.01 5 IN C(.)HN1’T .AT'D 1nd W’ET
PEDAGUGY
Thesis for the Degree 01 M. M.
MECHV‘A A;\' STATE COLLEGE
AHan V. K110i}
39.59

 

 

 

STUDIES IN CORNET AND TRUMPET PEDAGOGY

BI
ALLAN CLEMENT KHDLL

Sabmitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree of Master of Music in the
Graduate School, Michigan State College.

Department of Music
June, 1939

 

«w
CA

.N.

H.

11

PREFACE

The writing of this thesis was inspired
by the need for an instructor's manual in regard to
cornet and trumpet pedagOgy. “Embodied herewithin are
studies and reports 8? emperiments, supplementing
pedagogical material. Preference has been given, in
the choice of material. to ascertained facts; though
sometimes the author's conclusions are stated. or the

argument of others given, in order that the subject

may be fully treated.

The author is greatly indebted to
Professor Leonard Falcons for many valuable suggestions
and material. to Mr. Carrol King for conducting the oil
tests, and to Dr. Robert W. Young and the G. G. Conn Ltd.

for suggestions in the problems of acoustics.

This manual is offered as a contribution
to the continued growth and develOpment of the cornet
and trumpet as a solo, band, and orchestral instrument.

Allan Clement Knoll

East Lansing, Michigan
June. 1939

121510

111

TABLE OF CONTENTS

page
I. History Of the Comet and Trumpet 0000.00.00.0000 1

II. Acoustics in relation to the Cornet and Trumpet.14

III. Care of the Instrument .......................

Iv. Tone PrOductlon OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO. 2

A. Position of the Instrument ...............
B. The Embouchure ...........................
C. The Attack ....3..........................
D. Breathing ................................
E. Tone Placement ...........................

F. The Sustained Tone, and the Release ......

V0 TeChnique coco.00.0000.000000000000...00.0.00...
A. T0118111ng OOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOO00000000.

B. Slurring .0OOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO...

51

54
54

iv

Co Articulation ooooooooooooooooooo00.0.0.0

D. Scales and Intonation ..................

VI. Rhythmic Problems ...........................
A. Dotted Notes 00000000000000.000000000000

B. synCOPation CO...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOO

VII. Advanced Technique and.Embellishment .......
A. Double and Triple Tonguing .............
B. The Vibrato ............................
C. High Tones .............................
D. Endurance ..............................

E0 TraDSpOSItion 00000000000000000000.0000.

VIII. Summary 000.00000000000000000.0000000000000

Bibliography 0000.00.0000.000.000.000...0.000.000
A. Hlfitory 000000000000000.0000000000000000
Bo ACOUBticS ooooooooooooooooooooooo0000000

Co Pedagogy 000000000000000000.0000...Co000

6O
62

66
66
69

72
72
75
79
82
85

9O

93
93

96

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

I. Wave-length and its Vibrations ooooooooooooo

II. Oil and Saliva Tests ......................

III. Tone Placement ...........................

IV. The Release OOOOOQQOOOOOOOOOOQ0......00....

V. Sforzando and Common Tonguing ..............

VI. Staccato and.Legato Tonguing ..............

VII. Tran8p081t10n Chart 00000000000000.0000...

l6

I. HISTORY OF THE CORNET AND TRUMPET

’ The prehistory and early history of
horns and trumpets is wrapt in mystery. Their
beginning is identified with that of human history.
Among primitive races of men. convenience both in war
and the chase demanded a means of signalling more
powerful than that afforded by the human voice. This
must have led to the adaptation of some rude instrument
fashioned from shell. horn. or tusk according to local-
ity.1 The interior form of all these objects is
approximately conical. and such a tube. when blown with
the lips at the small end. gives a succession of notes
approximating the overtone series. the exact agreement
between the notes obtained and this series depending
upon the precise internal form of the horn. The gradual
evolution of the best signalling instrument is. therefore.

closely connected with music itself.2

/'Instruments made from shells and horns

have been found in all parts of the world. not only in

 

l.Wallaschek. Primitive Music. 99.
2.8tone. "Horn". ongeTa Dictionary.

India. but in.Persia. Afghanistan. Tibet. Annam.
Burmah. Borneo. and the Pacific Islands.1\ Horns

were also made of ivory. bamboo. and wood with little
variation in pitch. the tones produced being powerful
and often harsh. Lartet and Christy2 found pre-
historic instruments made from the first digital
phalange of the hind foot of a reindeer in the Cavern
of Laugerie Basse. in the Dordogne District. France.
A hole had been bored in its lower surface near the
expanded upper articulation. 0n application of the
lips to the hollow of this articulation. and by blow-
ing obliquely into the hole. a sharp and.penetrating

sound.is produced.

There is definite information regarding
the wind instruments of the Egyptians. Hebrews. and
Assyrians; the general features and character of the
music and instruments of these peOples were essentially
the same. One instrument. a species of trumpet. called
the shOphar. was in use in early Hebrew days. This
instrument has retained its position in the SynagOgue
up to the present day.3 During the latter part of the

 

*~__—

2.Wilson.22§ehistoric Art. Report of the U.S. National
Museum. 1 9 . 52 .
3.Idelsohn. Jewish Music. 10.

-3...

period of the Second Temple. two types were in use:

the curved (male) ram's-horn and the straight (female)
mountain-goat's horn.- The latter form with a gold
mouthpiece was used in the Temple on New Years. whereas
the former. with a silver-covered mouthpiece. was used
on fast-days. The shophar could.produce but few tones.
probably not more than three. and these were in the
relation of tonic. fifth. and octave. as now used in
the Synagogues. which are claimed to be the same as in
olden Hebrew times.1 These instruments played an im-
portant part in Hebrew history as related in the Old
Testament. They figured in the Siege of Jerichoz. and
in the procession of David when he moved the ark to
Jerusalem.3 The Assyrian horns. likewise. were only

suited for producing three or four notes.4

The earliest metal trumpets were con-
structed on the same principle as the sh0phar. and in
most cases the form of the instrument was plainly a copy
of some natural horn. A trumpet for signalling. known
as the Chatzotzer . was made of silver and known to

Egyptians. Hebrews. and Assyrians. According to Galpin.

 

l.Idelsohn. Jewish Music. 9.

2.Book of Joshua. VI:20.

3.Second Book of Samuel. VI:lS. see also the First Book
of the Chronicles. XV:28.

4.Engel. The Music 9: the Egg; Ancient Nations. 217.

the trumpet first appeared in Egypt under Thothmes
IV1 of which two specimens have been recently dis-
covered. One. made of silver. is 22 7/8 inches in
length; the other. made of bronze. has a total
length of 19 7/8 inches. Both of these instruments
have bell diameters measuring 3} inches.2 There are
no cup mouthpieces. but the tubes terminate in a
thick metal ring through which sounds may be pro-
duced with difficulty. It is possible that other
mouthpieces for the instruments may be missing. The
silver trumpets of the Assyrians were very similar in

design to those used by the Egyptians.

There were two forms of trumpet used
by the Roman armies. The buccina was an instrument
with a cup mouthpiece used.by the infantry. Many
pictures show this instrument used as accompaniment
in gladiatorial combat.3 Its bore was cylindrical.
gradually expanding into a bell; the tube being,curved
to nearly a circle. with the bell resting upon the
shoulder of the player.4 The lituus was also an

instrument with cup mouthpiece. but used by the cavalry.

 

1090 1415 B.C.

wwum

3.Kinsky. A History 9; Music in_Pictures. 20.
4.The American History and EncycIODedia 9; Music. IV. 100.

It was similar in shape to the Hebrew shOphar. the
cylindrical tube being bent upward like a crook at
the lower end. where it expanded into a small bell.

The lituus was pitched an octave above the buccina.1

The La-pa of ancient China was also
a military trumpet similar in shape to the Roman
lituus with the addition of a telescOpe slide. They
were constructed of wood. covered with cOpper. or of
cOpper alone. The peculiar feature of all trumpets
throughout China. India. Burmah. Siam. and the entire
Asian regions. is the extremely shallow disc-like
mouthpiece. with only the faintest indication of a
cup. The effect of a shallow cup is easier production
of high shrill notes; made such because the lip muscles
of these races are thin and tense. The eXpanse of the
disc exercises pressure. leaving only the small portion
of the lips. equal to the diameter of the narrow
aperture entered by the stream of breath. free for
vibration.2 These trumpets were made in various sizes.
but not more than three or four notes were possible by

ordinary players.

 

l.The American History and Encyclonedia 9; Music. IV. 156.
2.Smith. The World‘s Earliest Music. 269.

-5-

Numerous trumpets have also been found
in Scandinavia from five to eight feet in length. with
bell mouths six. eight. and ten inches in diameter.1
These instruments were known as luhrs and were used
around 1500 B.C. The majority of these are of bronze.
cast in short sections with Joints which were riveted
tOgether. Others have been found recently which were
made of iron with gold trimmings. The middle portion
consists of an ox horn. The mountings are elaborate
and are attached at either end in such a way as to
lengthen the horn and increase its power as a musical

instrument.

The earliest known example of mechanical
means for controlling a number of finger-holes is a
Greek or Roman tihia. one of four discovered in 1876 at
Pompeii and now in the museum at Naples. This instrument
is of cylindrical bore. and is pierced with eleven
lateral holes. Fitting over these holes. are eleven
sliding sockets or shutters. any one or more of which
can be closed. By means of these slides. the sequence of

tones and semitones could be varied.2 These instruments

 

1.Wilson. Prehistoric Art. 527.
2.Blaikley. "Valve". Grove's Dictionary.

-7-

received no further develOpment. or were lost at an

early time.

In medieval times. the Canterbury.

Dover. Folkestone. Ripon. and Ipswich Horns were used
by huntsmen. foresters. and watchmen employed by the
Guilds and Corporations to sound the note of assembly.1
The oliphant was also a recOgnized medieval instrument
made from an elephant's tusk, to the smaller end of
which a cup-shaped mouthpiece was fixed. This was
brought to the West from Byzantium in the tenth century
and. with the sword. was among the most valuable items

of a knight's equipment.2

The straight horn of medieval times grew
into two distinct types: the trumpet in which the bore
was cylindrical. and the bugle in which the bore was
tapered or conical. After the 14th century. more
frequent mention of these instruments begins to appear
in contemporaneous writings. In that century it seems
that trumpets built in round curls similar to the modern
French Horn were well known in Italy and France. Some
famous Italian paintings of the 15th century show angels

splaying straight trumpets. and it is probable that

 

1.Forsyth. Orchestration. 69.
2.Kinsky. A_History 9; Music ig_Piotures. 43.

instruments of this construction as well as those
of a zigzag form were in use in years previous to

1400.1

Open-standing keys or hinged valves
worked by the little finger. extending the compass
downward. are found on the bombardt and f;gtg£§_§gg
in Virdung.2 The Cornett (Cornetta. cornet ;
bouguin. ginkg) became prominent at this time. It
consists of a wooden tube. slightly conical and
covered with leather. having six holes for the fingers
and one hole for the thumb on the under side. The
mouthpiece was similar to that of the straight
trumpet. Its compass consisted of a chromatic scale
of a few notes more than two octaves. Curved Cornetts
were grouped into three principal sizes. and were in use

from the 10th to the 18th century.3 Earlier improvements

 

1.Kinsky. A Hist. of Music in Pictures. 68.
2.Musiqa getutaoht'Tislii.
3.1.The small treble Cornett (Cornettino), with a
compass of about two octaves from alto D.
II.The ordinary Cornett (Cornetto). with a similar
compass from tenor A. a fourth below the small Cornett.
III.The great Cornett (Corno Torto). curved in an 8 form.
. with a compass from tenor C. an octave below the small
Cornett.(Galpin. "Cornett". Grove's Dictionary.)'

had obviated the clumsy length of brass instruments
by bending and rebending their tubes. Then followed
the application to the brass of the finger-hole

system of the wooden Zinke.l

Another instrument. the serpent. was
an outgrowth of the Cornett and gingp. It was made
of wood. covered with leather. and used a mouthpiece.
These instruments played with a mouthpiece (not a
reed) lost their characteristic brilliance and nobil-
ity of tone when the note was not emitted through the
bell but through a side hole. and passed out of use

with the perfection of the brass instruments.

