:bViESI.J RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to LJBRARJES remove this checkout from All-(jl-IL. your record. {Lugs will be charged if Book_is returned after the date stamped be10w. GENDER EQUITY IN REGULAR VOCATIONAL PROGRAMMING FOR EDUCABLE MENTALLY IMPAIRED STUDENTS BY Lynn Streaser Baisley A DISSERTATION' Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology, and Special Education 1985 © Copyright by LYNN STREASER BAISLEY 1985 ABSTRACT GENDER EQUITY IN REGULAR VOCATIONAL PROGRAMMING FOR EDUCABLE MENTALLY IMPAIRED STUDENTS By Lynn Streaser Baisley I This study was conducted to determine if enrollment of educable mentally impaired students in regular vocational education programs was equitable by gender in a sample of mid-Michigan school districts. A secondary purpose of the study was to investigate aspects of the regular vocational education programs which contribute to differences in enrollment patterns by gender. Enrollment of educable mentally impaired students and non-handicapped vocational education students in regular vocational education programs was compared. No significant differences in such enrollment were found in the rates of male and female educable mentally impaired student enrollment. However, signifi- cant differences were found in the types of enrollment by program of male and female educable mentally impaired students. This gender pattern was not the same as the gender enrollment pattern of non-handicapped vocational education students. Investigation of the pre-requisite Lynn Streaser Baisley skills and instructional materials of the vocational programs revealed that those programs utilized by both male and female EMI students had the following character- istics: they required a low level of academic skills and they were not stereotyped as belonging to either gender. In this study it was found that there was a high level of participation in regular vocational education programs by male (47%) and female (45%) educable mentally impaired students in the sample. This dissertation is dedicated to my husband, George Arthur Baisley, whose unqualified support and constant encouragement have enabled me to reach goals I never would have achieved alone. To my children, Dana Dorothy and Margo Georgia, I hope that this achievement will be an example to them that every goal is within their reach. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Sincere thanks are extended to Dr. Charles V. Mange for guiding and supporting my doctoral program with extraordinary care and attention. Appreciation is also extended to Dr. Samuel Moore, Dr. Stanley Bryan, and Dr. Donald Burke for their advice and encouragement. Sincere thanks are also extended to Carol J. Maples and Janice VerMeersch for giving unselfishly of their time and emotional support. Thanks are also extended to the staff members of the following institutions for their help and cooperation: Harry Hill Vocational-Technical Center; Capitol Area Career Center; Clinton Intermediate School District; St. Johns Public Schools; Lansing School District; and Clinton County Shared Time Vocational Program. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1 Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 History and Legislative Background of Vocational Training for the Mentally Impaired . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Gender Differences in Vocational Training . . . 32 Educable Mentally Impaired Students by Gender in Vocational Training Programs . . . . . . . 36 Summary of Related Literature . . . . . . . . . 41 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Sample Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 Subjects: Educable Mentally Impaired . . . . . . 47 Subjects: Non-Handicapped Vocational Students . 47 Data Collection Question l--Educab1e Mentally Impaired Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Data Collection Question l—-Non—Handicapped Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Data Collection Question 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 52 RESEARCH RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Question 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Summary of Data Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Investigation of Question 2 . . . . . . . . . . 90 Printed Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90 Interviews . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 la. lb. 7a. LIST OF TABLES Number and Percentage of EMI Students by Sex With and Without IEP Vocational Goals . . . Number and Percentage of Ninth and Tenth Grade EMI Students by Sex With.Vocational IEP Goal 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Number and Percentage of Eleventh and Twelfth Grade EMI Students by Sex With Vocational IEP Goal 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Number and Percentage of EMI Students by Sex With a Vocational IEP Goal Enrolled in Vocational Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . Number and Percentage of EMI Students by Sex Without an IEP Goal Enrolled in Vocational Program 0 C O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O 0 Number and Percentage of EMI Students by Sex Enrolled in Regular Vocational Classes . . . Number and Percentage of Total Sample of EMI Students by Sex Enrolled in Regular‘Voca- tional Training Programs . . . . . . . . . . Number and Percentage of EMI Students by Sex With Vocational IEP Goal Enrolled in Regular‘Vocational Training . . . . . . . . Number and Percentage of EMI Students by Sex Enrolled in Regular and Special Education Vocational Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . Number and Percentages of Eleventh and Twelfth Grade EMI Students by Sex Enrolled in Regular and Special Education Vocational Training Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . Number and Percentage of EMI Students by Sex Enrolled in Special Education Vocational Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi 57 58 59 62 63 64 66 67 68 69 70 9a. 9b. 10. 10a. 11. lla. 12. 12a. 13. 13a. 14. Number and Percentage of EMI Students Enrolled in Regular or Special Education Vocational Programs by District . . . . . . . . . . . . Number and Percentage of EMI Students Enrolled in Regular Vocational Training by Gender and by District 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O Enrollment of EMI Students by Sex and Type of Regular Vocational Training Program . . . . Enrollment of EMI Students in Regular‘Voca- tional Programs by Sex and Occupational Cluster 0 O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O Enrollment of EMI and Non-handicapped Students in Regular Vocational Programs by Occupa- tional Cluster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Enrollment of Non-handicapped Students in Regular Vocational Training Programs by Sex and Occupational Cluster . . . . . . . . Enrollment of Female EMI and Non-handicapped Students by Type of Regular Vocational Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Enrollment of Non-handicapped and EMI Female Students in Regular Vocational Training Programs by Occupational Cluster . . . . . . Enrollment of Male EMI and Non-handicapped Students by Type of Regular Vocational Training Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Enrollment of Non-handicapped and EMI Male Students in Regular Vocational Training Programs by Occupational Cluster . . . . . . Academic Requirements of Selected Regular Vocational Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . vii 72 73 75 76 78 79 81 82 84 85 95 INTRODUCTION Federal and State laws mandate access to voca- tional training for handicapped students. Other Federal and State laws also require equal access to vocational training for females. Therefore, there is a legal commit- ment to sexual equity in vocational training for the handicapped. The legal requirements are based on a Constitutional commitment to equal protection under the law (14th Amendment), as applied in this case, to develop one's potential for self support and self-fulfillment, regardless of sex or handicap. Federal and State mandates reflect an awareness that preparation for employment should be available to students on a non-discriminatory basis. Access to voca- tional training is not only encouraged by funding, but is also required to be non-discriminatory by civil rights legislation. Title IX of the Educational Amendments of 1972 forbids exclusion on the basis of sex from any educational program. Section 504 (Nondiscrimination on the Basis of Handicap), of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973, affirms vocational education accessability for handicapped students. It follows that participation in vocational education should not be restricted by either gender or handicap. Legally, choice of vocational education training programs should be based upon availability, individual aptitudes, and individual interests. In order to assess progress toward this goal of equal opportunity for vocational training, it is necessary for educators to be aware of the current status of the situation. This research study is an attempt to determine the participation of female and male educable mentally impaired (EMI) students in regular vocational education programs within two intermediate school districts of the mid-Michigan area. Further, the study will compare the participation rates of female and male EMI students to those of regular students in these programs. Participation in a vocational training program can be thought of as being determined by two major factors. The first is a internal component; individual choice, affected by personal, parental, and societal influences. The second is an external component of access; aspects of the training programs themselves which affect the decision to participate. This study investigates access factors which could account for differences, if found, in the rates of participation between groups, i.e., male and female EMI and non-handicapped students. Research (especially follow-up studies) has shown that vocational training is crucial to the development of EMI students (1, 2, 3). Vocational training is also mandated by the Michigan mandatory special education act (P.A. 198, 1971 as recodified in P.A. 451, 1976) for those special education students enrolled in high school under a special education graduation plan. Almost all EMI students are enrolled under such plans. Integrating these students within regular vocational education programs is encouraged by research (4, 5, 6) and by law (R340.l722, P.A. 451, State of Michigan, 1977). Thus, vocational training should be available to all EMI students at a level which fits their needs, interests, and abilities, and which maximizes their potential to be self-supporting. If the appropriate training program is determined by the Individual Educational Planning Committee to be a regular vocational education program, then male and female EMI students should