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U111”. > ;‘§13£S’W MEH' This is to certify that the thesis entitled A Comparative Study of The Open University of Britain and The Air and CorreSpondence College of Korea presented by Cheon Ung Bae has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D degeehi Educational Administration and Curriculum Major professor March 9, 1984 Dr. Joseph Levine Date 0-7639 PVIESI.) RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to LIBRARIES remove thls checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. v m) ML? (lRCUWiE molt us: om rd, “W77 77'7‘K,7lu A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF 'THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF BRITAIN AND THE AIR AND CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE OF KOREA BY Cheon Ung Bae A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Departmentment of Administration and Curriculum 1984 ABSTRACT A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF THE OPEN UNIVERSITY AND THE AIR AND CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE OF KOREA BY Cheon Ung Bae Even though every government establishes new schools and expands educational opportunities, there are certain groups of people who can not take the advantage from that provision because of age and other constraining factors. Many correspondence education programs are developed for those people. 4 Among them, the British Open University and the Air and Correspondence College of Korea are selected and compared in their purpose, organization, educational programs, students and teaching methods to seek ways for the development of the correspondence educational program and continuing education. Both the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College were developed to provide opportunity of higher education to those who were formerly out of school. With the provision of multi-media teaching -— written correspondence materials, broadcasting instruction, and face—to-face instruction, many people can study and work simultaneously. The students of the Open University and the Air and Cheon Ung Bae Correspondence College were scattered around country, however, they can get guidance and help from regional study center. The regional organization brings the problem of coordination of activities with the central organization and maintenance of common standards throughout the country. In preparing the teaching materials, many people are involved. Especially, in the case of the Open University, with the preparation of multi—disciplinary courses and adoption of course team approach in course preparation, the cooperation between the academic staffs and administrative staffs is indespensible. A common problem of correspondence education, low completion rate, should befsolved for the continuous development of both institutions and continuing education in general. To solve the problem and to make an educational program attractive to the general public are not merely a task of an institution but all the sectors of society. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It is with deep appreciation that I acknowledge the guidance and encouragement given to me by my chairman, Dr. Joseph Levine. His constant and warmful guidance encouraged me to finish this work. I also wish to thank Dr. Jack Bain, Dr. Maxine Ferris, and Dr. Richard Gardner for serving on my dissertation committee and giving me valuable assistance and help. To my parents whose constant love and careful concern to me have given me direction and inspiration to continue study. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS page LIST OF TABLES ........................................ V LIST OF FIGURES .........................................Vi CHAPTER I. OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY A. Introduction ................................ 1 B. Purposes .................................... 5 C. Research Methods ........ ........ ............ 12 D. Organization ................................ 13 II. DEVELOPMENT OF CORRESPONDENCE EDUCATION A Definition of Correspondence Eudcation ...... 15 B. Background of Correspondence Education ...... 17 C. Learning and Teaching in Correspondence Education ................ 22 D Characteristics of Students ................. 25 E. Some Trends in Correspondence Education ..... 28 III. THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF GREAT BRITAIN 3:! Organization of the British Educational System ....................... 31 Development of the Open University ........... 40 Organization of the Open University .......... 49 . Educational Program of the Open University ......... ..... ..... ........... 58 The Students of the Open University .......... 68 DOB?! til IV. THE AIR AND CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE OF KOREA A. The Korean Educational System ...... .......... 79 B. Development of the Air and Correspondence College ................... 89 C. Organization of the Air and Correspondence College .................. 102 D. Educational Program of the Air and Correspondence College .............. 107 E. Opinion of the Faculty of the Air and Correspondence College .............. 114 F. Students of the Air and Correspondence College .............. 127 V. COMPARISON OF THE OPEN UNIVERSITY AND THE AIR AND CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE A. Purposes and Organization ................... 138 B. Course Structure ............................ 142 C. Student ..................................... 144 D. Evaluation .................................. 146 E. Recruitment of Staff ........................ 149 F. Media of Teaching .................. ..... .... 152 VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION A. Conclusions ............... ......... ......... 154 B. Concluding Remarks .......... .... ..... ....... 163 C. Recommendations to Further Research ....... .. 166 APPENDIX SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE ..... ..... ........... ........ ..... 169 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........ ..... .......... .............. ..... 173 iv TABLE 1. 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 LIST OF TABLES Page Application and admission to the Open Universtiy...71 Applicants' Occupations............................73 The Number of New Entrants to Higher Education by Age in England and Wales 1976—77......77 Age Distribution of the New Entrant Students at the Open University in 1976—77..................78 Increase in School Enrolment 1945-1960 ...... ...... 82 Instructors' Views of A&C College Instruction.....116 Instructors' Views of A&C College Students Ability and Motivation............................118 Frequency of A&C College Students Visits in Comparison with that of regular students..........ll9 The Kinds of Questions from the A&C College Students and from Regular Students..... ..........120 Instructors' Sources of Informations about the A&C College Students........... ..... . ....... ......121 Instructors' Views of A&C College Students' Difficulty to Study.... ....... ............. ....... 122 Instructors' Views about the Appropriateness of Course Demand and Availability of Time for the A&C College Students... ................. . 123 Instructors' Views about the Sufficiency of Time for the A&C College Course Coverage .........124 Number of Applicants and Admission Quotas ........l3O Number of Admittance and Graduates ...............l3l Age of Students by Department ....... ...... .......133 Number of Students by Region ............. ........ 135 LIST OF FIGURES Figure page 1: The Basic Scheme of Correspondence Education .... 23 2: Educational System of Britain ................... 32 3: Educational System of Korea ..................... 83 4: Organizational Structure of the Air and Correspondence College .......................... 103 d - CHAPTER I OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY A. INTRODUCTON Modern society is called mass society. Mass participation in political, economic, and social activities characterize modern society. With this movement, education for the masses has developed. Following the achievement of compulsory free elementary education, secondary education for all youth was promoted. As the number of secondary school graduates increases, higher education must respond to the increased demands. Today, the theme of equal educational opportunity and the extension of higher education has been widely discussed. Various plans to implement the idea have been considered and developed throughout the world. In addition to formal college and university work, alternatives have been proposed and implemented such as the university without walls, the open university, independent home study, extra—mural education, correspondence college and so on. When the concept of education as preparation for living prevailed, school was regarded as synonymous with education. It was also believed that education took place only in the school. Following graduation from school, it was believed the individual had developed sufficiently to assume a productive role in society. Adults were considered to have 1 2 passed the formal education stage. In relating education and life, "the traditional approach assumed that education preceded (adult) life, taking place in youth and adolescence, prior to full-time employment in adulthood. If a society required more education, the tendency was to increase the period of compulsory full-time schooling" (Megarry, 1979, P.12). It can not be denied that schools and colleges have performed important functions for the deveolpment of individuals and societies. When social change was slow and generalized, an individual could perform his or her roles in society with the knowledge and skills acquired at school. As society developed, every social institution became more specialized, including educational institutions. Schools and colleges were considered to be the only place where educational activities took place. This specialization of educational functions had significant consequences; when an individual failed to attend school at the specific time, it could mean the complete loss of educational opportunity. Every society, realizing the importance of education for individuals and the entire society, has made efforts to extend and broaden educational opportunities by establishing more schools. Almost every country has established a compulsory public school system, requiring every individual to attend for a specific duration. In spite of the expansion of formal education, the '3 gate-keeping function of formal education still remains. We can see it in the high correlation between the level of education and social status. Without graduating from secondary school, it is hard to get a job. This relationship is more pronounced in the realm of higher education where a non-graduate experiences much more difficulty acquiring a good job than a graduate. Traditionally, higher education has been viewed as one of the most important institutions involved in selecting and educating leaders of a given society. It was not viewed as the institution for educating the general public, however. Rather, it was for the elite. In society, where competitive achievement prevailed, it seemed natural that only a few were selected and taught to lead the general public. It has been said that "higher education is too high for the average intelligence, much too high for the average interest, and vastly too high for the average patience and perseverance of the people, here or anywhere" (Benson & Hodgkinson, 1974, p.xii). With the widespread introduction of primary and secondary education for all children, and the gradual rising of the age at which a student completed his or her education, the demand for education at the post—secondary level has increased. In addition to this demand from the public, national needs to develop its economic, social and cultural standard of living have inevitably led to the expansion of higher education. However, this is not a simple task easily accomplished by the mere extension of existing provisions. There are a number of different needs and various conditions to be considered. If the extension is made on the basis of the traditional approach -- learning at school and then working -- it loses the true meaning of education, since the society changes so rapidly that people can hardly keep up with its development unless they have opportunities to be retrained and correct their deficiencies. People in the work place need to learn continuously in order to keep abreast of the advances in knowledge and technology within their fields. Those who presently have no opportunity to study may also want to learn later. In addition, there may be many people who want to learn for its the sake of learning. It would be unwise and unfair to individuals and to the entire society if people are excluded from educational opportunities merely because of their age. It is also important to note that access to formal education, inappropriate for the development of individual talents, may represent nothing more than prolonged captivity in an environment that offers little more than an opportunity to repeat the damaging experiences of school failure. Gardner (1961) described the situation as follows: 5 In the case of the youngster who is not very talented academically, forced continuation of education may simply prolong a situation in which he is doomed to failure. Many a youngster of low ability has been kept on pointlessly in a school which taught him no ' vocation, exposed him to continous failure and then sent him out into the world with a record which convinced employers that he must forever afterward be limited to unskilled or semi-skilled work. This is not a sensible way to conserve human resources (p. 80). In these situations, it is necessary to consider alternatives to mere expansion of post-secondary education. There have been numerous efforts to provide additional educational opportunities. Individuals and public or private organizations prepared educational programs with the intention of informing or changing individual behaviors and attitudes. Much variation existed in the objectives, methods, target population and other points of these programs. In short, such programs can be described as nonformal education. Nonformal education is any organized or semi-organized educational activity outside the established formal system -- whether operated separately or as an important feature for some broader activity -- that is intended to serve identifiable learning clienteles and learning objectives (Ahmed & Coombs, 1975). B. PURPOSES Correspondence education can contribute to the expansion of educational opportunity. It can help people overcome geographical, time, financial and other 6 psychological and sociological barriers. However, access to educational programs is not merely an issue of provision. Simply offering people educational opportunity is not enough. The target population for correspondence education has characteristics which are different from those of regular students. Support services which are relevant to the needs of that group should be developed and provided. The organizational structure, educational programs and teaching methods should be complementary to the students. When a new structure of post—secondary education is planned and developed, problems arise regarding the compatibility of two types of requirements. On the one hand, higher education must maintain and even strengthen its standards, it must ensure excellence both in teaching and research; on the other hand, it must provide adequate educational opportunities to a mass of students whose interests, abilities and aspirations are extremely heterogeneous and often do not correspond to the traditional functions of universities. Certainly, correspondence education is not a new method, but government- initiated and large-scale correspondence higher education is a relatively new phenomenon. When a new program is initiated, it is common to stress its merits and to emphasize its advantages in order to gain general acceptance. But for a program to fulfill its purpose, the character of the program and the 7 situation of the society must be understood. However successful any particular educational program might be at a given time in a given community, it might become a program of a somewhat different nature and with a clearly different response in a community which has quite another social, historical or geographical background. If a program promises to deliver what its resources and history cannot support, access to that program would have no meaning. The Open University of Britian and the Air and Correspondence College of Korea began their programs in the early 19708. Both of them were developed by the central government to expand higher education opportunities. Two distinguishing characteristics of the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College are in their target students and teaching methods. These institutions are for the people out-of—school throughout the countries and use distance teaching methods to reach the students. The introduction of these formerly neglected people into the higher education and adoption of distance teaching open a way to provide education to all the people. Now, it has past over 10 years since they opened and recruited their first students. In part against the criticism and difficulties, and in part with the support, they continued teaching activities and produced lots of students. As time went on, they changed their education programs and administrative structure or developed new ones. 8 And they would continue to change. Along with this change, we have to review the whole process of development and find a direction of the operation of the institutions; whether the purposes of the institutions were accomplished, whether the education programs and administrations were appropriate to the purposes of the institutions, whether sufficient services were provided to the students, and other problems. In this study, the following research questions are presented. The first question that is examined in this study is, "What is the social and historical background of the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College?" In both countries, the opportunity for higher education was low and admission to universities was highly selective. The View on higher education was rather conservative; that is, only a small proportion of young men and women was believed to have the talent and ambition to do really advanced intellectual work of the higher education. But the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College, through their openness to the people without strong restriction, started on the different premises. In this study, those social and historical factors that influenced and determined the direction of the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College will be examined. The second research question to be examined in this study is, "What is the administration process of the Open [university and the Air and Correspondence College?" The 9 process of administration covers the whole procedure from planning a program, to excution of the program and to evaluation. An institution which has a good intention and purpose can not achieve its purpose if it fails to organize and excute the program effectively. A student who finds a valuable point in the purpose of the program and enrolls may feel it difficult to continue study if appropriate services are not provided by the institution. And a staff of the institution may find it difficult to continue his/her work if coordination or cooperation between the staffs does not run smoothly. Particularly, in the case of the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College, which have existed for 10 years, the successful administration is important to make a strong foundation to develop and continue their activities. And the provision of distance education to a large number of students who have more diverse needs and backgrounds than those of regular students and who are spread over the country requires special attention to organize the administration process. In this study, the organization of these two institutions are compared focusing on the administrative structure, educational program development, student support services and other related tasks. The third research question to be examined in this study is, "What are the educational programs of the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College and how 10 have they developed?" Both institutions developed as a higher educational institution. The graduate of the Open University got a bachelor's degree as the other graduate of the conventional university did. And the graduate of the Air and Correspondence College received associate degree until 1981 when it was transformed to an undergraduate institution. It can now give bachelor's degree. However, because of the differences in the characteristics of the students, modes of teaching and learning from those of the regular students, the educational programs of both institutions had to be different in their organization and structures, but not in their quality from the educational programs of the conventional undergraduate courses. An educational program does not merely consist of the list of required courses. It includes the learning activities of the students and their interaction with the instructors. Distance teaching of the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College is largely based on the independent learning of the students combined with the provision of broadcasting instruction, correspondence materials and classroom teaching in the summer and winter vacation school. Unlike conventional classroom teaching, where large part of a course program is prepared by an instructor, many people are participating in the process of preparation and implementation in correspondence materials and teaching. In this research, the characteristics of the programs and their 11 development process will be examined. The fourth research question that will be examined in this study is, "What are the characteristics of the students of the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College?" The students of the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College are those who were not given the opportunity to study in the higher educational institutions or failed to enter for one reason or another. Some could not afford the money for studying, others were below the academic ability which the institution required. Or there were more interesting or valuable things which helped them decide not to study in the higher educational institutions. The Open University and the Air and Correspondence College gave them a second chance to study. For this opportunity to help them sufficiently, the characteristics of the students should be fully understood. The experiences they got in the working life can be either beneficial or obstructive to their study. For those who took courses which were related to their work experiences, their experiences could be beneficial. But if the courses were not matched well with their work experiences, they may have found it hard to study the courses. It is important to understand the students to provide programs that meet their needs and to help them study to their full potential. Finally, based on these comparisons and analyses, general recommendations for the development of distance 12 education in relation to continuing education are pfesented. The purpose of continuing education is not merely to provide additional educational opportunity, but to establish a continuity of education throughout one's life. The Open University and the Air and Correspondence College, because of their association with broadcasting media, their openness and ease of access, have the potential to contribute to the development of continuing education. Here, the directions for the development of both institutions, in their purposes, organization, the education programs, teaching methods and their supporting services are presented. C. RESEARCH METHODS The research method used in this study is literature review. The source materials include the available official documents of the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College. Both the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College prepared status and regulations that defined their aim, structure and practice. By reviewing and analyzing them, the purposes, organization, and educational programs are found out. Statistical documents describing the educational sector of countries are published by each country and each institution prepares statistical data that describe the characteristics of the students, the number of admitted, the number of students in a course, the completion rate, and other information. These 13 data are used to analyze the characteristics of the students and their trends. Besides, previous surveys and research, newspaper and magazine reports and other related articles in the journals will be examined. In addition, questionnaires (see Appendix) are sent to the administrators and instructors of the Air and Correspondence College to get primary information from them. The recipients provide information about their views on the students, process of course development, interaction with students including guidance and counselling, and other administrative and teaching activities. D. ORGANIZATION This study is composed of six chapters. In chapter I, the purposes and methods of the study are presented. The general overview of correspondence education is presented in chapter II. The particular system of the Open University of Britain is presented in chapter III, and the Air and Correspondence College of Korea is presented in chapter IV. Here, the historical and social background of the institutions, their organization, course and curriculum, teaching methods, and characteristics of students are examined. In chapter V, the Open University and the Air and Corresponce College are compared, in their purposes, organization, course structure, students, and others. The similarities and differences between them are examined. 14 Finally, in chapter VI, conclusions and recommendations are presented. CHAPTER II THE DEVELOPMENT OF CORRESPONDENCE EDUCATION A. DEFINITION OF CORRESPONDENCE EDUCATION Correspondence education or distance education is defined as "the various forms of study at all levels which are not under the continuous, immediate supervision of tutors present with the students in lecture rooms or on the same promises, but which, nevertheless, benefit from the planning, guidance and tuition of a tutoral organization" (Holmberg, 1977, p.168). The essential feature of correspondence education is the physical separation of the students from the teacher and few direct face-to-face interactions between them. Not only is the student separated from his teacher but also from other students. This separation implies the mode of the independent study and makes it easier for more people to gain access to education than could be permitted in a regular classroom situation. And few direct face—to-face interactions bring other mothods of teaching which are pre—produced and can be delivered with delay. However, with the introduction of electronic mass media such as radio and television, communication between teacher and student can occur without delay. Holmberg (1981) suggests four special potentials of distance education: 15 16 H 0 individual study without, or with a minimum of face—to-face instruction with tutors. rational planning and carrying through of study process based on pre-produced learning material and pre-planned facilities for non-contiguous interaction with a supporting organization(tutors, counsellor, etc.). 3. high quality presentation through the reliance on texts by the best subject specialists and educators available. teaching large groups of students with one and the same course, allowing a kind of mass communication and industrial methods (PP. 38-39). N a J}. 0 Similarly, Keegan (1980) describes the main elements of distance education as follows: 1. the separation of teacher and learner, which distinguishes it from face-to—face lecturing. 2. the influence of an educational organization, which distinguishes it from private study. 3. the use of technological media, usually print, to unite teacher and learner and carry the educational content. 4. the provision of two-way communication so that the student may benefit from or even initiate dialogue. 