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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

Standards for the Approval of New

Hotels in Barbados
presented by

Aloysius Winifred Carrington

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

degree in

 

 

Master in Urban Planning

 

    

I
Major professor

Da i2

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I .

\?

STANDARDS FOR THE APPROVAL OF NEW
HOTELS IN BARBADOS

by

Aloysius Winifred Carrington

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER IN URBAN PLANNING

School of Urban Planning and Landscape Architecture

1982

ABSTRACT

STANDARDS FOR THE APPROVAL OF NEW
HOTELS IN BARBADOS

by

Aloysius Winifred Carrington

This thesis focuses on the environmental and land use
problems attributed to hotel development in Barbados. There
were three specific objectives:

1. To identify problems caused by uncontrolled
hotel development. -

2. To develop a methodology for analyzing these
problems and for identifying possible solu—
tions.

3. To suggest standards and criteria for regu-
lating new hotel development.

The most important finding to come out of this research
is the need for comprehensive (rather than fragmented) plan-
ning, consistent with national development interests. Poor
location of hotels intensifies traffic congestion, acceler-
ates beach erosion and has negative impacts on public beach
access, coastal open space and land allocation and conserva-
tion. Poor operational practices have deleterious effects on
the quality and allocation of domestic water and on the
coastal and marine environment. Only with a comprehensive
approach to planning can a reasonable compromise whereby

adequate provision is made for visitors and locals alike, be

reached.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Many people contributed to the completion of this
thesis. In particular, I would like to thank:

Dr. Roger Hamlin, thesis committee chairman, for the
support and direction given me in conducting this research
and the members of my committee, Mr. Carl Walther who stim-
ulated my interest in the subject in the first place and
Dr. Ismet Kilincaslan.

Dr. Yaw Twumasi for reading the script and suggesting
improvements.

Mr. Winston Harvey for his assistance with editing
and for encouraging me to continue on the numerous occasions
I was ready to give up.

Dr. Milton Baron, Dr. Carl Goldschmidt and Dr. Sanford
Farness for the many kindnesses shown me during my stay at
this University.

Dr. B.E. Niles, Dr. Milton Baron and Mr. Andrew Lewis
who were instrumental in my coming here and, finally, the
- Government of Barbados and the Organization of American

States for their financial support.

ii

LIST OF TABLES.
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER

1

CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION AND APPROACH TO THE STUDY

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . .
Purpose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Problem Statement. . . . . . . . . .
Objectives . . . . . . . .
Organization of the Study. . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

METHODOLOGY

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . .
Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Identification of Problems . . . . .
Classification of Problems . . . . .
Causes of Problems . . . . . . .
Regulations Which Currently Exist. .
Deficiencies of Existing Legislation
Identification of Solutions to
Problems Discussed . . . . . . . .
Sources of Data. . . . . . . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

RESEARCH CASE STUDY

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . .
Background . . . . . . . . . . . .
Identification of Problems . . . . .
Classification of Problems . . . . .
Causes of Problems . . . . . . . .
Regulations Which Currently Exist. .
Deficiencies of Existing Legislation
Identification of Solutions to
Problems Discussed . . . . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . ... . . . .

RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . .
Criteria and Standards . . . . . . .
Implementation . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

iii

tbubibDJWH

\oxoooooxioa

ll
11
ll

13
13
31
36
36
41

44

48
68

70
70
82
85

APPENDICES

A

B

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Introduction . . . . . . .
Summary. . . . . . . . . .

Generalizability . . . . .
Future Research Needs. . .

BEACH ACCESSES IN BARBADOS

STANDARDS OF WATER QUALITY
INLAND WATERS. . . . . .

STANDARDS OF WATER QUALITY
MARINE WATERS. . . . . .

iv

87

87

89

9O

91

97

100

104

TABLE

TABLES

Tourist Arrivals 1960-1980. . . . . .

Growth in Cruise Ship Passengers
1964-1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bed Capacity in Recognized
Accommodation 1964-1980 . . . . . . .

Existing Public Recreation Areas

in Barbados Which Have Been Ap-
proved for Alternative Types of
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Supply of and Demand for

Various Types of Accommodation
During 1979 . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Water Requirements of Selected
Hotel Types . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Minimum Capacities of Septic Tanks. .
Minimum Distances for Septic Tanks. .

Standards for Recreational Activities

PAGE

18

20

22

61

65

72

74

78

FIGURE

FIGURES
PAGE

Geographical Location of
Barbados 0 I O O O I O O O O O O O O O O 0 14

Distribution of Soil Types
in Barbados . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Settlement Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . 28

vi

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION AND
APPROACH TO THE STUDY

INTRODUCTION

 

The rapid development of hotel industries in many coastal
regions of the world is a phenomenon of the last two decades.
Hotel development was stimulated by mass travel which was,
in turn, made possible by jet travel in the early 1960's.

Many arguments have been advanced for the encouragement
of this mass movement of people, now more widely called
tourism. Many developing countries throughout the world
actively promote tourism in the hope of improving their econ-
omies. The reasoning behind such thinking has been well docu-
mented (Young, 1965). Some of the more important aspects are:

1) Tourism is a source of foreign exchange. Governments
tend to encourage and support industries which earn foreign
exchange (export industries) at the expense of those that do
not.

2) Tourism is a growth industry and is growing faster
than most export industries.

3) Tourism provides employment both for the skilled and

unskilled.

In countries with limited mineral resources, tourism

also permits the exploitation of geographic location, equable

 

climate, white sandy beaches and substantial portions of
unarable lands.
The literature is also replete with examples of the
disadvantages of tourism. In particular, much attention
has been paid to the social and environmental costs to local
residents. Sociologists seem to be concerned with the impact
which large influxes of people can have on the culture of a
society and environmentalistsvdJfllthe intensive use or misuse
of natural resources. One school of thought, which pervades
the literature, suggests that many of the problems caused by
hotel development have to do with the attitude of developers
and the inadequacy of regulations for controlling development.
In coastal areas, the rule of thumb among resort

developers has been to locate highways and accommodations as
close to the waterfront as possible. Inevitably, a contin-
uous line of concrete goes up along the beach resulting in
a lack of access and views for the resident population (Gunn,
1979). Young (1973) discussed the same problem:

Hundreds of miles of coastline have been

ruined irremediably by virtually uncon-

trolled building of hotels, restaurants,

bars and houses. Beaches have been

divided into unsightly allotments and

noise from juke boxes, fumes from traffic

and sheer human overpopulation pay witness

to the chaos man has made of the organiza-

tion of his leisure. These evil conse-

quences are not inherent in the development

of tourism; they just happen when tourism

is developed in a thoughtless and casual
way (op. cit., p. 157).

Purpose

The purpose of this study is to suggest a set of plan-
ning criteria and standards which will help to ensure the
optimum use of land in the country being studied. Given the
extremely limited land resources of the country, coupled with
its high population density and the consequent demand for_
land for residential development, it is important that the
government pursue an effective land use policy in order that

land is optimally utilized for the benefit of all, and that

resources are not eroded.

Problem Statement

 

This thesis will/examine, using Barbados as a case
study, some of the probIems small countries face when they
fail to control hotel development; and willglook at possible_
ways in which these problems can be avoided and hotel develop-
ment controlled.

Theimain assumption isg that tourism is desirable in
developing countries. The bggigmquestignithe study addresses
is: what are the social and environmental costs of tourism
and hotel development? Moremspecifically, two questions are
examined: first, how can hotel development exist without
causing undue hardship for local residents? Secondly, will

this development be beneficial if it also leads to major

environmental problems?

Objectives

 

The objectives of the study are (l) to identify the
problems caused by unplanned hotel development; (2) to
develop a methodology for analyzing these problems and (3)

to suggest standards for the alleviation of the said problems.

Organization of the Study

 

Chapter 2 describes the methodology used and provides
a framework for conducting the research.

Chapter 3 is a case study. It orients the reader to
the study area, analyzes growth of the tourist sector in
general and the hotel industry in particular, and lists
physical constraints to land development. It also discusses
specific problems related to hotel development in Barbados
and examines possible solutions of these problems based on
the guidelines provided in Chapter 2.

Chapter 4 recommends specific standards and criteria
for the alleviation of problems discussed in Chapter 3 and
suggests a strategy for their implementation.

Chapter 5 consists of summary and conclusions, examines
the generalizability of conclusions and points out areas for

future research.

SUMMARY
The rapid development of a tourist industry in Barbados

and many other coastal areas throughout the world brought a

number of development problems, particularly those related
to land use, more sharply into focus. Such problems were
particularly visible in Barbados because of the limited

land resources available for any type of develOpment. In
particular, there was a great deal of concern for the

rights of locals. The question was not whether tourism
should be encouraged in the first place? but rather, how
much tourism can be accommodated without: (1) driving
locals away from their favorite beaches; (2) creating water
“scarcity; (3) polluting the marine environment and causing
many of the other problems attributed to the development of
a tourist industry. The problem was, how can hotel develop-
ment exist without creating undue hardships for local people

and destroying the natural resources of the area?

Chapter 2

METHODOLOGY

INTRODUCTION

 

The process of suggesting solutions for the alleviation
of hotel development problems requires an understanding of
first, the problems and their possible causes; secondly, the
existing measures used to deal with these problems and fin-
ally, their relative effectiveness. With the data gathered
in the process it is then possible to suggest new measures
for dealing with these problems. Any such new measures need
to be based on existing standards, local trends and current
planning principles and practices.

This thesis will use the case study approach. As a
methodology, this approach has been used for many years, par-
ticularly in the field of political science. It is recog-
nized that there is an inherent problem involved in the use
of a case study. While a case study is well suited to an
accurate and indepth exposition of the particular case, it
is of far less value as a predictive model when it is gener-
alized to other situations. Nevertheless, the method will be
utilized here since it remains one of the best tools for
understanding the complexities of reality in order that

meaningful change may be effected.

CASE STUDY

This research will focus on the problems faced by a
small island system, Barbados in particular, as a result of
hotel development. This study area is chosen for two main
reasons: (1) the country has experienced rapid and intensive
growth in tourism and consequently hotel development, over
the past two decades and there has been a great deal of dis-
cussion at the national level concerning the desirability
of the pattern of development that has taken place; and (2)
the author's familiarity with the major sources of data for
this type of research based on extensive work in both the
Tourism Planning and the Urban Planning Departments of the
national government.

Using Barbados as the case study, this research will be
divided into the following phases:

Phase 1. Problems which have been documented and their
relationship to hotel development established are listed
according to their sources.

Phase 2. The problems are categorized into two groups,
environmental and physical. This serves to facilitate analy-
sis.

Phase 3. Causes of the problems are identified and ref-
erenced.

Phase 4. Standards and regulations which currently
exist in the study area are reviewed.

Phase 5. The deficiencies of these standards are dis-

cussed.

Phase 6. Possible solutions to the problems examined

in the previous phases are discussed.

Phase 1

IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS

 

This phase will identify and describe some of the prob-
lems attributed to the physical development of hotels in a
small island system. Problems documented either by private,
university-based, research or government agencies in the
country being used as a case study will be included. This
approach is utilized since these sources establish some
relationship between hotel development and the problems which
they identify.

Only those problems which have to do with the physical
use of land will be discussed. The economics of hotel
development will only be discussed as far as it affects the
demand for land in the first place. These criteria are used
in order to give the study an urban planning, rather than an

economic focus.

Phase 2
CLASSIFICATION OF PROBLEMS

In order to facilitate the research carried out in phase
3, the problems identified in phase 1 will be divided into
two groups, environmental and physical. This classification

is useful since it will be necessary to research areas other

than those within the field of Urban Planning in order to
better understand the causes of problems.

The causes of problems in the environmental classifica-
tion, therefore, will be researched not only in planning
literature but also in environmental journals and other rele-
vant studies.

This phase is necessary since the causes of the problems
identified will influence not only the solutions suggested
for their alleviation but also policies in this area. It
is therefore important that these problems and their causes

are seen in their wider perspective.

Phase 3
CAUSES OF PROBLEMS

This section will identify the causes of each of the
problems listed in phase 1. Environmental problems will be
discussed first and physical problems second. Causes of the
problems will be taken from the same studies that identified
the problems in the first place. The causes of the problems
given will be checked, through library research, in order to
ascertain whether the problems can have different or addi-

tional causes to those identified.

Phase 4
REGULATIONS WHICH CURRENTLY EXIST
This section will: (I) explain how development in the

country being studied is controlled, and (2) identify Specific

10

legislation which exists. Only legislation which has some
relationship to the two groups of problems identified in
phase 3 will be reviewed.

Criteria for examining the legislation will be: (1)
legislation related to land use planning and/or the environ-
ment, and (2) legislation related specifically to the causes
of problems identified in phase 3, or the problems them-
selves as identified in phase 1.