In 1753. a horn player. A. J. Hampl of
the Royal Orchestra in Dresden. conceived the idea of
inserting crooks in the middle of the tubing by which
the pitch could be altered.2 This resulted in the
slide trumpet. However. this develOped into the trom-
bone as we know it today. but proved impracticable on

3 .

small instruments.

 

1.Coerne. ThglEvolutign 9; Modern Orchestration. l}.

2."Hampl". Riemann Qictionnaire gs Musigue.

B.Colles. "Symphony and Drama". Oxford History 9;
M11810, VII: 142.

 

-10-

Muting and changing the pitch by plac-
ing the hand in the bell may have been introduced by
Michael Wngel in 1780]; His instrument was called the
"invention horn". but was really a hand-stOpped trumpet
bent to a curve. As hand-stOpped tones are foreign to
true trumpet tone. the instrument received little aces

knowledgement. This was followed by the Ophicleide which
was invented in 1790 by Frichot. a Frenchman living in
London. The peculiar quality of its tone did not blend
with the other instruments of the orchestra and was not
used to any great extent.2 Kolbel of St. Petersburg
built a keyed bugle in 1770. and Weidinger of Vienna
completed one in 1801.

In 1788. a significant invention took
place when Charles Clagget. an Irishman. invented a
method of uniting two trumpets or horns. He Joined two
trumpets. one pitched in D and the other in Eb. so that
with a piston a single mouthpiece might be applied to
either instantaneously. thereby getting the advantage

of a complete chromatic scale.3

The modern piston was invented in 1813 by

 

l.Gatty. "Trumpet". Groye's Dictionary.
2.Forsyth. Orchestratign.—l74.

3."Clagget". Riemann Dictionnaire g2 Musigue.

Blflmel. an oboe player who sold his invention to the
German instrument maker StBlzel. who in turn perfected
the mechanism. Périnet is also given credit for this
invention.1 Riedl contributed to its improvement. but
StBlzel carried it still further by adding a second
valve.2 Mflller of Mayence added a third valve which
was capable of adding three semitones to any cpen
position. This is the modern arrangement of valves
and completes the chromatic scale above andIbelow the

second partial of the fundamental tone of the instrument.

Charles Joseph Sax. a maker of wind
instruments in Brussels. investigated and formulated
laws concerning the bore of wind instruments. In 1822
he began to make all kinds of wind instruments. brass
and wood. In 1824 he invented an "omnitonic horn".
which he continued to perfect till 1846. This instru-
ment could be adjusted to any key by means of a piston
sliding backwards or forwards on a graduated scale. which
set the body of the instrument in communication with

tubes of different lengths corresponding to all the

 

l.Heinitz. Instrumentenkunde. 78.

2.John shaw took out patents in 1824 and again in 1838.
but his ideas were concerned with rotary valves rather
than pistons. What Shaw actually introduced was a
four-way stOp-cock turning in a cylindrical case in
the instrument which altered the air-column when
rotated. This device was too delicate and did not find
use in the trumpet. but was adOpted for use in the French
Horn.(Blaikley. "Valve". Grove's Dictionary.),

412-

major-keys.

His eldest son. Antoine Joseph. known
as Adolphe Sax. continued in his father's footsteps.
In 1845. he took out a patent for the saxhorn. a
new brass valve instrument of the bugle type. He
introduced various improvements. among which was the
substitute of a single ascending piston for the group
of descending ones.1 He did.not aim at designing or
improving instruments of the trumpet and horn
qualities only. but rather at adapting improved valves
to brass instruments of the bugle type ranging in .
pitch from seprano to contrabass. the lower pitched
members of the family being substitutes for the im-
perfect serpents. Ophicleides. and other base horns

then in use.

Many EurOpean manufacturers of brass and
woodwind instruments began to operate. In woodwinds
especially. several EurOpean manufacturers bear
reputations today for quality which are well deserved.
Such manufacturers as Selmer. Buffet. Heckel. and Robert

do not permit their products to bear stenciled names. In

 

1.Chouquet. "Sax". Grove's Dictionary.

brass instruments Schmidt. Alexander. and Besson are

outstanding manufacturers.

Charles G. Conn. who was born in Man-
chester. New York in 1844. provided the impetus for
American manufacture of instruments. He came to Elk-
hart. Indiana with his parents in 1850. After many
eXperimental years. he created a.number of new man-
ufacturing devices which made it possible for him to
produce instruments of uniform excellence. Soon others
followed in his work. continuing in research. The
following list is the names of American.manufacturers
of band and orchestra instruments:

Buescher Band Instrument Co.

Go Go Conn Ltd.

Elkhart Band Instrument Co.
Frank Holton and Co.

Imperial Band Instrument Co.
Brua C. Keefer Manufacturing Co.
Martin Band Instrument Co.
Pan-American Band Instrument Co.
H. No White Company.

York Band Instrument Go.

There are also a number of manufacturers who do not make
complete lines of band and orchestral instruments. but
who make specialties of various instruments. These are as
follows:

J. C. Deagan Co.

Leedy Manufacturing Co.
Ludwig and.Ludwig.

Nuss Manufacturing Co.

Harry Pedler and Company

R. E. Olds.

Slingerland Manufacturing Co.
Vega Company.

II. ACOUSTICS IN RELATION TO THE CORNET AND TRUMPET

Sound has been a basis for scientific
study and research ever since Pythagoras demonstrated
the laws of vibrating strings during the sixth century
B.C.. and it is very probable that his studies were
influenced by data derived from the Egyptians.1 This
was further developed by Aristotle and.P1ato. the

former formulating laws concerning stopped pipes.2

The physical basis of sound consists
of vibratory motion in some form. If the vibration
is irregular. the resulting sound generally falls under
the definition of noise; but if it is regular and
3

periodic. the sound is a musical sound.

When a vibrating body is in motion it
communicates its vibrations to the air. which. in turn.

conducts them to the listener. It is then said that

 

1.Mills. A Fugue 1g Cycles and Bels. 4-6.
2.Aristotle. Problematg. Prob. XIX.
3.Helmholtz. Sensations 9; Tone. 8.

the vibrations have been "transmitted" through the
air from the vibrating body to the ear of the
listener.1 Air. which is the most common medium
through which sound travels. has a power of ex-
pansion and contraction possessed by few other sub-
stances. Buck2 has an illustration of eXpansion
and contraction. He states:

If we pour half a pint of water into a
pint-pot. the pot is only half filled.

But if we make a vacuum in the pot and
let in half a pint of air. the air fills
the pot; though in expanding itself to
twice its normal volume it halves its
density. In the same way a pint of air
can be compressed into a half-pint
Deceptacle. in which case the density of
the air will be doubled. When the density
is diminished we say the air is in a state
of rarefaction. and when it is increased.
in a state of condensation.

When any given particle of air is displaced from its
position of rest. the particle next to the one dis-
placed has its equilibrium of elasticity disturbed
on each side. and moves on to reestablish equilibrium
due to the alternate states of rarefaction and con-
densation. In Figure 1.:

Let the curve A Z represent one complete

vibration. and the row of dots on the line

0 represent particles of air at rest. and

let the state of things in each succeeding

eighth part of a vibration be represented
by the position of the dots on the lines

 

l.Pole. The PhilosOphy 9; Music. 22.
2.Buck. Acoustics for Musicians. 122.

415-

l to 8. As A moves toward B the pressure
about B is unequal on its two sides. and
B moves towards C in consequence: C in
turn behaves in the same way with respect
to Bm ”f D. and so on throughout the

series.
The whole diagram comprises one complete wave-length.
This action repeats itself until the energy of the
original particle has worn itself completely out due

to the friction of the air.

TH
Wm
5 “74/14) H?
1| [VI 4 I‘FHIK

A a c p t; 61/ A’a’
(Figure l. wave-length and its vibrations.)

 

T

 

 

 

su~\°

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

V“

7

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sonorous vibrations may be of two classes.
namely transverse and longitudinal. The vibration of
strings is an example of transverse vibrations. In
wind instruments the vibration is longitudinal. the only

type concerned with in the acoustics of the cornet and

trumpet.

 

1.Blaikley. Acoustics in Relation to Wind Instruments. 6.

