colors on GSR,
heart rate and respiration rate. They state:

....colors were presented for 1 minute each with GSR, heart rate,

and respiration being recorded. There was a significant color

effect on GSR but not on the other measures. Red was significantly

more arousing than blue or yellow and green more than blue.

Bull (1972) reports research concerning the question of whether there
is a rhythmic variation in arousal level in humans during the working day
and asks whether such variations can be shown to recur daily. Using GSR
as the physiological measure he found, on one of his statistical measures,
significantly predictable daily variability in skin conductance activity.
Such a predictability in skin conductance response or level of arousal is
significant for research in education or communication. Bull states
that "..it does seem worthwhile to control for possible time-of-day
effects (1972)."

Stern (1973) describe research with GSR which showed that subjects
who tend to react to stress with sweaty palms tend to be able to
produce greater changes in skin conductance under test conditions and
with practice learn to control skin conductance changes better than
non-sweaters. What research questions this might raise concerning research
in education and communication remains to be seen.

Bronzaft and Stuart (1971) report use of skin conductance measurement
(GSR) in studying test anxiety and academic achievement. Students were
given a self-report measure of test-anxiety and then their GSR's recorded

while taking an examination.

64

Kaiser and Roessler (1970) report the use of skin conductance (GSR)
measurement with subjects viewing stressful motion picture films. The
subjects were given the Zuckerman Multiple Affect Adjective Check List
(MAACL) both before and after seeing the stressful and bland films.
Kaiser and Roessler report that:

The greatest number and amplitude of GSR's were produced during

the stress film and the least during the bland film. A direct

relationship between the number and amplitude of GSR's and MAACL

scores was obtained. In addition, these GSR indexes paralleled
variations in the content of the stressor film. These results
support the interpretation that cognitive factors are important

in understanding mechanisms of psychological stress (1970).

This type of research is of interest to researchers in education and
communication.

Garrity (1975) describes research using EMG measurement in which he
measures muscle activity associated with subvocalization. He describes
how his measurements were taken and makes recommendations about how the
data taken in that type of measurement might best be used.

Carroll (1971) describes research in which EMG measurements were
taken from muscles as subjects were exposed to affective visual stimuli.
Paben and Rosentswieg (1971) used EMG measurement,and audio and visual
feedback, in training subjects to produce specific amounts of muscular
tension in the flexor and extensor muscles of the wrist and forearm.
Subjects who learned to produce tension at several specified levels
upon demand performed significantly better on an experimental motor task.

Fifteen college women were taught to relax and how to produce,

on command, given percentages of maximum tension through EMG.

A comparison was made with 15 control subjects of the ability to

learn a novel gross motor skill. Significant differences were

found, indicating that learned control of general muscular tension

facilitates learning ..... It may be concluded that a program of
neuromuscular tension control facilitates motor learning in the novel

65

gross motor skill of paddle-ball hitting. The advantages gained

when a complex novel skill is learned relatively quickly are believed

to lead a favorable achievement in that skill and therefore could

be a very important consideration for educational programs (1971).

Two final studies, both using feedback, but not using the instrumen-
tation focused upon by this study will be described.

Nideffer and Deckner (1970) did research with normal and learning-
disabled children in which they compared the ability of the two groups
to learn control of fingertip temperature. The outcome of that research
suggests further research questions for educators.

Most experience with learning-disabled children and most theories

about their failure to learn despite adequate intelligence levels

suggest that such children might learn psychophysiological self-
control via biofeedback techniques not at all or much less well than
educationally normal children ..... That learning-disabled children

did not prove more difficult to condition than normals in this

study is a rather astounding finding. This may be an accident of

this particular population rather than a law of learning for learning-

disabled children, but the results of the study suggest that when

an experimental situation reduces irrelevant stimuli, and reinforcement

is consistent and immediate, learning-disabled children nay learn at

least as well as normals (1970).

Nideffer and Deckner (1970) describe an experiment in which an
athlete was given verbal instructions concerning relaxation exercises he
was to perform periodically. Performance of the athlete improved within
a short period of time. The authors do not claim that the relaxation
procedures, alone, produced the improvement. However, they raise the
question of the effect of tension level on athletic perfonnance and the
different effect of tension level on short term athletic performance
(e.g. shot-put) or long term performance (e.g. running). Also. they
state that:

..... performance may be impaired when an athlete practices at one

(relatively low) level of tension and performs in competition at a
different (probably considerably higher) level of tension (1970).

66

Perceptual and Motor Skills contains a variety of other research

 

reports of interest in education, educational psychology and communication.

It should be a valuable resource for researchers.

Survey Of Journals In Communication

 

l. The first journal searched for this area was Communication

 

Research, an international quarterly. Issues from 1974 and 1976 were
reviewed, the 1975 issues missing. The type of instrumented research
report needed for this study were not found there.

2. The second journal searched was Human Communication Research.

 

It, also, did not provide reports of instrumented research.

3. The third journal was the Journal Of Communication. A very

 

useful article by Crane, Dieker and Brown (1970) discusses physiological
responses to the communication modes of reading, listening, writing, speak-
ing and evaluating. They describe research in which skin conductance

(GSR) and heart rate measurements were taken. Bostrom (1970) studied
affective, cognitive and behavioral dimensions of communicative attitudes.
Although this is not a report of instrumented research the author does
discuss, among other things, the reflection of affective response in

skin conductivity and rate of heartbeat.

Donohew, Parker and McDermott (1972) report use of physiological
measurement in the study of information selection. They measured skin
conductance (GSR)and monitored eye movement photographically. The GSR
was used to measure arousal of subjects during exposure to various types
of stimulus materials. They cite other studies of communication factors

which included use of physiological instrumentation, specifically GSR.