have equal opportunity to participate in such programs. It is widely documented in the literature that females in the general population choose and participate in vocational education in a manner that perpetuates sexual stereotyping and concentrates them in a small number of female-dominated occupations (8, p. l; 9, p. 16; 10, p. 134). The reasons for this have been widely investigated and are deeply entrenched in American society and culture. Although such research has been conducted on gender differences in vocational programming for the regular student population, little is known about how the handicap- ping conditions of EMI students affect those gender differences. If it can be assumed that sex stereotypes influence handicapped and non-handicapped students in the same way, and yet if a significant difference is found in the frequency and type of vocational training participation between these two groups, then it may be assumed that other factors are affecting the participation pattern. If these factors, gender and handicap, combine to restrict the vocational training opportunities of any segment of the EMI population, it is important that decision—makers in the educational process be aware of those restrictions. Since the educational designation of educable mentally impaired is one that is defined by State regula- tions, a study of a segment of this population may generalize to a larger population of EMI students. Additionally, since many other students exhibit problems in academic skills and behavioral areas similar to those of EMI students, this investigation may have implications for a broader segment of the student pOpulation concerning their access to vocational training. Generally stated, the questions to be investigated in this study are: 1. Is the participation in regular vocational education by educable mentally impaired students differential by gender? 2. If such participation is differential by gender, what factors exist that alter the rates of participation and the types of participation of male and female EMI students? The following null hypotheses are presented for investigation of Question 1: l. The percentage of male EMI students having formal vocational training plans (either regular or special education) is equal to that of female EMI students with such plans. la. The percentage of male EMI students with a vocational goal on their Individual Educational Plan is equal to the percentage of female EMI students with such a goal. lb. The percentage of male EMI students with a vocational IEP goal who are actually involved in voca- tional training is equal to the percentage of female EMI students with a vocational IEP goal who are actually involved in vocational training. 2. The percentage of male EMI students enrolled in regular vocational education programs is equal to the percentage of female EMI students enrolled in such programs. 2a. The percentage of male EMI students enrolled in regular vocational classes is equal to the percentage of female EMI students so enrolled. 2b. The percentage of male EMI students enrolled in regular vocational training programs equals the percentage of female students so enrolled. 3. The types of regular vocational training programs chosen by male EMI students do not differ signif- icantly from those types chosen by female EMI students. 4. The types of regular vocational training programs chosen by female EMI students do not differ significantly from those chosen by non-handicapped female students. 5. The types of regular vocational training programs chosen by male EMI students do not differ significantly from those chosen by non-handicapped male students. Investigation of Question 2 includes an analysis of the factors which determine access to regular vocational training programs. These factors include both personal areas such as counseling, parental, and cultural influences, and impersonal areas such as required skills, pre-requisite knowledge, textbooks, and testing procedures. This analysis compares and contrasts these factors among the programs utilized by EMI and non-handicapped students, both male and female, in order to identify any differences which may be apparent. Definition of Terms Vocational education--"vocationa1 or technical training or Regular Regular Regular retraining which is given in schools or classes, including field or laboratory work...conducted as part of a program designed to fit individuals for gainful employment as semiskilled or skilled workers or technicians in recognized occupations..." (Michigan School Code of 1976, Act 451 (380.7 Sec 7 (4)) vocational education program--as used in this study, a vocational education program administered and instructed by general education personnel and attended by non-handicapped students. vocational c1ass--as used in this study, any secondary level general education class considered to be part of the vocational education curriculum by the Michigan State Department of Education; for example, typing, wood shop, or home economics. vocational training program--as used in this study, secondary level general education instruction meant to prepare for employment by teaching at least entry-level job skills, having one or more of the following characteristics: (1) advanced nature, application of basic skills, (2) extended time, two or more hours of instruction per day and/or more than one year duration, (3) laboratory orienta- tion. Participation-~as used in this study, participation refers to enrollment. Access--as used in this study, access refers to the availability of a vocational program and the opportunity to participate. Access may be determined quantitatively by the existence of a program and whether a program size is sufficient to accommodate the number of students wanting to participate. Access may be determined qualita- tively by factors such as pre-requisite knowledge necessary for entry into the program, admission policy, testing procedures, textbooks, and ‘certification requirements. Educable mentally impaired--as defined by Michigan Special Education Rules (1983) (R340.l705). (a) Development at a rate approximately 2 to 3 standard deviations below the mean as determined through intellectual assessment (b) Scores approximately within the lowest 6 percentiles on a standardized test in reading and arithmetic (c) Lack of development primarily in the cognitive domain (d) Impairment of adaptive behavior Individualized Educational Plan--an annual plan developed by the Individual Educational Planning Committee including the following (R340.l721e(3)): (a) A statement of the person's present level of educational performance (b) A statement of annual goals, including short-term instructional objectives (c) The projected dates for initiation of services and the anticipated duration of the service (d) Appropriate objective criteria and evaluation procedures and schedules for determining whether the instructional objectives are being achieved (e) A statement of the specific special education and related services to be provided to the person (f) The extent to which the person is able to participate in regular education programs REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Mental retardation can be considered to be one of our nation's major human problems. It affects an individual's ability to have a satisfying and useful life. It is estimated that six million Americans are affected by some degree of retardation. More than five million of these are characterized as being mildly retarded (11, p. 20). With few exceptions, this group is served by educational and other social agencies in their home communities. The local community must provide treatment, training, and education for these individuals. It is advantageous for not only the mentally impaired members of a community, but also for the community as a whole, that the social and economic independence of these individuals be maximized. It is generally accepted that vocational training is a crucial part of this effort toward achieving independence. In order to understand the complexities of the issue of vocational training for the mentally impaired person, it is helpful to keep in mind the definition of mental retardation issued by the American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) in 1973: "Mental retardation refers to a significantly sub-average general intellectual 10 11 functioning existing concurrently with deficits in adaptive behavior, and manifested during the developmental period" (11. p. 7). Adaptive behavior is defined as the effectiveness or degree with which the individual meets the standards of personal independence and social responsibility expected of his age and cultural group (11, p. 8). The emphasis in this definition on personal independence points out the importance of the role of vocational training in com- pensating for the deficit in adaptive behavior. It is generally accepted that some kind of formal training or habilitation is necessary to overcome any existing deficits in adaptive behavior and to develop vocational skills, in spite of limited intellectual functioning. Although the area of vocational training has not been emphasized until recently, Federal legislation has brought attention and resources to the area and has motivated special educators and vocational educators toward meeting the vocational needs of mentally impaired students (13, p. 54). History and Legislative Background of Vocational Training for the MentallygImpaired Early efforts in vocational training for the mentally impaired grew out of the vocational rehabilitation movement spurred by the plight of veterans of World War I, 12 when Congress passed the Smith-Sears Act in 1918 (14, p. 30). The Vocational Rehabilitation Amendments of 1943 extended services to the mentally handicapped for the first time. The Federal government gradually expanded its role in the vocational training of mentally handicapped citizens with such legislation as the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962 (P.L. 89-15) which provided training and employment for mentally impaired youth and adults, and the 1964 Amendments of the Vocational Rehabil- itation Act of 1920 (P.L. 66-236), which provided funds to states on a matching basis for providing vocational rehabilitation services to mentally impaired persons (14, p. 33). Efforts to provide vocational training through the public education system were evolving throughout this period, as the responsibility for serving the educational needs of the handicapped gradually moved into the public realm. The 1962 report of the President's Panel on Mental Retardation recommended a national priority for providing vocational training to the nation's mentally impaired population (15, p. 347). Since the 1950's, the generally accepted modes for providing vocational training to mentally handicapped youth have been the work-study program, sheltered work-shops, and segregated special