This phase is necessary in order to undertake the next
phase which examines the deficiencies of the existing legis-
lation.

Knowing how development is presently controlled in the
area being studied will enable us to identify specific con-
trol measures which may be used in the future.

The data used in this phase were taken from the Town and

Country Development Act 1972.

Phase 5
DEFICIENCIES OF EXISTING LEGISLATION

This phase will examine the legislation described in
phase 4 and match it with the causes of problems identified
in phase 3. This will indicate what type of control measures
are used, if any, for the alleviation of the problems dis-
cussed in previous phases. This, in turn, will show whether
the problem has to do with inadequate control measures or

ineffective implementation of those measures.

11

Phase 6

IDENTIFICATION OF SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS DISCUSSED

 

This phase will examine current development controls
in planning and discuss possible solutions for Barbados,
based on the nature of the problems and the type of controls
presently in existence as discussed in the previous phases.
It will also provide the basis for the recommendations made

at the end of the study.

SOURCES OF DATA

 

Two main sources will be used in this study: primary
sources which consist mainly of official publications,
unpublished material and studies of the Barbados government;
and secondary sources consisting mainly of books and articles
in learned journals obtained through library research. The
quality of the data then depends almost entirely on the

quality of the material obtained from these sources.

SUMMARY

Chapter 2 described the methodology used and developed
a framework for conductingtfluaresearch. The approach used,
that of a case study, was described briefly and the follow-
ing research steps identified: (1) the identification of
problems and criteria used for selecting those problems;
(2) categorization of problems into groups according to type;

(3) identification of causes of problems; (4) a review of

12

standards and regulations which currently exist in Barbados;
(5) identification of the deficiencies of these standards
and regulations; and (6) examination of new or modified
criteria or standards, found through literature research,
which could help to alleviate the problems discussed. Es-
sentially, material in phase6 will be used as a base for
the development of criteria and standards set out in Chap-
ter 4.

Criteria and standards contain a cultural element; thus,
ideal standards are not always the most desirable ones.
Locals may prefer to frequent a beach which they have
traditionally used even though better physical facilities
may be provided at one which is closer to their places of
residence. Such a decision may be based on the quality of
swimming in the area, rather than on distance or the man-

made facilities provided.

Chapter 3

RESEARCH CASE STUDY

INTRODUCTION

 

This chapter provides background material on Barbados,
and contains the research findings from the six phases

described in Chapter 2.

BACKGROUND

 

Barbados is the most easterly of the archipelago of
islands in the Caribbean Sea (Figure 1). Located 59°37'
East longitude and 13°4' North latitude, it is relatively
close to the wealthy industrialized countries of North
America and Western Europe.

A small island of 430 square kilometers, 42,994 hec-
tares of land, of which only 28,328 hectares are arable,
and a population density of 586 persons per square kilo-
meter, it has no significant natural resources.

Colonized by the British, who found it totally unin-
habited in 1627, the island's economic history falls into
three main phases. The first phase, 1627-1650, was charac-
terized by a peasant economy in which an inexcessive number
of settlers pursued a relatively self-sufficient and diver-
sified economy while producing tobacco, cotton and indigo

for export.
13

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GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF BARBADOS .

Figure l.

15

During the second phase, 1650-1950, the island was
transformed into a rigid and lop-sided sugar export-oriented
economy. During this period, little effort was made to
exploit what limited opportunities existed for diversifica-
tion even within the dominant agricultural sector.

The third and present phase, beginning in the 1950's,
witnessed the emergence of efforts at diversification; the
political decline of the planter class and the rise of more
democratic black rulers. Attempts were made to meet the
challenge of the country's limited natural resource base and
structural dependence by promoting the optimal use of its
limited resources while complementing resources, and by
diversifying its production structure in the drive towards
a more self-sustaining economy. These measures included
steps to diversify agriculture by supplementing sugar cane
with other cash crops and introducing cane varieties better
suited to local conditions, oil exploration, the development
and industrialization of fishing activities, the development
of a manufacturing sector, environmental protection, inten-
sive and long range programmes in education, human resource
development, health and water resources, and the growth of

a vibrant tourism sector.

POPULATION GROWTH

 

The growth of a country's population is one of the major

determinants of the rate of social and economic growth of

16

that country. This relationship between population growth
and economic development is widely acknowledged, even if

the inter-connecting causes and effects are not fully under-
stood. Tourism, as an economic and social activity requir-
ing the interaction of different peoples in a common setting,
can be strongly affected by demographic changes taking place
within the host country. The pattern of population growth
is of no less significance to land use planning than to
economic planning since all development requires some form
of spatial expansion.

The population growth of Barbados may be divided into
three phases. Phase 1, which lasted until the mid 1930's,
was marked by high birth and death rates. Phase 2 was
characterized by high birth and low death rates and lasted
until the mid 1960's; and Phase 3, the current phase, is
characterized by low birth and death rates.

The population of Barbados increased from approximately
172,337 inhabitants in 1911 to 250,000 in 1980. Between
1960 and 1970, there was an annual growth rate of less than
.2%. This was largely the result of an extremely high level
of immigration and effective control of fertility rates.

Close to one half of Barbados' population is concen-
trated in the urban region of Greater Bridgetown, an area
consisting of approximately 2 , 428 hectares primarily within the
parishes of St. Michael and Christ Church. These two parishes
are the most urbanized in the country. Their relative share

of the total population increased from 54.7% to 56.5% in 1970.

17

Growth in Visitor Arrivals

 

Visitor arrivals to Barbados grew from an estimated

36,000 in 1960 to 370,916 in 1979. Table 1 Shows the

growth in tourist arrivals over time. Growth was particu-

larly rapid in the 1960's, the factors influencing this

growth were technological, economic, social and political.

They derived from both external and domestic phenomena.

Among them we may identify the following:

1.

The arrival of the "jet age". In 1958, the Boeing
707 and the Douglas D.C. 8 aircraft began scheduled
flights across the Atlantic from New York to Paris
cutting travel time to less than 8 hours. Non-stop
flight time from New York to Barbados was cut to 4
hours. Jet travel meant not only a reduction in
travel time but also a reduction in the price of

long distance travel.

The emergence of a highly organized and sophisti-

cated travel industryyincluding the establishment
of travel agencies,and the organization of group
and package tours by wholesalers and tour operators.
This further reduced the price of travel and for
the first time, ensured that not only the very rich
could travel.

The reconstruction and expansion of the post-war
economy of the United States and Western Europe
leading to increasing urbanization and rising dis-

cretionary incomes.

18

Table l. TOURIST ARRIVALS 1960-1980

 

 

 

 

YEAR ARRIVALS . . % CHANGE
1960 35,500 --
1961 37,100 4.5
1962 44,200 19.1
1963 50,267 13.7
1964 57,625 ' 14.6
1965 68,418 18.7
1966 79,104 215.6
1967 91,565 15.8
1968 115,697 26.4
1969 134,303 16.1
1970 156,417 26.4
1971 189,075 20.9
1972 210,349 11.3
1973 222,080 5.6
1974 230,718 3.9
1975 221,576 -4.0
1976 224,314 1.2
1977 269,314 20.1
1978 316,883 17.7
1979 370,619 17.1
1980 352,089 -5.0
SOURCE: Civil Aviation and Tourism Division, Barbados.

4. The return to a sustained period of peace and rela-
tive stability.

5. The institutionalization of minimum holidays with
pay ranging from two weeks in the industrialized
countries.

6. The popularization of tropical holidays in the

winter, strongly influenced not only by the life-
styles of the wealthy but also by aggressive adver-
tising and promotion of destinations and travel

interests.

19

'At the local level, these external developments were matched

by

1. Institutional and organizational efforts made by

4.

the Barbados Publicity Committee, a voluntary group
of business and other interests and later, a better
equipped and financed governmental organization,

the Barbados Board of Tourism, charged with the
overall development of the industry and its market-
ing and promotion abroad.

Financial and other incentives provided under the
Hotel Aids Act of 1956, which granted tax and duty
free concessions to hotel construction and a Barba-
dos Development Board which provided long-term in-
vestment capital.

Infrastructural improvements including the construc-
tion of a modern air terminal complex.

Educational campaigns aimed at facilitating the

visitor in Barbados.

Under the impact of these developments, hotel accommodation

increased from a total of 1,869 beds in 1958 to 12,727 beds

in 1980. This growth is discussed in the next section.

Cruise Ship Passengers. The volume of cruise ship

passengers to Barbados increased significantly between 1963

and 1969 but actually declined in 1970, 1971 and 1975

(Table 2). The small numbers arriving in 1975 coincided

20

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mannaam>< #02 «\z
«\z <\z o.vaI mam.ma m5o.oaa m5ma
¢\z <\z o.mm aam.m~ mmm.m~a m5ma
.4\z «\z II II 55o.moa 55ma
«\z . «\z II II axz G5ma
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5mm 5mm m.m mmo.m www.maa e5ma
mam 5mm «.ma mmm.ma mwv.maa M5ma
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mvm ova w.OI 05¢ I mma.m5 a5ma
5am vma m.aI omm I mmm.m5 05ma
55¢ mma o.m vmm.v mmm.om mmma
5cm oma N.5o omm.om amm.m5 mmma
mmm m5 m.aa mva.mI am¢.mv 5mma
mmm mma o.mI a5o.aI mmm.am coma
mvw maa v.mm mmm.oa ¢mm.~m mmma
mmv mm wm.mm 5mv.¢a a5m.a¢ voma
5mm v5 II II vma.5~ mama
Qanm maamu now» now»
mummcmmmmm maam mooa>mnm Hm>o msoa>mnm Hw>o Hmnasz How»
mo .02 mmmum>4 Immasuu ommmnoca w mmmmuoca manaOmnm
mmmozmmmmm mammImmHDmo
mmmozmmm<m mamm mmHDmU 2H mezomu .N manna

 

21

with the decline in air arrivals,resulting in a poor year
for tourism in Barbados.

Although cruise ship passengers spend less than air
visitors, this market is, nevertheless, important for
Barbados since a number of duty-free establishments depend
on purchases by cruise passengers for a significant portion

of their sales.

Growth of Visitor Accommodations

 

The rapid increase in visitor arrivals brought with it
a large number of recognized tourist accommodations. The
number of beds available rose from a mere 2,750 in 1964 to
12,727 in 1980 (Table 3).

Undoubtedly the Hotel Aids Act (passed in 1956 and re-
vised in 1967) had considerable impact on this rapid growth.
The Act granted duty-free importation of raw materials and
equipment for hotel construction or expansion programs
and the opportunity to partake of various tax holidays
which could delay tax payments to the government for up to
ten years on the basis of capital outlays incurred from
hotel construction and expansion. Between 1956 and 1970,
approximately seventy-seven hotels and other facilities
were eligible under the Act. In addition, the government,
under the duty-free clauses, allowed the duty-free importa-
tion of all hotel operating fixtures, equipment and utensils.

Large blocks of financing have also been provided for

big investors and land developers at favorable lending

22

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moomaumm mo xcmm amuucmu

”WOMDOm

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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sum :2. .aa 3? «a. . m o m5~ 8 23 ca 53 .a 8a 86.5 m5 ma
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5mm 3.. . a 8m mam . q mmmI 3m «mm 85 mmmI mam .a 3m Rim m5 ma
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8m omm .m mmm mom .a on 2: I mmv mm 804 mm 55m m o ma
85 .5. m8 oma m3 mum mmm. v a ma
a < a < a a
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.Aommanmma. oneeoozzooom omsazooomm 2H meHo¢m<o omm .m manna

 

 

23

rates and over long periods. Some developers were provided
with beach and coastal lands through favorable leasehold
terms for extensive periods of time (Lewsey, 1978).

Tourist accommodation grew most rapidly between 1965
and 1968. During this period, recognized tourist accommo-
dation grew at an average annual rate of 18.2%. The slack-
ening off in the growth of accommodation was especially
noticeable after 1971 and coincided with a decline in tour-
ist arrivals.

Between 1965 and 1970, the number of beds in Class I
accommodations increased rapidly while those in Class II
and Class III increased at a slower rate. This period was
marked by the construction of several new luxury hotels
and expansion of existing ones. The second largest increase
during the period occurred in the apartment and apartment
hotels categories and averaged 25.4%. Although these
categories are aggregated for purposes of convenience, it
is estimated that apartment hotels accounted for 70% of

the total increase in accommodation.

Factors Affecting Development

The major physical factors which affect development
of the island are:

(1) Topography

(2) Variety and distribution of soil type related to
agricultural productivity.

24

(3) Special problems of erosion affecting the Scotland
district, localized over 1/6 of the island's sur-
face.

(4) Restrictions on land use necessary to protect
ground water resources from contamination.

