A STERN OF PRACTICE ENVIRORMENTS AM ENSTRUMENT AL MUSIC ACHEVEMENT Dissertatimforflrebegreeofflfi. WOW STATE UMVERSITY WRGH. WAYNE BARTMAN 1973 Date 0-7639 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF PRACTICE ENVIRONMENTS AND INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC ACHIEVEMENT presented by Virgil Wayne Bartman has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph . D . _dggree in MUS 1C gédK/W r November 9, 1973 Major professor ‘.a .4! , . . ”‘3’. -..- ‘ ‘ rut-'3' _,‘ ' 1. EAR ;’ 1 . N. H.111; an State L, Ifi‘Sli’Y f" amen-«.1 nag, '\ REMOTE STORAGE 9‘3 F: PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE 9/09/1/ 08142, 20:: Blue 10/13 p:/CIRC/DateDueForms_2013.:ndd . 09.5 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF PRACTICE ENVIRONMENTS AND INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC ACHIEVEMENT By Virgil Wayne Hartman The investigation of music students' proficiency in sight-reading and detecting errors after completing a specified practice procedure constituted the main purpose of this study. The second purpose was to investigate students' attitudes after they had practiced with a specified method. An additional re- lated investigation was a study of the effects of certain prac- tice environments upon learning increments. One hundred and eight students at Jenison Junior High School participated in this experiment during the second semes- ter of 1971. The students were given the following tests as pretest and posttest: The Egtgins-Farnum Performance Scalg. an error detection test. and an attitude test. Twenty units of practice were assigned to fifty-four pairs of students over a ten week period. The practice sessions were assigned twice each week for approximately twenty-two minutes a day. The stu- dents were randomly divided into three treatment groups. One group was assigned practice time with a teacher in a traditional practice period. another group was given free practice time, and a third group was assigned practice time Virgil Wayne Bartman without the presence of the teacher. but with prescribed methods of practice. All of the fifty-four pairs assigned to one of the three method groups. were also assigned practice environments designated as: higher or lower 1.0.. practice with same or different instruments (brass and woodwind). and practice with a member of the same or opposite sex. All of the students within the groups were selected at random for the specified categories. and an attempt was made to balance numbers of students in method and practice environments. From observation of the data. it was determined that the three methods for teaching students to detect errors in their own performance varied in effectiveness. Hypotheses were stated for dependent measures: error detection. sight- reading. and attitude. Independent variables included prac- tice method. 1.0.. instrument grouping. and sex grouping. None of the twenty-one null hypotheses in the study were re- jected with a .05 level of confidence. Students with lower 1.0. made the greatest gain in achievement when they were given a specified practice pro- cedure without the presence of a teacher. The greatest dif- ference with the lower 1.0. group in error detection. was the difference between the gain for those in free practice (96 raw score). and those with a specific practice procedure played on a tape recorder (106 raw score). One initial concern of the study was to see if learning the skill to detect error in one's own performance would Virgil Wayne Bartman compliment ability to sight-read. The envisaged effect of sight-reading performance and the ability to detect error. being directly related. was dispelled in this study. Ac- cording to this study there is little relationship between the two skills. From the research in this study. the following impli- cations were made for instrumental music educators: 1. Methods for teaching higher and lower 1.0. groups of instrumental music students should be developed with tech- niques that are different in presentation. A method that is appropriate for a student with a higher 1.0.. is not neces- sarily the best for students with lower 1.0. In this study the methods used were more effective for students with lower 1.0. 2. To increase the ability of a student to observe errors in his own performance does not readily effect his possibilities for better sight-reading performance. The stu- dent can better recognize his error. but he may still not be motivated to strive for a flawless performance. 3. Music educators should develop more self-admin- istered methods of instruction relating to music performance. Teaching music performance without the teacher's presence can be successful. The teacher in instrumental music classes can prescribe methods to give the student more independence in his practice environment. a. Music students can practice well together in pairs of two with prescribed methods of practice. They can practice Virgil Wayne Bartman with either members of like or different sex. or with like or unlike wind instruments. to accomplish results. This variety for student practice situations greatly increases the practice assignment possibilities for the school music educator. 5. Music educators may use Method 1 designed in this study in instrumental music classes to increase learning incre- ments for error detection. With this method a teacher does not have to be directly involved with teaching the students. 6. The attitude test (Practice Attitude Inventory) developed in this study can be used to measure changes in practice attitudes. A STUDY OF PRACTICE ENVIRONMENTS AND INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC ACHIEVEMENT By Virgil Wayne Bartman A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirement DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Music 1973 To my wife Marcia my daughters Renee and Lori. my sons Douglas and Todd. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Grateful acknowledgment of contribution. of their time and interest toward the realization of this study. is extended to Dr. Bartlett and Dr. Sherburn. A special thank you to Dr. Sidnell who served as advisor and chairman of my committee. iffii. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . 1 Need for the Study . . . . . 3 Purpose . . . . . . . 12 Hypotheses . . . . . . . 1# Definition of Terms . . . . 16 Limitations. . . . . . . 17 Procedures . . . . . . . 18 Overview . . . . . . . 18 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . 20 Error Detection. . . . . . 20 Sight-Reading . . . . . . 25 Sight-Singing . . . . . . 30 Environment . . . . . . 37 Attitude in Performance . . . 44 Pilot Study. . . . . . . “5 Summary e e e e e e e 56 III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . . . . 58 Study Location . . . . . . 58 Sample . . . . . . . 60 Practice Methods . . . . 6 Data Gathering Instruments . . . 6 Design and Analysis. . . . . 71 Analysis . . . . . . . 75 IV. PRESENTATION OF THE DATA . . . . 76 Review of the Procedure . . . 76 Hypotheses . . . . . . . 77 Hypothesis 1 . . . . . 77 Hypothesis 2 . . . . . 77 Hypothesis 3 . . . . . 77 Hypothesis U . . . . . 79 iv Chapter V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Hypothesis Summary. e Conclusions Discussion . Suggestions For Futur BIBLIOGRAPHY . . APPENDIX A. B. C. ANALYSES RAW DATA SUBJECT INFORMATION . ATTITUDE TEST RAW DATA SIGHT-READING AND ERROR TEST RAW DATA Research. DETECTION RELIABILITY CALCULATIONS FOR SIGHT- READING JUDGES . F. CONSTRUCTION OF AN ATTITUDE TEST. RELIABILITY CALCULATIONS FOR SCORING ERROR DETECTION. . . 92 92 93 102 108 109 11? 12A 126 1N8 152 159 166 APPENDIX H. ERROR DETECTION SCORING SHEET . vi Page . 169 Table 1. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 1“. LIST OF TABLES PILOT STUDY WATKINS-FARNUM PERFORMANCE SCALE POSTTEST RESULTS FOR SIGHT-READING . . . PILOT STUDY POSTTEST RESULTS FOR ERROR DE TEC TI ON 0 O O O O O O O O PILOT STUDY MEAN GAINS OF GROUPS IN ERROR DETECTION AND SIGHT-READING POSTTESTS . . PRACTICE ENVIRONMENTS . . . . . . MUSIC JUDGES FOR SIGHT-READING MEASURE . . CATEGORICAL COMPARISON FOR INITIAL ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE DESIGN . . . . . . . ANOVA FOR THE CONSIDERATION OF METHOD/ 1.0. IN RELATION TO EACH OF THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES . . . . . . . . . ANOVA FOR THE CONSIDERATION OF METHOD/ INSTRUMENT IN RELATION TO EACH OF THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES. . . e . . . ANOVA FOR THE CONSIDERATION OF METHOD/ SEX IN RELATION TO EACH OF THE DEPENDENT VARIABIAES O I O O C O O O O MEAN SCORES ERROR DETECTION ANALYSIS PRACTICE hIEMOD AND IOQO O O O C 0 ANOVA FOR DEPENDENT MEASURE: ERROR DETECTION INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: PRACTICE METHOD AND I.Q. . . . . . . . MEAN SCORES ERROR DETECTION ANALYSIS PRACTICE METHOD AND INSTRUMENT . . . . ANOVA FOR DEPENDENT MEASURE: ERROR DETECTION INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: PRACTICE METHOD AND INSTRUMENT . . . . . . MEAN SCORES ERROR DETECTION ANALYSIS PRACTICE METHOD AND SEX . . . . . vii Page 50 55 56 62 67 71 73 73 7D 77 78 79 79 80 Table 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 2h. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. Page ANOVA FOR DEPENDENT MEASURE: ERROR DETECTION INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: PRACTICE METHOD AND SEX . . . . . . . .81 MEAN SCORES SIGHT-READING ANALYSIS PRACTICE METHOD AND I.Q. . . . . 82 ANOVA FOR DEPENDENT MEASURE: SIGHT- READING INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: PRACTICE MWOD AND IOQO O C C O O O 82 MEAN SCORES SIGHT-READING ANALYSIS PRACTICE METHOD AND INSTRUMENT . . . 8h ANOVA FOR DEPENDENT MEASURE: SIGHT- READING INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: PRACTICE METHOD AND INSTRUMENT GROUPING . . . 84 MEAN SCORES SIGHT-READING ANALYSIS PRACTICE METHOD AND SEX . . . . 85 ANOVA FOR DEPENDENT MEASURE. SIGHT- READING INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: PRACTICE METHOD AND SEX . . . . . . . 86 MEAN SCORES ATTITUDE ANALYSIS PRACTICE MEMOD AND IOQO O C O C O O 87 ANOVA FOR DEPENDENT MEASURE: ATTITUDE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: METHOD AND I.Q. 87 MEAN SCORES ATTITUDE ANALYSIS PRACTICE METHOD AND INSTRUMENT . . . . . 88 ANOVA FOR DEPENDENT MEASURE: ATTITUDE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: PRACTICE METHOD AND INSTRUMENT . . . . . . . 89 MEAN SCORES ATTITUDE ANALYSIS PRACTICE METHOD AND SEX . . . . 90 ANOVA FOR DEPENDENT MEASURE: ATTITUDE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: PRACTICE METHOD AND SEX. O C O O O O C C 90 SUBJECT INFORMATION: 1.0.. SEX. INSTRUMENT AND NETT‘IOD e e e e e e e e 117 ATTITUDE TEST RAW SCORES . . . . 124 viii Table 30- 31- 32- 33- 31+. 35- 36a 37. 38. 39. no. Page SIGHT-READING AND ERROR DETECTION GAIN SCORES FOR SUBJECTS . . . . . 126 PRETEST SIGHT-READING RAW SCORES . 133 POSTTEST SIGHT-READING RAW SCORES . 138 ERROR DETECTION RAW SCORES . . . 143 COEFFICIENT OF CONCORDANCE FOR RELIABILITY OF SIGHT-READING JUDGES . 148 SUBJECT NUMBERS AND GAIN SCORES FOR ERROR DETECTION 3X2 ANALYSIS. . . 152 SUBJECT NUMBERS AND GAIN SCORES FOR SIGHT-READING 3X2 ANALYSIS . . . 153 ATTITUDE RAW $ORE METHOD/LO. . . 1514» SUBJECT NUMBERS AND GAIN SCORES IN 3X2 SEX ANALYSIS . . . . . 155 SUBJECT NUMBERS AND GAIN SCORES IN 3X2 INSTRUMENT ANALYSIS . . . . 157 COMPUTATION OF COEFFICIENT OF CORRELATION FOR ERROR DETECTION SCORING RELIABILITY . . . . . 166 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. 2. ERROR DETECTION METHOD/I.Q. INTERACTION ERROR DETECTION METHOD/INSTRUMENT INTERACTION . . . . . . . ERROR DETECTION METHOD/SEX INTERACTION SIGHT-READING METHOD/1.0. INTERACTION SIGHT-READING METHOD/INSTRUMENT INTERAC TI ON 0 O O O O I O SIGHT-READING METHOD/SEX INTERACTION. ATTITUDE METHOD/1.0. INTERACTION . ATTITUDE METHOD/INSTRUMENT INTERACTION ATTITUDE METHOD/SEX INTERACTION . . Page 78 80 81 83 85 86 88 89 91 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Music is an established area of study in a school curriculum from kindergarden through high school. Students in music classes have the opportunity to develop their inter- ests and skills through a variety of music learning experi- ences. Performance skills are taught through singing and playing experiences as a basic form of musical expression. Teaching music skills for performance, using the me- dium of band and orchestra instruments, is introduced in late elementary and junior high school. Patterns of instruction in each school help to determine whether the student may start instrumental music education with a group of students or individually. At times, in instrumental music performance classes. students may study music theory and music literature along with skill development. However. the primary goal gen- erally, is to learn to play and perform proficiently. Music educators debate whether highly skilled perfor- mance on instruments in secondary schools is too often an over specialized goal. Some believe this is a goal achieved at the expense of broader goals of music education. These broader goals of music education are often described as music for increased aesthetic experience, or music for enriched 2 living. These goals are served by increasing musical knowl- edge and sensitivity to musical expression. Whatever goals music educators advocate, instrumental teachers will probably continue to teach performance as the primary goal of instru- mental music education. In the Fifty-seventh Yearbook of the National Society of the Study of Education, the concept of music performance was discussed by McMurray: There are at least two important reasons why some measure of instruction in performance skills in music should be included within everyone's formal education. In the first place, no one can be said to have discovered whether or not he has talent or liking for musical performance unless he has tried it. In the second place, it seems probably that learning to hear music in its full reality is made easier of accomplishment if accompanied by training in the making of music. (sic) A music student may begin to listen more intently to sounds performed by others after experiencing his own attempts for tone production. Assuming that the student has learned to recognize a tone that is traditionally considered to be beau- tiful, he may be motivated to imitate this sound. Because of the large number of students and parents interested in instrumental music, a vast amount of teaching time and effort is directed toward instrumental music 1Foster McMurray, "Pragmatism in Music Education," Chapter II Basic Concepts in Music Education, Fifty-seventh Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I, (ed.) Nelson B. Henry (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1958), p. 45. 