“w—m“

Periodic pulsations of the atmosphere
which constitute musical tone must be set in motion
by an energetic force. They are produced by what
Newton called a “tremulous body". Newton further
states:

Every tremulous body in an elastic medium
prOpagates the motion of pulses straight
forward in every direction. The parts of
the tremulous body alternately advancing
and returning do. in advancing. urge and
drive before them those parts of the

medium that lie nearest and. by that im-
pulse. compress and condense them; but.

in returning. they allow the condensed
parts to recede again and expand themselves.
In consequence. the parts of the medium

that lie nearest to the tremulous body move
to and fro by turns in like manner as do

the parts of the tremulous body itself; and.
for the same cause that the parts of this
body agitate these parts of the medium.
these parts being agitated by like tremors
will in their turn agitate others next to
themselves. and these others agitated in
like manner will agitate those that lie be-
yond them. and so on infinitum. And. in the
same manner as the first parts of the medium
were condensed in advancing. and.relaxed.in
returning. so will the other parts be con-
densed every time they advance and expand
themselves every time they return. It
follows that they will not all be advancing
or all returning at the same instant. else
they would always preserve determined dis-
tances from each other and there could be no
alternate condensation and rarefaction; but
since in the places where they are condensed
they approach to each other. and the places
where they are rarefied they recede from each
other. therefore some of them will be ad-
vancing while others are returning; and so on
infinitum. The parts so advancing and con-
densed are pulses. by reason of the progressive

motion with which they press upon obstacles
in their way; and the successive pulses
produced by the tremulous body will be pro-
pagated in rectilinear directions. and at
nearly equal distances from each other.
because of the equal intervals of time in
which the body by its several tremors pro-
duces the several pulses. And though the
parts of the tremulous body advance and
return in some certain and determinate
direction. yet the pulses prOpagated from
thence through the medium will spread them-
selves in all directions from.the tremulous
body. as from a common center. in surfaces
nearly spherical and concentric.1

In the cornet or trumpet the tongue. lips. and breath
are the materials out of which this tremulous body is
produced. The breath from the lungs is excited by the
vibratory motion of the lips and forced into the
instrument where it is amplified by means of resonance.
The tOnes may be produced by blowing upon the mouth-
piece alone. detached from the rest of the instrument.
The tube comprising the rest of the instrument serves
not only to build up the weak sound of the vibrating
source. and reinforce it until it sounds louder. but
also to refine the sound and make it more musical.
Zahm states:

......resonance or consonance is the remark-
able prOperty that one sonorous body has of

 

1.Newton. Isaac. The Mathematical Epinciples 2; Natural
PhilosOth. (16837 Book II. PrOp. XLIII. Th. xxxxv.

impressing its vibratory motion on
another sonorous body.1

He illustrates by holding a tuning-fork over a glass
Jar. pouring water slowly into the Jar. As the water

is poured into the Jar. the sound is gradually augmented
until at a certain height the note of the fork has
attained its maximum intensity. If more water is pour-
ed into the Jar. the sound rapidly dies away. until it
becomes quite inaudible. Pouring out some of the water.
and thereby lengthening the air-column. the sound is
again reinforced. The same is true in the cornet. but
there the tube picks out and amplifies only one wave
whose length is prOportional to that frequency. The
waves both of condensation and rarefaction are so timed
that their upward and downward motion are in perfect

unison.

Musical tone or sound is made up of two
distinct classes - pure and composite. The voice and
musical instruments produce composite tones (or Klflnge)
composed of a number of partial tones each in itself

pure. derived from the overtone series.2 The number of

 

1.Zahm. Sound BBQ Music. 266.
2.Seashore. The Psychology 9; Musical Talent. 1293 see
also the same author 3 The Egychology 9; Music. 96.

-20-

partials present in a tone depends upon the intensity
of the tone. location of the tone within the compass
of the instrument. and the instrument producing the
tone.1 Schwartz states:

In a wind instrument there Operates a

physical law which stands guard over the

sound and sorts out and obliterates those

vibrations which are unmusical. amplify-

ing only those which are pleasing and

which are desirable for the pitch note.

The tubing is a sort of resonance filter

which lets only the preper vibrations

pass. The others are dampened out. In

this way a clear and beautiful note is

produced out of the mixture of vibrations
which originates at the vibrating source.2

Although the lowest note on the instrument is that which
has a wave-length twice the instrument's length. it is

not easy to play this note because the performer's lips

_ are not equal to the task. The upper octave of the
fundamental is more easily played. When the lips are
tightened and the instrument is blown harder. the vibra-
tion rate is increased until the one complete wave divides
into two waves. each half as long. The resulting note is
an octave higher than the former. By holding the lips
tighter and blowing still harder. three waves result. each

one-third as long as the first. If the performer were

 

l.Pole. The PhilosoDhy 9; Music. 45.
2.Schwartz. The Story 9; Musical Instruments. 324.

equal to the task he could go on. compelling the
wave to divide into seven. eight. and up to
twenty or more separate waves. These notes
would all be partials of the fundamental. There
are wide gaps between the lower partials. but as
the higher partials are reached the notes are
closer tOgether until. when at the thirteenth

partial. the notes are a half-step apart.

All brass instruments are capable of
producing these tones of the overtone series. even
though some are very impractical. The depression
of a valve or valves Open airways with additional
tubing which virtually lengthen the instrument so
that the gaps may be filled with notes from other
series of tones. The first valve Opens a length of
tubing which enables the performer to play a whole
tone lower than the Open tone. The second valve
lowers any Open tone one-half tone. and the third
valve Opens up three half tones. or a tone and a half.
The combination of the second and third adds two full
tones; the first and third combine to make two and
one-half tones; and by combining all three valves.
three whole tones are added. These combined lengths

of tubing enable the performer to reach six half tones

below any Open tone and are sufficient to bridge all
the gaps in the overtone series excepting in the
first octave above the fundamental in which only six
of the twelve half tones are awfilable.

When the air-column of a cylindrical

tube is blown by the lips. only the odd partials are
obtainable. If an Open tube could be used. all the
partials would be possible. but the closed pipe must
be considered because the mouthpiece seals one end.
Blaikley states:

In short. we require a tube which although

closed at one end. shall have for its

prOper or resonating tones all the notes

.of the harmonic scale. Such a form exists

in the cone; a cone, Open at its base. and

complete to its apex. where it is of course

closed. gives a fundamental note of the

same pitch as an Open tube of equal length.

and the oveftones in the same order of

succession. '
The theoretic cone. complete to its apex. is an impossi-
bility; as a wind instrument must of necessity have a
considerable diameter where the lips are placed.‘ This
aperture at the mouthpiece alters the ratios required in

the sounding of the partials. The only way to prevent

 

1.Blaikley. Acoustics 1g relation 39 Wind Instruments. 18.

such irregularities is to replace the straight lines

of the cone by curved lines which gradually decrease

in curvature until they run out in the straight lines

of the cylindrical tubing. At the tOp is an antinode.
where the molecules are in violent movement but where
the pressure is slight. In the center is a node. where
the movement of the molecules is at a minimum. but

where the pressure is greatest.1 At the bottom end is
another antinode. The nodes in the cone are at increas-
ing distances apart. reckoning from the Open end. and

at the apex of the cone is a node common to all notes.
An inaccurate fitting of pistons. dents in the instrument.
or collection of foreign material will alter these nodes
and antinodes to such a degree that the tones will be

destroyed or intonation impaired.

The three important characteristics of a

vibration in music are; frequency. amplitude. and form.2
Pitch depends solely on the length of time in which each

single vibration is executed. or the number of vibrations
completed in a given time. Amplitude is the amount of

disturbance or the height of a vibration. Loudness depends

 

l.Jeans. Science and Musig. 111.
2.Pole. The ghilosOth 9; Music. 21.

-24-

on this. and is independent of frequency. In music.
for example. a crescendo or diminuendo without

change of pitch would be impossible if this were not
true. The distinctiveness of tone quality or timbre
depends upon the form of the vibration.1 That over-
tones account for quality of tone. has been demonstrated
in various ways. Helmholtz invented a complete set of
resonators. so made that each would vibrate in sympathy
with a certain pitched tone. shutting out all others.
When one end.was inserted in the ear. the resonatoflh
mechanism would pick out its particular note from a
complex and rich tone and would vibrate violently.
causing its note to sound loudly in the ear. By the
‘use of these resonators. rich tones were analyzed into

the fundamental and all the overtones that were present.

Quality of wind.instruments are divided
into three distinct classes - brass. reed. and flute.
The flute is characterized by very few and weak upper
partial tones. whereas. reeds are characterized by very
strong odd numbered partials. The quality of the brass
family is made by many partial tones. The method of
vibration is totally different from the reed of the oboe

 

l.He1mholtz. Senggtiong g; Tong. ll.

or clarinet; for whereas in these the lower harmonics
are dampened by the appended.tube. and one of the

higher and sweeter partials is reinforced. in the

cupped instruments every successive harmonic from the
very lowest is practicable. and all but the extreme

bass sounds are actually used successively in produc-
ing the scale.1 Instruments have been invented which
reveal the presence of overtones. These machines. call-
ed oscillOgraphs. picture sound'by means of curved lines.
Each musical instrument produce curves of characteristic
shape. the intricacy of pattern indicating the presence

of the overtones.

Timbre is not only caused by the overtones
which accompany the fundamental note in different degrees.
but also by the more or less distinct noises which are
caused.by the special method through which the sounds.
are produced. In wind instruments where the tones are
maintained by a stream of air. one generally hears more
or less whizzing and hissing from the instrument and
from the air which breaks against the sharp edges of
the mouthpiece.2 Mutes tend to alter the partials in

V

l.Stone. Elementayy Leggong gp_§oung. 176.
2.Blaserna. Egg Thgogy 9; Sound ;p_i§§ Relation Lg Musig. 166.

 

brass instruments and effect the tone so that it is
more characteristic of another instrument. A muted
trumpet or cornet is very similar to the tone of an
oboe. Two different players may play upon the same
instrument. yet entirely different tone character-
istics are brought out. The reason for this is the
technical playing ability of the performers. Some
players do not have the trained lip control. or
embouchure. which enables them to play a note so

that the tone wave vibrates as a whole and in many
smaller sections at the same time. Often the instru-
ment is defective. certain places in it serving to
kill the overtones where they should appear. Each
instrument may possess the same number of overtones.
but in the largeébore horns the low overtones are
produced while the high overtones are drOpped out.
and in the smallébore instruments the high overtones
are favored. Not only the width of bore influences
the tone quality. but the taper in the bore is equally
influential. The wider or more tapered the bore. the
fewer overtones; the more nearly cylindrical the bore.
the more overtones there will be. Selection of mouth-
pieces is very important also. The lower the compass

of the instrument. the lower and deeper the cup; the

higher the compass of the instrument. thexgfiaIIOW'

the cup should be. The quality of a tone is strength-
ened if the brass player will play with great intensity
as the upper partials will be brought into use.

There is a definite correlation between
tone quality and intonatiOn. so the selection of an
instrument is an all important factor. In regard to
this. Blaikley comments:1

As a general law. it will be found that
there is a close connection between in-
tonation and quality. that is to say.
that an instrument which is well in tune
is also of good quality; the exact tone-
quality which is the best for any
particular class of instrument is. of
course. a matter of individual taste to
some extent. but. whatever the exact
quality. it should be tolerably uniform
throughout the compass of the instrument
or it cannot be called good.

Alternate fingerings for various tones
may effect a slight difference in pitch. In the con-
struction of an instrument. the valve slides are not
prOportional in.length. One difference is that the

sum of the lengths of the first and second valves is

less than that of the third.valve. if each valve has

 

1.Blaikley. Acoustic; ip yelation pg Wind Instrument . 28.

-28 ..

been adjusted to lower the tone by its apprOpriate
number of semitones. The first valve increases the
speaking,length in the ratio 15:16. and.the second

in the ratio 8:9. and thus the two together

lengthen it by 23/120 which is less than the increase
necessary. 24/120. for three semitones.1 Since the
additional length is inserted in slightly different
positions when alternate fingerings are used. some
peculiar formation in the bore may be situated at an
antinode in one case and not in another. Consequently.
all tones played with the first and second valves may
not be the same degree sharper than the corresponding

tones played with the third valve.

The generally accepted definition that
the trumpet is two-thirds cylindrical and one-third
conical. while the cornet is one-third cylindrical and
two-thirds conical is not altOgether true. Actually
the only parts of the trumpet tubing which are
cylindrical are the valve and tuning slides. but likewise
constitue the only cylindrical tubing in the cornet.

