A 81153? 55 SEE E§§EEII¥E¥ESS 0F fEEDBACII III IEAEIIINE PRINCIPLES fif EEIIBATIIINM PSYCHOLOGY THESIS FOR THE DEGREE OF Ph.D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY HOWARD KING CAMERON 1963 THESIS This is to certify that the thesis entitled A Study of the Effectiveness of Feedback in Teaching Principles of Educational Psychology presented by Howard King Cameron has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for M degree in Mon SDWJ/Z W. I Major professor Date AU'USt 2 106 LIBRARY 8 “Hip-u. ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF FEEDBACK IN TEACHING PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY By Howard King Cameron The Problem The primary purpose of this dissertation was to de- termine the effect of feedback in learning principles of educational psychology. A second objective was to analyze the relationships between dependent proneness of students (which refers to characteristic reliance on others for approval and/or assistance, and conformity to demands and Opinions of others) and techniques of instruction on the basis of student achievement and the attitudes students expressed toward teacher-pupil relations. The Design To accomplish these objectives, 123 educational psycho- logy students were instructed according to the Integrative Technique and a lecture method. Integrative instruction was organized so as to provide the maximum amount of feedback for students. The basic pattern of the Integrative Technique was ‘to permit students to ask questions or to further explore sub- Howard King Cameron Ject matter covered during two previous lectures. Often- times,the instructor asked students to explain further the practical application of textbook principles, and questions were asked to help focus the attention of students upon the central ideas in the lectures and to help clarify student understanding. Most important, however, is the fact that each student was enticed to participate in class discussions, and received immediate feedback from his classmates or the instructor on the basis of his response. The student was in- formed about the acceptability, correctness, or incorrectness of his response. An effort was made to provide a student with feedback which pointed out the correctness of certain aspects of tds response whenever feedback for an undesirable response was given. The teacher attempted to maintain an encouraging and supporting relationship with integratively taught students. Hypotheses The research hypotheses in this study are listed below: 1. If integratively taught students are given feedback for classroom responses, they will score significantly high- er on the dependent variables (Final Examination; Min- nesota Student Attitude Inventory, MSAI; Minnesota.Tea- abet Attitude Inventory, MTAI) than lecture students who do not receive immediate feedback. 2. If integratively taught students are given feedback from the instructor, the experimental high dependent prone students (EHD) will score significantly higher on the Final Examination and HTAI than the experimental low de- pendent prone students (ELD), the control low dependent prone students (OLD), and the control high dependent prone students (CHD). Further significant differences Howard ting Cameron on these tests will also exist between high and low dependent prone students in the order they are listed above: ens) ELD>CLD)CHD. Conclusions Statistical analyses of post-treatment data yielded significant t-ratios in favor of integratively taught sub- jects on the Final Examination, MSAI, and MTAI. Twelve of the 62 items on the MSAI produced significant chi squares, indicating the type of classroom climate which existed in the two teaching situations. MSAI data show that experimen- tal subjects were more responsive to the integrative type of teaching than were the control subjects. However, both groups of subjects obtained high scores on this scale. An analysis of dependent proneness data did not support the second hypothesis. On the Final Examination, only the ex— perimental low dependent prone students obtained a mean score which was significantly higher than that of any of the other dependent prone groups. No additional differences of a sig- nificant nature were obtained from dependent proneness analy- sea. In retrospect, one might conclude that the permissive type of classroom situation makes it possible for the low de- pendent prone student to develop his interests and abilities in a more general manner than would be possible in a teacher controlled classroom. Also plausible is the possibility that Howard King Cameron the personality trait of high dependence proneness may re- strict the extent to which the learner is willing to express himself freely and thereby fully develop his potentialities. Of course, these two interpretations should be further ex- plored in subsequent research. Post-treatment data from the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory indicate a significant difference in favor of the experimental group over students taught via lecture technique. This is interpreted to be indicative of the fact that experi- mental subjects are better able to maintain with pupils a state of harmonious relations characterised by affection and sympathetic understanding. These integratively taught stu- dents also indicated a significant difference in their expec- tations to like children and to enjoy teaching. A STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF FEEDBACK IN TEACHING PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY By Howard King Cameron A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Psychology 1963 KBOK'I‘QJJ ACKNOWLEDGMENT An expression of gratitude for the inspiration and guidance from those persons who helped to make this study possible seems appropriate. Dr. David B. Krathwohl, chairman of the doctoral committee, gave timely encouragement and helpful' criticisms throughout the course of this study. To him the investigator is especially grateful. Dr. William Farquhar and Dr. Bernard Corman of the doctoral committee offered valuable suggestions which helped to improve the study, and the support of Dr. Charles Wrigley is highly appreciated. Finally, the unselfish contributions of my wife and son, Winifred and Howard Jr., proved to be invaluable. Without their assistance and understanding this research project would have been exceedingly difficult to complete. Pare ACI{‘IOIILEDGIEJ—IT O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I j- 1 LIST 0E1 TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O I O O 0 O O O V LIST OF APPENDIXES ............................ Vi CHAPTER II. III. IV. THE PEOBLEZI AIID DET‘II‘TITICE.T OF TERMS .... 1 Statement of the Problem Purpose of the Study Justification of the Study Research Hypotheses Definition of Terms Basic Assumptions Limitations of the Study Preview of Remaining Chapters nEVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............... 24 Historical Background Inte3rative vs. Dominative Teaching Dependency Pronencss and Learning The Inte3rative Technique and Feedback Summary METHODOLOGY AKD PAOCLDUnL N COLLECTION OF DATA 0..OOOCOCCOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOO00.... 48 Al? The Location and Date of the Study Personnel of the Investigation Evaluative Materials Employed The Selection of Subjects and Pro-testing Treatment of Subjects Emperimental Groups Control Groups Procedures in Collecting the Data Limitations and Assumptions of the Procedure LYSIS OF DATA AND PIESETTAIIOn OE . / REDULTS eeoeeoeeeeeeoeeoeeeeeeeeeeeoeeee 03 Evaluation of Teaching methods by Students Identification of Dependent Prone Students ChAP ‘ER Page Statistical Ana lmrs s of Treatment Effects on Final Examination Scores ‘L'nn tatistical Analyses of Tree thent Effects on Iinnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory V. STILL-LEI”, CO "TCLJSIO‘W AID IIIPLICAT IOITS FOR "fiT’mT " ‘C‘Pflx': -' 1‘” A‘JAKIIRD REQJLLICII 00.000000.0000000000000000... 8( Summary of Previous Chapters Conclusions Bearin3 on Hypotheses Summary of the Results Tmplications for Future Research 311: J'LIO‘IPL‘J- Dig-f O0.00.00.00.00OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO...101 APPflllDIXL-nf‘ OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOO 107 '? Table 10. 11. LIST OF TABLES S.C.A.T. Test Scores for Uniformity Trial ..... Summary Data of Uniformity Trial on Dependence Proneness Groups .............................. Treatment Model for Teaching Experiment ....... Weighted Scores Depicting Students Perception of Teacher-pupil Relations -- M.S.A.I. ........ Items from M.S.A.I. Depicting Intensity of Stu- dents' Feelings about Teacher-pupil Relations . T-Test of Experimental and Control SubjectS' Performance on Final Examination ... Data for Low and Hi3h Dependent Prone Subjects on Final Examination .......................... Summary Data -- Analysis of Variance for Hypothesis on Dependent Proneness and Final Examination T-Ratios for Performance of High and Low De- pendent Prone Subjects on Final Examination ... T-Test of Experimental and Control Subjects' Performance on M.T.A.I. ....................... Analysis of Variance Data for High and Low Dependent Prone Subjects on 1-7 J34. . T.A.I. 71 77 O?) O O) —-\ O) .p- CD U] APPEH IX APPEIDIX APP “v “’"r fi‘J‘L‘ .l—A'L APPENDIX ‘VI‘T" ’P‘f IL: -JDAJK. r L) Pd) Q r‘ 771 r "r“: if) .73 17";13 LI :JT U13 43.: PJ 1-42.44»; “an Scores on the Schoo and College 1‘ ‘ - (I {a Ikullltf: TEST“) o.coooooooooooooooooooooooo o "1-..- ... 1.4.. i Enperimenta l and Control DCOICQ of Dependent Prone Subjects Samples of Questions Given Experimental Subjects for Integrative Instruction .... Final Egaminat on Data .................. Fi:. 1al Examin tion xami na tion Raw Scores on the Einncsota Teacher TIJGJJID'JJIG IIIVreILtOJ‘Y oooooooooooooooooooooo Ear Scores of Subjects on the Ilil nesota ht dent Attitude Inventory ............... 110 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS The schools of today face an ever increasing array of problems ranging from the desirability of compulsory educa- tion to the availability of quality education for each school age child. Many of these problems have persisted in Spite of the Spirited and ingenious efforts to solve them. It appears to some educators that new educational problems are developing at a more rapid rate than old problems are being eliminated. Much progress, however, seems to be made yearly toward the realization of an efficiently Operated school program which can adequately satisfy the needs of man in an increasingly complex society. Statement of the problem.--One of the persistent edu- cational problems which plagues the classroom teacher is that of increasing the effectiveness of classroom instruc- tion. Although there are many more educational goals on which educators disagree, there seems to exist a common agreement that the quality of instruction needs to be im- proved. Controversy does exist, however, when the educator begins to advocate one teaching approach in preference to another. One can easily assess the validity of the above observation by merely surveying the vehement differences of Opinions expressed by investigators in the area of improve- ment of instruction.1 The basic problem considered in the study being pro- posed is found in the area of improving classroom instruc- tion. After evaluating previous investigations on teaching techniques, classroom control, etc., this writer became in- terested in testing the effectiveness of a Specific teaching procedure. This procedure has as its basis, data from the subject matter areas of sociology, education, and personal- ity theory. Considered more Specifically, what are the problems underlying this investigation? The primary problem poses this question: will systematically providing feedback for the responses of students have a significantly greater influ- ence on student achievement in educational psychology than providing no feedback for the reSponses of students? As stated, the crucial variable is the influence of systemati- cally provided feedback on student learning. Whereas the focal problem as phrased does not exhaust the possible ef- fects of feedback on student behavior, it certainly seems pertinent to improving instruction. There are two secondary, but important, questions re- lated to the basic one previously asked. First, will a par- ticular type of learning experience result in the students' expression of a greater understanding and acceptance of the 1Wilbert J. McKeachie, "The Improvement of Instruction{' Review of Educational Research, XXX, No. 4 (October, 1960), 351-350- 3 professional role diSplayed by effective teachers toward children? An assumption here is that different techniques of instruction will differentially affect the attitudes of students toward their perceived role of teachers. Further- more, certain attitudes possessed by a prospective teacher, in regards to desirable instructional behavior, should have an important influence on his teaching efficiency. As a second sub-problem, the investigator proposes to examine the role of the student's personality as it may be related to his performance under different instructional procedures. Does the personality make-up of students (in terms of high and low dependent proneness) influence their academic achievement in educational psychology under the influence of different teaching techniques? If so, a next logical question deals with the directions and manner in which this influence takes place. Is there a consistent and significant relationship between Specific personality variables of students and their classroom performance? What kind of relationship exists? Can instructional plan- ning be improved from a knowledge of such a relationship? Purppse_qf_the study.--The purpose of this study has as its basis the idea that there is no such thing as a fin- ished or perfect job of teaching; there is always room for improvement in one way or another. Additional principles and theories are needed to increase the likelihood of suc- cessful teaching. Present principles and theories must be scientifically tested before their validity and applicability 4 can be assessed. The fundamental objective of this entire process is to create a body of knowledge which should help facilitate effective classroom instruction. This is also the basic objective of the proposed investigation. Each new bit of data which verifies or further ex- plains existing principles or theories underlying the edu- cational process should increase the probability that teaching will be improved. Even if the data invalidates present beliefs, a noteworthy contribution will have been made. This study has as its objective the assessment of a principle already stated by B.F. Skinner--that immediate feedback for the responses of students will control the probability of such responses occurring or not occurring in the future.1 If such an idea can be verified in a typ- ical classroom situation, the teacher will have a directive for planning future classroom instruction. If the above idea is only partially substantiated, or not substantiated at all, the teacher will still be given a directive for classroom planning. Therefore, the collection of data in this study might contribute to the improvement of class- room instruction. Justification of the study.--A great deal of research has been conducted on the effectiveness of different in- structional methods. From a review of these studies, 1Burrhus F. Skinner, "Teaching Machines," Science, CXXVIII (October 24, 1958), 969-977. L1 1 it is ob served that incon ‘ tent and inconclusive fiMid nfs exist in abundance. It seems that an adherent of any par- ticular teae;1in: method wbuld have no difficulty locating ible with his viewpoint. Th superioi it by of one teaching method over another has not been prove}. In fact, different investigators, uSing similar experimental designs,l ave reported contrasting findi: 'Is.1 Amidst this array of confusion, the classroom teacher is lei t groping for the instructional method which has been experimen al- ly dem nstrated to be of value. Is it possible that one ins rdetional teeinioue nu ght be better than another, or does the qualitv of tne teaching technique depend upon the in erections or other extraneous variables? Some explana- tion of such divers e osiiionc and e: :perimental findings in a. this problematic area should be possible. One of the basic resumptions underlying this study is that the inconsistent conclusions of previous research may 1 be interpreted as n indiea '1 part), of t C}- 1,.) O :5 A |._J quate control of experimental variables. These studies de- signed to show the superiority of tile lectur method over the discussion method, or of a feedback technique over no feedback, etc., suffer from the inability of the experime n- ter to control adequately all significant variables. Idea l- ly, the research worker desi res to organize an exoerimental 1l-IeKeachie, lee. cit. n S . . h V. e G o . mm 8 C O .l d C .l 3 Di n a d i b an as r i. .0 e no u 1i 8 +U t e h t C 1 t t a C h... C 3 r a t .l S -.t ., 0 e X D. n e a n r t ..J 8 S K S 1 n , 1 e e .D S e -.t is O C n t 3 u a 0 e C r .l n S e t 0 it e S d a r e u l d S .J .l e e e m t S D. t . .0 is S p .l S i. mm 0 mm in u n ma e Vi r h a e e S O , . r e e e I ..J l r .l l p ...... n e «O a. s O p. l S a f n K O .l u 0 t O S V O .l e n S r a U. 8 m S u D. .r .Tu C n): Va 9 O 8 e .l n . S e u t L I «4., Q no 10 8 .mb 0. «a .1.— .D O .3. .Tu n]. n A i h S m JG d r r 9.. 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S e e O as :i el 8 u it 0 ha .1 h d is m h m r S S m C S v.“ T118 s G ligtl trol ‘- tal results. con ‘4 W teel tor \ -l\ M V ~ v- . “ 1 ...li- true L =1 I ’0 L; ... .A. , i l (N k) {10 1113 Q ~\ H J‘ l 181 1 . ~,« -I- 1“ . . g . O C C Lil‘i‘l ”* , ‘,‘\ .L.L~ J—‘L‘ U-.L .1 )0 ‘97 ..Lk .- l” ‘3 ‘01 LU e al result J‘s-1v POOH t ll revee it ex 8 ‘.’C‘. . t m ‘ 1 elar. .. "£311 01‘ .L :31 .4. IL : ‘V'i V“ - v I". .‘\ —. u... .'L‘. ~._ -V G L, E31“ .1210 DJ“ .. '1. L384- l W J "3 v I di w' e::1 too of th 4- 7 1" ~_) ’1‘". 1-. .LLQ P A q 4- 08 C b419,. ' I J- ‘ 7 i ,‘l ' 4.1. ci fiv- J). C {M 'a \J r.‘ .v D m .- b...) lld C L .‘r10. 01 ale: C. q “1 4-55 r COLA. U- ne pro 0 11 t ide V —b 18 .LC «ac-‘5 ”V .L 7 appear to be a simple teaching act, it really is not. For instance, does the teacher really know that his reaction was interpreted by Johnny to be of a positive nature? Sec- ondly, can the teacher be sure that the behavior he rein- forced was aetually the behavior he intended to reinforce? There are other "Johnny's" in the classroom; what is happen- ing to them while the teacher is involved with the single student? This brief example should illustrate the momen- tous task of the teacher in the classroom. Although inherent weaknesses of research studies of classroom instruction exist, it seems possible that progress can be made in this area. There is a probability that cer- tain teacher behaviors might generally influence certain behavioral reSponses in students. Is it possible that re- search workers can inform teachers of the possible ways in which different instructional techniques generally affect unique personalities? In relation to the teacher manipulating student be- havior in the classroom, it is suggested that student admfiwe- ment is greater when the pupil receives feedback (sometimes referred to as knowledge of results), from the teacher who is monitoring student responses than when the student re- ceives no feedback.1 The reasoning here is that feedback 1S. Rosenberg and R. Hall, "The Effects of Different Social Feedback Conditions Upon Performance in Dyadic Teamsfl' Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, LVII (1958), 271-. 277. 8 provides consequences for the responses of the student, thereby minimizing the probability that errors of the stu- dent will be compounded. Such feedbaek should inform the student of the correctness of his past actions, and it should guide future responses of the student when similar problems confront him. Underwood states that through feed- back an individual is told his incorrect responses and can then progress more rapidly to his goal. Also, according to Underwood, feedback can serve to maintain or increase moti- vation.1 The principle discussed here (effectiveness of feed- back) is thought to be valid irrespective of the instruc- tional method employed. However, the principle might be more applicable to certain types of instructional methods; this point will be dealt with later. It seems reasonable that the more frequently and im- mediately a student receives feedback for his reSponses, the greater the probability that he will attempt and be able to give correct and more precise reSponses in the fu- ture. This contention has been supported by Greenspoon and Foreman in their study on the effect of delay of feedback 31 learning motor tasks. According to Greenspoon and Foreman, immediate feedback is thought to reduce the possible inter- ference which might result if the interval between response 1Benton Underwood, Experimental Psychology (New York: The Appleton Century Crofts, Inc., 1949),pp. 414-417. 9 and feedback were of longer duration.1 Further support for this belief can be obtained from literature in the area of programmed instruction. In his discussion of the usefulness of programmed instruction, Skinner states: The machine, like the private tutor, reinforces the student for every correct reSponse, using this im- mediate feedback not only to shape his behavior most effeciently but to maintain it in strength in a man- ner which the layman would describe as holding the student's interest'. . . . Immediate feedback en- courages a more careful reading of the programmed material than is the case in studying a text, where the consequences of attention or inattention are so long deferred that they have little effect on read- ing skills. . . . When an immediate result is in balance the student will be more likely to learn how to marshal relevant material, to concentrate on specific features of the presentation, to reject irrelevant materials, to refuse the easy but wrong solutions, and to tolerate indecision, all of which are involved in effective thinking.2 Likewise, when the frequently responding student is given a fixed ratio of reSponses to knowledge of results (feedback given for each reSponse of the student), one should expect the student to continue to reSpond at a high rate.3 Bilodeau and Bilodeau state that this feedback is most effective in the initial learning of simple motor 1Joel Greenspoon and Sally Foreman, "Effect of Delay of Knowledge of Results on Learning a Motor Task," Journal of Experimental Psychology, LI (1956), 226-228. 