3 education in schools and in the home. Bobbitt outlines a dilemma that music educators of our time should attempt to solve: The population explosion makes it quite clear that the difficulties concomitant to music teaching in the public schools will not dissolve, nor even di- minish significantly, and it would appear that the goals of music theorists and practical-minded edu- cators should be centered around the development Of teaching methods and instructional devices that can proviso the most efficient utilization of available t me. Need for the Study There is a need for research and study of two cur- rent concerne Of instrumental music educators: (1) To max- imize student achievement in performance: (2) To increase teaching efficiency in instrumental music education. Two important divisions of music performance achievement are: (1) Sight reading skill, and; (2) Self-evaluation through error detection. After playing an instrument for several years, music students should depend less and less on the teacher for evaluation of their own performance. Because a student spends a number of years practicing and performing music, it may be assumed that he will become qualified to listen critically to his own performance and to make valid judg- ments. Whether the student applies his knowledge of error 2Richard Bobbitt, "The Development of Music Reading Skills," Journal of Research in Music Education, XVIII (Fall, 19767. pp. 153-156. u detection for better performance habits and techniques is undetermined. A student must learn to evaluate his performance if he is to make changes for improvement. The skill of evalu- ation can be acquired over a period of some time, but it is difficult to determine how much of this skill is self-taught, and how much is learned through formal instruction. When the student is learning the skill of playing an instrument, the skill of critical listening is too often the assumed task of the teacher. Critical listening is an ability the teacher attempts to impart to his students; however, rarely does an instructor teach students to listen critically to perfor- mances when he is not present. Traditionally, in either private lessons or ensemble rehearsals, the instructor is the evaluator and communicates judgments to students. Music teachers may neglect to insist on critical lis- tening habits for the student's individual practice for vari- ous reasons. Possibly they may believe that students are not capable of the skill. Perhaps their own transition from a position of a student performer, to the position of teaching others, did not include prOper training. Possibly the teach- er presents critical listening as a by-product of performance, and thus the student consequently may learn the skill too late to be of value to him in forming efficient practice habits. Because of the persistence of instructors to correct errors, students always depend upon the teacher to detect errors in performance. By so doing, students do not learn to 5 listen critically during practice sessions. Although the student can improve his performance somewhat by sheer rep- etition, he progresses from one selection to another with- out either adequate understanding of the music or construc- tive criticism from the teacher. There is no adequate model for substantive learning of performance evaluation skill in the individual practice setting. Refined motor skill is contingent upon critically shaping immature performances through evaluation, criticism, and repetition. The second concern of this study for instrumental music educators is to increase their efficiency in teaching. One way to do this is to have more of the teaching and learn- ing take place without the presence of the teacher. Pro- grammed learning is one such means. Desirable outcomes can be designed to make it possible for students to learn with- out the presence of the teacher. The following summary de- picts the direction of programmed instruction in recent years: Programmed instruction has been on the educational scene for a decade. While its use is not as wide- spread as was expected, it has been an impetus for several of the other important developments in instructional technology. Behavioral objectification. individualized instruction, computer assisted and com- puter managed instruction are all specific by-products of P I. The most important contribution of P I, how- ever, is a concept - that instruction should be de- signed and presented in order to lead to intended outcomes; that, if these outcomes are not attained, the instruction, not the learner, is deficient; and that the instruction will be revised on the 6 basis of learner feedback, un i1 it does yield predictable student learning. No feasible means has yet been detected for the application of principles of programmed learning to the de- velopment of highly refined performance skills. Educators need to look for other means of optimizing their efficiency in teaching. The use of students to guide practice of other students offers a unique means for supervised instrumental achievement. This strategy would help solve the dilemma of unguided learning during individual practice - long a prob- lem in instrumental music education. Students likely would learn more efficiently if guided during the practice session. Students are likely to take direction from students their age as well as from teach- ers. Guidance can come from teachers, para-professionals, or other students. The strong influence that a student's peer has on attitude and learning should be properly directed for more efficient music teaching. Three possibilities were in- vestigated in this study: 1. Student with teacher. 2. Student and student - without specific practice instructions. 3Robert M Morgan, ”A Decade of Programmed Instruction,” Educational Technology, X (July, 1970), p. 30. 7 An application of learning principles may help instrumental music educators to improve student practice habits. One of the important goals for effective teaching is to encourage listening habits that continue to improve the student's music performance. Directing and facilitating the music learning process should be a concern of all music educators. The process of learning to sight-read music and detect error in performance is not directly observable. Through systematic control of stimuli it is possible to make inferences about learning by observation of changes in behavior. Learning is inferred from the modifications of behavior which occur. Music learning can be observed with an application of principles developed by 'behavioristic" psychologists. An explanation of how students learn to detect errors, and to sight-read music, might be found in "reinforcement learning" as theorized by Skinner. In reinforcement learning, the im- portant stimulus is the one immediately following the re- sponse. Thus, a student behaves because of the consequences which have followed similar behavior in the past. Underlying the method of Skinner is his conviction that behavior is de- termined not from within but from without. He is convinced that actions are determined by the environment; behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences. One of the prime considerations of Skinner's view is that the experimenter must be passive until the response is produced by the subject. When the particular response does 8 occur, the experimenter becomes active and produces the rein- forcing stimulus as quickly as possible following the response. One of the important factors in Skinner's logic is that reinforcement of behavior is contingent upon a response. ”By progressively changing the contingencies of reinforcement in the direction of the desired behavior, one can see learn- ing occur."u Skinner's contingency of reinforcement includes a sequence of: response, stimulus, and reinforcement. According to Skinner, operant discrimination is a change in behavior as the result of awareness of changes in the environment. By applying this learning theory to music learning, one may state that a student can be made to respond to error in his performance by stimuli in his environment. In an application of Skinner's logic for this study, the stim- uli in each of the practice environments will alter skills of error detection and sight-reading through differences in re- inforcements. Sight-reading music and detecting error requires re- sponse to the stimuli of the printed music score. The percep- tual organization of notation involves a discrimination of stimuli. For example, Lundin describes rhythm as an element that is both stimulus and response. Rhythm must be considered both as a stimulus ob- ject and as a response of the organism. On the stimulus side, it includes such things as mark- ings on a printed page of music, a series of “Morris L. Bigge, Learning Theories For Teachers (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), p. 126. 9 auditory beats or the particular temporal pat— tern some tonal stimuli follow. On the regponse side, rhythm is both perceptual and motor. Reward reinforcement facilitates the learning pro- cess. When an organism responds and the response is fol- lowed by a stimulus that has the function of a reward, the probability of the response occurring again is increased. It has been found that there are certain gener- alized conditioned reinforcers that tend to work fairly well for most people. These include: attention to an individual, approval of his work, affection, and acquiescence. Therefore, in learning skills necessary for performance of music, the prOper manipulation of the above generalized pos- itive reinforcers is of paramount importance in training a person to perform according to acceptable musical standards set by the teacher. The first principle for the acquisition of a high standard of musical learning is the prOper manipulation of positive reinforcers by a teacher or person who is coaching the student. "The learning of a musical skill, then, is the result of a continuous shaping process by the teacher and likewise by the student himself."7 5Robert W. Lundin, An Objective Psychology of Music (New York: The Ronald Press, 1967), p. 101. 61bid., p. 130. 7Ibid., p. 131. 10 When the student responds to the music score with incorrect performance he should be corrected as soon as pos- sible. Although it is probably too time consuming for the teacher to listen to each of his students in school practice time, it would be possible for students to listen to each others performances and make evaluations. Lundin describes the important process of extinction in learning: This process, whereby we are able to produce nov- el responses, amounts to the selection of one or more natural variations of a learned behavior giv- ing them exclusive reinforcement and allowing for the remaining variations, being less desirable re- sponses, to die out - that is, to be subjected to what psychologists call "extinction." Extinction refers to the withholding of a reinforcement when a response is made: just as a positive reinforce- ment strengthens behavior, extinction weakens it.8 If the instrumental music student is able to select a variety of responses and reinforce only the most appropriate ones, he would more likely demonstrate desirable musical behavior. In the repetition of a musical passage, there are likely to be variations, some of which will be deemed more musical than others. Often the student can select the musical passage that is played correctly. The shaping of better and better performances is a gradual one. The music educator should continously shape a greater accuracy in performance that will meet continously 81bid. ll higher standards. The probability of an accurate performance might be extremely low at the beginning of practice. By re- inforcing a series of successive approximations, one may bring a response from imprecision to one of exactness. Lundin de- scribes the procedure of selecting response: This process of response differentiation is the principle underlying the acquisition of all the most complex skills. The procedure is always one of selecting certain responses as opposed to others, by making slight changes in the direction of great- er effectiveness in a given unit of musical accom- plishment.9 The value of practice lies only in the repetition of a pattern of response that inevitably will vary and whereby the better aspects of that pattern may be reinforced by the person, his peer, or a teacher. Out of variability in the performance that does occur through repetition, the job of the teacher or student is to reinforce, to the degree that he is able, those acts of performance that he considers to be su- perior to the others. If he cannot do this, there is no rea- son to believe the performance will improve. For the student, reinforcement may come from his own response in his evaluation of his performance based on the standard he knows. A student can discriminate that he is playing a part better. Students can be reinforced by their own behavior, if they can discriminate that they are 91bid., p. 132. 12 improving. By using pairs of students practicing together, students may be motivated to discriminate and the standards for performance may be higher. In this study an attempt was made to have learners become more aware of correct and incorrect performance re- sponse. Each time a mistake was made by one of the pair in a practice environment, the other student was to indicate the mistake to be corrected. The practice-aid is then the reinforcing stimulus which strengthens the student's aware- ness of correct and incorrect performance. The practice-aid can be used as a reinforcer for learning to detect errors in music performance. The aid, acting as a reinforcer, thus in- creases the probability of a correct response. Purpose This study had three main purposes: (1) To analyze error detection skills of music students practicing in a va- riety of environments: (2) To analyze sight-reading achieve- ment under different practice conditions: (3) To evaluate resultant student practice attitudes. There is need to investigate a student's reaction to his error in music performance. There is also a need to teach the skill of detecting errors. Critical listening can be taught in a private lesson or in a classroom, but possibly much could be learned from investigating listening and per- formance of students who are obliged to spend much time with- out a teacher. Students may be able to analyze strengths and 13 weaknesses in their own playing after practice sessions are spent observing a performance of one of their own peers. A question of particular interest was: Is there a significant difference between certain school practice en- vironments and an increase in learning sight-reading and er- ror detection skills? Practing with a peer, who can stim- ulate new interest in practice, could possibly result in an improvement of a student's performance skill. Three dichot- omous variables were identified as possible effectors in grouped student practice. These variables were: 1. Intelligence Quotient (Two levels), high and low, dichotomized at the sample mean. 2. Like and Unlike instruments (Two levels), brass and woodwinds. 