education classroom 13 programs, although their effectiveness has never been conclusively proven. Work-study programs were originally initiated because it was apparent that traditional secondary academic curricula were not meeting the needs of mentally impaired students. Brolin and D'Alonzo (1979) cite a number of studies supporting the efficacy of occupationally-oriented programs on the vocational adjustment of these students (16, p. 249). Although it was recognized that secondary-level special education students needed vocational preparation, efforts to provide such training have been only partially successful. Miller, Sabatino, and Larsen (1980) found that mildly handicapped secondary school age students are the most under-served group of handicapped students found in the United States, with only 21 percent leaving high school with employable skills (17, p. 345). Since it was obvious that educational agencies, at any level, were not meeting the vocational preparation needs of secondary school handicapped students, the Federal government and the State of Michigan began encouraging vocational services for these students. In the 1970's legislation generated a new thrust for vocational opportunities for the handicapped: access to regular vocational education programs. .These legislative initia- tives have resulted in providing handicapped persons the 14 same rights to vocational education as the non—handicapped, as part of a comprehensive set of civil rights for handicapped persons. This thrust began with a ten percent set-aside provision in the 1968 Vocational Education Act Amendments, an effort on the part of Congress to guarantee financial support for this initiative. The set-aside provision, under which funds were restricted to being used only for programs for the handicapped, was an effort to insure that sufficient resources are provided for these programs to make an impact on the problems of delivering vocational education to individuals whose handicaps would prevent them from succeeding in a regular vocational education program. Eligible individuals are defined by the Vocational Education Amendments of 1968 as (l) disad- vantaged and (2) handicapped. Under this Act, Federal funds can be used for the following types of services: (1) Advisory/coordinating committee (2) Surveys/evaluations (3) Recruitment/promotion activities (4) Identification of disadvantaged and handicapped (5) Staff development (6) Modification of schedules (7) Modification of curriculums (8) Development of curriculums (9) Modification of equipment for the handicapped (10) Supplemental educational services (11) Facilities (12) Cooperation with business community 15 Congress also provided the initiative for compelling special education, vocational education, and vocational rehabilitation agencies to work together. The Senate Report on the Vocational Education Amendments of 1968 states the following: “That all State vocational agencies be required to develop jointly with the State special education agency a comprehensive plan providing vocational education for the handicapped and that this plan be coordinated with the general State vocational education plan . . . . That efforts be undertaken in each State to coordinate the activities of vocational education, vocational rehabilitation, and special education to insure the continuity and broad use of resources" (Federal Register, Vol. 35, No. 91, P. II, May 9, 1970, Sec. 102.40, p. 7342). In the State of Michigan, during the same time period, the status of special education in general was evolving from a permissive, subsidized situation to a mandated status. P.A. 198 was passed in 1971, becoming effective in 1973. This mandatory special education law included a specific requirement for inclusion of vocational training (Sec. 10, P.A. 198). This requirement is presently being met through cooperation between the Michigan Rehabilitation Services, Special Education Services, and the Vocational-Technical 16 Education Service, which together provide the Michigan Interagency Delivery System for Vocational Education and Related Services for the Handicapped (12). This plan is meant to provide interagency cooperation, insure acces- sibility to programs, and to reduce duplication of services in order to help all handicapped persons benefit from vocational education. It is designed to assure respon- sibility for assisting local educational agencies to develop vocational programs to serve handicapped persons, assure that persons eligible for services under the Education of All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (P.L. 94-142), the Vocational Education Amendments (P.L. 94—482), the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 (P.L. 93-112), and Michigan Public Act No. 451 (1976) receive the services for which they are eligible, and assure the rights of the handicapped persons to have access to vocational training under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. Weisgerber (1980) states that the most important recent development in vocational education on the national level is the effect of Public Law 94-482 giving emphasis to those populations previously underserved by vocational education: handicapped, women, and the disadvantaged. This legislation affirms the right of the handicapped to be provided with vocational training suited to their needs, interests, and abilities, and it specifies that funds be l7 directed to vocational programs which serve persons with special needs. States are required, by P.L. 94-482, to spend at least ten percent of their Federal funds for vocational education for handicapped persons. States are further required to plan for the use of these funds in accordance with the Education of All Handicapped Children Act (P.L. 94-142; 4, p. 15). If vocational education is considered appropriate for a special education student, this law, as well as Michigan Special Education Law (P.A. 198), requires that it be incorporated in the student's Individual Educational Plan (IEP). By committing themselves to the requirement of federal law, States take the responsibility for insuring that vocational programs are available to handicapped children. The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (P.L. 94-142) includes access to vocational training as a right of the handicapped student, if such training is determined to be necessary by the IEPC, with emphasis on the placement in an apprOpriate and least restrictive environment. P.L. 94-142 specifies: "The term special education also includes vocational education, at no cost to the parents, to meet the unique needs of a handicapped student" (CFR 300.14(a) (3). It emphasizes that vocational education opportunities must be open to handicapped students: 18 Each public agency shall take steps to insure that its handicapped children have available to them the variety of educational programs and services available to non-handicapped children in the area served by the agency, including art, music, industrial arts, consumer and homemaking education, and vocational education (CFR 300.305). This statement makes it very clear that Congress expects vocational education opportunities for handicapped students to be equal to those of non-handicapped students. P.L. 94-142 also has a requirement that handicapped students be instructed in the least restrictive environ- ment, i.e. the most normal, in which they can profit (CFR 300.552). This further emphasizes the right of the handicapped student to have access to regular vocational education programs, predicated on the determination of what is best for the student. The Rehabilitation Act of 1973, P.L. 93-112, contains a part which has been called that "Bill of Rights for disabled people." Section 504 is the most significant, since it provides for non-discrimination in any program or activity, including, of course, vocational education. It requires that reasonable accommodation be made to permit the handicapped access to vocational education programs (4, p. 28). This requirement of "reasonable adjustments" is especially important to the accessibility of vocational programs for handicapped students. Adjustments must be made in curriculum, provision of special aides, and 19 special help such as counseling and placement services. Further, counseling cannot be discriminatory, arbitrary, or stereotypic (4, p. 28). In an effort to summarize and clarify these Federal regulations as they relate specifically to vocational education for handicapped students, the Council for Exceptional Children (1978) published an administrative manual on this issue. Through interpretation of P.L. 94-142, P.L. 94-482, and P.L. 93-112, the Council for Exceptional Children summarized the right of handicapped students to participate in regular vocational education as follows: All handicapped students who will benefit from such placement shall receive instruction in regular vocational education classes adapted to their needs as specified in the IEP. The LEA shall provide the necessary support services to accomodate these students. Prior to placing handicapped students in regular vocational education classes, the local educational agency shall consider student and personnel needs for implementing successful mainstreaming. These include consideration of, but are not limited to, the following: - pre-training needs of handicapped students (pre-vocational experiences) - support services needed by students and instructional staff - modifications of equipment, materials, and facilities needed by students - changes in curriculum and teaching methods needed - inservice needs of staff (both vocational and special education) — need to establish communication between vocational education and special education personnel (13, p, 132) 20 According to CEC's interpretation, the local educational agency is further required, by Federal regulation, to establish procedures to provide support services and modifications in order to integrate handicapped students into regular vocational classrooms. Such modifications may include: - longer instructional periods - longer total time for course completion - simplified instruction guides and manuals - mini-courses of single skill development within a broader program of study - entrance and exit at intervals as student progresses (18, p. 132) According to P.L. 94-142, "each public agency shall insure that a continuum of alternative placements is available to meet the needs of handicapped children for special education and related services" (CFR 300.551 [a]). An example of such a continuum in the vocational area is the following: Placement in regular vocational classes - indirect service (to teachers) provided - direct services to students provided - student spends part of time in resource room receiving special help, but most of time in regular classroom Placement in separate vocational classroom - part-time in regular education facility - self-contained in