5. the possibility of occasional meeting for both didatic and socialization purposes (Pp.l3-33). The separation of student and teacher might bring many disadvantages in distance education such as difficulty of direct contact and guidance, slowness of feedback, difficulty of relation between course developer, instructor, and evaluator in a large institution, unrelated feedback to current study, difficulty of group work, etc. In addition, unlike in the face-to-face instruction where teacher can make continuous adjustment to keep abreast of changing conditions, the learning materials of the distance education are pre-produced and it takes much time to change the 17 learning material (Childs, 1971). B. BACKGROUND OF CORRESPONDENCE EDUCATION Certainly, correspondence education is not a new method of education. It can be said that correspondence education began with the first letter written from one person to give instruction to another. Correspondence study is said to have begun about the middle of the nineteenth century in Europe. In Britain, with the provision of the cheap and reliable mailing services, Isaac Pitman used the new mailing service to distribute cards on which he printed details of his system of shorthand writing. The response was great and in 1843 the Phonographic Corresponding Society was formed. Members of the Society continued for many years to provide free tuition by mailing in how to write shorthand. In 1856 in Germany, Charles Toussainty, a Frenchman who was teaching French in Berlin, and Gustav Langenscheidt, a member of the Society of Modern Language in Berlin, co-founded a school for teaching language by correspondence. As a result of this initial idea, numerous correspondence education programs have been developed throughout the world. When correspondence education programs began, they were on a small scale and were largely conducted without any connection with the formal educational system. They were provided by a single individual with clearly defined and strictly limited group of persons. With the realization of 18 the necessity of mass education along with the development of society, however, formal educational institutions have adpoted and have begun to utilize the correspondence educatiOn method as a way to extend educational programs to those who were out of school. This organizational stage has occurred in conjunction with the development of mass media. Schramm (1977) identifies four clusters of learning activity with respect to the media: movements for national educational reform, major uses of media for supporting the school, uses of media for extending the school, and uses of media for nonformal education. The first two activities suggest using media as supplements to classroom instruction and instructional aid, and the others suggest using media independently or in relation to formal education. The utilization of media for extending the school is related to correspondence education. Mass media expand the audience because of its ease of access and wide publicity. By delivering information to the place where the receivers live or work, the mass media can reach the students who could not or would not participate in classroom instruction. With the widespread development of mass media, there are increasing uses of associated electronic media to sharpen the effectiveness of the method in combination with the correspondence method. Almost from the time radio was invented, there has been interest in its potential role, and by the 19205 and 19305, a number of 19 educational institutions and broadcasting institutions in Europe, America and elsewhere were making extensive use of radio for instructional purposes (Janison & MacAnany, 1978). From its inception, the BBC in England has given education a high priority. In 1926, in an internal BBC memorandum, Mr. Stobart put a proposal to Lord Reith for a "wireless university." _Even earlier, in 1924, the Adult Education Committee of the Board of Education and the British Institution of Adult Education, together with the BBC, embarked upon a series of regular lectures, and 20,000 copies of a printed syllabus were circulated (Chamberlain, 1967). The combination of mass media and correspondence education has given rise to consideration of a whole new field of educational approach - distance education; correspondence education has in more recent years frequently been called as distance education. It might have been expected that correspondence education would wither away, particularly in those countries where correspondence education had traditionally been regarded as a substitute for formal face—to-face teaching. On the contrary, a number of correspondence education programs have flourished in various countries such as the Open University of England, the Independent Study Program in the School of Continuing Education at the Toront University in Canada, Technical and Further Education in Australia, the Air and Correspondence College of Korea, as well as other 20 Extra-mural Study Programs at universities in the United States. In addition to these, at the beginning of the 19703, many countries were in the stage of planning to establish a correspondence education system or were in an initial experimental stage. The Free and Everyman's University in Iran and in Israel and.the People's University in Pakistan are examples (Hawkridge, 1973). Until recently, however, correspondence education had been largely conducted on a small scale and when the program of correspondence education was provided by an institution as a supplementary unit, those who involved in educational planning and teaching tended to dismiss correspondence education as having little or no educational validity. And entry into correspondence study seemed to be a signal for many people to cut their professional ties with the rest of the educational world (Stein, 1971). These circumstances, however, have begun to undergo a profound change due to several factors: (a) the need to utilize forms of mass education in securing a rapid expansion of opportunities; (b) an awareness of the relevance to modern conditions of lifelong education with its frequent requirement for part-time study methods; (C) a growing realization of the possibilities of combining correspondence with other forms of education, such as face-to-face teaching, radio and television, laboratory and workshop, practice; (d) and an increasing desire on the part 21 of 'bona fide' practitioners to achieve respectability by seeking national inspection and accredition, and by forming international associations such as the International Council on Correspondence Education and the European Council for Education by Correspondence (Glatter, 1969,). With these developments, correspondence education programs emerged throughout the world. At first, as stated earlier, most correspondence education programs were privately owned and operated on a small scale. The medium for interaction between teacher and student was mainly written communication delivered by the postal service. But with the involvement of the public organization, the number of students increased enormously and diverse media forms became involved. Schramm describes twenty one school extension projects as examples of correspondence programs designed as mass communidation systems. The projects cover every level of the educational system in both academic and vocational studies. This kind of instruction, however, would be in more demand at the advanced level, to serve working adults and the increasing number of employees who find it necessary to pick up some of the courses they missed or to retrain themselves for technical changes in their occupation (Schramm, 1977). The inherent characteristics of correspondence education - independence and autonomy - made it particularly appropriate for adults. I E l 22 C. LEARNING AND TEACHING IN CORRESPONDENCE EDUCATION All learning is basically an individual activity, whether it is child learning or adult learning. What is actually learned and the rate at which it is learned varies from individual to individual depending upon genetic make-up, past experience and other factors. In the case of correspondence education, the individuality of learning is even more pronounced. It is a form of education which is typically based on personal work by an individual student more or less independent of the direct guidance of teachers. As a rule, a student can, in some measure, decide to what extent he or she will utilize the teaching provided. The student may have options of reading printed materials, listening to tape recordings or radio programs, whatching video recordings or live television programs. All this is a selctive procedure; each student selects what seems most relevant to his or her needs and learning objectives and what can be attached to the cognitive structures already developed. To what extent a student seriously considers teacher comment or makes use of facilities for face~to-face or telephone contacts when such are offered also depends on a personal choice (Holmberg, 1981). The basic scheme of correspondence education can be represented diagramatically as follows: (Wedemeyer, 1977). 23 Figure 1: The Basic Scheme of Correspondence Education '"EéQEQéE' "IéQZQéE‘ communication mode/media learner teacher content content The left-hand box represents the teacher or teaching organization. Different aspects of the teaching function (course planning, design of teaching materials, making assignments, etc.) are, in practice, accomplished by different teachers. This division of labor, together with other factors such as mass production and automation characterizes correspondence education as an "industrial form of teaching." The right-hand box represents the individual learner. While the teaching may be industrialized, learning can ony be accomplished by each learner acting individually. Interaction between the teaching organizaton and the individual learner takes place through media other than direct face—to—face oral communication. In correspondence education, the interaction between teacher and student occurs with the help of media - printed materials or transmitting a broadcast. Much research has been conducted to determine the effectiveness of mass media 24 in providing information and changing attitudes, which generally are considered the basic task of education. In the research, media were compared both within categories and across categories. In other words, researchers have studied the difference of effects within a medium — a newspaper with another newspaper, or a radio program with another radio program, and they have compared the effects across media — between newspaper, radio and television. These studies specifically addressed such issues as whether there were differences when the message was for information delivery or attitude change, whether people different in psychological or social characteristics reacted differently, whether the influence of media was direct or mediated by others such as opinion leaders, and so on. Comparing the effectiveness of educational media programs with the traditional classroom instruction was one of the areas which has received much attention from researchers. In general, the results of the research showed no one superior way of teaching. The important thing was not what to use, but how to use the media (Schramm, 1977). Two important implications of correspondence education became evident: no significant difference in effectiveness between classroom instruction and correspondence study opened the possibility of reducing cost, and the availability of correspondence study made possible the provision of instruction in the curriculum areas deemed important but where existing teachers were 25 short or untrained. Now, it can not be denied that to provide educational opportunity through various methods, rather than restricting education to the traditional school setting is a valuable objective. Further, correspondence education has many advantages such as low cost, flexibility of time, and ability to overcome time and geographical barriers (MacKenzie & Scupham, 1975). With the development of communication systems such as the home computer and two—way communication, the potential of correspondence education is greatly increased. D. CHARACTERISTICS OF CORRESPONDENCE LEARNERS It would be unreasonable to differentiate and describe the Characteristics of correspondence learners. Anyone who wants to learn can be a correspondence learner. Particularly, with the introduction of open broadcasting - radio and television, those who are not regularly enrolled can learn individually. However, special features of correspondence education programs attract a certain group of people to study. First, the students of correspondence education programs are usually living in areas far from urban or central areas. As in the case of Australia, where the population lives scattered sparsely around the country, and New Zealand, which is composed of lots of islands, those who I 26 live in the remote area from schools and neighbor can not attend school regularly. And it is difficult for a government to establish schools in an area where only a few households live. As a way to provide education, correspondence education programs which are composed of the same curricula as those of regular school are developed. The "telesecundaria" of Mexico is a good example that is a complete secondary school curriculum designed for groups assembled in towns that have no secondary schools (Mayo, 1975). Second, most of the correspondence education programs are for the adults. In a society where lots of things change rapidly and profoundly, people need to learn continuously. Many public and private organizations provide educational programs, but adults who have lots of responsibilities in the jobs and homes can not participate in the programs, if the programs require people to go away from their working places or their homes. And adults who are assumed to be able to study independently can get much help from the organized programs of correspondence education. As in the case of Funkkolleg and Telekolleg of West Germany, most of the students of correspondence education programs are working people or house-wives (Dordick, 1972). Third, the students of correspondence education programs are older than the regular students. In many 27 cases, the correspondence education programs are provided for those who have once missed the opportunity to enter regular school for one reason or another. For those who left school few years ago but may want to study at the next level of school later, age limitation and other entrance requirements make it difficult to get admission. Even they could be admitted, they can not adjust to the school life. Correspondence education programs that permit independence and autonomy are a good second chance for them to study. "NHK Gakuen" of Japan, a high school program shows that over 35% of the students are in their twenties and about 20% are in their thirties, while ordinary age of students of high school is 17—18 years old (Schiller, 1975). And last, when we examine the sex of the students, large portion of the students are male as other formal schools. But there are great variations according to the kinds of programs. TeleKolleg of Germany, which provided technical preparation course, about 80 percent were male. But when the Funkkolleg offered a course in pedagogy, 62 percent were female, largely female teachers. And for the Chicago TV College, over 70 percent of the registered students for credit were women at home (McCombs, 1967). In general, where the opportunities of education for women have been limited, the correspondence education programs opens the door for them. E. SOME TRENDS IN CORRESPONDENCE EDUCATION First of all, in choosing a medium to link students and teachers, there has been a strong trend toward multimedia, generally combination of written materials, radio and/or television. While radio and television provide a sense of live teaching and a reason for the student to stay on schedules, written materials and assignments require learning activity and provide a two-way link with a live teacher who can go over a student's work and provide guidance. Australia, Germany, Great Britain, France, and Japan make extensive use of radio for distance learning, and an increasing number of low—income countries are also experimenting with a radio-correspondence approach to teacher education. Korea is providing secondary school instruction through radio and written communication and has established the Air and Correspondence College where instruction consists of a combination of radio, written communication, and occasional face-to-face meetings. The University of Delhi in India formerly taught its students through written communication and assignment, but has now found it desirable to introduce a radio program, a television program, and optional class meeting. Examples from other countries are numerous. Because of its potential for improving access and reducing cost, radio is perhaps the most attractive medium which can be used in combination with written communication (James & McAnany, 1978). 28 . 29 Another trend of distance education is the acceptance of distance education as an important part of regular in-school education (Erdos, 1975). In the past, distance education played a small role only in the education of children and adolescents, or as a substitute when regular in-school education was not available. As town populations increased, roads were built to provide better transportation, and more in-school institutions were made available, the use of distance education at this level tended to decreased. However, now there are indications that a change in attitude towards distance education is occurring, not only by the increasing demand for out-of—school continuing education for adults, but also for formal in-school education as a supplement which, when integrated into the in-school education system, gives it greater flexibility, wider extension, reinforcement for slow learners, and additional programs of study in depth and breadth for quick learners. A related trend is the development of the open learning system. Traditionally, higher education was regarded as the institution for a small group of the elite. In most countries, except those of the United States, USSR, Japan and Canada, which Martin Trow (1974) named universal higher education countries, the rate of enrollment in higher education was around or below 10 percent of the age group in the late 19605. Since the end of the Second World War, with 30 the development of stronger economies and widespread democracy, the demand for higher education and equal opportunity for higher education has increased. In general, educational systems for those out-of—school have been more permissive than ordinary schools in accepting students without entrance examinations and sometimes without the required previous education. As the distance education program is used to extend school education and to increase availability of academic courses in higher education, the entrance requirements of residential school systems and universities are challenged. As more people enter and study by distance education programs in higher education, the appropriateness of open admission and the quality of students become one of the major issues facing higher education distance programs. Realizing these trends exist along with concerns for continuing education and equal opportunity for education, distance education programs are expected to grow continuously. CHAPTER III THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF GREAT BRITAIN A. ORGANIZATION OF THE BRITISH EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM The organization of an education system in a country is the fruit of a long historical development. It reflects both the state of national economics and social structure and the cultural and educational ideas still traditionally accepted. From an external point of view, it may be hard to assess the originality of an educational system and to pass a value judgement on it. It may even be more difficult to trace the origin of a particular institution within the entire educational organization of a country. However, if we admit that there is a common goal for which all countries strive, and that education is a part of this process, a certain regularity and uniformity can be found in those countries. In Britain, educational administration, except for the universities, was basically the responsibility of local authorities, subject to the approval of the Secretary of State for Education and Science, and within the framework of legislation and finance. The central authority did not own the school, recruit or supervise the teacher, prescribe courses or texts or examinations or certificateds, nor did it regulate admission to the various institutions. There 31 32 have been national policies of education and Education Acts, but the local educational authorities(mainly counties) were generally free to organize schools as they wished (Burgess, 1972). The possibilities for variation extended to each school. The following figure would represent the complexity of the British school structure (King, Moor & Mundy, 1974). Figure 2: Educational System of Britain 20 ____________________ "i higher 19 education ’/4 18 l J /% ______ l// / sixth sixth form 17 forms in units & further schools colleges education 16 __________________________________ . end of compulsory attendance 15 14 various types of secondary school 13 -—l__ 12 11 middle school 10 primary school 9 ._ 8 i_______. 7 first school 6 infant school As the figure indicates, the English educational system(including Wales) consists of primary school, 33 secondary modern school and independent school, each having different characteristics and curriculum. Among these types of schools, the most well known would be the grammar school which is a traditional and academic-oriented school. Most graduates of the grammar school wish to enter the university which is highly selective and insufficient to provide education for many students. In 1944, the Education Act was prepared. The Education Act of 1944 provided the basic scheme of the English educational system. One of the principles of the Act was to "provide secondary education for all" and the secondary modern school was developed as a result. With the development of the secondary modern school, the selectivity of the grammar school decreased providing more students with an opportunity to study at the secondary level. The Act also raised the compulsory school age to 15.(In 1972, it was raised again to age 16.) When a student reaches the compulsory attendance age limit and passes the examination, he receives an ordinary level (0 level) General Certificate of Education(GCE). After this age there are many avenues a student can follow. Some students continue on at school in the "sixth forms" of secondary school working for the advanced level of GCE(A level) which allows access to institutions of higher education. A student must attain at least two A level certificates to enter the university. Other students leave 34 the secondary school level but continue full-time education in colleges such as technical colleges, taking either academic or vocational courses. Besides those in full-time attendance, other young people and adults continue their contact with educational institutions on a part-time basis -either in the evening or utilizing release time from their employers. Higher education, which refers to the educational level above the secondary level was not defined in the Act of 1944. Conventionally, it can be defined as the education "above the standard required for the Advanced Level of the General Certificate of Education(England and Wales); the Higher Grade of the Scottish Certificate of Education; or the Ordinary National Certificate/Diploma." (Fiarrant, 1981, pp. 42-88). Included in this definition are courses of study which a student can begin without the required prerequisites, but which he concludes with a final examination; for example, the Open University, The Universtiy of London External Awards and other institutions teaching professional skills. Higher education, again, is divided into two categories — the university and the other further education. Further education was defined in the 1944 Act, but "university" not. The definition of further education as stated in the Act of 1944 was, "full-time and part-time education for persons over compulsory school age; and leisure-time occupation, in 35 such organized cultural training and recreative activities as are suited to their requirements, for any persons over compulsory school age who are able and willing to profit from the facilities provided for that purpose." Institutions of further education include colleges of education, polytechnical colleges, colleges of advanced technology, and many other types of colleges. They are maintained or assisted by local education authorities. Most of the technical colleges, colleges of technology, or colleges of further education include courses which lead to the level of Ordinary National Certificate/Diploma, which is regarded as equivalent to an "O" or "A" level GCE. After receiving the Ordinary National Certificate/Diploma, a student can go on to study and receive a Higher National Certificate/Diploma or a degree from the Council for National Academic Awards which was established in 1964. The Council grants degrees to students who successfully complete courses in higher education in non-autonomous institutions like the advanced technical colleges. As previously stated, the "university" which was an autonomous and independent institution was not defined in the 1944 Act. The universities had their own charter and accepted students who had obtained at least two A level GCE. The universities were financed by the government indirectly through the University Grants Committee(UGC). The UGC was established in 1919 to inquire into the financial needs of 36 university education in the United Kingdom and to advise the government as to the application of any grants that may be made by Parliament to meet them. Until recently, the universities had virtually no connection with the old "Minister of Education." The UGC distributed grants directly from the Exchequer. In 1952 the following words were added to the objectives of the UGC: "to collect, examine and make available information related to university education throughout the United Kingdom.. to secure that they are fully adequate to national needs." From 1968, the UGC began to interact with the Department of Education and Science and the policies regarding universities were considered in national terms. However, the autonomy of universities continued, and the UGC served as a "buffer of shock observer" (Burgess, 1977, p.195) between the university and government. In the twelveth century, the Oxford University and the Cambridge University were established. These institutions functioned mainly to serve the needs of the upper classes and those intending to enter the Anglican Ministry. With the Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century, the industrial middle class emerged and increased in numbers, but it was not merely enlargement of the middle class. "This is that combination of change - in the mode of production and government, in social and institutional order, in the corpus of knowledge and in attitudes and 37 values — that make it possible for a society to hold its own in the twentieth century.“ (Landes, 1969, p.6). In the middle ages, the British universities, like other European universities, were an organic part of religious life. Universities had no connection with economics or with the social life of the common people. With the rise of nationalism and modernization, a new period of expansion and prestige was opened for the universities which led to the diversified modern systems of higher education. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, pressure resulting from economic development evoked a response by the universities to set up other institutions of higher education (Halsey, & Trow, 1971). At the end of the Second World War, the climate of opinion in Great Britain was favorable to general reform and to educationl reform in particular because the war dramatized the necessity of university research for military and industrial efficiency. That is, from the national and economic point of view, it was no longer sufficient to provide educational opportunity only for the higher classes. In addition to the necessity of education for national development, the idea of demOcracy and equality began to infiltrate the social structure and education. There began a trend towards a more democratic entry into an expanded and diversified system of higher education which offered greater opportunities for mobility in professional careeres and a _ 38 generally superior life style for the educated. In short, in order to secure the nation's develpment and maintenance, universities recruited and educated not only the elite but also absorbed men from lower social classes. In recent years, throughout the world, all aspects of higher education have been expanding rapidly, and the system in Great Britain is no exception. Until the 19505, the opportunity for degree level work outside the university was very limited. In 1963, the Prime Minister appointed the Robbins Committee to present a report describing the status of higher education in Britain during the period 1961-63. The report (Committee on Higher Education Report, Cmnd. 2154, HMSO, 1963) served as a foundation for policies concerning British higher education thereafter. Its basic premise was that "courses of higher education should be available for all those who are qualified by ability and attainment to pursue them and who wish to do so." (Fulton, 1981, pp.5-41). The Robbins Committee set a target figure of 390,000 full-time students in higher education by 1972-73. At the time the Report was published, in 1963, the number of full-time students in higher education was about 220,000. At about the same time, 1964, the Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA) was established to approve suitable courses outside the university and to confer degrees and other awards. As a result of recommendations by the Robbins 39 Committee Report, there were increased opportunities for students to obtain a degree. Between 1964 and 1967, ten universities and two university colleges were created from former colleges of advanced technology and Scottish Central Institutions. Other developments included the creation of a polytechnic systems in which higher education outside the universities and colleges of education was concentrated. Following these developments, the number of students in higher education institutions greatly increased. The number of full-time students in universities increased from 97,300 in 1961-62 to 169,600 in 1967-68. The number of students in further education in the same period increased from 131,000 to 256,900. The number of students enrolled in part—time and evening courses in the universities rose from 19,300 in 1960-61 to 18,900 in 1967-68 while the number of students in further education during the same period rose from 230,200 to 290,420 (England and Wales only) (Poignant, 1971). These statistics show that in 1967—68, the number of full—time studetns already exceeded the desired projected number in the Robbins Report. I With the growing awareness of the national need for trained human power and for the extension of educational opportunity to all classes of the population, there was also a realization that mere expansion of formal types of education would not be sufficient to meet the needs of older adults who were in different situations than those who had 40 just left school. Alternatives to traditional forms of education were sought and the idea of the Open University was developed (Perry, 1977). B. DEVELOPMENT OF THE OPEN UNIVERSITY With the publication of the Robbins Committee Report(1963), which reviewed the pattern of full-time higher education in Great Britain and advised the government regarding the long term development of higher education, traditional higher education policies began to change. The Robbins Committee recommended to increase the number of full-time university students from 130,000 to 346,000 and the number of full-time students of all higher education from 216,000 to 558,000 across twenty years. The Committee was mainly concerned with full-time higher education and did not make firm recommendations for any alternative institutions such as the Open University. The Report revealed that, in comparison with other countries, the proportion of students enrolled in higher education was low and that there remained much untapped potential within the country. The Report indicated that, inspite of the fact that the percentage of students from low socio-economic levels who achieved two A level examination passes was not significantly different from that of students from high socio-economic status, the latter group was ten to twenty times more likely to enter full-time higher eduction than 41 the former group. Substantial numbers of people who were capable of succeeding in higher education were not being provided with the opportunity to show what they could do. In the same year, 1963, at a pre-election speech at Glasgow, Mr. Harold Wilson, then the leader of the Labor’ opposition, suggested the establishment of a "University of the Air." It referred to a home-based university which could employ radio and television as an integral part of its teaching system; the main purpose of the university being to increase the number of graduate teachers and qualified scientists and technologists. Wilson had been working on the idea for some time, stimulated both by his observation of correspondence education in Russia and his visits to the Chicago TV College in the United States (McIntosh, Calder & Swift, 1977). The University outlined by Wilson was not an authentic university with its own charter, genuine academic standards and autonomy. Rather it was a "rational reordering of the facilities of the existing agencies of adult education - university extra—mural department, the Workers' Education Association, the further education work of the BBC, Correspondence Colleges such as Wolsey Hall, and local night classes." (MacArther, 1974). From the time Wilson suggested the creation of a new educational trust called the University of the Air to the actual opening of the Open University in 1971, the attitudes of the public, educational authorities and even government 42 . administrators were unfavorable or skeptical. Immediatley following Wilson's speech in Glasgow, the Times Educational ‘Supplement of September 13, 1963 stated in an editorial that "the University of the Air was a heady prospect." It asserted that through the already existing system of education, those who really wanted to advance their education had ample opportunities to do so. The editorial questioned the supposition that people are hindered by lack of facilities. It claimed that if the money were to be spent on improving existing schools, then more young people would resolve to continue learning. It appeared that the main reason behind this unfavorable reaction was financial stringency. At a time when there were frequent cuts in government expenditures for education, it was unimaginable to consider spending money to establish a new institution especially when the number of anticipated participants was uncertain. The local education authorities and the conventional universities were concerned that public money would be diverted to an untried venture at the expense of their own plans for educational expansion. There was interest in the Open University among those who were in the field of adult education, but there was a fear that the new institution might not be compatible with their own desires and would reduce the effectiveness of the Workers' Educational Association or the extra-mural departments in the universities. Within the world of higher 43 education, there was a skipticism that said, "the more, the less quality." They felt education through the media could not conceivably work. However, the decision of the government to pursue this idea was not a response to pressures from the outside or public demand. Rather, it was a political act of faith on the part of those who initiated and actively participated in the planning process. When Mr. Wilson became the Prime Minister of Great Britain in 1964, the idea of the Open University began to become a reality. Under the previous Conservative Government, there had been some movement in the Ministry of Education and the BBC to develop a college of the air at the pre—university level of adults who achieved an 0 level or A level GCE. In 1965, Jennie Lee was appointed as Junior Minister of the Ministry of Work and she proposed that the University of the Air should be an independent institution at the university level offering its own degree. She believed that the university should have its own educational broadcasting channel and that there would be no entrance requirements. Originally, Jennie Lee was invited to take the responsibility for Art under the Ministry of Treasury, but in addition to this, the Prime Minister asked her to take the responsibility for the creation of the University of the Air. This meant that during the initial stages of the establishment of the Open University, she could work 44 independently from the Minister of State who had responsibility for all the rest of higher education in England. Two seperate committees were formed to examine the proposal. The Offical Committee was asked to prepare a report on the organization and finacing of the University. The Advisory Committee under the Ministerial Committee on Broadcasting was asked to examine the educational functions and content of the university. The report of the Official Committee expressed some doubts about the worth of the university, particularly in that it required a separate fourth channel to guarantee its effectivness and the cost for the establishment and operation of a fourth channel would be very great. There were strong debates between Jennie Lee and her opponents over the practicability and effectiveness of the fourth channel. The opponents argued 7 that a separate channel would not reach the general public who greatly needed educational programs, and that the educational program staff would need help from the general program producers - not to mention the financial difficulties. After several Cabinet meetings, a White Paper was published in Februray 1966 announcing a firm commitment to the University of the Air which would provide a degree course as rigorous and demanding as those in existing universities, utilizing a combination of television, radio and correspondence courses. It did not assert, however, the 45 necessity of the fourth TV channel. The White Paper stated the purposes of the University as follows; Its purpose will be three-fold. It will contribute to the improvement of educational, cultural and ' professional standards generally by making available to all who care to look and listen, scholarship of a high order. Secondary, a minority of those showing general interest will want to accept the full disciplines of study and make use of all the facilities offered. These students will be enabled to acquire degrees and other qualifications as described in the Report of the Advisory Committee that follows. Thirdly, it will have much to contribute to students in many other parts of the world as well as those studying in the United Kingdom. In the developing countries, in particular, there is an urgent need not only for elementary education but for a highly trained crops of men and women equipped to provide leadership in national life (MacArther, 1974). This statement indicated that the university would not be an institution which would merely take care of the students in that institution. The use of TV and radio provided access to any persons who would want to see or listen, and they could learn without any restriction. Those who could not formally enroll could receive the broadcasts and increase their knowledge and skills. For those who previously missed opportunities for higher education and wanted to study again, the system would provide an education with awards or degrees similar in quality to that of other institutions. In short, the university was not going to be an institution which dealt with a small fraction of the population, rather it would be an institution which hoped to 46 encompass the entire population. After these political developments, a nineteen member planning committee for the university was formed in September 1967 under the chairmanship of Sir Peter Venables, the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Aston in Birmingham. The members of the planning committee represented the leadership of every influential sector of education opinion vital to the creation of the university. These were five university vice-Chancellors, three adult education professors, a principal of a leading polytechnical school, two important leaders from the educational authorities, and a sprinkling of well-known academicians. At this time, the name of the university was changed from the University of the Air to the Open University. With the announcement of the appointment of the Planning Committee, Jennie Lee reiterated that there would be no compromise on standards; the University's degree giving system would be based on the credit system; the program would be distributed on the BBC 2, the cost would be met from the University's funds and not from the BBC's license revenus; there would be short seminars, residential courses and local centers provided as a responsibility of the local education authorities. She repeated that there would be no entrance requirements and that students would be allowed to work at their own pace, yet the standard of the degree would be quite definitely egivalent to that of any other 47 university. Within this basic scheme, the Planning Committee developed a plan and released a statement in March 1968. The Committee recommended four degree lines for the University; Science, Technology, Social Science, and the Arts. Each degree line had two or three principal subject areas, in total ranging over nine subject areas. It was hoped that there would be up to 36 component courses carrying two, three or four credits depending on the depth of the study. Out of concern for the incompatibility of no minimum entrance requirements and the “no compromise on standards" idea, the Planning Committee recommended two built-in safeguards: (1) preparatory courses which would be run by other agencies, and (2) foundation courses which would be like first year introductory classes for the degree courses. Two credits in the foundation courses would normally be required before further study could be embarked on, however, the university itself would not organize or run the preparatory courses. The statement emphasized that courses would not depend exclusively on live broadcasting, but that correspondence courses and a network of viewing and listening centers would be provided locally. As the Planning Committee proceeded, there were some changes in the suggested lines of study. The members of the earlier Advisory Committee had proposed and been in general 48 agreement that there would be about 20 courses and that the main lines of study would be in the Arts and the Social Sciences. Even though they admitted the importance of Science and Technology, they thought those areas should be offered only in partnership with a technical college. However, the Planning Committee stressed the science fields more on the grounds that for adults practicability was important. Therefore, they proposed the following four lines: Humanities, Science, Social Sciences, and Mathematics - each having four or five disciplines. Later, Technology and Educational Studies were added and these six lines were accepted for degree courses. Two types of degrees were proposed: general and honors. For the general degree, six credits were required and for the honors degree, eight credits were required. Following these decisions, a Royal Charter was drawn up and academic and administrative staff were recruited. In addition, a central office, regional offices and study centers were prepared. Having acquired the Royal Assent of the Royal Charter, the Open Universtiy formally came into existence on May 30, 1969. With the admission of students existence on May 30, 1969. With the admission of students and the distribution of course materials by mail and broadcast, the teaching activity of the Open University began in January 1971. 49 C. ORGANIZATION OF THE OPEN UNIVERSITY The organizational structure of the Open University is not essentially different from that of other universities. From the beginning, when the Planning Committee prepared the Charter, it was accepted that the governmental structure of the Open University would follow tradition, with a Council as the main fiscal and financial controlling body of the University, and a Senate as the supreme academic authority (Ferguson, 1975). The Council consists of the university officers (Chancellor, Pro-Chancellor, Vice-Chancellor and Treasurer), the Chairman of the Academic Advisory Committee, four members appointed by the Privy Council, three members appointed by the Committee of Vice—Chancellors and principals of the universities in the United Kingdom, three members representing the local education authorities and one representative of the educational authorities in Scotland, one member appointed by the Royal Society, one member appointed by the BBC, three Pro-Vice-Chancellors, six members appointed by the Senate, two representatives of the part-time teaching staff, two students, and a maximum of eight coopted members. As an innovative and rapidly expanding national institution, the Open University needs the guidance of lay members' experiences in business and local government as 50 well as in higher education. In an effort to accomplish this, about two-thirds of the Council members are drawn from outside the university system. It thus combines those intimately engaged with the work of the university with others who take a more detached view, for instance, those engaged in higher education elsewhere or those representing the general public and their interests. The Council is large enough to offer a variety of experience and wisdom, but is not so large that it is unwieldly. The Council meets nine times a year to decide on major matters of policy referred to it by its owm committees and by appropriate university bodies. Another statutory body is the Senate. The Senate is the academic authority of the university and is comprised of all the academic staffs. This includes all the central and regional academic staffs and other senior central staffs, with elected representatives from the part-time tutorial and counselling staffs, course assistants and research assistants, the twelve senior BBC producers and six other BBC producers elected by the BBC staffs. When the Open University first began its operation, the Senate membered about 100, but currently there are over 500 members in the Senate. The Senate controls the University's teaching and research, regulates its examination, and is concerned with the institution of courses of study and degrees. It meets four times a year and the average attendance is about 30 51 percent. This poor attendance brought criticism that the Senate was too large for effective discussion and decision making. However, the staff attaches much significance to the concept of the University as a complete democracy and they are unwillling to transform the Senate into a smaller representative body. The Charter also provides for a General Assembly for all staffs and students. It is designed to give all the staffs, not just the academic staffs, a sense of participation in the new institution. It has no executive authority, but offers an opportunity to raise issues for discussion. The General Assembly consists of representatives of the Senate, part-time counselling and tutorial staffs, and students elected on a regional basis. The General Assembly convenes once a year and refers any matters affecting the university to the state. It also elects staffs and student representatives for the Council. The chief academic and administrative officer of the university is the Vice-Chancellor. He sits as an ex officio member of the Council and assumes the ex officio chairmanship of the Senate. He is responsible to the Council and Senate for maintaining and promoting the efficiency and smooth operation of the university. As described above, there are two statutory bodies, the Senate and the Council, each of which has its own distinct but not wholly separate responsibilities. Likewise the 52 structure under the Vice-Chancellor has its academic dimension and its administrative dimension. Unlike other traditional universities, the Open University's course materials must be prepared in printed form or audio-video form. Although the many people who assist in the course production, presentation, and evaluation processes are often called administrative staffs, they actually function more like academic staffs. The central focus of the academic dimension is the full-time academic staffs. The lines of study are divided into six areas; Humanities, Science, Social Sciences, Mathematics, Technology, and Education. Each 'line' or faculty is again divided into four or five disciplines. Foundation courses are provided in all subject areas except Education studies. Also, 18 secondary level courses (three in each of the six lines) and third and fourth level courses in 36 component disciplines are included. A course team was established to develop course material. It was not a permanent team, but was formed and dissolved as necessary. Each course team consisted of three groups of staffs; academician, educational technologists, and BBC production staff. Each team was delegated with authority to develop the content, nature and method of presentation of the course. Coordination between the members was vital, especially between the academic staff and the BBC production staff. This agreement was verbalized in 53 the following statement: "The radio and television programs required by the University and provided by the BBC are to be planned on the basis of an educational partnership between University and BBC staff. In practice, this partnership will extend over the whole range from the conception of the course to the final production of the program" (Perry,1977). On this basis, BBC producers were made members of the appropriate course teams and played an important role in determining the syllabus of the course and the choice of topics that required audio or video signals for presentation. Particularly in the phase of converting the written scripts into a recording for transmission, the influence of the BBC production staff was great. Academic control of the finished programs, however, remains with the University. In an effort to ensure effective decision-making and to minimize duplication, policy formulation was organized into three different functional boundaries; Academic Policy, Planning, and Staff and Student Affairs (Perry, 1977). Three Pro-Vice—Chancellors were appointed from the academic staffs to handle these areas. The main task of the Pro-Vice-Chancellor of Academic Policy is to ensure that the academic standards of proposed courses are established at the appropriate level, that there is no undue overlap between one course and another, that the range of courses offered makes academic sense, and that in the eagerness of 54 the faculty to press forward with their own concerns, the importance of interfaculty courses is not forgotten. The Pro—Vice-Chancellor of Planning is responsible for balancing conflicting claims from different areas of the university and advising the Planning Board accordingly. The Pro-Vice—Chancellor of Staff and Student Affairs negotiates with the different groups of staff members and oversees compromises regarding the terms on conditions of service. The Deans of each study area may deal directly with all three Pro-Vice—Chancellors on various matters that affect them, but they remain responsible only to the Vice-Chancellor. Members of the Institute of Educational Technology constitute another part of the academic staff. In addition to being engaged in research, the members of the Institute provide advice to other academic staffs on the most appropriate and effective way of presenting course materials. The advice of Institute members is based on the result of preparing the teaching material in draft form, letting prospective students use and evaluate it, noting the length of time taken to study, and such factors as difficulty or incomprehensibility. The organization of the administrative dimension and the operational side is even more complex. Even though the number of academic staffs increases, there are a few changes in their organizational structure. On the other hand, as 1.... 55 the university developed, new administrative jobs and new positions were needed. Under the Planning Committee‘s proposed structure of the Open University, the administrative head was the Secretary. The finance office, secretariat and academic registry were under the supervision of the Secretary. The head of the operations section where the technical production of teaching materials occurs along with correspondence services, media resources, research and evaluation, media production.and BBC liaison, is the Director of Research and Educational Technology. When the Royal Charter for the Open Universtiy was drawn up and approved in 1969, many positions existed only in name. However, as the course material production process began and the number of students increased, new tasks and positions emerged. One large task was carried on in the data-processing division. The computer handled student record, admission procedures, computer—marked assignments, evaluation of student responses, financial calculations, etc. Another vital position was that of Course Assistant. At first, it was thought that once a course material was prepared, the job was completed. However, mistakes in the course material may be discovered and need correction, broadcast programs may need revision along with program notes, 50 the Course Assistant position was devised to handle the mechanical aspects of course production. 56 As a national correspondence universtiy, the Open University required regional organizations to help students and provide easy access to university teaching activities. The Director of Regional and Tutorial Services coordinated the regional work. The entire nation was divided into twelve regions (later into thirteen), each of which has a number of Study Centers: London (38 Study Centers), South (34), Southwest (14), West Midland (20), East Midland (20), East Anglia (22), Yorkshire (21), Northwest (30), North (15), Wales (20), Scotland (31), and Northern Ireland (7). Each of the regions had its own Regional Director, who, with the Assistant Regional Director, was ultimately responsible for the work in his region. Matters were handled in various ways from region to region depending on the backgrounds of the directors -— some being academicians, some administrators, some laymen (Ferguson, 1975). Each regional office had its own administrative and secretarial staff. There were also Senior Counsellors, and Staff Tutors. The Senior Counsellor gave the student general advice and the Tutor was responsible for the academic teaching in a given course. Staff Tutors were selected on the basis of their competence by the university faculty as well as by regional staff. Each region had one Staff tutor per faculty area. The Tutors attended couse team meetings at the Center and might contribute units to the course material. The tutors served as a link from 57 central academia to students in interpreting the courses and also provided feedback from the students to central academia. The Senior Counsellor and Staff Tutor positions were full-time. There were about five thousand part-time counsellor and tutors as well. Many of them were working in other universities, polytechnical colleges, or colleges of education. Some of them were retired academicians. They were selected for their ability as teachers, although Staff Tutors could dismiss them if they were judged to be inappropriate. The original main task of the part-time turor was to mark and comment on the correspondence assignment submitted by the student. However, as high quality tutors became available in all regions, the Open Univerrsity introduced 'class tutorials' whereby the part-time tutor provided face-to-face class teaching for students at the study center. The class tutorials were provided basically for foundation courses or as a remedial measure for students who were having difficulty comprehending course materials or the content of the broadcasts. Most of the study centers were located in institutions such as colleges. There were a different number of study centers in each region. In choosing the location of a study center, accessibility and adaptability to the needs of the students were considered. By 1971, each center was equipped 58 with a film cassette projector and copies of all broadcasts at 8 mm filmloops in cassettes from the Regional Offices. Currently, they were converting to quarter-inch video-tape with suitable playback machines. There were fourteen study centers that were unable to receive the BBC signal directly, so they were provided with a complete library of film. Other area study centers were provided with film on demand from the Regional Office. They also had a cassette sound recorder and cassettes for the foundation course radio programs. D. EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS OF THE OPEN UNIVERSITY Traditionally, students in English universities were subject to the 'honors' course in their field as the basis for their first degree. There were exceptions in some disciplines such as medicine, law, engineering and architecture where students were required to pay a good deal of attention to other disciplines in their fields. However, for the mass of students in the arts and sciences, first degree work meant "concentrated study of a single language, a single period (or sometimes more strictly a single episode) in history or a single science"(Caine, 1969, p.72). There were some attempts to diversify the courses and to adopt broad-based patterns or combinations of subjects. These changes appeared more frequently in the new universities following the Robbins Report, but there were 59 still considerable limits imposed on the breadth of studies a student might choose to pursue, and there were no significant moves toward a credit system. In contrast to this general pattern, the Open University utilized the credit system from the beginning. Under the credit system, many courses were available, and students could choose those courses which they were not only interested in but which were relevant to their goals. After completing and accumulating a certain number of credits, the students' programs were concluded and they received their degrees. Because the Open University dealt with a group of students with a diversity of interests, it seemed relevant to provide a number of courses and allow the students to choose which courses were pertinent. In the United States, a credit is the equivalent of one hour of instruction per week throughout a term or a semester, and most courses are allotted only three or four credit hours. In the Open Universtiy, a credit covers longer periods of study and the minimum number of credits for graduation is six credits for the ordinary degree and eight credits for the honors degree. The courses are then divided into several levels. The first level consists of foundation courses. In England, when a student enters a university, he studies a specialized course. There are no foundation courses available which cover broad areas and basic knowledge. 