2Burrhus F. Skinner, loc. cit. 3Edward Bilodeau and Ina Bilodeau, "Variable Frequency of Knowledge of Results and the Learnin of Simple Tasks," Journal q£;Experimental Psychology, LV %l958), 379-383. 10 tasks. An explanation of why feedback is most effective in the initial stages of learning might emphasize that this arrangement enables the student to avoid learning inappro- priate movements (in the early stages of practice) which may be difficult to extinguish later on. It is the opinion of the investigator that the early confirmation of a re- sponse (via feedback to the student), strengthens the prob- ability that the correct reSponse will be learned and re- tained as an aSpect of student behavior. Norman Chansky has gathered data which indicate that the schedules and types of feedback students receive are significantly related to verbal learning. The data show that child psychology students who experienced a continuous reinforcement schedule learned significantly faster than those students who experienced an intermittent reinforce- ment schedule. The criterion of performance was the number of acquisition trials required to learn the age expectancy corresponding to eight items on the Vineland Social Matu- rity Scale.1 Precisely what is the role of feedback in the typical learning situation? This writer prefers to think that feed- back acts to inform the student whether his response is cor- rect or incorrect and what errors may have been made. This 1N. Chansky f "Learning: A Function of Schedule and Type of Feedback,’ Psychological Reports, VII (1960), 362. 11 information is essential for further improvement in learn- ing. As the learner attempts a reSponse, he is led to re- vise his reSponse on the basis of information provided to him about its accuracy. Through continual feedback from the instructor, a better understanding of the response, and the ability to produce it are created in the student. It is known that feedback can serve beneficial re- sults, and it is probably more feasible under certain con- ditions. It is also true that feedback among or between students can lead to desirable changes in behavior in the same manner as feedback from the class instructor can lead to desirable changes in behavior.1 An implication from the latter statements is that the structuring of classroom pro- ceedings so that students receive the maximum amount of feedback is desirable. Following from the above trend of thinking, Herbert Thelen has proposed the idea that the number of students in a classroom group is of crucial importance in determining group progress. This is thought to be such an important variable that a recommendation is made on limiting the size of the group on the basis of resources in the particular group and the type of subject matter under consideration. An implication in Thelen's proposal is that the student's "activeness of participation" is a very important factor in 1D. Jenkins, "Feedback and Group Evaluation," Journal of Social Issues, IV (1948), 50-60. 12 learning. He states: If one accepts the postulate of an experimental point of view (that one learns by assessing the situation, planning strategy, carrying it out, and a praising the consequences of his actions . . . , then we would submit that vicarious par- ticipation does not usually have these dimen- sions of self initiation, self direction and self evaluation which characterize first hand self directive experience. The size of the group should be the smallest group in which it is possible to have represented at a functional level all socialization and achievement skills required for the particular learning activity at hand. The importance of Thelen's suggestion for this study (eSpecially when the student appraises the consequences of his actions) has been experimentally tested. Among others, Skinner's findings with teaching machines have demonstrated the importance of Thelen's suggestion for the improvement of instruction. According to Skinner, the employment of his programmed instructional technique resulted in a lower error rate (on tests administered after instruction) than when students were taught via the common lecture procedure.2 There appears to be a significant connection between the "activeness" of the learner, as perceived by Thelen, and the importance Skinner places upon the learner making an overt response. Both theorists accept the idea that feedback is influential in controlling the probability of subsequent student behavior. 1Herbert Thelen, "Group Dynamics in Instruction: Prin- ciple of Least Group Size," School Review, LVII (1949), 139- 148. 2Skinner, Science, CXXVIII (October 24,1958), 969-977. 13 A basic question in the problem being proposed, as is evident in the above discussion, is whether feedback adminis- tered to students in a group situation (Thelen's idea) will have an effect similar to feedback administered to indivi- dual students via teaching machine (Skinner). If one ac- cepts the findings of Jenkins, there would seem to be an af- firmative answer to this question. Jenkins' data suggest that feedback played a significant role in leading group members toward accurate self evaluation.1 It seems that if instruction can be presented to small groups of students, with ample provisions for giving feed- back to students after they respond, the problem of indivi- dual differences should be handled more effectively. If Skinner is correct in his feedback principles, an instructor should expect to use feedback principles more effectively in a lecture discussion group than in a large lecture group. The small discussion group gives the teacher a greater op- portunity to provide feedback for a larger number of stu- dent responses. The resulting effects should be revealed on an objective criterion selected to measure group differences after treatment. Not only is the question of what kind of teaching technique is used important, but also the personality struc- ture of the students undergoing instruction is an important 1Jenkins, op. cit., pp. 58-60. 14 variable.‘ In light of Amidon and Flanders' findings, one should expect so-called "dependent prone students" to func- tion quite efficiently in a situation where they have close contacts with an authority figure, and receive approval and individual attention. Perhaps the effects of the method of instruction should vary in relationship to the personality make-up of students. Present knowledge on this matter seems to indicate the existence of a positive relationship between the in— structional method used and the personality of students. This is the conclusion from Amidon and Flanders' study in which "dependent" and "independent" prone students were taught a lesson in eighth grade geometry. In discussing their findings these eXperimenters state: We assume that the dependent prone students are more sensitive to the directive aspects of the teacher's behavior. As the teacher becomes more directive, this kind of student finds increased satisfaction in more compliance, often with less understanding of the problem solving steps car- ried out. Only when he is free to express his doubts, to ask questions and to gain reassurance, does his understanding keep pace with his compli- ance to the authority figure. Lacking this op- portunity, compliance alone may become a satisfy- ing goal and content understanding may be subordi- nated to the process of adjusting to teacher di- reetives.2 1Edmund Amidon and Ned Flanders, "The Effect of Di- rect and Indirect Teacher Influences on Dependent-Prone Stu- dents Learning Geometry," Journal of Educational Psychology, LII, No. 6 (December, 1961), 286. Ibid. 15 In the above mentioned study by Amidon and Flanders, no differences were found when independent prone students (those in the lower 25 per cent on the dependency scale) were compared separately. Hence, no significant differen- ces were found between groups of independent prone students taught by the direct method (teacher controlled) and the in- direct method (which is referred to as "feedback" in this investigation.)1 Jokubczak and Walters' investigation (with elementary school children) offers information similar to that just presented. Highly suggestible subjects were significantly influenced by adults and peers in their perception of a light stimulus. Not very much was said, however, about the performance of high dependent prone and low dependent prone college students in an instructional situation where indi- vidually and group administered feedback was systematically given by the teacher.2 Will such a teaching approach dif- ferentially favor one group of college students (high or low dependent prone) more than another? Can this difference be objectively assessed? What differential influences will feedback have on the students' perceptions of the instrucbx? Not enough data have been collected for an objective and complete answer to the above questions. This study 1See definition of "feedback" under definition of termi 2Leonard Jokubczak and Richard Walters, "Suggestibilimy as Dependency Behavior," Journal of Abnormal Psycholegx, LIX (1959). 102-107. 16 should help provide a clearer answer to such questions, and thereby make a contribution to the progress of the modern educational system. Hypotheses of the study.--The hypotheses which will be tested in this study are the following: 1. If experimental students are given feedback for classroom reSponses they will score significantly higher on the "dependent variables"1 than control students who do not receive immediate feedback. If experimental students are given immediate feed- back from the classroom instructor, then the ex- perimental high dependent prone students (EHD) will score significantly higher on the Final Ex- amination and M.T. A. I. than the experimental low dependent prone students (ELD), the control low dependent prone students (OLD), and the con- trol high dependent prone students CHD). Further significant differences on the Final Examination will also exist between high and low dependent prone students in the order they are listed above: EHD > ELD > CLD > CHD. The rationale behind the second set of hypotheses is as follows. In the experimental groups, both high and low 1The term "dependent variables" here refers to scores made by students on the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inven- tory, Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory, and Final Exami- nation. 17 dependent prone students will receive feedback. Therefore, the degree of dependent proneness is the only significant variable uncontrolled. It has been demonstrated by pre- viously mentioned investigators that highly dependent prone students perform at a higher level than independent prone students when they are taught according to an indirect meth- od (feedback). Amidon and Flanders' data indicate this fact to be true for their experimental subjects. For the second hypothesis it seems reasonable to as- sume that independent prone students receiving feedback will perform at a higher level than dependent and independent prone students who receive no feedback. This idea is sup- ported by results from an experiment carried out by Flanders using the "indirect teaching approach" as his independent 1 Flanders' data show that an indirect teaching variable. technique had a significant influence on eighth grade stu- dents learning principles of social science and science. Finally, since the dependent prone student is highly suggestible and compliant, it is suspected that he will be more likely to accept ideas expressed in lectures than the independent prone student. In a lecture situation the de- pendent prone student should experienee great satisfaction in accepting expressed ideas at face value, and will be con- tented not to develop a clearer understanding of the materhiL 1Ned A. Flanders, "Teacher Influence, Pupil Attitudes, and Achievement," Final Report. 1960, Cooperative Research Project No. 397, U. S. Office of Education, Department of Health, Education and Welfare, p. 113. . it e h“ a Q. _ it 3 _ .1. 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D 1m _. o .0. .0. . i o e e e at C O a m h l 1 W C 8. r . O l e r. S y d C l r. a C C a .l 0 d 0 a. C i o 3 a r C ... a n .--. G C S e d ...i ...i i _ J. o n T. n e C h e h it C l .... a .l .l . H .. O. n d C r h n .1 P .t A ... a Cu " f1 .-Ava-L On My .1. ts ”'t‘) \I k.» A. a ‘AV -.-. . ..j-h \— J,‘ b- -L to 0:1! 0‘.“ (.«-- (1 ‘1 -91.. ..'-u .L O t ta . Tn. Uu do J r.- 10 CS :0 n I. 0 1.110 C bet: 7“ '1'?! 95-- Uh.) C)’ ‘ *0 n .J 1 I." .~ tion 0 0'7".“ “+9.: -3 -L 'r O \l ’7‘ IJ '1“ m a l . l A-_..-.~.c—Lsg\a..4.- ‘A-i, n n v“. '\ (A. n fi’fi‘ kid .1... '1 U. 1 —— U2. CllCC 19 the low or high dependent prone group unless his raw score on the consistency scale is 10 or more. This line of think- ing follows the construct validation of EPPS by Bernardin and Jessor. Educational psychology--that branch of knowledge which deals with the application of psychological principles to solve learning problems. Exhibit understanding of educational psychology--the ability of a student to apply his knowledge of psychological teaching principles to solving problems of an application nature as measured by an objective semester examination. Express positive attitudes toward the teacher-pupil re- lationship and the course--the scores made by students on tests measuring their attitudes toward the teacher-pupil re- lationship (M.T.A.I.), and toward their class in educational psychology (M.S.A.I.) Feedback--this refers to the instructor's reactions to the responses of experimental students during weekly dis- cussion periods (sometimes called knowledge of results). The instructor will pattern his teaching conduct on the ba- sis of Anderson's "Integrative Technique" as a means of pro- viding feedback to students.2 The use of the Integrative 1A. Bernadin and Richard Jessor, "A Construct Valida- tion of the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule with Res- pect to Dependency," Journal of Consultinngsychology, XXI (1957), 63-670 Flanders, op. cit., pp. 5-10. 20 Technique as a means of providing feedback seems apprOpos as a result of Flanders' study mentioned previously.1 Ami- don and Flanders' ”indirect technique" is basically a re- statement of the ”Integrative Technique" of Anderson. Also, there is a direct relationship between an instructor's ac- tivities using the Integrative Technique and the specific act of providing feedback as envisioned by Skinner. The Integrative Technique a. Teacher accepts, clarifies, and supports the ideas and feelings of pupils. b. Teacher praises and encourages students. c. Teacher asks questions to stimulate pupil participation in decision making. d. Teacher asks questions to orient pupils to s schoolwork. Lecture discussion method--an instructional procedure in which the teacher seeks to create interest, to influence or stimulate, and to develOp critical thinking largely by the use of a verbal message, with a minimum of class parti- cipation. Basic assumptions.--Several assumptions are implied in the above discussion. The writer assumes that it is not only desirable and necessary that student performance be im- proved, but that the improvement of performance is highly possible under certain conditions. Furthermore, it appears that these conditions can be Specified and manipulated by the classroom instructor so as to help bring about the in- crease in student learning. It is assumed that what tanfluns 1Amidon and Flanders, loc. cit. 21 do and say in the classroom will affect student behavior. Certainly all the variables of the classroom environ- ment cannot be juggled and manipulated as the stage per- former handles the juggling of balls. Human behavior is not so placid and predictable that an observer can always forecast the 8-3 chain of events. There are fortuitous variables such as emotional and attitudinal diSpositions of the students which cannot be controlled from day to day. However, it seems possible that such variables as age and scholastic aptitude can be controlled to some degree. This should allow the investigator to study human behavior under semi-controlled conditions. Although one will not be able to add together the variables manipulated and arrive at a precise prediction of future behavior, it should be possible to derive more reliable predictions based upon controlled observations of behavior. In this study the writer employed certain objective measures of behavior. It is assumed that the scales validly measure the traits for which they were designed. The analysis of variance and t-test technique are the appropriate statistics for this experiment. The F ratio will be appropriate if subjects in the population are nor- mally distributed on the dependent variable, and are selected randomly, and if treatment effects are constant and additive. Limitations of the study.--An experimental study deal- ing with human behavior (especially in a classroom situationL suffers from the experimenter's inability to adequately confixfl 22 relevant intervening variables. This eXperiment is no ex- ception. Such factors as pre-experimental experiences of students, differences in interest, motivation, class at- tendance, health, etc., will limit the generality and cause- effect interpretation of results. In the chapter on experimental design, the reader will note that students in the experimental group are sub- jected not only to feedback from the instructor, but to ano- ther independent variable as well--small group discussion. This arrangement of experimental treatment has prevented the writer from exclusively attributing possible differences between experimental and control subjects to feedback. How- ever, the investigator regarded small group discussions as an important provision for heightening the intensity of feedback. It appeared that small group discussions and the Integrative Technique were highly compatible instructional techniques, and that the discussions would help to create treatment conditions which would yield significant results. Without the small group discussion, it was thought that the Integrative Technique would not have sufficient strength. Support for this type of reasoning has already been pre- sented on pages 11 through 14 of this dissertation. The ba- sic rationale is that the small discussion group is a good arrangement for providing an immediate and high rate of feedback to responding students. Preview o§_remaining_chapters.--The remaining portion of this dissertation has the following arrangement. In 23 Chapter II a preview of the literature and the present sta- tus of the problem are presented. Chapter III contains a discussion of the experimental approach followed in per- forming the study. The reader will find the experimental results and interpretations in Chapter IV. Finally, the text of the dissertation will end in Chapter V with the sum- mary and conclusions derived from this investigation, along with implications for future research. For convenience and simplicity, reference data will be compiled in the bibliog- raphy and appendix. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The central problem of assessing the effect of feed- back on student learning is the underlying theme of this chapter. The review of the literature will be reported in_ the following manner. First, a definitive discussion of the experimental application of two instructional techniques in education (Dominative Pattern and Integrative Technique) will be discussed. An attempt will be made to correlate this first section with the concept of feedback and student personality (more Specifically, dependency proneness). Fin- ally, salient ideas of the chapter will be summarized. It should be noted at this time that the vast amount of literature in this area necessitates the factor of selec- tivity in choosing studies to be reviewed. However, an ob- jective presentation of different viewpoints and findings is the basic guiding goal of the writer. Historical background.--Some techniques of classroom instruction have survived a long history of application and numerous professional debates over their desirability. One can find traces of so-called modern techniques being used by teachers during medieval times.1 Even then, there were pes- w: 1William Burnham, Great Teachers and Mental Health (New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1926), p. 35. 24 25 simists within the instructional rank, and the applicabili- ty of certain methods was questioned. During this period, teachers relied heavily upon techniques closely related to what Flanders has called the "Dominative Pattern".1 The dominative pattern was popular for several rea- sons. Chief among them was the idea that subject matter was to be "absorbed or assimilated" by the student. This being a primary objective of instruction, one can see why a continuous lecture was pOpular, especially where material was scarce in written form. Eventually a concern for providing experience in dem- ocratic living prompted some educational institutions to experiment with student participation in planning and con- ducting learning experiences. A survey of instructional procedures employed by teachers at various colleges depicted this trend vividly.2 Such schools as Columbia University, Harvard University, Bennington College, et. al., had a high percentage of instructors who had abandoned the lecture method almost entirely and were using discussion and project techniques more extensively. Much of the stimulus for this instructional trend came from the developing field of group dynamics research. 1Ned Flanders, Teacher Influence, Pupil Attitudes, and Achievement, op. cit., pp. 5-10. 2James G. Umstattd, Teaching_Procedures Used in Twenty- Eight Midwestern and Southwestern Colleges and Universities (Austin, Texas: University Cooperative Study Society, 1954), p. 91. 