3. Sex - same or mixed. The following learning environments were used to an- alyze self-evaluation techniques of instrumental music students: 1. Students paired with students ranking in the upper half I.Q. level in the class. 2. Students paired with students ranking in the lower half I.Q. level in the class. 3. Students paired with students with the same class of instruments, (both play woodwind, or both play brass). u. Students paired with students with different instruments, (woodwinds paired with brass). 5. Students paired with a member of the opposite sex. 6. Students paired with a member of the same sex. la Three methods of practicing sight-reading and error detection were presented: 1. Method T - a method of having instrumental music teachers rehearse with pairs of students with what-ever traditional techniques they choose to teach. In this study, the teachers attempted to improve the student's performance by having them play through parts of the music, before and after explanations for correct performance were given. The teacher made the decision of when to have the students play alone or together. As the students played, the teacher made evaluations during the practice session. Method I - a method with specific instructions for practice independent of the teacher. The teacher was not involved in any way during the practice sessions with these pairs of students. Method P - a free practice time for each pair of students. No instructions were given, other than to use the designated time for practicing. Hypotheses The hypotheses formulated for this study relate to the main topic of interest previously presented and areas of secondary interest. These hypotheses are stated in experi- mental form as follows: 1. There is a significant difference among three practice methods in learning error detection. There is a significant difference between higher and lower I.Q. groups in learning error detection. There is a significant interaction between method and I.Q. in the error detection analysis. There is a significant difference between same and different instrument practice groups in learning error detection. 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 15 There is a significant interaction between method and instrument in the error detection analysis. There is a significant difference between two practice groups of same and different sex in learning error detection. There is a significant interaction between method and sex in the error detection analysis. There is a significant difference among three practice methods in learning sight-reading. There is a significant difference between higher and lower I.Q. groups in learning sight-reading. There is a significant interaction between method and 1.0. in the sight-reading analysis. There is a significant difference between same and different instrument practice groups in learning sight-reading. There is a significant interaction between method and instrument in the sight-reading analysis. There is a significant difference between two practice groups of same and different sex in learning sight-reading. There is a significant interaction between method and sex in the sight-reading analysis. There is a significant difference among the three practice methods in attitude change. There is a significant difference between higher and lower I.Q. groups in attitude change. There is a significant interaction between method and I.Q. in the attitude analysis. There is a significant difference between same and different instrument practice groups in attitude change. There is a significant interaction between method and instrument in the attitude analysis. There is a significant difference between two practice groups of same and different sex in attitude change. 16 21. There is a significant interaction between method and sex in the attitude analysis. Definition of Terms 1. Error Detection Identification of music perfor- mance errors in pitch, rhythm, and miscellaneous music per- formance markings. The skill of detecting errors in music, presupposes a skill of internalization, or imagining the musical score. 2. Error Detection Test A measure constructed for this study, designed for a student to assess his own perfor- mance of the Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale. The student's performance was played back on tape for him to score with a scoring sheet that contained the music score and checking code for errors in pitch, rhythm, musical expression, and articulations. 3. Practice Attitude Inventory (PAI) An inventory constructed for this study comprised of a series of state- ments reflecting attitudes to which the subject is to re- spond. This practice inventory measures the disposition or temperament of a student toward his music practice. (Example , Page 1611 ). h. Peer-related Practice Junior high school activ- ity of practicing instrumental music with another student, without the presence of adults. 5. Sight-reading The initial performance of music on an instrument, music not previously performed or studied. 1? Notation symbols are observed and there is a response with motor manipulation. Sight-reading on a wind instrument does not always require the process of internalization as in sight- singing. Some tones on wind instruments are produced primar- ily by finger placement and there is less need to internalize the sound to perform the correct pitch. 6. Sight-Reading Test The Watkins-Farnum Performance §gglg In this test the student is expected to perform a se- ries of succeeding music passages that increase in difficulty. A tempo is set for the performance of each example. If the student‘scores two consecutive zero scores in two of the exam. ples he is disqualified from further performance. The test measures sight-reading performance. Limitations This study employed a sample of junior high instrumen- tal music students (ages 12 - 1#) from a suburban community. The dependent variables in the study, error detection achieve- ment, sight-reading achievement, and practice attitudes, are defined in the previous section. These definitions present the confines of each term. Although there are many possible manipulations of the practice environment, only three were in- cluded in this study: 1. Students practicing with a teacher. 2. Students practicing together without specific practice instructions. 18 3. Students practicing together with specific practice instructions. Procedure One hundred and eight students, enrolled in seventh and eighth-grade band classes at Jenison Junior High School in Jenison, Michigan, were participants for this study. Three sections of students were randomly selected from the complete band sections, and a different treatment or method of practice was used in each of the three groups. The duration of the ex- perimental period was approximately ten weeks. Practice groups met twice each week over a ten-week period with prac- tice sessions approximately twenty-three minutes in length. At the conclusion of the ten-week practice period the sight-reading, error detection, and attitude tests were indi- vidually administered to all subjects as a posttest. All of the same tests were previously given as pretests. Data were analyzed by analysis of variance according to the hypotheses stated above. Computation was completed on the CDC 6500 computer at Michigan State University. Overview A review of related literature in Chapter II includes: studies of error detection, sight-reading, practice environ- ments, parental practice attitudes, and a pilot study. The design of this study with statements of the hy- potheses to be tested and their analyses appear in Chapter III. 19 The analysis, statistical documentation and interpretation is in Chapter IV. The summation with conclusions drawn from the hypotheses tested and their implications for use by other experimenters in future studies are stated in Chapter V. CHAPTER II REVIEW'OF THE LITERATURE Studies were reviewed that dealt with two aspects of instrumental music achievement: error detection and sight- reading. Literature was also reviewed that pertained to: instrumental music practice environments: and parental atti- tudes toward music practice. Finally, a pilot study was de- signed to develop and evaluate methods for teaching error de- tection and sight-reading performance skills. Error Detection No previous studies were found that presented the teaching of error detection skill and analyzing error detec- tion achieVement as presented in this study. However, studies are reported that contain procedures and results that are re- lated to this study. Sidnell developed and tested self- instructional drill materials aimed at improving student conductors' score-reading ability.10 His study was concerned with better preparation of teacher-conductors who were train- ing to use the skill of detecting and identifying errors made 10Robert G. Sidnell, ”Self-Instructional Drill Materials for Student Conductors," Journal of Research in Music Education, XIX (Spring, 1971), pp. 85-91. 20 21 in music rehearsals. He defined score-reading ability in his study as: "skill in the detection and identification of pitch and rhythm errors in instrumental performance."11 Drill materials used in the project were developed from instrumental performances of junior and senior high school music groups. The pitch and rhythm errors found in these performances were classified by type and were identified for a glossary of "typical student errors." Excerpts from these performances were performed and recorded by advanced college performers in such a way that a single error of pitch or rhythm marred an otherwise perfect performance. Two hundred and forty errors were recorded in this manner and were cast randomly into twenty drill types. While reading along from a four-staved conductor's score, subjects listened to taped excerpts of four-part instru- mental performances. The control group, after two hearings, was expected to locate the error, determine whether it was an error of pitch or rhythm, identify the erring instrument, and indicate how it deviated from the conductor's score. For the experimental group the items were programmed in the following manner 8 1 2 1. A four-bar phrase is played while the student watches the musical score. Through written response he is to indicate in what measure an error occurred. llIbid., p. 85. 121bid., p. 88. 22 Reinforcement to this response is aural and is included on the training tape. 2. A smaller segment of the excerpt is performed and the student is to indicate whether the error was one of pitch or rhythm. Reinforcement is again aural. 3. Only that small portion of the score is performed that immediately surrounds the error. With the information at hand the student can specifically focus more carefully on the error. Immediate rein- forcement is again provided aurally. h. The aural stimulus presents only the single instru- ment performing the error in a very short fragment. The student is asked to write the error as performed while viewing the fragment as written. Reinforcement is aural. Sidnell deveIOped the programmed drill material accord- ing to a sequence that he considered would follow the mental activity involved in error discovery. During the experimental period both the experimental and control groups improved sig- nificantly in detecting and identifying rhythm and pitch er- rors. The mean gain of the control group was 11.85 compared to 26.23 of the experimental group. A t-test for small sample/ matched subjects resulted in a 2.88 significance at the .05 level. The conclusions relevant to the present study were:13 1. Extra class drill material specifically directed to the improvement of score-reading skill is beneficial. 2. Drill material of a self-instructional nature ar- ranged in a programmed format is superior to non- programmed material in bringing about gains in score- reading skill. 13Ibid., p. 91. 23 In the present study students were involved in expe- riences similar to the programmed items in Sidnell's study. The present study differed in that the reinforcement was made by a student's peer in an informal manner. The students in the Sidnell study began with a four measure phrase and pro- ceeded to a shorter segment. In the present study, the pro- cedure was often reversed because of the peer's immediate re- sponse to error. The Sidnell study helped to give direction for the present study with: (1) a sample of drill material used to increase error detection skill: (2) a list of vari- ables that did not prove to be relevant for error detection achievement. A study by Gonzo was concerned with choral teachers' in The ability to detect pitch errors while reading the score. purpose of the study was to determine whether differences exist between undergraduate music majors preparing for teaching ca- reers in music and experienced secondary level choral teachers in regard to their ability to detect pitch errors. Gonzo developed a test to measure ability to detect pitch errors within choral music excerpts. A response system was devised that allowed subjects to identify a pitch error in one of three ways:15 (1) the subject could place a check mark 1“Carroll Lee Gonzo, "An Analysis of Factors Related to Choral Teachers' Ability to Detect Pitch Errors While Reading the Score," Journal of Research in Music Education, XIX (Fall, 1971), pp. 259-271. 15Ibid.. p. 260. 