60 However, all students in the Open University, except those in Educational Studies, are required to earn two credits from foundation courses. These courses are designed to bring students who have been out of school for a long time an awareness of the general problems that could face them within any particular field of study. After earning two credits in the foundation courses, the student needed four credits to earn an ordinary degree. All the foundation courses were full—credit courses, each one counting as one credit. It soon became clear that the second and subsequent level courses might be better planned if a lesser work load was adopted. However, there was a tendency to make two half-credit courses more demanding than one full-credit course. Although both types of courses covered the same number of weeks, the intensity of the half-credit course needed to be lightened. Foundation courses in the Open University are significant not only because they are the first courses the students are faced with, but because their attitudes toward these initial courses will greatly influence the continuation of their studies. Most students have been out of school for a long time, and it is unlikely that they will have the basic disciplinary knowledge to begin their study. Thus the nature of the foundation courses is multi-disciplinary, each course being designed to act as a reintroduction to the four or five disciplines represented 61 in the field they want to pursue. There was also the problem of quality. From the beginning, the critics questioned how the quality of university education could be preserved utilizing the idea of open enrollment. Usually, university courses were available to students based on the assumption that all the entrants were prepared with the necessary knowledge. They were required to take an Advanced Level GCE examination and many studied two or more years after the ordinary level of secondary school to prepare for the examination. It was assumed, after completing this process, that the students had attained certain level of academic achievement and were ready to study. This assumption could not be applied to the entrants of the Open University. Utilizing the principle of open entry, there was no way to control the quality of students in advance. If the University admitted low quality students and low quality courses were provided, it would be difficult to maintain its university status. In this situation, if the foundation courses were equivalent to the courses students studied at the sixth form, it would be difficult for the university to claim that the quality of instruction had not deteriorated. To avoid this possibility, the foundation courses were structured like those normally presented in similar subject areas at other universities. For example, the foundation courses in the Humanities provided a reintroduction to the disciplines . 62 of literature, history, philosophy and fine art (Marwick, 1974). Another characteristic of the courses of the Open University was that the courses were deve10ped by a course team. In traditional universities, the individual teacher who presented the lectures to the students in the classroom was responsible for the course. That approach could not be adopted in the Open Universtiy. First, the teaching method was multi-media. It was difficult for one instructor to prepare all the teaching materials which were presented through correspondence materials, supplementary materials and broadcast programs. Secondary, an instructor who was an expert in one discipline might have little knowledge on the particular needs of adult learners or the problems of distance teaching and learning, or the best way to utilize the broadcast media. Aside from these practical issues, preparing the best possible course not only presented a positive image of the instructor, but also of the university as a whole. Since all the teaching materials would be open to public view over the national broadcasting networks, the course team consisted of members with knowledge of the subject, experience in teaching method and in program production, and they were expected to produce a high quality course. As could be expected, there were some problems in the course team approach, especially in the relationship between 63 the staffs of the Open University and the program producers at the BBC. Naturally, the academic staffs and the producers tended to protect their own independence. When the Open universtiy was planned, the educational partnership between the BBC and the Open University had been discussed and the Report of the Planning Committee included the following statement: The University will prescribe the academic objectives and general character of the broadcast in relation to the other component parts of each course, while the BBC will provide the necessary presentation and production skills. In the overlapping area -- where the inter-relationship of content and presentation is worked out -- a reasonable degree of flexibility on both sides is essential in order to secure the proper concern of the academic staff and the fullest use of experience of the broadcasting staff (Perry, 1977). In addition to this official statement, the BBC recruited those who were considerable scholars in their own right and who were dedicated to the objectives of the Open University. Their activities involved not merely translating the program into something technically competent, but as a staff member of the Open University said, "they made often very forceful contributions to academic discussion; they criticized written drafts, whether of coursework or of broadcast, with equal aplomb; they could evaluate outside broadcasters alike by the normal criteria of university teaching for mature students, who are keen to learn and to be experienced to be off with the slick or second-rate" (Ferguson, 1975, p.50). 64 Instructional Media When the idea of the Open University was first initiated, its name was the "University of the Air." As the name indicates, its one medium for instruction was broadcasting through radio and television. Today, most of the public correspondence education programs use broadcasting as its instructional media. The widespread distribution of radios and television sets throughout the world makes broadcasting an obvious choice for education. According to an estimate from the Third Report of the Estimates Committee session in 1968-69, there were 17.1 million television sets in use in Britain. There was at least one television set in about 90 percent of all homes, and on the average, about two-thirds of the adult population watches television during the peak viewing hours each day (Pratten, 1970). As described in Chapter III, it was proposed that a fourth television channel should be made available for the university. This suggestion was not accepted because of financial consideration, and it was agreed that the BBC would provide the university with 30 hours per week on BBC 2 television, and 30 hours on radio 3 or radio 4. As time went on, the number of courses increased and the proportion of time available for a course became short. To solve this problem, less time was alloted to a course which required 65 lots of experimental works or practices. In the regular education system, the mass media were used only as a substitute for face-to-face teaching or as a supplementary method. For the Open University, which intended to teach students at a distance, open-circuit broadcasting was indispensible. Perry (1977) said that there were two critical factors at work in the open-circuit broadcasting system of open education. The first was the shop window role. It showed a large segment of the general population what they could learn in the course and encouraged them to enroll. In addition, it brought benefits to those who were simply watching the program without having registered for it. The second role was that of pace-making. Correspondence education allowed students to study at their own paces, giving them greater flexibility and individualization of study. Without the limitations of a fixed time and process, students could spend an appropriate amount of time on the task at hand -- more time for difficult tasks, less time on easier tasks. On the other hand, many individuals required some kinds of continuous stimulus and reinforcement in order to keep up with their work. Open circuit broadcasting with scheduled times forced students to watch or listen to a course regularly and helped them maintain their work over a long period. The basic mode of teaching in the Open University is written material - textbook and supplementary materials. 66 Although most teaching in a regular classroom takes place through lectures with textbooks, the written material used by the Open University is different in that it must perform the function of combining the lecture and the textbook. The textbook is prepared by the course team and sent to the students by three or four units. A unit covers one week's work and questions are inserted, answers of which a student can easily find in the unit. Another written material, supplementary material contains supporting notes for the broadcast programs and assignments that the student must consider while watching or listening to the program. The assignments are of two kinds - 'Computer Marked Assignments' or CMA's and 'Tutor Marked Assignments' or TMA's. The CMA's are multiple choice type and the TMA's are essay type. The student sends his answer to the CMA's directly to the University, where it is marked by the computer and returned to him with a grade. The TMA's are evaluated by the part-time tutors and returned to the student with helpful comments. In addition to these written materials, home experiment kits are sent to students which help them, particularly those of scientific and technological fields to experiment and practice in the home. Besides written materials and experiment kits which are prepared by the University, the students are asked to buy or to read certain books. The course team prepares and sends 67 the list of those books which would be helpful to the students. The learning activity of the students of the Open- University with those materials is basically independent study. They study in their homes, in the working places or any other places which are convenient for them at any time available to study. But unlike the normal independent study, the students should follow a schedule which is determined by the University. When a student takes a course, he receives a correspondence text of no more than three or four units. Since an academic year consists of 36 weeks, the correspondence materials are delivered nine or twelve times. In addition to reading the correspondene text the student watches the television broadcasting programs or listens to radio instruction. The university broadcasts every weekday evening from 5:00 pm until 7:00 pm and from 7:30 am until 1:30 pm on Satuday and Sunday morning. In addition to this home based independent study, the students can meet and learn from part-time tutor in the regional study center individually or in groups. The part-time tutor does not stay in the study center all day long, but if students have some questions about a course, they can arrange time and meet the part—time tutor. Attendance at the summer school is another way to study. The summer school is held one week for one course mainly on conventional university campuses during the summer 68 ; vacation. Those students in foundation courses and some high level courses, especially in Science and Technology, are required to attend summer school. The summer school provides opportunities for learning such as lectures, seminars, field works and laboratory works. It gives the students a chance to meet other students and share their experiences and difficulty. E. THE STUDENTS OF THE OPEN UNIVERSITY Demand and Admission The Open University was the first attempt to provide education by correspondence in a national scale to those who had missed the university education opportunity. In determining the scale of the institution, there were neither data nor comparable institutions available to serve as a basis for making decision. It was important in the initial stage to keep a balance between the demand for admission and the provisions that were available. If, on the basis of overestimated demand, physical and personnel facilities were prepared, the efficiency of the institution would be questioned and, in a severe case, would be forced to close its doors. On the other hand, the institution could not be too small or it would draw questions about its property and the necessity of national investment. In an effort to offer higher education to as many adults as possible, the Open University waived the 69 traditional entry qualifications for degree level education. Its target population includes adults in full-time employment, housewives, persons who do not have the usually mandatory educational qualification, persons who are physically handicapped, and persons who live far away from already existing colleges of higher education (McIntosh, 1977). In estimating the number of potential applicants, the Planning Committee simply applied the target figure from the Robbins Report. The Planning Committee estimated that there must have been at least 1 million people born too early to reap the benefits of increased educational opportunity who would be eligible for university entrance if the target set by the Robbins Report had been reached thirty years ago. While it could not be supposed that a majority of these people would undertake advanced study after a long period of absense from school, the Planning Committee estimated that 10 percent of 100,000 might be a reasonable figure for potential Open University students. In addition to this assumption, a survey was conducted by the National Institute of Adult Education asking a sample of the adult population about their interest and intention to study in the Open University. Included with the survey was a full outline of the opportunities it would offer. About 5 percent stated they would be "very interested" and 0.9 percent said they would certainly be one of the first applicants. Applying 70 this percentage to the general adult population of Britain, it was estimated that the demand for places at the Open University would be between 34,000 and 150,000. This estimation was based on the assumption that the whole adult population understood the Open University as well as those respondents who were supplied with information about the new institution (Perry, 1977). Actually, that assumption was not valid and consequently it was thought that the real number of applicants would be fewer than the original estimate. However, there were a large number of people who had pursued some form of vocational or cultural study since leaving school and who would apply to the degree-level study. In particular, this group included the certified non-graduate teacher who did not have the opportunity to take the B. Ed. degree. Of the total 400,000 teachers, 250,000 were included in that group. In spite of the establishment of new universities, colleges, and polytechnics, there was a continuing shortage of places for the qualified out-of~school adult. Considering all of these factors, the planners felt certain that the number of potential students would be sufficient. The Planning Committee decided on a student admission target of 25,000 for 1971. Since then, the number of students to be admitted was decided year by year, generally numbering about 20,000 except 1973, 1974 and 1976 when the 71 number of those admitted was 17,000, 15,000, and 17,000 respectively. The number of applicants over the period from 1971 to 1981 ranged from 32,046 to 52,916, more than half of which were not admitted. As the following table shows, not all the students admitted were registered. There were two stages: provisional and final. After paying the initial fee for certain courses, students studied the courses for three weeks. If some courses were too difficult or not interesting to them, or for any other reason they wished to discontinue that study, they were allowed to withdraw before the final registration period. Of the admitted and provisionally registered students, about 75 percent were finally registered. Table 1 : Application and admissions to the Open University Year A B A/B c D D/A D/C 1971 43,444 25,000 .58 24,190 19,033 .44 .79 1972 35,182 20,500 .58 20,498 15,564 .44 .76 1973 32,046 17,000 .53 17,004 12,405 .39 .73 1974 35,011 15,000 .43 14,475 10,856 .31 .75 1975 52,537 20,000 .38 20,045 14,830 .28 .74 1976 52,916 17,000 .32 16,311 12,230 .23 .75 1977 49,956 20,000 .40 19,886 14,971 .30 .75 1978 45,293 21,000 .46 20,882 15,669 .35 .75 1979 42,754 21,000 .49 20,709 16,729 .39 .81 1980 45,311 20,000 .44 19,439 14,150 .31 .73 A: Number of application B: Number of admission C: Number of provisionally registered D: Number of finally registered The basic principle for selection was "first come, first 72 served." Except that the entrant should be over the age of 21, there were no entry requirements. Some constraints needed to be applied, however. First, a quota of places in each of the five foundation courses was determined. Second, the Open University was not serving merely the people of a small region, but rather desired to serve the entire nation and thereby set regional quotas. Third, one of the objectives of the Open University was to provide higher education to those who had failed to study at the university. Deprived members of the community would be among the last to get information about the Open University and subsequently, the last to apply for study. So, within the number of applicants in each category of occupation, high quotas were set for occupations which included blue collar workers. Another group which had traditionally been deprived of opportunities for higher education was women. It was believed that the Open University would be very attractive for women and that they would take advantage of this opportunity for higher education without having a preferential quota for women. The Open University categorized occupations into fourteen groups as the following table indicates: As the table shows, there are five occupational groups from which dominant numbers of applicantions come; education, at home, professions and arts, clerical and office, and technical personnel. In 1972, of the 34,222 73 applicants, about 30 percent or 10,327 people were from the education field - teachers. The proportion of teachers has decreased over the years, and in 1978, the'actual number decreased to 21.2 percent or 9,519. As a group, however, teachers still constitute a dominant number of applicants. Table 2 : Applicants' Occupations Occupational Group 1972 1974 1976 1978 At Home 3,763 4,858 6,958 6,461 Armed Forces 577 851 1,419 1,209 Administration/Managers 1,572 1,221 2,334 2,025 Education 10,327 9,620 11,653 9,519 Professions/Art 4,283 3,894 5,811 5,479 Scientists/Engineers 1,486 1,009 1,615 1,227 Technical Personnel 4,084 3,251 5,148 4,425 Skilled Trades 1,017 1,004 2,005 1,580 Other Manual 772 818 1,641 1,333 Communication/Transport 476 493 1,085 967 Clerical/Office 3,224 3,355 5,689 5,287 Shop/Sales Staff 1,514 1,408 2,691 2,230 Not Working 1,066 1,380 2,183 3,056 In Institutions 61 58 51 41 Total 34,222 33,220 50,340 44,839 (source:) On the other hand, women at home numbered 3,763 or 11.0 percent and were the fourth largest group of applicants. The number of women applicants at home has increased rapidly and in 1978 they were the second largest applicant group, numbering 6,461 or 14.4 percent of the total applicants. If this trend continues, housewives may form the largest group in the near future. Another group which has shown an increase was the clerical and office workers. In 1978, their numbers had 74 increased to 5,287 or 11.8 percent from their 1972 figures of 3,224 of 9.4 percent. Overall, the number of applicants from each group increased except for those from the education and scientist/engineer groups. Even though the extent of increase has not been great in the field of skilled trades, other manual laborers, shop and personal sales staff, communication and transport, and those not working, there has been a steady increase over the years. Although the Planning Committee did not specify that working class applicants would be the primary target group of the Open University, the Open University has been commonly regarded as having a special responsibility in this area (Harry, 1982). There were, however, some critics saying that the Open University has failed to achieve the objective "to offer oppotunities to the educationally underpriviliged group" or "to mitigate social inequality" citing the low proportion of working class group (Burgess, 1972). To these criticisms, McIntosh and Woodley have replied in an article of the Times Higher Education Supplement (Dec. 19, 1975) that when the students' own present occupations were used to derive their social class, the students of the Open University would be predominantly middle-class. But "if we take their fathers' occupations at the time the students left school, as is done by the University Central Council for Admissions for undergraduate entering conventional universities... the Open University 75 still shows a marked improvement over conventional universities" In an article from the Times Higher Education Supplement, Jones and Whitelegg showed an interesting comparison. They divided the social classes into blue collar and white collar. The white collar class included professional, intermdiate, and routine non-manual workers, while the blue collar class included skilled, semi-skilled, and unskilled manual laborers. In every year from 1971 to 1975, over 90 percent of the finally registered new students were from the white collar class while less than 10 percent from the blue collar class. In contrast were the statistics from the conventional universities where in 1971 the proportion of students from the white collar class was about 70 percent and about 30 percent from the blue collar Class. However, when the social class of the Open University Students' fathers were used, only 48 percent had fathers in white collar jobs while 52 percent had fathers in blue collar jobs. Using these figures, they claimed that "children of the blue collar workers at the Open University constitute a much greater proportion of our total intake than do the children of blue collar workers at conventional universities and polytechnics." Another concern related to the effects of the "no entrance requirement" principle. The minimum qualification for entry to other British conventional universities is two , 76 subjects at the advanced level GCE or its equivalent. Almost 90 percent of students admitted to British universities have met those qualifications as have 80 percent of those entering polytechnics, technical colleges and colleges of education (Farrant, 1981). On the other hand, almost two-thirds of all the entrants to the Open University in 1971 possesSed those qualifications and only one-third was unqualified. However, over the years, the proportion of the "qualified" entrants have decreased and, conversely, the proportion of the "unqualified" entrants ( have increased. In 1975, there were 52,4 percent "qualified" students, and 46.4 percent "unqualified" (Perry, 1977). Comparing the passing rate of the "qualified" students and the "unqualified" students in the foundation courses, Perry showed that there were no significant differences between these two groups in the pass rates in the Humanities and Social Sciences foundation courses. The pass rate of the qualified students was about 85 percent and about 70-75 percent for the unqualified students. On the other hand, in the foundation courses of Mathematics, Science, and Technology, the unqualified group of entrants had a significantly lower success rate than the qualified group. In Mathematics, the pass rate of the qualified students was about 80 percent, but the rate of the unqualified students ‘Vas about 45 percent. However, as time passed, once the 77 unqualified students were successful in a course, they did as well as the qualified students (Perry, 1977). Distribution by Age In England and Wales, there were 204,000 new entrant students in higher education institutions (excluding the 13,200 students in the Open University) in 1976-77. This number included the full-time students and the part-time students of all the universities and other advanced further educational institutions. The following table shows the distribution of new entrant students in 1976-77 by age. Table 3 : The Number of New Entrants to Higher Education by Age in England and Wales, 1967-77 (in thousand) -20 21-24 25—29 30- Total Full-time 94.9 16.5 7.5 8.8 127.7 (74.3%) (12.9%) (5.9%) (6.9%) (100%) Part-time 17.0 26.5 16.5 16.3 76.3 ( 2.2%) (35.7%) (21.6%) (21.4%) (100%) Total 111.9 43.0 24.0 25.1 204.0 (54.9%) (21.1%) (11.8%) (12.3%) (100%) Source: Farrant, J. H. "Trends in Admission." As the table shows, in 1976-77, of the total 204,000 new entrant students to higher education in England and Wales, about 55 percent were under the age of 20. There were also a considerable number of students over the age of 78 30 who were entering higher education. The proportion of the older age student is even larger in the Open University. The following table shows that in 1976-77, there were 7.7 thousand new entrant students over the age of 30 which constituted 58 percent of the new students. Table 4 : Age Distribution of the New Entrant Students at the Open University in 1976/77 (in thousand) -20 21-24 25-29 30- Total - 1.6 3.8 7.7 13.2 (12.1%) (28.8%) (58.3%) (100%) Students between the ages of 21—24 constituted 21.1 percent of the new entrant students or 1.6 thousand. As the above two tables show, the Open University is certainly attractive to older adults and enable them to continue their study. CHAPTER IV THE AIR AND CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE OF KOREA A. THE KOREAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM The history of formal education in Korea is relatively short. It was about the end of the nineteenth century that the idea of formal school was introduced in Korea. In 1876, a commercial treaty was made with Japan and in 1882 with the United States, Great Britain and Germany. As a result, western culture began to be introduced in Korea along with the entrance of Christian missionaries. There were three forces which established modern schools in Korea (Kim, 1979). One was the government. With the opening of a country, the government felt it was necessary to learn foreign languages, and a royal school was established in 1886 to teach English to the children of the aristocratic class. Another force was the Christian missionary. In 1885, Appenzeller, Henry Gerhart, a Methodist missionary from the United States, established the Pae-Jae school in Seoul. In addition, three other schools were opened; Kyung—Sin School, I—Wha School, and Jeong-Sin School. The other force was the establishment of private schools, such as Po—Seong, by people within the nation. In the field of higher education, the force of government was weak. It was largely private foundations and missionaries 79 80 that developed higher education in Korea. I-Wha, Sung-Sil and Yon-Hui were established by missionaries and Po-Seong was established by a national leader. These movements, however, did not continue to develop. From 1910 to 1945, under Japanese control, the opportunity for the schools to develop into full-scale universities was severely restricted. In fact, the Japanese government lowered the level of these shools to short term professional schools, and it was difficult for the Korean people to continue from elementary education to higher education. It was during the second half of the period of colonial control that a formal university was established in Korea by the Japanese government to pacify the people who sought national independence and wished to have a university for themselves. In 1943, right before Korea achieved independence, there was one university, twenty professional schools at the college level and seven other learning institutions. The total member of students in these institutions was 9,4812, with 1,490 teachers (Oh, 1964). Upon achieving independence, the educational institutions in Korea developed rapidly. During Japanese Colonialism, educational opportunity had been severely restricted out of fear that if the national level of education had increased, the movement for independence would have been promoted. However, with independence and the widespread introduction of ideas of equality and liberty by 81 the United States, the manifestation of the ideology had more impact on the field of education than in any other fields. Hahn—been Lee(1968) suggested two further factors which contributed to the expansion of education in Korea. One is cultural tradition and the other is the pattern of the nationalist movement prior to independence. He said, The fundamental bend for education lay in the traditional culture itself. During the Xi dynasty that lasted for five centuries until the turn of the present century, 'letteredness —— in Chinese classic -- was the mark of the Yangban , the ruling class, and hence the vehicle of social advancement. This tradition was maintained during the Japanese colonial period, in which the few employment oppotunities for the Koreans were tied to education in the Japanese school system, which was limited in scope for Koreans. New Liberation provided a chance to overcome such limitations, an open scramble for a new form of 'letteredness' set it. The school became the factory of the new literati (p.47). The liberal policy continued until the establishment of the third Republic in the beginning of the 19605. There were some efforts to control and