The mouthpiece of the trumpet formerly was mostly

 

l.Hichardson. Th2 Acoustics g; Orchestrgl Instruments
Egg 9; the Or an. 2.

cylindrical. but today it is generally tapered. The
actual sliding part of the tuning slide is
cylindrical. but on most trumpets the side joining
the mouthpiece is.smaller’than the slide leading to
the valves. thereby giving it a gradual taper. It is
true. however. that the degree of taper differs
between the two instruments. There is less taper in
the trumpet. and more in the cornet. The mouthpiece
receiver on the trumpet is larger than the receiver
on the cornet. while the bell is usually smaller.
thereby allowing more taper between mouthpiece and
bell in the cornet than in the trumpet, both having
the same bore through the valves. This difference
between them is effectual and still defines their tonal
qualities.

III; CARE OF THE INSTRUMENT

The first few lessons are the foun-
dation of a musician’s career. and the instructor
should devote time to explaining the essential parts
of the instrument in addition to its prOper care and

usage.

In order to keep an instrument in per-
feet working condition. constant care and attention
is necessary. Through continued blowing. the inside
of the tubing becomes covered with a coating of
saliva. which if allowed to stand. turns hard and
forms deposits of verdigris. An unsanitary instrument
is not only a source of constant danger to the player.
but intonation may become impaired. Warm water should
be run through the instrument frequently in order to
prevent the incrustations of oil and dirt. In order
to clean an instrument. the valves should be removed

and the instrument submerged in warm water for a short

time. Hot soap suds may then be poured into the bell
and slides. A soft brush on a flexible wire will aid
in the loosening process. A thorough rinse with warm
water is necessary to remove all deposits. The process
should be repeated in severe cases. or sent to a
reliable repair shOp for steam cleaning. The accumu-
lated water should be removed from all parts of the
instrument by blowing immediately after playing to pre-

vent the collection of sediment.

An application of vaseline to the threads
of valve caps and to all slides will keep them in good
working order and will also prevent rusting. Slides
should be moved in and out daily to prevent them from
sticking. The application of vaseline will aid in keep-
ing the slides air-tight and easily movable.

The valves. or pistons must be kept
immaculately clean to work freely. They should be re-
moved frequently and wiped with a piece of soft cloth.
The Openings in the pistons also should be kept clean.
The bottom caps should be removed and the inner valve
casings cleaned thoroughly. Noisy valves are sometimes
caused by the spring rubbing against the stem which it

surrounds. or by its coming in contact with the chamber

.32-

in which it is encased. This noise may be stOpped

by setting the spring,prOperly. or by putting a

drOp of oil at the point of friction. Worn-out

pads or corks are also likely to cause noise and
should'be replaced. Valve oil rather than saliva
should be used at all times. The oil not only lessens
the friction but preserves the pistons against the

ill effects of acid in the saliva. It also absorbs
corrosion and small particles of food that may be

blown into the instrument.

In order to conclusively determine the
relative merits of oil and saliva for valve lubri-
cation. a number of comparative tests were perform-
ed upon five leading brands of valve oil. All the
liquids were individually tested for density. surface
tension. and acidity. Figure II. is a table showing
the‘numerical results of the tests related to a
similar test of saliva. and are very significant in
the selection of a lubricant for cornet and trumpet
valves. The tests show conclusively that saliva is
much heavier than the oils and water. In order to
reduce the friction in close fitting valves. as thin

a lubricant as possible is necessary. The measurements

of the surface tension tests also support those of

density and.further’prove that saliva is a much

heavier lubricant than the oils.

The corrosion of

valves is caused by the acid contained in saliva and

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Liquid Density Surface Acidity
Tested (grams per Tension
0.0. at 24 ) (Dynes per
Cm.)

Saliva1 1.007(ave.) 57.7(ave.) 904190 0.0
.O2N HCl per
100 0.0.

011 NO. 1. 0.8073 27.9 0.0

011 NO. 2. 0.7950 27.5 0.0

011 NO. 3. 0.8010 27.4 0.0

011 N0. 4. 0.7943 27.5 0.0

011 No. 5. 0.8137 0.0

 

Figure II. Oil and Saliva Tests.

in the water which is formed by condensation of the

breath.

content. but also aid in the preservation of the pistons.

The oils are not only free from such acid

 

l.Hawk and.Bergeim. Practical fihysiological Chemist .

268 ”269 o
with tests of specimens from 20 members of the
Michigan State College Band.

The values as found here were substantiated

 

Saliva furthermore contains a considerable amount of
mucus which is detrimental to prOper valve action;

whereas the oils are free from damaging impurities.

The exterior parts of the instrument
should be kept clean and bright. If the instrument
is not badly tarnished it may be washed with soap and
water; afterwards polished with a soft cloth or
Chamois. There are numerous preparations and polish-
ing cloths for cleaning brass and silver effectively.
which may~be used in cases where the tarnish cannot be

removed by ordinary methods.

The cork on the water-key must be re-
placed as soon as it wears out and the spring should
be oiled frequently. rents should be removed as soon
as possible; and worn valves. slides. or other fittings

which tend to mar the tone should be plated and reground.

The instructor should not fail to
emphasize that more instruments are ruined by neglect

than by ordinary wear received in playing.

IV. TONE PRODUCTION

.A. Position 2; the Instrument.

The initial step in cornet and trumpet
pedagogy is the correct position of the instrument in
preparation for the actual playing. The cornet is held
firmly with the left hand. the thumb being slightly
bent around the first valve. and the fingers placed
together back of the third valve. The right hand takes-
a position with the thumb against the casing of the
first valve allowing the first three fingers to curve
over the valves. The fingers of the right hand must
not be extended across the valves. nor should the extreme
finger tips be used to press the valves down. The
fingers must be in the form of an arch. thus enabl-
ing the valves to function freely with the fleshy part
of the finger tips. The correct curvature may be found
by allowing the student's right arm to fall along side

the body in a very relaxed manner. The student should

then notice the natural curvature of the fingers. assuming

this same position above and over the valves.

The small finger-hook frequently found
on cornets is for the purpose of playing with one hand
while turning pages with the other. It should not be
used while playing with both hands. Action of the
third and little finger are so closely allied that any
restrictions placed on the little finger may also tend
to restrain the third finger. It may be used if the
position of the little finger in the hook does not
inhibit the freedom of the other fingers.

The valves should be pushed straight down
with the fleshy part of the finger tips in a definite
and precise manner. Any sidewise thrust is apt to cause
the valves to bind. thus retarding the action. The lift-
ing of the fingers is as important as the downward motion.
and should.be accomplished quickly in order to effect the
change of tones cleanly. The lowering and raising of two
or more valves must be done simultaneously. Valuable
finger practice for strengthening may be assigned.by the
instructor without the use of the instrument. This
may be accomplished by placing the finger tips on the
edge of a table or any other flat surface. manipulating

them in all possible combin-

ations with sufficient force in audible rhythmic

patterns.

The cornet should be held in a
horizontal position. squarely in front of the player.
The cornet may be tipped slightly to the right in
order to prevent the left hand from becoming cramped
in any way. The arms should then assume a natural
position away from the body. In practicing. it is
best to stand erect with the feet spread about a
foot apart so that the body has balance and solidity.

and.the student may breathe deeply.

B. The Embouchure:1

The placing of the embouchure is one of
the most important as well as the most difficult phases
‘of cornet playing. A good embouchure depends upon the
physical characteristics of each individual player.

Crooked and irregular teeth cannot be expected to form

 

l.The embouchure is the part of a musical instrument
applied to the mouth; hence the formation and
disposition of the lips. tongue. and other organs
necessary for producing a musical tone are denoted
by this term.

-38-

the base of an embouchure that will reapond to natural
playing. A peaked lip or underslung jaw are other
common irregularities that tend to prevent correct
embouchure placement. Players with exceedingly thick
lips present another problem to the cornet instructor.
The physical prerequisites for a cornetist should
consist of regular and even teeth.1 lips that are not
overly thick. and a determined jaw. This should not
be used as a hard and fast rule.;but may be applied
in the majority of cases. Many players have attained
high reOOgnition in the professional field with
physical handicaps. overcoming them by means of con-

scientious practice and determination.

Care should be taken in the selection
of a suitable mouthpiece. If the formation of the jaw
and teeth are close to normal. any one of the accepted
standard mouthpieces may be used with satisfactory
results in the majority of cases. A mouthpiece with a
reasonably broad rim and fairly deep cup should be used
by the average player. If the jaw and teeth have distinct

1.Lamp and.Epley. "Relation of Tooth Evenness to Per-
formance on the brass and woodwind Musical Instruments".
Lamp and Eplgy take exception to the need for regular
teeth. but do not quote definite enough statistics and
measurements to substantiate their contention.

peculiarities. then a specially constructed mouthpiece
may be used in order to compensate for the specific

handicap.

The embouchure is difficult to set. as
the important part. where the lips are set in vibration.
cannot be seen either by the player or by the instructor.
The mouthpiece cannot be placed by a definite set of
rules. but only through guidance on the part of the
teacher and'based on a few experimental principles.
some instructors and players advocate two-thirds of the
mouthpiece on the upper lip. one-third on the lower
lip; others say one-third on the upper lip. two-thirds
on the lower lip; and still others recommend one-half
on the upper lip. one-half on the lower lip. No one of
these Opinions is universally accepted. nor has any one
been supported by scientific investigation. Embouchure
depends upon the formation of the individual mouth.
teeth structure. and skin texture. In other words.
there can be no single norm into which all pupils should
be placed. It is advisable. however. to start with one-
half on the upper lip and one-half on the lower lip.
gradually raising or lowering the mouthpiece if this
position is unsatisfactory. Care should be exercised
that the mouthpiece is placed in the exact center of the

mouth 0

~40.-

The smile is an excellent basis for
the placement of the mouthpiece against the lips. The
smile draws the corners of the mouth back and inward.
thus forming a firm base for the mouthpiece to rest
upon. In some cases. the lower jaw should be brought
out slightly in order to have the lower teeth in line
with the uppers. The lips should be against the teeth
and gums in a solid fashion. rather than in a stretched
manner. If the lips are stretched tautly across the
teeth. the tone will respond only by means of excessive
force and strain.f Generally speaking. the so-called
t"buzz system."1 is not very satisfactory. and should only
be used in cases where the player has a physical make-up
apprOpriate for this kind of embouchure. It should
not be recommended to the beginning pupil. but may be
held in reserve for exceptional cases. Keeping the lips
tightly closed thus forcing the lips to vibrate might
produce a fuzzy tone and may prevent the student from
advancing beyond a certain degree of skill. .The lips
must be held parallel. and the upper lip must not over-
lap the lower while playing. .After the player has

assumed a correct position. the center of the lips should

 

l.The buzz system consists of forcing tightly closed lips
to vibrate.

4.1-

be pureed slightly. leaving an Opening‘between.; As
stated above. the foregoing may not be applicable

to everyone. but represents a point of departure.