67

Klemmer and Snyder (1972) describe use of non-physiological instru-
mentation in research measuring the time spent communicating. A watch
alarm, which rang at random times, served as a cue to subjects to record
their activity each time the alarm sounded.

Harrison and Knapp (1972) in an article discussing nonverbal
communication systems describe efforts of researchers to catalog research
factors in that area. They present, as an example, a listing of 18 non-
verbal research areas, one of the areas listed being the area of physio-
logical activity.

Watson (1972) discusses research needs and directions in the area of
proxemic research, study of the relationship between humans and space.
This area is concerned with how humans structure, use and function within
space. A number of research factors in that area relating to physiological
responses, effects of the physical environment, etc., are amenable to the
use of instrumentation techniques, including the types focused upon
by this study.

4. The fourth journal searched for communication was The QuarterLy

 

Journal Of Speech, published by the Speech Communication Association.

 

This journal contained a great deal of material concerning communication
research, rhetorical and literary criticism, broadcasting, etc.. Only one
article was found that dealt specifically with instrumented research.
Fletcher (1973) discusses "Old Time GSR And A New Approach To The Analysis
Of Public Communication (1973)." He discusses application of skin
conductance measurement, and other physiological measures, in assessment
of speech communication, message construction for commercial purposes,

etc.. He states that:

68

..... in the case of instructional media the high cost of producing
films and videotapes make pre-testing an economically justifiable
possibility. Using a composite record of audience physiological
response a producer could engineer the attention-values of the
material--removing uninteresting sections, heightening attention
values in portions where retention of content is particularly
important to instructional objectives (1973).

Fletcher describes means by which some students in a classroom
setting might be monitored for skin conductance and their responses
processed real-time by a computer. Adjustment of instructional strategies
might be accomplished on the basis of student responses. Fletcher includes
in his article discussion of a variety of potential applications for
instrumentation which have not been cited here. He predicts that use of
physiological instrumentation will increase in the foreseeable future.

5. The fifth journal searched for communication was Sociometry,

 

published by the American Sociological Association. This journal deals
with a variety of research areas of interest in the fields of education,
educational psychology and communication, but no citations were found

which were concerned, primarily, with instrumented research.

Summary Of The Literature Surveys And Completion Of Objective Number Five

 

The questions posed by Objective No. 4 will now be addressed, based
on the results of the literature review for education, educational
psychology and communication.

Based upon this selective literature review, who uses the types of
instrumentation and techniques focused upon by this study? The selective
review confirms the findings of Chapter 3. Most of the research being
done with instrumentation of the types of interest to this study is being

done by researchers in physiological psychology, general psychology and

69

medicine. A problem faced during the survey was the inadequate
identification of the professional background of authors. In some
cases they were identified, e.g. as psychologist, but usually no
biography was given. Thus, it had to be presumed that authors cited
from the psychological journals were probably psychologists. In the
communication and educational journals most of the citations taken
provided little help in identifying the background of the authors.

For the fields of education and communication it can be said, at
any rate, that a few articles have appeared, authored by communication,
tele-communication, speech, and educational researchers. The bulk of
research, however, is being done by psychologists, psychiatrists and
medical clinicians researching clinical problems.

How are researchers using the instrumentation and techniques
focused upon by this study? They are being used in research concerning
cognitive performance (as reflected in EEG measurements), effects of
music upon anxiety, sutdy of motor performance, study of affective
responses to visual stimuli, the study of proxemics, performance of
normal and learning-disabled children, study of the effects of reward
upon performance, study of relaxation techniques, study of capillary
blood pressure and its relation to affective response. Citations found
in communication sources consisted mostly of discussion of the feasibility
of instrumentation use in communication research. Some, however, reported
actual research, e.g. in study of audience or individual response to

presentations.

70

What results are being obtained from the above research? Most of
the research found in this selective literature review was done by
psychologists, psychiatrists and medical clinicians and was found in
literature related to those fields. The principal result of those
studies, for the purposes of this survey, is that they point the way
for followup research in education and communication. The survey
indicates, for example, that skin conductance measurement is, probably,
the most common technique used in studies involving human response to
affective stimuli. In some studies it is used as the principal data
source, while in others it is used in conjunction with other measures
such as tests and questionnaires. The use of GSR, therefore, with
competent psychological and physiological advice, suggests itself as a
potential starting point for an educational or communication researcher
who wishes to apply some of the research results described in this study
to problems in those areas.

Muscle voltage measurements also seem applicable to research into

a variety of educational and communication problems.

A Listingof Research Applications Identified in the Search Done for This
Chapter

The research described in this chapter will now be displayed in chart
form. As in chapter 3 it will be listed in order of occurrence in the
chapter. This chart, and the summary chart of chapter 3, provide the basis
for the coding chart which follows in this chapter which identifies applica-

tions of various types of instrumentation.