eliminate poor institutions in the first (1948-1960) and the second (1960-1961) Republics. In 1955, a presidential decree was established to provide a legal standard for the establishment of higher educational institutions, and those institutions which did not meet the standard were closed. But in general, the control was not applied fully, and much flexibility was permitted in its application. In 1945, the number of students in higher education was 82 7,819. By 1960, the number of students had increased to 101,045, 14 times the previous number. Table 5 : Increases in School Enrollments 1945-1960 Type of School 1945 1952 1955 1960 Elementary 1,366,024 2,369,861 2,947,436 3,622,685 Secondary 83,514* 425,532 735,955 792,177 Higher Ed. 7,819 34,089 80,319 101,045 *Junior Secondary School not included In comparing the number of students in corresponding age groups, in 1952, of the higher education age group (18—21), three out of one hundred persons were enrolled, whereas in 1960, there was a 6.4 percent enrollment, and in 1975, an 8.6 percent enrollment. The present structure of the formal school system in Korea has developed from the time of Japanese colonialism. Under the Japanese, formal schooling consisted of six years of primary school, five years of secondary school and four years of higher education. With the achievement of independence, this pattern was altered and the secondary school was extended to six years. After the Korean War, secondary education was divided into three years of middle school and three years of high school. Presently a 6-3—3-4 pattern has developed It is common to compare countries in terms of educational attainment level based on the proportion of age 83 groups enrolled in school. Figure 3 : Age 25 - 24 - 23 - 22- 21 - 20 - 19 - 18 - 17 - 16 - 15 - 14 - 13 - 12 - 11 — 10 - The Educational System of Korea Graduate School College and Junior Vocational College University Junior Junior Technical Teachers College College High School ""_"""-"'1 Middle School Elementary School Source Ministry of Education 84 Harbison, Maruhine and Resnick(1970) compared 112 countries for the years 1960 and 1965. In terms of the proportion of school age persons enrolled in school, Korea was classified as the level III, or semi-advanced country, although its per capita GNP was lower than any other countries in that category (except India). When comparing the growth in student numbers from 1960 to 1972, there were many other countries which showed greater increases than Korea. In 1960, the proportion of the age group enrolled in the third level (post-secondary or higher education) was 4.7 percent in Korea, about the same as Egypt (4.7%), Peru (4.1%), Spain (4.0%), and Venezuela (4.0%). In 1972, the proportion increased to 8.1% in Korea, but the other four countries showed more marked increses: Egypt (9.8%), Peru (11.1%), Spain (14.3%), and Venezuela (12.6%). It does not follow that because other countries have developed higher education and have increased their number of students, Korea would also expand in higher education. However, policy makers and educators were led to examine the appropriateness of the size of higher education in Korea. Traditionally, in Korea, the learned man has been respected and education has been considered an important part of becoming a whole man. Many legends dealt with persons who persevered in their studies in order to pass Kwa-keo (the national exam for selecting high post officials 85 in the past periods) overcoming physical, financial and other personal problems. This attitude was infiltrated to the present time, resulting in the high completion rate of students in school. Typical in most countries is a pattern of late entry, failure and repetition, leading to high dropout rates or to a high percentage of children who are several years older than would be expected for their grade level. But in Korea, when a child enters elementary school, it is expected that he continues study from the first grade to the sixth grade. And the dropout rate is very low. Students were required to pass an entrance examination to enter a senior middle school as well as to enter an institution of the higher education. Students worked very intensly to prepare themselves for the entrance examination, particularly with hopes of entering one of the few elite schools. This period of study was called "Examination Hell", but in recent years efforts have been made to reduce the pressure on students, first by eliminating the entry examination for middle school, and more recently, by randomizing admission to high schools. Entrance into the universities, however, was still dependent on entrace examination scores. There continued to be a great demand for places in higher education - a problem which needed to be solved. In 1965, the number of graduates from academic high schools was 68,487. Among them, over 95% (65,638) applied g 86 to the higher educational institutions, but only 43% (29,459) entered. The number of graduates from vocational high school was 47,289, but only 7,919 entered into higher education. In 1975, the number of graduates from academic high school increased to 137,228 and about 42% (57,007) were permitted to enter into higher education. The graduates from vocational high school numbered 126,141 and 0.088% (11,048) of them entered into higher education (Kim, Y. C., 1981). Almost all of the high school graduates wished to continue to study at the university or college, but less than half were permitted to do so and the others tried to find jobs, entered military service or found other alternatives. In looking at the statistics which indicated the directions chosen by academic high school graduates, about the same number of students upon entering a higher educational institution were listed as "unemployed" or "unknown". The situation was no better for those who graduated from vocational high schools which were intended to serve as a "terminal" education by providing vocational skills. Of the graduates, about 40% were classified as "unemployed" or "unknown". From 1981, partly to alleviate the great number of students who were not permitted to enter higher educaiton, the number of admissions was greatly increased while the number of graduate was limited and fixed. Universities were allowed to select 30% more than 87 the fixed number of graduates, expecting that those students over the fixed number will be eliminated in transferring from sophomore to junior grades. This policy produced another problem - that of dropout. In Korea, most of the higher educational institutions are concentrated in Seoul, the capital city. Seoul's share of new entrants higher education is disproportionately high. In 1965, 44.2% of the academic high school graduates entering college and university were from Seoul. The percentage decreased a little in 1975 to 42.5%. Many high school graduates hoped to study in Seoul, and many students left their homes even earlier in order to enroll in middle or high schools in Seoul. The Korean government regulated that secondary school students should attend the schools in their residence area and sought ways to improve higher education in provinces by expanding facilities and establishing new colleges and universities. However, students still prefer colleges in Seoul. Many high school students are forced to abandon higher education because of financial or geographical barriers. Under these circumstances, the idea of lifelong education was introduced in Korea in 19605. Even before the term "lifelong education" emerged, it was commonly accepted that learning was a continuous process throughout an individual's life. There is no beginning or end for learning. However, as the school system developed and 88 became to play a vital role in the learning process, other out-of—school provisions for learning became weak and ceased operation. With the rapid development of technology and the change in social structure, the educational system, as a preparation for life, was unable to serve its function any longer. It became necessary to organize and provide education in addition to the formal school system. Distance education, providing educational opportunity to many people as well as easy access, began to develop throughout the world. The provision of the Air and Correspondence education system at the high school and college levels was an outgrowth of this principle. Traditionalist thought that there were only a few elite in a society who could benefit from higher education and provide leadership for the mass. It was considered unnecessary to provide higher education for the common person. In korea, too, the aim of higher education was stated in Educational Law as follows; "The aims of colleges are to educate the leaders of the society by teaching and studying the high and sophisticated theories of discipline to contribute to the development of country and world." (Education Law, Article 108). Therefore, the number of students in higher education was severely restricted and controlled. As discussed previously, there was an accumulated demand for higher education following the achievement of 89 almost 100% elementary school attendance and a great expansion of the secondary school. Certainly, it is impossible and undesirable to provide higher education opporunity to all of those who wish to attend. However, higher education can not ignore the great social demands and the idea of educating only the elite is now being challenged. Most countries have sought a way to expand educational opportunity for the promotion of "mass higher education" (Bereday, 1973). B. DEVELOPMENT OF THE AIR AND CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE In the Republic of Korea, the admission policy of higher education is determined by the government. Establishment of departments, the number of students, and the number of admittance must be approved by the Ministry of Education. Both admission policy and number of admittance have been a great concern of the Ministry of Education and the public. In 1968, a national preliminary college entrance examination was prepared which coverd all the subject areas studied in high school. All applicants of colleges and unviersities were required to pass this- preliminary examination before they could apply. Until that time, each college or university selected students using an examination which covered only a few subject area. As competition for the limited number of higher education places became severe, students in high school tended to 90 concentrate only on those subjects which colleges or universities used in their entrance examination. By developing the preliminary examination, the government hoped to normalize the learning in high schools. The number of students approved for admission was determined by the Ministry of Education in proportion to the number of admission places. With the imposition of the preliminary examination, issues of college and university entrance became a matter of debate in the field of education as well as in the public sector. Reacting to this issue, the Minister of Education, Oh-Byung Kwon, expressed his intention in the National Assembly of the establishing a new form of higher education which could absorb those students who failed to gain entrance into the colleges or universities. His proposed institution was the Air and Correspondence College. On November 15, 1968, the Law of Education was supplemented with an item which stated that "Air and Correspondence Colleges may be established in the national universities" (The Education Law, Article 114, 2). Based on the advantages in terms of location and resources, and their inquiry for help, the Ministry of Education choosed the Seoul National University to cooperate in the planning and refinement of the Air and Correspondence College. The planning processes were cyclical. First, a plan was developed by the Ministry of Education and sent to 91 the Seoul National University. After reviewing the plan and adding their opinions, the University returned it to the Ministry of Education where it was revised and sent again to the University. This process continued for four cycles, and finally a planning committee was formed to complete the task of proposing a final plan. The Planning Committee was composed of seven professors (later 8) from departments within the Seoul National University which were intended to be incorporated in the Air and Correspondence College. After ten meetings and visits to other countries to observe their correspondence programs, the Committee developed a final plan, and the Air and Correspondence College announced its opening on March 9, 1972. When it opened, the Air and Correspondence College was a junior college level program, attached to the Seoul National University, and was composed of five departments. Presently, it is an independent four-year college with nine departments. When it opened, there were about 12,000 students. In 1982 the number of students increased to 23,750. And there have been many changes and specifications in the objectives, organization, curriculum, students, etc. The development of the Air and Correspondence College can be viewed in three stages; planning period, junior college period, and five-year college period. Because of the availability of resources, the first two periods are 92 emphasized in this study. The planning period can be divided into two phases. The first stage was when the officials of the Ministry of Education and the Seoul National University discussed and exchanged their ideas about the establishment of the college. At this stage, the professors of the University were not deeply involved, and most of the activities were related to the development of the basic structural framework of the college. After this period, the Planning Committee was formed and they finalized the planning, refining and changing the program which was developed in the first stage. Their activities were largely involved with the preparation of the programs. After his expression of intent to establish an Air and Correspondence College, the Misister of Education asked Dae-Sun Lee, an official of the Ministry, to prepare a draft for an Air and Correspondence College. His draft outlined components of the Air and Correspondence College including academic programs, admission and graduation, as well as teaching method. The objectives of the Air and Correspondence College were stated as follows; 1) to contribute to the improvement of the national education level by providing equal opportunities for higher education. 2) to give educational opportunities to those who failed to enter higher education institutions. 93 3) to create the atmosphere for the college age people to study by themselves. 4) to give a second chance for the adults to study. 5) to discourage the high competitive ambition to enter universities and to normalize the education in consequence ( History of the Air and Correspondence College , 1982). As outlined above, when the Air and Correspondence College was initiated, one of its objectives was to lower the competition to enter college by providing another opportunity. The draft continued by stating that the institution would be a junior college comprised of four departments; Business Administration, Public Administration, Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, and Home Economic. No records explained why these four departments were chosen, but we can guess that it reflected government policy at that time, emphasizing the need for providing human resources in the fields of commerce and industry. The Home Economic Department was provided with the female application in mind. Each department provided 18—23 subjects, similar to those subjects provided by regular junior colleges. The courses were operated on the basis of the credit system with four to eight credits assigned to each subject. A student would be required to earn 104 or more credits to finish all the courses. After completing all the courses and their requirements, a student would take the final examination for 94 graduation, and if successful in passing the exam, would receive an associate degree which was equivalent to that presented at other regular junior colleges. Qualifications for admission would be the completion of high school, same as those required for applicants at other regular universities and colleges, however, those enrolled in the Air and Correspondence College would not be allowed to transfer to other universities or colleges. The length of study would be three years, each year composed of three terms (adopted for the convenience of distributing teaching materials and supplementing learning deficits). The draft did not specify teaching methods, but merely proposed the use of radio in addition to the correspondence teaching materials. After completing the draft as discussed above, a meeting was held at the Ministry of Education on January 14, 1969. The participants were officials from the Ministry of Education, and staff from the Audio-Video Instructional Research Center, Seoul National University and the KBS (Korean Broadcasting Station). At this meeting, the draft was reviewed and general directions for the development of the proposed Air and Correspondence College were discussed. It was agreed that the teaching subjects, curriculum, and schedule would be prepared by the Seoul National University. Teaching would be provided through correspondence teaching materials and through radio broadcasting. Participants 95 agreed to seek ways to transform KBS 2 to an educaional Broadcasting Station by requesting the transformation by the Government along with 5 hundred million won ($1.25 million) which was necessary for the transformation. They also decided to set up a Planning Committee at the Seoul National University to prepare specific academic programs. At the second meeting, January 24, 1969, members reaffirmed that the departments would consist of Business Administration, Public Administration, Agriculture and Husbandry, and Home Economics. Participants from the Seoul National University feared that there was not sufficient time to prepare academic programs and that some subjects would be difficult to teach by radio broadcasting, especially Agriculture and Animal Husbandry, and Home Economics. They suggested providing instruction only in Business Administration and Public Administration. In response to that suggestion, the Ministry of Educattion asked the Seoul National University to seek methods of providing instruction in the other area such as traveling professors teaching students face-to-face. Faced with this request, and based on the first draft submitted by the Ministry of Education, the Seoul National University developed their own draft. The members who participated in preparing the draft were the Director of Academic Affairs, the Vice-Director of Academic Affairs, and five other professors. This group met twice and prepared 96 their own draft which was similar to the first draft written by the Ministry. An interesting point in the draft designed by the Seoul National University was the introduction of the concept of the cooperative school. It did not specify the role, its relation to the corresppondence college and students, its location or other specifics, but it stated that "each student would take a final examination of some selected subjects among the subjects he took and the cooperative school would be involved and help in managing the examination."( The History of the Air and Correspondence College, 1983). It would permit students to enroll at conventional colleges or universities for some specific subjects and the credits they earned would be accepted at the Air and Correspondence College. The University's draft was submitted to the Ministry of Education and formed the basis for a third draft made by the Ministry of Education in which classroom teaching at the cooperative college was added to teaching methods. As indicated earlier, the concept of the coooperative school was introduced in the second draft made by the Seoul National Univerity, but it had not specified the functions of the cooperative college. It merely stated that the cooperative college might be involved in conducting final examinations. The third draft, however, specified that students should participate more than three months during summer and winter vacations in the classroom teaching 97 setting which would be provided by the cooperative colleges or universities. Compared to other correspondence programs which required classroom learning for a certain period, "over three months" seemed to be too long for working people to accommodate, and later that requirement was revised to a shorter period. Initially, the insertion of the over three months requirement seemed to reflect the worries people had about the effectiveness of broadcast teaching and the quality of students resulting from it. There were also some debates over entrance qualifications. Some argued that since the proposed institution was a college, entrance qualifications needed to be the same as those applied to applicants of other colleges or universities, that is, to pass the preliminary college entrance examination. Some worried that by permitting students to enter the correspondence college who had failed to gain entrance into the regular colleges and universities, the quality of higher education would be lowered. This opinion re-emerged in the fourth draft submitted by the Seoul National University where students were divided into two groups. Only those who passed the preliminary examination were permitted to continue their study at other four-year colleges or universities after graduation. The strength of this opinion decreased as the emphasis on continuing education for the working people grew. 98 The third draft prepared by the Ministry took the form Of an Executive Order and the institution's name was formally called the Air and Correspondence College for the first time. The draft consisted of four sections, 38 items which stated the objectives and organization; admission, teaching methods and graduation; educational broadcasting and correspondence materials and miscellaneous rules. The fourth draft, prepared by the Seoul National University after reviewing the third draft, was not greatly different from the third draft, except that the fourth draft noted that only those who passed the preliminary college entrance examination were allowed to transfer to other four-year colleges or universities after graduation from the Air and Correspondence College. The fourth drafdt also described the positions and roles of the personnel more specifically. From the beginning stage to the preparation of the fourth draft, the work had been done by officers of the Ministry of Education and personnel from the office of School Affairs at the Seoul National University. It was expected that all the necessary procedures would be completed without difficulty and the College would open in March, 1970. But as they continued to prepare and develop the programs, it bacame evident that a unity of professors were needed to develop the academic program. Thus, they agreed to form a planning committee which took the total 99 p responsibility for the preparation and development of academic programs. The seven members of the planning committee (later eight) were chosen from the professors in the departments at Seoul National University which were related to proposed departments in the Air and Correspondence College. The members were, Prof. Seo, Myung-won, Chairman, College of Education Prof Ra, Ung-bae, Vice-chairman, Graduate School of Public Administration Prof. Lee, Ung-back, College of Education Asst. Prof. Kim, Mun-hyup, College of Agriculture Asst. Prof. Ann, Hae-gyun, Graduate School of Public Administration Asst. Prof. Hyun, Ki-sun, College of Home Economics Asst. Prof. Mun, Sang-deug, College of Liberal Arts Prof. Lee, Young-gul, College of Education (May, 1970) The Committee met ten times and was provided with an office to secure records and related materials and to serve as a contact point. The committee made many changes in the previous proposals and specified and refined the draft. First, the three school year period with three terms in each year was changed to two years with two terms in each year. Previously it had been argued that because most of the students were not able to fully engage in study, it would be 100 appropriate to allow them to study three years. For the convenience of distributing correspondence materials and contemplation of study deficits, the year was divided into three terms. However, the Committee, after visiting and observing the two-year junior college level correspondence schools in Japan, believed that a minimum of two year was appropriate to teach the subject. To allow for the summer and winter classroom teaching in the cooperative colleges, it was necessary to match the terms to those of the regular colleges. Secondly, there was a reemphasis on the dimension of continuing and recurrent education in the Air and Correspondence College. The original idea of the Air and Correspondence College was a reaction to the large number of young people who were unable to gain admittance to institutions of higher learning because of limited space. This predisposition was obvious in the objectives stated in the first draft. The fourth draft asserted that students should be divided into two groups - those who passed the preliminary college entrance examination would be allowed to transfer to the four-year colleges after graduation from the Air and Corresponcence College, whereas those who had not passed that exam would not have that privilege. The Committee believed that the Air and Correspondence College should give opportunity to those who could not continue their study because of financial and othe reasons. 101 Therefore, the Committee agreed that if students passed a national examination, all of them would be qualified to transfer to a four-year college. The decision to establish a new department of Elementary Education to improve the quality of elementary school teachers most of whom had completed normal school at the senior middle school level indicated the Committee's emphasis on recurrent education as well. Thirdly, the Committee determined the subjects, allocated time for each subject, assigned subject writers and developed other schedules necessary for the operation of the courses. They distinguished general liberal arts courses which were required of all students from the professional courses. Of the 350 hours of classroom teaching in ten weeks, 70 hours were allocated to general liberal arts courses and 280 hours to professional courses. At the conclusion of these preparations, the Air and Correspondence College opened in March 1972 with the announcement of Executive Order 6106. Staff members wondered about the reaction of prospective students as the College began advertising and sending out application. The reaction was unexpectedly favorable. There were 55,196 applicants, about 4.6 times the designated admission number of 12,000. To handle all these applicants, many temporary workers were employed and application forms had to be reprinted. 