24 in the box below the note or chord where he thought a pitch error occurred; (2) circle the note or notes believed to be in error, or: (3) write in the note or notes that were actu- ally performed by the singers. Gonzo determined that the in- vestigator could determine the approximate competence of each subject by the choice of response to a test item. It was de- termined that a subject who wrote in the incorrect note that a singer performed, possessed a greater degree of competence than the subject who circled the note or checked the box. Gonzo found no significant difference between experi- enced choral teachers as a group and undergraduate music majors as a group in regard to their performance on the pitch error detection test. Gonzo concluded that the failure of the teach- ers to perform significantly better than the students indicates 16 that teachers: (a) do not use their pitch error detection skill in daily rehearsals: (b) use the skill, but fail to im- prove in it, or: (c) are not able to detect pitch errors with- out having first studied the score. The Gonzo study was reviewed primarily so that the reader might compare the error detection test with the test used in the present study. The test was not used for the pres- ent study as a model or example because of the difference of performance medium and subject experience. 161bid., p. 270. 25 Sight-Reading Sight-reading for the instrumental music student infers a first performance of music that has not previously been prac- ticed. Instrumental music educators often state that there is no “short cut“ for becoming a better sight-reader. Their solu- tion for better sight-reading skill often is to encourage the student to practice numerous music selections assuming that, such practice will decrease the chance of making errors in new music. The emphasis then, is on the amount of time spent in practice, and not the efficiency of practicing for accuracy. An efficient way to teach sight-reading is of great importance to every music educator who is concerned with performance skills. In a study by Klemish, music reading is summarized as:17 A highly complex process that involves the auditory perception of a variety of sounds, the visual per- ception of symbols, and a reaction to these stimuli, all of which manifests itself in performance or the conversion of symbols into sound. Klemish investigated music reading by comparison of two teach- ing methods with first grade children. The basic assumption underlying the study was that music is best read in groupings of notes, and that a given grouping retains its identity in various contexts. 17Janice J. Klemish, "A Comparative Study of Two Methods of Teaching Music Reading to First-Grade Children," Journal of Research in Music Education, XVIII (Winter, 1970), P- 355. 26 Method I in the study was labled a traditional method. First-grade music is oriented toward improving aural discrimi- nation and understanding of melodic direction, like and unlike phrases, feeling for the tonic, melodic contour, and similar tasks that deal primarily with the melody. In addition to aural discrimination there were attempts to utilize simple visual representations of tonal patterns, such as hand move- ments, body movements, and pseudo-notation in the form of curved lines, dashes, and other diagrams not using the staff and conventional notation. The emphasis was on recognition of patterns that had been sung or heard, and on preparation for moving to notation. Notation is usually taught in the next grade level but for this study, conventional notation was used two weeks prior to the end of the experimental period. Method II differed from Method I in the use of the music staff and filled-in note- heads with no use of conventional notation. Method I also employed hand and body movements to demonstrate melodic di- rection. A variety of techniques were employed to reinforce learning in both groups. Children wrote the patterns, formed patterns on charts, flannel boards, and chalk boards. A pretest and posttest consisted of a test of auditory perception in which students had to imitate an aural stimulus by singing, counting the number of tones in a tonal pattern, and supplying a final tone in a melodic cadence pattern. The test was tape recorded and individually administered to each child. A written portion of the test administered to each 27 class as a group, contained the following six parts:18 1. Recognition of patterns in pseudo-notation. 2. Recognition of patterns in conventional notation. 3. Discriminating between same or different patterns in pseudo-notation. u. Discriminating between same or different patterns in conventional notation. 5. Matching notes or groups of notes to other notes or groups of notes. 6. Writing notes as they appear on flash cards. A conclusion of study was that the effect of method was not statistically significant. However, Klemish also con- cluded that skills better developed under Method I were identi- fication of melodic direction, aural matching, aural/visual matching, and singing patterns. Under Method II, using con- ventional notation, higher scores were achieved for recog- nition of patterns, writing tones dictated from the piano and dictated by numbers, and visual matching. The lack of a sig- nificant difference between the two methods suggests that it is not necessary to use pseudo-notation preliminary to the use of conventional notation. Bobbitt and Corley developed an experimental program to teach elementary music reading skills. The program was de- veloped in the Brookline, Massachusetts grade schools during 1966 and l967. Because of the success of the program Bobbitt relates his suggestions for teaching these skills. No sta- tistical tabulations were available for this study. lBIbid., p. 357. 28 Bobbitt suggests there is a difference between sight- reading skills for the instrumentalist and the sight-singer. He states:19 It is possible, and not at all unusual to play an instrument quite well without understanding the structural nature of the music or even being aware of the laws governing the melodic progression of a given part. It is not possible to sing a group of tones derived from a specific intervallic combina- tion without understanding the structural origin of the pitch sequence. Development of music read- ing skills through vocal participation ensures the pupil's actual involvement with the music. Conclusions from Bobbitt's study emphasize use of the voice and personal involvement to assure better music reading skills.20 The first and most important musical skill to be acquired by the young child is the ability to read music, in both scale and nonscale idioms, by use of the voice. There is a direct relation between the understanding of musical structure and the degree of personal involve- ment experienced by the individual. Pupils who are able to sightsing music, i.e., visually and aurally respond to musical symbols, and translate the sensation of pitch into tone through the use of the voice - are automatically enabled: (a) to sing a given melodic line alone or in combination with other voices: (b) to understand the meaning of accurate intonation: (c) to read parts from a musical score: (d) to learn more readily the principles of melodic transposition: (e) to take rhythmic and me- lodic dictation: (f) to acquire an intervallic 19Richard Bobbitt, "The Development of Music Reading Skills," Journal of Research in Music Education, XVIII (Fall, 1970). p. 153. 20;pid., p. 155. 29 sensitivity for melodic progression, including the function of tendency tones and other important di- rectional units: and (g) to gain insight into basic problems in music theory and the general structure of any musical style where melody is a factor. The system for developing music reading skills in the Brookline Schools is founded upon a concept that one should begin with the learning of intervals in carefully selected combinations that are not limited to stylistic pitch classes (scales), and are not based upon tonal harmonic progressions in the traditional sense of major and minor keys. Instruc- tional materials must be programmed so that pre-established subject matter is separated into small steps organized into logical sequence, and the learning of each item is reinforced through repetitive affirmation and immediate application. During the Brookline experiment, where no single group received more than 20-25 sessions meeting once per week for about 30 minutes, Bobbitt found that fifth-grade children, who were previously unable to recognize consistently any inter- vals at all, were enabled to identify and sing octaves, perfect fourths, and major and minor thirds. They were also able to combine these intervals in a melodic situation and to recog- nize their structure in two-part framework. Bobbitt concluded that a continuation of programmed instruction in music reading as he developed, would undoubtedly produce the kind of hearing capacity that leads to musical literacy. 3O Sight Singing Literature Most of the literature pertaining to music reading is about sight singing. Because some of the basic responses for the instrumentalist are similar, sight singing literature will also be reviewed. As the vocalist adjusts his voice, so also the instrumentalist must adjust embouchure and mental concept of pitch and tone, while observing interval changes. Much of the historical development of sight singing from the time Of Guido d'Arezzo to the present has been re- searched thoroughly by Ottman in a section of his dissertation. Repetition of his anthological account seems unnecessary: 21 A few however, this source is recommended to the reader. studies of sight singing research that can relate to the pre- sent study will be reviewed. Two areas will be emphasized: (1) the effectiveness of various kinds of drill as teaching devices for improved ability to sight sing: (2) factors that correlate with sight singing ability. Much has been accomplished through the utilization of electronic tape recording devices in the field of ear training and in the field of sight singing. Teaching machines can be programmed for instruction of music fundamentals up through any level of information desired. The one underlying benefit 21Robert w. Ottman, "A Statistical Investigation of the Influence of Selected Factors on the Skill of Sight-Singing" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, North Texas State College, 1956), pp. 3-37. 31 for both the student and the instructor is the limitless opportunity for drill, the necessary ingredient to achieve- ment of the highest possible level of any skill. Experimental studies related to different kinds of drill in sight singing have only recently increased in number, due mainly to technological advancement. Earlier studies by 22 24 Stokes,23 and Christ have pointed the way to fur- Bean, ther experimentation. Examples of this are the several exper- iments done with the tachistosCOpe, a device used to accelerate skills in word-reading, employed by Stokes and Christ in their studies. The study by Cookson, conducted at Northwestern University in the summer of 19u9, was an initial application of tape recorders as a teaching device for music skills.25 A class of sixteen subjects received ear training drill over a six-week period involving occasional reinforcement tests and a final placement test. Scores from the final test compared 22Kenneth L. Bean, "An Experimental Approach to the Reading of Music," Psychological Monographs, L (1938), pp. 1-79. 23Charles F. Stokes, "An Experimental Study of Tachistoscopic Training in Reading Music" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Teachers College, University of Cincinnati, 19uu). 2LJ’William E. Christ, "The Reading of Rhythm Notation Approached Experimentally According to Techniques and Principles of Word Reading" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Indiana University Music Library, 1953). 25Frank B. Cookson, Recordings and Self Tutoring (Cleveland: The Brush DeVCIOpmcnt Co., 1959), pp. 5-8. 32 with scores of regular music theory classes indicated that 75 percent of the experimental class accomplished twice the amount of ear training material that would normally be expected of such a class. Spohn26 further investigated the potential of tape- recorded music drill, realized in Cookson's study, in its ap- plication to the skill of "aural comprehension." The control group deveIOped aural comprehension through conventional class- room methods, whereas the experimental group, using the same material, deveIOped their aural comprehension utilizing spe- cially prepared tape recordings outside of class. The control group registered an average percentage decrease of 57.68 per- cent, while the experimental group displayed an average per- centage decrease of 80.33 percent leaving a difference of 22.65 percent between the two groups in percentage decrease. The obvious conclusion drawn from these results is that the use of tape-recorded drills and exercises is a valid method for development of aural comprehension. In the present study recommended practice procedures were pre-recorded and used as a guide for a controlled practice environment. Music practice and directions for finding errors in music, by this means, may be considered drill material. Directed practice and instructions for finding music error, along with a 26Charles L. Spohn, Jr., "An Exploration in the Use of Recorded Teaching Material to Develop Aural Comprehension in College Music Classes" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Ohio State University, 1959). 33 team-learning environment, resulted in a type of practice drill. Although the researcher cannot claim a new method of programmed drill, the use of the tape recorder for motivation in a practice environment can be considered a related technique. 7 28 included Studies by Salisbury and Smith2 and Dean factors that were correlated with sight singing ability. Salisbury and Smith found the main evaluating factors to be dictation, pitch and tonal memory: whereas Dean, through de- termining the value of using the Seashore Measures of Musical Talent in the prediction of success in sight singing, found the Seashore pitch test and Seashore tonal memory test the most valuable in such a prediction. Ortmann investigated the effect of melodic memory as part of aural perception.29 The subjects were required to no- tate immediately short melodic phrases of five notes each as they were played on the piano. The results of this study en- abled Ortmann to list, in order of difficulty, certain char- acteristics of melodic material. Conjunct and disjunct motion 27Frank S. Salisbury and Harold B. Smith, "Prognosis of Sight Singing Ability of Normal School Students,” Journal of Applied ngchology, XIII (1929). pp. 425-u39. 28Charoles D. Dean, ”Predicting Sight Singing Ability in Teacher Education," Journal of Educational Psychology, XXVIII (November, 1937). pp. 601:608. 29Otto Ortmann, "Some Tonal Determinants of Melodic IWemory," Journal of Educational Psychology, XXIV (September, 1 933). pp. TEE-1‘56. 