(l) Topography. The land is generally flat, rising

 

from the West and South in a series of terraces which are
parallel to the coast and falls from an elevation of about
274neters,inan amphitheatre, in the north-east where the
more weather resistant coral cap has been removed exposing
weaker sedimentary shales and conglomerates. Most of the
coral capped, terraced land is under 180 meters and little
of the island is over 274nm¢ers. Mount Hillaby, the highest
peak, is 339 meters and the general appearance of the land
is of flat rolling countryside.

The broad terraces run mainly north and south. The
separating cliff edges vary in height between 15 and 18
meters. Where the cliffs are highest, their faces are steep,
rocky and barren; the lower cliffs are more gently sloping

and well grassed.

(2) Soil Types. There are three major soil types in

 

Barbados (Figure 1). Black soils follow the coast from
north and west to the south. In the south, these soils are
deep and fertile, along the coast, however, they are too
shallow and dry to be suitable for the growing of sugar
cane, the island's main export crop. Consequently, they

form 16 ,000 hectares of waste land, grazing and built-up areas .

25

Red soils of moderate fertility are in the center of
the island while in the Scotland District, soils are so

poor and eroded that restoration is being carried out.

(3) The Scotland District. Drainage problems in this

 

area affect the stability of the land which is subject to
land slip in the wet seasons. Extensive work in reclamation
is necessary to restore the land to a normal standard of

fertility.

Figure 2. DISTRIBUTION OF SOIL TYPES IN BARBADOS.

 

BAJEMUDCES
Physical

Lou-40mm!”
Smiles

/

Panning Winds

. Crawl: /

    
  

Dry South C can

 

 

 

26

(4) Ground Water Protection. The geological formation

 

may be described as Sedimentary Scotland District shales
and conglomerates overlaid by the Oceanic Series and fully
capped by coral rockSILmeters at its greatest depth.

The ground water which is the island's only source of
water supply is stored after filtration through the coral
limestone cap and these resources have, therefore, to be
protected from the infiltration of deleterious matter.

Consequently, the development of land over probable
sources of water is strictly controlled to reduce and
eliminate wherever possible, the effects of contamination.

A Water Board Policy statement divides the island into
five zones describing the form of sewage disposal, which is
permissible in each. In the "Water Reserve Area," there is
total prohibition of all new buildings. This, however,
covers less than 6% of all land in the island and is coin-
cident for the most part with land which is in agricultural

USE.

Existing Settlement Structure

The settlement structure of the island can be traced
back to the development of the "plantation system" between
1650 and 1950. The plantation was the center of activity,
all roads led either from plantations to seaports or to
other plantations.

Communication between ports and plantations served

two main purposes, (1) all food and supplies used on the

27

plantation was imported and (2) to export raw sugar for
processing. Hence, the heavy emphasis placed on transport-
ation links with Bridgetown (the present capital and site
of the seaports) from earliest times to present day.

This pattern of settlement remained virtually unchanged
until emancipation in 1834 when the tenantries system came
into being. It was not until 1920, however, that a number
of free villages, located outside of plantation yards became
fully apparent.

With emancipation came the drift away from the rural
areas to the urban areas. This draft was largely related
to fluctuations in the sugar industry and the cutting up
of estate lands for residential and other uses.

The more recent trends in the pattern of settlement
coincides with Stage III of the economic development of the
island and started in the 1950's. At present, more than
half of the total population of Barbados (56.1%) is located
along coastal areas in developments on the west, south and
south eastern sections of the island. There are also a
large number of traditional villages scattered throughout
the rural areas, rural tenantries and modern residential
subdivisions (Figure 3).

The population settlement structure is based on the con-
cept of an hierarchy of urban centers, each order of which
is related, in function and level of amenities and services,
to the location and size of the community which it is

intended to serve (The Town and Country Planning Office,

28

 

‘---

\
Q
\

fl
“
‘O

 

  
 
  
      
 

‘
anma;s!!ll’

scale of miles Lua- -, . .1 I .

.“ . LEGEND
,/

O mum lulu Ill-LI U m '0 m W10
© DSIICI all-S m “000 '0 moo W10!
© IWM (Rhl‘i ‘m UWOIK-IK- It“)

‘50 mamma— ml

620 mI-cv 1am no m n no
I! mum It Gil-Bun“
'—‘—'— and mash
' ' ‘ ' nuom W
— rim-In nan-unu- ms
—_ Int-Ia tun-vu-
_ m nsI-mwi

---- “Ml IOWA!

 

  

.
51'

l’

 

Figure 3.

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS

29

1970). The orders in this hierarchy range from the village

center to Metropolitan Bridgetown.

Villages. The village is the smallest unit in the
hierarchy of settlements. A village is capable of support-
ing:

(a) A one stream primary school of 240 placed com-

prising six classes of 40 pupils.

(b) A group of small shops providing for the daily

needs of the community.

(c) Representative chapels of religious denominations.

(d) A community center.

(e) A playing field.

(f) A market place.

(g) A bus shelter combined with public baths and

lavatories.

There are 240 children in primary school for every
1500 inhabitants. A rationalized School Distribution
Plans shows that it will rarely be necessary for a child to
travel more than 2.3 kilometers or 20 minutes walking dis-
tance between his home and the school. This results in a

pattern of village centers approximately 2.4 kilometers apart.

Distribution Center. The district center serves as

 

the focal point for a number of villages. The population

within the area of influence ranges from 14,000 to 33,000

30

in a radius of approximately 4tx>5 kilometers.

centers
(6!)
(b)
(C)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(k)

(1)

Regional Center.

meters and a population of 100 ,000 .

supplement facilities in villages with:
secondary schools

banks

supermarkets and department stores
garages

post office

library

police station

meat, fish and vegetable market
parish churches

social hall with cinema

playing field and recreation grOunds.

ing services:

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(1)

Distance

Such a center serves a radius of 10-15

It provides the follow-

district maternity hospital and casualty ward

administrative center

library

cinema

wholesale market

sports arena or stadium

park or public garden and band stand

special tourist attractions

major commercial center including banks and

professional offices.

31

Bridgetown - Capital City. Bridgetown is the main

 

administrative, commercial, cultural and recreational center
of the country. The only major city in the country, its
population in 1980 was 99,902 (1980 Census).

The city has over 70% of the total shopping space on
the island, both seaports and is the hub of the island's
transportation system and home for 40% of the nation's

p0pulation.

Phase 1

IDENTIFICATION OF PROBLEMS

 

Problems included here are those documented either by
private, university-based research or government agencies
in Barbados. This approach is used since these sources
establish some relationship between hotel development and
the problems which they identify. Problems are divided
into two groups.

In Group I are problems identified by Lewsey (1978)
and these include: (1) inadequate public access to beaches;
(2) insufficient open space for recreational activities;

(3) beach erosion; (4) water scarcity and pollution;
(5) marine pollution and (6) traffic congestion.

In Group 2 are problems compiled from research conducted
by the Town and Country Planning Office and the Ministry of
Tourism. They include problems related to: (1) Social
Carrying Capacity as it relates to beach capacity; (2) land

speculation and (3) land conservation. Problems documented

32

by these two departments but listed in the previous group

are not listed a second time.

Group 1
Inadequate Public Access to Beaches. Along the densely

 

populated south and west coast areas there are approximately
eleven government maintained public accesses, most of which
are located at public recreation areas. Not only are these
inadequate in number for the size and distribution of the
population which they serve but their state and quality,

in respect of the maintenance and support facilities, re-
quire improvements.

Insufficient Open Space for Recreational Activities.
Intensive coastal development along the west and south coasts
has virtually obliterated public bathing beaches. The
problem is particularly serious since beaches are the only
free recreational facilities available to locals. A survey
done by the Town and Country Planning Office revealed that
most of the areas currently used by locals for recreation
purposes have been approved for development and those not
approved are under pressure for hotel development.

Beach Erosion. Building construction closer to the

 

shoreline than desirable has upset the natural equilibrium
resulting in erosion of beaches. Visible stop gap measures
such as groynes are not necessarily helping the situation

since groynes can prevent material, such as sand and pebbles

33

from moving into the most vulnerable parts of the beach.

Water Scarcity. This was not identified as a current

 

problem, but as a potential problem which could surface as
early as 1985 if alternative methods of obtaining water are
not explored.

Water Pollution. The limestone substructure of the

 

island requires that all ground water resource areas be
protected from contamination. The policy of the Government
has been to keep water reserve areas free of development.
However, indirect pressures have forced encroachment of new
subdivisions in the vicinity of ground water protection
areas. Additionally, fierce competition between tourism
and domestic land needs has forced the location of sani-
tary land fill areas in the immediate vicinity of some of
the island's primary reserve areas.

High levels of nitrates and nitrites have shown up in
test samples of drinking water taken from taps in the vicin-
ity of ground water protection areas. The presence of high
levels of nitrates in tap water means that an indetermin-
ate degree of organic leechate is seeping into the under-
ground water channel system. It is also an indicator of a
pollution problem.

Marine Pollution. The presence of coliform bacteria

 

and substandard levels of oxygen in marine waters are indi-
cators of marine pollution. The level of dissolved oxygen

in marine water varies with temperature. When the level of

34

oxygen in the water falls below the level expected at that
temperature, there is a pollution problem. Lewsey (1978)
states that coliform counts in Barbados' marine environment
are rising and the water contains substandard amounts of
dissolved oxygen. This problem, if left unchecked, could
ruin the prospects of the tourist industry.

Traffic Congestion. There are severe traffic conges-
tion problems, at peak hours, in and around the Bridgetown
area (capital city). The problem is at it's worst during
the tourist season because of increased automotive rentals
resulting in a larger number of private vehicles on the
road and of increased demand for public transportation
services. The resulting confusion and congestion in and
around Bridgetown is out of proportion with traffic condi-

tions elsewhere on the Island.

Group 2
Social Carrying Capacity As It Relates to Beach Capacity.

Tourism planners suggest that the major constraint to tour-
ism growth is the ability of the society to absorb large
numbers of visitors without this putting a strain on the
social tolerance of the indigenous people. The most likely
place for such strain to occur is the beach since this is
the area most frequented by tourists and local residents
alike. How much interaction can locals withstand before

their tolerance level is reached? and whether there is a

.35

maximum number of visitors that should be allowed in the
country in the first place, are important issues. Tourism
planners seem to be in favour of setting a numerical limit
on the number of visitors to the country in a single year‘
and the number most often cited is 500,000. This represents
a visitor population twice the size of the local population.
A breakdown in the visitor/resident relationship would rep-
resent a very serious problem for the tourist industry.

Land Speculation. In the Revised Draft of the Physical

 

Development Plan prepared by the National Town and Country
Planning Office, it was suggested that developers may be
hoarding land approved for hotel development for speculative
purposes. This creates two problems: (1) it means that
considerable amounts of land are not being utilized and (2)
that more land may be tied to hotel development than is
necessary. The problems are particularly serious given the
extremely limited land resources of the island.

In a single year (1972), it was estimated that 364 hectares
of plantation land had been pulled out of agriculture and
"banked" for development by private persons. Between 1976
and 1979, a total of 2,965 hotel beds were approved for
construction. By May 23, 1980, only 44 percent had been
built and there were many approvals issued prior to 1976
still to be taken up.

Land Conservation. The problem here is the preservation,

 

in their natural state, of areas of historical and ecological

 

 

36

significance. These areas need to be saved from hotel or
other development since they form part of the local his-
tory and heritage of the people and therefore should not

be lost to future generations.

Phase 2

CLASSIFICATION OF PROBLEMS

 

For analytical purposes, the problems listed above may
be classified into two categories; environmental and physi-
cal. This distinction corresponds to whether the problems
are related to land distribution or not.

The environmental problems are not related to the
distribution of land. They are largely man-made and in-
clude traffic congestion, water scarcity and pollution,
marine pollution and erosion.

The physical problems are those relating to land dis-
tribution and include inadequate public access to beaches,
insufficient coastal open space for recreational activities,
social carrying capacity as it relates to beach capacity,

land speculation and land conservation.

Phase 3
CAUSES OF PROBLEMS

While all of the problems dealt with here may be traced
to tourism growth and, more specifically, to the location and

Operation of hotels, many of them have causes which rapid

37

hotel development simply brought more sharply into focus.
Lewsey (1978) pointed out that many of the problems cannot
be completely attributed to tourism. The haphazard type

of development which presently exists in Barbados is the
result of decades of unplanned and uncontrolled growth re-
sulting in a pattern of development which did not consider
proper spatial relationships. Below are listed the causes
of the problems already described. Problems of an environ-
mental nature are discussed first, and physicl problems

second.

Environmental

Traffic Congestion. The problem of traffic congestion

 

in Bridgetown is a result of (l) the rapid increase in the
total vehicular traffic and car ownership in the Island;

(2) obsolescence of the city's street pattern to OOpe with
the growth in volume of vehicular traffic;‘ (3) increased
employment opportunities in Bridgetown resulting in increas-
ed traffic flows into and out of the area; and (4) the
city's role as a connecting link between the south and west
coastal areas. All tourist traffic, travelling between the
airport in the south and the heavily developed west coast,

passes through Bridgetown.