26 Flanders discussed "dominative" and "integrative" pat- terns of instruction in his Cooperative Research Project.1 Additional data covering the tOpic of dominative vs. inte- grative teaching exist in abundance. Different writers, however, have chosen to label these instructional approaches differently. The dominative pattern has been frequently re- ferred to as "teacher controlled," "The Direct Method," "The Lecture Method," etc. The basic idea underlying all these concepts is the high degree of leadership exercised by the classroom teacher and the subjugated role played by the stu- dent. Likewise, the Integrative Technique is widely known by other names, such as "Student Centered Instruction," "In- direct Method," "Discussion Method," "Group Controlled Meth- od," "Permissive Technique," etc. The basic idea underlying these studies is the increased involvement of students in classroom activities ranging from deciding class objectives to actually teaching the class. The following discussion will deal with the experimental application of these two in- structional approaches in studies involving learned behaviqn The reader should keep in mind the appropriate classifica- tion of teaching methods as they are discussed above. Integrative vs. Dominative Teaching.--A classroom may be managed so that the teacher assumes control of all the activities in the class or so that there exists very little or no control of classroom activities on the part of anybodfi 1Flanders, op. cit., pp. 9-10. 27 On this continuum of classroom control one can find all shades of teacher pupil interactions. In fac reported by Flanders1 that teachers are not as consistent in their classroom behavior as it is often believed. Flan- ders says that unless the teachers make careful plans, and conscientiously try to follow the plan, their behavior is apt to vary from integrative to dominative, or to be a mix- ture of the two. When assessing data on the superiority of one tech- nique of instruction over another, one finds that the liter- ature is characterized by many contradictory and conflicting findings. Excellent surveys of the literature have been presented by Wilbert McKeachie (1954, 1958, and 1960). The Handbook pf Research pp Teaching, by Nathaniel Gage, also contains valuable reviews. These reviews generally present summaries of findings under the headings of different exper- imental approaches, discussions on various suggestions for improving instruction, and a statement on future possible trends in research. Other interesting reviews are presented in the 1958, 1961, and 1962 editions of the Annual RevieW'pf Psychology. The interested reader is referred to the above sources should he desire a more thorough treatment of the studies testing the significance of different teaching meth- ods than is presented here. The discussion which follows 1Flanders, op. ci ., p. 116. 28 will primarily deal with some of the studies which seem to have a significant bearing on the proposed research. Several researchers have examined the results from instruction based upon the lecture and discussion methods. Faw's results seem to indicate that student-centered in- struction is superior to teacher-centered instruction when the variables of subject matter learned and attitudes of the students toward the course are considered. Data from his investigation indicate that subjects in the student-centered group had a more positive evaluation of the course, did bet- ter on objective type examinations, and participated more in class proceedings.1 A very good critical analysis of Faw's study is given by Farquhar.2 The study by Asch also produced data which, in part, support the principles of student-centered instruction.3 Asch's experimental subjects appeared better adjusted than control subjects on the basis of M.M.P.I. scores, but the control subjects scored significantly higher than experi- mental subjects on the Final Examination. The latter find- ing (achievement test performance) completely contradicts that of Faw. IVolney Paw, "A Psychotherapeutic Method Teaching Psy- chology," American Psychologist, IV (1949), 104-109. 2William Farquhar, "An Investigation of the Relation- ships of Three Teaching Methods to Student Behavior in a How To Study CouBse," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minneso- ta, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 1955. 3M. J. Asch, "Nondirected Teaching in Psychology: An Experimental Study," Psychological Monographs, XXVIII (1957), 278-279. f'\/\ ) 1, _'- ...- ’1 7 ~~ ‘. 7:), - ~~, -. - a 1 1 ‘- '1' '4‘ V‘ f w-x '. 113 szturn.es: by .iscri a.ki :CMT a¢13ea.‘ tC) 1e t uitxz CdiLLCQl D ‘ v "‘1 - - ~ ‘ J-- ‘ . A,“ . a 4- ~ - A '1 “- oi tie nanr other “escarca S‘-Uip in the aJea oi class“oon -°- m-L- 4-: - *‘w 1 .' .-- ”4—2 - ”a . w 1 4-1 .-- - _. .1- instruction. sacn investigate“ approacneu one e Jeni ental W ' 4.1 4.1 , -1-‘ ..-1 .1. J... - ’ 4-1 .p ..L 1._ proclen with tne concept on that a lecture me nod oi teacn- :‘ _ F‘ O ‘l _. 3 J- o . ‘ _o ’— .. '7 V M1, in: is suwer_or o a discussion netted or vi ce vecsa. .n K.) .. .1. 1 0 -, 14 V .c .. ,, -.. A, -.. ..- 1 .1- 1‘ o - \ ... ‘ ‘. . .1- teacning tecnn qvc e plojed tas exoocted to oring aooat cer- , .1. .1..- 1. - .z.‘ 0 an..- After treatment the lLvepbl J“' . ‘1 "1‘3‘ . ‘ f- r NN tr ‘,"‘ '1 ‘1‘. the instreu tional techs. que enpl jed, and assi differences tetifleei the control and verilcrtal subjects to the influence of treatment. Supp 0.8 e a classroom teacne: has at nis disposal toe in, vestigations of Asch and Pew. The teaoier nus+ decide upon 4— .0 " ional technique b0 icilow in teaching history to s in the 10th grade. Which of t of instruction should he used? In making tiis desision the teacher mus first determine the objectives of instruction. The method employed *y Faw might better enable the teacher to help his students develop positive attitudes toward the self and the world in which they live. Present ata which .1. are available do not prove that one method is superior to the other in terms of subject matter acnievement. .1 Hohrer's Study, involving an experimental comparison the performance of students taught in large and small 30 'The most significant finding of this study is that the amount of achievement . . . varied as a func- tion of the course instructor and did not vary as a function of the size of the class. This sug- gests that differential skills and abilities of instructors to present materials to large and small classes is the critical variable. No significant differences were observed between the small classes taught by the lecture or discussion methods, but differences were revealed in the achievement 0 students when taught by different instructors. It is interesting to note the significance attributed to variability between instructors when interpreting the above data. Could it be that the strength of a Specific teaching method really varies in relationship, in part, to the personality of the teacher? Such a possibility seems plausible. One of the most revealing studies in the area of im- proving classroom instruction has been reported by WiSpe.2 Not only does WiSpe further confirm the non-significant findings of other workers relative to the value of lecture vs. discussion techniques, but he also offers some stimulat- ing suggestions which might explain these findings. WiSpe reports that one of the uncontrollable variables operating to produce results from studies on instructional techniques is the personality of the students. His data indicate that there exists what he calls "want more D" students (dependent prone), "want more P" students (independent prone), and a 1John Rohrer, "Large and Small Sections in College Classes," Journal of Higher Education,XXVIII (1957), 278-279. 2Lauren G. Wispe, "Evaluating Section Teaching Methods in the Introductory Course," Journal of Educational Research, XLV (1951), 161-185. 51 third group which he labeled the "satisfied students." The want more P student is viewed as fairly secure, independent, and extra-punitive. These traits enable him to adjust to classroom situations which thwart his needs for autonomy. On the other hand, the want more D student is viewed as a very insecure person; he demands an abnormal amount of structured teaching and his insecurity manifests itself in a kind of egocentric intro-punitiveness. The study by Uispe and that of Rohrer seem to be di- recting the reader's attention away from the idea that an instructional method is a critical variable in improving student learning. Instead, an increasing emphasis is placed upon the personality of the students and teacher respective- ly. This, the writer believes, is a step in the right di- rection° The conflicting findings favoring one teaching method over another must possess some rational explanation, and this appears to be part of it. Undoubtedly, there are other variables pertinent to a more complete explanation, but for the moment consider the variable of student person- ality. Dependency proneness and learning.--The idea that the personality of students might affect their probability of learning is nothing new. Several writers have dealt with this idea in recent years. Notable among them is Donald Smith. It should be noted that Smith and other teachers have shown very keen perception of the importance of con— sidering student personality as a significant variable in 32 the learning situation.1 But the variable highlighted by WiSpe was not the general personality factor; instead, the condition of de- pendent proneness was stressed. What evidence exists to support the claim that such a variable of personality has been isolated? Levy was one of the earliest investigators to discuss the condition of dependent proneness. His discussion of ex- treme cases of overprotection on the part of parents, and the over-dependent child deveIOping therefrom, was widely acclaimed. Levy felt that the condition was based primarily upon a deficiency in independent training, and resulted when dependency behavior was constantly rewarded.2 A somewhat different explanation is offered by Sears.3 He explains that the mother is apt to exhibit anxiety in nursing the first-born child; therefore, older children in the family are thought to be likely candidates for develOping dependent proneness, since anxiety experienced in the nursing and Jeaning process serves as an instigagor for whatever behav- ior the infant was exhibiting. Since the behavior was of a 1Donald E. Smith, "Fit Teaching Methods to Personality Structure, High School Journal, XXXIX (1955), 167. 2David Levy, Maternal Overprotection (New York:Columbia University Press, 1943), pp. 71-79. 53.3. Sears, "Ordinal Position In the Family As a Psy- chological Variable," American Sociological Review, XV (195 L 397-401. 33 dependent nature (nursing and weaning), it developed strength as the dominant mode of satisfying needs. The attitude of "basic trust" is thought to develop from the manner in which the needs of the child are satisfied. In a later article, Stendler corroborates the observa- tions of Levy and Sears, and proposes two critical periods in the socialization process for the develOpment of dependent proneness. The first critical period occurs when the child begins to test out the mother to see if he can depend on her. The two to three year period is considered to be the second critical period. Stendler further hypothesizes that the timing of the anxiety experiences which produce dependen- cy will also determine how the personality will be affected. In discussing this hypothesis Stendler writes: Overdependent chi dren p duced during the first critical period st year . . . will be low in ego strength, with resulting low level of aSpira- tion and low frustration tolerance. . . . Such children will perceive the socializing agent . . . as a punishing figure rather than a helpful one. Overdependent children produced during the second critical period [3rd yeafl are more likely to be affected in the area of conscience. . . . They will be rigid in their ideas of right and wrong, over- conforming in behavior, unduly disturbed by the wrong doings of other children. They will prefer well-defined structured situations to those which allow for more freedom of choice. The idea that the dependent prone person is an over- conformer and prefers well—defined structured situations is generally accepted by other investigators in the field. 1Celia Stendler, "Critical Periods in Socialization and Overdependency," Child Development, XXIII (1952), 3-12. 34 Furthermore, Miller and Dollard have demonstrated that de- pendent modes of behavior which reveal themselves through a process of imitating adult behavior will "generalize" from one situation to another. These two learning theorists be- lieve that such modes of dependent behavior can become a general instrumental-dependence device which may be used in any appropriate situation as a means of reaching a goal.1 Even though the discussion of dependent proneness has thus far been restricted to the child, one must realize that many children never learn to develop the trait of independ- ence. Although it seems possible for a child to overcome the effects of infantile experiences which produce this condition, certain environmental or rearing experiences ap- pear vital for this occurrence. Therefore it is probable that a dependent prone child might maintain such a dependent response to authority figures throughout his lifetime. This is the cpinion of Kagan and Moss.2 Knowing that dependent proneness does affect the stu- dent's reactions to environmental stimuli and his expecta- tions and appreciation of certain interpersonal experiences, one needs to know how this personality variable operates within a formal learning Situation. WiSpe's data provide 1Neal Miller and John Dollard, Social Learning and Imitation (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1941), pp. 65- 74. 2J. Kagan and H. Moss, "The Stability of Passive and Dependent Behavior from Childhood through Adulthood," Child Develppment, YTXI (1960), 577-591. 35 1 It was reported that depend- the answer to this question. ent prone students were characterized by intro-punitiveness, with negative attitudes toward the course, fellow students, and the instructor. However, the kind of teaching received made some difference. The group which was directly taught reported "feeling constrained and tense" in class; the group which was permissively taught reported feeling relaxed and free to recite, although they were the most critical of all the groups. The independent prone students in the permis- sively instructed group reported "feeling relaxed" and "free to recite" in class. Those independent prone students di- rectly taught reported "feeling tense" and "constrained in class", and aggressed against the instructor. A study quite germane to the one being proposed has been carried out by Flanders.2 Because of its applicabili- ' data seems warranted ty, a more thorough review of Flanders Generally, the study dealt with the effects of direct and indirect teacher influence on student behavior when instruc- tional goals were either clear or ambiguous. Eighth grade students studying geometry and social science gave the in- vestigator an opportunity to experimentally observe such a learning process. The basic hypotheses in this study were: 1. "Direct teacher influence restricts learning when a student's perception of the goal is confused and 1Wispe, loc. cit. 2 Flanders, op. cit., p:. 15-189. K)! Ch ambiguous." 2. "Direct teacher influence increases learning when a student's perception of the goal is clear and acceptable." bl 0 "Indirect teacher influence increases learning when the student's perception of the g al is vs - w- 71-‘\. "~11 H confused and antiguous. The investigator also anticipated that different types of students would react differently to direct and indirect influence, that ambiguous goals increase dependent behavior, and that high dependent students would be more sensitive to changes in direct and indirect patterns of influence than students who scored low on a dependence-proneness test. Although Flanders' experimental design possessed cer- tain limitations, namely, variability of a single teacher's instructional technique and a too limited treatment period, his findings are very applicable to the study. Significant differences on final test data support his hypotheses that an indirect teaching method (The Inte— grative Technique), produces more achievement. In both ge- ometry and social studies indirect teacher influence pro- duced a lower final level of dependence as shown by data ob- tained at the end of the work period. Very little evidence supported a sub-hypothesis that the above average, average, or below average students respond differently to direct and indirect patterns of teacher influence. Flanders also con- 37 cluded that the students who scored the highest (signifi- cantly so) on the instrument measuring attitudes toward the classroom were those exposed to flexible patterns of direct and indirect instruction. Corroborating the above findings of Flanders is a re- port recently published under the byline of Amidon and Flan- ders. On the basis of data collected from the second year of Flanders' study, these authors state that: Closer supervision, thru the use of direct influence (lecture) may be more harmful than helpful to depend- ent prone students. Dependent prone students learned more in the classroom in which the teacher gave fewer directions, less criticism, less lecturing, more praise, and asked more questions.1 Additional data supporting Flanders have been published by Jokubczak and Walters.2 Not only is the dependent prone person viewed as being more suggestible, he reSponds more strongly when adults give suggestions than when peers give suggestions. The above data seem to indicate a direct relationship between the personality type of the student and reactions to different instructional techniques. The evidence suggests that dependent prone students learn more when the interper- sonal relationship between student and teacher is of a sup- portive rather than an autocratic nature. Since these prin- 1E. Amidon and N. Flanders, "The Effects of Direct and Indirect Teacher Influence on Dependent-Prone Students Learn- ing Geometry," Journal of Educational Psyphology,LII (1961), 2L. Jokubczak and R. Walters, "Suggestibility As De- pendency Behavior," Journal of Abnormal Psycholoei, LIX (1959), 102-107. . 38 ciples are increasingly and widely gaining acceptance, the writer suggests that their validity should be tested under a more realistic classroom condition which would constitute, at least, the normal instructional time-Span of one semesten It is the opinion of this investigator that the out- standing value of the Indirect Method is that it makes pos- sible the administration of feedback to the learner. Fur- thermore, it appears that feedback from the instructor and other students is more probable as a result of the indirect method, since it creates more overt student participation than the lecture technique. In other words, the student must respond if feedback is to be given by the teacher. When the instructor gives praise, asks questions, makes sugges- tions, reflects feelings and attitudes, clarifies statements of students, etc., he is actually providing feedback. Assuming that feedback is a basic element of the i.- direct method, one might inquire about the effects of feed- back in creating behavioral changes. If feedback is a crit- ical variable, one might hypothesize that the performance of students receiving feedback will excel the performance of those who receive no feedback. On the basis of the above discussion, it also seems more probable that dependent prone subjects should benefit more from feedback than independent prone students. In the 1961 issue of the Annual Review pf Psychology, Bilodeau and Bilodeau presented a summary of research stud— ies dealing with what they called the "feedback family." 59 These studies were concerned primarily with motor learning. They state: Studies of feedback or knowledge of results (KR) show it to be the strongest, most important vari- able controlling performance and learning. It has been shown repeatedly, as well as recently, that there is no improvement without KR, progressive improvement with it, and deterioration after its withdrawal. A number of studies show that perform- ance is seriously disrupted or made impossible by lags in feedback of even less than 1.0 sec. . . . No other independent variable offers the wide range of possibilities for getting man to repeat or change his Rs [response] immediately or slowly, by small or large amounts. After discussing the widespread disagreement over the proper definition and function of feedback, Bilodeau and Bilodeau depict the three broad areas under which research studies of the 1950's are divided: (a) transformations, (b) temporal delay, and (c) supplements to the standard. These reviewers further state that a fourth broad area, frequency schedules, has hardly been investigated. Transformation KR refers to the experimenter presenting to the subject an in- dependent variable which is a function of the subject's re- Sponse or of the amount of error in the subject's response. Temporal delay refers to the amount of time between the oc- currence of the emitted or elicited behavior and the ap- pearance of KR. Supplements to the standard refer to giving the subject some extra indication of decent or poor perform- ance without using "good," smiles, or cookies; the color of 1P. R. Farnsworth, et. al., Annual Review of Psychology (Palo Alto, California: Annual Reviews Incorporation, 1961), p. 250. bI 40 the target, a tone, etc., may convey the additional informa- tion required. In discussing the importance of the delay in giving knowledge of performance, the writers concluded that "to de- lay or to give immediate KR can be quite immaterial for learning to make relatively simple Rs (when the periods between Rs are relatively free of Specially interpolated 33)."1 In reference to the above conclusions of Bilodeau and Bilodeau dealing with the significance of delay in KR, the present writer has this reaction. First it should be noted that the above reviewers limited their conclusions in the following two ways: (1) delay of K3 is thought to have insig- nificant effect when the reSponses to be learned are relative- ly simple, and (2) delay of KR is thought to have insignifi- cant effect when there is little opportunity for retroactive inhibition to affect performance. In the typical classroom learning situation either the absence of one or both of the previous restrictions might make KR an aid to learning. Often the subject matter to be learned in the classroom is abstract and sometimes difficult, and the weekly, monthly, or semester basis on which units are organized allow for xUCh retroactive inhibition. The retroactive inhibition fac- tor seems especially applicable to the usual learning situa- tion where a student may be concurrently enrolled in two or 1Ibid., pp. 250—258. 