102 Public opinion was also favorable. A newspaper editorial stated; We welcome the opening of the Air and Correspondence _ College. It has been notorious that after Liberation, lots of public and private colleges had been established and that a piece of graduate certificate has been regarded as a passport for entering into the working society. There have been lots of youth who have a strong desire to study in the college but missed the opportunity because of financial constraint. We should not neglect the problem any more and pretend to be blind to those who missed the opportunity and suffered from the feeling of life—failure. The Air and Correspondence College, we, believe, would open the door for them to study and widen their opportunity. ) And we hope the Air and Correspondence College would work to check the general thoughts of parents, that is, 'sell out even cow and land , if necessary for children's college education (Han-Kook Daily News Paper, March 2, 1972). C. ORGANIZATION OF THE AIR AND CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE When the Air and Correspondence College opened and began its program, there were only 20 people in academic and adminstrative positions; seven professors (including the Principal), four administrative personnel, and nine teaching assistants. Administrative recruitment was very slow, and by the end of April 1972, there were 18 administrative staffs. Most of the work related to the admission process was accomplished with the help of staff from the Seoul National University and temporary workers. It is difficult, therefore, to describe the organizational structure of the Air and Correspondence College. The following diagram indicated the organization stated in the Excetive Order and 103 School Regulation when the College opened. Figure 4 : Organizational Structure of the Air and Correspondence College Principal Facult y Meetings School (.1. O 5: [.4 d‘ C '75 (D Sutiseopeoag uorionpOJd seoueutg spiooea iuepnis SJTBJJV tooqos seorAJes iuepnig At the top of the hierarchy was the Principal. He was responsible for all college affairs and supervised the instructors, staff members and students. He was nominated by the President of the Seoul National University with the approval of the Personnel Committee from among the professors or assistant professors of the University. After their nomination, he was named by the Ministry of Education. There were two advisory committees to aid the Principal 104 in policy decisions and college management - the Broadcasting Education Committee and the Publication Committee. In addition to these committees, there was provision for faculty meetings. Members convened to discuss overall policy related to admission, teaching, examination, graduation and other matters pertaining to the teaching activity of the professors. No regulations were stipulated concerning attendance or frequency of meetins, but, in practice, meetings have been held once a week by the request of the Principal. The informal meetings allow directors of departments, the director of school affairs, and the director of broadcasting to discuss and exchange ideas about matters related to teaching activity of the Air and Correspondence College. In the academic realm, there were five departments, each of which had a director and one or two teaching assistants. The director was named by the President of the Seoul National University from among the professors there, but continued to work in the related department at the Seoul National University. Until 1982 when the College was changed to a five-year college, no professors were specially assigned to the Air and Correspondence College other than the professors who served as the director in each department. All of the teaching and course writing was done by the professors at the Seoul National University. In addition to these specific academic departments, there was a 105 department of liberal arts which provided courses which all students were required to take. There were three units in the administrative framework; School Affairs, Broadcasting Education, and Management. The Chief of School Affairs was also named from among the faculty members at te Seoul National University and his concerns related to admission, examination operation, cooperative college relations, student services and other tasks related to school affairs. The Broadcasting Education unit was responsible for the area of program production and broadcasting. Each cooperative college maintained an audio-library operated by the Broadcasting Education unit. The Management unit dealt with documentation, finances, issuance of transcripts, and other general managerial tasks not already covered by other units. Aside from this basic structure, there was a Council for the Management of the Air and Correspondence College within the Seoul National University. The Council supplied advice to the President concerning the operation of the College. The members of the Council numbered less than 15 including the chairman and Vice-chairman, and they were named or requested by the President from among those who were interested and expert in correspondence education programs. Also included in the Council as ex officio members were the Principal, the Director of Student Affairs, 106 and the Director of Management. The Council's chairman was the Principal of the Air and Correspondence College, changing in 1974 to the Vice-president of the Seoul National University. This Council, however, did not become functional until late in 1980 when a plan was established to change the programs to a five-year college course. The Council discussed the general direction of the new five-year program and an ammended draft of the Executive Order and Regulation was prepared. Along with this central organization, there were 22 cooperative colleges (11 colleges of elementary education) located around the country. All of them were national or public colleges selected by the Ministry of Education. Korea is divided into nine provinces, with Seoul and Pusan city under the direct control of the government. Each province had two cooperative colleges. Kyung-ki province joined with Seoul and had three cooperative colleges, while South Kyung-sang province joined with Pusan and had four cooperative colleges. The main task of the cooperative colleges was to conduct classroom teaching during the summer and winter vacations and to administer the final examination. In addition, the cooperative colleges provided experimental facilities, organized classroom and provided the necessary teaching staff who were financed by the Air and Corrspondence College. In every cooperative college, the J. #2:... .-q ._:l I. - I. .J" 107 Air and Correspondence College installed an audio library and provided recorded tapes of instruction. This structure continued without much change until 1981. D. EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS OF THE AIR AND CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE ‘ When the Air and Correspondence College opened, five departments were included; Public Administration, Business Administration, Agriculture, Home Economics and Elementary Education. For graduation, students were required to earn 100 credits. One credit was equivalent to one radio lecture session per week for one semester. The courses were divided into general course or the liberal arts and sciences (24 credits) and mojor or professional courses (76 courses). General courses consisted of Korean, English, Natural Sciences I, II, Ethics, History of Culture, and Introduction Ito Philosophy. Four credits were allocated to each subject. Except for Ethics, all of the general courses were first-year classes and students had to earn 20 credit (10 credits for each semester) in the first year. The four credits for Ethics were required in the second year. In 1974, the Ministry of Education decided to reorganize the course structure and credit system in the universities and colleges in the country. The number of credits required for graduation was lowered. With this decision, the Air and Correspondence College, in 1975, '108 reduced its required credits to 87 (21 credits for general courses and 66 credits for major courses) and reorganized the courses. The number of credits allowed for each of the general courses was reduced from 4 credits to 3 (except for English) and to 2 credits for Ethics. A new subject, Korean History, with 3 credits was added. Of the 21 general course credit needed, sttudetns earned 16 credits in the first year and 5 credits in the second year. This system continued without change until the Air and Correspondence College developed into a five-year program in 1982. Before the reorganization in 1975, 76 credits were allocated to major courses which consisted of about 25 subjects. Thirty credits were required in the first year and 46 credits the second year. After the reorganization in 1975, the number of credits was reduced to 66, with 21 subjects. Twenty-six credits were required in the first year and 40 credits in the second year. For each subject, the Air and Correspondence College provided a textbook prepared by a textbook publication committee established in the college. The committee consisted of the Principal, the heads of the departments and some selected professors from the Seoul National University. Their task was to research and make general plans for the preparation of the textbooks. They developed and distributed to the writers a guidebook on textbook writing. They also surveyed students for their opinions about the 109 textbooks and used the results in revising the books. A committee was formed in each department to coordinate the activites of the writers. Each of the two or three professors writing the textbook specialized in the area of this expertise. Radio broadcasting was another important teaching method utilized by the Air and Correspondence College. From the beginning, as a way to compensate for the disadvantages of correspondence education, the Air and Correspondence College sought ways to either have its own independent broadcasting system or to use as much as possible the educational broadcasting system which was initiated at that time. In practice, radio broadcasting was one of the most unprepared and undeveloped fields utilized by the Air and Correspondence College. Realizing that establishing its own independent broadcasting system or having an exclusive channel was not within the power of the Air and Correspondence College, ways were sought to use the KBS - the public broadcasting network. The KBS was under the control of the Ministry of Culture and Information. Through the Ministry, the Air and Correspondence College asked the KBS to allocate broadcasting time for instruction, but the request was denied. In fact no channel was guaranteed until the time when the Air and Correspondence College opened and began to mail textbooks. It was only after a commercial broadcasting 110 network, MBC radio, agreed on May 19, 1972 to broadcast once a day, beginning June 1, from 6:00 am to 6:30 am on weekdays and 5:45 am to 6:15 am on Sunday, that the KBS 3 agreed to participate. KBS 3 rebroadcast the programs from 12:00 to 12:30 and from 21:00 to 21:30 free of charge, and MBC FM rebroadcast the programs from 7:00 am to 7:30 am. The coverage area of these stations was limited, however. An agreement in 1973 made it possible to broadcast through KBS 1. Because there were now two groups of students, freshmen and juniors, the KBS increased the amount ? of broadcasting time to three units of 45 minutes — from 5:45 am to 6:35 am (excluding 5 minutes of news), and 11:15 pm to 12:00 pm. However, it eliminated rebroadcasting There were no formal schemes for allocating time to each subject. The total number of broadcasting units could be different even between two subjects having the same number of credits. There were no general rules and the schedule was determined semester by semester. The instructional broadcasting was divided into two focus areas. The first, which dominated broadcasting time, was regular subject teaching. Having no regular rules, the broadcasting units for each subject (15 minutes) were decided on a semester basis considering the importance and convenience of the subject for teaching over the air. The instructional broadcasting was conducted by those who wrote the textbook, expecting that they would explain the concepts 111 that would be difficult for a student to understand and supplement.those areas that were difficult to deal with in the text. The other focus area involved special lectures in conjunction with the general cultural program. As noted previously, the regular couses of the Air and Correspondence College were divided into the major subjects of the departments and the liberal arts and sciences. In addition to the regular liberal arts ans sciences programs, general cultural programs werre developed and broadcast to the students without any constraints or regulation. The topics of the general cultural programs were varied, including music, painting, literature, Korean culture, philosophy, and others. The amount of time allotted to the general cultural programs was unpredictable. A subject could be limited to one unit or it could continue for several days. However, for a whole semester, the program content was related, and was then published as a series of books for students and the public after the semester. In addition to independent study through textbooks and listening to instructional broadcasts, classroom teaching was provided as a valuable learning opportunity. Students were required to attend classroom sessions which were held during the vacation periods of the conventional colleges and universities. Selecting cooperative colleges to offer the classroom teaching was a process that involved evaluating 112 Vmany factors. Korea was divided into nine area parallel with the provinces eXcept that Seoul was included with the Kyung-ki province, and Pusan was included with South Kyung-sang province. In each area the number of registered students and their major fields were different, as well as the number of higher educational institutions and the major fields they offered. One university or college might provide an education program in a department that was not available at another university or college.. In 1972, 11 national universities which included 21 colleges, 5 national colleges, and 11 teachers colleges - total 37 colleges, were selected as the cooperative insititutions. In 1979, the number of cooperative colleges increased to 42, then to 43 in 1980, and again to 46 in 1981 ( The History of the Air and Correspondence College , 1982). These increases were not out of consideration for students, but rather as a result of changes in the cooperative institutions such as establishing or integrating departments. The tasks of the cooperative colleges were four-fold. The first responsibility was to provide teaching sessions during the summer and winter vacations and to provide the necessary materials and facilities for instruction and experiments. Secondly, they were to prepare instructors, formulate the class and schedule class teaching. A third responsibility involved administering an examination and 113 evaluating students scores. Finally, they were responsible for carrying out related tasks as requested by the Principal of the Air and Correspondence College. It was determined that the period of classroom teaching would be two weeks in each vacation period. Students were required to participate in the classroom sessions and were not permitted to complete the course if they failed to attend more than a quarter of the classroom teaching sessions. In spite of this regulation, the rate of participation in the classroom sessions was not satisfactory. The rate of participation from 1972 to 1981 was 70-75 % in summer and 75-80 % in winter. In 1975, the period of classroom teaching was reduced to 11 days and in 1980, for sophomores, it was further reduced to 9 days (Chung, Han-mo, 1981). Subjects taught in the classroom sessions were the same as those broadcast during the semester. A standard schedule for each subject describing the times and teaching methods, such as lectures and experiments, was delivered to the cooperative colleges with the expectation that the institution would organize its teaching staff and establish a schedule based on the standard schedule. As the number of days of classroom teaching was reduced, it became impossible to deal with all the subject areas. Therefore, the system was reorganized, excluding or reducing time of subjects sufficiently covered by broadcasting instruction and 114 increasing time for subjects which required experiments or other experiences which a classroom setting would provide. Teachers for classroom instruction were selected by the cooperative college from among the regular insturctors at that institution. They could not be recruited from other colleges, thus securing qualified instructors became a problem. In general, instructors were reluctant to accept the classroom teaching responsibilities even though they were paid extra for teaching during the vacation. And there tended to be no continuous interaction between the instructors and students during the semester since no opportunities were provided for meeting times other than the classroom session. Since 1979, an advisor has been appointed for each student to help the student throughout his college studies. E. OPINIONS OF THE FACULTY OF THE AIR AND CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE To obtain information about the teaching activities of the instructors and their interaction with students, a questionnaire was prepared and sent to them. The qustionnaire requested information in the following areas; the focus of their teaching, their views about the Air and Coorespondence College, the extent of their interaction with students, their perceptions of how difficult the studies were for students, their opinions about the appropriate time 115 frame for teaching a subject, and their suggestions for improving the education of the college. Three groups of academic staff were involved in the educational program of the Air and Correspondence College: those who developed course materials, the broadcasting instructors, and the teachers from the cooperative colleges and universities who provided the classroom encounters during vacation periods. In actuality, most of the broadcasting instructors were writers of the correspondence materials, so the actual instruction was conducted by the broadcasting instructors and the teachers from the cooperative colleges and universities. Therefore, those two groups were chosen and asked to answer the questionnaires. During the first semester of the 1983 academic year, 30 instructors were scheduled for broadcasting instruction. These instructors, plus 19 broadcast instructors who had previously worked for the college, were asked to respond to the questionnaire. One univeristy was chosen from among the 34 cooperative colleges and universities, and 20 instructors of the university were asked to respond to the questionnaire. Only 23 out of the 69 questionnaires sent out were returned (only 9 out of 49 questionnaires were returned from the broadcasting instructors). Because of this low rate of response from the Air and Correspondence College, the results may not reflect accurately the opinions of all the 116 instructors of the college. However, opinions may not be greatly different in the area where the returned response showed concentrated agreement. The following analyses will focus on these general tendencies. Difficulty and Focus of Instruction Table 6 indicates the instructors' responses regarding the difficulty and the focus of the Air and Correspondence College courses in comparison with regular college courses. Table 6 : Instructors' Views of A&C College Instruction A&C College courses, A&C College Cooperative compared to regular Instructors University Total courses, are Instructors In their difficulty same 5 12 17 more difficult 3 2 5 less difficult I 3 4 no response - - - total 9 17 26 In their focus same 5 10 15 more academic 1 6 7 more practical 2 1 3 no response 1 1 total 9 17 26 Most of the respondents (17/26) thought that the content of the courses they taught in the Air and Correspondence College was the same as regular course in difficulty. Both groups of instructors, those from the Air and Correspondence College and those from the cooperative college, agreed on 117 this point, although the cooperative college instructors responded more strongly to this statement. The instructors (15/26) also agreed that the focus of the Air and Correspondence Cdllege courses was the same as in regular college courses. In comparing the responses of the Air and Correspondence instructors with those from the cooperative university, however, some differences existed. Only one of the nine Air and Correspondence College instructors said that their courses were more academic than regular course, while six of seventeen respondents from the cooperative university said their courses were more academic. Instructors' Views about the Air and Correspondence College Student's Ability and Motivation . Table 7 shows the instructors' responses regarding the ability and motivation of the Air and Correspondence College students. When instructors were asked about the ability of the Air and Correspondence College students, 69 % of them (18/26) thought that the Air and Correspondence College students had less potential than regular college students. On the other hand, 58 % of the instructors (15/26) thought that the Air and Correspondence College Students were more motivated to learn than regular college students. When comparing the responses from the Air and Correspondence College instructors with those of the cooperative university 118 instructors, there were no great differences in their thought. Both groups thought that even though the Air and Correspondence College students had less potential, they were more motivated to learn. Table 7 : Instructors' Views of A&C College Students' Ability and Motivation In general, A&C College A&C College Cooperative students, compared to Instructors University Total regular students, Instructors Potential about same 2 5 7 more potential - l 1 less potentail 7 11 18 no response — — - total 9 17 26 Motivation similar - 4 4 more motivated 7 8 15 less motivated 1 5 6 no response 1 - 1 total 9 17 26 Regarding the motivation of the Air and Correspondence College students, the Air and Correspondence College instructors indicated a strong tendency to think that A&C College students were more motivated (7/9), while out of the 17 responses from the cooperative university instructors, eight thought that A&C College students were more motivated and five thought they were less motivated. 119 Frequency of Students' Visits and Discussion Topics Table 8 indicates the rate at which students visited the instructor. Almost all of the instructors (21/26) indicated that the rate of student visits was lower than that of regular students visits, all of the A&C College instructors reported that less than one percent of the students visited them personally. Table 8 : Frequency of A&C College Students Visits i n comparison with that of regular students A & C College Cooperative Instructors University Total Instructors Same - 1 1 Higher - 1 1 Lower 6 15 21 No response 3 - 3 Total 9 17 26 The cooperative university instructors indicated a rate of visitation between three to seven percent. This low rate of Visitation indicated that there were few opportunities to establish personal interaction between the instructors and students, which is not suprising since correspondence education is based on non face-to-face instruction. Table 9 shows the most frequent question asked by the A&C College students and regualr college students when visiting the instructors. 120 Table 9 : The Kinds of Questions from the A&C College Students and from Regular Students A & C College Cooperative Instructors University Total Instructors A & C course content College grade result Students exam. preparation course selection personal matters others no response total \ONIHIIHUI \JH IF‘NLHU1W H oxwl Nnawoxo 1.4 N Regular course content Students grade result exam. preparation course selection personal matters others no response total \DNI—‘AIHIH \lII—‘U'IIUJUUU'l O‘oNNkOIAU-JOK H N Ten of the 26 instructors said that the most frequent question asked by the A&C College students related to course content, while six instructors indicated the most frequently asked question related to grades. The responses from both the A&C College instructors and the cooperative university instructors were similar except that among the COOperative university instructors, there were other questions asked such as grade results and examination preparation. On the other hand, according to 9 of the 26 instructors, the most frequently asked question from regular students related to personal matters. Questions about course content and exam preparation were the second and third highest in frequency. 121 In comparing the responses of the A&C College instructors and the cooperative university instructors, both groups agreed that the most frequent question asked by regular students pertained to personal matters. Sources of Information about Students Table 10 presents data about how instructors find out information about their students. Table 10 : Instructors' Sources of Informations about the A&C College Students A & C College Cooperative Instructors University Total Instructors From student records 1 1 2 From student papers and/or reports 1 2 3 From other A & C College instructors. 1 1 2 From other cooperative college instructors 1 12 13 Others 5 1 6 No response - - - Total 9 17 26 Table 10 indicated that for the cooperative university instructors, there were no common sources for obtaining information about student except from colleagues. Twelve of the seventeen cooperative university instructors indicated other instructors as their main source of information. No other common sources were revealed. 122 I§§tructors' Views about the Difficulties for Students to 8% Table 11 lists difficulties A&C College students experience as viewed by their instructors. Table 11 : Instructors' Views of A&C College Students' Difficulty to Study A & C College Cooperative Instructors University Total Instructors Not enough time to study 5 11 16 Few opportunities to meet other students - - - Few opportunities to meet instructors 2 1 3 Few opportunities to find other learning 1 3 4 materials Other - 2 2 No response 1 — 1 Total 9 17 26 Of the twenty-six instructors, 16 singled out "not enough time" as the most difficult problem facing students in their study. Besides the shortage of time, four instructors indicated "few oppertunities to find other learning material," and three instructors indicated "few opportunities to meet instructors" as the most difficult problems for A&C College students. Views expressed by the A&C College instructors and the cooperative university instructors were similar on this point. 123 Amount of Time Available and Demands from Courses Table 12 indicates the instructors' views about the relationship between course demands and available time for students. Table 12 : Instructors' Views about the Appropriateness of Course Demand and Availability of Time for the A&C College Students A & C College Cooperative Instructors University Total Instructors An appropriate amount 3 6 9 of time Too much time 4 10 14 No response 2 1 3 Total 9 17 26 The responses of the instructors to the most difficult problem facing A&C College students (shortage of time, Table 11) also related to the result shown in Table 12. When instructors were asked about the appropriateness of course demands, fourteen of the twenty-six instructors said that the course demanded too much time for students to accommodate. Nine instructors indicated that the courses they presented demanded an appropriate amount of time to study. There appeared to be no great difference when comparing the responses of the A&C College instructors with those of the cooperative university instructors. 124 Extent of Course Coverage Table 13 shows the instructors' responses to the issue of course coverage. Table 13 : Instructors' Views about the Sufficiency of Time for the A&C College Course Coverage A & C College Cooperative Instructors University Total Instructors Yes 3 3 9 Not sure - - - No 3 14 17 No response 3 - 3 Total 9 17 26 As table 13 shows, when instructors were asked about the sufficiency of course coverage, seventeen of the twenty-six instructors responded "no" and six instructors responded "yes". There was a great difference between the opinions of the A&C Colloge instructors and the cooperative university instructors (14/17) topic area. opinion. Finally, . Most of the cooperative university instructors thought that they did not sufficiently cover the The A&C College instructors did not agree that There were three "yes" and three "no" responses. an open-ended question was included at the end of the questionnaire which asked the instructors for suggestions for improving the A&C College education. Suggestions varied from the need for a short-term and 125 , long-term development plan to expansion of opportunities to meet students face-to-face. A common opinion expressed the need to increase the political and economic support from the government. For example, of the six (67%) who responded to this question, four (67%) of A&C College instructors said that the quality of the A&C College instructors should be enhanced. Also, rather than to rely on the broadcasting of. the public KBS, they suggested establishing a broadcasting channel exclusively for the A&C College, as well as providing library services for the students. Of the cooperative university instructors who responded to this open-ended question, five (56%) indicated that the present system of classroom teaching was not very useful for the students. They indicated that because of the short period of classroom teaching, instructors were only able to emphasize "fragments of knowledge and memory" and thus students had few opportunities to connect them to other disciplines or to a real life. Their suggestions included improving the classroom teaching by extending it to a weekly or monthly requirement. Conclusion The students and the teaching methods of the A&C College were new for most of the instructors contacted. Their views of students and courses in the A&C College would strongly influence their teaching acitivity and the 126 students' learning, thus the questions requested their views on students, interaction with students, students' learning difficulties, and course coverage and demands. First, generally, the instructors thought that even though the ability of the A&C College students was low, they were more motivated and could learn as well as the regular college students if sufficient personal help and learning materials were provided. Secondly, it was generally accepted that for those students who had jobs, practical knowledge would be helpful, however, many of the cooperative university instructors stated that they focused more on the academic dimension. Considering the instructors' concerns that because of the short time for classroom teaching they were forced to transmit fragmented knowledge, the focus on academics followed. Thirdly, for the A&C College instructors and the cooperative university instructors, the opportunities to meet and talk with students were very infrequent. This is not suprising. However, admitting the importance of face-to-face teaching and interaction between students and teacher in education, the A&C College's attempts for actual contact through classroom teaching did not enhance contact between students and instructors. 