Water Scarcity. Lewsey estimated that visitors to

 

Barbados utilized 25% of the estimated island wide reserves

of potable water. Cumulatively, tourists and residents

38

utilized 78% of the island's total known reserves. Projec-
tions to 1985 indicate that visitors to the island are ex-
pected to use 27% of the island's known reserves and resi—
dents 90%. Thus, jointly, demand is expected to exceed
supply, leading to depletion of the island's water resources.

Pollution of Potable Water. This problem has been at-

 

tributed to the improper disposal of waste. The location of
sanitary land-fill areas in the immediate vicinity of the
island's water reserve areas has resulted in an indetermin-
ate degree of organic leechate seepage (containing high
levels of nitrates and nitrites) into the underground water
channel system. Fierce competition for land between tourism
and local residential development, as well as poor overall
planning, has brought about this state of affairs (Lewsey,
1978).

Marine Pollution. The presence of coliform bacteria

 

in the marine environment is an indicator that insufficiently
treated sewage is entering the water. This is the result of
the predominant use of spetic tank systems close to the land-
sea interface (Lewsey, 1978). These sewage outfalls and
storm drain systems have affected marine life on the south-
west coast.

Erosion. The main causes of beach erosion are: (1)
siting of structures too close to the sea; (2) the occa-
sional blasting of channels in protective fringe reefs to
create white pools for pleasure and craft usage and (3) the

removal of coastal vegetative cover.

Physical

Inadequate Public Access to Beaches and Coastal Open

 

Space for Recreational Activities. These two problems have

 

similar causes and are, therefore, discussed together.

They are the result of intensive hotel development along

the south and west coasts. This development virtually
obliterated visual and physical access to beaches and public
open spaces in these areas. These problems are attributed
not only to unplanned anduncontrolled hotel growth but also
to the fact that government had practically no urban reserves
of land in the area. If private development is to be effec-
tively controlled, it is important that the government own
strategically located lots of land which can be used for
public purposes.

Social Carrying Capacity As It Relates to Beach Capa-
g;py. As beach use continues to intensify, there are re-
peated calls from government as well as concerned local
residents for the establishment of user limitation levels
or "carrying capacities". Social carrying capacity is
defined as that aspect of total carrying capacity concerned
with the number of other people which users can tolerate and
still maintain a quality experience (West, 1981).

The theory behind the concept of social carrying capa-
city is that persons who feel crowded, visitors or local
residents, would cease to use the area. If the theory holds
true, then the consequences could be disastrous for any

tourist destination area.

40'

The major problem in testing the theory seems to be in
measuring "crowding". When does a person feel so crowded
that he decides not to return to a particular beach. It
has been suggested that on-site surveys of users fail to
measure crowding accurately because long-time users who know
the area, tend to feel the most crowded and, thus, do not
return. Such "displaced" users would not be included in
current on-site survey samples. Results from limited tests
carried out in Michigan, however, do not support the "dis-
placement thesis".

Land Speculation. Land approved for hotel development

 

fetches a higher price in the open market than land approved
for residential or other types Of development. The hOpe of
making substantial profits from the buying and selling of
land may be the major reason for keeping land approved for
hotel development vacant.

Land Conservation. Pressure for hotel development as

 

close to the sea as possible is the major reason for land,
which should remain as open space, being engulfed by hotel
development. Attempts to protect and conserve areas of
natural beauty in the island require identification of the
areas worthy of preservation and control of land use against
quarrying, building or other forms of commercial exploita-

tion such as tree felling, dumping and littering.

41

Phase 4

REGULATIONS WHICH CURRENTLY EXIST

 

In Barbados, land use planning is the responsibility of
the government minister under whose portfolio the Town and
Country Planning Office falls (The Attorney General), the
Town and Country Planning Advisory Committee and the Chief
Town Planner.

The Minister must secure consistent, continuous and
comprehensive policies for the use and development of all
land in the island.

The committee advises the Minister on any matter on
which the Minister seeks its advice, on the preparation of
development plans and on matters relating to the planning
of development in the island.

The Chief Town Planner is responsible for the prepara-
tion of the Physical Development Plan. Preparation of such
a plan requires that a survey of the whole island be carried
out. The final plan should consist of a report of the
survey together with a plan showing how he proposes that the
land in the island may be used and the stages by which such
development may be carried out. The Minister may approve
the plan under Section 5 of the Revised Planning Act of
1972.

In Barbados, with certain exceptions, all development
requires the prior approval of the local planning authority,

the Town and Country Planning Office. The authority has

42

considerable discretion in this matter. Although it must
have regard to the provisions of the physical development
plan, it may take any other material considerations into
account. Indeed it can approve a prOposal which does not
accord with the provisions of the development plan. If the
proposal does not involve a substantial departure from the
plan and does not injuriously affect the amenity of the
adjoining land either, the Authority's discretion is un—
limited. In other cases, approval requires the discretion
of the Minister responsible for planning.

Planning decisions issued can be one of three kinds:
unconditional permission; permission subject to such condi-
tions as the Chief Town Planner thinks fit or outright re-
fusal. There is a right to appeal, to the Minister, against
conditional permissions and refusals. If the authority
exceeds it's statutory powers, there haalso the right of
appeal to the courts. Planning applications which raise
issues of major importance to the society can be called in
for ministerial decision.

Control is carried out largely through the use of en-
forcement notices, under this procedure an owner who carries
out development without permission or in breach of conditions
can be compelled to "undo" the development, even if this
involves the demolition of a new building (and this has been
known to happen). Before enforcement notices are issued,

warning notices are sent to owners/developers, informing

43

them that the development is an infringement of the Town
Planning regulations and that they should, therefore, stop
the development.

The authority derives it's power from the ordinances
contained in the Town and Country Planning Act 1965 and
the Revised Act of 1972. The legislation includes: regu-
lations for plot ratios, road reserves, building lines and
heights of buildings; the Health Services (Hotels) Regula-
tions 1969 which deals with health conditions in the hotel,
size of rooms, access to light, etc.; tree and building
preservation orders; control of advertisements; the Land
Acquisition Act (1949) and Land Acquisition Amendment Act
(1964); the Urban Development Corporation Act 1965 and

Protection of Water Resources.

Tree and Building Preservation Orders
These regulations provide for the preservation of trees,

woodlands, and buildings of architectural or historical
interest in any part of the island. For the orders to be
effective, however, the Minister must supply a list defin-
ing the position of trees, groups of trees or woodlands

and a list of all buildings and sites worthy of preserva-
tion. To date, neither Of these lists has been written

into the legislation.

44

Land Acquisition Act (1949) and Land Acquisition (Amendment)

 

Act 1964

The Acts provide for the acquisition of land for public
purposes, either by agreement or compulsorily, at prices
which reflect the existing use of the land to be acquired.
In extension of these powers, the 1965 Planning Act pro-

vides for the acquisition of land for planning purposes.

Urban Development Corporation Act (1965)

 

This act was passed to establish a corporation with
powers to hold, acquire, develop, dispose and manage land

for urban purposes.

Protection of Water Resources

The protection of water resources is accomplished
solely by restrictions on the development of land. 'These
restrictions are imposed and enforced solely by the Town
and Country Planning Office. Given the present growing
concern with and expertise in water quality management, it
may be desirable to allocate some of this responsibility

to the Water Board or other water specialists.

Phase 5

DEFICIENCIES OF EXISTING LEGISLATION

Environmental

 

Beekhuis (1981) observed that in many Caribbean coun-

tries, environmental considerations are not incorporated

45

into development planning. National policies on marine
pollution control and coastal and marine protection are
either of very recent creation or nonexistent. The problem
is aggravated by a lack or integrated marine pollution
monitoring and research programs, as well as the lack of
standards for water quality, seafood or the disposal of
toxic materials.

In Barbados, the only existing regulation aimed at
ensuring the quality of potable water is that on the pro-
tection of water reserve areas from structural development.
Domestic or industrial wastes, however, are not the only
causes of water pollution. Nitrogen and carbon, two sources
of pollution, are abundant in the environment and phosphor-
ous, the third major source, is present in large quantities
in fertilizers and detergents.

The problem of marine pollution has two dimensions:

(1) pollution of the Caribbean Sea which affects the region
as a whole and (2) localized environmental problems which
largely affect the land mass in the immediate area.

Although there is no existing legislation on the pro-
tection of the marine environment in Barbados, the need for
control measures was summed up by the Barbados Delegation
to the Law of the Sea Commonwealth Caribbean Conference in
1978:

The pollution problems of the Caribbean
Sea may not have reached the magnitude of

those in the Baltic and Meditteranean...but
the similarity of land locked configuration

46

of the Caribbean with the potential

for retention of pollutants from a
developing region warrants early pre-
ventive action. If the countries of
this region are to benefit from the
exploitation and sharing of the re-
sources of the Caribbean Sea it be-
comes imperative that immediate action
is taken to arrest the trend towards
destruCtion of marine life which is so
essential to the maintenance Of the ma-
rine ecological balance and to the sus-
tenance of our people (Quoted in
Rodriquez, 1981).

The second problem relates to such localized environ-
mental problems as high coliform counts and substandard
oxygen levels. These problems affect the development of
certain economic activities, such as coastal tourism and
fisheries which depend on a healthy marine environment.
Barring the existing policy against removing sand from the
beach there are no regulations in this area.

Beach Erosion. The policy of the Town and Country

 

Planning Office has been to prohibit the building of
structures beyond M)meters or the cliff edge or high water
mark, whichever is nearest. However, this regulation is
often waived on the south and west coasts where building
lines were in existence prior to it's adoption.

There are no regulations governing or preventing the
blasting of reefs.

Existing regulations providing for the protection of
trees is ineffective because there is no National Register
containing a list of trees or groups of trees worthy of

preservation.

47

Physical

Beach Access and Open Space for'Recreation Activity.

 

There is no existing legislation to prevent building develop-
ment on established or accepted public rights of way to
popular beaches and coastal recreation areas in Barbados.
Furthermore, once development has taken place, there is no
legal method by which private owners can be made to main-
tain a public beach access.

Social Carryinngapacity As It Relates to Beach Capa-
gipy. All beaches in Barbados are public and it is there-
fore illegal to ban persons, visitors or locals, from any
beach. It is therefore difficult, if not impractical, to
regulate capacity through legislation.

Land Speculation. The problems here are: (1) no

 

legislation exists to regulate the length of time for which
an approval is valid. Land can be approved for a particular
type of development, without any obligation on the part of
the applicant to develop it, and (2) there is no stated
policycnlthe limiting of new hotel construction based on
projected demand for such accommodation.

Land Conservation. Provision is made for the preser-
vation of areas of natural beauty and historical signifi-
cance through Preservation Orders. For the legislation to
be effective, a National List of such areas must be accepted
by the Minister. The Barbados Conservation Society has
compiled a list of buildings and sites worthy of conserva-

tion; however, there is a problem with the definition of

48

boundaries and the list has not yet been accepted by govern-

ment.

Phase 6

IDENTIFICATION OF SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS DISCUSSED

 

The solutions suggested in this phase are based on the
data examined in the previous phases.

Traffic Congestion.

 

The problem of traffic congestion is evident only in
the Bridgetown area. This is primarily the result of the
intensification of land use in the central area of the is-
land's largest city. More people are attracted within a
limited time in to an area of restricted size and along a
road system which is inadequate to cope with a large volume
of traffic.

It has been suggested that the traffic problem of
Bridgetown is not so much a reflection of a state of urban
congestion throughout the island but due principally to'a
lack of other urban centers of sufficient size to relieve
the area of the load placed upon it. Thus, a policy of
decentralization has been suggested since it is not felt
that the area can COpe with unrestricted expansion of motor
vehicle traffic.

Alleviation of the traffic congestion problems in the
central area would seem to require two solutions: (1) the
development of other commercial centers in the island with

the potential to attract large numbers of shoppers and

49

offering a wide variety of goods and services. This would
divert some of the existing traffic (vehicular and pedes-
trian) away from the Central area; and (2) implementation
of regulations for the control of traffic in this area.

Traffic regulations should include: (i) the restricted
use of the motor car; (ii) the diversion of traffic trav-
elling between the south and west coasts away from the area.

(i) Restricted use of the motor car would require
that persons doing business in the downtown area, leave
their cars outside of the area. An adequate number of car
parking facilities would have to be provided for such per-
sons; in addition, depending on the distance between these
parking facilities and the downtown, a shuttle system for
transporting these people may have to be provided.

(ii) At present, most traffic travelling between the
south and west coasts, use Bridgetown as a connecting link.
The construction of a by-pass road around the central area
would divert most of this traffic.