Table 5

A Listing 0f Research Applications Of
Instrumentation Identified In The Education/Educational-
Psychology/Communications Literature

Search

(Listed in order of occurrence in chapter)

Research Applications

Author(s)

 

discussion of computer technology as
applicable to the field of psychology,
of various types of physiological
instrumentation, of biofeedback
techniques, etc.. Many areas not
listed here are touched upon

discussion of the high degree of
success in conditioning of autonomic
responses with biofeedback instrumen-
tation

AM to PM changes in cognitive perform-
ance as reflected by changes in brain
voltages

use of GSR to measure effects of
music upon subjects

study of motor activity using GSR
and heart rate measurements

study of subject response to slide
presentations using GSR, heart rate
and respiration measures

study of subject response to slide
presentations using GSR, heart rate
and respiration measures

physiological measures used in
detecting deception

reaction time as a function of heart
rate GSR and pulse amplitude, measured
in retarded and non-retarded children

use of rewards & other reinforcements
in encouraging increased production
of alpha waves in subjects

American Psychologist special
issue, March 1975

Kimmel 1974

Mackenber, Broverman, Vogel
& Klaiber 1974

Peretti 1975

Epstein, Boudreau. Kling
1975

Klorman, Wiesenfeld, Austin

1975

Hare, Wood. Britain & Shadman
1971

Barland & Raskin 1975

Bower & Tate 1976

Brolund & Schallow 1976

72

Summary of Research Applications....continued

Research Applications

Author(s)

 

EMG as a relaxation technique

muscle relaxation training using
EMG with comparison of audio and visual
feedback

muscle relaxation using EMG, comparing
value of different types of feedback

use of telemetry to measure walking
activity

use of telemetry to study effects
of cigarette smoking on heart rate

measurement of eye pupil size as a guage
of affective response

measuremeny of eye pupil size as a
guage of affective response

application of a variety of physiolog-
ical measures in educational research

use of various research designs in
evaluating effects of alpha
conditioning

use of GSR to measure affective response
to picture stimuli

use of GSR, heart rate and respiration
as measures of response to various
colors

use of GSR to measure AM-PM differences
in arousal level of subjects (i.e.
daily variability)

ability of persons with sweaty palms
to control skin conductance variations
better than others

study of test anxiety using GSR and
written measures

Alexander 1975

Alexander, French & Goodman
1975

Haynes, Mosely & McGowan

1975

Herron & Ramsden 1967

Erwin 1971

Stelmack & Mandelzys 1975

Tyron 1975

Knirk & Spindell 1975

Grynol & Jamieson 1975
Thompson & Dixon 1974

Jacobs & Hustmyer 1974

Bull

1972

Sterm 1973

Lehman 1971

Summary of Research Applications....continued

Research Applications

Author(s)

 

study of response to movies using
GSR and written measures

use of EMG feedback in reduction
of subvocalization

use of EMG in measuring affective
response to visual stimuli

use of EMG in teaching subjects to
control level of muscular tension
in muscles

comparison of control of fingertip
temperature in normal and learning-
disabled children

effect of verbal relaxation instruc-
tions in an athlete

physiological responses to reading,
listening, writing, speaking and
evaluating (using GSR)

cognitive, affective and behavioral
dimensions of communicative
attitudes: physiological correlates

physiological measurement in study
of information selection

measuring time spent communicating

cataloguing non-verbal communication
factors

research needs in the area of
proxemics

use of GSR in measuring physiological
correlates of public speaking

Kaiser & Roessler 1970

Garrity 1975

Carroll 1971

Paben & Rosentswieg 1971

Nideffer & Deckner 1970

Nideffer & Deckner 1970

Crane, Dieker & Brown 1970

Bostrom 1970

Donohew, Parker & McDermott
1972

Klemmer B Snyder 1972

Harrison & Knapp 1972

Watson 1972

Fletcher 1973

74

A Coding Chart For Classification Of Types Of Instrumented Research
This section will accomplish the fifth objective of the study,
development of a coding system for classification and identification of
types of instrumented research found, and not found, fbr this study and,

also, for coding of the contents of citations in the bibliography.

In Chapter 2, taxonomies of instrumentation and research factors
were developed. Two purposes for their development were: to develop
a picture of available instrumentation versus a wide range of research
problems: to show where the instruments focused upon by this study fit
in the range of available instrumentation. As mentioned in Chapter 2
a variation of the instrumentation matrix format will be used now as the
basic format for a coding system. The coding system will display the
instrumentation types focused upon by this study opposite the types of
research application which were identified in the surveys done for
Chapters 2 and 3. Potential research applications for which no
citations were found in the searches will be represented by empty cells
in the coding matrix.

Thus the matrix serves as: a) a guide to current applications,
b) a guide to areas in which new applications might profitably be under-

taken and, c) as a coding guide for bibliography citations.

75

TABLE 6
Coding Chart For Classification Of Instrumented Research

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Some of the matters appearing on chart refer to p. . 2'; 2..» '3': .‘n 3. I
citations in which instrunented research is g g g 3 fl 3 g" 5’; ,3 E
discussed but was not carried out. Others are 3"; :33 ,1: ‘5 :2! .‘5 5 8:;
reports of actual research. E3 is ; 2g 3 3 3,: 3; . is:
Us]! 0 c m L an III II 0‘ O
I! L A v 3 3 a I) 0 g l- 2 40%- >s
Empty squares represent areas of application *- ‘;~ 3'31; A: 3 g 3" . 3,, . 3 98....
not found in the surveys done for this study. fig; - e ; fig '- 0 Egg 59 2 gym"
Chan 2“! 0 :0 $0.: 00‘0- 00103
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v.38 8c 8.! 3° 83.. ".36 33.8.
H U m-v-n 0-0 ‘3: 0-0-! 01.083 0090
“‘8 “it"? “i“ .3 “:32 ’13—’32 “23.":
£12m 0-130 Na M01 '04-! W‘P" 0920
A. Communications Research Problems
1. 1.3
2.
3. response to violence in media. etc. 3.3
4. message construction 4.3
5. response to speaking. listening. evaluating. writing 5.3 5.4 5.6
6. 6.6
7. public speaking and physical measures 7.3 7.4 7.6
8. affective response. e.g. to taboo words. stimuli 8.3
9. time spent communicating 9.6
10. verbal/non-verbal communication 8 behaviors 10.3 10.4 10.6
11.
B. Educational and Ed. Psych. Research Problems
12. arousal (psychol. B physiol.) 8 learning. forgetting 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6
13. attention. orienting response 13.3
14. behavioral control: conditioning of autonomic functions.
self-control a regulation 14.1 14.2 14.3 14.4 14.6
15. cognitive styles 15.1 15.3 15.6
16. counseling and instrimientation 16.1 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.6
17. dehinanization and technology 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.6
18. use in counseling and education 18.6
19. hyperkinetic children 19.1 19.4

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Some of the numbers appearing on chart refer to

76

TABLE 6
continued. . .