127 F. STUDENTS OF THE AIR AND CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE Change in Demand and Admission The target population of the A&C College was determined to be those who had completed a high school education or its equivalent. Since 1968, it was required in Korea that applicants to higher education should take and pass the preliminary college entrance examination. The examination was administered by the Ministry of Education nationally, and the number of those who passed the examination was determined according to the number of places available in colleges for that year. The pass or failure of the examination was only pertinent for that year and the applicants were required to take and pass the examination again if he/she want to reapply to a university or college the following year. In 1970, the number of admission places available in higher education insitutions (including universities, colleges, junior colleges, teacher colleges and other professional schools) was 46,000. Of the 120,000 who applied to take the preliminary examination that year, about 45,000 were reapplicants (Kim, 1981). One of the serious problems confronting the Ministry of Education has been the admission policy for higher education. In the developmental stage of the A&C College, 128 there were discussions to use the new college as a method to diminish this problem, and it was proposed to limit applicants to those who passed the preliminary college entrance examination. With the great concern for the development of continuing education, the proposal was not accepted and anyone who had completed high school education or its equivalent was allowed to apply to the A&C College. Following this decision, three principles of admission were established. One was to allocate the number of students on a regional basis. Administratively, Korea was divided into two cities, Seoul and Pusan, and nine provinces. Using this division, the Air and Correspondence College divided the country into nine areas with Seoul and Kyung-ki province as one area, and Pusan and South Kyung-sang province as another area. The number of students allocated from each region was based on the total population of each area and its number of high school students. The second principle was to give admission advantages to those who had jobs in fields related to the department to which they wished to apply. For each department, related jobs were itemized and 30% of the admission places were allocated to those who were employed in those related fields. For example, nurses, social workers, child care center emplyees and others in related jobs had an advantage if they applied to the department of Home Economics. Lastly, unlike other higher educational institutions, . 129 admission to the A&C College was determined on the basis of high school grades. Despite the government efforts to equalize high school education throughout Korea, people believed that some high schools produced a higher quality education than others. In assessing the applicant's grades, however, all the schools were considered equal without regard to their location, scale, general or vocational program, etc. Over the years, there have been some changes in the details of classifying related jobs, transforming high school grades into a standard form, and reserving admission places for workers in related jobs. Since 1979, special admission status has also been given to teachers recommended by school board chairman without consideration of their school grades. Under a special agreement between the college and the headquarters of the military service, a group of military officers was accepted into the departments of Business Administration and Public Administration. Overall, however, the three basic principles of admission, regional allocation of admission numbers, screening applicants on the basis of high school grades, and giving advantages to those working in related fields, have been applied up to the present. The following table shows the number of applicants compared to the admission quotas from 1972 to 1980. 130 Table 14 : Number of applicants and admission quotas Year Applicants Admission Quota Competition Rate 1972 55,196 12,000 4.6 : 1 1973 16,671 12,000 1.4 : 1 1974 27,056 12,000 2.3 : 1 1975 39,374 12,000 3.3 : 1 1976 45,148 12,000 '3.8 : l 1977 46,463 12,000 3.9 : l 1978 51,162 16,000 3.2 : 1 1979 65,093 14,000 * 4.6 : 1 4,000 ** 1980 57,960 13,500 * 4.3 : 1 4,500 ** * Applicants qualified by exam ** Applicants admitted with no exam The fact that in 1972, the first year of the A&C College, 55,196 persons applied for the 12,000 admission places, indicates the high interest level of people in the new institution. In 1973 and 1974, the number of applicants decreased a bit, but increased again in 1975 and since that time there have been three to four times the number of applicants than admission places in the A&C College. With this increase in the number of applicants, the A&C College increased the admission quotas to 16,000 in 1978 and to 18,000 in 1979. Although about 10% of those who were admitted each year did not complete the final registration, the total number of new entrants from 1972 to 1980 was 113,112. According to the A&C College regulations, the minimum number of credits needed for graduation was 100 (87 credits 131 since 1975). Students were generally expected to complete their course requirements within two years, but they were allowed to register and study for a maximum of six years. A temporary absence of four semesters from school was also allowed but could not be used consecutively if it meant absences of more than one year. Because the period of permitted absence was not counted as a year of study, a new students in 1972 could have had student status ten year later, in 1982. The following table shows the change in students numbers from 1972 to 1980. Table 15 : Number of admittance and graduates New Graduate Present Drop-out Entrants A B T 1972 11,172 2,751 1,026 3,777 - 7,397 1973 10,525 2,599 1,167 3,766 9 6,746 1974 10,796 2,412 1,062 3,474 25 7,295 1975 10,944 1,967 1,335 3,302 97 7,515 1976 10,649 2,096 1,123 3,219 229 7,235 1977 10,837 2,597 994 3,591 245 7,001 1978 14,493 2,993 1,270 4,263 600 9,630 1979 16,592 3,395 1,333 4,728 1,933 9,931 1980 17,104 3,728 - 3,728 6,136 9,274 Total 113,112 24,538 9,310 33,848 9,274 69,990 A: Number of Graduates within two years B: Number of Graduates after three years T: Total Number of Graduates As the table shows, from 1972 to 1980, there were a total of 113,112 new students. Of them, about 30% (33,848) completed the courses and graduated, while about 8% (9,274) were still 132 studying in 1980. Sixty-two percent of the students (about 70,000) failed to complete the program, however. When comparing the rate of graduation among the departments, an interesting point was revealed. The average graduation rate from 1972 to 1982 was about 30%. However, of the five departments, only one department - Elementray Education - showed a higher than average rate of graduation. The graduation rate of the Elementary Education department was 56.2% while only about 20% of the students who enrolled in the department of Agriculture graduated. In general, before the introduction of the system of graduation quotas, whereby the Ministry of Education allowed a college to admit 30% more students that the allotted admission number but only allowed the admission quota to graduate, the dropout was very low. New students were commonly expected to complete the course without I interruption except for military service for male students. About 80% to 90% of new entrants at the conventional institutions completed the courses and graduate. In contrast, the graduation rate of the A&C College was very low (20%), even if one admitted that the completion rate of distance educaion was generally low. Occupations of the Students One of the characteristics of distance education is the possibility of students to study at their convenience while 133 maintaining a job. According to the A&C College statistics, about 80% of the students were employed, and 20% were not. The statistics did not reveal the specific types of jobs in which students were employed, but of the 29,418 students enrolled in 1979, 5,619 or 19.1% were teachers, 5,167 (17.6%) were public administration personnel, and 7,973 (27.1%) were employed by business or bank. Students in the Army, in commerce, agriculture or other vocations numbered 4,752 (16.2%). This data indicated that the Air and Correspondence College had given educational opportunity to many working people who had few opportunities to study. Age of the Students The following table shows the distribution of new students from 1972 to 1978 in terms of their ages. Table 16 : Age of Students by Department (Total admittance from 1972 to 1980 -20 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 40- Total Home 9,341 7,060 846 312 56 8 17,623 economics (53.0) (40.1) (4.8) (1.8) (0.3) (0.0) (100) Business 11,359 9,496 4,702 1,500 362 50 27,469 (41.4) (34.5) (17.1) (5.5) (1.4) (0.2) (100) Agriculture 5,750 6,350 3,385 1,179 384 108 17,156 (33.5) (37.0) 20.0) (6.9) (2.2) (0.6) (100) Elementary 3,427 4,100 5,001 4,259 3,325 2,970 23,082 Education (14.8) (17.8) (21.7) (18.5)(14.4)(12.9) (100) Public Admi- 7,514 10,762 6,869 2,148 395 94 27,782 nistration (27.0) (38.7) (24.7) (7.7) (1.4) (0.3) (100) Total 37,391 37,768 20,803 9,398 4,522 3,230 113,112 (33.0) (33.4) (18.4) (8.3) (4.0) (2.9) (100) 134 As the table shows, of the total 113,112 entering students form 1972 to 1980, about 33% of the students were under the age of 20, and similar percentage were between the age of 21 and 25. About 34% of the students were over the age of 26. There was a difference in the distribution among the departments, however. Younger students were more concentrated in the department of Home Economics and Business Administration, while over 67% of the students in the department of Elementary Education were over the age of 26. Most of them were teachers, and this indicates that the A&C College was perceived as a good opportunity for teachers to enhance the quality of their certificates. Regional Distribution of students One of the problems of Korean higher education was the concentration of higher educational institutions in the city of Seoul. In 1970, of the total 171,356 students in higher education, 105,271 (61.4%) students were located in Seoul. As a policy to distribute student population into local areas, restriction was made in the number of institutions and students in Seoul, and many institutions were established in local areas. As a result of this policy, in 1979, the proportion of students in Seoul decreased to 36.3% while the number of students in other areas increased to 63.7%. The total number of registrants increased to 482,963 135 ( Statistical Yearbook of Korean Education, 1970, 1979) The A&C College, also, complied with the government policy, determined admission numbers area by area considering population as well as the number of high school graduates who desired to enter higher educational institutions but were unable to. The following table shows the quota of students for each region in 1981. Table 17 : Number of Students by Region in 1981 Region The number of The number of B/A x 100 students students (regis- (quotas):A tered):B Seoul 16,159 14,219 88.0 % & Kyung—ki (33.7%) Kang won 2,310 (4.8%) 2,543 110.1 % North Choong-chung 1,947 (4.1%) 2,162 111.0 % South Choong-Chung 4,073 (8.5%) 3,796 93.2 % North ' Kyung-sang 6,437 (13.4%) 5,573 86.2 % South Kyung-sang & Pusan 8,313 (17.3%) 7,197 86.6 % North Cheon-Na 3,163 (6.6%) 3,052 96.5 % South Cheon-Na 4,964 (10.3%) 4,476 90.2 % Jaeju 634 (1.3%) 543 85.6 % Total 48,000 (100%) 43,461 90.8 % Source : 1981 A & C College As Table 17 indicates, the total quota for students was 48,000 with a quota of 16,159 (33.7%) for Seoul and Kyung-ki province, and 31,841 (66.3%) for other areas. The actual 136 number of students enrolled in Seoul and Kyung-ki province was 14,219 which was about 88% of the allowable quota. In most cases, the actual number of students was about 10% less than the quota, except from the regions of Kang-won province and North Choong-chung province where the quota was exceeded by about 10%. These statistics revealed that the Air and Correspondence College has contributed to educational opportunity for people in local areas. The amount of demand for admission to the A&C College, the rate of student completion, and student age, region of residence and occupation have been examined. Since the A&C College opened, the number of applicants has exceeded the admission quota, and about two—thirds of the applicants were unable to study in the A&C College. In 1978, the admission quota was increased to 15,000 and 18,000 in 1979. However, these increases were not sufficient to accommodate the demand for admission. For many students who were able to enroll, the desire to continue studying subsided and only about 30% of the students completed the program. Student factors contributing to this completion rate include financial, occupational, educational and other factors, and some of which could be improved by the A&C College such as teaching methods, relationship to cooperative colleges, student evaluation. These factors should be evaluated and some measures sought to improve the rate of completion. 137 The A&C College has proved to be effective in providing educational opportunity for older people since the statistics revealed that 30% of the students were over 26 years of age. This tendency was especially prominent in the department of Elementary Education and Public Administration. However, students from the other departments were generally the normal age of college students. To perform its function as a continuing education institution, it would be necessary to find methods of recruiting older students. CHAPTER V COMPARISON OF THE OPEN UNIVERSITY AND THE AIR AND CORRESPONDENCE COLLEGE The presentation and discussion of the similarities and differences between the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College in this chapter is organized around the major areas presented in the first three chapters. Statements of comparison and contrast are made, followed by a discussion of the statements. A. PURPOSES AND ORGANIZATION Both the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College were established by the government to provide opportunities for higher education for those who wanted to study but had been unable to do so previously. In Britain and Korea, students in higher education numbered only about 10 percent of the appropriate age group. With the highly competitive selection system, there were many students who failed to enter into higher education. There were few opportunities to study in higher educational institutions once a young person had enterned into the working society. Both institutions, utilizing mass media and correspondence, sought to provide educational programs for students in their homes or working places, helping them overcome the 138 139 geographical and time barriers which discouraged them from continuing their studies in higher educational institutions. Both institutions could also provide education at a relatively low cost because fewer personnel and physical facilities were required. The Open University and the Air and Correspondence College were nationally organized, which allowed people from all over the country to enroll for study. The Open University was established as an independent university with its own charter, and students who successfully completed the program could earn a degree from the University. The entire nation was divided into regions and each region had numerous regional centers where advisors and libraries provided students with guidance and information for their study. The Air and Correspondence College, when it was first established, was a two—year junior college attached to the Seoul National University. Most of the teaching personnel were also professors at the Seoul National University. Currently, it is a five-year independent college with an increased number of its own instructors. In addition to the utilization of mass media and correspondence, both institutions organized opportunities for classroom study during the vacation periods of the conventional universities and colleges which were not far from the students' residence. 140 From the beginning, it was clear that the Open University was developed for the people who were disadvantaged in terms of their previous study and learning opportunities. Admission was given to those who were over 21 years of age and there were no academic pre-requisites. To avoid a predominance of students from the developed region, the entire nation was divided into regions with admission quotas allocated to each region according to its population and number of applicants. Since 1980, as an experiment, a small number of applicants from the 18 years old group were admitted for study. The Air and Correspondence College was also developed for the disadvantaged group. However, the emphasis on adult students was not as prominent as it was in the Open University. Those students over 18 years of age who were admitted were required to have completed their high school education. The period of classroom study, although it was later shortened, in the planning stage was proposed for four weeks which would have been difficult for working adults to accommodate. In the early 19705, as the concept of continuing or adult education was introduced in Korea, the Air and Correspondence College was planned. The number of academic programs which served the adult student in Korea was negligible compared to Britain where many adult education programs had been developed and utilized, although no academic credit resulted. The Open University was an 141 attempt to go one step further - from non-credit courses to credit courses. For both the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College, mass media played an important role in the teaching activities. Daily instructional programs were broadcast allowing the students to keep pace with the schedule of courses and allowing the instructors to explain and add new information to the written material. Neither the BBC in Britain nor the KBS in Korea are commercial organizations, but rather public organizations supported by the government. Therefore, it would be relatively easy to obtain instructional broadcasting time. However, production of quality programs would depend on the relationship between the teaching staff and the broadcast production staff. Before the establishment of the Open University, the BBC had developed educational program individually or in cooperation with other educational institutions, and thus their production staff had quite a bit previous experience in educational program development. The television and radio production staff actively participated in the format and development of the broadcasting aspect of the Open University. On the other hand, the Air and Correspondence College utilized radio only, and there was no clear indication that the production staff of the KBS took part in the development of the instructional programs. Many broadcasts Were largely 142 composed of lectures which a professor prepared for students of the Air and Correspondence College. Production of a variety of program formats even in radio, would require large amounts of money and many production staff members experienced in developing educational programs. B. COURSE STRUCTURE As stated earlier, unlike the other English Universities, the Open University adopted a credit system requiring six credits for a regular degree, and eight credits for an advanced degree. A credit system, asking students to earn and accumulate credits in the courses they select, has advantages in the non-traditional educational programs in that it allows students to select courses which meet their needs and to arrange time convenient for their personal schedules. In general, two credits are assigned to each course, and a minimum number of courses for graduation is three. By 1981, over 130 courses in five departments have been developed and provided for students, allowing a broad selection of courses appropriate to the individual student. The Air and Correspondence College in Korea also adopted a credit system. However, like in the United States, a credit was equal to one hour of study per week in a semester, and students were required to get over 100 credits (later reduced to 80 credits) in order to graduate. 143 As a junior college, the minimum number of years for course completion increased to five years. The number of course provided by the Air and Correspondence College did not allow as much selectivity as that of the Open University. The Open University provided three programs; the undergraduate program, the postgraduate program, and the associate student program. The undergraduate program constituted the main activity of the Open University, and upon completion of the program, a general degree recognized as equivalent to a degree from any other British University was conferred. The postgraduate program was recently developed, and following the completion of a program of research or advanced study and submission of a dissertation or thesis, the degree of B. Phil., M. Phil., or Ph. D. was rewarded. The associate student program was developed for adults who wished to expand their knowledge of their own career or to acquire knowledge about a new field without embarking on a full degree program. The courses for the associate student program were specially developed and available together with individual courses drawn from the undergraduate program. Also, many associate student courses carried credit which would be counted towards a B.A. degree if a student later registered in the undergraduate program. The Air and Correspondence College had two programs; a professional college program and a bachelor degree program. Initially, the Air and Corresondence College was a junior 144 college program, but in 1981, when the college became independent, the main activity of the college changed to the bachelor degree program, and the name of the junior college program changed to the professional college program. The distinction between the professional college program and the bachelor degree program was largely based on the period of study and required credits (two years and 80 credits for the professional college program and five years and 160 credits for the bachelor degree program). A student can recieve a certificate of completion of the professional college program when the required 80 credits are earned. This system has adminitrative and financial advantages over two separate programs. However, because no specific program has been developed as appropriate for the professioanl college program, there is no such a variety of courses that are available in the associate student program of the Open University. C. STUDENT In general, the extent of the acceptance of the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College was great. Each year the number of applicants exceeded the number of admissions. In the first year when the Open University opened, there were 42,992 applicants for 25,000 places, and since then, over half a million applications have been received while only 160,428 students have been registered. 145 Of the students who enrolled in 1971, 56% obtained B.A. ordinary degrees by 1981, and 12% became Honors graduates. "Unqualified" students, those who did not possess the normal minimum qualifications for entry into a British university, showed that they, too, could successfully study if opportunities and sufficient supports were given to them. The completion rate of the unqualified students was a little low, but by 1978, four out of ten of the unqualified students admitted in 1971 had graduated. Considering the number of applications, the Air and Correspondence College of Korea looked like to be readily accepted by the public. In 1972, there were 55,196 applicants which exceeded the number of students admitted by over 400 percent. Although the number of applicants decreased somewhat in 1973 and 1974, there was a general increase in the number of applicants, and in 1980, there were 57,960 applicants for 13,500 admission places. Of the students who enrolled in 1972, only 3,777 or 33.8% were graduated by 1981. The completion rate of students who entered in other years was around 30%, which compared to the 56% completion rate at the Open University, was very low. Taking into account the fact that the Air and Correspondence College was two-year program, the completion rate seemed to be too low. When a comparison of the age of the students was made, there were some differences between the tho institutions. 146 While applicants to the Open University were required to be over 21 years of age, the Air and Correspondence College did not specify an age requirement, only that the applicants must have completed their high school education. Of the total 13.2 thousand new entrants to the Open University in 1976/77, 7.7 thousand (58.3%) were over age 30, and 3.8 thousand (28.8%) were between the age of 25 and 29. That is, over 85 % of the students began to study at an age when their counterparts would have already completed university education. Considering the age categories of applicants to the Air and Correspondence College, of the total 113,112 new entrants from 1972 to 1978, 37,391 (33.0%) were under age 20, 37,768 (33.4%) were between the ages of 21 and 25, 20,803 (18.4%) were between the ages of 26 and 30, and 17,150 (15.2%) were over age 31. Certainly, in Korea, where almost no alternative was provided for the mature adult who wanted to continue to study, the Air and Correspondence College provided a good opportunity. D . EVALUATION One of the important functions of evaluating student performance is that it gives feedback to the instructor. The instructor notes the progress of the student in his course and then develops or adjusts his instructional program based on the evaluation of the performance of the 147 student. The student, too, becomes aware of his degree of competence and can take steps to improve his study. In this function of formative evaluation, continuity and circulation are important. To provide formative evaluation, every three or four weeks the Open University sent examination questions to students, who then answered the questions and returned them to the University. The Air and Correspondence College, too, acknowledging the importance of continuous assessment, asked the students to submit two essay assignments for each course they took. Since 1977, four essay assignments were required; one from a general liberal course, another from a major course in the student's curriculum, and the other two from any courses the student choosed. In the planning stage, the Air and Correspondence College intended to utilize formative evaluation, returning the assignments to the students together with proper comments made by the instructor. However, because the number of academic staff available to make comments was limited, no comments were made and the assignments were not returned to the students. It was only after the Air and Correspondence College changed from a two-year junior college to a regular degree granting college that a few attempts were made to provide comments and return the assigned papers to the students. In addition to these formative evaluations, both institutions required students to take final examinations at 148 the end of a course. The results of these examinations determined the grade which the student received for the course. For students of the Open University, questions for the final examination were prepared by the examination board. The examination scripts, along with a marking scheme, were sent to the examiners who were selected from the part-time tutorial staff. The whole process was monitored by the external examiners, and great efforts were made to be fair, awarding credit where it was due. Two kinds of final examinations were conducted for students of the Air and Correspondence College. One was prepared by the Air and Correspondence College teaching staff and was a multiple choice exam; the other was prepared by the instructors of the cooperative colleges or universities and was an essay exam. Each instructor from the cooperative colleges or universities independently evaluated the examination questions and suggested a grade at the end of the classroom study. One of the problems resulting from this type of examination system, in both the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College, was how to maintain the quality of examinations and a consistent standard of evaluation among the different examiners. Perfect objectivity would be difficult to achieve when essay type questions were provided and graded by an instructor. The problem became more complex when the scripts were evaulated by many people. 