3h with wide interval leaps were found to be most difficult to perceive. In the experimental study by Ottman a number of factors were investigated utilizing several standard published tests as well as tests devised by Ottman himself.30 The specific stan- dard tests were The Seashore Measures of Musical Talent, The American Council on Educational Psychological Examination for College Freshmen, and The Nelson-Denny Reading Test (music reading). The factors and variables examined and compared in this study included tonic memory, melodic modulation, melodic dictation with and without rhythm, identification of isolated intervals, music literacy and two questionnaires--one for fac- ulty evaluation of individual student musicianship and one for students to furnish general information. The effects of scale, harmony, and tonality related to interval accuracy in melodic sight singing was the subject of 31 a study by Marquis. That experimenter also investigated the relationship of scale, harmony, and tonality to the basic dif- ficulties of interval quality. The element of rhythm was pres- ent in this study, but controlled by simple usages. To accom- plish this, Marquis approached the problem three different ways 30Robert W. Ottman, "Statistical Investigation of the Influence of Selected Factors on the Skill of Sight-Singing" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, North Texas State College, 1956) 9 Pp. 3'37e 31James H. Marquis, "A Study of Interval Problems in Sightsinging Performance with Consideration of the Effect of Context" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, State University of Iowa, 1963). 35 as stated in the following hypotheses related to first-year college-level sight singing students: 1. The percentage of errors made in singing a music interval will differ, depending on the context in which the interval appears. 2. Those who make errors in singing a given interval presented in melodic context will tend, also, to make errors in singing the same interval presented in isolation. 3. The percentage of errors made in singing an isolated interval at sight differs from that made in singing the sameBEnterval under different conditions of context. Two criterion tests were devised and tested for re- liability and validity--the Sightsinging Criterion and the Isolated Intervals Criterion tests. These tests were de- signed to produce statistics which would test the above stated hypotheses. The Sightsinging Criterion was found to have a reliability of .979 (Spearman-Brown), significant at .01 level of confidence. Validities of .776 and .828 were drawn from correlation coefficients with grade points in the sight sing- ing and ear training course and scores on a semester Aural Skills Dictator Test which evaluated interval scale and chord perception: both were significant at .01 level. The Isolated Intervals Criterion was found to have a reliability of .830 (Spearman-Brown), significant at .01 level of confidence, and internal validity was claimed. Buttram investigated the influence of four factors-- 321219.- . T- ‘- ./ 36 interval quale, pitch distance, tonal context, and relative distinctiveness--on the identification of musical intervals presented in a harmonic context. The term "quale," used in psychology, refers to the combination of two different musical tones resulting in a unified, distinctive effect possibly ser- ving as a basis for interval identification. The feeling of harmony or tonality was created by the initial sounding of I- V-I chord progression before each interval was presented for identification. Then the tones composing the interval pre- sented were drawn from those contained in the I, IV, or V chords of the same key. Buttram sums up the resulting con- clusions of his study stating: Interval identification, as it occurred in this study, might best be described as a series of judgments based on a variety of characteristics of the interval and on. 33 the experience of the subjects With these characteristics. It is difficult to relate directly sight singing with instrumental music sight-reading because of the obvious dif- ferences of technique and tone production. Some educators ad- vocate that if the instrumentalist is able to sing the notation correctly, he may be able also to play it more correctly on an instrument. Even if this was accepted by instrumental music teachers, they would often find this simple solution difficult to implement. Music educators can accept the similarity of 33Joe B. Buttram, "The Influence of Selected Factors on Interval Identification," Journal of Research in Music Education, (Fall, 1969), p. 315. 37 mental process regardless of the performance medium. Environment The purpose of this part of the review is to select a few statements that relate to music learning environments. This is done rather than following another pursuit, that of reviewing studies emphasizing the importance of heredity or environment, or genetics and psychology. Material will be selected that pertains to current philosophies about music learning. Special attention would be given such variables as environments, sex groupings, I.Q., sociological status, and peer relationships. Leonhard and House describe music learning environ- ments that stress attention for individual opportunities: All musical instruction should provide for the students to initiate and develop individualized assignments. Teachers of instrumental classes should encourage pupils to play pieces of their own choice, to develop practice materials directly pertinent to their own playing prob- lems, and to explore music outside the instruction book being used. These individualizing procedures stand in sharp contrast to teaching in which the entire group proceeds at the saga pace on identical material select- ed by the teacher. Petzold suggests that the environment must include more opportunity for the student to make his own judgments. He 3b’Charles Leonhard and Robert W. House, Foundations and Principles of Music Education (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 19727, p. 311. 38 suggests that the teacher can teach more efficiently by allow- ing the child to assume more of the responsibility to learn: Rote learning of songs, particularly if the process is carried on in a routine way, fails to provide the child with opportunities to become independent: to develop the ability to evaluate critically the accu- racy of responses as compared with the stimulus: or to become aware of the subtle differences between similar but not identical musical material. Aural understanding, which is the reflection of accurate auditory perception, results from intelligent thought and not from mechanical imitation, from judgments made independently by the child in terms of his under- standing of basic musical concepts and apt from judg- ment made for the child by the teacher. Rote learning is essential for the student who begins to par- ticipate in instrumental music performance. However, the young instrumental music student should soon learn to make judgments that will help him to progress without the presence of the instructor. The next study is reviewed to present a current ap- proach for having the students assume more of this responsi- bility. A study by Puopolo was concerned with the efficiency of individual practice, particularly, of beginning instru- 36 mental music students. This study is concerned with a 35Robert G. Petzold, "Development of Auditory Perception of Musical Sounds by Children in the First Six Grades," Journal of Research in Music Education, XI (Spring, 1963), p. 21. 36Vito Puopolo, "The Development and Experimental Application of Self-Instructional Practice Materials for Beginning Instrumentalists," Journal of Research in Music Education, XIX (Fall, 1971), pp. 3E2-3H9. 39 A number of practice problems including the problem of iden- tifying practice errors. Although this study could also be reviewed in the section on error detection, the relevance for the present study seems best to relate to environmental factors affecting achievement. The purpose of the study was to facilitate the teach- ing and learning of instrumental performance through the appli- cation of programmed procedure to individual practice. One of his specific purposes was to determine the relationship of music achievement, social status, and I.Q. with both programmed practice and performance achievement. In his study he describes personal characteristics that aid the development of music performance skill. In this discussion, the typical practice errors made by young instru- mentalists were also listed: The application of knowledges and development of skills are dependent upon the child's capacity for patience, self-discipline, self-assessment, perseverance, and thoroughness. He may (1) practice too fast, sacrificing accuracy for speed: (2) spend most of his time practic- ing what he can already do well and avoid what is diffi- cult: (3) repeat material without detecting or correct- ing mistakes: (H) not remember a musical concept cor- rectly, thus practicing it incorrectly: or (5) get know how to approach a particular problem by himself. The study investigated the feasibility of structured, programmed practice with tape-recorded materials and its effect upon the performance achievement of beginning elementary cornet 371mm, p. 3142. #0 students. The main hypothesis was that structured practice with recorded tapes containing programmed material would pro- duce a difference in performance achievement as compared with unstructured, nonprogrammed practice. The study also examined: (1) interactions between programmed practice and each indepen- dent variable, (music achievement, social status, and I.Q.) with respect to cornet performance achievement, and (2) the relationship of performance achievement to music achievement, social status, and 1.0. The experimental treatment consisted of structured daily practice with ten weekly twenty-minute tapes containing programmed material. The control method consisted of daily twenty-minute practice of the same material, but in a non- structured manner without tapes. The effects of each mode of practice upon performance achievement were measured with the Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale. Two-way analysis of variance, t-test, and correlation were the procedures used to test the hypotheses. Programmed practice was found to be significantly supe- rior to nonprogrammed practice. Of the control group, students of above-average music achievement displayed greater gains than those of below-average music achievement. Of the experi- mental group, no significant difference in cornet performance was found between students of above-average and below-average prior music achievement. There was no significant difference in cornet performance achievement between students of above- average and below-average social status, with or without #1 programmed practice. Of the control group, no significant difference in cornet performance achievement existed between above-average I.Q. students and those of below-average I.Q. In the experimental group, below-average I.Q. students showed greater performance achievement than those of above-average I.Q. There are those who stress the importance of group learning and those who stress individual attention for learning. MacPherson presents two views to the issue: We are convinced that the student who is to be aca- demically and subsequently successful must learn to learn some things on his own. Perhaps that is why, when students come to school wanting to talk to one another as they learn, we persistently try to stop them. Perhaps that is why we pit student against student in a competetion for smiles, grades, badges and contingencies. Perhaps we are engaged in a con- tinuing struggle to partially replace natural group leargéng by more culturally useful individual learn- ing. The question of the advantages of individual or group instruction can be presented in mathematics or music. Can a group learn more than would the most able member of the group working independently? Or, can a group do less well than would the most able person in the group? In a music ensemble, individual performances within the group can vary, but one may be wrong to assume that the person with an inferior performance is learning less than his more skillful peer. The teacher must attempt continually to understand the 8, . -, . . . . 3 Eric D. MacPherson, "How Much Ind1v:duallzatlon?," The Mathematics Teachgp LXV (May, 1972), p. #78. #2 nature of the individuals within each music learning environ- ment. Investigations reveal rather regular trends in motor skill and coordination right through adolescence with no marked slackening of development.39 Simple reaction time, the time it takes to respond to a sound, appears to reach a maximum level at around thirteen or fourteen and shows little sex difference. In tests involving spatial eye-hand coordination (as rapidly inserting a stylus the size of a pencil in a hole only slightly larger) or temporal eye-hand coor- dination (as pressing a button when a rotating disk gets to a given point), a maximum level is reached between fourgsen and fifteen, with boys showing better performance. General intelligence as measured by current tests de- velops gradually, with rate of deveIOpment slowing down during the early and middle teens, and growth continuing until approx- imately the end of the teens. Various sub-abilities show dif- ferent growth patterns and tend to become more independent of each other as age increases during the teens. Measured intelligence has been shown to be associated with success in school and life, but the association is not always accurate. The degree of association is far from perfect, and will vary from no association in some areas to fairly sub- stantial association in other areas. 