regular education facility - separate class in special education facility Placement in a sheltered environment - residential - hospital 21 - other institution - sheltered workshOp — work activities center The Guidelines for Special Education Programs and Services in Michigan contains a continuum of vocational training alternatives for special education students in Michigan as shown in Appendix B-l, p. 136. In spite of legislative efforts, many problems plague the area of vocational education for the mentally impaired. Special education teachers, generally, have not been trained to implement programs that address the issue of employability, and they tend to emphasize remedial reading and math, instead of vocational preparation. Teacher preparation programs rarely include any course work in secondary special education, and local school districts rarely encourage regular and vocational educators to develop programs for handicapped students (17, p. 345). Research in this area has been limited, but it appears that there has been little change in the type of scape of programming available. Miller, Ewing, and Phelps specify the problems extant in this area as “lack of trained personnel, inadequate and incomplete needs assessment, limited interagency communication, few teacher certifica- tion initiatives, and little differential vocational curricula for the handicapped" (15, p. 353). In 1976, it was reported that less than two percent of the regular 22 vocational education enrollment was handicapped, as compared to an estimate of ten percent of the general school population who are handicapped (6, p. 356). Baxter found that sixteen percent of his sample of EMI students were enrolled in regular vocational education (1, p. 70). Miller, Ewing, and Phelps cite studies which concluded that, nationally, the great majority of mentally impaired youth are still enrolled in segregated vocational classes. They conclude that impediments to successful integration into regular vocational education courses include ”attitudinal barriers, lack of personnel preparation, and availability of few satisfactory curriculum delivery models" (15, p. 354). Because of impediments to integrating the special education student into regular vocational education, the most common type of vocational training program available for mentally impaired secondary students may still be the work-study arrangement (20, p. 24; 3, p. 593). This is usually an arrangement with an employer to provide on-the-job training experience to a student. Advocates of this type of program feel that students learn job habits and attitudes along with specific job skills. It also provides a wider selection of occupational training than could be offered by a classroom program. 23 However, in spite of their popularity, the benefits of work-study programs have never been conclusively demon- strated. Chaffin, Spellman, Regan, and Davison (1971) report that a summary of follow-up studies found that the employment records of work-study graduates ranged from 46 to 86 percent (2, p. 734). Anttonen (1974) reports unemployment rates of work-study graduates at four times the rate of the general population (5, p. 236). Chaffin, Spellman, Regan, and Davison (1971) found that long-term post-graduate employment records show that EMI students without any work-study experience had employ- ment levels equal to those students who completed a work-study program. They concluded that the goal of vocational training for these students is not to make them employable, but rather, to enhance their employability and that this can be done most effectively with formal voca- tional training in skilled and semi-skilled OCCUpational areas (2, p. 737). Baxter (1977) concludes from a review of past studies and from his own research, that there is no evidence that work-study programs improve the social or vocational skills of the mentally impaired student. He theorizes that results of studies showing higher employment levels for work-study graduates, as compared to special education students with no such training, are a function 24 of natural selection, wherein the less able and less well-adjusted students drop out of school programs before graduation. Baxter (1977) concludes that there is no evidence that on-the-job training improves the EMI student's academic or vocational skills. At best, it teaches social skills and work habits (1, p. 115). Other authors also have studied the relative merits of integrated vocational training, as compared to seg- regated special education vocational training. Miller, Ewing, and Phelps concluded that even studies that excluded categories of student and housewife from employment totals failed to prove the efficiacy of work-study programs (15, p. 349). John Anttonen (1974) feels that segregated work-study programs limit the social and educational involvement of EMI students with regular high school students (5, p. 236). Patricia L. Sitlington (1981) concurs and adds that work-study programs prepare students for low—paid entry-level jobs (3, p. 592). In spite of research showing that segregated work-study programs may not be effective, and Federal and state laws requiring integration into regular voca- tional training whenever feasible, some researchers have found that few handicapped students are actually being served in regular programs (20, p. 24; 1, p. 2; 16, p. 249). However, given the fact that integrating handicapped 25 students into regular vocational education programs is a new trend, research may not accurately reflect the current status of the situation. Educational agencies are responding to Federal and State legislation by devising guidelines and plans for educational programs for special education students, including vocational training. These efforts may be affecting the kinds of vocational training opportunities available to handicapped students. For example, in the State of Michigan, a special education student whose Individual Educational Planning Committee (IEPC) determines that it is unlikely that he will be able to fulfill the minimum requirements for regular high school graduation, can be placed in a special education program leading to a high school diploma. Under this "Special Education Course of Study," according to the Michigan School Code, the program must include instruction in: (1) the Constitution of the State of Michigan and the United States of America (2) the functions of all levels of government (3) the spread and control of dangerous, communicable diseases (4) the harmful effects of tobacco, alcohol, and narcotics (5) the humane treatment of animals (6) health and physical education, unless the student is not able to take part (R380.1166-R380.1170) In addition to these, the Michigan Special Education Rules (1983) state that all students graduating through a 26 special education course of study must meet requirements in personal adjustment, pre-vocational education, and vocational education (R340.l701a). These rules define personal adjustment as "instruction designed to help the student develop personal and social skills necessary for adult independent living. Some examples include home-making, independent travel, personal health and grooming, and the appropriate use of leisure time (R340.l701a). Pre-vocational training is instruction related to job training such as reading, writing, arithmetic, and the use of common tools and utensils. It also helps the student determine his or her vocational interests, aptitudes, and abilities (R340.l701a). Vocational training is defined as vocational or job training which prepares students for gainful employment as semi-skilled or skilled workers in recognized occupa- tions. It includes vocational guidance and counseling related to job training, and work-study or on-the-job training (R340.l701b). The determination as to whether or not a student has met these objectives is typically left to the special education teacher or teacher/consultant working with the student. There are written IEP performance objectives 27 for each student which should be met. When they are met, the student is recommended for graduation. Many educable mentally impaired students are assigned to the special education course of study, since their academic achievement levels usually preclude their success in regular education classes. This means that most EMI students are required to have vocational training. Students enrolled under this course of study are the only Michigan high school students who are required to have vocational training in order to graduate. Appendix B-2, p. 150, shows the choice of plans for special education students which lead to a high school diploma in the State of Michigan. Since many EMI students are required to have vocational training, and since this training may be required by the IEPC to be regular vocational education, it may be expected that some EMI students will be enrolled in such programs. If mentally impaired students are to succeed in regular vocational education programs, adapta— tions may need to be made to compensate for their handicap. Accommodations made in regular vocational education programs for handicapped students include curriculum modifications, modifications of instructional materials, technical or non-technical tutors, and para-professionals to assist vocational instructors. The use of 28 para-professional teaching assistants is a common technique used in Michigan, utilizing Special Needs Projects, funded from P.L. 94-482 for special education, disadvantaged, and limited English-speaking students. These funds provide para-professionals in regular vocational education programs to help these students with the extra instructional atten- tion they may need to succeed. The Vocational-Technical Education Unit of the Michigan Department of Education complies with Federal law by promulgating an annual plan outlining the use of P.L. 94-482 funds. Local educational agencies with approved vocational programs apply to the Special Popula- tions and Programs Unit for Special Needs grants. There are two types of grants. The first is a "basic grant," which can be used for administrative costs, counseling, advocates, para-professionals, tutorial help, clerical help, and supplies, for vocational programs having 5-8 special needs students enrolled. Special needs students are defined as disadvantaged, limited English-speaking, and special education students who need support to succeed in regular vocational programs. The second type is a "specialized grant," which can provide interpreters, special tools, and math and reading instruction for these students. 