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

m . T5 2?..- .I; J. 1'! .
citations in which instrumented research is g 2’ :3 3 u 8 c 3'78: 5'; g E
discussed but was not carried out. Others are E: :23 :5.“ :5 ..‘L' a. b 6' 3‘3
reports of actual research. £3 fig ; 9% ‘3 '5 R; Q; . €52
Us]! 0 .2 Hal l- O 0‘ 40 G 0 O O
0 . L I- Q V 3 Q Q g: 3L? :56 >4
Empty squares represent areas of application " a: 8‘3: ).3 §8 crcn . - >.. u .33
not found in the surveys done for this study. “5‘; 1; E .5 it o 2.33 5" i3 '53.?"
a“: f ., c .52 52‘: 83:. sews
- 2o 8 a! 8 as o .n o a .. u L 81
mas: u an» 8‘s mi: .u >w- 131;:: B 2:?"-
336 ‘3; ’2‘: 63 xi: bee. .. a
C C go.“ go -9 4.)“) 003C 0C0
0‘- O-- > C C Q >~Q O O O O‘-
can “>0 OJ ‘0 5L“ ECMV- Can-PL
EGV‘ U ‘0 DID )0 ED. 0‘04 FWHO
D 0 0 : Oe— m- ‘4 Q P-m- H U v 3 O U1
a u u—v- . p— u C ~— 0 0 an; 3 O UH 0
“L8 ”.00 In“ (3"- Kgafl 61:32 “if";
58cc .456 «ii at 6.3 ins—v- @1380
20. Instructional technology and media (visual. audial.
tactile. etc.) 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.6
21. Intelligence 21.1 21.3 21.4 21.6
22. Interaction: student-teacher 22.3 22.6
23. learning: e.g. verbal instruction vs. biofeedback 23.1 23.2 23.3 23.4 23.6
24. learning- disabled. retarded. maladjusted children 24,3 244 2a_5
25. linguistics: verbal pattern study. etc. 25.5
26. motor activity 4 performance 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6
27. oculomotor activity: eye movement. blink rate. .
pupillometry a affective response 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 27.5 27.6
28. perspiration e.g. rate. palm sweating. palmar prints 28.3 28.4
29. programmed instruction. individualized instruction
30. reaction time: e.g. vs age 30.1 30.3 30.4
31. reinforcement. rewards. motivation. incentives 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 31.6
32. relaxation: musCular. systematic 32.2 32.2 32.3 32.4 32.6
33. sex differences. e.g. in teachers a researchers
(effects of); in anxiety reduction thru music etc. 33.3
34. stress. tension. fatigue 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 34.6
35. subvocalization 35.2 35.4
36. teaching. training strategies. revision of 36.1 35,2 35,3 36.4 36.5 35,5
37. test anxiety 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 37.6
38. unobtrusiveness of research 38.1 38.2 38.3 38.4 38.5 38.6
39. violence. response to viewing of 39.3
C. KinesiologyI kinesics
40. bodily movement. muscle activity. e.g. athletic 40.2 40.5

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

D. A variety of instrumentation applications of medical. psychiatric or physiological interest were identified by the

SEOY‘CheS.

They are:

blood pressure. bronchial asthfiia. cardiac

Since they are not of immediate interest in the fields of education. communication and educational
psychology they will only be listed. rather than charted.

arrythmia. chewing behavior. heart rate. blood flow. hypertension. migraine and tension headaches. sexual function
and extinguishing of phobias.

77

Using the Coding Chart as a Guide for the Generation of New Research and
Instrumentation Applications

The Coding Chart for Classification of Instrumented Research shows
some empty cells. Some of those cells are empty, undoubtedly, because
of limitations in the literature searches done for this study. Applica-
tions of the types of instrumentation listed may have been done, or may
be in progress, in studying the research factors for which empty cells
are shown. However, conversation with researchers, e.g. in the
field of communication, indicates that some of the 'empty cell' activities,
if pursued, will be truly innovative.

An example will now be given of how the empty cells in the chart
might lead to innovative instrumentation applications.

As an example the empty cell at the intersection of 'group dynamics'
and 'galvanic skin response' will be considered. A teacher or researcher
in the field of communication has, it will be hypothesized, read this
study and decided to set up the following classroom situation:

l. Instrumentation and researchgproblem of interest: The teacher
wishes to use galvanic skin response measurement as a supplemental
source of input during a class on group dynamics.

2. Procedure: During a class session devoted to the study of the
dynamics of group discussion a group discussion will be conducted.
The arousal level of four discussion group members will be
monitored and visually and audially displayed to observers of
the group discussion. For example, in a class with 30 members,
four will be in the discussion group and twenty-six will be

observers.

78

3. Strategy: l) The teacher will lead the discussion and at
selected times will introduce taboo or offensive language into
the conversation. 2) Change in arousal, as reflected in
galvanic skin response changes in the four participants, will
be observed, recorded (on tape and by a chart recorder), and
used afterward as the basis for debriefing of the group members
and as the basis for a class discussion.