The one criterion of a good embouchure
is the ability to play with as much ease and as
natural as possible. The only exception to this
rule is in the playing of extremely high tones. where
the lips must be stretched tighter in order to
facilitate rapid vibration.

As soon as the mouthpiece is placed on
the lips. the student should then eXperiment as to a
comfortable position. tightening around the mouthpiece
so as to prohibit the escape of air. Once a satisfactory
position has been attained. it must not be moved either
for ascending or decending passages. For the higher
tones the lips should be drawn tighter by the nmscles.
the muscular tension to become more relaxed for the lower
tones. The instructor should encourage the use of a
mirror for individual practice. By practicing before a
mirror. a beginner can avoid falling into many un-

desirable habits.

c. The Attack:1

When the instructor has succeeded in
helping the pupil to find a comfortable and logical
embouchure. the student should be advised as to the
prOper beginning of any tone. In preparing for the
attack. the tongue should be placed against the center
of the lips; then for the actual attack the tongue is
retracted from this position. The tongue must be
pointed. leaving the base of the tongue as relaxed as
possible. The tongue acts in the capacity of a valve
in stOpping and allowing the breath to enter the mouth-
piece and instrument. The action of the tongue is much
the same as if a foreign substance. such as a thread.

ocOUpied its tip. and the person wished to eject it.

The attack not only involves the action
of the tongue. but also involves controlled exhalation
of the breath. When the tongue has assumed its position
in preparation for the attack. the muscles of the
diaphragm should be tightened. This tension is in-

creased the same instant the tongue is retracted from its

 

l.The attack is a technical expression for decision and
spirit in beginning a phrase or passage.

-43-

position against the lips. The tongue. breath. and
diaphragm must work simultaneously in order to per-

form the attack prOperly.

Many instructors advise tonguing in
back of the upper teeth. but observation shows that
a breath sound often precedes the actual tone. The
only way this breathiness may be overcome and a clean
attack obtained is by controlled direction of the
breath with execution of the tongue against the center
of the lips. The exact placement and means of re-
traction varies for each tone in the instrument; only
by continued eXperimentation on the part of the
individual pupil can all tones receive the attack with
definite assurance. The lips are the generators of
the vibratory motion of the breath. and only with the
tongue against the lips may the vibrations be set in
motion cleanly without disturbance. For the lower
tones. the tongue should be slower in action and point-
ed downward. Tones of the middle range (those located
on the staff) may be obtained by pointing the tongue
straight ahead. For the higher register. the student
should point the tongue upward and slightly back from

'flhe aperture of the lips.1

The cheeks must not be puffed. nor
should air escape on either side of the mouthpiece.
{Ens entire face should remain motionless; only the
‘tongue should move. In attempting to produce the
:first tone on the instrument. the student should
Jaot press any valves down. thus producing an Open
;position tone. No attempt should be made to pro-
duce any definite pitch. The player will eventually
jproduce some pitch; whichever pitch this is. it
should be played over and over again until the student

ihas gained control of it and can reproduce it at will.

D. Bre thin :

Breath is the body of the cornet tone
because the sounds produced by this instrument. as
well as all the brass and woodwind instruments. are

the result of columns of air in vibration. For this

l.A few cases have been found where the tongue works
in exactly the Opposite manner. However. they are
rare. and the instructor should be certain before
advising this altered procedure.

reason. the instructor should not fail to emphasize
correct breathing and breath control. Breath must be
taken in through the corners of the mouth after the
mouthpiece has assumed its position on the lips. rather
than by means of the nose or through the instrument.
This insures speed of inhalation providing air with
sufficient oxygen content for the body and instrument.
This is very important in cornet performance as an
ejection of wind from the stomach will cause a pitch

to flatten almost a semitone.

The ordinary breathing of everyday life
'brings oxygen into contact with the blood in the lungs
. carrying,carbonic acid away.l Elevation of the ribs
expands the chest and increases its circumference. and
the contraction of the diaphragm lowers its floor and
enlarges its capacity in a downward direction.2 The
two-actions go together and draw a sufficient volume of
fresh air into the lungs with a slow. easy movement.
The used air is more quickly emitted. principally by

the elastic recoil of the lungs and chest; thereafter

 

l.Bayliss. Erinciples g; GenergljghysiolOgy. 600.
2.0urtis. Voice Building and Tone Elacing. 49.

~46-

there is a slight pause. This occurs about every

four seconds or fifteen times a minute.

Breathing for cornet is quite different.
Its whole object is to maintain a sustained and well~
regulated airfipressure for the production of sound.
A full breath must be taken rapidly. and then kept in
a state of controlled compression as long as thirty
seconds. Thus the number of reapirations possible in
a minute may be reduced to a minimum. This necessitates
a much larger volume of breath than is ordinarily
needed. not only for the length of time the sound may
have to continue. but also for the supply of oxygen to
the blood. The first point is. therefore. to secure
the power of taking in a large volume of air as quickly
as possible; the second point is to give it out with
carefully regulated force. for upon this the controlled

production of sound entirely depends.

The amount of breath to be inhaled should
'be regulated by the length of passage to be played. If
the breath is not regulated the player will experience
a.feeling of fatigue and suffication due to excessive
strain on the lungs. The breath must be held back so

that a continuous. intense. and concentrated column of

.47 ..

air is propelled through the instrument. The lower
tones require less intensity of air. the higher ones
a great deal more. As soon as the tongue has
actuated the attack. the breath must remain constant
and level throughout the duration of the tone. Any
fluctuation or waver of the breath will result in a
change of pitch or a complete loss of the tone. If
the player does not have use for all the breath he
has taken into his lungs and diaphragm. he must not
allow it to escape through the instrument. but exhale
freely through the nose. He is then ready to take
another breath as previously described. The student
should avoid taking in too much breath where it is not

needed.

After the beginner has acquired good
control of his breath. he should practice quick breathing
which is very essential to good cornet playing. Usually
a breath should be taken during a rest. after a phrase.
and after tones of long duration. Breathing places are
sometimes marked by the breath sign ( ’ ). and new music
should be scanned and so marked where the breathing

possibilities are difficult.

~48-

E. Tone glacemen :

. Tone placement is the foundation to true
intonation and tone production. Each tone has a
definite place in the instrument. and the skilled
cornetist must have an accurate conception as to the
relative position of each tone and what he must do in

order to obtain it.

The player should conceive of a cornet
tone as round. clear. and solid; rather than angular.
irregular. and spacious. Also. the student should
consider the entire range as a ladder of these tones.
some larger. some smaller according to the intuition
of each individual player. Each step in this ladder
has its own characteristics. and the distances between
tones are not always the same. The Open tones are the
most direct in the instrument. and thus produce the
most perfect conception of complete roundness. The
most imperfect are those tones using all three valves
simultaneously. and thbse involving the combination of
the second and third valves because of the decided
addition to the air column. Half way between these two
extremes are situated the other valve positions. namely:

the first valve. the second valve. the first and second

valves. and the first and third valves. The reason
for these differences is an acoustical problem in-
volving,the additional length of tubing of the three
valve slides. which. in each case. will change the

location of the nodes and antinodes in the instrument.

Tone production and tone placement can
be illustrated as in Figure III. where (a) shows the
beginner's conception of an Open tone. (b) shows im-
provement in tone. and (c) represents the perfect

conception of the same tons.1

(a) (b) (c)
Figure III. Tone Placement.

The clearest and purest tone is a well-
centered tone. and is only possible if the attack and
duration are effected at the center. The first two
illustrations in Figure III. show that the center is
not adhered to. but is produced either by blowing too

high or too low. If the tone is blown high. a forced

 

1. Cf. chapter II above.

-50-

tone will be the result; if blown too low. a depress-
ed tone will be the outcome. This center may be
located by changing the direction of the breath upward
and downward until the clearest tone is produced. The
breath may be sent upward or downward by lifting or
lowering the diaphragm. In some cases the action of
the breath may be accompanied with a slight protrusion
or retraction of the Jaw in locating the exact center.
The action of the tongue and the amount of breath are
other factors which must be considered by each player.
.AdJustments must be made in tone placement if the

player changes from one instrument to another.

After the student has become proficient
in tone placement. he may shift his attention to tone
production entirely. The latter is accomplished by
complete breath control. Tones of long duration should
be played with as much volume as possible without over-
blowing the instrument. When an ideal tone has been
produced. the student should match the others with this
one. By comparing the poorer tones with the better ones.
the beginner will soon experience a uniformity of tone
throughout the entire compass of his instrument. the

goal of every cornetist.

F. The Sustained Tone. and the Release:

The study of sustained tones in cornet
playing serves the same purpose as do warmingeup
exercises for athletes before participating in a
strenuous contest. The beginning cornetist will in-
‘variably try to play rapid passages and high tones as
soon as his instrument is removed from its case. This
procedure must be discouraged by the instructor. The
playing of sustained tones should occupy the first few
minutes of the practice or playing period. They will
not only place the lips in prOper playing condition.
but also will aid in the develOpment of a strong em—

bouchure and tone of good quality.

The sustained tone should be started
with the common attack and held as long as breath permits,
diminishing toward its close. The lips. Jaw. and breath
must remain absolutely steady during the course of the
tone. Quivering and spasmodic twists of the lips and
unsteady breath will probably be experienced at first.

but by persistent practice these may be overcome.

In order to bring the tone to its prOper

close. the breath must be diminished in volume as
the tongue resumes its position of attack against
the lips. If the tone falls off toward its close.
the diaphragm should be lifted in order to give it
'Uhe necessary support. If the tone becomes higher
lat the end it is a result of pinched lips. and
should be avoided. By lifting the diaphragm. the
‘volume of air is reduced but the intensity remains
'Uhe same. thus keeping the pitch constant until the
'tone is inaudible. The release may be practiced by
playing a tone for the duration of four slow beats.
closing the tone at the count of four. diminishing

for one-half beat.

(a) (' l l ‘II:§‘

(b) ( 1 l [I]

 

 

 

 

(c) (:7 J: I L:::>
Count 1 & 2 & 3 & 4 &

Figure IV. The Release.

Illustration (a) in Figure IV. is an example of the
undesirable release. In (b) the tone is cut off too

abruptly giving the release a choking effect. The true

expression of the prOper production and release may
‘be seen in (c). secured by means of a clean but not
‘too sharp attack. a level tone. and concluded with

a dimdnished release. The length of the sustained
tone may vary among different players. but the average

lengmh should be in the neighborhood of fifteen seconds.

As soon as the student has mastered the
sustained tone to a certain degree of proficiency. he
should then strive for a softer attack. increasing
(czescendo-—==:::: ) the tone during half the breath.
and then diminishing (decrescend9> ) the tone
during the remainder of the breath. Care should be
‘taken that the player does not produce a harsh tone
While making the crescendo. Also. the tone should not
become sharper when the volume is increased. nor flatter
when it is diminished. The player should always strive
for a full and clear tone at all times. abstaining from
the use of vibrato. This practice should be transmitted
to the entire range with perfect ease and without heavy
pressure; thus by systematic training the lips will be
strengthened. Sustained tones should be studied at the
‘beginning,of every practice period or playing engagement

whether the cornetist is a beginner or an advanced player.