29 Many Special Needs grants in Michigan are used to provide para-professional instruction in qualified voca- tional courses. These persons provide the extra support and individualized instruction needed to help the special needs students to succeed. Another modification that may be made to open regular vocational programs to EMI students is the ”open entry/Open exit" model, in which the special education student participates in a portion of a regular vocational curriculum. This is also referred to as the "career-ladder" approach. This modification is based on the concept that a vocational training program can prepare a student for a number of career levels. A student may enter a vocational program and progress to his own maximum level and then exit the program successfully. All of these modifications are intended to help the special education student, especially the mentally impaired, to succeed in regular vocational education. The Tuscola (Michigan) Pre-vocational Education Curriculum Management System illustrates another type of modification. It uses competency-based vocational curricula in the Skill-Technical Centers to prepare secondary special education students for success in regular vocational programs. Once a student enters high school, he is referred for vocational assessment. Mathematics and 30 reading skills are cross—referenced by vocational program area and job titles in that area. If the assessment shows deficiencies in the skill areas necessary in that program, a remediation program will be outlined. The student is enrolled in a pre-vocational program area, such as Food Management, in addition to common pre-vocational courses, such as work habits and career awareness. The system is also intended to provide vocational support for the students while they are in a vocational program. The pre-vocational curricula can be used to re-teach the needed skills (22). Another approach to integrating handicapped students into regular vocational education is Project SSAVE (Special Student Access to Vocational Education), a project supported by the Tennessee State Department of Education, which is intended to help special education students succeed in regular vocational education by providing inservice training to vocational education instructors and school administrators. This training is meant to increase the knowledge of these personnel in the area of special education, improve their skills in working with these students, and consequently, change attitudes toward mainstreaming these students into regular vocational education programs (23). 31 Another model of vocational curriculum material available for handicapped students is the Vocational Education/Special Education Project developed at Central Michigan University. These instructional materials include pre-vocational enabling skills and vocational skills curriculum models for a wide range of vocational areas. Robert Weisgerber has edited a publication of the National Center for Research in Vocational Education entitled: Vocational Education: Teaching the Handicapped in Regular Classes. This publication suggests a number of approaches meant to improve the success of EMI students in regular vocational education. The author states that the starting point should be knowledge of the characteristics of mental retardation and how they impact on the vocational training process. The vocational instructor must have comprehensive information about the individual EMI student in order to plan and set goals. The instructor should set training goals for retarded students based on a thorough understanding of the specific tasks necessary to learning the job and how to evaluate those tasks. In modifying the regular curriculum and building individual plans, the vocational instructor should work closely with the special educators responsible for that student. Instruction should be: (1) divided into small steps, (2) repeated and checked, (3) over-learned, and (4) reinforced. Assessment is very important. Written tests should be avoided unless they are 32 geared to the student's level. Criterion-referenced assess- ment, in which standards for judging the student's work are matched with the goals set for that student, should be used. Teacher observation, check-lists, and other progress records can be used to measure skill development. Periodic review of the student's progress will permit further modification of the curriculum as needed, and intervention by the special education instructor will aid in learning and relearning necessary skills (24, p. 61). These are a few of the many methods of modifying and arranging regular vocational education programs so as to maximize the opportunity for success of EMI and other special education students. Gender Differences in Vocational Training Students may not only be limited in their access to regular vocational education by handicap, but also by gender. Occupational choice, and therefore, occupational preparation, remains stereotyped by gender in this country, despite the movement toward sexual equity in society and in our laws. Nationally, over half of the employed females are clerical workers or in service-related jobs (25, p. 2). Although females are now working outside the home in large numbers, a 1977 study of high school graduates showed that, although nine out of ten females planned to have paid careers, they planned to seek jobs in areas that are 33 traditionally female (25, p. 2). This choice is reflected in enrollment figures for vocational programs. Most female students continue to enroll in traditional programs: secretarial, nursing, and child-care. This maintains occupational segregation in low—paying jobs, with little opportunity for upward mobility (25, p. 2). Steele reported that enrollment in vocational education shows distinct differences in male and female enrollment by types of programs. Males are concentrated in agriculture, technical education, and in trade and industrial programs. Females are concentrated in home economics, health, and office occupations. Enrollments reflect patterns which later limit earnings for young women by leading to lower paying jobs than male-dominated programs (10, p. 29). Why do young women restrict themselves in their vocational choice? Much research has been done into the occupational choice decision-making process. Current studies tend to agree that, while attitudes have changed about women being employed in the labor force, women and men continue to be working in different occupations and different industries (8, p. l; 24, p. 133; 10, p. 2). Herzog (1982) found very little change in high school students' occupational plans. She found that students persist in setting their career plans in traditional sex-stereotyped patterns. According to Herzog, the 34 generally accepted explanation for this sexual segregation in the labor force is that men and women seek to satisfy different needs in choosing a job. Females seem to attempt to satisfy traditional roles, such as helping others, through their occupational choices (8, p. 1). Bokemeier and Perry (1981) report that it is very difficult for males and females to see themselves in occupations generally stereotyped for the opposite sex (26, p. 724). Enrollment in vocational education programs seems to reflect this occupational sex stereotyping. Although females constitute half of the enrollment in vocational education, almost 50% of that enrollment is in the areas of homemaking and consumer education courses that are not intended to prepare students for paid employment (26, p. 13). A number of researchers have noted this fact and conclude that enrollment figures do not accurately reflect the actual vocational preparation of female students, since these figures lump homemaking and consumer education courses together with those courses intended to prepare a student for remunerative employment (7, p. 3; 26, p. 14; 9, p. 9). These authors suggest that separating homemaking and consumer education courses from gainful home economics training gives a more realistic picture of the status of female students in actual vocational preparation. Steiger 35 (1974) reports that 49.5 percent of female students were enrolled in courses not intended to prepare them for employment (27, p. 13). This fact seriously disputes the impression, made by total enrollment figures, that sexual equity exists in vocational education. On both the State and Federal levels, legislation has been developed to attempt to overcome lack of equity and sex stereotyping, and to promote sex fairness in both employment and career preparation. Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 is aimed at sexual discrimina- tion in educational policy, programs, and practices. In vocational education, this includes admission to programs, treatment of students, and graduation requirements. It requires that persons may not be excluded from, denied participation in, or be treated differently in education programs. It applies directly to local educational agencies (9, p. 13). Title II of the Education Amendments of 1976 also specifically addressed the issue of sexual bias and sex stereotyping in vocational education and requires states to channel federal money to local agencies to overcome these conditions in their vocational education programs. This law mandates the development of programs to overcome sex bias, sex stereotyping, and discrimination in voca- tional education by authorizing the use of this money to 36 develop model programs to reduce stereotyping. States are required to encourage local educational agencies to promote the enrollment of students of both sexes in all programs (9, p. 14). Michigan has responded to this mandate in its Annual and Long Range State Plan for Vocational Education in Michigan (28). The plan addresses the issue of gender equity. It lists, among its goals, Goal I: "All persons will have access to vocational-technical education and training or retraining opportunities regardless of any distinguishable personal characteristics." Objectives under this goal include IA which states that "State and eligible recipient policies will assure the equality of vocational education opportunities for persons of differing sex and racial/ethnic characteristics" (28, p. 1). Projected activities for implementation of Goal IA concerned with sex equity include secondary/post-secondary plans for recruiting males and females into programs and courses considered non-traditional for their sex and disseminating sex equity materials (28, p. 1). Educable Mentally Impaired Students bngender in Vocational Training Programs Michigan's Annual and Long Range State Plan for Vocational Education also addresses the status of voca- tional education for the handicapped under Goal IB which 37 states, "Eligible recipient policies will promote the equality of vocational education opportunity for students of differing physical and mental capabilities” (28, p. l). The Michigan Department of Education plans activities aimed at providing vocational training opportunities for the handicapped, including: (1) Provide para-professionals, remedial teachers, tutors, certified teaching staff, and support services and activities to meet the special needs of secondary and post-secondary handicapped persons. (2) Initiate the develOpment of a pre-vocational program designed to provide eligible handicapped students with the competencies to enter vocational education programs. (28, p. 1) In spite of these efforts, research noted earlier shows that mentally impaired students are not participating in regular vocational education programs at a rate propor— tional to their population (1, p. 70; 6, p. 356; 15, p. 350L It also shows that female students are not participating in vocational preparation programs at a rate commensurate with their population (7, p. 3; 9, p. 9; 26, p. 13). Therefore, it is reasonable to expect that female mentally impaired students are under-represented in regular vocational education programs. However, at first glance, the literature specif- ically relating to the status of EMI students by gender in vocational education does not support this assumption. 