Some questions which might be appropriate for the group debriefing

and class discussion might be:

a. Did the group participants react physiologically to the
language interjected by the teacher?

b. How did they react?
c. To what words did they react most?

d. Did certain members of the group show stronger reactions
than others?

e. If_group members were allowed feedback of their GSR during
the discussion did this have any effect on their subsequent
behavior? What effect? y3y_might their subsequent behavior
have been influenced?

f. Is it possible to say that the use of such language by
a group member might be said to have any important effects
on the dynamics of the group discussion? For example, did
it change the behavior or attitudes of group members toward
the person using the language? Could the use of such
language be useful as a strategy in certain group situations?

4. Variations: Depending upon circumstances the user of the above
format could introduce several variations. For example, group
participants may or may not be allowed audible or visual feedback
of their arousal level during the discussion. If it was not
allowed they could be questioned about how they perceived their

reaction to the stimulus words before being shown chart recordings

79

of how their GSR arousal level actually varied. A more substantive
variation would be to use the 'group discussion with GSR measurement'
format with variables other than taboo or offensive language.
It may be desired to introduce 'deception' (another 'empty cell'
variable from the Coding Chart) into the group discussion.
The goal might be to observe the arousal level of group participants
when the deception begins to be suspected by group members. Or,
it may be of interest to focus on the arousal level and demeanor
of the person selected to introduce deception into a discussion
(e.g. while lying about something of interest to the group
participants). Barland and Raskin (1975) provide interesting
background for those who might wish to pursue the topic of
deception.
Using examples such as the above it would be possible to assemble
a workbook of innovative projects relating to an area of interest, e.g.
group dynamics. Allowing a bit of reign to the imagination such a
workbook might be entitled "Projects in Group Inner-Dynamics."
The Coding Chart assimilates information from the computer and manual
searches conducted for this study. The next section describes the effort
to add to what was learned from those searches, to get input from active
researchers in the fields of education, communication. and educational

psychology.

80

Arranging 0f Interviews and a Formal Discussion With Researchers in
Education, Educational Psychology and Communication

 

This section deals with objective number 6 of the study. After the
data of chapters 3 and 4 was compiled an effort was made to add to that
data by seeking input from researchers in the fields of education, educa-
tional psychology and communication (Dr. Joseph Byers, Dr. Robert Davis
and Nicholas Stoyanoff of Michigan State University). The researchers
were contacted and a meeting arranged in which each was provided with the
results of the surveys done for this study. Each was given the opportunity,
during that meeting, to use EEG alpha-theta, galvanic skin response, and
EMG muscle voltage units. Each of the three units provided audible and
visual feedback. The purpose of that experience was to supplement the
data from the surveys with fresh experience with the instrumentation.
After these initial interviews a formal discussion was scheduled in
which the three researchers were encouraged to identify instrumentation
applications in their fields which may not have been identified by the
study. They were encouraged, also, to state their wishes as to what new
kinds of instrumentation should be developed to apply to hiterto uninstru-
mented, or inadequately instrumented, research problems in their field.
Finally, their views were sought concerning the types of research problems
which were discussed in this study.

Initially, the formal meeting of researchers was to have been a
brainstorming session. It appears, however, that the 7 computer searches
done for this study identified most of the applications being made of
instrumentation in the fields of the participants. Therfore, the meeting
became a discussion in which the participants: a) discussed the types of

application already identified, b) suggested new applications, c) suggested

81

areas of research for which new instrumentation, beyond what is available,

or variations of existing instrumentation, need to be developed, d) discussed
means of communicating instrumentation needs of their areas to industry,

e) discussed the need for provision of a university structure to provide
access to instrumentation, technical assistance and information on potential

applications.

Some Questions And Issues Raised In The Discussion

 

Can physiological measures be used as indicators of aspects of the
'information processing' which occurs in communication or learning situations?
The searches done for this study located extensive research dealing with
electroencephalographic study of brain functions. The purpose of such
research was to isolate and define organic functions, to aid in the
diagnosis of disease or malfunction within the brain, etc.. Research is
available which deals with the nature of 'information processing' in the
brain but literature describing the practical translation of such research
into techniques for evaluating communication processes was not found by
this.study.

Can tactile feedback be utilized in situations where the visual,
auditory, etc., senses are 'overloaded'? The capability of current
technology for producing tactile stimulators in a variety of forms is great.
Demand for development of such technology was not apparent in the literature
searches in the fields of education and communication. Some development has
occurred in aerospace research. NASA used tactile stimulators to signal
astronauts working in environments where a large amount of visual and

auditory information was constantly being generated. Some use of tactile

82

methods has been made with systems for communication of information to
blind or deaf people.

Can galvanic skin response be applied to detect 'information overload'?
Research was not located in which such an effort was made, thought it may
exist. If 'information overload' is reflected in changes of a person's
general level of physiological arousal GSR would be an applicable measure.

To what extent can GSR be used to plot children's response to TV
violence and as an aid to operationally define that response? GSR is
being used currently to determine people's response to various TV news
commentators. Hiring and firing of conmentators is being done based on
those public reaction measures. As an indicator of response to violence GSR
can be used to observe changes in arousal level but other measures would
have to be used to ensure that what is being indicated is truly an emotional
response and not a function of the person's orienting response (orienting
to or adverting to stimuli in one's environment produces physiological
changes). The question of operationally defining a person's response
includes the distinguishing of the following. Is there a difference between
a person's response to physical versus verbal violence, real versus symbolic or
mythical violence. Would there be a difference, for example, between
the reaction to violence on a TV police type program and violence in cartoon
form?