41 more courses in which incompatible principles are taught. —‘.. silodeau and Bilodeau appear to offer support to the writer's interpretation of the probable role of RR in typi- H cal classroom learning. Under the topic, Effective delays Tr“) H of kn, one finds the following statemert: Not all delays of K3 produce null results, lays of speech or handwriting show so drama It depends upon what happens between R (res and KR. . . . When something is interpolate tween R and KR or between K3 and the next R per- formance is of a different order of magnitude. Q: ’6 ct 90 O L7 ——K The following paragraphs will consider, in detail, Specific studies which h vs used feedback as an independent variable in a learning situation. These summaries are pre- sented to further clarify the Specific manner various in- vestigators have conceived and manipulated this variable. The general and basic effects of feedback on learning are positive. This conclusion seems warranted on the basis of data presented in Chapter I. In addition to the data discussed under Justification of the Study in Chapter I, further support for this position exists. For example, Bilodeau, Bilodeau, and Schumsky have shown that in a task 'nvolving lever displacing, no improvement occurred without knowledge of results, there was progressive improvement with knowledge of results, and response deterioration resulted 2 upon withdrawal of knowledge of results. Bourne, et. al., 1Ibid., 257. 2E. Bilodeau, I. Bilodeau and D. Schumsky, "Some Effects of Introducing and Withdrawing Knowledge of Results Early adn Late in Practice," Journal of Experimental Psycholos', LVIII (1959), 142-144. p I 42 have produced data which indicate that a reduction in com- pleteness of feedback reduces performance on visual percep- tion problems by a constant amount, regardless of task com- U) plexity. It is shown that completeness of feedback doe 1 . 1 affect tne subject's performance. Several experimenters have studied the applicability of feedback principles to verbal learning. Michael and Mac- coby have reported their findings on factors which infl ence verbal learning from films. In addition to other objectives, ascertaining tne influence of knowledge of correct response 3 after practice (KCR) versus no such knowledge (no K x) was attempted by these investigators. Their results indicate that students in the KCR “roups scored significantly higher on a test measuring knowledge of the film viewed than stu- dents in the no KCR group. Discussing the results of this study, Michael and Kaccoby state: There was a statistically significant (P<.01) average gain of 16.3 percentage points from the condition of no KCR to the condition of KCR for the practice questions. . . . O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O 0 O O O O O O O 0 All test scores for the KCR groups are signifi- cantly higher (P: .05) than the corresponding test scores for the no KC' groups. All test scores for the overt KCR groups meaning KCR subjects orally answered practice questions cov ring the film] and overt no KCR groups are significantly higher (P: .05) than the corresponding test scores for control groups 2 and 3. lele Bourne, et. al., "Concept Identification As a Function of Completeness and Probability of Information Feed- back," Journal of Experimental Psychologyi LVI (1958), 413- 420. 2D. Michael and N. Maccoby, "Factors Influencing Verb- al Learning from Films under Varying Conditions of Audience Participation," Journal of Experimental Psychology, XLVI (1953). 414- (literafibfidnfiirnuéenfit .I‘a.....ll1lpltlf . . u. . , . . . . , . . II.~ 1.1:!1: SN» Edit? 1. F. q . 1 ... ..i! .. I‘LE 43 Angeli has also attempted to apply feedback principles to learning concepts in the classroom. In a learning experi- ment with equated groups, Angell studied the effects of im— mediate knowledge of quiz results on final examination scores in freshman chemistry. Subjects in his experiment were administered a total of three quizzes dealing with: (1) knowledge of facts and principles, (2) application of facts and principles in non-quantitative problems, and (3) appli- cation of facts and principles in quantitative problems. Experimental subjects were given immediate feedback via a punchboard which displayed a red color for correct answers. Control subjects did not receive such feedback. The first test was administered to students at the end of the fourth week of the semester; the remaining two tests were given to students at separate time periods during the last half of the semester. The criterion measure (final examination), which served as the dependent variable was administered to the subjects on the final day of the semester. Angell con- cluded that the difference between the scores of experimen- tal and control subjects on the final examination was in favor of the subjects who had used the punchboard and re- ceived feedback. This difference was significant at the .01 level.1 1George Angell, "The Effect of Immediate Knowledge of Quiz Results on Final Examination Scores in Freshman Chemis- try," Journal of Experimental Psychology, XLII (1948-49), 391-394. 44 Smeltzer's study provides an interesting test of the ideas that feedback improves performance. Experimental stu- dents in his study received feedback on the basis of their performance on weekly tests administered by the instructor. Those students performing satisfactorily were rewarded with a holiday, the poor performers were assigned extra work and review of previously covered material. Control subjects in this study attended lecture sessions. Significant differen- ces in learning of subject matter were found favoring the experimental group. Judging from the experimental design, it seems impossible to differentiate the effects of feedback from the effects of reinforcement.1 Support for the idea that immediacy of feedback is important is found in separate studies conducted by Green- Spoon and Foreman, and Saltzman. GreenSpoon and Foreman re- port that in a task requiring subjects to draw a three inch line while blindfolded, the information concerning the ac- curacy of the line was delayed for 0, 10, 20, or 30 seconds in four different experimental groups. No information was given to subjects in control groups. The results indicate that increasing the length of the delay interval reduced the rate of learning. A delay up to 30 seconds was found to be superior to no information.2 Saltzman's data reveal that 1c. H. Smeltzer, "Improving and Evaluating the Effi- ciency of College Instruction," Journal of Educational Psy- chology, XXIV (1933), 283-302. 2J. Greenspoon and S. Foreman, "Effect of Delay of Knowledge of Results on Learning a Motor Task," Journal of Experimental Psychology, LI (1956), 226~228. 45 subjects who experienced a six second delay in receiving feedback (in learning a verbal maze), required significantly more trials and made more errors than eXperimental subjects who received immediate feedback.1 Other studies seem to indicate that the role of feed- back in learning is dependent upon the manner in which feed- back is perceived by the recipient. Smith and Knight con- cluded from a field setting investigation that only "person- alized feedback" increased the learning of principles in courses designed to train students in human relations manage- ment. Feedback consisted of each experimental subject de- scribing his own behavior in the discussion group and also explaining why he behaved as he did. Each subject was told by other members of the sub-group how his behavior affected leadership problems.2 Jones, Wells, and Torrey point out that the effects of feedback from the teacher are contingent upon the students' perception of the judgment task. Their data reveal that in assessing the effect of feedback on conformity behavior, the student will be relatively unresponsive to feedback unless she feels that an error, on her part, will jeopardize her standing in the group. These investigators agree that feed- 1I. Saltzman, "Delay of Reward and Human Verbal Learn- ing," Journal of Experimental_Psychologw, XLI (1951), 437- 439. 2E. Smith and S. Knight, "Effects of Feedback on In- sight and Problem Solving Efficiency in Training Groups," Journal of Applied Psychology, XLIII (1959), 209-211. 46 back affects behavior, but in terms of conformity behavior, feedback has a conscious effect.1 Finally how might one explain those studies where an "integrative pattern" to instruction has proven superior to the "dominative pattern"? This writer believes that the chief virtues of the integrative pattern are the followilg: 1. By having an interchange of ideas in the class- room among students and between students and teacher, all the participants are in a posi- tion to receive a greater amount of feedback. This i believed to be its most basic virtue. U) 2. The Integrative Technique helps to develop coop- erative activity and stimulate expression of ideas. The expression of ideas, feelings, attitudes, etc., by students is thought to have the effect of facilitating learning. 3. The student must strive to develOp ar Under- standing of the subject matter in order to become a successful participant in the learn- ing process. This also facilitates learning. Summary: It is believed that the previous discussion clear- ly shows that one of the most important factors in improv- ing classroom instruction is that of providing feedback to the responses of students. The data tend to indicate that 1E. Jones, H. Wells, and R. Torrey, "Some Effects of Feedback from the Experimenter on Conformity Behavior," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, LVII (1958), 207- 213. 4? tr e instructional HHSLlOd alone is not the critical variable. Jhen tre investigator merely con:3are one teachina against another, the results do not help to improve the - .. - ... - g- . 91 ., 4. .. mg 1, - status 0... knox-vledge in one .Ll eld. On the oil-fer nand plicit in the heview of Research is tne idea that when a H. certain teaching princiole (namelv immediate feedback) made a part of an iflSbrlCLiORal method, one should expect ’mprovement in stud de it performance. Likewise, instruction ted to a na: ticular personali trait of the learner L‘ o g; U) {n d (de formance. There is ample ev idence that some students do ‘ - 5" 1 1 1 f ‘ '1‘ w a 4‘ :en mic; pronedess), should also im.rovc Sb dent pa ’1’. I develop the trait of dependency proneness, and that it lingers over into adolescence and adulthood in some cases. F3 he study of Kagan and Loss, which was cited earlier, snows cf- «Lt ., . - .1- ., ° .- 2 ,. " -,. - 4— - that many adolescents remain highly dependent upon au 0 V guioan es and succorance. H) Flo g (D C‘) H) O H CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURE IN THE COLLECTION OF DATA The location and date of the study.--This study was conducted at Southern University and Agricultural and Mech- anical College in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The school is a four year college which was founded in 1880 as a result of the Land Grant Act. Because of the laws of the State of Louisiana, the student body consists entirely of members of the Negro race. The majority of these students are residents of the State of Louisiana, with a high percentage coming from the cities of New Orleans and Baton Rouge. Likewise, many of the students reside in private homes or rented apartments off the college campus. The total enrollment is approximately 5,000 stu- dents, with almost one-half of this number enrolled in the Department of Education. The study being reported was conducted during the first semester of the 1961-'62 school year. The treatment period lasted from September 12, 1961, until January 10, 1962. Each subject attended class three fifty-minute ses- sions each week. Personnel of the investigatigg.--The only experimenter in this investigation was the writer. The unavailability of research assistants, plus the work load of other psychology instructors, necessitated such an arrangement. This aspect 48 49 of the study will be further discussed in the last section of the present chapter. Evaluative materials employed.--Various measuring in- struments were employed in the pre-experiment uniformity trial, and in testing treatment effects. Some of the tests used were compiled by the experimenter, either totally or in part, while others are well known standardized instru- ments. Even though subjects in the experiment were randomly selected from the total population of students enrolling in Educational Psychology 220, and were randomly assigned to treatment groups, the experimenter chose to test for sig- nificant differences between control and experimental sub- jects prior to treatment. The School and College Ability Tests1 (hereafter referred to as SCAT), was selected for this purpose. Further discussion of this test appears in the section dealing with the selection of subjects. The Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS) was included in the battery of tests as a measure of high and low dependent proneness. The test was derived to serve as a quick and convenient measure of relatively independent normal personality variables by Allen Edwards.2 The EPPS provided measuresof the following fifteen personality 1C00perative School and College Ability Tests: Manual for InterpretinggScores (Princeton, New Jersey: Educational Testing Service, 1957), p. 5. 2Allen Edwards, Manual-Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (New York: The Psychological Corporation, 1959), ILS. .'.. 50 variables: achievement, deference, order, exhibition, au- tonomy, affiliation, intraception, succorance, endurance, hererosexuality, and agression. The test also providesa, measure of test consistency and of profile stability in ad- dition to the above fifteen personality variables. Generally, the reliability of the EPPS is good. In Edwards' Manual reliability coefficients reported range from .60 to .88. Other investigators have found much higher reliability coefficients. Notable among them is Klett, whose reliability coefficients range from .90 to .94.1 Critics have given variable evaluations of this test's validity. They range all the way from "acceptable" to a "skeptical approval for use in research" to a "denial of the test's validity."2 On the other hand, Heilbrum reports a concurrent correlation of .60 between EPPS scores and an ad- jective check list which he designed.3 The consistency score is not thought to be a very good index for detecting student faking. Student faking (which has been referred to as the social desirability of student responses) limits the validity of this test. 1c. J. Klett, "The Stability of the Social Desirabili— ty Scale Values in the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule, Journal of Consultinngsychology, XXI (1957), 183-185. 20. K. Euros, The Fifth Mental Measurements Yearbook (New Jersey: Gryphon Press, 1959), p. 47. 3A. B. Heilbrum, "Relationships Between the Adjective Check-List, Personal Preference Schedule and Desirability Factors under Varying Defensive Conditions," Journal of Clinical Psychology, XIV (1958), 283-287. 51 The reader is referred to the definition of terms in Chapter I for a complete statement of the use of EPPS in this study. Note, however, that no student will be included in the dependent proneness analysis unless his raw score of the consistency scale is ten or higher. Allen Edwards provided this cut-off point as a reliability check in detecting wheth- er students were responding to EPPS items on a chance basis. Edwards' data indicate that the probability of 10 or more identical choices (referring to an item being answered in the same manner when it appears twice on EPPS) occurring by chance is approximately .15.1 The Final Examination is included as a measure of the student's ability to apply his knowledge of psychological teaching principles to solving problems of an application nature. Very few of the test items measure Specific data which may have been memorized. The majority of the questions are designed to test whether the student can use his newly acquired knowledge of psychological principles to solve practical problems. An attempt is made to assess the stu- dent's basic understanding of educational psychology, and his performance in accurately generalizing on the basis of what he has learned. The split-half reliability of the Final Examination (odd vs. even items), as estimated by the Spearman Brown Formula, is .83. This coefficient was derived from the ex- perimental data collected at tne end of the treatment period. 1Eiwards, on. cit., p. 15. 52 Whereas the reliability does not seem to be extremely high, it is at an acceptable level. Content validity of the final examination appears to be high after comparing test items with text-book principles and the instructor's lecture notes. A copy of the Final Examination appears in the Appendix. The Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory (MTAI) was designed as a predictor of the type of teacher-pupil rela- tionships a prOSpective teacher will maintain. Persons scoring at the high end of the scale should be able to main- tain a state of harmonious relations with plpils, a state characterized by mutual affection and synpathetic under- standing. Pupils of such teachers should like their instruc- tors and enjoy school work. Such instructors should like children and enjoy teaching, and situations requiring dis- ciplinary actions should rarely occur in the classroom, etc. The MTAI is used in this study to measure the differ- ential effects of the two teaching procedures on student perception of a teacher's role. It is suSpected that the viewpoints of students in the teacher preparation course should be affected by the teaching experiences they undergo. Those in the integrative teaching situation should score higher on the MTAI than the subjects in the lecture group. In their discussion of the experimental background of the inventory, Cook, gt;_§l:.state the assumptions on which the reliability and validity of the test are based.1 The 1Walter Cook, Carroll Leeds, and Robert Callis, Manual: Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventogy (New York: The Psycholog- ical Corporation, 1951), pp. 10-12. 53 reliability of the instrument (computed by the Spearman- Brown Split-half procedure), was found to be .89. The test has a validity coefficient of .60. Both reliability and validity appear to be at acceptable levels. The Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory (TSAI) was included as part of the experimental design to measure the l he teacher elployed the inte rative teach- pattern for experimental en: (...-1 (1.}. O 0 d- U) {Q U) f.) h 2 {J P. t. } ) (7) cf d- ; 4 H (D H (D O (‘9' c: *‘S (D approach for the control subjects. The MSAI is a sixty-two item questionnaire which ask tne student to evaluate a statement about the teaching situation. Questions relative to the method of classroom control experienced, temperament of the teacher, teaching efficiency, etc., are asked. The scale for evaluating these 'tems ranges from strongly dis- agree to strongly agree. The scale is weighted on a five point continuum from -2 to +2. The Minnes ta Student Attitude Inventory was selected as a substitute for an "outside observer" or audio-visual aids to measure the variable of teaching method. The inven- J. tory was compiled by Red Flanders at the University of Min- nesota, who describes the 'nstrument in this manner: The MSAI is an attitude test which has shown a significant correlation in earlier studies with the teacher's pattern of influence. . . . The test is made up of items that reflect the student's at- titudes toward the teacher, the class activities, the teacher's system of rewards and unishments, and their dependence on the teacher. 1Ned A. Flanders, "Teacher Influence, Pupil Attitudes, and Achievement," Final Report. 1960, Cooperative Research Project No. 397, U. S. Office of Education, Department of Health, Education and Welfare, pp. 41-78. 54 With the approval of the author, several of the sixty- two items which comprise the MSAI were revised for this study. This revision was necessary due to the inapplicabil- ity of certain phrases to a population of college students. In each revised item, however, the basic intent of the question remains unchanged. A sample of this instrument can be found on page 71. The selecting of subjects and pre-testipg.--The students who participated in this study were enrolled in Educational Psychology 220 (sections 1, 7, 8 and 10). The sample of 144 students were randomly selected (via table of random numbers) from the total number of students (398) who registered for the course in educational psychology. Subjects were random- ly selected from the larger group providing they possessed the following characteristics: (1) were between the ages of seventeen and twenty-one, (2) were classified as either a sophomore or junior, and (3) were taking their first course in the subject matter area of psychology. The primary reasal for these restrictions was to rule out possible contiminating factors due to previous experiences of subjects. After randomly selecting the subjects for the experi- ment, the control and experimental groups were formed via random assignment. Both random selection and random assign- ment were possible due to the cooperation of administrative personnel who permitted students to register for the general educational psychology section. As a result of random as- signment, two experimental classes and two control classes 55 were formed; each class contained thirty-six students. Therefore, the initial sample contained seventy-two students in the control group and seventy-two students in the experi- mental group. By the time the study was completed, this number had decreased to sixty-one students in the experimen- tal group and sixty-two students in the control group. This reduction came about as a result of students dropping the course or withdrawing from the university. Incidentally, all statistical analysis will be computed on the basis of data obtained from the remaining 123 subjects. Although students were randomly selected and randomly assigned, the experimenter included a "uniformity trial" check in the experimental design. Subjects were administered the School and College Ability Tests during the first class period. This test yields a verbal and quantitative score with Specific measures of: (1) meaning of isolated sentences, (2) numerical computations, (3) associating meanings of iso- lated words, and (4) solving arithmetic problems. In Buros' review of recent tests Davis reports that both validity and reliability of this test make it a useful predictor of aca- demic performance. Validity coefficients reported for the SOAT test range from .50 to .80 for correlations between SCAT performance and Grade Point Average. Estimates of reliabil- ity on the basis of the Kuder Richardson Formula are in the .90's.1 1Buros, op. cit., p. 322. 