39Raymond G. Kuhlen, The Psychology of Adolescent Development (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1952), p. nu. HOijd. , p. #5. “3 Success in school or life is in no sense a product of ”intelligence" per se, but the product of a num- ber of factors (motivation, health, good emotional adjustment, adequate background skills and knowledge, etc.). Education has important contributions to make in promoting the acquisition of those skills, atti- tudes, concepts, and habits whgph will result in suc- cessful use of native ability. The motivation of peer approval is a strong influence for the adolescent. Perhaps this motivation properly channeled in a controlled environment can be used to a great advantage in music practice. The challenge for the music educator is to un- derstand this motivation: Almost inevitably, the adult looks at and evaluates the adolescent from the adult point of view. Although adolescents need adult acceptance, and thus adult stan- dards have psychological relevance, it is likely that how an adolescent stangg in the peer culture is much more important to him. Kuhlen makes the following statement about the limita- tions of a teacher's understanding of adolescent development, and encourages more research in this area: The need for systematic study (in contrast to casual observation) of individuals, in instances where spe- cial study is desirable, is well demonstrated by the research showing that teachers are not able to make accurate judgments about their students, and by evi- dence that knowledge of the principles and facts of development is not a guarantee that their applications will be possible. Thus, special efforts to understand individuals will require the pfie of methods by which systematic study can be made. 44 Attitude in Performance Attitude can be one of the most important factors in music practice and performance achievement. The attitude of parents, peers, and teachers greatly affect how much the stu- dent is motivated to practice and perform on his instrument. The LeBlanc Studyuu investigated home influences on a child's attitude. The study presents the results of an explor- atory investigation of parental attitudes associated with the playing or nonplaying of music instruments by children. Three factors were involved in determining whether or not a child learns to play a musical instrument: 1. Aptitude of the child. 2. Efforts of the music educator. 3. Attitude and actions of parents. The study investigated attitudes related to musical training of 300 mothers of school aged children in a major metropol- itan area. The reference to instruments in the report was on customary band and orchestra instruments. According to the study, there is less concern with parental attitudes than any other subject which directly affects music education. This report was based on the infrequent publication of articles and studies on parental attitudes. It is assumed by the writer that the parent's attitude toward music training will often uuG. LeBlanc Corporation, The Influence of Parents' Attitude on Children's Musical Activity (KenoSHa: C. LeBlanc Corp., 1961). 1:5 influence directly the child's attitude. According to the study, whether the parent is a player or a nonplayer of an instrument, makes a difference in how par- ents view their child and his practice commitments on an instru- ment. Whether the child is male or female makes a considerable difference in parental attitudes towards the child's playing of a music instrument. There is a feeling among some parents that playing on an instrument is more appropriate for one sex than for the other. Mothers who are nonplayers feel it is less ap- propriate for boys than girls to play musical instruments. Mothers who are nonplayers tended to see the learning experience as much less pleasant for the child than did the parents who were players. According to the study, "practice noise" appeared to be the prime concern of the father of the family. Getting the child to practice appears to be the prime concern of the mother. The attitude of the father appeared to have a strong influence on the children's musical activity, but playing an instrument is more highly correlated with the edu- cation of the mother than with that of the father. Pilot Study A pilot study was carried out during the Fall and Winter of 1969. The purpose of the pilot study was to determine the efficiency of various practice environments with junior high instrumental music students. The study was to serve as a model for the present research: therefore, the methods and procedures for the research were a modification of those in #6 the pilot study. This section includes the pilot study pro- cedure, data gathering devices, the findings, analysis, and conclusions. Students were selected from grades seven and eight and were divided into pairs for the pilot study. There were two categories: 1. Students who only studied their instrument with instruction from band class. 2. Students who practiced in pairs and studied their instrument in band class. The students in group two were paired on the basis of previous playing skill, and personality compatibility deter- mined by the teacher. In the early development of the study the teacher gave personal help during the beginning of the practice sessions. As the study progressed the students were given less and less guidance. The students practicing in pairs were taken from band Class twice a week for about twenty minutes, they were assigned a practice room and were given the following instructions on tape: One of you will play the piece that is on the music stand and the other person is to listen. The person on the right side of the music rack may start first. The person listening must watch the music and say "stop" as soon as he sees or hears a mistake in pitch, rhythm, or any other error not related to pitch or rhythm. An example of an error to be counted that is not related to pitch or rhythm might be a dynamic mark- ing, repeat, or slurring. Do not count fuzzy starts or bad tones that you could consider as a mistake. In other words watch pitch, rhythm, and markings in the 1.7 music. After stopping your partner explain the error and then take your turn playing the music. A tape re- corder will be running during your playing but it will NOT be used as a test grade. Spend about ten minutes taking turns playing and stopping your partner as soon as a mistake is made. In the follow- ing ten minutes play until you have some rests before you talk about the mistakes. A person will come in to remind you that there are ten minutes to go. In other words in the last ten minutes let the person play longer, up to a resting place in the music, before you point out the mis- takes. Now listen, here is an example of two students working the way that you are to work. The taped music example was performed by two students who were instructed how to stop one another as mistakes were made. The two students rehearsed until the routine was learned, and then the practice session was recorded on tape. The students select- ed for the example were a brother and sister playing a saXOphone and a clarinet. The students were not identified and their playing and speaking was not identified by anyone listening to the tape during the study. The taped instructions were played twice and were not part of the twenty minutes used for the practice session. After the instructions were played the students were asked if they understood what they were to do, if they indicated they did not understand, the instructions were repeated one more time. The student operating the tape recorder during the playing of the instructions, was in the room with the students only briefly to notify them of the last ten minutes of their practice time, and at the conclusion of the practice time. 48 Students were free to choose known or unknown music. It was assumed that the selection of music would make no dif- ference if there was a variety and if the selection was within the technical level of the students. All comments made by the students during the pretest, posttest, and practice sessions were taped and observed. Students practicing in pairs were given practice instructions as previously listed. A comparison of achieve- ment was made with another pair of band students who were not taking partin the paired practice group. The practice for those students who practiced together with instructions on a tape recorder was referred to as “peer-related." Band class met five days a week with a fifty-five minute period. Peer- related practice sessions were held twice a week, with twenty minutes for each session. The Watkins-Farnum Test Form A was used as a pretest, and the test Form B was used as a posttest. In the Watkins- Farnum Test‘the student qualified for each succeeding example as they progress in difficulty by earning a score above zero. The student is disqualified to continue by receiving two con- secutive zero scores. After administering the Watkins-Farnum Performance §gglg to a random sample of twelve students it was found that students from one grade level would qualify to play approxi- mately the same number of examples in the test. In the pilot study the tenth example was found to be the highest example that the best scoring student qualified to take. The last #9 example that the best scoring student qualified to take in Form B was example number eleven. An attempt was then made to administer the Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale without the presence of an experienced music teacher, by taping the per- formance and correcting the test with the replay of the tape. Both junior and senior high students were trained to administer the tests in the pilot study. The senior high stu- dents worked the most efficiently, and did a thorough job of test administration. One skill that the students administer- ing the pretest and posttest had to develop was starting the student over on an example if the tempo of the performance be- gan to slow down. In the pilot study a technique was developed to enable the students taking the sight reading test, to score this test. The students listened to the playing of their performances after the completion of a selected number of examples, and scored their own performances by indicating any error they heard on a score sheet. The above reproduction of the score included the letters PRO directly beneath the notation. The letters represented the following: P to represent an error in pitch, R to represent a rhythmic error, and O to represent any other error, such as an error in articulation and dynamics. Rhythm errors were to 50 be marked for: ignoring a rest, failure to give a rest its correct value, and not giving a note its correct value. The letters PRO as illustrated, were in a vertical position under each note and students were given scoring in- structions. Tape recorded instructions directed the students to cross through the letter representing the kind of error that they heard. Each student had a copy of the notation and observed it as the tape was replayed. The ”correct” score for each student was determined by having a music teacher also score the replay of the performance. By comparing the student's score with the teacher's score, a percentage score was obtained for each student. If the student marked ten errors compared to twenty errors identified by the teacher, a raw score of 10/20 or .50 was given. At the beginning of the study, the playback of the tape recorder after the completion of the performance test was Oper- ated by a teacher. This was done to allow the student to iden- tify his errors as he listened to his own performance. Later in the pilot study, these duties of Operating the tape recorder became the responsibility of a trained high school student. The instructions recorded for the student participating in the test were pre-recorded on another tape recorder to assure the same instructions for all subjects. The instructions for the error detection part of the pilot study were recorded as follows: Listen to your playing and check through R if you hear a mistake in rhythm. Check through P if you hear a mistake in pitch, in other words, a mistake in pitch is a wrong note. Check through 0 if you hear another 51 mistake. The 0 may be mistakes in repeats, loud and soft playing, tonguing or slurring, or some other mistake. In the first few sessions of the pilot study the en- tire twenty minutes of practice was spent with the procedure of stopping whenever a mistake was made. Later it was assumed that this procedure would not be good for overall achievement because students should also learn to play a piece of music as a continuous whole. Because of this assumption the students were instructed to spend only the first ten minutes of their peer-related practice with a stop and start procedure. The remaining ten minutes were used for playing longer selections without interruptions. At the end of longer sections approx- imately sixteen measures, each student's partner was still en- couraged to remember as many mistakes as possible, to talk about the errors, and then to take his own turn performing. At the beginning of the pilot study all of the tests and practice groups were supervised or attended by a teacher. Often the students would look to the teacher to make judgments or confirm an idea presented by one of the students. In all these occurrences when students questioned the teacher, no comment was made to help the student, no comment other than encouragement to solve the problem as best possible by them- selves. Their own ideas were encouraged with comments, "What do you think," and "Why don't you do what you think is right." In all occurrences throughout the study the students accepted this answer and attempted to solve their problem. 52 Later in the study when the teacher was not in the room it was found, from the playback of the tape, that stu- dents enjoyed working together and they kept busy working dur- ing the twenty minute time span. Longer and shorter time lim- its wore occasionally used, but the twenty minute period for these junior high school students seemed to work the best. 0c- casionally during the taped sessions there was discussion, a question, or a difference of opinion. 3 The students became involved in evaluation or analysis of a performance, and appeared to become more critical of their own performance, whether the responses were correct or incorrect. For the majority of the students in the control group, very lit- tle outward emotional response was apparent during the posttest. Students that had been participating in the experimental group frequently made one of the following remarks in their posttest: 'I blew that one,“ and “I made that mistake again.