The variety of other questions raised and observations made in the
discussion was so extensive that some of them will be listed without comment:

1. There is a need for better integration technology to provide

constant rather than occasional display of processed data during
research and during classroom activities. For example, programmable

calculators can be programmed to process and display data; e.g.
a teacher can get immediate feedback on the performance of students.

83

2. Heat measuring instruments are more commonly available now.
Are their applications for them in education or communications
research? Is enough known of the body's heat transfer processes
to make possible its use as a 'psychothermal' measure, e.g.
less stress less heat?

3. Some problems relevant to education and communications research:
location of measures to indicate types and levels of information
processing, e.g. visuals versus audio-visuals, or processing of
audio information alone; measures of information processing in
face to face versus telecommunication situations, e.g. the effects
of the absence of smell, touch or sight in wired communications.
Can information be adequately defined in terms of 'bits' or other
inputs to a person and thus, make quantification of information
tolerance or overload levels possible? In such a quantification
can psychophysiological instrumentation provide a measure of
physical correlates to either, or both, the information input
process and the 'overload' process? Is there a measure of energy
expenditure in a communication exchange between people? Is there
a thermodynamic aspect to an interpersonal exchange, i.e. measurable
thermodynamic activity? Can psychophysiological instruments
display physiological correlates of propinquity (physical nearness)
or the effects of removal of persons in a communication interaction
to a distance?

4. Telemetry: its use to provide ongoing information in classroom
or communication settings is recognized by many researchers and
teachers but it still is little used: The suggestion was made
that telemetry at short range could be done with a variety of
visible-light or infra-red light circuits that are avilable
now. Such transmitters would involve simpler equipment than
radio telemetry, lower cost, less problems from interfering signals,
and little or no government regulation of the power levels used,
to determine communication patterns within certain occupations,
e.g. in studying the activities of executives, secretaries,
teachers, etc., over long spans of time.

The above listings give an indication of the scope of topics that
were covered in the discussion. For a brief, one-time meeting the range
of topics covered, of suggestions made, and of questions posed was remarkable.
The purpose of the meeting was to identify new instrumentation applications.
It accomplished that goal and provided several other profitable outcomes
as well. For example, the suggestion was made that a series of such

meetings might serve to catalyze interest in the use and development of

84

instrumentation. Further, if an effort is being made to develop an
instrumentation resource center type of activity such meetings can
serve to educate and gain the interest of researchers and other faculty

interested in using instrumentation.

Summary of The Results Of Chapters 3 and 4

 

Chapter 3 attempted, through its broad survey of literature, to
determine who, in general, uses certain types of instrumentation and
techniques. This chapter has attempted to search more deeply in three
selected areas of study. The purpose of the two searches was to prepare
the way for application of those instruments and techniques in the three
areas of education, educational psychology and communication.

This chapter has, also, introduced a coding system for classification
of instrumented research and provided examples of its use. The chapter
concluded with a description of an effort made to add to the variety of
instrumentation applications which were identified in the surveys of
Chapters 3 and 4. Researchers in education, educational psychology and
conmunication were interviewed and later brought together for a formal
discussion in an effort to identify new research applications in those
areas.

Chapter 5 will include discussion of an instrumentation resource

center type activity and a summary of the results of this study.

Chapter V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The earlier chapters of this study have developed a picture of
the types of instrumentation that are available and of the variety of
applications that can be made of it. Although that information is
essential to the process of diffusion of innovation in instrumentation
there remains yet another step to be taken. Some means must be provided
through which researchers, teachers, etc., can be provided access to
instrumentation. Progress in electronic miniaturization has made
possible smaller and less expensive brain wave, muscle voltage, galvanic
skin response, and other instruments. But few researchers, clinicians,
or teachers are familiar with or have access to such equipment. And, as
stated on page l of this study, since most have little or no knowledge
of the instruments they are not likely to consider such technology as
potential contributors to the solution of their problems. To accomplish
the seventh objective of this study a means of bridging the technological
communication gap described above will be presented. The final part of

this chapter will summarize the results of this study.

Development Of An 'Instrumentation Resource Center' Structure

Prior to the conducting of this study, appointments were arranged
with researchers and department heads in several Michigan State University
departments. The purpose of these meetings was to assess the need for

instrumentation within each department. All of those consulted expressed

85

86

the desire and need to expand research and application within their
departments to include use of the instruments focused upon by this

study. All expressed the questions, however, of how relevant technology
could be identified, selected for purchase and introduced in a meaningful
way to persons within their departments.

It is to fill those needs that this study will now propose establish-
ment of a formal structure within institutions of higher education which
will function as an 'instrumentation resource center'. The resource
center would provide researchers, teachers, etc., in the social sciences
and other areas with:

a. advice and assistance in assessing instrumentation needs and

in planning applications or research using electronic
instrumentation

b. access to studies and data from various areas of application

and research (social sciences, etc.) where related use has

been made of such instrumentation

c. provide, temporarily, instrumentation and guidance in procedures
for operating and applying it

d. refer potential users of instrumentation to appropriate
professionals when indicated: e.g. should research involve
measurement of muscle voltages in a particular location
referral to a physiologist or physiological psychologist would
be desirable to ensure that electrode placement is correct and
that any problems associated with those measurements be identi-
fiable and anticipated

e. provide information concerning commercial instruments available
for purchase (this would include information about equipment
specifications, availability of repair facilities in case of
breakdown, relative cost of various brands of instruments
versus the measurement needs of the user, etc.)