56 Assuming, then, that the SCAT is a valid and reliable test for predicting college performance of subjects in this experiment, the uniformity trial yields the following data. The control and experimental groups have means of 36.79 and 40.21, respectively. Scores ranged from 14 to 73 for the total test raw scores. For all practical purposes, the dif- ference in range between the experimental and control groups is very little. Likewise, a t-test for significant differ- ence between means of the two groups reveals that the control and xperimental groups do not differ significantly in their academic capacity to undertake college work. The test for homogeneity of variance indicates that there exists a strong probability that the two samples are not drawn from a popu- lation whose variance is Instaqual. The t-test and homoge- neity of variance data are presented in Table 1. Raw data are presented in the Appendix. TABLE 1. -- S.C.A.T. test scores for uniformity trial m » -—-«~ , - - Difference Be- tween Means Homogeneity of Variance fl’ . hean T-test Variance F score scores score Control Group 36.79 1.80** 1800.21 1.14** Experimental Group 40.21 1576.21 ** Indicate no significant difference, = .05. Uniformity trial data is also available for each of the four dependent proneness groups. First it was necessary to select high and low dependent prone subjects (from experimen- 57 and control classes), on the basis of EPPS scores. When sub- jects in the dependent prone groups had been identified, their SCAT scores were obtained and served as the basis of testing the null hypothesis of no difference. For this sta- tistical test it is desirable that the null hypothesis be accepted, since a basic assumption of t and F tests is the random selection of subjects from a normal population. An appropriate statistical test for the uniformity trial is the analysis of variance. With 3 and 58 degrees of freedom, an F score of 2.68 is required for rejection of the null hypothesis of no difference. As is depicted in Table 2, the resulting F of .05 causes the acceptance of the null hypothesis. This statistical test indicates that there is a strong probability that no significant differences ex- ist between the mean scores of dependent proneness groups on the SCAT. TABLE 2. -- Summary data of uniformity trial on dependence proneness groups Sum of Degrees of Variance F Fc Squares Freedom Between Sum of Squares 23.38 3 7.79 .05** 2.68 Within Sum of Squares 8676.98 58 149.60 Total Sum of Squares 8700.27 ** F is insignificant at the .05 level of confidence. 58 Another instrument administered at the end of the fourth week of this investigation was the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule. Althougn the data on this test were collected at the above time, it was not interpreted, nor were the answer sheets scored until the treatment period had ended. This action was taken to render the writer less susceptible to any unconscious manipulation of subjects who might be classified as high or low dependent prone as a re- sult of EPPS scores. An analysis of EPPS scores will be presented in Chapter IV. Treatment of Subjects.--The seventy-two students in the experimental group (thirty-six in each section), met in their respective sections for two lectures each week. For the third class period, the experimental subjects were fur- ther divided into six sections, with twelve students in each section. In the smaller sections the Integrative Tech- nique of instruction was followed. The assignment of stu- dents to small sections was on a permanent basis. The seventy-two control subjects met three times each week for lectures. It should be recalled that the term "lecture" is here defined as an instructional procedure in which the teacher seeks to create interest, to influence or stimulate, and to develop critical thinking largely by the use of a verbal message, with a minimum of class participa- tion. The content of lectures was basically the same for the control subjects and the experimental subjects. Lec- tures were based on the textbook, Psychology lg Teaching ami 59 Learning, by William Trow. However, data covered and points of view expressed came from the general field of educational psychology. The Specific teacher behavior for the control subjects may be described as follows. The instructor expressed or lectured about different psychological concepts, he gave di- rections and criticized students, and he justified his right to follow the above pattern on the basis of his authorita- tive role. Students had very little opportunity to ask questions or to express verbally their conception of or re- action to ideas. Lectures were organized so that the same amount of subject matter was coveredein both the experimen- tal and the control group. In connection with this point, one must realize that this necessitated a more thorough coverage in the control groups in some instances. Perhaps a more thorough statement is warranted on what actually took place in the experimental sections (size 12), during the third class meetings of each week. The basic ap- proach was to permit students to ask questions or to explore further subject matter covered during the two previous lec- tures° Oftentimes, the instructor asked students to explain further the practical application of textbook principles, and questions were asked to help focus the students' atten- tion upon central points in the lectures and to help clarify student understanding. Most important, however, is the fact that each student was enticed to participate in class dis- cussions, and received immediate feedback from his classmates 60 or the instructor on the basis of his responses. Periodically, the instructor gave experimental subjects study questions which served as the basis of discussions in small groups. These questions were written for the purpose of helping the student increase his knowledge and understand- ing of lecture material. They also provided frequent oppor- tunities for the instructor to provide feedback to students. Some sample c0pies of study questions appear in the Appendix. The subject matter of educational psychology provided an excellent opportunity for the teacher to accept, clarify, and stimulate the ideas and feelings of students. This was .L especially true of topics dealing with the teacher's role in directing classroom activities, his evaluation of pupils' performance on tests, teaching and modifying concepts and a titudes, the teacher and adult groups, etc. Much emphasis was placed upon providing this kind of supportive influence for the experimental subjects. he e: :peri imental arrang ment as discussed above is de- picted in Table 3: TASTE 3. -- Treatment model for teaching experiment Treatment Groups Tues. Thurs. Sat. Mon. Wed. Fri. Cle asses Classes Control Groups n = 36 n : 36 TAT Z 79 Experimental A * l l is o o a o n:36 n:36 tThis is to indicate small sections of students experiencing the Intc;r iv Technique of instruction once each week. The other two class periods consist of lecture groups, size 36 each. All class periods lasted for 50 minutes. §.', 61 Statement of Hypotheses.--The hypotheses for this study have been stated in Chapter I. The reader is referred b0 page 16 should he desire to review them. Procedures in collectint tie data.--As a part of the uniformity trial, pre-treatment scores were obtained for each subject on the School and College Ability Tests. Pe- fore the fifth week of the study had ended, the Edwards Per— sonal Preference Schedule was administered to subjects dur- ing the regular class period. Durixg the period set aside by the University for semester examinations, the Final Ex- amination, Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory, and Kinne- sota Student Attitude Inventory were administered to the students. The Final Examination was administered on the first day, and the remaining two tests were given to the students on the second day of the final examination week. All students were required to take each test at the same time under conditions not conducive to "cribbing." Two co- workers in the Department of Psychology served as proctors during the examinations. A Limitations and assumptions of the study.--In a study J. of this nature, certain limitations appear b0 be unavoidabhx 0ne limitation of this investigation is the loss of sub- jects from the experimental and control groups during the treatment period. Subsequent statistical analyses reveal that their withdrawal did not seriously affect the random sampling scheme as shown by the uniformity trial da a. Had it been possible to involve other teachers in the 2 r0 ial ferent dif 0 WA 1.. avoided. lave been 1 .1 could ;""'", '7‘ ..-u.ufi_) I ‘ critic 4- 4—” -. oI‘OCl Ulll‘gfl 011 ‘r- ‘ ice, 1A o+n~l- ‘A-fi-J UM-.. ’ i i ects 3 sub V U11. Cil ‘ .5 zed to al’ gener 03 g l '3 ‘1 -9; C , results "1 ‘ lie ,3 Vi to i tent 1r 4 b the e “it "r .1. it. 1-. 38 that colle‘ S U. frox l, U apply. ins-twp Tw ...Aafk-A.J.J.J.L ..u I, 1.7 xrm 1'1 *4 '11 n f- }? 'j 'Tfi "j'ij‘fh‘. A :71 "‘ ‘. "f fl :1 “3 7:1 3:1":- f“1"“1 :miLiono Or DATA AnD Pheaslinlion in hnao!is ‘ "‘ . r '. ‘" "L7 A - . ‘f‘: r« ' - V ahi zed in the following manner . First, an evaluation of the instructor s adherence to the Integrative Technique 1nd Lecture Teachin“ Pattern will be {a :m H CN- 1 . 4 ~ 4” +-~ ”J— . 4-1 ° discussed. since tne adneience to treatment methods is so important to the assessnent of treatment results, much at- tention will be devoted to the interpretation of E.S.A.I. , the reader will find data ification of high and low dependent ~tudents. The third and final section contains a re- port oi the data relative 00 control and experimental sub- jects' performance on the dependent variables. f"! tudcnt Attitude Inventory.--The reader 1 should note tnat the inclusion of the I.S.A.I. is eased upon he assumption that the classroom climate can be objectively measured. Data from the I.3.A.I. will first be tested for “W"nificant diiferences between the mean scores of control , k. 1 1 and experimental subjects. Following this, a eni s uare analysis of each of the 62 I.S.A.I. items will be discussed. A final analysis will be based upon the intensity of TGSDOH- ses subjects gave to tne items on the test. s1 each ’ . .... . n e 1.. e I r ”-...“ . V. 0 rd .1; «A — _ F n. V e l s C C W A l 2 .0. a 0 e 0 .l ..-. e .l A 1.. .l 2 h . m 0 3 S .1. ..M H u i.s as an .:h as m . .mu as an ea mi m. ill ..o he ..U a l S a .l C t . J 1 fl 0 w _ O .0. .r. C .l .. M is r d O C e ...... C D. n 3 C e , w. n .. q. ...... e .1. C . . n... it it u a ...-u .1. . l. .l C 0 Mn m l Us p .l S T. C m. ..n. ..b S 1.. i. O i o .l .To 0 L. 3 ...x. H C 3 e O U. .. o D. .1. t ..J C O .. n . F .l h f S L .1. . c T. J n 6 S .3 i o 3 .-. d .. a lo a 3 ..,. n. i it e . ... h o m. a ._ C h d . .. 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C d 3 3 S q d i“ n ..1 f I n it . a C .1 .1. C e 3 . C l . a +0 a-“ C n u .1. r u .1.“ r h... .0 . w M... a I C l O u e O f n C. . l u u . .l is o .l .1 C 0.. C 3 r C C ....“ a e C on an 1n oi as e r -t e e r o p.i an“ as n1l as . .-_ as o . w. s.s ..i as .wc n. so :1. so no it n. my 1“ 6C m“ mi no pl ca :l n ma “a "a it it ."1 w) test .1. 1 Km .9 'CACS ,. ‘--‘. D .L - f" uiC ‘ "Q" "‘60" '- «‘7 ._ u 1.“... via) 1 . ‘\ .q- 1 r-w --Lgu '-L .J «'1‘ .- A..A\.4 UK.) ‘a I ‘1, .4- r“. W", . - .‘y‘. 1 - ‘ ”‘3“. -.j .. - V-‘C-)*d .. «1 64‘ L.“ L4 ‘11111 ‘7‘ (‘1;- ‘v U L ACLU! "9 “‘: (‘1 w...~ ~1- J- J 1 -.O v «4 ‘,\ .. I I (lAJ—A— .4. ~A (fl .1 K4 A A .1. k) 4m V 7"1 Lbs; .— c ’1 ....fl A m h .1- m UK, 1'“ k.\ (J. . q '7" 7". I \J ‘G _L 17' n .. QLCQJIEC ”\t‘fi‘b" [192* n‘ *1 Al-qnivnq ...AAKJ-.. v.4. \J' v (.1 = 3 l '1 ‘3‘ f V 1.1. I -..-1 -- ‘- 0 ‘ ‘_-\ ...'..-J. tro fl L.) d “‘1. 1 ("”1 '1" U (“I ‘1 \) «4s-v—n— --- y‘. 0'“ 75 K'&—- L1 ’ <25 for this variable are based upon a chi square analysis with 2 degrees of freedom and tested at the .05 level of signifi- cance c There are 12 items on which experimental and control subjects differed significantly in their perception of the teacher-pupil relationship. Table 4 contains the data de- rived from M.S.A.I. which indicate such differences. Table 4. -- Significant Student Perception of Teacher-pupil Relations -- M.S.A.I.* Control Subjects (N : 62) Experimental Significant Unde- Yes No cided 1. This teacher 36 12 14 asks our cpin- ion in planning work to be done. 2. This teacher 35 13 14 keeps order with a firm and fair hand. 3. I get along 39 12 11 exceptionally well with this teacher. 12. This teacher 38 8 16 takes great care in making sure we understand our lesson. 24. This teacher 3 wants to check our work to make sure we are on the right track. Q 10 ..v. U1 Ul 27. This teacher 3 13 14 helps us to get‘ the most out of every class period. U1 Subjects Chi squares ( N : 61 ) Unde- Yes No cided 48 3 10 7.77 46 4 11 6.61 49 3 9 7.73 50 3 8 6.57 43 4 14 8.01 4‘) 4 8 8073 Table 4. cont'd. Unde- _ Unde- Yes No eided ies No cided 28. The self con- 42 11 9 52 3 6 6.. trol of this teacher is one of his greatest ID U1 assets. 35. This teacher 35 12 15 43 4 9 5°53 spends a lot of time letting us discuss psycholo- SV- 47. This class is 45 3 14 37 15 9 9,86 noisy and fools around a lot. 52.r This teacher 49 4 9 37 14 10 7,28 akes very care- plans for each day's work. 60. This teacher 29 17 16 44 5 12 10.19 likes to hear stu- dents' ideas. 62. Most of th 36 13 13 48 students in this class like the instructor very much. 10 8.35 KN ' All chi squares presented are significant at .03 level of cuuiid nee with 2 degrees of freedom. An inepection of Tat le 3 will show that the experimen- tal subjects differed si.;n ifi cantly from control subjects in describing the teacher-pupil relationship. A significantly greater number of studen s taught on the basis of the Inte- grative Technique felt that they had more freedom in -elping to plan class activities and directing o‘iss ion . They also felt that they Spent a significantly greater amount of time discussing psycholos'iea~| principles K.) I, 67 in class, a type of student behavior which students felt was condoned by the instructor. Dealing with a similar theme, a significantly greater number of control subjects indicated that the instructor made very careful plans for each day's work. The writer tends to interpret the latter as an indication of teacher control of classroom activities. There also seems to be an implication (in these students' reSponses) of a need for more student participation, or maybe an approval of the teacher's actions. The students experiencing the Integrative Technique of teaching stated that they got along exceptionally well with the teacher, yet they also perceived the classroom organization as disorganized or "out of hand." This does not seem to be related to the fact that the instructor was also perceived as possessing greater self control and keep- ing order with a firm hand. Perhaps the ineongruity in ex- perimental and control subjects' reSponses to items 2 and 47 is difficult to explain. It would appear that students in the experimental group would not have perceived the instruc- tor as "firm," and on top of this perceive the classroom situation as "fooling around a lot." The responses of ex- perimental subjects may be partially explained by the second descriptive adjective in item 2; not only was the teacher depicted as being "firm," he was also perceived as being "fair." It is believed that students are more apt to accept firm control of their behavior when, at the same time, the teacher is fair. Another point of interest in connection with the above discussion is the perception by control subjects that their classes were "noisy and fooled around a lot." Of equal im- portance is the relatively low negatively weighted score of experimental subjects as compared to control subjects on the item (47) dealing with classroom order. Following the trend of thought in question 47, there appears to be the implica- tion in two other reSponses of the experimental subjects (questions 2 and 35), that even though their class sessions were noisy, their activities were constructively oriented. The reader should note that a basic characteristic of the Integrative Technique is a classroom climate where students are constructively engaged in problem solving experiences. This characteristic is depicted in replies to item 35, where students indicate the amount of time devoted to discussing psychologi and to item 12, where students indicate the in- structor's interest in promoting maximum learning. Finally, a very important finding from the M.S.A.I. is the idea revealed in items 1, 12, 27, and 60. On these items experimental subjects differ significantly from control sub- jects in that the experimental subjects perceived the teach- er as being more interested, and as putting forth more ef- fort toward helping students understand the subject matter. The experimental students perceived the instructor as a helpful and interested participator in classroom activities to a greater extent than control subjects. These perceptimms 69 alone should have proven to be highly motivating to the stu- dents. Likewise, the absence of these feelings, or diminu- tion of them, should lower the motivation in students. It is the above factors which may be the basic explanation for the experimental subjects indicating a strong positive feel- ing toward the instructor. Although the items discussed above are the only ones on which the subjects significantly differed in frequency of "agree" and "disagree" statements, responses to other items are worth noticing. How it becomes necessary to consider the intensity of reSponses to the 62 items on the M.S.A.I. Intensity data is tabulated in Table 5 under the column headings of S.A.-strongly agree, A.-agree, U.-undecided, D.- disagree, S.D.-strongly disagree, and TOT.-totals. Each M. S.A.I. item was judged on a 5 point scale (-2 to +2) as be- ing incompatible or compatible with the Integrative Tech- nique of teaching. If the items were compatible with the Integrative Technique, they were sealed in the following man- ner: SA:2, Aa1, U20, D: -1, and SD: -2. If the items were incompatible with the Integrative Technique, they were scalai in this manner: SA : -2, A : -1, U : O, D : +1, and SD : +2. There are M.S.A.I. items on which the total frequency of agree reSponses is less than the total frequency of dis- agree reSponses (items 6, 8, 10, 13, 16, etc.) When only tabulated frequencies of these responses are considered, it appears in a negative manner. But when one considers the nature of items in relation to the characteristics of the 7O Integrative Technique, such reSponses are seen to be posi- tive. In Table 5 the reader will notice that the points for each item have been arithmetically totaled. The intensity factor in items on which control and experimental subjects differed significantly is readily ob- servable. It can also be observed that control subjects perceived the instructor as more prone to use force to con- trol the behavior of his students (item 7). Likewise, the control subjects judged that the teacher was very good at explaining things to a greater degree than did the experi- mental students (item 15). This perception might be at- tributed to the exclusive use of the lecture method in teaching control subjects. The latter possibility seems especially plausible when one notices reSponses to item 19. Students are often more positively impressed by the know- ledge of teachers who lecture than by those who do not. Al- though both groups of subjects thought of the teacher as be- ing a good leader (item 16), the experimental group scored higher on this variable. Surprising, also, is the fact that control subjects had such a positive perception of the in- structor as revealed from item 26. It seems that control subjects were highly satisfied with the dominant role played by the lecturer. One might also suggest that such a teach- ing procedure may have coincided with the pattern of in- struction to which control subjects had become accustomed. On the other hand, the experimental students may have indi- cated a greater preference for the Integrative Technique (as Table 5. -- Items from M.S.A.I. depicting intensity of students' 71 feelings about teacher-pupil relations - Response frequencies — —‘—= :1" J Experimental SS Control SS Items On The Innnesota 5” 3" .C: P 5” '63 5° 3’ 5: P 5”? Student Attitude Inventory 51> :3 E, 5:» 51E 1. This teacher asks our opinion in 18 3010 3 O 66 O 3614 8 4 2O planning work to be done. 2. This teacher keeps order with a 10 %11 4 O 52 12 23,14 13 O 34 fair and firm hand. 3. I get along exceptiona11y well 12 37 9 1 2 56 3 361111 1 38 with this teacher. 4. I find it very easy to talk to 13 29 8 9 2 42 182711 3 3 54 this teacher. 5. This teacher never asks trick ques- 1221 9 16 3 23 8 2110 19 4 10 tions to show how dumb we are. 6. Most of us get pretty bored in 4 1113231226 6 6 1429 7 25 this class. 7. This teacher is not the kind who 10 3310 8 O 45 20 2710 5 O 57 would use force to control the behavior of his students. 8. This teacher is not highly respecti 3 1013 27 8 27 5 7 1329 8 28 ed by some students in this class. 9. This teacher is one of the best 6 1619 14 6 2 5 2O ,18 12 7 4 instructors I have ever had. 10. I don't trust this teacher. 