V. TECHNIQUE

A. Tonguing:

Tonguing,is repetition of attack. and
can be phonetically represented.by a succession of the
‘linguo-dental syllable pg. There are four distinct
classifications of tonguing. namely: the gforgando. the
QQEan. the stacc to. and the soft or legato. The
gforzapdo tongue is an eXplosive attack produced by
means of a very strong breath and a vigorous stroke of
the tongue. The tone is not diminished and is ended
abruptly. This is very unpleasant and undesirable.
and is used only for special effects. In Figure V..

(a) is an illustration of sforzando tonguing.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(a) (b)

Figure V. Sforzando and Common Tonguing.

The common tongue is. as its name implies.

used frequently in all types of playing. The attack

is definite and must be supported by a full breath.

the volume being diminished toward the close of each
tone. It is advisable. in order to obtain clean play-
ing. to leave a very short pause between tones. This
gap must not be too long or the playing will become
chOppy and unmusical. Example (b) in Figure V. pictures

the common tongue.

The staccgto is another type of tonguing
frequently used. This is produced by a quick action of
the tongue. the tone being released as soon as it is
sounded. The staccato or rapid tonguing is much more
fatiguing than the others. and must be practiced regular-
ly to approach perfection. In order to perform a clear
st cc to. it is absolutely necessary that the instrument
have perfect valve action and fairly stiff valve Springs.
A staccato tongue cannot be produced if the pistons are
partly down as the note will tend to crack. If the valve
has a slight rebound. the springs are not stiff enough

for exacting work.

In playing staccato. the tongue should not
be out against the lips as in ordinary attacks. but

rather against the lower portion of the upper teeth. The

movement will not be as great from this position.
thus permitting more speed. Only the tip of the
tongue should be used. and the retraction must be
done quickly. Perfect tone placement is essential
in producing a good staccato. inasmuch as the tone
is released as soon as it has been sounded. It is
advisable to practice the stgccato on one tone at
first. gradually increasing the intervals until
octave Jumps can be produced cleanly. In Figure VI.

(a) represents staccato tonguing.

GOO.»

.(a) (b)
Figure VI. Staccgto and.Legato Tonguing.

The fourth and last type of tonguing
is the soft or legato tongue. This differs from the
other three inasmuch as the tongue does not resume
its normal position against the lips. but back of the
upper teeth or possibly between them. It is similar
to the common tongue in body. but the gap between

tones is done away with. thus effecting a continuous

tone with slight punctuations of the breath. The
soft tongue may be phonetically represented by a
succession of the g g syllable. The breath should
be continuous and is only partially stOpped by the
slight action of the tongue. The most effective use
for the legato tongue is in song playing and in
passages of melodic character. Example (b) in

Figure VI. shows this type of tonguing.

As a general rule. the beginning pupil
should use the common tongue on quarter notes and
notes of longer duration in exercises of moderate
tempo. The staccgto tonguing should be reserved for

eighth and sixteenth notes.

3. M29

The cornet instructor should not in-
troduce the slur to the beginning player until his
lips are sufficiently strong. lest they suffer
permanent injury. There are two ways by which the
slur may be produced: with the breath and lips. or
with the tongue. breath and lips. The former should
be taught first. using small intervals preferably

-58—

those involving a change Of fingering. It is also
advisable to present the downward slur first. in
order to prevent the excessive use of pressure and

strain.

The breath and.lip slur is accomplished
by means of a synchronization of the breath. the
fingers. and the lips. When slurring from one tone
to another. the direction Of the breath must be changed
in.the direction of the new tone as discussed in
chapter IV. The lifting support of the breath should
become more intense on upward slurs. and less intense
on downward slurs. In slurring from a lower to a higher
tone. the lips must be stretched someWhat by tightening
and.drawing back the corners of the mouth. This should
be accompanied by a slightly increased pressure of the
mouthpiece against the lips. When slurring from a high-
er to a lower tone. the lip muscles must be relaxed to
the position Of the lower tone.' The lower tone must
also have the support of the diaphragm during this
Operation or there is the possibility of too great an
impact on the lower tone or losing the tone altOgether.
If the.slur necessitates the change of fingers. the lift-
ing and placing of them must be done with precision and
not lazily.

When first attempting the slur in
fairly wide intervals. the diaphragm should be tight-
ened.quickly. thus forcing the slur with the breath.
After the player has succeeded in Obtaining the slur
in this manner. the action of the lips. the mouthpiece
‘pressure. and the strength of the breath may be
minimized until a smooth and effortless slur is pro-
duced. The teacher should impress upon the mind of
the cornet student that this is possible only if the
action of the breath. the fingers. and the lips are

simultaneous.

As soon as the student has reached a
plateau. his ability to handle the breath slur. the
tongue slur may be introduced for extremely wide and
awkward intervals. It is done in exactly the same
manner as the breath slur with the addition of the
soft or legato tongue. The tongue is but an aid in
locating the distant tone. and should be treated as
such. The student should be cautioned that this is
to remain a slur and that the tongue should not be

heard.

The beginner should not attempt high
slurs until the lip muscles are strong. and he has

acquired flexibility in the middle register.

-60..

C. Articulation:l

Articulation sums up all phases Of
trumpet and cornet playing previously acquired. and
gives the instructor an excellent Opportunity to test
and review everything that has been taught up to this
time. If the student is weak in any of the fundamentals.
they will appear in articulated exercises. The
instructor should analyze the faults carefully. making
minor changes adapted to the individual need before

proceeding to more advanced work.

Trumpet music frequently employee the use
Of the slur in combination with staccato notes in the
same group. When this is the case the second of two
slurred notes should be weaker and shorter than the first
in order to enable the tongue to resume its pOsition of
attack in preparation for the staccato notes which are
to follow. This necessitates the stOpping of the breath

at the conclusion Of the slurred notes.

It is advisable in most cases for the

 

1.Articulation is the distinct production of correct tone.
whether slurred or tongued. by prOper adjustment of lips.
breath. and fingers to an instrument.

-51-

instructor to emphasize the value of accentuation
and stress in conjunction with articulation. if

not previously demonstrated. For the sake Of
clarity. the first beat of every bar should receive
a strong stress or accent. In quick common or
triple time there is but one accent in a bar. on

the first beat; but in slower time. whether common
or triple. there are two - a stronger accent on the
first beat Of the bar. and a weaker one on the second
or third. It is often necessary to introduce more
accents than the ordinary rhythm requires and the
omission of others according to the rhythmic pattern

and character Of the music.

Similar groups of notes should receive
stress on the first tone of each group in order to
insure a strict rhythm and to also add life and
vitality to the music. In rapid passages of strong
rhythmic nature containgng combinations Of slurred
and staccato notes. a crisp tongue action should be
used and the fingers should move the valves in a
percussive manner to ensure distinction. A continu-
ous flow of breath must be available for all types
of articulated passages. Groups of slurred couplets

or triplets. when occuring in music of smooth nature.

should be closely connected.by means of the legato
tongue in order to carry out the style of the music.

In cases where there are groups Of longer and shorter
notes. the longer notes should receive their full
value while those of shorter duration should be made
somewhat shorter in order to remain separated from
each other by brief intervals of silence. Articulation
plays an important role in phrasing and should be
Observed in minute detail by the professional as well

as the beginner.

D. Scales and Intonation:

The value of scales is frequently mis-
understood by teacher and pupil alike. Many instructors
omit scales entirely from their routine of trumpet
pedagOgy. and by so doing endanger the musical future
of the student. True intonation in individual playing
can only be approached by the use of scales in various
forms. Scales are a valuable aid in the develOpment of
technique. and should be studied along with sustained

tones during the warming¢up period.

The competent teacher of cornet and trumpet

'who has familiarized himself with the theory of music
and.the science of acoustics is aware Of the fact

that the musical scale of today is imperfect. For
example. pi; and g2; are two entirely different notes
having different vibration rates. yet on keyboard
instruments they are played on the same black key.

The tuner alters this note so that it is. as nearly
'possible. half way between pi: and QEL; in other words.
this note is tempered. On a cornet Or trumpet. the gfl
and.dEL are always too sharp. and the manufacturer

does nOt attempt to correct this deficiency fully.
because in order to do so the third valve slide would
have to be made so long that g2. g. 5E. 91;. 91. 32:. and
52:; would then be too flat.1 This gf1_or g2; must-
somehow be lowered so that it will be in tune‘with other
notes played adjacent or in harmony with it. This is
done with the breath as previously described in chapter
IV. E. This tone will not be lowered as much in the sharp
keys as in those involving flats. Other tones of an
instrument may be defective. and may be adjusted by

similar means.2

 

l.The player would then be confronted with the problem
Of trying to play all of these notes in tune.

2.If the instrument has an adjustable slide. the pupil
may use this device.

-54-

The most successful method of present-
ing the harmonic and melodic minor scales is to assign
them in conjunction with their relative major scale.
The whole tone scales should not be overlooked as
they are being used more and more in modern compositions.
The use of the third valve on g. 2:: EL: and g: are to
be recommended when approached from a semitone below.
The intonation will be impaired slightly. but finger
difficulties will be minimized at these points. especially
in rapid passages. This also tends to clarify playing.

and makes for smoother progression in slurred.passages.

Scale practice should not be restricted
to tonguing,alone. but should also employ slurring and
articulation in as many rhythmic patterns as possible.
This is conducive to creative work on the part of the
student. and is a means of correcting faulty articulations

that may have occured in other parts of the lesson.

Each tone of a scale has a definite
relationship to its tonic or keynote. of which the
player should be conscious soon after undertaking the
study of scales. The different kinds of scales
mentioned above should be played slowly at first in a
sustained manner in order to give the ear ample

Opportunity to hear and become critical Of this relation-

-55-

ship of tones. The instructor should insist upon
pupils playing in all keys rather than in a select
few. Scales should be reviewed constantly. and
those emphasized which occur in the solos and
studies of the pupil's lesson. A valuable procedure
is the playing of scales without the aid of music.
This necessitates the visualization of staff notation
as the tones are played. Finger memorizing. pg; pg.
has no value and should be stOpped as soon as it is

apparent in the pupil's work.

Intonation may be further develOped if
the cornetist will play his solos with piano
accompaniment. and also engage with other players in
small ensembles. Scales are not only a theoretical
musical necessity. but are beneficial toward better
intonation. finger precision. clarity Of attack - in
fact all fundamentals of technique; and should be play-
ed with these factors in mind.

-55-

VI. RHYTHMIC PROBLEMS

1A. Dotted Notes:"’

Incorrect articulation and unreliable
rhythmic values in connection with the playing of
dotted notes are very prevalent among instrumental
players. These faults may be eliminated for the most
part if the significance Of the dot and its relation-
ship to the preceding note is pointed out to the
student before he has had a chance to play them in-

correctly upon his instrument.1

The dot placed after a note indicates
that its length is to be increased one half ( J:= l-£))5

the effect of a second dot is to lengthen the note by

I \PP‘

three-quarters the original value ( 5.. :: o\/a\/0 .