Another important function of an instrumentation resource center

would be to conduct research and engage in developmental activities.
Since the center would be in contact with faculty, graduate, and under-

graduate students, in a variety of areas it would over time confront many

87

unresolved research problems and instrumentation needs in each of those
areas. Some of those needs would be resolved by the center. Others
problems might be communicated to industry, to appropriate professional
organizations, governmental agencies, etc..

The functional structure of an instrumentation resource center
would derive from the functions described above, from the range of
instrumentation to be included as part of the service, and finally, from
the scale of the operation decided upon (e.g. it might be a university-
wide service or it might, initially, be housed within one or two
departments). At the simplest level one person competent in the theory
and application of the instruments provided would be required. That
person would need a set of instructional materials, including appropriate
print, visual and audio resources, and, perhaps, appropriate models
and simulators. In addition it would be necessary to have channels of
communication to appropriate resource persons, e.g. a physiological
psychologist or physiologist, or persons with other areas of expertise
which may be involved in an instrumentation application. In addition,
channels of communication to commercial instrumentation sources are needed
since application of general types of instrumentation to the special
needs of researchers in a particular area immediately generates suggestions
about the tailoring of instrumentation for the needs of that area.
For example, the author of this study, has communicated with manufacturers
about modification of existing equipment to suit the needs of local
researchers better: e.g. integrated circuits used in their devices
should be plugged into sockets rather than soldered directly to the printed

circuit boards so that local researchers can, in case of breakdown during

88

use, quickly replace them. Also, the needs of researchers and non-
researchers differ in a particular instrument. The researcher may desire
a digital readout of information so that accurate figures can be recorded.
But a teacher, for example, may wish to use an instrument to train or
condition students to relax and thus may prefer to have a simple meter
readout which shows up-and-down trends better than a digital readout.
If industry does not provide for both needs then one of those categories
of people will be poorly served by the instrument.

The preceding discussion has outlined some of the functions and
structural characteristics of an instrumentation resource center.
An effort to implement the instrumentation center concept in a university

setting will be made by the author of this study.

Summary Of The Results Of This Study

 

It was stated in chapter 1 that the primary goal of this study
was to attempt to innovate through identifying and, then, through
recommending to researchers, teachers, clinicians, etc., tools to which
they may, previously have had no introduction or access. The identifi-
cation of the types of instrumentation that.are available and of the
types of applications that are being, or could be, made of them was
accomplished in the two taxonomies of chapter 2. The research factor
taxonomy was intended to touch very broadly a wide range of problems.
Within individual areas of study a research taxonomy would be more
focused and specific, as is the chart in chapter 4 of this study which
lists problems from communication, education, and educational psychology

opposite the instrumentation focused upon by this study. The instrumentation

89

taxonomy of chapter 2, however, represents a fairly thorough coverage
of instrumentation that has been identified as useful for areas such as
education or communication. There are a number of other available
instruments that might be added to taxonomy. It remains to be determined
whether those measures will prove useful in education, etc.. For example,
instruments are available which measure the impedance, that is the
resistance to the flow of alternating currents, of various areas of the
body. Impedance is related to a variety of functions, such as respiration,
within the areas measured. Some such measures may be of interest to
educators, etc.. At present the devices are used by biomedical researchers
and a few clinicians. In summary, however, the instrumentation taxonomy
provides a starting point for further study and analysis of instrumentation
types and applications. It provides the basis, also, for deve10pment of a
philosophical overview of instrumentation.

Having provided the above background information this study proceeded
to accomplish two things: a) to search any available literature which
it was thought might identify current or potential applications of the
instruments focused upon by this study (brain wave, muscle voltage, skin
conductance and telemetry): b) to search literature within the fields of
education, communication and educational psychology to determine current
or potential applications of the instruments in those areas. The first
search included seven computer searches and resulted in development of
a good picture of current usage. The narrower search was equally useful

in identifying instrumentation activity in the three disciplines searched.

90

The coding matrix introduced in Chapter 4 organized the research
applications from both searches and provided one of the most useful
outcomes of this study. The matrix shows areas where instrumentation
useage occurs and identified those areas where the searches found no
relevant citations. The empty cells on the matrix suggest potential
applications of instrumentation. It is understood, of course, that this
study may not have located existing research of the types represented
by some of the empty cells.

The interviews and discussion group arranged with subject matter
experts proved to be successful in identifying instrumentation applica-
tions not found in the literature surveys. The use of such a discussion
format, involving researchers from various departments, produced valuable
suggestions concerning applications and the specific instrumentation needs
of each area.

Next, having identified instrumentation applications within several
social science areas a crucial question was addressed: How will interested
persons learn about and acquire such instrumentation? A formal structure,
an instrumentation resource center activity, was described which could
mediate technology to the variety of potential users in a university

setting.

Conclusions and Recommendations

 

The principal conclusion arising from the research done for this study
is that there are, indeed, useful applications of psychophysiological
instrumentation in the social sciences, and particularly, in education,

communication and educational psychology. The two literature surveys

91

yielded not only a report of current applications but of potentially
valuable new ones as well.

A second conclusion arises from interviews held with a variety of
researchers and department heads at Michigan State University while
this study was being completed. These persons are aware of the
existence of physiological instrumentation and without exception
expressed the desire to gain access to that instrumentation.

Three recommendations will be made, based on the conclusions just
stated. First, it is recommended that further surveys be done identify-
ing instrumentation applications in education, educational psychology,
communication, and in ptper_social science areas which were not surveyed
by this study. As a part of such surveys the use of discussion groups
including researchers from diverse backgrounds is suggested as a
valuable means of identifying needs within each field.