“ When the students stopped to correct each other, errors were often not completely corrected, nevertheless, a discussion usually followed and some correct adjustments, as well as in- correct adjustments, were made. From a personal observation it was concluded that in the first part of the study when the teacher was in the room, the teacher's presence helped to en- courage a smooth procedure for practice. It was also found that both the presence of a tape recorder, and possibly the student's suspicion that the tape would be replayed for some purpose, motivated the students to concentrate on the practice activities. One result of the use of a tape recorder was that 53 the students seemed to respond in a more relaxed and natural way. When the students stopped during the practice session, one of the following situations developed: a mistake was cor- rectly observed and the student was informed of the correct way: a mistake was correctly observed but wrongly corrected: no mistake was made but the student observing thought that he had detected an error: also, mistakes were made and neither student observed them. In the practice session of the experi- mental group there was never a time when no comments were made by students during the practice. In the practice sessions of the experimental group, the students readily gave their advice and seemed to enjoy finding the errors in the other student's performance. Often if an error was pointed out and a wrong correction was given, a discussion would follow. It was hoped that both correct and incorrect responses would help the stu- dents to become as critical of themselves as of others. The students did communicate their feelings about leav- ing the scheduled band practice to participate in the study. Because the few chosen students appeared to be a group having special privileges, the attitude of these students was very positive. Questions that students were motivated to ask out- side of the taping sessions were no doubt answered by a variety of persons including students, band instructors, or possibly parents. Rarely, however, did the students continue their dis- cussion in such a way that it was real apparent that they were seeking further help after their practice session. Any 54 motivation to find answers to questions originating in the practice session, was considered a good response. The results of the pilot study posttest are shown in ‘Tables 1, 2 and 3. (Table 2, page 55: Table 3, page 56) A non-parametric analysis of the pilot study findings was made. The Mann-Whitney U Test was used to test for significant dif- ferences between experimental and control groups. The proba- bility of .10 for sight-reading and .05 for error detection was deemed appropriate for further investigation. The Watkins- Farnum Performance Scale was used for a sight-reading score. The raw scores and gain scores for sight-reading are given in Table 1. TABLE 1 PILOT STUDY WATKINS-FARNUM PERFORMANCE SCALE POSTTEST RESULTS FOR SIGHT-READING Student Practice Type Pre Post Score Gain Rank of Gain B Peer 12 h8 36 l A Peer 12 #2 30 2 D Peer 24 #8 2h H Peer 22 no 18 u G Band 17 31 1a 5.5 E Band 12 2h 1n 5.5 C Band 55 66 11 7.5 F Band 39 50 11 7.5 U = 3 p =< .10 (one tail) 55 The error detection scores in Table 2 are given in a percentage form. Student B in Table 2 detected 13 errors in the pretest, compared to 38 errors found by the teacher. The fraction 13/38 indicates 33% accuracy in error detection. On the posttest, student B detected 50 of the 51 errors, or 98%. The difference between error detection scores in the pretest and posttest is 6%. TABLE 2 PILOT STUDY POSTTEST RESULTS FOR ERROR DETECTION Student Practice Pre Post ,Gain .Rank of Gain 3 Peer 13/38 3% 50/51 98% 6% 1 C Peer 23/32 72% 21/23 100% 285 3 1) Peer‘ 3/13 235 16/2h 67% m 2 I: A Band 8/21 38% 1 3/20 6 51 27% I: Band 7/23 30% 15/32 “7% 17¢ Band 7/17 In; 12/23 52% 11:: U-B p=<-05 *(Students G and H did not complete the error detection test) 56 TABLE 3 , PILOT STUDY MEAN GAINS OP GROUPS IN ERROR DETECTION AND SIGHT-READING POSTTESTS Group Test Mean Gain Peer-related Sightareading 25.? Raw Score Band practice Sight-reading 16.? Raw Score Peer-related Error Detection “5.65 More Accuracy Band practice Error Detection 18.3% Here Accuracy A.‘ The pilot study warranted the following tentative conclusions: 1. The gain of sight-reading and error detection achievement (Table 1 and 2) for those students in peer—related groups was greater than for students in regular band class. 2. Gain scores in sight-reading achievement and error detection skill can be raised by the methods employed in the pilot study. Summggy The reviewed literature helped to give direction for the present study with drill materials for increasing error detection achievement. Such studies also led to the develop- ment of the methods for peer-related music practice. The review of sight-reading literature included methods 57 and techniques used in previous studies that measured sight- reading skill. The programmed methods discussed in the sight- reading studies led to the development of tape recording in- structions in the present study. Sight singing literature was reviewed because it is clbsely related to the skill of sight-reading instrumental music. A review of environmental studies contributed to the development-of the paired practice method in the present study. The attitude review was used to varify the importance of attitude variables for music practice. The pilot study served as the primary research design and measurement model for the present study. Factors derived from certain conclu- sions of all of the reviewed documentations have, in varying degrees, contributed to the experimental design, limitations, and instruments of measurement of the present study. CHAPTER III DESIGN OF THE STUDY Study Location In recent years there has been considerable interest in and experimentation of, “middle schools“ or “intermediate“ schools. These schools, formerly designated as Junior High schools, are neither elementary nor secondary, containing grades 5-8, 6-8, 7-8, or 7-9. American schools are generally classified as either elementary or secondary. However, the middle school designed to serve the pro-adolescent and early adolescent, or later childhood from approximately lO-lk years of age, established a third category. Many schools now have their levels of instruction in elementary, middle, and secon- dary schools. . The middle school has been developed out of necessity for more buildings'for larger numbers of students, and also because of new programs developed for the psychological and social nature of the pro-high school age group. Educators now recognize that more attention must be directed toward this age group of students. Some educators think that this age group needs special attention because of the changing times. Havighurst remarks that the adolescent middle school student 58 0v 59 is much more sophisticated today, more aware of the-reality of human nature and society, even though he may not understand much of what he sees.u5 The following description of the American Junior High school is given by Howard and Stoumbis in a recent publication: The American junior high school is frequently described ~ as a unique institution intended to provide an educa- tional program best suited to the needs of that unique age, early adolescence. With a curriculum explicity designed for this aim, and teachers specifically train- ed for the early adolescent age group, the junior high school should, and often does, attain this unique pur- pose. Even today it is easy to start a lively argument as to how much success is achieved in this worthy enter- prise by the junior high school, and there may be even more disagreement regarding its function, purpose and structure. This is at least partially due to the chang- ing nature of the American society and to the modifi- cation of the several factors that brought the junior high school into being.’ A variety of reasons were be- hind its origin and growth, with no single cause really predominating, but most of thase reasons no longer exist or are considerably altered. Although the students participating in this study were from a school with the official name of Junior High, the facilities and faculty were in accord with a middle school concept. The population for this study was a junior high school wind instrument class in Jenison, a suburb of Grand Rapids, usRobert J. Havighurst, ”Lost Innocence-Modern Junior High School Youth,“ Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals (IprII, 1533, Ice. cit.7. PP. 3-“. uéAlvin W. Howard and George C. Stoumbis, The Junior High and Middle School: Issues and Practices (NeW'York: Intest Educational Publishers, 19707] p. 3. 60 located in Ottawa County, Michigan. The Junior High at the time of the study included grades seven and eight with an en- rollment of 292 in the seventh grade and 279 in the eighth grade. In the 1970 and 1971 school year all instrumental mu- sic students were band students. The following sociological observation of the com- munity of Jenison was made in a survey by Western Michigan University: Jenison is an excellent example of a typical suburban type community. It serves as a desirable residential area of the greater Grand Rapids Community. There is little or no industry within the boundaries of the School district: consequently, most of the residents are either employed as professional personnel, in the service occupations cruin industry in the Grand Rapids and Grand Haven areas. EETPl-E One hundred and eight boys and girls, enrolled in grades seven and eight during the 1970 and 1971 school year in the Jenison Public Junior High School, served as subjects for the investigation. The mean age of the sample for the fifty girls at the beginning of the study was thirteen years and two months: the mean age for the fifty-eight boys was thir- teen years and one month. The one hundred and eight students were randomly se- lected from a total of one hundred and fifty students enrolled “7Roland S. Strolle, Survey of Jenison Public Schools (Kalamazoo: Western Michigan University School ofiEducation, 1969). p- 2. 61 in instrumental music classes for band students. These stu- dents were chosen to provide a random sample of students from . instrumental music classes, and to provide sufficient numbers of subjects for a crossed analysis of variance design. All students' numbers were assigned, except percussion students. Numbers were placed in a box out of which the first one hundred and eight were selected as subjects. Twelve percussionists were not included in the study because their limited experi- ence with reading melodic music would present them with se- vere practice handicaps. Seventh and eighth grade students met in separate classes for band. Band class was a course that students who had successfully completed elementary band, or equivalent training, could elect in their curriculum. The average ex- perience was 3.5 years of band instrument study. Class time for seventh grade band was from 10:00 A.M. until 11:00 A.M. Class time for the eighth grade band was g... 11:05 until 12:05. A The 108 subjects were divided into 54 pairs. Each pair was assigned two 20 minute practice sessions each week for a consecutive ten week period. Each pair was randomly as- signed one of three methods of practice. 1. Method T - a method of having instrumental music teachers rehearse with pairs of students with ghzgfiever traditional techniques they choose to 2. Method I - a method with specific instructions for practice independent of the teacher. 62 3. Method P - a free practice time for each pair of students. Each pair was manipulated so that the following practice en- vironments were represented in each method of practice. (Table 4) TABLE # PRACTTCE ENVIRONMENTS Students paired with students ranking in the upper half of all subjects, as determined by intelli- gence quotient scores 3, Students paired with students ranking in the lower half of all subjects, as determined by intelli- gence quotient scores Students paired with students with the same class of ingtruments, (both play woodwind, or both play brass Students paired with students with different in- struments, (woodwinds paired with brass) Students paired with a member of the opposite sex Students paired with a member of the same sex All method groups and environment groups were rela- tively balanced in number of students: however, the individ- ual band class sizes were not the same. The eighth-grade band class contained #6 students and the seventh-grade band class contained 62 students who were subjects in the study. 63 Practice Methods The first of the three methods (T), was a traditional- ly oriented twenty minute rehearsal with a teacher. Each of three teachers instructed one pair of students. They rotated their teaching time so that each pair was instructed by the same teacher each third practice time. This procedure was used to eliminate teacher effect. The teachers gave the pair of students music, and determined in what way they would help the students practice. Each practice session was recorded in or- der to insure reasonable experimental control. The second method (I) included the following instruc- tions on tape: One of you will play the music that you must place on the music stand and the other person is to listen. The person on the right side of the music stand may start first. The person listening must watch the mu- sic and say ”stop” as soon as he sees or hears a mis- take in pitch, rhythm, or any other error not related to pitch or rhythm. An example of an error to be counted that is not related to pitch or rhythm might be a dynamic marking, repeat, or a slur. Do not count fussy starts or bad tones that you could consider as a mistake. In other words, watch for errors in pitch or rhythm. Also watch for incorrect observance of repeat and expression markings. After stopping your partner, talk about the mistake, and then take your turn play- ing the music. A tape recorder will be running during your playing but the playback of your playing will 52; be used as a test grade. Spend about ten minutes taking turns playing and stop- ping your partner as soon as mistakes are made. After practicing in this way for ten minutes, spend the re- maining ten minutes playing until you have some rests or stopping places in the music. In other words, in the last ten minutes let the person play longer, up to measure rests, before you point out mistakes. Use any music of your choice that is in your music folio. on Now listen, here is an example of two students work- ing the way that you are to work. ' A recording of two persons discussing and practicing, was in- cluded on the tape.‘ The students performing the example on tape were not involved in any other part of the study. The instructions for treatment I were played twice, once before the first and once before the second practice session. All operation of tape recorders was done by trained high school students. ‘ The third treatment was labled P. In this method.in- structions were given as follows: Practice together for twenty minutes, use the twenty minutes to practice music from your music folio. A tape will run during your practice time, but it will not be used for any grade. The instructions for treatment P were played before the first and second practice session. Data Gathering Instruments 1.9, Measure. The guidance and testing department of Jenison Public Schools made all intelligence quotient scores available for the study. Large-Thorndike Intelligence Scores were avail- able from testing in the Fall of the years 1968 and 1969. The 1.0. scores of subjects in the seventh grade ranged from 83 to 132 with a mean score of 10“. Eighth grade scores ranged from 76 to 131 with a mean score of 109. The standard deviation for the scores in each grade was 16. 