Attention should be called to the fact that dots following

 

l.The physical basis of habit is the establishment of
neural paths in the cortex of the brain. Repetition
reduces the friction of neural energy and lies at the
back of habit; thus making wrong-doing as easy as right-
doing. Mental habits are formed in the same way as
physical. and the right habit has to be started con-
sciously in order to become automatically correct.

rests lengthen them to the same extent as those
applied to notes. As soon as the student is
familiar with the notation of dotted notes. the
teacher should have him.play the various patterns
on but one tone of his instrument. This eliminates
any finger difficulties that might arise. and gives
the pupil a chance to center all his attention upon

the correct values Of the notes involved.

In passages containing alternate dotted

IMP

quarters and eighths ( g. on. c ). the rhythmic

l 2&3 4&
pattern must be strictly played. Brief intervals of
silence between tones should be observed for the sake
of clarity. This is accomplished by stOpping the
breath after each tone as the tongue resumes its

position of attack against the lips.

In the case of dotted eighths followed
by sixteenths in strong rhythmic passages ( .. , .. , ).
the sixteenth note must be played close to the following
dotted eighth for purposes of clarity. as though written
a doubly dotted eighth and thirty-second ( E [a ).
There is not sufficient time to allow a short silence

between these two tones. but they must be articulated

cleanly. The tongue must respond differently in this

~68 -

case than when playing dotted quarters followed by
eighths; two rapid attacks must be effected so that
they are distinctly heard. By pointing the tongue
and.executing the retractions quickly. the emission
of two clear and pronounced tones will be the result.
Brief intervals Of silence should precede the play-
ing of the sixteenth notes. and care should be taken
that all notes of the same denomination have exactly

the same value and treatment.

When a doubly-dotted quarter note is

I I»

followed by a sixteenth note ( ... g ). the first
12345678

must be held seven times as long as the second. The
only accurate method by which this may be accomplished
is to practice this figure at a slow enough tempo to
give the pupil time to divide each count into four
equal parts mentally and physically. thus enabling
each note to receive its exact value. After the figure
has been repeated a few times. the student will become

conscious Of the relationship of the tones and may omit

the subdivision of the beats.

In trumpet playing. when a passage con-
sists of alternate dotted notes and shorter notes. and

both are marked staccato. the dot should be treated as

a rest; the longer notes are thus made briefer. and

the short notes remain the same ( ,. , :- . ‘Y', ).

B. gyncOpation:

Definitions should be an integral part
Of the instructor's conversation with the pupil in
order to avoid misconceptions. It is sufficient to
atate that syncOpation is an alteration Of regular
rhythm. produced by placing emphasis on part or parts

of the measure not usually accented.

The student. first attempting synco-
pation. should be encouraged to play consecutive
quarter notes in 4/4 time. accenting the first and
third beats of every bar. then shifting the accent
to the second and fourth beats keeping strict time
and using a subdued attack on the first and third
beats. After this has been practiced sufficiently.
the second beat should retain its accent as the first
quarter note has been tied from a whole note of the

I\}

\
preceding measure. This figure. O\Lo a) o '> .

should also be practiced without any alteration of

-70-

‘time. Identical measures should then be played con-
sisting of a quarter note. a half note. followed by
another quarter note ( 0‘ c: l ). with the accent
still remaining on the second beat. Playing the
preceding example at a gradually faster tempo in four
beats and keeping the respective tones at the same
value or length and changing the rhythmic pulsation

to two in a measure,is the ideal manner of introducing
gllg £2312 syncOpation. Alla bggyg; constitutes the
most common form of syncOpation. and is identical
in sound with measures made up of an eighth note.

‘7

quarter note. followed by another eighth note (a a)

‘Vc._w

in 2/4 time. The longer tone in this type of
syncOpation should always receive an accent and be held
its full value; the other notes on either side should
be played shorter with brief intervals of silence
between. Care must be exercised that the accented tones
are diminished immediately after the attack so that the

regular accent will not receive any stress.

Continued syncOpation should be articu-

lated cleanly by means of a crisp tongue. It should be

 

l.Two beats to a measure. indicated 4'} .

played in as fluent and effortless a manner as
possible without anticipation of the accented notes.
rather than with a mechanical and laborious feeling
Of accentuation. SynOOpation in 3/4 time should

be treated in precisely the same manner as that in
4/4 and 2/4 time. If the student has any capacity
for rhythm. and has faithfully practiced the above
exercises as described. he should be able to analyze

and read complex syncOpations at sight.

VII. ADVANCED TECHNIQUE AND EMBELLISHMENT

A. Double and Triple Tongging:

Double and triple tonguing are methods
‘Of articulation to be used in rapid passages where the
speed demanded is impossible of accomplishment by
single tonguing. Musical compositions use them effect-
ively in the form of variations. and as a substitute
for the tremolo of string instruments in transcriptions
for band.of orchestral music. The student should have
single tonguing highly perfected before attempting
either double or triple tonguing. and then only at the

advice of the instructor.

The cornetist should learn the exact
speed with which he can single tongue so that he may
judge accurately whether to single. double. or triple
tongue when he sees the staff notation. As was dis-
cussed in chapter V. single tonguing is phonetically

represented by a succession Of the lingual letter L.

or the syllable 32. Double tonguing aims at alternating
the linguo-dental explosive £3 with another eXplosive
consonant produced differently. such as the linguo-
palatal kg. thus relieving the muscles of the tongue by
alternate instead of repeated action. This may be re-
presented to the pupil by the syllables ggeku. Isolated
practice of the £3 syllable has proven beneficial in the

majority of cases.

There are two distinct practices in pro-
duction of triple tonguing. One is to use the double
tongue in triplet groupings such as Lgekuvgu. 52-23-32.
This has been satisfactory for triplets built upon the
same tone. but is not very practical for groupings
that contain intervals. The other method in which
triple tonguing is produced. and which is the method
more extensively used by professional cornetists. is
the articulation of two successive single tongues
followed by a linguo-palatal _k_u syllable. gg-tu-ku.
tarts-ku-

In order to produce this complex motion
with perfect regularity. it is necessary to practice
slowly at first without the use of the horn so that the

tongue and throat may allow the same quantity of air to

escape at each syllable. Single groups of couplets
and.triplets should be practiced before attempting an
indefinite number so that the ear and mind of the
student have Opportunity to orientate toward these
new types of tonguing. The instrument may be used
after a sufficient degree of rapidity has been Obtain-
ed. All notes in double and triple tonguing must be
equal in volume. length of tone. and distance apart.
In order to impart more equality to the tonguing. it
is necessary when beginning. to prolong each syllable
a little. After a certain amount of precision has
been obtained. the tonguing should then be shortened

in order to obtain the true staccato which is desired.

An excellent exercise for the perfection
of double and triple tonguing is to play consecutive
staccgto notes. increasing the Speed gradually until
single tonguing is no longer possible. then change to
double or triple tonguing as desired. When making this
change. care should be taken that the latter sounds as

regular and even as the former.

B. The Vibrato:1

As soon as the cornet student has
attained a high degree of proficiency on his instru-
ment. he should be encouraged to make use of the
vibrato in playing legato passages and free-flowing
melodies. The vibrato should never be used in band
or orchestra unless when playing a solo melody and
then very judiciously. When the vibrato is deliberately
used to enhance the emotional feeling Of the music it
can be highly effective. but when it degenerates into
a mannerism it is entirely Opposed to good taste. The
vibrato. if used prOperly. adds a richness. warmth. and
flexibility to tone otherwise unobtainable. Seashore
has conducted a number Of studies in the vibrato with
great results. He sums up the psychology of the
vibrato as a source of beauty in the following state-
ment:

The most general aspect of the sources of
beauty in the vibrato is the eXpression of

 

1.A good vibrato is a pulsation of pitch. usually acc-
Ompanied with synchronous pulsations of loudness and
timbre. of such extent and rate as to give a pleasing
flexibility. tenderness. and richness to the tone.
(Seashore).

feeling by conveying the impression Of in-
stability as a symbol of emotion. In tense
feeling we tremble. Whether it is intense
love or hatred. intense attraction or in-
tense repulsion. we tremble irresistibly;
that is. we exhibit various aspects of in-
stability in a pulsating way throughout the
organism. affecting heart beat. breathing.
voice. and all the organic processes. This
is a universal and true indication of deep
feeling or emotion. It occurs. however.
prOportionately in all degrees of genuine
feeling. and finds a variety of means of
expression through the organism. In music
it takes the form of the vibrato.1

Although the vibrato is a means for the expression of
musical feeling. it does not differentiate among the
feelings.

The player should be able to change from
a straight tone to the vibrato at will. as well as from
the vibrato to the straight tone. The vibrato should not
start with the attack of a tone. but immediately after in
order to insure cleanliness of attack. Tones of long
duration should receive vibrato treatment. whereas it may

be omitted on the shorter Ones.

The vibrato may be produced on the cornet
or trumpet in a number of ways. Care must be exercised

in order to prevent the student from producing this

 

l.Seashore. “PsychOlOgy of the Vibrato in Voice and
Instrument". Iowg Studies. III. 110.

-77 ..

ornament by shaking his head. The three best ways
to produce the vibrato are by means of the breath and

diaphragm. the hand. or the lips and jaw.

The breath. or throat and diaphragm.
vibrato is best obtained by varying the amount and
intensity of the breath through the action of the
diaphragm and the throat cavities. This makes for a
change in intensity Of the tone. and only a slight
variance in pitch. This is best produced by success-
ive guttural sounds. preferably the syllable gg-_g
without any break. This method is difficult to
acquire. and unless the student has a natural in-
clination to produce the vibrato in this manner. it

is advisable to teach either one of the other two

forms 0

The lip vibrato has a decided advantage
over the hand vibrato inasmuch as it can be more readily
controlled. and all notes will receive the same amount
of pitch deviation. This vibrato should be attempted
if the breath vibrato is too difficult. saving the hand
vibrato as a last resort. In order to produce the lip

vibrato. it is necessary that the student start with a

sustained tone in the middle range of his instrument.

After the tone has been sounded the lower jaw should
be raised and lowered periodically. thus slightly
varying the size of the aperture between the lips.
without going so far as to disturb the embouchure.
This effects the intensity in such a way as to pro-
duce a sort of wave in the tone as well as a slight
change in pitch. This must be practiced slowly at
first until the pupil has acquired perfect control
and identical oscillations. When this is effected
rapidly the difference of intonation vanishes. and
the ear only detects a plaintive throbbing.1 The
vibrato rate may vary from four to ten oscillations
per second according to the type of music played.

and the individual taste of the performer. ‘

Another phase of the lip vibrato is
accomplished by means of the hand rather than the
jaw. The hand vibrato is done with the right hand
on the tOps of the keys. The art of pulsating a note
by a to-and-fro movement of the hand and fingers

should be done in a periodic manner. Only the thumb

 

l.Hattwick analyzed the vibrato in a number Of cases by
means of the tonoscOpe. and found that the average

_ -extent of the pitch in the vibrato was .4 of a tone.
and the average cycle rate was 7 per second. ("The
Vibrato in Wind Instruments". Iowa §tudie§. I. 279).

effects the vibrato in Open tones and should be
practiced regularly until it is uniform in in-
tensity. rate. and pitch varyance throughout the
entire compass of the instrument. Care should be
taken that the hand movement is not excessive in
appearance. nor is so violent as to disturb the

embouchure.