Second, it is recommended that the taxonomies of instrumentation and
of research factors be further developed. In the instrumentation
taxonomy, for example, the rationale for categorization of the instruments
and the definition of the unique function of each instrument needs to be
built upon. A finer discrimination of the nature of the inputs, of the
internal processes, and of the outputs of each instrument needs to be made.
As for the research factor taxonomy it is suggested that similar taxonomies
be constructed for specific areas of interest. Improvement of the
instrumentation and research factor taxonomies would make possible
construction of a more thorough matrix for a field such as communication
or education, identifying existing research and displaying areas where

new activity might be initiated.

92

Third, it is recommended that steps be taken to implement some form
of 'instrumentation resource center' activity to test the readiness of
teachers, researchers, etc., to attempt use of new technology. This
author has, during the course of the study, been approached by a variety
of persons, some interested in research, some interested in relaxation
techniques or evaluation of instruction, but all quite prepared to accept
new technology into their activities. But in nearly all those cases
there was no available access to instrumentation.

In conclusion, it is believed, based on the results of this study,
that the areas of social science surveyed comprise a ready and fertile
ground for efforts to diffuse innovations in instrumentation. And
since teachers and researchers in the social sciences are by profession
diffusers of knowledge it is especially important that they have access

to innovative technology.

APPENDIX A

Sources of Data For This Study

 

To acquire needed citations the following was done. A bibliography

of literature on the use of the specified forms of instrumentation was

assembled. It includes information gotten from the following computer

searches:

I.

COMPENDEX (Computerized Files of Engineering Index, Inc.)
search on October 2, 1976. This data base covers the
period from January, 1970, to January 1977, including all
citations and abstracts found in the monthly issues of
Engineering Index. This base provides international
coverage of virtually all engineering disciplines through
journals, proceedings, government reports and other sources.

The search keywords, found in Engineering Index Thesaurus,
were: bioelectric phenomena, bioelectric potentials,
telemetering, biomedical engineering.

Results: In going through the Engineering Index

Thesaurus to find appropriate keywords for this system it
became apparent that the system's indexing showed few of

the terms that are of interest to this study. The citations
available there are concerned, primarily, with engineering,
physics and technical developments other than the application
of instrumentation to living subjects. In summary, this
search provided no citations of use to the study.

DATRIX II search on February l3, 1976. This computerized
retrieval system (offered by Xerox University Microfilms,

Ann Arbor, Mi.) accesses American dissertations (back to 1861)
and Canadian dissertations. The search was done for the
years 1960 to 1976.

The search keywords were: biofeedback versus fourteen other
keywords (e.g., remote monitoring, telemetry, galvanic skin
response, electromyography, alpha waves, theta waves, feed-
back, behavior modification, monitoring systems).

Results: The results of this search were very good. It is
notable that in the 1970's a number of dissertations have
begun to appear which examine the use of biofeedback as a
technique, specifically feedback of such things as alpha brain
wave voltages and muscle voltages. Such studies are

beginning to define the value of the above in the learning
process, in the regulation of a variety of physiological and
psychological factors.

93

94

ERIC (Educational Resources Information Center) search on
March 22, l976 and December 7, 1976. ERIC covers reports
and periodical literature in education and education-
related fields. Its indexes, Current Index to Journals in
Education and Research in Education, cover about 1050
publications plus various speeches and presented papers.

The search keywords included all those done in the previous
search plus biorhythms and psychophysiology.

Results: This search provided about fifteen very good
citations and a variety of others which were relevant or
of peripheral interest. In summary this system is one in
which an ongoing search to provide newer citations in the
areas of interest will be worthwhile.

MEDLINE (Medical Literature Analysis and Retrieval System-on-
Line) and MEDLARS II (which is the off-line search performed
on MEDLINE). These searches were done on March 5, 1973 and
February 11, l976. They provide comprehensive journal
coverage of the world's biomedical literature. One of the
indexes for the system is Index Medicus. The search keywords
were similar to ERIC, plus 'education' & 'learning.'

Results: This search provided a few very good citations for
the purposes of this study. As was expected the majority of
the citations printed on the readout were too specialized for
a cross-disciplinary study such as this.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS (American Psychological Association)
search on March 23, 1976. This data base provides world-wide
coverage of journals, books, meetings, dissertations, etc., in
psychology and related disciplines. It is indexed in monthly
issues of Psychological Abstracts.

The search keywords included: education, communication,
instrumentation, electroencephalography, galvanic skin
response, plethysmography and telemetry.

Results: preliminary expectations, based upon listings

found in the two index sources for this system (Psychological
Abstracts and the Thesaurus of Psychological Terms), proved
correct. Researchers in the field of psychology have made
considerable use of the instruments of interest to this study.
This was reflected in the index listings and in the quantity
of useful citations appearing in the printout received from
the PSYCHOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS computer search.

95

It should be added that all the above searches, except the
Datrix Dissertation search, were done through terminals in the Michigan
State University library.

A variety of other information sources were used, e.g.
Dissertation abstracts and various indexes to periodical literature.
Other sources were described in the two surveys of the literature

described in Chapters 3 and 4.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Numbers in parentheses after citations code the contents. See Chapter 4

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Training Technique, Ps cho h siolo , 1975, 12 (6), p. 656-662.
(L4. 2,4; L2. 2,4; 34. 2,4; L5. 2 ,4)

Alexander, A. B., French, C., Goodman, J. A Comparison of Auditory and
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Barland, G, Raskin, D. An Evaluation Of Field Techniques In Detection
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96

97

Bull, R. H. Electrodermal Activity And Time of Day, Perceptual And
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Epstein, 5., Boudreau, L., & Kling, S. Magnitude of the Heart Rate and
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98

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