38 Both Baxter (1977) and Danker-Brown, et a1 (1976) report no quantitative differences in enrollment of EMI students by sex in vocational education training programs (1, p. 69; 29, p. 454). However, these data do not discriminate between occupationally-oriented and consumer-oriented courses. Danker-Brown, Sigelman, and Flexer point out that while quantitative differences were not found in enrollment, qualitative differences did exist, with a significant number of female EMI students placed in consumer-oriented home economics classes. They also found gender differences in special education work-study programs, mainly in quality and levels of competitive employment (29, p. 455). A number of explanations have been suggested for the differences in vocational preparation between male and female mentally impaired students. Cegelka notes that there seems to be a difference in the criteria used by researchers to measure successful post-school adjustment between males and females. While males are expected to be employed and self-supporting, females are regarded as successful by researchers if they are housewifes supported by their husbands or even homemakers in their parents' homes (30, p. 325). Comparison of the genders might be more meaningful if the group of females engaged as homemakers was eliminated. Then, an accurate comparison 39 of employed and unemployed males and females could be made. Cegelka found that the curricula of model voca- tional training programs for mentally impaired students reflect differential expectations for the sexes, with male students given skills which transfer to higher paying occupations (30, p. 325). Danker-Brown, Sigelman, and Flexer, in reporting differences in vocational preparation and post-school outcomes for female handicap- ped students, suggest that school counselors encourage traditional feminine sex-roles and occupational goals which the students themselves and their parents also share (29, p. 457). This suggestion raises the question of how mentally impaired students make their vocational choices. There has been little research in this specific area, although there are a number of theories of occupational decision-making among non-handicapped students. Jeffs reports that Super (1953) indicated that vocational choice results from parental socio-economic level, the student's intellectual level, and opportunities which the student has experienced (31, p. 7). The decision-making process can be simplified into two components: information about ourselves and information about occupations (31, p. 7). Many career awareness programs are based on these components. 40 Some researchers have attempted to investigate the issue of vocational choice with retarded students. Jeffs reports a study of vocational preference of adolescent mentally retarded boys which found that the majority chose jobs at the unskilled and semi-skilled levels. He concluded that the vocational experience associated with home and community appeared to exert a stronger influence on the formation of vocational plans than did experiences in school (31, p. 9). In general, vocational decision-making by mentally impaired students seems to be characterized by the same cultural, societal, and personal influences as it is for non-handicapped students, but it is thought by some researchers that the mentally impaired are also charac- terized by greater "outer-directedness.” Zigler found that retardates exhibit a problem-solving technique that can be so described. He explains this as resulting from the repeated failures experienced by these children. They come to distrust their own solutions and seek guidance from their immediate environment. They show a greater sensitivity to external clues provided by social agents, because they believe that these clues are more reliable than their own reasoning (32, p. 100). This aspect of the decision-making process of retardates has implications for their choice of occupation 41 and vocational training. The tendency to rely on external influences means that retarded students may make their occupational decisions based on information and attitudes received from their immediate environment; peers, social and cultural factors, teachers, and counselors. The decision-making process in occupational choice may be further complicated for EMI students by accessabil- ity limitations. It is these problems of accessability that will be investigated in this study. Accessability is most likely influenced by limitations of EMI students, whether they are direct academic weaknesses or indirect limitations resulting from mental disabilities, such as immaturity, distractability, or behavior problems. Vos, Tesolowski, and Hux, and Sitlington suggest that a major barrier to involvement in regular vocational education programs is the level of academic skills required for admittance and completion (33, p. 14; 3, p. 595). Summary of Related Literature In summary, it is a generally accepted fact that vocational training is a crucial part of the educational program for most educable mentally impaired students. Federal law and Michigan law reflect this fact. However, the literature in this area illustrates problems inherent in providing such training to these students. It appears that most EMI students receive 42 vocational training in a segregated special education setting, usually in a work-study arrangement. The efficacy of these programs is questionable. Efforts to integrate EMI students into regular vocational education have been less than totally successful, according to research in this area. However, there is a question as to whether published literature accurately reflects the current status of this movement toward integrating EMI students into regular vocational education programs, since the trend is relatively new and is an on-going process. Various methods are being used to accomplish this goal. Students may not only be impeded in their access to vocational training by their handicap, but also by their gender. Research shows that vocational choice and con- sequently, vocational training selection, generally remain sexually stereotyped in this country. Both the Federal government and the State of Michigan encourage efforts toward reducing this limitation in vocational training choices. In reviewing the literature in this area as it relates to the EMI student population, it can be seen that male and female EMI students are generally represented in equal numbers in vocational training programs. However, various researchers point out that qualitative differences exist between the male and female EMI enrollment patterns, 43 with a large number of females enrolled in consumer-oriented home economics programs. In order to understand the sources of these enrollment patterns, research in decision-making by EMI students was included in this review. No conclusions can be made as to whether this process does or should result in significant differences between vocational choices for EMI students as compared to non-handicapped students. Some researchers suggest that differences in enrollment patterns may result from characteristics of the vocational programs themselves, specifically, academic and other requirements inherent in the programs, as well as deficits of the EMI students. Review of the related literature in the area of vocational programming for EMI students reveals that some questions remain insufficiently answered, both on the national level and also in the state of Michigan: (1) What level of integration into regular vocational education is currently seen in the EMI student population? (2) What types of regular vocational education programs are being utilized by EMI students? (3) Are there differences in these enrollment patterns between male and female EMI students? (4) If there are differences in enrollment by rate or by type, what factors may affect these differences? RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This study was designed to be descriptive in nature. The intent was to collect factual information about a current condition and to evaluate that condition. The general situation under investigation was the involve- ment of educable mentally impaired students by gender in regular vocational education training programs. Two samples of students were used for this study: a sample of secondary-level educable mentally impaired students and a sample of non-handicapped vocational education students. These samples were taken from public high school enrollment in April and May, 1984, from school districts in the mid-Michigan area. Data were collected on 141 EMI students participa- ting in a regular high school program. The sample of 189 non-handicapped students was taken from the total voca- tional education population in the selected school districts. Data were collected from documents obtained from the school districts in the selected area. All EMI students for whom information was available were included in the EMI sample. The non-handicapped vocational education student sample was selected randomly from the 44 45 total enrollment in vocational education programs in the school districts in the sample area. Information necessary to investigate Question 2 was obtained from two sources. The first was school district documents, published materials, reporting instruments, and instructional materials gathered from vocational education programs in the school districts in the sample area. The second was personal interviews conducted with school personnel who were involved in the vocational training of educable mentally impaired students. Sample Area All information necessary to this study was obtained from public school districts in the mid-Michigan area. Districts were chosen using two criteria: (1) proximity to Lansing, Michigan, and (2) balance between large and small districts, and urban and rural districts. The desired size of the EMI sample was one hundred. Districts were added to the sample until this goal was met. The samples were obtained from the following school districts: Clinton Intermediate School District --Five small rural districts and one mid—sized small-town district --Fowler, Ovid-Elsie, DeWitt, Bath, Pewamo-Westphalia, St. Johns 46 Ingham Intermediate School District --One large urban district-Lansing --Five small rural districts and five mid-sized suburban or small-town districts --Williamston, Webberville, Haslett, Leslie, Stockbridge, East Lansing, Holt, Waverly, Mason, and Okemos Total Enrolled Total Enrolled Vocational Total High School Education School EMI Students Students Population Clinton ISD 22 194 9,126 Ingham ISD -Lansing 79 737 26,070 -Other districts 40 1,033 24,339 Total 141 1,964 Lansing School District, although a constituent district of Ingham Intermediate School District, operates independently in the area of vocational education and has its own vocational-technical center. Clinton Intermediate School District, and the other constituent districts of Ingham ISD are comprised of suburban, small-town, and rural areas. The students in these districts are provided vocational education mainly by the Intermediate School districts through vocational centers. A map of the geographical area from which the sample was drawn is found in Appendix B—3, p. 151. 