2 2 5 2923 69 O 13 11 27 21 66 11. Most students in this class think 33 d6 8 2 2 76 21 32 6 3 O 71 that this is a good teacher. . 12. This teacher takes great care to 2129 8 3 O 68 10 2816 8 0 40 make sure we understand the psy- chological principles covered in this course. 13. This teacher often finds it necos- 1 9 2 1237 73 3 6 0 18 85 76 sary to punish students in this class. 14. This teacher really understands 3 35 C18 4 1 35 9 2425 3 1 37 students my age. 15. Our teacher is very good in ex- 16 29 8 8 O 53 C19 34 4 5 0 68 plaining things clearly. 16. Frankly, this teacher seems to be 0 2 32729 83 O 2 7 2924 '32 a poor leader. 17 This teacher has lost the respect 1 O 2 1939 95 0 2 2 2137 93 of students in our educational psychology class. 1 1 H l 72 Table 5. - Qgptinued é Items On The Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory Experimental SS Control SS a. C1 U U) U T9101 5” b> o h> (:1 U i l8. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. Sometimes things"get out of contror'in this class. This teacher seems to be a very intelligent individual, This teacher bawls you out in front of the class. This teacher makes learning very interesting. This teacher has some special favorites or teach!‘ Pets. Our teacher never gives exp tra assignments as punish- ment. This teacher wants to check our work to make sure we are on the right track. I really like this class. This teacher talks so much that students are not given an Opportunity to eXpress their ideas. This teacher helps us to get the most out of every class period. The self control of this teacher is one of his greatest assets. In class we fool around a lot in spite of the teach- er. When I am in trouble I can count on this teacher to help. This teacher becomes con- fused easily. This teacher talks to us 12 11 11 15 23 in a condescending manner. 39 16 31 32 O 30 29 14- 12 12 29 11 22 24 19 22 20 19 17 27 l 431 l 28 ...: 26 32 64 57 82 74 36 48 49 56 72 58 80 O .17 18 13 35 17 ED 25 25 30 37 2]. 21 12 15 18 33 12 33 3 18 18 26 1.0 15 31 30 32 23 1.: 15 261 21 291 72 36 43 9O 27 51. 20 79 71 73 Table 5. .... antinued Experimental SS Control SS Items On The Minnesota ' PPFFP§P?FPP’§ Student Attitude Inventory 31> F’ E i” .C’ E 33. Some students in this class 1440 4 3 0 65 20 32 8 2 0 70 occupy too much time talking. 34. Some students are smarter 0 3 9 22 27 73 O 2 CLO 22 28 76 than this teacher. 35. This teacher spends a lot of 22 26 9 4 0 66 102515 12 0 33 time letting us discuss psychology. 36. This teacher wants students 3 5 1 23 29 70 l l 2 24 31188 to think he knows everything. 37. The teacher makes educational ll 33 9 7 l 46 ll 37 7 7 0 52 psychology seem very interest-a ing and important. 38. This is a very grouch teacher. 0 3 4 24 3081 1 3 3 20 35 85 39. This teacher gives the im- 15 P411 1 0 63 19 33 ll 0 l 67 pression that what we learn is more important than the grades we make. 40. This teacher is quick to see 10 39102 0 57 17 35 8 l l 66 a new point. 41. This teacher is too bossy. O 4 6 32 19 66 3 2 5 26 26 70 42. This teacher never gets angry 1925 4 F11 2 48 19 33 3 6 l 63 with students in this class. 43. Students in this class don't 1 l7 3 27 13 34 4 2O 8 23 7 9 have much time to £061 around. 44. If I could get away with it, 2 l 2 28 28 79 0 1 4 26 31 87 I would like to tell this teacher off. 45. This class is noisy and fools l 3 3 25 29 78 0 1 2 28 31 89 around a lot. L 46. This is the best teacher I 9 619 9 8 9 8 6 35 8 5 4 have ever had. 47. Students in this class don't 4 51 9 27 1026 l 2 13 2718 60 feel free to express their ideas which may disagree with those of the instructor. 48. It seems like the teacher 0 0 1 213998 3 2 8 18 31 72 would let us talk more in this class. 74 Table 5. -— Continued Experimental SS Control SS Items On The Minnesota E“??? 50:: sass.“ a Student Attitude Inventory > c: E 3, U E 49. I would like to have this 5 U9 23 12 2 15 6 22 25 8 l 24 teacher as an instructor in future psychology courses. 50. This teacher believes in pun- 8 211810 4 19 9 19 23 8 3 26 ishing the class for minor tmrlgSo 51. This teacher has lots of fun 6 h9 3010 2 5 3 21.29 6 o 24 teaching psychology. 52. This teacher makes careful 9 28,411 11 329 30 19 9 3 l 74 plans for each days work. 53. Sometimes, just thinking about 1 5 C12 34 9 45 2 2 9 % 13 56 this class makes me sick. 54. I have had bad dreams about 1 6 l 20 33 78 2 5 4 20 31 74 this class. 55. This teacher helps students 24 32 l 3 1 73 25 30 l 4 2 72 when they have problems. 56. Many students in this class 2 3 l 28 27 75 0 5 4 23 30 78 don't seem to be interested in learning psychology, 57. Something about this class 4 16 6 .26 9 20 3 l4 2 30 13 36 makes me feel uneasy. 58. This teacher takes time to {1182610 6 1 54 16 33 4 5 51 find out students' attitudes about a debateable.t0pic. 59. This teacher uses his authori- 14 33 5 4 5 47 15 38 5 4 0 64 ty to control tie behavior of his students. 60. This teacher likes to hear 25 19 12 2 3 61 20 9 1611 6 26 students' ideas. 61. I think this teacher has a 2 2 2 21 3483 0 1.0 2 3.9 .31 91 grudge against some of his students. 62. Most of the students in this 35 1310 O 3 35 30 6 {[311 2 51 class like the instructor very much. 75 used in this study), because these students experienced both lecture and discussion. Related to these ideas is the K)! C\ o intensity factor of items 26 and Judging from the data presented above, it appears that J. the investiwator was successful in structuring k) 0 the teaching situations as explained in Chapter III. Students in the ex- perimental group did perceive the instructor as a helpful individual who was greatly interested in their progress. Some of the basic characteristics of the Integrative Tech- nique are quite evident in the significant chi squares list- ed in Table 4, and the direction of the intensity of feelings which have been depicted in Table 3. Likewise, there are in- dications that the control students experienced a teaching procedure quite different from that of the experimental stu- J encs. The resuonses of control subjects to items 1, 15, 24, CL 1, 35, 43, 47, 48, etc., attest to their evaluation of the b! k) I m course. 10 then, the class was more subject-matter oriented than concerned with the teacher-student participant relation— ship. 1 Selectin;_high and low dependent prone subject 0 __Ad_ 0') hering to the theory developed by Bernadin and Jessor, the O investigator selected high and low dependent prone subjects on the basis of their score on the Edwards Personal Prefer- C0 ence Schedule. The reader can find a complete statement of this procedure discussed under definition of terms in Chap- ter 1. m I I ‘- he erperim ntal and control groups contained six low 76 dependent prone students in each group who scored at or above the 70th percentile on the autonomy scale and at or below the 50th percentile on the deference scale, with a minimum separation of 30 points between the autonomy and deference scores. Likewise, the experimental and control groups con- tained 26 and 24 s udents, reapectively, in the high depend- ent prone groups. Each subject included in this treatment attained a consistency score of 10 or above. The latter is the cut-off point used in detecting unreliable E.P.P.S. re- cords resulting from either intentional or unintentional faking of responses. It is interesting to note the high proportion of high- ly dependent prone students in this group. Fifty of the 123 subjects in this experiment are classified as high dependent prone subjects. More surprising, however, is the fact that twenty of the fifty high dependent prone subjects are males. There were 42 males and 81 females in the study. Only 1 of the 12 low dependent prone subjects was a male. Assuming that the E.P.P.S. validly measures the personality of sub- jects in this study and the sample is not atypical, the writer perceives the desirability of further research aimed at clarifying the prevalence of high dependency in the Negro population. An analysis ofptreatment effect on Final Examination scores.--The interpretation of treatment effect on the Final Examination will first be presented in terms of experimental and control group performance. Second, the data for high 77 and low dependent prone subjects will be analyzed. A copy of the Final Examination is included in Appendix 0. Examination of raw scores on the final test reveals that the scores for the experimental and control subjects are not very high. Sixty-two was the highest score made on the examination, which had a possible high of 100. The scores for the experimental subjects range from 18 to 62; the control subjects had a range of scores from 20 to 59. The reader will find these raw scores tabulated in Appendix C. The mean scores on the Final Examination are 35.62 and 33.70 for the experimental and control groups, reSpectively. A t-test for difference between these two means indicates that the mean of the experimental group is significantly higher than the control group mean. This difference is sig- nificant at the .05 level of confidence with 121 degrees of 1 / freedom. S mmary data are shown in Table 0. Table 6. -- t-Test Data for Experimental and Control Sub- jects' Performance on Final Examination Mean Score Standard Deviation t-Ratio Experimental Group 35.62 8.33 1.68 Control Group 33.70 10.70 The reader will recall that a directional hypothesis was stated in Chapter I dealing with the performance of de- pendent prone students on the Final Examination. A statis- 78 tical test of this hypothesis necessitates an analysis of variance technique. The invest gator chose to employ a sim- ple analysis of variance, followed by t-tests of significant differences between means (if the analysis of variance yields a significant F). An obvious limitation of the one- way analysis of variance as compared to a two-way analysis of variance is the absence of data on possible interactions in a one-way analysis of variance. On the other hand, the problem of unequal and small nS (6, 24, 6, 26), in the de- pendent proneness colunms makes a two-way analysis of vari- ance a questionable and complicated technique. Therefore, in analyzing treatment effects for high and low dependent prone students, a one-way analysis of variance test was employed. The data for experimental and control low dependent prone (ELD and OLD), and experimental and control high dependent prone (EED and CHD), subjects are presented below in Table 7. Table 7. -- Data for low and high dependent prone subjects "1 on Final Examination ELD OLD ran can 62 42 59 44 53 39 54 43 49 38 49 42 a 30 42 4o 45 29 42 4o 30 25 4o 0 \ C K)! K}! \JJ K)! \3! —\1 -\'J N (D *4 C Table 7. cont'd. ELD CLD EHD CHD 36 34 33 33 35 “2 34 31 34 31 34 31 33 31 33 3o 32 29 32 28 3o 26 29 24 28 18 2a 22 The analysis of variance model enables the investiga- tor to test for significant results between treatment and the test performance of high and low dependent prone subjects in experimental and control groups. The Specific statistical model employed in this analysis has been discussed by Ray in fin Introduction t Experimental Design. The objective of the present analysis is to differentiate error due to treatment from sampling error. The analysis of treatment effects in the present dis- cussion required testing the null hypothesis of no difference between experimental and control groups. With 3 and 58 de- grees of freedom, an F greater than 2.68 would be required fi— H. to reject the null hypothesis at the .05 level of sign canoe. The resulting F of 3.49 necessitates the rejection of the null hypothesis. Summary data appear in Table 8. 80 Table 8. -- Summary data - analysis of variance for hypothe- sis on dependent proneness and final examination W Source of Sum of Degrees of Variance F Variation Squares Freedom - __ - i _, _ i _* Between 1033. 70 3 244. 9 3.43 Withii 5‘20.48 38 $8.76 * , , , _ . v F is Significant at .05 level of confidence. It is not sufficientkto knor the4 experimental and control subjects differ significantly in mean scores. Evi- dence about the effeC“ of treatment in relation to dependent The E.E.P.8. scores make it possible to compare scores on the Final nxamination 0: hi 1 and low dependent prone susjects. The experiment high and low dependent prone subjects have mean scores of 33.43 and 47.83, reSpectively. The control hi ,‘h and low dependent prone m‘mj cts have mean scores of 33.07 and 33.83, reSpectively. 0 On. ‘.a‘p. w <<*" - ' ‘1 ' "' r « V ,‘ "1 - IV ‘2‘ “‘. r—a 4" ‘ v”: V .4 I y'\ ' ‘ ,“ fl significant alive onces anoufi then should be detectable. as C”) tsted in Chapter I, the directional hypotheses to be tested read snD>ZnD>CLD>Cnm To facilitate testing of these hy- pot1eses, one can test for si nificant differences between means, pairilg the mean scores in a descending order (that 81 ‘rement for testin“ the mean scores is depicted in Table ‘.'__) b4 9, along wit significant t-ratios. Each t-ratio was test- ed at the .05 level of significance with the appropriate degrees of freedom. Table 9. -- t-Ratios for performance on high and low depend- ”’1 ent prone subjects on Final sxamination Dependent v Differences Degrees Proneness mean in of t-Ratios Group score Mean scores Freedom E.I.'.D. 47087 0.3.3. 35.07 12.76 30 2.97“ C.H.D. 35.07 CQI'QD. 33.83 1.4.4 :30 .23 C.F.D. 35.07 3.3. . 33.45 1.62 48 .57 C.L.D. 33.83 E.H.D. 33.45 .38 28 .14 \‘0 d'\ Indicates that't-ratiois significant at the .05 level of significance. An inspection of Table 9 will reveal that the experi- mental low dependent prone subjects obtained tha highest mean score on the Final Examination, 47.83. This mean is significantly higher than any of the other sub-group means. The subjects in the control high dependent proneness group had the nex highest mean score, 35.07. However, no signif- icant difference exists between this mean and any of the re- maining sub-group means. Table 9 also shows that no signif- 82 icant differences were found between the other sub-group means. Since a basic assumption of the analysis of variance is homogeneity of variance, the investigator employed Bart- lett's Test of Homogeneity to assess the applicability of the analysis. Bartlett's test involves computation of a quantity whose sampling distribution is given by the chi square function. In the present case, the rejection of the assumption of homogeneity of variance would require a chi square equal to or greater than 7.815 (with 3 degrees of freedom), at the .05 level of significance. Bartlett's test of homogeneity yields a chi square value of 5.63. This re- quires the acceptance of the null hypothesis which states that the variances of high and low dependent prone subjects' scores in the population are not significantly different. Therefore, it is assumed that sample variances are homoge- nous. The chi square test gives support to the belief that the four dependent prone samples are not heterogeneous in variance. Since the F test (and some of the resulting t- tests), resulted in accepting the hypotheses of random sampling from a common population, and since the chi square test indicates it is not the variances which differ si~nif- 0“. Ho cantly, there is reason to believe that the significance of the value F (and resulting t-tests), is the result of differences in the means of dependent prone groups. This idea will be elaborated upon in Chapter V. .l 83 Effects of treatment on students' attitudes toward teaching.--The reader will recall that sub-hypotheses in this study predicted that students taught by different in- structiona techniques would differ significantly in their scores on the M.T.A.I., a test designed to measure the type of teacher pupil relations a prospective teacher might es- tablisl. In order to obtain data for testing this hypothe- sis, the experimenter administered the Hinnesota Teacher At- titude Inventory to the studentS. Raw data of subjects' scores on the HTAI are presented in Appendix D. As a group, the performance of students on the HTAI yielded low scores when one compares their scores with norms for the test. The highest raw score obtained on the test was 60 (64th centile), and the lowest raw score was -75 (be- low 1st centile for college juniors). The means for the ex- perimental and control subjects are -1.35 (5th centile) and -15.85 (1st centile), respectively, for college juniors - academic. The investigator chose to code E.T.A.I. raw data in order to convert all numbers to positive figures; there- fore a constant of 100 was added to the score of each stu- dent. Coded means for the experimental and control groups are 98.65 and 84.15, respectively. Analyses are presented with coded data.‘ for differences between mean scores shows ('1- A t-tes that the experimental mean of 98.65 differs significantly from the control mean of 84.15. This difference is signif- icant at the .03 level of significance with 121 degrees of 84 freedom. T} 1e data for this analysis are presented in Table 10. Table 10. -- t-Test of xperimen ta performance on M.T. A. I. land control subjects Degrees of 4.30" Treatment Group Hean Score Freedom t-Ratio Experimental Subjects 38.65 121 Control Subjects 84.13 *2 ratio is significant beyond the .005 level of signifi- cance. The firai statistical test ii the a.‘ Hal’s of resul deals with treatnent effects on the different dependent wronc sub-groups in reference to I.T.A.I. scores. Before discussing this aspect of treatment effects, it is necess to re port on tne assumption of homogeneity of variance in the analysis of variance model. A chi square of 1.41 was obtained from the applica ti01 of bartlett V's. neity. it the .03 level of significance, with 3 degr freedom, a chi square eqia to or greater than 7.813 ion of th null hypothesis. It can "(‘4' 1“» 11 4"?“ - ‘. “ 1. “'0 ". “ “5 ”‘4‘ ‘1 tau. the null hypothesis of no oiiierence mus. ce ace J,‘ -- m . fix~ 5‘13 LJ‘AII Uxxb -iolgélolo r711 ‘.--"' M .1 1' - 9 .;IC l'-o.L.¢&.-L. scores OJ. C) (.4 C) Li (D O c:- L) J H 0 d O C (’3 d- O (1 cf- 0 Q. l“) C) *3 (n i... eets is r be s epte s test for homoge- of 85 hinh dependent students are 83.6? and $4.87, respectively. or the experimental and control low dependent prone sub- jects, the nnan scores are ea.oy and 33.15, resyeetively. Icre inspection of mean scores reveals that only the sub- jects in the experimental ni h dependent prone group devi- . 1 .-1, ‘f, 1., . .0, .:-,\..f- , "".\—. '1‘..- .1. - .1- _. , _ ° atea as nucn as nine points. here ihportanu, however, is - _ .Lw _ v, Ts. ,..-'_"" or- gen i 0 Inetner tnerc enist. a si niiiea t drilerencc in mean scores. haw scores for hi 'ae null hypothesis of no difference at the .05 level of confidence. is the data in Table 11 indi- 4— 4—1‘ ’. a f“? . 'J— J. 4.1 . .0 case, tne TBSUltan F of .01 HCCCSSlUQbeS one acceptance oi 4-1, ..., - 4.1, r“! -0 '4. ' .. .1. J. 4. the null hypotheses. :nereiore, lb 18 assamed that treat- ment had no sirnificant effect on the I.T.A.I. scores of de- pendent prone subjects. Table 11. -- Analysis of variance data for high and low de— pendent prone students on M.T.A.I. Source of Sum of Degrees of h , J, 0 fl Variance F Fe variation squares rreedom Between sum of squares 208.15 Within sum of squares 51180.85 58 h) \JJ O‘\ K»! U1 00 .07 so 0 4.» R) CO CD Total sum of squares R v U1 —& K31 CO \ 1 L 0 CW This concludes the statistical analysis of the teach- ing experiment data. Significant and nonsignifieant find- ings will be further discussed in Chapter V. The summary and conclusions for this study will also be presented in this Chapter. SUMMARY, COECLUSIOES, AED IHPLICATIONS FOR FUTURE TEES EARCH Summary of the study;--In Chapter I is found a com- plete statement on the purpose of the study. It will be recalled that the underlying objective was to evaluate the effect of feedba k (as compared to no feedback) on the learning of psyehological principles in an educational psy- cholO3y course. The feedback variable was structured in terms of two methods of classroom instruction--the Inte- grative Technique and the lecture technique. Definitive statements of each technique were given for the purpose of demonstratin3 the inherent feedback aspect of the Integratiwe “" aSpect of the lee- Technique as a3ainst the "less feedbac ture approach. Other hvpotheses in the study dealt with the effect of diffei ent instructional techniques on the attitudes of stu- dents toward teacher-pupil relations, as measured by the re- sponse of students to the hinnesota Teacher Attitude Inven- .3. L4 or another group of hypotheses predicted different (“\1 treatment results in relationship to the personality attri- bute of dependent proneness. Dependent proneness was meas- ured by four sub-scales of the Edwards Ferso; 1 Preference 87 88 Random sanoies of students from the total population of co-eds enrolled in edu catio1al osyenolo:y at Sou UWiiv sity served as subiects. These students were taught ructio::al techniques for one se- 5 4 i...) (D 93 (JJ 0 < (:1 Pa :1 accord ‘4? to t* a-“JUF J. nesccr. The Hinnesota Student attitude Inveml ory was em- ployed to assess the derree to which the teacher adhered to the _nte3rative lechnique and/or the lecture technique. Because of related research reported in Chapter II, the investi3ator was led to expect t1at nificant differ- ences would be found indicatin3: (1) that inte3ratively tau3ht sttmde1 would score hi 3her on the hinnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory and Final Era l'ab‘OJ than students tau3ht via a lecture technique and (2) that similar results would he obtained in the comparison of high and low dependent prone more, it was expected that the performance of experimental hi3h dependent prone tudent s would e: :eel that of experi- mental low dependent prone students. Scores which subjects made on tests following treatment served as criteria for testing experimental hypotheses. Conclusions bearins on thotneses:--If one reviews the esults presented in Chapter if, a complete picture of treat- ment effects can be seen. Briefly, certain probable conclu- sions from the statistical tests of experimental data may be reached. host basic to an adequate interpretation of experimen- tal results is the extent to which the teacher adhered to C) \D instructional techniques discussed in Chapters I and III. The reader will recall that the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory (h.S.A.I.) was used as a measure of how the stu- dents interpreted