The following non-legislative measures are also sug-
gested: (1) the provision of an adequate public trans-
portation system; (2) improved facilities for the private
motorist including the provision of access roads and multi-
story car parks and (3) hotels should be required to pro-
vide for the sale of essential items on their premises, this
would help to reduce the number of trips made to the central

area.

50

Water Scarcipy

Barbados obtains all of its potable water from under-
ground wells. The total water resources were estimated
at 204 million liters per day of which only 132 million
liters per day would be available for public water supply.
Presently, about 138 nuJernI liters of water are used per
day. Assuming an average per capita consumption of 318
liters per day, the island could support an ultimate pop-
ulation of 413,000 persons or, possibly 580,000 persons if
control by metering is employed. This capacity is expected
to meet the needs of the projected island population up
to 1985. However, the rate of water usage attributed to the
tourist industry (water used mainly in hotels) was found to
have a significant negative impact on the fixed reserves
of potable water. Lewsey (1978) estimated that visitors
utilized 25 percent of the estimated island wide reserves
of potable water. Given the combined demand for potable
water by visitors, the local population, industry and com-
merce, Barbados could be facing serious water shortages as
early as 1985. However, there are alternative methods of
obtaining potable water and hotel developers should be
encouraged to examine and develop some of these possibili-
ties. After 1985, then, all persons seeking permission
to develop land for hotel purposes may be required to sat-
isfy the authorities that they can provide a continuous

supply of water.

51

Water Pollution

The maintenance of high quality potable water, in
Barbados, essentially requires that water reserve areas be
protected. As a result, building construction has been
prohibited in water reserve areas in an effort to prevent
discharged sewage and other deleterious matter entering
the water system. However, residential subdivisions and
hotel developments have encroached on these areas. In
addition, some sanitary land fill areas have been located
in their immediate vicinity.

Pollution of potable water by organic leechate seep-
age from sanitary land fill areas located close to water
reserve areas may be an indicator that these dumping areas
need to be relocated. There are three methods of garbage
disposal and these are discussed below. The cleanest of
these methods is the incinerator type where refuse is de-
livered to the incinerator plant and burned. This method
is also the most expensive. However, given the small size
and compactness of the island, along with the fact that
there are no large tracts of land available for garbage
dumping, the construction of a single incinerator plant may
be a very worthwhile investment.

The three types of garbage disposal along with their
advantages and disadvantages are:

l. Dumps: In this process, refuse is dumped in a

designated area where it is burned periodically and plowed

52

under. Before burning, garbage and rubbish may or may not
be separated. This method is normally utilized by small
communities with an ample amount of open land.

It provides land fill for marginal areas, is inexpen-
sive, and is simple to operate and supervise. The major
disadvantages are the offensive odors produced and the
propagation of insect and rodent populations.

The use of dumps requires approximately 1 hectare of
land per 10,000 population served.

2. Sanitary Fill: This process is similar to dumping
except that refuse is covered with earth. Refuse is dumped
in specified spots and the whole operation is well organized.
Sanitary fill areas are usually found in medium or high
density areas.

This system is relatively inexpensive, simple to oper-
ate and provides land fill for marginal areas. The disad-
vantages here are the insects and rodents that can result
if the system is not constantly supervised.

Sanitary fill areas require four acres of land per
10,000 population (De Chiara, 1975).

3. Incinerator: In this process, refuse is delivered
to the incinerator plant where it is burned. This method
is usually restricted to large, high density urban areas.

The advantages of this method are: (1) it is an ex-
tremely clean operation which does not facilitate the
breeding of insects and rodents and (2) the process can be

used to make steam.

53

Among the disadvantages are: (1) the high initial
operating costs and (2) its contribution to air pollution.

This technique is used mostly in industrial areas and
requires about 4 or 8 hectares<xfland for operation.

Ensuing quality potable water in Barbados would seem
to require the following: (1) standards for maintaining
the quality of such water need to be set and adhered to;
(2) standards regulating the capacity and location of septic
tanks should be rigidly enforced and (3) the method of
garbage disposal throughout the country should be improved.

Water quality standards are set out in Appendix B and
minimum requirements for septic tanks in Chapter 4. The
existing system of dumping garbage in open areas is inappro-
priate given the small size of the country and existing
pressures for land for development purposes. It is estimated
that by the open dumping method described above, the island
would require a minimumcn320.hectares of land or the existing
population of 250,000 persons. This is calculated at the
rate of 1 hectare per 10,000 population served.

The use of sanitary-fill areas requires 40 hectares of
land in order to serve the existing population of 250,000.

The installation of an incinerator plant on the island
WOU1d rquIire 4-8 hectares of land and would also eliminate
the following problems:

(1) the large number of rodents and insects caused by

the use of dumps or sanitary-fill areas;

54

(2) the odor emanating from these dumps;
(3) the unsightliness of dumping areas especially

within the urban area.

The use of an incinerator plant would also free more
land for development purposes. Operation of such a plant,
however, is particularly costly in the initial phases but

the benefits to be derived may far outweigh the costs.

Marine Pollution

Marine pollution is caused largely by the inadequate
disposal of waste. The presence of coliform bacteria in
marine waters is an indicator that inadequately treated
sewage is reaching the sea. The problem has been attri-
buted to poor location, poor maintenance and overloading
of septic tanks.

The predominant use of septic tank systems in close
proximity to the land/sea interface, and sewage outfalls
and storm drain systems emptying directly into the sea
have already affected the subaqueous ecosystems of the
south west coast of Barbados. Inadequately treated sewage
increases coliform counts and lowers oxygen levels in
natural waters. This increases the growth of algae and
has negative impacts on coral reef formation and marine

life.

55

In order to maintain a quality marine environment,
it is important that specific standards for water quality
be achieved. The first requirements in alleviating the
problem is to define specific quality standards for the
surrounding waters and conduct frequent tests to ensure
that these standards are being upheld. In addition,
minimum capacities of septic tanks and minimum distances
for their location away from wells, property lines, founda-
tion walls, water lines, seepage pits and drywells should
be specified and dumping of untreated sewage into the sea
should be prohibited.

The minimum capacity of septic tanks should be based

on the number of bedrooms proposed.

Beach Erosion

 

During periods of storm attack and changes in the rate
of littoral drift, cycles of significant erosion have been
apparent in locations along the southwest and west coasts.
The occurrence coincides with enclaves of intensive tourism
development. Blasting of channels in the protective fringe
reefs, to create white pools for pleasure and craft usage,
and the removal of protective vegetative cover have in-
creased the rate of erosion in these areas.

Maintaining an adequate beach littoral free of build-
ing development and strict monitoring of protective sea
walls, groynes and harbour protection works can help to

slow down the erosion process.

56

Placement of structures along the beach can be con-
trolled by stipulating minimum distances, for construction
activity, away from the high water mark or cliff edge.

A policy of locating structures at least 100 meters away
from the high water mark or cliff edge is recommended

for all new development. In areas where the building line
has already been established, each application should be
considered on an individual basis. Insufficient space on
the beach to accommodate a particular development, should
not be a sufficient condition for the relaxation of this
policy. There is also need for regulations to control

the creation of white pools within beach areas and the

removal of vegetation.

Access to Beaches

The problem here relates mainly to the south and west
coasts of the island where intensive hotel development has
taken place. The remaining coastal areas are virtually
free of man-made barriers. Examination of aerial photo-
graphs for 1950, 1964, and 1973 showed the gradual occlu-
sion of the island's south and west coast vistas and public
access to beaches. In reality, public beaches became the
private property of the individual property owners who
built fences around properties thereby limiting access to
the beaches behind. The problem of access, however, seems
to have more to do with ease of access to beaches than

with the number of access points. On the west and south

57

coasts, at least 58 access points from the road to the
beach were identified. Of this number, 38 were footpaths,
and 20 were suitable for vehicular movement. Most ac-
cesses were disorganized trails, of varying widths, bet-
ween houses. Twenty-two were located on publicly owned
lands and thirty-six on private property.

Eleven of the accesses on government owned land were
well organized and maintained by the Parks and Beaches
Commission. Four of these, located at Brighton, Brandons,
Sandy Lane and Folkstone, are on the west coast and the
remainder on the south coast. Some of the major existing
accesses to the beach are described in Appendix A.

Several elements can be used to describe access.
Managers can control the ease of access by the type of
access provided (e.g., roads, trails, footpaths) and by
the means of conveyance allowed (e.g., car, horse, bi-
cycle). Both access elements can vary from easy to
difficult and therefore design standards are important in
defining the range of access systems. Roads and footpaths
can be designed as high standard systems, requiring in-
tensive maintenance, or low standard roads and/or paths
needing little or no maintenance. In many cases, the
topography and type of vegetation will help define the
conveyances that can be used. Thus, a combination of
natural features, design and maintenance standards and

regulations determine access.

58

In order to facilitate easy access to beaches by
the local population, it is necessary to determine the
number and location of access points required to satisfy
the needs of the local population. Ideally, accesses to
be developed should be chosen from those already existing
and should be spaced approximately 2 kilometers apart or
as close to this standard as possible. The quality of
beaches for bathing should also be taken into considera-
tion when selecting accesses for development.

Provision of an adequate number of access points
requires: (1) the acquisition by government of the more
important access ways in the area and (2) development
and maintenance by the Parks and Beaches Commission of

those areas acquired.

Coastal Open Space for Recreational Activities

Coastal open space provided by public authorities
need not be subject to market forces and requires care-
ful consideration in order to ensure that an adequate
supply of such facilities exists. On the supply side, the
provision of coastal open space has an opportunity cost
represented by the benefits which could be derived from
its alternative use as a site for hotel or some other
development. On the demand side, under—provision of
recreation space results in deprivation, in some way, of

the population of the area (Evans, 1974).

59

Coastal open space, like other goods and services
provided by public authorities, assumes no person should
be deprived of access to beaches, or the opportunity for
physical recreation, by reason of his economic or social
status or geographical location.

The provision of open space, however, requires more
than the allocation of a calculated area for every 1000
population. Open space allocated in this way may be
wrongly located, giving some areas too little and others
too much. It is, therefore, necessary to plan for various
grades of open space (Onokerhoraye, 1977).

Location and Spacing. The location of open space

 

should depend on the size of the population in the area
in which the open space is to be provided. Sometimes,
however, the most heavily used open spaces and the most
populous areas do not coincide.

The range of influence of an open space depends on
the maximum distance persons are willing to travel for
the benefits provided by that particular facility (Berry
and Garrison, 1958). Generally this distance will vary
with the grade of Open space, particularly the quality
of the beach for swimming and the level of facilities,
as well as with the mode of travel available to persons
using it (Onokerhoraye, 1976).

Using these concepts as a base, it is possible to
suggest a system of open space provision for different

levels of use. Other factors which influence the location

60

of open space are land availability, level of socio-eco-
nomic development, mode of travel, and the level of exist-
ing use for recreational purposes.

Three levels of open space are suggested: local open
space, district open space and regional open space.

Local Open Space. Comprises an area of 2 to 4 hec-

 

tares and caters to a population of one to five thousand
persons drawn from a l kilometer radius. Children's play
areas and sitting facilities for old persons and workers,
during lunch hours, are provided in a landscaped environ-
ment.

District Openg§pace. Comprises an area of 4 to 12

 

hectares and caters to a population of 5 to 10 thousand
persons from a 3 kilometer radius. There is a vehicular
access, car parking facilities and all the facilities
found in the local open space areas.

Regional Open Space. Comprises an area of 12 to 20

 

hectares with pedestrian and vehicular accesses. In addi-
tion to the facilities found in the district Open Space,
provision is also made for the parking of public transport
vehicles, active recreation, a restaurant and entertainment.
Such space is frequented by people from areas of 3/4 to 1
hour driving distance.

Many of the coastal areas on the south and west coasts,
traditionally used by locals as picnic areas, have already

been developed with hotels. Most of the remaining areas

61

either have development permissions, which will effectively,
. nullify their present use or are increasingly coming under
pressure for hotel development. Only three areas on the
south and west coasts, the Brighton/Brandons, Accra/Rockley
and the area adjacent to Good Shepherd Church are not under
immediate pressure for hotel development. Two of those
three areas are controlled and managed by the Parks and
Beaches Commission. Below is a list of picnic areas under

pressure for hotel development.

Table 4. EXISTING PUBLIC RECREATION AREAS IN BARBADOS WHICH
HAVE BEEN APPROVED FOR ALTERNATIVE TYPES OF DEVEL-

 

 

 

OPMENT.
AREA TYPE OF DEVELOPMENT
Batts Rock Erection of a condominium block and erection
of a hotel.
Paynes Bay Erection of a hotel, apartment/hotel and or

condominium with ancillary facilities and
subdivision of land for residential use.

Heywoods Construction of an apartment/hotel complex
and amusement center (construction presently
underway).