47 Subjects Educable Mentally Impaired The educable mentally impaired student sample was comprised of the total number of EMI students receiving education at the secondary level in the high schools in the sample districts, for whom information was available at the time of the study, April and May, 1984. The total size of the EMI sample obtained was 141. The profile of this sample was found to be as follows: Male Female .2933; Grade 9 9 12 21 Grade 10 14 17 31 Grade 11 22 16 38 Grade 12 31 20 51 Total 76 65 141 Subjects Non-Handicapped Vocational Students The non-handicapped vocational education student sample was obtained from the same school districts. The sample of 189 non-handicapped vocational students was derived from the total vocational education p0pulation (1,964 students) by choosing every tenth student from the student lists from the vocational programs in the sample districts. 48 The profile of this sample was found to be as follows: Male 110 Female 79 Total 189 Although these students' grade levels were not obtained as part of the data collection, they were all enrolled in public high schools and were classified as grades 9-12. Data Collection Question l--Educable Mentally Impaired Sample Data for each EMI student was recorded on the "data collection sheet" (see Appendix B-4, p. 152). Subjects were assigned a number in the order that the data was received. The "data collection sheet" was intended to be used for both the EMI student sample and the non-handicapped student sample, but it was only used for the EMI sample, since the non-handicapped vocational education student data were obtained in the form of computer print-outs and it was not necessary to transfer this information to the ”data collection sheet" forms. In the Lansing School district, the information was obtained personally from the special education co-ordinators in each high school from the individual students' records, as maintained in each high school 49 special education office. In Ingham ISD, the information was received in the form of a computer-print-out with names deleted. In Clinton ISD, the information was received from copies of the current IEP, with names and other personally identifiable information blacked out. When necessary, telephone calls were made to individual teachers to confirm class schedules. In one local school district, which determined that parental permission was necessary before information could be imparted to the researcher, a form was distributed to students and returned. All of the forms were returned, enabling 100% of the students to be included in the sample. In order to answer Question 1, Hypotheses 1-3, concerning EMI participation in vocational education, the following information was gathered for each EMI student in the sample: (1) Sex (2) Presence or absence of IEP vocational goal (3) Enrollment in segregated special education vocational training program (4) Enrollment in regular vocational education class or classes (5) Enrollment in regular vocational education training program Since the term "vocational education" can be included in a wide array of courses and programs with very different goals and potential occupational outcomes, it was crucial to this study that a differentiation be made between vocational classes and vocational training 50 programs. The former is defined as introductory-level classes and include home-making and consumer education classes. None of these classes is intended to prepare a student with a marketable skill , without further training. The latter, however, have a direct relation to paid employment, since they are intended to prepare a student for entry—level employment or for post-secondary training. These vocational training programs are defined as upper-level, laboratory-type courses of extended duration. As researchers in the past have pointed out, it is important to make a distinction between these two types of vocational education courses in order to measure accurately the actual vocational preparation of any group under investigation. Measurement of the rates of participation of both male and female EMI students in regular vocational education in this study is intended to reflect the actual position of these groups in terms of preparation for paid employment. Data Collection ‘Question l--Non-Handicapped Sample The sample of 189 non-handicapped vocational education students was taken from computer lists of total current (April-May, 1984) student enrollment in the three vocational centers in the sample districts. These computer lists provided the sex of the student and the name of the 51 vocational education program in which the student was enrolled. At one vocational center, the list was alphabetized by student name. Names were deleted by having the left side of the print-out cut off. In the other two districts, the lists were arranged by program and by gender with names also deleted. The final sample of 189 non-handicapped vocational education students was derived from the total population of 1,964 students by choosing every tenth student from the student lists. It was determined that including every tenth student from these lists would result in a random sample of approximately the same size as the EMI sample. The two samples were not matched for grade level or gender, since the total enrollment patterns were of interest. All students in both samples were, however, enrolled in public high schools and classified as grades 9-12. In order to compare EMI participation in vocational training to that of non-handicapped student participation, Question 1, Hypotheses 4-5, the following data were gathered on each non-handicapped vocational education student in the sample: (1) Sex (2) Enrollment in regular vocational education training program by type 52 Data Collection Question 2 The data necessary for investigation of Question 2, concerning factors which may affect the rate and types of participation in regular vocational training programs by male and female EMI students, are descriptive. Data were collected to analyze the nature of the vocational training programs offered in the school districts from which the student samples were drawn. These data included the following: (1) Published statements by school districts and by the vocational-technical centers utilized by the students in the samples (2) Pamphlets and other literature distributed to the public and students by these vocational-technical centers (3) Samples of textbooks and other instructional materials used in the vocational training programs in the districts (4) Measures of readability of the printed instructional materials (5) Samples of reporting instruments used to measure and communicate progress of the students in the vocational training programs Since the researcher determined that written materials did not always communicate a complete picture of the requirements, pre-requisite skills, and behaviors necessary for success in a vocational education training program, interviews conducted with school personnel involved in the decision-making process through which EMI 53 students choose a vocational program. These interviews were conducted in an effort to gain a more complete understanding of the process of helping the EMI student choose a vocational training program. In this way, it was hoped that questions could be identified for future research into the process of integrating EMI students into regular vocational education programs. These interviews were not meant to provide conclusive informa- tion, but were only meant to supplement the investigation of the factors which might be influential in determining the specific kind of vocational training a particular EMI student might choose. Since it is recognized that these factors may go beyond the limits of impersonal, quan- tifiable information such as that listed on the previous page, it was thought that these interviews might identify other personal factors which need to be considered when discussing the decision-making process for EMI students making vocational training plans. Interviews were conducted with eleven persons, chosen from the school districts in the sample: Clinton ISD (total-4) —High School special education teacher/Consultant -High School special education teacher -High School guidance counselor -Vocational center director 54 Lansing School district (total-S) -High School special education co-ordinators (2) -High School special education counselor -High School special needs vocational counselor -Vocational-technical center placement director Ingham IDS (total-3) -Vocational-technical center vocational evaluator -Vocational-technical center special education counselor -Vocationa1-technical center principal This selection was not meant to be inclusive or comprehensive. It was meant to be representative of the professionals involved with EMI students in their vocational decision-making process. Interviewees were selected to be broadly representative of this group of professionals, both in terms of role and in terms of geographical area. Interviews were conducted in person. The interview form can be found in Appendix B-5,pu 153. Information and opinions in other areas beside the actual interview questions were also recorded. This was an informal interview process, since it was meant only to supplement other information available, in order to help isolate any factors which might influence the vocational decision-making process for EMI students. RESEARCH RESULTS Question 1 The first question investigated in this study was: Is the participation in regular vocational education by educable mentally impaired students differential by gender? In order to explore this question in depth, the following null hypotheses were presented for investigation: 1. The percentage of male EMI students having formal vocational training plans (either in regular or special education programs) is equal to that of female EMI students with formal vocational training plans. la. The percentage of male EMI students with a vocational goal on their Individual Educational Plan is equal to the percentage of female EMI students with such a goal. 1b. The percentage of male EMI students with a vocational IEP goal who are actually involved in vocational training is equal to the percentage of female EMI students with a vocational IEP goal who are actually involved in vocational training. 