the instructional behavior of the teacher. Of the 62 items on the M.S.A.I., 12 of them indicate that control and experimental students perceived the instructor in a significantly different manner. When attention is given to the degree of intensity of feelings expressed by students on the remaining 50 items, further differences in he perceptions of students become evident. Experimental subjects (integratively taught students), perceived the teacher as being a more helpful ally in the classroom than the control students (students taught by lec- ture method). A trait that is given high ratings by experi- H mental students is the coop rativehess of the instructor. There is evidence that these students felt that the teacher :3 d- DJ CD Ho H nwas more interested i individual progress than did those in the control group. On the other hand, the reSponses of control subjects on the H.S.A.I. indicate that the teacher played a more au- thoritative and directive role in the classroom. There is an implication in their responses that a greater degree of structure pervaded their classroom eXperiences than those of the integratively taught students. The structure which pre- vailed did not seem to effectively restrict the "fooling around" activity of students in the lecture group. Perhaps the seeming incongruence between the perception of classroom 90 structure and "fool around a lot" could be better interpreb— ed if "fool around a lot" had been more operationally under- tood by the respondents One aSpect of the H.S. A. I. data is especially notice- able. This is the high percentages of students in both the eXperimental and control groups who gave replies of a posi- tive nature to the 62 items cor posing the M.S.A.I. Such data seem to indicate that altl ou3h the instructor did vary his teaching behavior to some de3ree, he used (to a great ex- tent), an integrativea appro ch in all classes. Or, to state it another way, the proposed instructional techniques were not consistently followed in the integrative and lecture groups, respectively. A second possible meaning may be that the students responded to the M.S. A. I. not only on the basis of how they perceived the teacher’s behavior, but also ac- cordiig to their desires of not being objectively critical of the teacher. Students may have consciously or unconscious- ly avoided critical reSponses even though they were not re- quired to list any personal data which might have identified the respondents. In summary, it is believed that the instructor did achieve some degree of differential treatment of subjects. However, the consistency of treatment may be questioned when one looks at the high percentage of positive answers on the h.b S.A. I. Experimental subjects seem to have been integra- tively tau3ht, but so were the control sub ects, though to a lesser degree. The e: :tent of integrated teachi n3 is seen 91 as a reflection of the magnitude of feedback. - ( Conclusions - treatment effects on Final Examination: --Students who received feedback from the in tru ctor were expected to score significantly hi3her in the Final Exami- nation thau students who received no feedoack. The reader should recall that feedback Vas adn istered via the Inte- 3rative Technique of instruction. The no-feedback group were 3iven three fifty-minute lectures each week. The data presented in Chapter IV indicate that stu- dents who experienced the inte3rative teaching pattern scored si3nifisantly hi3b er than students in the lecture group. The means are 35.62 for the integrative students and 33 .70 for the students in the lecture 3roup. Does this dif- ference, however, reflect the strength of integrative in- structional technique? The best answer to this question seems to require a cautious and thoughtful approach. The writer believes that no concltsive answer is possible, even tlHOU h the present evidence seems to point toward an affirma- tive answer to the previous questio; One thing is certain. Students who were instructed on the basis of what is herein referred to as the Integrative Technique did score si3nifi- .1. cantly higher on the Final Examination. It H. D) S 0 d- tw—A ...) (E Al probable that differences on the Final Examina ion an be attributed to higher scholastic ability or better educational preparation on the part of the 5 experimental subjects. The data in Chapter III show that these traits were succes ullv conti olled through r ndom r; 2 0/ roups. 8 ~ "18 ist L "\‘r ' 9 My.“ 1 and ass selectio tructor may have 1’}. S i ntal perine ‘t A. q wv‘ 31 en y tau. 1sl L. .cio* «(N A“ 11001- 1 k K“ l.) ; 1 SCOI‘C . ”‘1 ' ' 1 l ‘- fi 1 I run k.) ~. .n'w mahii. e to uciv een cond L‘\ U 1 have ‘- a3 .1 .- ly. ‘. l”? .b-‘h J- U ”1‘1“ loa§t|J J- Ll v— I .. J‘?r bill (“I 1...)... S O we control . ' m. J- 1 oin3 ufl ., $4. €30 .1. L; o ‘17. .1... occurred erent , 1" . I is 0081 ‘ J. b -..L. incl? 81' T I1 peri V .4... ogr 'tlle e-r ., Lal 4“, .z .1 olucblOl Sir 8.0 '- -oletelv .1. v.‘ A... 00' l" 1.”. .C‘ .1. O inted .. l E CD (“33.00 0 .To 8 01* ... .4 C 1' 111163 ll - fected exp neness, DI‘O as the closer rela- Q 4. .Lv .1. "1 U'Iau ~ed r1 (J lVG ;rat .. J3 .. 2.11 we: 4-1 ”oil ’1 .L ice- I I U 8. COM. 71 (:4 '1 QUC- .1. be Effcc 1w- - 1 ‘_ 4.3"». norne Lalo introduced ‘ e 1h e 0.511210 L u, m .L izulii;' "\ ... .L- ‘1 ’.“'W A YV‘ - I 3'“ p-301 imegl anti. 1. 4‘1fi n U-.L‘~/ q -\ ‘ ‘\ _“ "\ 0" _- L: -_ U4-'..v U Uplicati .1 ..L. .- ’\ V 4.x, L24... 8. ll {13 feet .C‘ z-Ithorne e 1 I; {1 7" -1- I. ...L .ld be d 1 ‘1 (a LJ.’ q —.:. LU (71 ”on, .1. 80.2141 1V8 J ‘. atefrat L I O n objectives 0 “'1'.“ ': l (4.4. e +1‘ bill \I. ('3’? CA-LJ .1. _ b bl; fol proba ique \1" I 8C1" r ‘m‘ ‘ C} ..L -.-- iv - .1. q n r“ J . L) 1 ~ .5 a the I n'Vi ‘— dbac 1 fee The reader ttention. n (W CL (a 080’ F‘ ‘: L) v IeCGiVlnT LU In' tile that recall , la 31011 1 I (N U ~ ‘ -° ' ~-\ 4 1 *s'J- a type of t "qur'hlnil relat OdSflli. Th lefoie, the h lbel feels juSLified in assumin3 an accepting the pcooaoilit . n ... , .3. J. -. J." that the hawthorne eifect actually added CO the stren3th of experimental treatment., And, furthermore, any adritional personality deffercnces should have been equated in the treatment groups by random selection and ass nment. Performance of dependent prone rroups on Final hxanina- tion:--The pe“lor“ance of hi3h and low dependent prone sub- s on the Fina Exani1 tion proved to be hishly erratic. lhe studies of previous investigators, on this tepic, led the writer b0 hypothesize that treatment results wet Id be 1 0 he nigh dependent prone 3roups i... C) H) {D ; N O 3 O I" ‘J c?- uau3ht b" the Int frative Technique (see Chapter II). It was hypothesized for the experimental group that the high dependent oron subjects would score si3hifica ntly hi;her on the Final Era Idination than low dependent prone subjects. The reverse hypothesis was made in reference to the perform- ance of subjects in the O ontrol group. 1 tlts from the stu udy indicate that the eXperimental low dependent prone subjects scored si 3nifican ly hi 3her than any of the other three dependent prone 3roups. Ko s13- nificant difference in mean scores was detected amon3 the rema nin3 three groups. How should these results be interpreted? First, it is unlikely that the difference in favor of low dependent prone s ejects can oe at tributed to any 3eneral difference in capacity for hi her academic study. Data presented in O. 4 Chapter III indicate that no si3nificant difference exists between experimental and control groups on S.C.A.T. scores. Could it be that the research hypotheses for the de- pendent prone comparisons should be repealed in favor of al- d- crnative sets of plausible hypotheses? What about the ac- curacy of E.P.P.S. in dia3nosin3 dependent proneness; ar (0 high and low cate3ories on the dependent proneness scale truly dichotomous groups? Might one question the de3ree to which experimental subjects actually xperienced inte3rative instruction and, thereby, feedback Perhaps one 50-minute treatm nt period per week was not intensive enou3h. These Is it 103ical to reason that a low dependent prone person will expend more effort to achieve an understanding of psychological principles than a high dependent prone sub- t when the two are confronted with a permissive learning situation? The rationale supporting this postulate is that the increased explanations and questions from the teacher (and students), cannot compensate for the high dependent personality of some students. It further implies that hi3h dependent prone persons have an environmental orientation not conducive to success in a competitive environment, not even when there are permissive and accepting types of inter- personal relations. Although such an explanation as that being discussed might seem plausible, there exists no ex- perimental support for it in the review of literature on 95 classroom instruction. Therefore it remains i3hly ques- tionable, but it does appear to be a logical explanation far the results from this study. There appears to be a second plausible explanation for the si3nificantly higher performance of low dependent prone subjects over high dependent prone subjects in the exp ri- mental 3roup.5 Could it be that the students who really "felt free" under the integrated treatment mi3ht have been the low dependent prone students? Thus, the low dependent prone students, unhampered by the restrictions of the structure imposed in the lecture treatment, mi3ht have actually Spent more time delving into topics of more interest to them. rs his, in turn, may have resulted in 3reater learning gener- 93 lly. Probably these exp anations should be given addition- al consideration in future research. Another factor which might help to account for experi- mental results is the de3ree of inte3rative instruction for .‘ ~tudents. There are two possible aSpects to (D H *d (D H 1,—1- B CD ,3 Cl“ {‘0 H L} this factor. These asuects deal with the question of whether .- inte3rative instruction was intensive enou3h to clearly af- fect student performance. On one hand, there is the ques- tion of amount of time students actually experienced inte- grative teaching (one third of the total instructional peri- od). Second is the question of whether adequate feedback .. -.. 0 4.1V 0‘ .1. P. 0 1-'.,. was 3iven Via the inteUrative teachin- 3 pattern. If adequate feedback were provided experimental stu- dents, in comparison with inadequate feedback for control 96 students, one should have expected si3' nificant differences This expectation is sub- d- 0] 0 H. n favor of experimenta studen stantiated if one compares mean scores for experimental and control subjects, overlooking the variable of dependent proneness. Likewise, if the effect of feedback is constant, the scores of hi 3h and low dependent prone students in the experimental 3roup should be mi Ho f cantly hi ;_Jo scores of high and low dependent prone students in the con- trol 3roup. This expectatio1 is not substantiated by the H data. Lily the low dependent prone students in the experi- mental 3roup scored si31icantly h er than the control subjects.‘ The si3nificant difference between hi3h and low depezident prone s m1dents in the experimental group may be explained on the oasis of the personality variable (since treatnent was the same). Ho.rever, the ata indicate that the dependent proneness of students is of no importance if they are tau3ht by a lecture method and are hi3hly dep e1.dent Conclusions bearin3 on L.T. .i. data:--The subjects in a, the experimental 3roup scored si3nificantly hi ner on the a. cates that this result 's not due to chance. It is hi probable that treatment did exert some influence on the man- .A - .0- ,~ 7 .J-.'2 - .2- - - .1. ‘~' r1 A '4. .. lie: Jul L411. 4.: Suhfleflus TCSDOL'IClGd Lao u...L...t.I. ltd-3.113. V ‘ W "L‘ J‘ J‘ A ‘AJ‘ r‘v‘ \ -v. v- m a A 1lr prooaolc bflao the Inte3iative iecL1i ue 97 T‘ I «r \I U ! 1'? 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U44. 1 1 ‘2 ) o cluded ‘WA Lv.\4 0 «w- '; ;..1L_L. ‘ 17’ n, =9 U \ ~— ‘ 1').\ W‘r‘ ', .-. >4.Ag_g_‘. .‘\ -—/ 1 r“! Awfi M feed- that CS 0011 T?- H ‘4. lo '101 .‘h'“ .L—va U H..;.g,.¢.l. ’1 I ‘- ve 13 L; e . ,—.. J— 3,8. bOI‘ mJ—F so. 111 . —.~ ,,~ la 63.0 J. b .15." _'_.L. 1ee 4-1 bl -.A. A-\ \ .i ‘. ~I 11 O W 1 of lerstandin3 L13. C etter L3 ‘ ...? 4.- i Ised b ‘ DC 1 i iould (7‘ L) l 017.“) - I .L ‘. 1er- teaci I .. VG ... u .l S Di nal *1- *1. ch ~, .1 -fi .1. L) A ~ 2 O C“ t.) 4. 1e group ‘I J. ndent pro I er depe , r1 v‘ t .0 ....Q..« 1 110 re a. LO oe -\(-« I.) CL -" ~) ....n- 3}“) "'7 ,a:--The experimenter ”tions to offer wnicn he feels would have im- find these recommendations for future research listed below. 10 It is su33ested that future studies be or3anized so that a 3reater amount of time in the experimental section will be devoted to inte rative teacrin3. A second su33estion alon; the same line is to ir clude a third treatment 3roup which will be tau3ht entirely via the Inte3rative Tech1mi que. These su33estions are given for the purpose of makin3 experimental treat- ment more intense and constant. 2. There also needs to be a more equitable arrangement f suojects in the dependent prone groups, and a O 3reater number of subjects in these 3roups. The im- por tance of this su33estion can be seen in a more .1" precise and thorongh analysis or experimental data. 3. Arran3ements sb ould also be made to include teachw personnel trained to employ both the lecture and the Integrative Technique of instruction. 4. The problem of group size and the possibility of cre- atin3 an inte3rative atmosphere regardless of 3r size is a topic which should be further st die d. The continuous increase in the school-age p p lation neces- sitates more efficient techniques of teacl line lar3er U 1 groups 0" students. how this can oe accomplished 3 Cf- with tne Intciia ive Technique of instruction re- 11s to be answer ed. F“. t 3 ‘1) if. ' 3 --~\ 1 . J-‘w 1 3. r "u “,1 '1' Also of interest is the hlsfl percenta p. ependent prone students (403) as compared to the low percentage of low dependent prone students .1. (approximately 1;) noticed in this Study. The per- centaje of hi 3h depe11dency proner ess among the male subjects is of particular interest. Sevsral ques- tions seem relevant for further study in relation .‘N IK to this 0 we‘vation. Is this distributio1 truly representative of the extent of dependent prone- *4. 21083 n the neneral Iegro population? If so, does V .1. ‘ .1 ° the distribution differ s ,nifica cly fro: O J ,_J Q Q «A J- ‘ ~ '3 1 . m ‘. J '1‘ 2 . fotnd in other ethnic frOL ps? nssamin that this ) 3.‘ 4...:12. - ° - .1 .L: (11.53 LiJ?.LL)§.1U.LO$1 18 3033383 0.- 1L0. ve, how should the nre- alence of nifih dependent proneness oe expla2ned? Li3htit be relate' to the Specific asiect of Ie3ro child rearin3 practices, to tie expected social J-1 needed to oetain answers to these questions. Until such information is obtained, no 3eneral interpre- tation or application or dependency proneness dat the laus‘ile e students. the per :pl d 0.0 1.1. . «Ln—“J.— help teaCAers Debt 944.1511)” .1.\_) O I‘ ent types of class formance of hi3h It s sur este \_I \.1 Ho sgiven for the and low dependent ce evalua ed in n Lou d L; nd BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Burnham, William,Great Teachers and Mental Health. New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1926} Buros, Oscar (ed.), The Fifth Mental measurements Yearbook. High- land Park, N.J.: Gryphon Press, 1959. Cook, Walter, et. al., Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory. New York: The Psychological Corporation, 1951. Dixon, W. and Massey, F., Introduction to Statistical Analysis. New York: MCGraw-Hill Book Company, 1957. Edwards, Allen. Manual: Edwards Personal Preference Schedule. New York: The Psychological Corporation, 1959. Farnsworth, Paul (ed.), Annual Review of Psychology; Stanford, California: Stanford UniverSity Press, Vol. 11, 1960, Flanders, Ned. Teacher InfluenceL Pupil Attitudes, and Achieve- ment. Final Report 1960. Cooperative Research Project No. 397. United States Office of Education. Depart- ment of Health, Education and Welfare. Levy, David, Maternal Overprotection. New York: Columbia Uni- versity Press, 19h}. McNemar, Quinn. Psychological Statistics. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1955. Miller, Neal, and Dollard, John. Social Learning and Imitation. New Haven: Yale University Press, 19hl. Ray, William, S. An Introduction to Egperimental Design. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1960. Skinner, Burrhus. Science and Human Behavior. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1953. Trow, William. Psychology in Teaching and learning; Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Riverside Press, 1960. ‘ Underwood, Benton. Emperimental Psychology. Neszork: Appleton Century Crofts, Inc., 1947. r ' 102 103 Articles and Periodicals Amidon, E. and Flanders, N. "The Effects of Direct and Indirect [Teacher Influence on Dependent-Prone Students Learning Geometry," Journal of Educational Psychology, 52, No.6 (December, 1961), 286. Anderson, H. and Brewer, J. "Studies of Teachers' Classroom Person- alities..." pApplied Psychology Monographs, No. 8, 1946‘ Angell, 6., "The Effect of Immediate Knowledge of Quiz Results on Final Examination Scores in Freshman Chemistry," Journal lgf_E§perimental Psychology, 42 (19u8-H9), 391-394. Asch, M.J. "Nondirected Teaching in Psychology: An Experimental Study," Psychological Monograqgg, 65, No. A (1951) 53 - 54. Beller, Emanuel. "Dependence and Independence in Young Children," £2119an Genetic. Imam. 87 (1935). 25-35. Bernardin, A. and Jessor, R. "A Construct validation of the Edwards Personal Preference Schedule with Respect to Dependency," Jgurnal of Consulting Psyghglggy, 21 No. l, (1957), 63. Bilodeau, E. Bilodeau, I. and Schumsky, D. "Some Knowledge of Introducing and Withdrawing Knowledge of Results Early and Late in Practice," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 58 (1959), 1u2-144. Bilodeau, E. and Bilodeau, I. "variable Frequency of Knowledge of Results and the Learning of A Simple Motor Task, "Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55 (1958), 379-383. ' . "variation of Temporal Intervals Among Critical Events In Five Studies of Knowledge of Results,"Journal of £hmerimentel.£sxshalesy. 55 (1958, 603-612. Bourne, Lyle, et. a1. "Concept Identification As A function of Information Feedback," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 56 (1958), Ala-#20. Cooperative School and College Ability Tests: Manual for Interpret- ing Scores, (Princeton, New Jersey. Educational Testing Service, Cooperative Test Division, 1957). 10“- Chansky, Norman, "Learning: A Function of Schedule and Type of Feedback," Psychological Report, 7 (1960), 362. Farquhar, William. "An Investigation of the Relationship of Three Teaching Methods to Student Behavior In A How to Study Course," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. 1955. Faw, Volney, "A Psychotherapeutic Method of Teaching Psychology," American Psychologist, n (1949), 104-109. Gerwitz, Jacob. "A Program of Research On the Dimension and Ante- cedents of Emotional Dependence," Child Development, 27 (1957). 205-221- Flanders, Ned, Anderson, J., and Amidon, E. "Measuring Dependence Proneness In the Classroom? Educational and Psychologi- cal Measurementy 21 (1961), 575-587. Greenspoon, J. and Foreman, S. "Effect of Delay of Knowledge of Results on Learning A Motor Task, " Journal of Experi- mental Psychology, 51 (1956), 226-228. Grossack, M. M. "Some Personality Characteristics of Southern Negro Students," Journal of Social Psychology, #6 (1957), 125- 131. Heathers, Glen. "Acquiring Dependence and Independence: A Theo- retical Orientation," Journal of Genetic Psychology, 87 (1955). 277-291- Jenkins, David. "Feedback and Group Self-Evaluation" Journal of Social Issues: 4 (Spring, 1948), 50-60. Jokubczak, L. and Walters, R. "Suggestibility as Dependency Behavior," Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 59 (1959), 102-107. Jones, E., Wells, H., and Torrey, R. "Scome Effects of Feedback From the Experimenter On Conformity Behavior," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 57 (1958), 207-213. Kagan, J. and Moss, H. "The Stability of Passive and Dependent Behavior From Childhood Through Adulthood," Child Development, 31, (1960), 577-591. Laird, D. and Cumbree, 0. "Experiment In Modifying Ethnic Attitudes of College Students," Journal of Educational Sociology, 25 (1952), 401-fl05. IDOS Lipetz, Milton, "Reliability of EPPS Autonomy for Males and Females," Psychological Report, 8 (1961), 456, Lorge, I and Thorndike, E. L. "The Influence of Delay In the After- Effect of A Connection," Journal of Experimental Psychology, 18 (1935), 186-19u. McKeachie, Wilbert. "Students, Groups, and Teaching Methods," American Psychologist, 13 (1958), 580. . "Student Centered versus Instructor-Centered Instruc- tion," Jogrnal of Educational Psychology, A5 (1954),1M3. "The Improvement of Instruction," Review of Educational Research," xxx, No. a (October, 1960), 351-360. Michael, D. and Mdccoby, N. "Factors Influencing verbal Learning From Films Under varying Conditions of Audience Partici— ration." Journal of Experimental.2§xcholos¥. #6 (1953), Win. - Rohrer, John. "Large and Small Sections In College Classes," Journal of Higher Education, 28 (May, 1957), 275-279. Rosenberg, S. and Hall, H. "The Effects of Different Social Feedback Conditions Upon Performance In Dydadic Teams," Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology; 57 (1958), 271. Satz, Paul, et.al. "A Study of Edwards Personal Preference Schedule: Regional Normative Approach," Journal of Social Psychology, 53 (1961). 195. Saltzman, Irving. "Delay of Reward and Human verbal Learning" Journal of Experimental Psychology, #1 (1951, 437-439. Sears, R. R. "Ordinal Position In the Family As A Psychological variable? American Sociological Review, 15 (1960), 379-u01. Skinner, Burrhus. "Teaching Machines," Science, 128 (1958), 969- 977- Smeltzer, C.H. "Improving and Evaluating the Efficiency of College Instruction," Journal of Educational Psychology, 24 (1933), 283-302. Smith, Donald, E. "Fit Teaching Methods to Personality Structure," High School Journal, 39 (1955), 167. 