Long Beach Erection of hotel, apartment hotel and use
of land for residential purposes; outline
subdivision for alternate development (a)
hotel; (b) housing; subdivision of land for
hotel purposes and development of land for
residential and hotel use.

Road View Use of land for hotel/apartment purposes and
erection of an apartment/hotel and beach bar.

 

SOURCE: Town and Country Development Planning Office, 1980.
Revised Draft of the Physical Development Plan,
UnpubliSHed.

62

.The amount of open space allocated for use by local
residents depends, primarily, on the recreation policy
adopted by the government. At present, beaches provide the
major, and often the only, recreation areas for the island's
population. If this present policy is maintained, it is
imperative that a strategy be implemented to save the few
remaining open coastal areas from hotel development. With
the exception of three areas, the Brighton/Brandon, Pebble
and Accra Beach, all of the remaining areas have been
approved for hotel development.

As a matter of urgency, Government should acquire
land at the following locations for public recreational
purposes: Batts Rock, Paynes Bay, Long Beach and Road View.
These areas having been acquired, would have to be upgraded.
Three types of open space should be provided: (1) local
open space; (2) district open space; and (3)regional
open space. Criteria for defining these open space types

in Barbados, are set out in Chapter 4.

Social Carrying Capacity As It Relates to Beach Capacity.
The problem here seems to be the lack of provision of
a sufficient number of adequate beach areas for locals.
Most hotels are located along the best swimming areas in
the island. This forces locals interested in swimming to
use these areas. The existing practice of hoteliers, that

of spreading beach chairs from their property line to the

63

water's edge, virtually barricading the area, has further
aggravated the problem thus causing some fear among tourism
planners that locals may feel deprived and either openly
show their aggression or stop using the beach completely.

Determining the social carrying capacity of the island
is a very difficult task. As pointed out earlier, the
major problem here has to do with measurement, namely the
apparent inability of researchers to measure crowding
accurately.

However, there are ways in which the number of persons
using the beach at any one time can be regulated. These
factors include size of access, availability of parking
and type of facilities offered. Unavailability of one or
more of these elements can reduce the degree of beach
usage.

Opinions expressed as early as 1953 by authorities
in the Mid-west of the United States indicate that an
ideal beach would be 200 meters long and 33 meters deep.
Beaches longer than 1,200 meters are undesirable because
of the administrative difficulties they present (West
Michigan Shoreline Regional Development Commission, 1979).

Current planning practices in Los Angeles and West-
chester County recommend 7 to 14 square meters of beach
per person. There should be enough beach space to accom-
modate 7 percent of the population to be served.

Criteria for determining beach capacity are:

64

1. Allow beach space for 7 percent of population to
be served.

2. Allow a minimum of 7 square meters of space per
person.

Beach capacity then may be used as one of the elements
for determining the social carrying capacity of the island.
Assuming that 7 percent of the local population use the
beach at any one time, and each person requires approxi-
mately 7 square meters of beach, then the remaining capa-
city can be allocated to visitor use.

If it is found desirable to separate visitors from
locals on the beach, this can be done through the alloca-
tion of facilities provided. Large number of persons are
more likely to visit beaches where access is easy and the
surrounding area well maintained and amenable than beaches
which are difficult to access or undeveloped. Minimum
beach requirements for visitors and locals are set out in

Chapter 4.

Land Speculation

The problem of hoarding vacant land for hotel develop-
ment in a situation of extremely limited land resources is
particularly serious especially when it is suggested that
there is already an over-supply of certain types of hotels
on the island. When the supply of hotel accommodation was

matched with the demand for that accommodation, only Class

65

I or luxury hotels experienced an under-supply of accom-

modation (Table 5).

Table 5. THE SUPPLY OF AND DEMAND FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF
ACCOMMODATION DURING 1979.

 

 

 

 

Type of Proportion of Proportion of
Accommodation Demand, . Supply
Class I 37.0 22.6
Class II 5.0 12.2
Class III 12.2 7.0
Guest Houses 0.8 2.3
Apartments/Apt.

Hotels 45.0 54.8

 

SOURCE: Town and Country.Development Planning Office
Barbados, 1980. Revised Draft of the Physical
Development Plan. Unpublished.

 

 

Should the majority of lagging applications suddenly
be taken up this situation could be considerably worsened
since the total supply of accommodation is increasing
faster than the demand for that accommodation.

The real problem here is the need for control over
quantities of land released for tourism purposes. Under
the present system, the granting of permission to develop
land for hotel purposes does not ensure that construction
actually occurs and therefore allows increasing quantities
of land to be approved for hotel purposes. In addition,
there is no policy to match the supply of accommodation

with the demand for the accommodation. One solution might

66

be to impose a time constraint on all commercial permis-
sions so that they lapse if not taken up within a given
time period. However, this is not thought to be, in itself,
an effective solution since the owner/developer can reapply
for permission to develop that land and, barring some
unforeseen circumstance, there is every possibility that
the development would be approved.

What seems to be required is some mechanism whereby
planners can limit the number of approvals issued in order
that the supply of accommodations would more closely match
the demand for accommodations. Only then would placing a
time limit on the validity of permissions be effective in
helping to control the problem.

A two-part solution is suggested: (1) limit the time
period for which permits to develop land for hotel develop-
ment are valid; and (2) hinge the number of permits ap-
proved on the estimated number of hotel rooms required to
satisfy the projected demand. This method ensures that
developments are approved only if the demand exists. On
this basis, developments would not be automatically re-
approved simply because they were granted permission pre-

viously.

Land Conservation
Land conservation requires the identification of dis-
tricts worthy of conservation and the appropriate legis-

lation to ensure the protection of these areas from

67

commercial development.

To be of historical and cultural significance, a
structure or area should have outstanding historical and
cultural significance in the nation, state, region or com-
munity in which it exists. Such structures and sites may
include:

(1) those structures or sites in which the broad cul-
tural, political, economic or social history of the nation
or community is best exemplified, and from which the vis-
itor may grasp in three dimensional form one of the larger
patterns of the country's heritage;

(2) structures or areas that are identified with the
lives of historic personages or important events in the
main currents of national or local history; and

(3) structures or areas that embody the distinguishing
characteristics of an architectural type-specimen, inher-
ently valuable for a study of a period, style or method of
construction; or a notable work of a master builder. Mere
antiquity is not a sufficient basis for selection of a
structure for permanent preservation, but can be a factor
if other more significant examples have disappeared or if
the building forms part of an especially characteristic
section of a given community. Small structures, such as
the wooden houses of the pioneers, may be of relative impor-
tance as mansions of the past.

A list of conservation areas has already been formu-

lated by the Barbados Conservation Association. However,

68

boundaries of these sites have not been agreed upon.

Resolution of this problem requires (1) a list iden-
tifying historic sites and delineating boundaries of sites
worthy of conservation in Barbados; (2) acceptance of this
list at the Governmental level and (3) a policy for ace
quiring, developing and maintaining these areas by govern-
ment authorities.

The following considerations may be used in defining
district boundaries:

1. Where a plantation road, farm road, access way or
public road exists at the end of the agricultural use within
reasonable proximity to the shoreline, it can be used as
the boundary between the agricultural and conservation dis-
trict.

2. Where a vegetation line such as a windbreak or row
of trees more clearly marks the edge of the agricultural
practice, this can be used.

3. In cases where the shoreline is a steep cliff, the
top of the ridge can be used.

4. Where no readily identifiable boundary such as any
of the above can be determined, a line 100 meters inland of

the line of wave action can be used.

SUMMARY
Chapter 3 provided background data on Barbados, dis-
cussed specific problems faced by the country and solutions

to those problems.

69

Background material included: (1) a description of
the growth of the tourist industry in Barbados including
data on the growth in tourist arrivals, cruise ship passen-
gers and the growth of visitor accommodations, and (2)
physical factors affecting development in Barbados. The
major factors identified are topography; variety and dis-
tribution of soil type; special problems of erosion and
restrictions on land use necessary to protect ground water
resources from contamination; and a brief description of
the existing settlement structure.

The problems discussed relate to traffic congestion,
water scarcity, water pollution, marine pollution, beach
erosion, the provision of coastal open space for recreation-
al activities, the capacity of beaches, land speculation
and land conservation.

Solutions to these problems were discussed within the
guidelines specified in Chapter 2. Essentially, they re-
lated to measures for regulating hotel deve10pment which
can help to alleviate the problems discussed. In cases
where it was felt that government action is required, the

type of action needed was specified.

Chapter 4

RESULTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

INTRODUCTION

 

This chapter is divided into two parts. Part I lists
standards and criteria suggested for alleviating some of
the problems related to hotel development in Barbados.
Part II recommends a strategy for implementation of these

standards.

Part I
CRITERIA AND STANDARDS

Standards and criteria suggested here relate not only
to hotels themselves but to traffic, water, sewage disposal
and recreation planning. These standards are included in
order to ensure some consistency in the overall planning
of the area since it is extremely difficult for a goal or
uniform set of objectives to be achieved through a fragmented

approach to planning.

Traffic Congestion

Examination of the causes of traffic congestion problems
in Barbados indicates that improved traffic regulation meth-
ods and road standards are not enough to effectively deal

with the problem. At present, too many people are using

70

71

the only major shopping and commercial center in the island.
What seems to be required is a decentralization policy
whereby goods and services can be obtained outside of this
area. This would relieve the pressure on the central area.
This study, therefore, recommends that:

(1) Small hotels (those of 50 rooms or less) make

 

provision for the sale of small, essential items on their

premises; and

(2) larger hotels or groups of hotels provide a wider
range of goods, including souvenirs, in addition to such

other commercial services as banking.

Water Scarcity

 

This problem has two aspects: (1) that of satisfying
the demands of the local population and (2) that of satis-
fying the demands of visitors.

Since the government is committed to providing a con-
tinuous supply of water for the local population, the
limited potential reserves should be preserved for use by
locals.

(l) The local population should be guaranteed 273
liters of water per person per day.

(2) Hotel developers should be required to satisfy
local planning authorities that they can provide a contin-
uous supply of water. New hotel developments which cannot
provide adequate quantities of water, after allocation has

been made for locals and existing hotels, should not be

72

permitted. The water requirements of various types of

 

hotels are given in Table 6.

Table 6. WATER REQUIREMENTS OF SELECTED HOTEL TYPES.

 

 

Type of Hotel or Accommodation Liters Of Water

 

Per Day
Cottages with seasonal occupany 227
(per resident)
Clubs
Country (per resident member) 454
Country (per non-resident member) 114
Guest house (per person) 227
Hotels with private baths (2 persons
per room) 273
Hotels with private baths (per
person) 227
Apartment hotels with bath, toilet
and kitchen space facilities (per
bed space) 227
- with bed and toilet (per bed
space 182
Restaurants with toilet facilities
(per patron) 32-45
- without toilet facilities
(per patron) ll-13.6
- with baths and cocktail lounge
(additional quantity per person) 9
Swimming pools (per swimmer) 45

 

SOURCE: De Chiara, Joseph, et. al., 1975. Urban Planning
and Design Criteria. Toronto: Van Nostrand
Reifihold Co., p. 525.

 

73

Water Pollution

 

This problem requires: (1) the setting of water quality
standards, and (2) strict controls over the disposal of
garbage. The justification for making these recommendations
is to prevent water pollution. With respect to (1) above,
clear standards to ensure the quality of two types of water
are recommended for Barbados. The water types are labelled
Class SA and Class SB. Class SA water is suitable for
drinking. Class SB water is suitable for irrigation of
crops, among other uses. Standards, to help ensure a mini-
mum quality of these waters are set out in Appendix B. In
the case of (2) it is strongly recommended that Government
set up an incinerator plant for the disposal of garbage.
Hotels desirous of usingppublic sanitation services for the
disposal of garbage should be made to pay user fees. These
fees may be used to help ensure the proper maintenance of

existing dumping areas and/or the proposed incinerator

plant.

Marine Pollution

 

Similarly in order to prevent marine pollution, criteria
for judging the quality of existing water need to be set.
These criteria should be set according to the use to which
the water will be put. Appendix C identifies four categories
of marine waters and lists standards for each. No establish-

ment should be allowed to discharge raw sewage into the sea.

74

In particular, hotels using septic tanks should ensure that

 

these tanks meet the requirements outlined in Tables'7and 8.

Table 7. MINIMUM CAPACITIES OF SEPTIC TANKS.

 

 

Minimum Liquid Capacity

Number Of Bedrooms Below Outlet Invert (liters)

 

2 or less 3410
3 4091
4 4546

Each additional bedroom
add 1137

 

SOURCE: De Chiara, Joseph, et. al., 1975. Urban Planning
and Desigp Criteria. Toronto: Van Nostrand
Reinhold Co., p. 559.