2. The percentage of male EMI students enrolled in regular vocational programs is equal to the percentage of female students enrolled in such programs. 55 56 2a. The percentage of male EMI students enrolled in regular vocational classes equals the percent- age of female EMI students so enrolled. 2b. The percentage of male EMI students enrolled in regular vocational training programs equals the percentage of female EMI students so enrolled. 3. The types of regular vocational training programs chosen by male EMI students do not differ from those types chosen by female EMI students. 4. The types of regular vocational training programs chosen by female EMI students do not differ significantly from those chosen by non-handicapped female students. 5. The types of regular vocational training programs chosen by male EMI students do not differ significantly from those chosen by non-handicapped male students. Data collected to test these hypotheses were analyzed using the chi-square procedure, using the observed frequencies in each cell and the column and row totals. Percentages were included in the Tables to make informal comparison easy for the reader. Chi-square analysis was chosen as the appropriate method, since the compiled information was in the form of frequency data. Chi-square enabled a determination of 57 whether the observed frequencies from the sample deviated significantly from the expected population frequencies. In this situation, it would be eXpected that frequencies for males and females would be of equal proportions, since, theoretically, gender would be expected to be independent of vocational education enrollment. Chi-square analysis indicates the level of significant deviation from these expected equal proportions which may exist. The level of significance chosen for this study was 0.05. Hypothesis la The percentage of male EMI students with a vocational goal on their Individual Educational Plan is equal to the percentage of female EMI students with such a goal. Table 1 shows numbers and percentages of EMI students in the sample who had a vocational goal on their TABLE 1 (Hypothesis 1a).--Number and Percentage of EMI Students by Sex With and Without IEP Vocational Goals. Number Row % by Column % by Row M F Total M F Total M F Total EMI students with vocational IEP goal 50 39 89 66% 60% 63% 56% 44% 100% EMI students without vocational IEP goal 26 26 52 34% 40% 37% 50% 50% 100% Column total 76 65 141 100% 100% 100% Total sample Male = 54% Female = 46% Chi-square = .504 58 IEP, both males and females. There is no significant difference between numbers of male and female with a vocational IEP goal. The Chi-square value (.504) is not significant at the 0.05 level. Null hypothesis 1a cannot be rejected, and it may be assumed that there was no significant difference in the numbers of male and female EMI students with vocational IEP goals. The data were further divided by grade levels as shown in Tables 1a and 1b. These subsets were not independent samples. The obtained Chi-square values of .234 and .025 were not significant at the 0.05 level. This further justifies failure to reject Hypothesis 1a. TABLE la (Hypothesis la).--Number and Percentage of Ninth and Tenth Grade EMI Students by Sex With Vocational IEP Goal. Number Row % by Column % by Row M F Total M F Total M F Total EMI students with vocational IEP goal 5 8 13 22% 28% 25% 38% 62% 100% EMI students without vocational IEP goal 18 21 39 78% 72% 75% 46% 54% 100% Column total 23 29 52 100% 100% 100% Total sample Male = 60% Female = 40% Chi—square = .025 59 TABLE lb (Hypothesis la).--Number and Percentage of Eleventh and Twelfth Grade EMI Students by Sex With Vocational IEP Goal. Number Row % by Column % by Row M F Total M F Total M F Total EMI students with vocational IEP goal 45 31 76 85% 86% 85% 59% 41% 100% EMI students without vocational IEP goal 8 5 13 15% 14% 15% 62% 38% 100% Column total 53 36 89 100% 100% 100% Total sample Male = 60% Female = 40% Chi-square = .025 Hypothesis 1a compares the number of male and female EMI students whom the IEPC has determined to be ready for vocational training with the number of male and female EMI students who may not be ready for such programs. This also enables a sub-sample to be formulated composed of those students for whom vocational training is appropriate, without contamination by students for whom training was not appropriate or desirable at this time. There are two reasons that some EMI students do not have vocational goals in their Individual Educational Plan. First, some EMI students are enrolled in high school under a regular course of study, which does not require voca- tional training. Because of academic weaknesses, 60 few EMI students are enrolled in a regular course of study. The second reason that some EMI students do not have vocational goals on their IEP's is that they are not ready to participate in a vocational training program, but they may be involved in personal adjustment or pre-vocational training. Many school districts restrict vocational training to eleventh and twelfth grade. Both of these reasons help to explain why not all EMI students were enrolled in vocational training. By showing the number of EMI students who have vocational training goals on their IEP's, it was possible to separate out those students who should be involved in vocational training programs from those for whom such enrollment was not feasible or apprOpriate at the time these data were collected. This separation also helped to divide the issue of choosing to participate in a vocational program, from that of obtaining access to a vocational program. It can be noted that there seemed to be a distinct difference in the number of EMI students with a vocational goal according to grade level (Tables la and lb). While only 25% of ninth and tenth grade EMI students had voca- tional training goals, 85% of eleventh and twelfth grade EMI students had such a goal. This was a substantial difference. It reflects the typical pattern of programming 61 in vocational education, whereby vocational programs are usually restricted to the final year or two of a high school program. In a regular high school course of study, the ninth and tenth graders are usually enrolled in required academic classes and introductory vocational classes. EMI students, under a special education course of study, usually spend their ninth and tenth grade years progressing through the personal adjustment and pre-vocational programs. Therefore, it was expected that vocational training goals would be found more often on the IEP's of older students. Hypothesis lb The percentage of male EMI students with a vocational IEP goal who are actually involved in vocational training is equal to the percentage of female EMI students with a vocational IEP goal enrolled in such programs. Table 2 illustrates the numbers and percentages of male and female EMI students who had a vocational IEP goal and who were actually enrolled in vocational training. Since 98% of males and 100% of females with plans for vocational training are so enrolled, it can be seen that IEP goals were being carried out in the students' actual educational programs. Chi-square procedures cannot be performed on data which are arranged in frequencies such as are found here. In order to perform a meaningful 62 TABLE 2 (Hypothesis lb).--Number and Percentage of EMI Students by Sex With a Vocational IEP Goal Enrolled in Vocational Program. Number % by Column ‘49! Row M F Total M E Total M F Total VOcational program enrollees 49 38 87 98% 100% 99% 56% 44% 100% Vocational program non-enrollees l O 1 2% 0% 1% 100% 0% 100% Column total 50 38 88 100% 100% 100% 57% 43% 100% Total sample Male = 57% Female = 43% chi-square procedure, most of the cells must have a theoret- ical frequency of five (5) or more. The precise prOportion of cells with frequency less than five (5) differs accord- ing to the particular statistical reference used, but in general, no cell in a two by two cell data table should have a theoretical frequency less than five (5) (34, p. 177k Comparison of the percentages in Table 2 leads to the conclusion that there is no meaningful difference between the percentages of male and female students with an IEP vocational goal who are enrolled in vocational programs. There is no evidence to support rejection of this null hypothesis. Data in Table 3, although not actually a part of Hypothesis 1, illustrate the small number of students 63 who were enrolled in vocational training, but did not have recorded vocational training IEP goals. Out of 53 EMI students without a vocational training goal, eight (15%) TABLE 3.--Number and Percentage of EMI Students by Sex Without an IEP Goal Enrolled in Vocational Program. Number % by Column % by Row M F Total M F Total M F Total Vocational enrollees 5 3 8 19% 11% 15% 63% 37% 100% Vocational non-enrollees 21 24 45 81% 89% 85% 47% 53% 100% Column total 26 27 53 100% 100% 100% Total sample Male = 49% Female = 51% Chi-square = .681 nonetheless were enrolled in a vocational training program. There was no significant difference between the genders, with a chi-square value of .681, which was not significant at the 0.05 level. However, it is interesting to note that the IEP system seemed to have broken down in these cases. It would seem that such a major part of a student's educational program as vocational training would need to be included in the IEP in order for it to be effective as a legal plan and agreement. 64 Hypothesis 2 The percentage of male EMI students enrolled in regular vocational programs is equal to the percentage of female students enrolled in such programs. Hypothesis 2 compared the rate of participation of male and female EMI students in regular vocational educa- tion programs, as distinct from segregated special education vocational training, including both introductory level classes and advanced training programs. Hypothesis 2a The percentage of male EMI students enrolled in regular vocational education classes is equal to the percentage of female EMI students so enrolled. Table 4 shows the number of male and female EMI students enrolled in regular vocational education classes. TABLE 4 (Hypothesis 2a).--Number and Percentage of EMI Students by Sex Enrolled in Regular Vocational Classes. Number % by Column %