149 The tutor marked assignment designed by the Open University and the second final examination conducted by the cooperative colleges or univeristies of the Air and Correspondence College accentuated this problem.. As a way to solve this problem, in the Open Univeresity, the part-time tutors sent the assignment scripts to the Open University after they were graded. They were photocopied and filed. Later, a sample of them was selected and a member of the full-time academic staff remarked them, evaluating the consistency and normality of the examination grades. Ways were sought to overcome this problem in the Air and Correspondence College such as using a bank of examination questions or inter-evaluation of the questions among the cooperative college, but no method was implemented, and the only adoptable method for the college was to minimize the weight of the second final examination when grading the students' final achievements. E. RECRUITMENT OF STAFF It is commonly mentioned as one of the advantages of distance educaion which utilizes mass media that a few instructors are sufficient to reach tens of thousands of students. It is certain that the size of the audience is enlarged when a message is delivered utilizing mass media, and compared with regular classroom reaching, distance 150 education needs a few instructors. However, as an education system in which students need continuous contact with teacher in order to ask for and receive guidance regarding their learning, a certain number of instructors are necessary. Depending on the diversity and complexity of the educational tasks, even a greater number of staff may be needed for the whole process, from the preparation of teaching materials to the evaluation of performance to be completed. When both the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College were opened, a large number of staffs were not anticipated. In 1971, the total number of central full-time Open University staff members was about 180, of whom 120 were academic staffs. The number of full-time regional office staff members was 140, of whom 25 were academic staffs such as the Regional Director and Assistant Directors. Those staff members who had direct contact with students, providing counselling services and tutorial services, were part—time staffs. Most of the part-time staffs were drawn from the full-time staffs of universities, polytechnics, techical colleges and colleges of education. The total number of part-time staffs was 4,861. In 1981, after 10 years had passed, the total number of full-time staffs increased to 2,500, of whom 800 were academic and research staffs. The number of regional academic staffs increased to 227 and the number of reseach staffs increased 151 to 136. Although these increases may be simple and ordinary, a result of the normal process of increased course offerings and programs, it means that there was a committment by the University and support from the society and government. The increased numbers of staff members brought with it many diverse programs, research for the development of effective teaching methods, more opportunities for students to contact instructors, and so on. The Air and Correspondence College was started with no full-time academic staffs of its own. When it was opened in March 1972, there were only seven professors who were concurrent professors at the Seoul National University, four administrative staff members, and nine assistants to the professors. Most of the administrative jobs were done by temporary workers, while the preparation of teaching material and broadcasting instruction was accomplished by the professors at the Seoul National University. As administrative tasks increased, the number of administrative workers increased a little, but even when the college changed to a regular level institution, the basic administrative structure did not change. There remained a chairman in each department who was additionally employed as a professor at the Seoul National University, two or three assistants in each department who were largely graduate students at the Seoul National University, and four or five 152 research personnel in the Research Institute for Correspondence Education. At the regional level, there were no academic staffs except the instructors at the cooperative colleges who met and taught the students on a part-time basis during vacation periods of the conventional educational institutions. Some students visited and asked questions of the instructors during the school year, but it was very rare. F. MEDIA OF TEACHING Various combinations of media were utilized to teach students in the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College including mass media, correspondence materials, audio-visual equipments, face—to-face teaching, etc. Although both television and radio were utilized by the Open University, the Air and Correspondence College used radio only. Because these forms of mass media were not independently owned, an amount of available time must be allotted by the BBC or by the KBS on a contractual basis. The initial agreement between the Open University and the BBC provided for a maximum of 30 hours per week on BBC 2 television, and 30 hours on radio during the 36 weeks of the academic year. The programs were to be broadcast between 4:30 pm and 7:30 pm on weekdays and between 9:00 am and 1:30 pm on Saturdays and Sundays. The radio broadcasting schedule of the Air and 153 Correspondence College was early in the morning and late evening, 6:00 am and 11:00 pm. It increased in 1981 from 45 minutes to one hour and 30 minutes, although it was still early in the morning and late evening hours. For both institutions, as the number of programs increased, there was a serious shortage of broadcast time. It was difficult for the students of the Air and Correspondence College to listen to the programs regularly because of the broadcasting time. To aid students who missed the broadcasted programs, both institutions provided audio-video recording materials (audio only for the Air and Correspondence College) for the students through the regional centers. CHAPTER VI CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS A. CONCLUSIONS This comparative study of two distance higher education institutions in two different countries was not intended to test specific hypothese; however, some conclusions can be formulated based on general issues and the framework of certain events related to the distance education provided by these two institutions. The conclusions presented here are largely derived from the common features of the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College -- their openness and use of multi-media which are made available to the residents of the whole country. The following points can be divided into three parts. Items 1-4 deal with important perspectives which determine the purposes of the institution and the administrative structures established to achieve the purposes. Items 5-8 concern the development and presentation of the teaching materials. Items 9-10 pertain to points that are important for promoting the continuous self-initiative learning of the students. 1. The primary goal of the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College should be to enhance the competence of the students. Some students enter the Open University and the Air and Correpspondence College with a purpose to obtain a degree. However, the goal should be to enhance the competence of the 154 155 g student so he can be successful in getting a job and working. Degrees are offered by colleges or universities to students who successfully complete the courses and requirements. Because of the few opportunities for study in higher education in both Britain and Korea, the degree holders have great advantages in securing jobs and being promoted. This situation makes the true meaning of higher education vague. Instead of focusing on competence it is only focusing on certification. The opportunities provided by the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College are good ones for the students to improve their knowledge and skill in ways directly related to their work by allowing them to study and work simultaneously. For the students of the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College, along with the goal of earning a degree, stress should be placed on improving their knowledge and skill and enhancing their performance on the job, relating their courses to the work world. With the emphasis on the competence of student performance, the worth of learning would be increased. 2. There should be close interaction between the teaching staffs of the main campus who develop the teaching materials and the instructors of the classroom teaching during the vacation periods . Both the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College provide vacation school which allows for face-to—face instruction. The instructors of the vacation 156 school generally hold full-time teaching positions in a college or university in the region. Usually, in that position, the faculty members have the whole responsibility for organizing the course work. They determine the objectives and structure of the course, give instruction, and evaluate the student's performance. However, when they take the job of classroom teacher in the vacation school, the situation is different. As part-time instructors, they are responsible for only a part of a pre-determined course structure, and unless there is close interaction between them and the teaching staffs of the main campus, duplication or contradiction within the course could occur. Through close contact and discussion with the teaching staffs of the main campus, the instructors of the vacation school would be made aware of their specific role in the teaching process, and they could provide unique opportunities for the students which are more difficult to acquire from their other learning materials and the broadcasting instruction, such as actual experiments in the science course. In addition, the teaching staffs of the main campus can get information from the instructors of the vacation school about the distance education students and their problems in learning. The teaching staffs of the main campus are generally inexperienced at teaching adult students. Since there are few opportunities to meet each other, the teaching staffs prepare written materials and broadcasting materials 157 based on their assumptions about distance education students. They may require either too much or too little from the students. The instructors of the vacation school who have direct contact with the students can help the main campus teaching staffs adjust the course programs to fit more appropriately to the ability levels of the distance education students. 3. The coordination between the academic unit and the administrative unit of the institution is important for enhancing the effectiveness of distance education. In the conventional teaching environment, a teacher interacts with students directly in the classroom while few others, particularly the administrative staffs, are not involved in the teaching process. But in distance education, the interaction between teachers and students is indirect. It is organized and mediated interaction in which many others are involved from the production of learning ‘ materials to the distribution and reception of student responses. As a result of the need for producing and distributing learning materials, most academic decisions have implications for the resource and administrative staffs. When the number of students is large and the students are scattered around the country as in the case of the Open Unversity and the Air and Correspondence College, the execution of decisions becomes similar to industrial process, parallel to Peters' description of distance education as an "industrial type of teaching and learning." 158 Here, the coordination and cooperation.between the academic staffs and administrative staffs are important. 4. In the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College, continuous efforts should be made to increase the interaction between the instructors and students. In the past, when distance education was conducted exclusively with printed materials, there were almost no opportunities for the instructors and students to meet each other, and consequently, a lack of understanding or a misunderstanding related to the content of a course could pass unnoticed. The use of broadcasting and face—to-face instruction was means to close the distance between them. Although students can listen to or watch instructors live through radio and television, it is still one—way communication. The instructors can not know whether the students understand the instruction, and students can not ask questions directly. The Open University and the Air and Correspondence College provide vacation school where face-to—face classroom instruction occurs, but it can not continue for a long period because the students have other responsibilities at their job or home. Even now, when the period of vacation school is one week in the Open University and two weeks in the Air and Correspondence College, the actual number of students attending the vacation school is about 70 percent. When the vacation school is over, the contact between the instructors and the students tends to cease as well. In 159 addition to the attendance requirements of the vacation school, efforts should be made to help and encourage the students to make contact with the instructors when necessary and to modify clrcumstances to enable easier access to the instructors. Particularly, in the case of the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College, the students are adults and they re—start to study with textbook and under the guidance of instructors. The assumption which an instructor has about students in their abilities, attitudes and other behaviors may be inconsistant to real life of the students. With frequent contacts between the instructors and the students, they can understand each other and the teaching and learning activities can be well matched. 5. In the presentation of subjects, the form of presentation should be carefully determined to be appropriate for the content of the subject. The Open University and the Air and Correspondence College utilize multi-media; print, radio, television, and verbal face-to—face instruction. Regarding the effectiveness of these media, it is accepted that there is not patricular medium which is the most effective in teaching. Depending on the content of the subject, the students, and the form of presentation, the effectiveness of each medium is variable. Therefore, in addition to the concern for the content of the medium, the form of presentation should be carefully evaluated and determined. 160 6. In determining the content of appropriate for each medium, the interrelationship of media forms should be considered. One reason for the utilization of multi-media is to help students use the'media on a supplementary basis. If the radio and television programs present nothing but a repetition of the printed materials or classroom teaching, the full potential of the media is not being unitilized. 7. In developing teaching materials, especially broadcasting programs, the responses of the students to the programs should be carefully considered. In the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College, broadcasting programs are used to supplement the correspondence materials. Through television and radio programs, the instructors can illustrate and explain the contents of the written materials more understandably. In addition to this, the broadcasting programs help students keep pace with the course schedule. When the students feel that the broadcasting programs are not relevant to the course or are not interesting, they are reluctant to watch or listen to the programs, which hinders the continuity of their study. Therefore, in developing broadcasting instructional materials, the responses of the students to the programs should be considered. 8. In addition to the broadcasting instruction, other devices such as recording cassette should be developed and provided for the students. For delivering the broadcasting programs, the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College use the 161 public broadcasting system. Under contract, the broadcasting institution allocates a certain amount of time during the day or night for the educational programs. As' the number of courses increased, it became more difficult to obtain the necessary time from the broadcasting institutions. From the beginning, the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College wanted to establish their own broadcasting system, but the request was denied by the governments in their respective countries. However, even if permission had been granted, the transmission time would have been very limited because many of the students are unable to listen to or watch the programs because of their other responsibilities in the job and home. Currently, broadcasting instruction is transmitted early in the morning or late in the evening. As more courses are developed, more broadcasting time becomes necessary. As a way to cope with the problems of course selection and adjustment of broadcasting time, provision of other audio-video hardware and software for individual students or through the regional learning centers may be considered. 9. To help students continue to study, their confidence in their own learning ability should be strengthened. This concept of confidence is not limited to students involved in distance education, but in the case of distance education, where a high percentage of students drop out, it is paticularly important. The completion rate of students 162 in the Open University is about 50%, while, the students in the Air and Correspondence College have about a 30% completion rate. Because the admission procedure is not highly selective, students who ordinarily would be unable to study in higher education might be admitted, and they may drop out when they find that the expectations are beyond “their learning ability. However, a large portion of the students of the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College were not inferior in their academic records to the students of the conventional university or college. Many of them were older students who had once failed to gain admission or had not had the opportunity to enter into higher education. When these students failed in a course, they would consider themselves inferior or too old to learn and, therefore, drop out easily. No policies designed to help these students are currently available. As new higher educational institutions, the policy of the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College was directed toward the establishment of an academic standard equivalent to that of other universities and colleges. But to perform their functions as institutions of continuing higher education, efforts should be made to provide new opportunites for student involvement which may strengthen their confidence in their abilities and help them continue their study. 163 10. For the distance learners who largely rely on delivered written materials and broadcasting progragg for learning, the source§ of information and how to use them should be taught. However well prepared, written materials and a broadcasting programs can not cover the whole area of a subject. In some cases, instructors recommended books and materials for students to read, and libraries were established in a region to help students. However, students who were used to studying with a textbook provided by the school did not know how to use materials other than the textbook, and the libraries did not provide sufficient books and materials. It must be recognized that the distance learners are primarily independent learners, and the institution must assist them in becoming better planners of their own learning. To to this, students must know the sources of information and how to use them. Through this process, studetns can initiate their learning rather then merely follow what the instructors say. B. CONCLUDING REMARKS The establishment of the Open University in Britain and the Air and Correspondence College in Korea was an innovative idea in two countries where highly selective and competitive higher education has prevailed. In Britain, following the Report of the Ribbins Committee which revealed a low rate of participation of students from the 164 underpriviliged class and recommended more opportunities for higher education, many new higher education institutions were established and the existing institutions expanded, resulting in a great increase in student number. The London University provided an opportunity for an outside students to obtain a degree, and other extramural programs were available to serve part-time adult students. However, with the opening of the Open Unversity, the opportunity to study sytematically and earn a degree increased greatly. In Korea, where there is a relatively short history of modern education, the demand for education has exceeded the places available. Particularly as secondary education became a more universal requirement, the high demand and few opportunities for higher education became a severe political problem. Establishing and expanding the higher educational institutions was difficult because of limited financial and personnel resources. There were almost no opportunities for adults to study in a higher educuational institution once they missed or failed to gain entrance in a higher educational institution after leaving high school. With the establishment of the Air and Correspondence College, which was at a junior college level at first and later developed into a five—year course equivalent to a four—year college, the opportunities for higher education were greatly expanded. It has been over ten years since these institutions 165 were established, and many other distance higher educational institutions have developed throughout the world. The Open University, the Air and Correspondence College, and other similar distance educational institutions are not merely an addition to the existing educational system. These distance higher educational institutions give students the opportunity to undertake much of their study at times of their own choosing, at their own pace, and in a place of their own choosing while continuing their regular jobs. This allows a great deal of flexibility for the students. Traditionally, distance education was largely based on the mailing of the written materials and was considered inferior to conventioanl face—to—face classroom instruction. The reaction of the academic world and the public to institutions which provided education exclusively through correspondece and other media was skeptical. There were doubts about the academic quality of distance eduction. However, the results of studies about the effectiveness of various media show that effectiveness is determined more by how the media is used, the characteristics of students, and the subject matter rather than by the type of medium itself. And in comparing the achievement of students of the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College with the achievement of their counterparts, the achievement of the distance learner was not below the level of the other classroom learner. In addition, the development of these 166 institutions of distance education has great implications for the development of continuing education. As people are allowed to study to improve their knowledge and skills and continue at their jobs, it is no longer tenable to see higher education simply as a final stage in a continuous sequential process which provides a preparation for life. Education should be seen as a process which not only continue throughout life but is an integral part of it. The Open University and the Air and Correspondence College should recognize and develop full potential and provide continuous flexible programs which have significance for the society at large and which allow the students to contunue in productive employment. C. RECOMMENDATIONS TO FURTHER RESEARCH There are many topics which would be interesting to study and helpful for the development of the Open University, the Air and Correspondence College and distance education in general. 1. The general attitude which people have toward the graduates of distance education. For an institution to continue its operation and developmen, it needs acceptance and support form the people. One of the factors which determines the reaction of the people is the value of the product of the institution, which in the case of the Open University and the Air and 167 Correspondence College is their graduates. When people have a favorable attitude toward the graduates, they, themselves want to enroll and study in the distance education institutions. In this regard, it would be interesting to find out the attitude of the people toward the graduates of the institution. 2. The students' feeling of belonging to the institution. Much of study in the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College is self-study. Students have a few opportunities to meet instructors or other students. Some students may form an informal group in a region and discuss courses and other related activites with each other, but generally the students are involved in their studies on their own. This self-initiation may influence the attitudes students have about the institution and may decrease their sense of belonging to the institution, which would negatively affect the continuation of their studies. 3. The extent of people's recognition of the Open University and the Air and Correspondence College, and the use of broadcasting instruction as a learning resource. Wide accessibility of information is one of the advantages of broadcasting. People who do not formally enroll in a course can get useful information and knowledge from the broadcasting instruction if they recognize the institution and use it as a learning resource. The acceptance of the broadcasting instruction of the Open 168 . University and the Air and Correspondence College by the people as a learning resource would help them to improve their knowledge and educational level. 4. Identification of the causes of the high dropout rate . A high dropout rate is a general phenomenon of distance education. About half of the students admitted in the Open University drop out before their courses are completed, and only about 30 percent of students in the Air and Correspondence College complete their programs. In part, this phenomenon may be a natural result of students who only want to learn a specific subject. Difficulty of matching course time schedules with daily routines, lack of study time, low ability of students, and other factors would make it difficult for students to continue their study. In determining the causes of high dropout rate, most studies focus on student characteristics such as low motivation and low ability. Besides these individual factors, It would be interesting to find out how much such administrative factors as the inappropriateness of course presentation, inadequate guidance and support systems, etc. affect the dropout rate. The above areas of study are largely concerns resulting from the settlement of the new Open University and the Air and Correspondence College in their countries. As these institutions become firmly established in the field of education, evaluative research concerning the validity and effectiveness of the institutions would be necessary. APPENDIX SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE 169 1 a. 170 SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE Approximately how much time do you spend each week for preparation for all of the courses that you teach? hours 1 b. How do you divide your time between preparation for regular courses and Air and Correspondence College courses? regular courses % Air and Correspondence College courses % Air and Correspondence College courses, when compared to regular courses, are a. In their difficulty more difficult less difficult b. In their focus more academical more practical In general, Air and Correspondence College students, when compared to regular students have about same potential to achieve ___ have more potential to achieve ___ have less potential to achieve In general, Air and Correspondence College students, when compared to regular students, are ___ similarly motivated to learn more motivated to learn less motivated to learn Approximately what percentage of students in your Air and Correspondence College students visit and meet you personally? % The above percentage, when compared to that of regular students, is ___ same ___ high lower 171 What is the most frequent question which Air and Correspondence College students bring when they meet with you? questions about the course content questions about the grade result questions about examination preparation questions about course selection questions about personal matters others What is the most frequent question which regular students bring when they meet with you? questions about the course content questions about the grade result questions about examination preparation questions about course selection questions about personal matters others llllll m 22 0 do you find out information about your students in the Air and Correspondence College? from student records from student papers and/or reports from other Air and Correspondence College instructors from other cooperative college instructors others As the Air and Correspondence College has grown larger, today's students, when compared to the earlier students, are just as capable as the earlier students more capable than the earlier students less capable than the earlier students The present work load for instructors of the Air and Correspondence College, when compared to that of first few years when the college opened, is same more heavy less heavy The most difficult learning problem for students of the Air and Correspondence College would be not enough time to study few opportunities to meet and talk with other students few opportunities to meet and talk with instructors few opportunities to find other related learning materials others 10. ll. 12. 172 Considering the time a student has available for studying, the courses you present demand ___ an appropriate amount of time ___ too much time Do you feel that the courses you offer sufficiently cover the topic area? ___ yes not sure ___ no Would you state those things which you think are important to improve the Air and Correspondence College education? 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