 

 

These capacities provide for plumbing fixtures and
appliances, including automatic sequence washers, garbage
grinders and dishwashers. -

The design of the septic tank should provide (1) ade-
quate volume for settling; (2) adequate space for sludge
and slum storage; and (3) easy access for cleaning. The
structural design and construction materials used should
be in keeping with generally accepted good engineering
practice. The tank provided should be durable enough to
sustain dead and live loads and the liquid and earth pres-
sure involved in each case.

The location of the septic tank must be such that it

achievesiflnafollowing minimum distances as shown in Table 8.

75

Table 8. MINIMUM DISTANCES FOR SEPTIC TANKS.

 

DISTANCE TO:

DISTANCE (meters)8eptic Absorption Seepage Absorption

 

FROM: Tank Field Pit Bed
Well 17 33 33 33
Property Line 3 2 3 3
Foundation Wall 2 2 7 2
Water Lines 3 3 7 3
Seepage Pit 2 2 -- --
Drywell 2 7 7 7

 

SOURCE: De Chiara, Joseph, et. al., 1975. Urban Plannipg
and Design Criteria. Toronto: Van Nostrand
Reinhold Co., p. 558.

 

Beach Erosion

 

Since the use of beaches is essential to tourism, it
is important that the quality of these beaches be preserved.
Two procedures can help to slow down the erosion process
currently taking place along intensively developed coastal
areas: (1) strict monitoring of protective sea walls,
groynes and harbor protection works and (2) keeping the
beach littoral free of structural development.

(1) Unsuitable protective sea walls, groynes and
harbor protection works can intensify rather than alleviate
the erosion process.

(2) All new hotels or related developments should be

located at least 100 meters from the high water mark or

76

cliff edge. In areas where the building line has already
been established, each application for development should
be dealt with on an individual basis (this recommendation
was proposed in the Revised Draft of the Physical Develop-

ment Plan for Barbados). Effective use of such legislation

 

would also inhibit the indiscriminate clearing of the
natural vegetation, thereby conserving an important natu-

ral feature of the coast.

Beach Access

 

New hotels should have access to 380 linear meters of
beach per 100 occupants or 1 linear meter for each user
(assuming 50% of all occupants use the beach at any one
time). For new hotels, this amount should be available
after allocation has been made for local residents and
existing hotels.

In order to ensure ease of entry to beach areas, the
following standards are recommended for roads and footpaths.

Reade: Ideally access roads should be open at one end
only with provision for a turn around at the other. The
right-of-way should be at least 16 meters with a 30 meter
diameter turn around. The pavement should be between 10
and 12 meters with a 25 meter turn around. The maximum
grade should be 5 percent. This type of access should not
be longer than 170 meters.

Fooppaths: These should be develOped as necessary,

 

landscaped and properly signed.

77

In addition (1) future hotel structures should be
sited in such a way that the few remaining views to the
sea are not completely obstructed and (2) developers
should provide for free pedestrian movement along the

water's edge adjacent to their properties.

Coastal Open Space for Recreational Facilities

It is recommended that government pursue a policy of
providing recreational facilities along coastal areas, since
for many locals, beaches are their only source of recreation.
Such a policy would require not mere access to beaches, but
also significant amounts of open space adjacent to beaches.
Most of these areas would be used for passive recreation
such as picnicking.) Space requirements for different types
of activities are given in Table 9.

Location. A number of areas on the south and west

 

coasts have traditionally been used by locals as picnic
areas. With the exception of four of these, which have
already been acquired by government for public purposes,
all the others have been approved for hotel development.
As a matter of urgency, the following four areas should be
acquired for public purposes: (1) Batts Rock; (2) Paynes
Bay; (3) Long Beach, and (4) Roadview. These four areas
are the only remaining undeveloped areas in Barbados with
good swimming beaches.

Areas at Long Beach, on the south coast, and Good

Shepherd, on the west coast should be developed as regional

Table 9 .

78'

STANDARDS FOR RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES.

 

 

Type of Recreational
Activity

Space Requirements
for Activity per

1000 population

Ideal size of
Space Required

 

ACTIVE

Childrens play area
(with equipment)

Field play areas for
young children

Older children—adult
field sports

Outdoor tennis and
other court sports

Major boating
activities

Golfing

PASSIVE

Picnicking

Parking at recrea-
tional areas

0.2 hectares/
1000 pop.

0.6 hectares/
1000 pop.

0.6 hectares/
1000 pop.

0.4 hectares/
5000 pop.

40.5 hectares/
50,000 pop.

1-18 hole course
per 50,000 pop.

1.6 hectares/
1000 pop.

0.4 hectares/
1000 pop.

0.4 hectares

1.2 hectares

6.0 hectares

0.8 hectares

40.0hectares

49 . 0 hectares

varies

varies

 

NOTE:

SOURCE:

1 acre = 0.40468 hectares.

De Chabra, Joseph, et. al., 1975.
and Design Criteria.

Toronto:

Reinhold Co., p. 363.

Urban Planning

 

Van Nostrand

79

open space areas while those at Batts Rock, Paynes Bay,
Tourist Trap and Enterprise should be developed as district
open space areas. The remainder of the beach access areas
described in Appendix A may be developed as local open
space areas. Criteria for defining different types of
areas are as follows:

Local Open Space. The area should be landscaped with

 

a well maintained pedestrian access and changing room
facilities.

District Open Space. In addition to the facilities
found in local open space areas, district open spaces
should have a vehicular access, car parking facilities
and a life-guard station.

Regional Open Space. In addition to the facilities

 

found in the District Open Space, provision should be made
for: (1) parking or public transport vehicles; (2) active
recreation; and (3) restaurant and entertainment facili-

ties.

Social Carrying Capacity As It Relates to Beach Cepacity
The total social carrying capacity of the island should

be related to the carrying capacity of beaches. In order

to determine the carrying capacity of beaches, a minimum

of 7 square meters of beach area per person should be

allowed for 7 percent of the total population; and 7 square

miles per person for each visitor using the beach. Only

80
beaches with some potential for swimming should be in-
cluded in this survey. There is need for research into

the degree of beach usage by local residents and visitors.

Land Speculation

 

Land speculation should be controlled in order to
encourage the immediate use of scarce land resources.
Towards this end, a two step solution is recommended: (1)
the number of permissions issued to new hotel developers
should be limited. This number should be based on existing
trends in the demand for certain types of accommodations.
If the demand for Class B type hotels is declining, the
number of new permits issued should be in keeping with this
declining demand for Class B hotel rooms. The second rec-
ommendation relates to the length of time for which permits
are valid. Permits should be valid for a 4 year period
from the date of issue. This would give local persons,
desirous of entering the business, adequate time to raise
the required capital. Re-approval of permissions would
depend on the demand for that particular type of facility

at the time of application.

Land Conservation

 

Although the major concern of this study is for the
preservation of sites of national importance along coastal
areas,since these are the ones most likely to be lost to

hotel development, a comprehensive conservation policy is

81’

suggested. Such a policy would include all lands worthy of
conservation in the island.

It is recommended that a Conservation District be set
up in Barbados. In determining which areas should be in-
cluded in such a district, the following types of land
should be given high priority:

(1) lands necessary for protecting watersheds, water
resources, water supplies and preventing floods or soil
erosion;

(2) lands used for national parks;

(3) lands used for the conservation, preservation and
enhancement of scenic or historic sites;

(4) lands for preserving wilderness and beach re-
serves, for conserving endemic plants, fish and wildlife,
for forestry, and other related activities to these uses;

(5) coastal areas having an elevation below the high
water mark;

(6) lands with steep topography that may not be nor-
mally adaptable for urban, rural or agricultural use;

(7) lands with a general slope of 20% or more which
provide for cpen space amentities and/or scenic values.

(8) lands undergoing major erosion damages and requir-
ing corrective action by the national government; and

(9) lands suitable for farming, flower gardening,
operation of nurseries or orchards, grazing, growing of
commercial timber, hunting and recreational uses including

facilities accessorytx>such uses when the said facilities

82

are compatible with the natural physical environment

(adopted from Hawaii Land Use Commission, 1969, p. 8-9).

Part II

IMPLEMENTATION

 

The use of four policies are suggested for implementa-
tion of recommendations made in this research. They include:
(1) land banking; (2) taxation; (3) the use of conditions
attached to decisions issued by the local planning author-

ities; and (4) private participation.

1. Land Banking

 

This term has been applied to a wide range of public
and private activities in which land is held for future
use. There are two major types of land banking activities:
project land banking and general land banking.

Project land banking differs from general land banking
in that it is concerned with a specific functional area.
Activities which have been placed in the project category
include (1) holding land for urban renewal, low- and moder-
ate-income housing, open space, industrial development and
(2) advanced land acquisition for public purposes. This
type of land banking is aimed at immediate implementation
of recommendations.

A general land bank would not only be empowered to
dispose of land, for all purposes, but would not be required
to identify the purpose, for which Specific sites would be

used, at the time of acquisition.

83

A policy of project land banking may be the most effec-
tive means of ensuring: (1) adequate beach access to locals;
(2) coastal open space; and (3) the existence of conserva-
tion sites.

Government already has the power to acquire land
through the Land Acquisition Act of 1949 and to hold land

under the Urban Development Corporation Act of 1965.

2. Taxation

 

In a planning sense, a taxation policy seeks to achieve
inducement rather than control. It attempts to persuade
economic man (or corporation) to pursue his self-interest
in keeping with the public interest by injecting costs
for behavior which is not in the public interest and oppor-
tunities for behavior which is in keeping with the public
interest.

Tax policy as a planning tool must be tested by three
different standards: (1) the translation of legislative
intent into accomplished results; (2) the finesse with
which the policy can be applied; and (3) the consistency
of policy formulations.

Perhaps the two most important questions to ask when
suggesting a tax policy are (1) Does the tax system have
unplanned effects which aid or hinder the pursuit of plan—
ning goals? and (2) How might we use the tax system as an
instrument to accomplish the planning purpose, bearing in

mind that taxation of any sort represents an intrusion upon

84

"normal" market forces and inevitably results in a different
distribution of income than would be the case without such
intrusion?

The tax measures suggested here are: (l) the use of
hotel aids and duty free concessions (both already in
existence) to control land speculation; institution of fees
for the use of public sanitation facilities and increased
rates for those developments using water from the public
water system.

The gains from land speculation can also be reduced
by increasing capital gains taxes on changes in land use
and through government acquisition of the land for public

purposes.

3. Conditions Attached to Decisions

Subjecting permitted hotel development to certain
conditions may be one of the more important tools for im-
plementing the recommendations suggested in this report,
given the existing system of development controls in the
country. Hotel developments may be approved subject to
the following conditions:

1. The building line of the development needs to be
in keeping with that specified for the area.

2. The hotel should provide for the sale of consumer
goods and services.

3. Each hotel needs to demonstrate that it has access

to the minimum linear frontage of beach required for its size.

85

4. Each hotel should satisfy the authorities that it
can provide a constant supply of water.

5. The plans for the disposal of garbage and sewage
must meet the minimum requirements set out by the authority.

6. Provided the hotel is located along the coast, owner/
operators should keep the area along the water's edge free

of any obstruction to pedestrian right-of-way.

Private Participation

 

Local Service clubs should be encouraged to landscape
and otherwise develop open public areas in order to make
these areas more appealing to the public. One service club
has already landscaped an open area near the harbor. Once
these area are developed, however, government should under-

take to maintain them.

SUMMARY .
This chapter identified standards and criteria for
alleviating hotel related problems and strategies for their

implementation.

All new hotels should be required to (1) provide for
the sale of essential items on their premises; (2) pay a
user fee for using public sanitation services; (3) ensure
that septic tanks are properly maintained and meet the
minimum requirements set out in Tables 6 and 7; (4) ensure
that protective sea walls, groynes and other harbour pro-

tection works are properly maintained; (5) ensure that all

86.

structural development is within the building line speci-
fied for the particular area; (6) preserve, wherever
possible, the natural vegetation of the area; (7) provide
an adequate access to the beach for occupants; (8) site
structures in such a way that the few remaining coastal
views to the sea are not completely obstructed and (9)
provide for free pedestrian movement along the water's edge
adjacent to their properties.

Standards and criteria were also suggested for govern-
ment agencies. They related to: (l) provision of recrea-
tional areas for use by locals along the coast; (2)
limiting the number of permits issued to new hotel develop-
ers; (3) limiting the length of time for which permits
issued to hotel developers are valid and (4) establishing
a conservation district.

A four part strategy was suggested for the implementa-
tion of the above recommendations. It comprised (l) a
policy of project land banking; (2) a taxation policy;

(3) the use of conditions attached to decisions and (4)
participation by private persons, particularly service clubs,

in upgrading open space areas.

Chapter 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

INTRODUCTION

 

This chapter summarizes the approach to the study, and
discusses the generalizability of the methodology developed
and the major research findings. It also identifies areas

for future research.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This theSis focused on the environmental and land use
problems attributed to hotel development. The major issue
addressed was how can hotel development exist without
causing undue hardships for local people and destroying the
natural resources of the area? In order to do this, a
methodology was developed for examining the problems and
developing solutions for the alleviation of these problems.
To this end, criteria and standards were suggested.