106 Smith, Evart and Knight, 3.0. "Effects of Feedback on Insight and Problem Solving Efficiency In Training Groups," Journal of Applied Psychology, 43 (June, 1959), 209-211 Stafford, K. "The Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory Scores of Negro and White Fifth Year Students in the Arkansas Experi- ment In Teacher Education," Journal of Educational Research, 51, (1958). 533-634- Stendler, Celia. "Critical Periods In Socialization and Over- dependency", Child Development, 23 (1952), 3-12. Thelen, Herbert. "Group Dynamics In Instruction: Principle of Least Group Size," School Review, 57 (1999), 139-lu8. Umstattd, James. Teachinngrocedures Used in Twenty-eight Midwestern and Southwestern Colleges and Universities. Austin, Texas: Uni- versity Cooperative Study Society, l9k5. Wispe, Lauren. "Evaluating Section Teaching Methods in the Introductory Course," Journal of Educational Psychology)u5 (November, 1951), 161-185. APPENDIX A RAW SCORES Table A. Raw Scores on the School and College Ability Tests Experimental Subjects Control Subjects 73 ”l 67 33 67 39 63 32 67 38 63 32 62 37 6o 32 58 37 59 31 57 37 56 31 55 36 53 31 55 36 53 30 54 33 53 3O 53 33 53 29 52 33 51 29 52 31 50 29 52 30 M9 28 49 28 MB 26 A7 27 M6 26 A6 27 Ma 26 A5 26 A3 25 #5 2A 43 24 an 23 #2 an an 23 #1 2n an 23 no 23 44 21 37 22 H3 21 37 22 M3 21 37 19 43 21 35 18 #2 1n 3n l8 #2 14 3M 16 #1 33 15 1109 Table A-1. Raw scores on S.C.A.T. for high and low dependent prone students Experimental Experimental Control low Control high low dependent high dependent dependent dependent prone students prone students prone students prone students 58 67 60 M8 62 57 59 an 55 an 53 33 52 ”4 53 32 52 36 53 22 ”9 31 51 A6 28 50 an M9 M2 M3 38 42 38 Al 37 37 37 37 36 35 36 34 33 31 33 _ 31 31 30 31 30 27 29 26 28 23 27 21 26 21 25 2H 18 APPENDIX B SAMPLES OF QUESTIONS GIVEN EXPERIMENTAL SUBJECTS FOR INTEGRATIVE INSTRUCTION 111 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Discussion Questions What is the basic difference in the understanding and use of concepts by the preschool child and the middle aged child? Discuss this difference as it may be related to the method of instruction you might adopt in each case. What are the basic intellectual changes which occur in the child‘s mental functioning during the middle age years. Some investigators report a decreased interest in learning on the part of the first and second grader. What do you think are some logical explanations for this change? According to your authors, what are the two basic criteria a teacher should possess in order to be an efficient instruc- tor? Do you agree with this viewpoint? Cite additional criteria you would add to this list. What was the purpose of the study conducted by Lewin, dial.? Know the results of the study and be able to relate this data to classroom learning. C I112 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Study Questions: Teacher-pupil Relations What do you perceive to be the professional responsibilities of teachers? What do you perceive as the main professional problems of teachers? What type of relationship should exist between students and their teachers? Why? Our schools should stress cooperation as a technique of instruct- ing students moreso than competition. What are your reactions to this statement? If a teacher does visit homes of her students it should be on the invitation of the child or the parent at an appointed time. The teacher should not visit while the father is away from home, or without being invited. Consider this statement from the negative and positive viewpoints. One chief characteristic of poor teachers is that they fail to see and appreciate the relationships and advantages of using com- munity resources in their instructional program. Discuss this statement by considering how the community can benefit the schools. It is often said that teachers are parent substitutes. What is meant by this statement? 18 it true? How do you see yourself playing this role? 10. 11. 12. .113 EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Study Questions Define learning. What are some limitations of your definition? Distinguish among classical conditioning, instrumental learn- ing and perceptual learning. State in meaningful language the laws of learning (both Gestalt and Associationism). What is meant by stimulus generalization? Give an experimental example. What is extinction? How is ti produced in classical condition- ing and instrumental learning? Give examples of the use of classical and instrumental learning in a classroom. Define partial reinforcement. How does it affect extinction? How does it affect learning. When would you recommend the use of punishment and when would you not? Define punishment according to Skinner's theory. What are the limitations of punishment as a method for controlling behavior? Distinguish between discriminative learning and incidental learn- ing. What are some useful measures of progress in learning? Why does learning sometimes reach a plateau? Is there such a thing as a psychological limit? What general rule can be stated about the distribution of practice in learning? Does learning progress faster by reading than by spending time in recitation? What is meant by transfer of training? How is it related to the Theory of Formal Discipline? How is it related to stimulus generalization. 7 Give instances of positive and negative transfer. Indicate rules for predicting when each will occur. ll!» EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY Discussion Questions - Testing What do you think the primary objectives of classroom test- ing should be? Try to relate your answer to the lecture on "Goals of Educational Psychology." There are psychological tests which measure various aptitudes and tests which measure scholastic aptitudes. Is there a real difference in what is being measured. Do aptitude tests measure the same thing as achievement tests? Explain the basic idea in Spearman's "Two Factor Theory" of intelligence. Is either of Spearman's two factors related to Thurstone's Primary mental Abilities." Do you think that there is a real relationship between I.Q. test results and classroom performance of students? Be able to support your answer with objective data. State the differences and advantages of group tests in comparison to individual tests. Verbal tests in comparison to nonverbal test? Teacher made tests in comparison to standardized test. Is the I.Q. constant? Explain your feelings about this con- troversy. What are some essential characteristics a classroom teacher should stress in selecting a standardized test for his students? Examine the last examination given to students in this class. Which questions do you Judge to be "good" questions? Why? What aspects seem to denote the "poor" questions? 13. in. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20 21. 22. 2}. 2H. 25. 26. 115 Is "exercising the mind" a realistic objective for education? When can education be expected to transfer to the solution of practical problems? How can retention be measured? What is the most sensitive method of measuring it? How does the game of Gossip illustrate changes in retention? What does negative transfer have to do with forgetting? Why is there less forgetting after a period of sleep than after a period of waking? ‘ ,uu How does repression affect memory? What causes repression? What advice would you give a student on the use of "whole or part" methods of learning? In motor learning, what is the difference between repetition and practice? How do the senses make use of cues in problem solving? What does the author mean by operant learning? What can teachers do to manipulate the level of aspiration of learners? What can teachers dotn increase the probability that students will perceive significant cues? What is meant by progressive approximation? How does this make teaching effective? What can the teacher do to increase the probability of transfer? 13 it true that the whole determines the meaning of the parts? Name 2116 Educational Psychology Section Below are some alternative proposals for grading or marking systems. For each one, indicate whether you agree or disagree and then give the reason for your decision. 1. In assigning marks, a teacher should keep in mind each students ability and grade on the basis of whether a student is achieving as well as his ability permits. Agree Disagree Reason: A Teacher should give grades on the basis of improvement in the course. Agree Disagree Reason: A teacher should grade on how well a student is achieving, consider- ing his home conditions, etc. It would not be fair, for example, to expect as much from a boy who works #0 hours a week to support his invalid mother. Agree Disagree Reason: A teacher should grade on a "curve" so pupil's achievement is com- pared with others in his group. Agree Disagree Reason: APPENDIX C FINAL EXAMINATION - Sample Questions and Raw Data 3118 FINAL EXAMINATION - EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY - Sample Questions Section: Name: Read each question carefully. 1. Specific principles from educational psychology have what limitation as guides to teaching procedures? 1. 2. 3. Specific research findings must often be modified in order to fit specific conditions Principles of educational psychology are based as much on common sense as on experimental evidence. Even scientific evidence does not help determine what procedure will be best for most situations. The basic question a teacher should ask when deciding on course objectives is: l. 2. 3. 4. 5. "What behavior do my students have to learn in order to per- form successfully in their society?" "What learning behaviors do my students have to exhibit in order to be ready for the next course?" "What does this course contribute to the academic develop- ment of my students?" "What behaviors should the students learn in order to obtain success on achievement tests?" "What does this school want the students to learn?" Which of the following statements best coincides with data in the area of social class differences? Culture has no influence on the ability of students Students from "slum" homes are less prepared for successful schooling than students from middle class homes. Students everywhere (in all cultures) possess a dislike for traditional teachers. Traditional teachers are more successful with lower class students than with middle class students. Culture is of little significance in the performance of students if they are highly motivated. The statement "that individual differences are normally dis- tributed" means that: 1. 2. People who are below average in personality are above average in physical development. A large number of people fall close to the average but some people are found far out in either direction for any particular difference. 2119 3. People who have marked differences when very young will approach normality as they grow older. A. About as many people will deviate from average as will in the average or normal group. 5. People who are inferior in intelligence will be superior in mechanical ability. One of the following statements is not true of "developmental tasks". Choose the exception. 1. "Developmental tasks" are those learnings which the culture expects all members to master at a particular age. 2. If a person fails to master the "developmental tasks of one age, satisfying the same need at later ages is more difficult. 3. "Developmental tasks" in different cultures differ both in what is expected and when it is expected. 4. Developmental tasks" are those skills which are nearly com- plete before the child reaches puberty. 5. At the unual age for learning a developmental task, the culture provides opportunities which are not readily avail- able later. A teacher says, "Mary is from a middle-class family and Jane is from a lower-class one; therefore, Mary will have more motiva- tion for schoolwork than Jane." How do you react to this state- ment? 1. The statement accurately reflects the relationship between social class and motivation. 2. The teacher has the relationship reversed; Jane will be more motivated than mary. 3. This would be a good prediction, but the relationship is not as perfect as the statement implies. #. Not only does the teacher have the relationsnip reversed, but he is too positive in his statement of it. 5. There is no meaningful and consistent relationship between social class and motivation. Jim Jones is a ten-year-old pupil in the fourth grade. His IQ is around 130, he is at the head of his class in all subjects, and he frequently appears bored because the work is easy for him. Which of the following lines of reasoning should receive first consideration in deciding whether to advance him or keep him in his same class? 1. Jim should certainly be encouraged to skip a grade in order to give him more challenging work. 2. Jim should be allowed to skip a grade if he has also attained an average level of physical and social development. 3. He should be allowed to skip a grade if his physical and social development is also advanced for his age. 10. 120' W. Jim should probably not be allowed to skip a grade; his teacher should be encouraged to give him extra work 5. Jim should be given special attention regarding his social development for his is probably behind his classmates in this area. Which of the following is the least desirable procedure in teaching for transfer of learning? 1. Identifying the desirable response in the form of a gener- alization. 2. Identifying the desirable response in the form of a general principle. 3. Exposing the learner to situations where the principles may be applied. 4. Pointing out situations to which responses may be transferred. Teach the subject which you expect the student will transfer to solve his problems out of class. \J‘l 0 Assume you are a teacher confronted with a boy who is essentially anti-social, anti-everything. As you talk with him about this problem you note that he has little, if any, guilty feelings about such things as cheating, fighting or stealing. Which segment of his personality structure, as defined by Freud, do you suSpect as being defective? l. The id 2. The super ego 3. The oedipal complex 4. The ego 5. Parental consolation of needs. Mr. T. Chur said that one of his duties was to develop a sense of responsibility in his pupils. Mr. Prince Ipal asked him what Specific behavioral outcomes he had in mind. Mr. Chur might best have replied: l. "I want my pupils to recognize that they are accountable for their own behavior." 2. "my pupils should act in a trustworthy manner." 3. "my pupils should volunteer for worthwhile activities and then satisfactorily complete the job for which they volunteered. u. "my pupils should develop a state of mind in which they see themselves as free citizens capable of conducting their own affairs but recognizing an obligation to others. 5. "I think my pupils should salute the flag properly whenever the National Anthem is played." ll. 12. 13. 14. 121. B.F. Skinner states that good teachers build good habits and desirable attitudes in students by "shaping their behavior", by this he means: 1. The teacher constantly moulds student‘s behavior in the classroom. 2. The teacher is critical of desirable behavior at all times 3 The teacher rewards any behavior approximating the desired behavior. 4. The teacher asks pertinent questions to students 5 None of the above. Cronbach tells about a study which gives some evidence on how a demonstration can be most effective. To apply the conclusions of this study, suppose that you are a home economics teacher demonstrating how to make a pie crust. How should you conduct the demonstration? l. Silently perform each step. Have class describe what you are doing. Correct their description if necessary. 2. Ask pupils to think about the last pie their mother baked describe process. Demonstrate correct method and compare. 3. Perform demonstration while at the same time giving a com- plete verbal description of each step. 4. Silently perform demonstration. Have pupils watch carefully all the way through. Then ask each pupil to write out a complete description. 5. Perform each step without interruptions, and then test student‘s knowledge of the process. Reviews are most efficient and effective when: 1. Distributed with a shorter interval between each session 2. Not distributed but concentrated in a session before the test. 3. Distributed evenly with the same interval between each session. A. Distributed with an increasing interval between each session 5. None of the above. Miss Confort considers herself as an "accepting" teacher. Which of the following would be consistent with her self-concept? l. Continually praises her students for desirable behavior and assist those exhibiting undersirable behavior to adjust- ment. . . Encourage her students to organize their own projects. Like to have her students come to her for advice when in doubt. ' ‘ Points out the errors made by pupils and corrects errors for them. Accepts all types of behavior in the classroom. U1 4: UN 15. 16. 17. 18. 3122 Pupils in your 9th grade arithmetic class have not been doing well on multiplication problems recently. The teacher across the hall suggests that you conduct a contest and award a prize to the pupil who does best on your next test. How would you evaluate this proposal? 1. 2. It would be a good incentive only for the two or three pupils who know they have some chance of winning. Competition should never be used because it arouses tension and damages self-respect. It might work to motivate the whole class because nobody would want to come in last Although there are several disadvantages, the main advantage would be that the losers would learn how they might do better the next time. Since we live in a competitive world, the more experiences like this we provide the better prepared pupils will become. Which of the following is not a chief purpose of evaluation of students when using achievement tests. 1. 2. 3. u. 5. Evaluation helps the learner realize how he should change or develop his behavior. Evaluation helps the learner attain satisfaction when he is doing as he should. Evaluation helps the teacher judge how adequate his teaching methods are. 'Evaluation helps the teacher judge how interested the students are in his subjects. Evaluation assists in making administrative judgement. Which is the most correct and realistic statement of interpreta- tion to a student of a test score of 79th percentile. 2. You did better than 79 out of 100 people. You scored near the top one fifth of people who took this test. You scored at the 79th percentile give or take a standard error of measurement of 5 points. Twenty-one people out of one hundred did better than you on this test. Your score is higher than 79 percent of the students in this class. Which one of the following statements is not true of human emotions I. 2. Outward compliance and friendliness and strong feelings of hostility can exist in the same person. Positive emotions are deplaced when no means is found for expressing them. 19. 20. H. 5. 123 Supression of emotion has harmful consequences only when this pattern is continued over many situations. Psychiatric interviews try to arouse emotional conflicts the patient has refused to recognize. Emotional behavior must discharge itself before a person can operate at an intellectual level. Often times teachers find themselves responsible for conseling students. Those who resort to the use of directive guidance should remember that. l. 2. Directive guidance requires more skill on the part of the teacher. Directive guidance requires less skill on the part of the teacher. Only those persons thoroughly trained in counseling should counsel students. The social stimulus value of a person should be the focal point. They are assuming part of the responsibility for outcome of counseling. A good teacher knows that he can best improve parent-teacher cooperation by U1 4: UNI-J Sending reports of students progress home to parents Keeping the principal well informed on problem students Supplementing knowledge derived via social perception with home visitations. Insuring through efficient teaching that all his student will receive "good grades". Supplementing the regular school marks with ratings of personality traits. 12Mv Table C. Final Examination Raw Scores Experimental Group Control Group 62 3h 59 32 57 34 57 32 53 3M 54 32 50 33 47 32 ”9 33 45 31 n8 33 n3 31 n5 33 n2 31 nn 32 n2 3o nn 32 n2 3o nn 32 no 30 n3 31 no 30 n3 31 39 30 n2 31 39 29 no 31 38 29 no 30 38 29 no 30 38 29 no 29 38 29 39 29 36 28 39 29 36 28 38 28 35 28 38 28 35 27 38 28 35 27 38 27 34 27 37 26 3n 26 37 26 3n 25 37 26 3n 25 37 2n 3n 2n 36 23 34 23 36 23 3n 22 35 23 33 22 APPENDIX D RAW SCORES ON THE MINNESOTA TEACHER ATTITUDE INVENTORY 2126 Table D. Raw Scores on the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory* Experimental Group Control Group 160 96 136 76 156 95 132 75 150 94 130 75 1n9 92 128 7n 1n8 92 126 73 145 91 125 72 193 90 124 70 135 89 119 70 131 88 117 68 131 87 115 68 129 86 108 68 128 83 107 68 128 81 105 67 127 78 105 67 126 77 103 66 122 71 102 65 118 70 100 6n 109 70 100 6n 108 69 96 63 108 68 95 62 107 67 9n 62 106 6n 88 57 106 63 87 52 105 62 85 52 ion 61 8n 51 103 59 8n 50 103 58 83 49 102 57 82 n7 98 51 80 n5 97 ”9 79 29 L12 79 25 *A constant of 100 has been added to raw scores to eliminate negative numbers. 1127 Table D-l. Raw scores on Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory* ELDP EHDP CLDP CHDP 136 132 156 150 128 130 108 1n8 87 - 128 108 1n5 8n 126 81 129 75 12n 57 126 47 117 106 108 101.1 95 102 85 97 82 96 82 95 80 9n 76 92 75 92 72 89 70 78 70 77 69 71 68 70 68 68 66 67 62 611 52 59 51 58 50 29 *A constant of 100 has been added to raw scores to eliminate negative numbers. APPENDIXLE Raw Scores of Subjects on the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory 129 Table E. Raw Scores of Subjects on the Minnesota Student Attitude Inventory w _ Experimental Subjects Control Subjects 105 56 96 51 95 56 96 51 81 56 87 n9 81 55 81 n9 80 55 79 49 80 54 75 47 80 51 72 n7 80 50 71 n7 79 50 70 M6 77 n9 68 us 75 ns 68 n3 7n n6 66 n3 72 #5 65 n3 72 45 65 n2 72 44 65 n2 72 43 6n n1 69 n3 6n no 67 42 6n 39 66 n2 63 39 66 n1 61 38 6h no 60 37 6n 38 6o 36 6n 36 58 35 64 35 5? 3n 63 35 55 31 62 33 54 29 62 32 53 2n 59 27 53 23 59 27 52 in 5? 25 52 2 ,, 7:003: USE 112111 ATE U MITIWWINWW IHIHI "WW WWII!“ 3 12l3 03082 i126