In dramatic and emotional passages
the rate should be made faster and more intense
than in ordinary playing. In such cases. the muscles
of the diaphragm must become more tense and the
volume of air increased. Hard and fast lines in
matters of eXpression in art are impossible to draw.
Cultivation Of taste. Observance of good models. and
especially the true and unbiased analysis of the
human feelings. must be the guides as to how far this

means of expression may be used.

C. High Tones:

It is the ambition of every cornetist
to be able to play high tones. so the instructor is

invariably confronted with this problem sooner or

~80-

.later. The tones from " to gLLL should not be
attempted by the beginner until he has mastered
all forms of playing technique in both the low
and middle registers. The prerequisite for the
playing of higher tones is the ability of attack-

ing and controlling sustained tones from Q: to g:

without any strain whatsoever.

In this connection the teacher might
do well to compare cornet-playing with pole-vaulting.
The pole-vaulter does not confine his practice to
making jumps at his maximum height. but rather per—
fects his form constantly on lower heights. It is the
same with the cornetist; he must spend almost his
entire practice period in develOping his form. 1. 6..
all his fundamentals. The practice Of high tones
should be reserved for a few minutes each day somewhere
in the middle of the practice period When the lips have

sufficient agility and are not too fatigued.

High tones are not well accomplished by
agtack. but rather by slurred chromatic scale practice.
To learn to play high notes correctly. the student
should start a chromatic scale from g; and slur up one

octave to g2. making as much gradual crescendo as

~81-

possible without marring the quality of the tone.
After this has been accomplished. he should attempt
the ascension and descension Of the slurred chromatic
scale in one breath. This practice should be con-
tinued on each ascending semitone1 until the student's
maximum range has been reached. The student should
avoid pinching the lips or pressing the mouthpiece
against the lips as much as possible. and strive to
support the higher tones with concentrated breath by
exerting more tension in the muscles of the diaphragm.
These exercises should be played slowly at first with
a certain degree of loudness. so that the entire range
will be Of uniform quality. and also to insure the
player against possible pinching and pressing the lip
muscles. A few minutes each day is sufficient for

the practice of high tones as the lips are delicate.
and.punishment with a mouthpiece will tend to weaken

rather than strengthen these muscles.

In order to Obtain the extremely high

tones from_c"' to g . it is necessary to stretch

the lips somewhat in conjunction with the punctuation

 

l. gfl to g#". g; to a". bb' to bb". etc.

A - - - g -

-82—

Of the breath. It is advisable to use the second
valve for QELLL and the Open position for QLL:
when these tones are first instroduced. as the
resistance will be lesser than that of the ordinary

fingerings. Later. the regular fingers may be used.1

After the player has extended his range by these
means. the attack and sustained tone may be applied

to the newly acquired tones.

D. Endurance:

 

Fatigue for a cornetist is usually
experienced in the lips where the muscles are delicate
and unable to take undue strain. Beginner's lips
usually tire easily and quickly unless the instructor
has taught the principles of endurance. The whole
secret Of endurance is to shift strain to other parts
of the body. and to aid the muscles of the lip rather

than to retard them.

 

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e'~."- -o; _1:___".' 1; 2; ' -

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~83-

ImprOper breathing is the most common
cause of fatigue in brass instrument playing. The
cornetist should always breathe deeply. keeping the
diaphragm muscles taut while playing to insure
against securing the tones by pinching and squeezing
the lips. The pressure of the mouthpiece against the
lips should not be overdone. Pressure has many times
been substitued for breathing by beginning players.
with the result that they have maintained this habit
to such a degree that they are unable to refrain from
pressure in procuring tones fnom the instrument. The
jaw should be set firmly to act as a foundation. and
the mouthpiece placed upon the lips with a certain
amount of tension. so that the escape of air is im-
possible. but. the mouthpiece must never be pushed
against the jaw and lips. forcing the lips to vibrate.
The less pressure a player is able to use in order to
secure a desired tone. the more endurance will he

realize.

The trumpeter must have all the tones of
his playing range under absolute control so that he may
be able to play them with the least possible exertion.

Correct embouchure. good control and support of the

-84-

breath. as well as accurate articulation Of the tongue.

will relieve the lip strain to a great extent.

Relaxation must be adhered to during all
types of playing. When the breath is inhaled through
the corners Of the mouth. the pressure of the mouthpiece
against the lips should be released so that the natural
circulation of blood may be resumed. During all
intervals of silence. the mouthpiece should be taken
entirely away from the lips. Protruding the lips at this
time will relax them sufficiently. and thus enable them
to remain fresh throughout the entire period of playing.
Sore lips and fever blisters are caused by over-strain
Of the lip nerves or by disorders of the stomach. An
application Of zinc ointment will relieve pain and will
dry fever blisters. Be sure to keep the lips thoroughly
cleansed. Lip stick and other applications for cuts tend
to soften the lips and should not be used if the student

wishes to have his lips in the best playing condition.

The mouthpiece must be fully plated in
order to prevent brass poisoning which may permanently
injure the lips. Mouthpieces should be plated
immediately after the brass begins to show through.
Using a wet or dry lip is an individual matter depending

.85—

upon the nervous system of the person. A few minutes
massage of the lips and jaw muscles before going to
bed and immediately after playing will increase

their strength and flexibility.

E. Transposition:1

Ability to transpose is extremely
valuable to the practical musician. and a necessity to
the cornetist. Inasmuch as the cornet and trumpet of
today are both pitched in 22. almost all music demands
transposition unless written specifically for these

instruments.

Trumpet parts in orchestral music are
frequently designated in g. A. _E_:. pf, 12, etc. The
performer must find the intervallic distance and
direction from 32. the pitch Of the instrument. and

the pitch indication as given on the parts. After the

 

l.Transposition is the act Of changing the key mentally
for performance into a different key from that in which
it is written.

~86-

player has determined the number Of steps between
these keys and the direction in which he must go.
he may then procede to transpose either by interval

or by the use of clefs.

In transposing by interval. all tones
must be read and.played. above or below. as the case
may be. from the original notation according to the
intervallic distance between the old key and the new
key desired. If a cornetistwishes to make a‘Q
transposition. he must read all tones one whole step
higher than actually written. Observing the key sign-
ature of that key which is one whole step higher than
the original key. For example. if the original key
of the composition is E. the transposed key will be
Q. Accidentals occuring throughout the notation must
be dealt with individually so that they will also sound
one tone higher than written. In making this 9 trans-
position. all notes occupying a line will be read in
the space above. and all notes occupying a space will
be read on the line above. Transposition by the method
described above becomes very tedius. and frequent
chromatic alterations in a composition may tend to slow

down the reading of such a work.

-87-

In order to transpose by the use Of
clefs. the cornetist must be familiar with all the
clefs. The treble or Q clef. with 9 located in the
third space. is familiar. In the bass or Eyelet. Q
is located in the second space. In the g clefs. the
sOprano has Q on the first line; the mezzo-sOpranO has it
on the second line. the alto on the third line. the tenor
clef the fourth line. and the baritone on the fifth
line.

The selection of the clef is done by find-
ing the intervallic distance between the Old key and new
key. and using that clef which will effect such a
distance. In making a g tranSposition. the cornetist
will use the alto clef. thus automatically changing
the letter names and respective sounds of the notes.
However. the new key signature must be Observed as in
transposing by interval. Chromatic alterations may be
observed by means Of the following rules:

I. Find the difference between the
number of accidentals in the key
to which you wish to tranSpose
:2; the number in the original

II. If the new key has a certain
number Of sharps more than the

~88-

original key. take this number in the
order of sharps. and read 1/2 tone
higher any accidental sign occuring
in front Of any one Of these pitches.
On the other tones. they must be read
exactly as printed.

III.If the new key has a certain number of
flats more than the original key. take
this number in the order of flats. and
read 1/2 tone lower any accidental sign
occuring in front of any one of these
pitches. On the other tones. they must
be read exactly as printed.1

The chart below shows the various clefs and the keys

that they will automatically transpose. In order to

 

Key Designated Clef To Be Used

 

3.1310 i Treble
A.Ab J i Tenor

c,c# a; Alto

 

 

D.Db Bass

E.Eb ¥ l!/ Mezzo-SOprano

F.F# Baritone

G.Gb ‘ IR SOprano

 

 

 

 

VII. Transposition Chart.

 

l.Smith & Krone. Fundamentals Q; Musicianship. I. 187.

I

-89-

transpose fluently. the cornetist should set aside
a few minutes each day for this practice. familiar-
izing himself with the clefs and the reOOgnition of
intervals. It is recommenbd that the instructor
assign an exercise or short piece to be transposed
into various keys. Transposition is not only an
asset to the trumpet player for practical use. but
is also a valuable aid in sight reading.

-90-

We have endeavored. in the foregoing
chapters. to present a coherent background and
comprehensive discussion of cornet and trumpet
pedagogy. We have particularly tried to take ad-
vantage Of modern tendencies in educational
psychology and teaching practice. It is our hOpe
that application of the material and ideas. as out-
lined above. will make for improved teaching and
appreciation of many of the problems confronting

both teacher and pupil.

Knowledge of the historical back-
ground Of the instrument. its evolution from
primitive horns. through various stages of develOp-
ment. to the uniform and excellent instruments of
today. should inculcate in the pupil greater
respect for his art. and with it. greater seriousness

Of purpose.

-91-

An adequate conception of the
acoustical prOperties of the instrument should
assist the instructor in meeting and solving
many individual problems. The phases of
musical tone. timbre. and acoustics involved
in cornet and trumpet performance are so diverse
and in many cases so individualized as to not
permit further generalization. We have pre-
sented their known aspects. The individual
instructor will be many times called upon to
solve particular problems for which this can

be but a mere foundation.

The same holds true for problems
of technique. We have presented and discussed
problems and methods of presentation which have
arisen from our own experience and that Of
instructors with whom we have come in contact.
It would be a physical impossibility to meet in
advance all such problems. We can but encourage
patient and thorough study of each new problem

by the instructor.

-92-

NO problem is too slight. no detail
tOO insignificant to permit superficial skimming
on the part of the instructor. The pupil should
at all times be encouraged to make haste slowly
from the moment the first tone is attempted until
it is perfected. from the time that tone is ac-
quired until several years later when the range is

extended through the third octave.

In class teaching. a practice that
has become increasingly common in public school
music. care again must be taken that the need of the
individual pupil is neither ignored.nor casually

treated.

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