It was recognized however, that criteria and standards
contain a cultural element. Thus, ideal standards are not
always recommended as appropriate for the area under study.
Instead, standards adapted were based on the ideals set out
in planning policy,tnn:on current planning practice and on

the existing situation in the area being studied.

87

88

The study concluded that: (1) there are specific
problems associated with the physical development of hotels;
(2) that there are measures which can be used to control
hotel development.

Specific conclusions identified were:

(1) A decentralization policy should be adopted in
order to relieve the pressure on the Bridgetown area. In
particular, hotels should be made to provide for the sale
of goods and services on their premises.

(2) New hotels should be encouraged to develop alter-
native sources of drinking water.

(3) Water quality standards should be set and there
should be strict controls over the disposal of garbage.

(4) The disposal of sewage should be strictly regu-
lated and untreated sewage should not be discharged into
the sea.

(5) Since the use of beaches is essential to tourism,
a building line, located at least 100 meters from the high
water mark or cliff edge should be established.

(6) Minimum standards for roads and footpaths should
be enforced in order to ensure ease of access to beaches.

(7) In order to ensure that locals are not deprived
of traditional recreational areas, government should acquire
some of the more popular open space areas for public use.
In particular, areas at Batts Rock, Paynes Bay, Long Beach

and Roadview were recommended as requiring high priority

89

since all of these areas had already been approved for
hotel development.

(8) In order to ensure that beaches are not over-
crowded, new hotels should be required to have access to a
minimum length of beach per anticipated guest.

(9) The number of permissions issued should be limited
as well as the time period for which such permissions are
valid.

(10) There is need for a conservation district on the

island.

GENERALIZABILITY

Many of the problems discussed here can be readily
identified in many areas of the world where intensive hotel
development is taking place. A search of the literature
showed that similar problems have been identified not only
in small island systems, such as the Hawaiian Islands, but
also in larger countries such as the United Kingdom and the
United States. Unfortunately, there is a scarcity of related
research from which methods of analyzing these problems and
ways of developing solutions can be abstracted. The metho-
dology developed here may, therefore, be useful in helping
to analyze and develop solutions in these areas.

It is recognized, however, that each country or area
studied may have a certain peculiar combination of character-

istics, related to the size of the country, the density and

90

distribution of population and the political/administrative

structure of the island.

FUTURE RESEARCH NEEDS

Based on the findings of this research, the following
needs were identified:

(1) the pattern and nature of beach erosion in Barbados
and effective measures which can be used to stablize beaches.

(2) Acceptable standards for the maintenance of quality
inland and marine waters.

(3) Effective measures for controlling pollution of
the wider Caribbean Sea.

(4) Examination of alternative methods of obtaining
potable water and identification of possible funding sources
for projects, and

(5) The use of beaches by both locals and residents,

and the capacity of beaches.

APPENDIX A

Appendix A

BEACH ACCESSES IN BARBADOS

Listed here are some of the more readily identifiable

beach accesses on the west and south coasts of Barbados.

THE WEST COAST

 

Seventeen accesses are described, starting from those
at Brandons in St. Michael and proceeding in a northerly

direction to Heywoods in St. Peter.

1. Brandons

 

This area has two well defined access points, one is
an unpaved road originating at the Farm Housing Area; the
other is a paved road, leading from Brighton. The beach
has been developed and is maintained by the Parks and
Beaches Commission as a picnic spot. Adequate changing

and parking facilities are provided.

2. Brighton
There are two adequate access pointstx)the beach. The
parking area provided can be easily reached from either

access .

3. Batts Rock
A well defined but unpaved access, with some space for
parking, runs across private property. There are plans to

relocate this access route.

91'

92

4. Swiss Chalet

 

A narrow, paved, signed footpath provides access to a

small beach area.

5. Barbados Beach Village
A small, paved pedestrian footpath leads onto the

beach. There is not much scope for improving this access.

6. Paynes Bay
This is an organized area, approximately 500 meters
long and 20 meters wide, facing onto the sea with no

organized access.

7. Area North of Tamarind Cove
This area, approximately 1 hectare,faces directly onto
the sea. It is presently used by locals as a recreation

area.

8. Area Opposite West Beach Village
The small, unpaved access runs across private property.

It is not heavily used.

9. Sandy Lane

 

A well maintained footpath at the southern end of Sandy
Lane beach leads to an area relatively unsuitable for swim-
ming. The beach, however, is more than 1.6 kilometers
long and at the Southern end, Sandy Lane Bay, more than
400 meters of wide beach and excellent swimming conditions

combine to produce what is probably the finest beach on

93

the west coast.

10. Good Shepherd

A paved road provides the only access to one of the
best and widest beaches along the west coast. The beach
along this area is one of the best for swimming and pic-

nicking north of Batts Rock.

11. Folkstone

 

This area is presently being developed by the Parks

and Beaches Commission as a picnic area and marine park.

12. Area South of Check Point Mini-Mart
Access to the beach area is well defined but requires
surfacing. There is some parking available, however, the

beach has very limited potential.

13. Reads Bay

 

There are two accesses to the beach area, both are
narrow and disorganized. Neither access has much potential

for improvement.

14. Carlton

 

This access runs across private property and is ex-
tremely disorganized. The beach, however, is very good

for swimming and extremely popular with locals.

15. Mullins Beach

This is in effect an open area with a restaurant facil-

ity. Parking facilities should be provided for the use of

94

persons using the restaurant.

16. Road View

 

The two small, very inadequate accesses to the beach

are both located on private property.

17. Heywoods

 

This area is presently being developed for hotel pur-
poses. However, it is expected that adequate access to

the beach will be provided for locals.

THE SOUTH COAST
Here are described thirteen areas at which access to

the beach can be made.

1. Pebble

 

This area is well organized, has a restaurant and
adequate parking facilities. The beach is good for swim-

ming.

2. Graves End

 

This is a well treed, open area with an organized,
paved access to the beach. The road requires proper main-

tenance; and changing room facilities should be provided.

3. Asta
This access runs across private property. It requires
general maintenance and signing. Site conditions render

parking in the area difficult.

95

4. Area near Kentucky Fried Chicken

 

A small, paved footpath leads to a very poor area for

swimming.

5. Accra
The access here runs across private property. The
area is, however, well organized and maintained by the

Parks and Beaches Commission.

6. Area Opposite Rendezvous Hill

 

This access also runs across private property. The
existing physical conditions of the area do not allow for

the provision of amenities.

7. Area near Rydal Waters
This area is presently being develOped by the Parks

and Beaches Commission.

8. Dover

 

The area has well organized beach facilities maintained

by the Parks and Beaches Commission.

9. Area near Rainbow Reef and Salt Ash
Two narrow, unpaved accesses lead to a beach of very

limited capacity.

10. Area near Tourist Trap (Maxwell Coasp)

This area requires a great deal of organization; it
needs a well defined access, parking and changing room
facilities. The only large open space south of Dover,

it provides the only means of accessing the Maxwell Coast

area.

 

96

11. Enterprise

 

This area requires a defined parking area as well as
changing room facilities. It is, in effect, an open
"window" to the sea and is very popular with locals for

passive recreation purposes.

12. Silver Sands

 

There is a well defined access which requires signing
only. The area is maintained by the Parks and Beaches

Commission.

13. Long Beach

Two very inadequate accesses, across private property,
provide entrance to the largest beach in Barbados. The
beach is over 1.6 kilometers long and 40 meters wide. It is
remarkably straight, bounded at both ends by rock out-crop-
pings and protected by coral reefs 500 to 500 meters off

shore.

APPENDIX B

Appendix B

STANDARDS OF WATER QUALITY -
INLAND WATERS

 

 

Inland waters are divided into two classes, Class SA

and Class SB.

Class SA waters are those suitable for drinking and

all other water uses. Their character must be uniformily

excellent. The characteristics of such water are:

(l)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

The level of dissolved oxygen present should be
maintained at the level naturally found in such
waters;

there should be no deposits of sludge, solid
refuse, floating solids, oils, grease or scum
unless these deposits are of natural origin;

the color and turbidity must be none other than
that of natural origin;

the total number of coliform bacteria should not
exceed a monthly arithmetic mean of 100 per 100
mililitres;

the taste and odor should be that of the natural
water:

the pH (potential of hydrogen) should be that which
naturally occurs; and

there should be no temperature increases other than

those which occur naturally (De Chiara and Koppelman,

97'.

98;

1975, p. 604).

Class SB waters are those suitable for bathing and
other primary contact recreation. These waters are accept-
able for public water supply only with appropriate treat-
ment. They are also suitable for agricultural and certain
industrial processes, cooling uses and they constitute as
well an excellent fish and wildlife habitat. They are of
excellent aesthetic value. The characteristics of such
waters are:

(l) the minimum level of oxygen present at any time
should be 5 milligrams per litre (There may be
seasonal variations due to temperature changes
but these should be established.);

(2) there should be no deposits of sludge, solid
refuse, floating solids, oils, grease or scum;

(3) the color and turbidity should not be concentrated
enough to impair the usages assigned to this class
of water;

(4) the total number of coliforms should not exceed a
monthly median of 1,000 per millilitre nor more
than 2,400 per 100 millilitres in more than 20
percent of the samples collected;

(5) the taste and odor should not impair any usages
assigned to this class nor cause taste and odor
in edible fish;

(6) the pH should lie between 6.5 and 8.0; and

99-

(7) only increases in temperature that do not impair
any usages specifically assigned to this class of
water should be allowed (De Chaira and Koppelman,

1975, p. 604).

APPENDIX C

Appendix C

STANDARDS OF WATER QUALITY -
MARINE WATERS

Marine waters are of four water use classes, Class

A, Class B, Class C and Class D.

Class A waters are suitable for all seawater uses in-

cluding shellfish harvesting for direct human consumption

(in approved shellfish areas), bathing and Other water

contact sports. They are of excellent aesthetic value.

The characteristics of such waters are:

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

they should contain not less than 5.0 milligrams
of oxygen at any time (except for seasonal and
diurnal changes);

there should be no deposits of sludge, solid
refuse, floating solids, oils, grease or scum;
the color and turbidity should be such that usages
specifically assigned to this class are not im-
paired; ‘

the number of coliform bacteria present should
not ordinarily exceed 230 per 100 millilitres for
a 5-tube decimal dilution or 330 per 100 milli-
litres for a 3-tube decimal dilution.

the taste and odor should be that of the natural

water;

1:00--

(6)
(7)

101

the pH should lie between 6.8 and 8.5; and

the allowable temperature increases should be

not more than 2.2C° over the monthly means of
maximum daily temperatures from October through
June nor more than 3.2C° from July through Sep-
tember. All temperatures are those at the surface

of coastal waters.

Coastal B waters are those suitable for bathing, other

recreational purposes, industrial cooling and shellfish

harvesting after purification. They are excellent for

fish and wildlife habitats.

Class B waters should contain:

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

not less than 5 milligrams of oxygen per litre

at any time (except for seasonal or diurnal vari-
ations);

no deposits of sludge, solid refuge, floating
solids, oils, grease or scum;

not more than a median value of 700 per 100 milli-
litres and not more than 2,300 per 100 millilitres
in more than 10% of the samples collected in a

30 day period; and

no chemical constituents in concentrations that

would be harmful to human, animal or aquatic life.

The colOr, turbidity, taste and odor should be such

that they do not affect any usages specifically assigned

to this class of water and none that would cause taste and

102

odor in edible fish and shellfish. The pH of these
waters should be 6.8 to 8.5.

Class C waters are suitable for fish, shellfish,
wildlife, recreational boating and industrial cooling.
They are of good aesthetic value. Such waters should
contain:

(1) not less than 5.0 milligrams per litre of oxygen
during daylight hours nor less than 4 milligrams
per litre at any time;

(2) no color, turbidity, taste and odor that would
impair usages specifically assigned to this class;

(3) no coliform bacteria in such concentrations that
would impair any usages specifically assigned to

this class.

Any deposits of sludge, solid refuse or scum present
should be discharged from a waste treatment facility pro-
viding appropriate treatment.

Class D waters are suitable for navigation, power,
certain industrial processes and cooling uses and migra-
tion of fish. These waters are usually of good aesthetic
value.

Such waters should contain:

(1) a minimum of 2 milligrams of oxygen per litre at

any time; and

(2) no deposits of sludge, solid refuse, floating

solids, oils, grease or scum except for such small

103

amounts that may result from the discharge of
appropriately treated sewage and/or industrial

waste effluents.

The color, turbidity, taste and odor should be such
that the usages specifically assigned to this class of
water are not impaired.

The pH for this type of water should be between 6.0

and 9.0.

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