65 Sight-Reading Measure. The Watkins-Parnum Performance Scale was used as a pretest and a posttest for sight-reading."8 Form A was used as a pretest and Form B was used as a posttest. The reliability coefficient for forms A and B is .95. The Watkins- Parnum Performance Scale is the only standardised music test for measuring wind instrument performance, available at this time. The following description of the test is given by the author: - > The Watkins-Parnum Performance Scale for Band Instru- ents represen s an a ap on c an or g na sca e Revised and standardized for the cornet. The scale was carefully constructed to meet both musical ang scientific criteria for "nanny and validity. 9 The following commentary was made in the Measurements Yearbook about the Watking-Parnum~Perfgrmance Scale: The reliabilities claimed range from .87 to .9“. Validity coefficients, based on correlation with instructor's ratings, lie in the region of .68 to .87. Thega are extremely good.figures for any mu- sic test. Directions in the Watkins-Parnum test manual were tape recorded and played for each student taking the test. While I‘BJohn G. Watkins, and Stephen E. Farnum, The Watkins- Farnum Performance Scale (Winona:. Hal Leonard Music Inc., I93h). “9John G. Watkins, Obgective Measurement of Instrumental Performance (New York: T.C. ureau o u ca one, , p. . 50Oscar K. Euros (ed.), The Fifth Mental Measurements Yearbook (New Jersey: The Gryphon ress, 9 , p. . 66 the student played the examples of the test. his performance was tape recorded on another machine. In the Watkins-Barnum Performance Scale the student, who is performing, qualifies for each succeeding example until he is disqualified by two consecutive zero scores. In the pi- lot study it was found that students in the seventh and eighth grade would qualify to play approximately the same number of examples in the test. Because of this, it was possible to as- sign the number of examples to be played, with a reasonable amount of assurity that before completion of the assigned ex- amples, two consecutive zero scores would be made. To avoid having students earn a score that would qualify them to play more than assigned, each student was encouraged to attempt. completion of eleven musical examples. . I The scoring of all the sight-reading performances on tape was completed by three music instructors at a later time. Each student's performance in the Watkins-Barnum test was scored by all three of the instructors. Table 5 contains de- tails of the persons scoring the sight-reading tests. 67 TABLE 5 MUSIC JUDGES FOR SIGHT-READING MEASURE Instructor Degree Major Instrument Experience A B.A. Ohio State Cornet 29 teaching years B M.Mus. University of Michigan Bassoon 11 teaching years C B.A. Bob Jones University Cornet 12 teaching years 3 performing years The mean score was thus derived from the judges' scores, and was used for each student's pretest and posttest. The scoring by three evaluators from the tape, was completed according to the instructions for scoring in the Wetkins-Farnum Performance Scale test manual. Reliability across judges was found to be sufficiently high (r I .97) as determined by the Kendall Coefficient of Concordance procedure. This procedure was used because the data were ordinal and many ties occurred. Error Detection Measure. The error detection test was devised as part of the sight-reading test. The test consisted of a playback of the student's performance of the Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale, following the instructions about scoring. Before the playback of the sight-reading performance, another tape recorder in the testing room was used to play pre-recorded instructions for scoring. Each student was given several sheets 68 with the music score of Watkins-Farnum test examples that they had performed. The format was changed, and each music score line was separated only enough to insert three letters under- neath the notation. Each music score was spaced with room to include the letters P, R, and 0, representing pitch, rhythm, and other. The instructions for the error detection test were taped as follows: Listen to your playing and check through the letter R with a pencil if you hear a mistake in rhythm. Check through P if you hear a mistake in pitch: in other words, a mistake in pitch is a wrong note. Check through 0 if you hear any other mistake. The 0 may be mistakes in repeats, loud and soft playing, tonguing or slurring errors, or some other mistakes. The error detection test was corrected or scored by having one teacher listen to each tape, and marking the errors with the same procedure used by the student. For a final score to be used as a raw score, a comparison was made of the stu- dent's and the teacher's scoring of the student's errors. The raw score for this test was derived by placing the student's number of measures containing an error, over the teacher's 69 score. The raw score was a percentage: for example, on the pretest the student may haye identified 50 out of the 100 mea- sures with errors (505). _0n the posttest he may have identi- fied 50 out of the 75 measures with errors (66%). The student thus had a gain score of 16%. Because the score was based on a comparison of a stu- dent's score with a teacher's score for standard comparison, the same teacher scored each student's errors. The reliabil- ity of the teacher's scoring was examined with a testnretest method and a rank correlation was determined to be .97. (See Table #0, page 166) The error detection sheet was corrected and compared with the student's score as described, assuming a correct response by the teacher. In the error detection test the students were instruct- ed to score all observed errors, but in the final tabulation only the number of measures with errors indicated within them, were counted. If there were two errors marked by the student within a«measure, and the comparison with the teacher's showed that the teacher had found three errors, the student was still given full credit for identifying mistakes within the measure. The specific areas of error, namely pitch, rhythm, and other, were used only as an aid for the student and not for correc- tion and score tabulation. It was found in the pilot study that neither student nor teacher had sufficient time to score every note in rapidly moving passages of music notation. Attitude Measure. An attitude scale was constructed by having 70 a large number of junior high school students from the western Michigan area write two positive and two negative statements about their practice attitudes (See page 159). From approxi- mately #00 of these statements, forty were selected on the basis of most repeated thoughts. These forty statements .‘m reviewed and rated on a numerical scale by a Hichigan.State University graduate music education class.' Content validity was achieved by using statements rep- resenting the population of student attitudes.’ The graduate students were asked to rank the statements in a range from 1 to lO, the positive side of practice attitude was to be indi- cated by a higher number, and the negative side of a practice attitude indicated by a lower number. The Thurstone and Chave method was used to determine a scale value. Sixteen statements were selected from the forty ranked by the graduate class. (See page 161) Eight of these were positive statements and eight were negative statements. These sixteen statements were used in the final construction of an attitude measure. Each question on the Practice Attitude Inventory (PAI) was either a positive or a negative statement about practice. It was assumed that liking to practice more, was an indication of positive attitude, disliking practice would be a negative attitude toward practicing. Scoring instructions for the PAI are included in the appendix, page 12h. From the possible sixteen questions answered by the student, fourteen were used in scoring. Two questions with 71 the lowest reliability were eliminated and the remaining four- teen questions were used for the PAI. Each statement was sub- Jected to test stability over two test administrations. The reliability of the total PAI was computed with a test-retest administered to seventh and eighth grade band students in an area school. The test was given.on a Tuesday and again on Thursday of the same week. Fifty-five students completed both tests. The Pearson Product correlation coefficient was deter- mined at .77. This level of consistency was acceptable for the purposes of this study. e : Design and Analysis Testing the hypotheses of this study required a facto- rial analysis of variance design. Thesubjeets' raw scores in sight-reading and error detection constituted the initial de. pendent measures for analysis. Table 6 illustrates the initial design considered for the ANOVA. TABLE 6 CATEGORICAL COMPARISON FOR INITIAL ANALYSIS or VARIANCE DESIGN LOW IeQe High I.Q. L0 Att Hi Att LO Att H1 Att Mix [Same Mix Same Mix Same Mix Same (Instrument) l _ I _ S DP [D SIDS D SID SID SIDSID (Same and Different Sex) 72 All conditions could not be met for crossed classifi- cation because a sufficient number of subjects was unavailable. It was necessary to discard the orighnal design and analysis plans. Instead of the design in Table 6. two way analyses of variance were used to measure three dependent variables: er- ror detection. sight-reading. and attitude. Practice attitude was included as a dependent variable. Four independent vari- ables were analysed in relation to each of the dependent mea; sures. These dependent variables were method. 1.0.. instru- ment. and sex. 'Therefore. three designs took the place of the original grand design. ,Admittedly. the a: level was increased but no other tenable means of saving these data seemed appro- priate. ‘ Three separate analyses were made with the subject's. scores from error detection achievement. sight-reading skill. and practice attitude score. Table 7 illustrates the three by two design for analysis of variance. The T represents a method with a teacher teaching a pair of students in a tradi- tional way.. The I represents a method of specified practice for the students. The P represents a method of students prac- ticing any way they chose. 73 TABLE 7 ANOVA FOR THE CONSIDERATION OF METHOD/I.Q. IN RELATION TO EACH OF THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES T I. p High 1.0. N-Iz N-Iz N-Iz ~1 Low I.Q. N-lz - ' N312 N812 I A similar analysis of variance was used for method.and instrument. In this analysis eight subject scores were avail- able for each of the cells. Three analyses were made with this design and scores were used from error detection. sight-reading. and PAI gain. Table 8 illustrates the three by two design for instrumentation. TABLE 8 ANOVA FOR THE CONSIDERATION OF METHOD/INSTRUMENT IN RELATION TO EACH OF THE DEPENDENT‘VARIABLES T A I P Mixed N88 N88 N88 Same N88 ‘ N=8 N88 Finally. a third design was used for method and sex. Because of the number of subject numbers in the cells. N=lo was available for the method and sex analysis of variance. Scores from error detection. sight-reading. and PAI were used. 7“ Table 9 illustrates the three by two design for method and sex. TABLE 9 ANOVA FOR THE CONSIDERATION OF METHOD/SEX IN RELATION TO EACH OF THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES T I P Mixed N-lo N-lo N310 Same N-lo N-lo .N=IO One hundred and eight subjects were equally divided in- to twenty-seven pairs of higher 1.0.. and twenty-seven pairs of lower 1.0. An attempt was made to divide randomly mixed and same instrument practice groups into balanced groups. with- in the two I.Q. groups. Because of the set instrumentation in the bands. it was only possible to have forty-five subjects with mixed instrument practice (woodwinds with brass). com- pared to sixty-three subjects practicing with like instrument pairs (woodwinds with woodwinds and brasses with brasses). An attempt was also made to divide randomly students into balanced practice groups with the same sex and mixed sex. The groups of same sex and mixed sex were also to be balanced in each of the 1.0. and instrument categories. Because of the number of boys and girls available it was only possible to have thirty-six subjects practice with the opposite sex. com- pared to seventy-two subjects practicing with like sex. Stu- dents were randomly assigned the three practice methods: 75 therefore this equal distribution was controlled at the be- ginning of the project. Analysis Raw data from the individual gain scores were trans- ferred to mark sense scoring sheets and computer cards. The cards were processed by Evaluation Services of hichigan State University. To aid in error detection and sight-reading com- putation. 100 was added to each gain score. If the posttest resulted in a loss in score. this amount of loss was subtrac- ted frem 100. If there was no change in pretest and posttest. the gain score was listed as 100. A gain in the posttest score was added to 100 to make the raw score. Attitude scores were not altered for computation. Selection of a computer program for analysis was cho- sen with the consultation of Roy Gabriele from Michigan State University Evaluation Services. The analysis of variance used in this study was computer programmed by Robert I. Jennrich.51 . The computer programming for the analysis of variance provided the following information: means. reduced sum of squares. degree of freedom. mean square. control word inter- action. and replication. 51Robert I. Jennrich. IOOU Analysis of Variance (Uni- versity of Wisconsin. 1961). CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION OF THE DATA Review of Procedure The investigation of proficiency in error detection and sight-reading after practice with a specified method. con- stituted the first purpose of this study. The second purpose was to investigate attitude change after practice with a spec- ified method. An Investigation of the effect of practice en- vironments upon error detection. sight-reading. and attitude was also researched. ‘ One hundred and eight Jenison junior high band students participated in the experimental period which occurred during the second semester of 1971. All of the one hundred and eight students were given individual error detection. sight-reading. and attitude protests before the beginning of the twenty units of practice. At the conclusion of ten weeks of practice the same tests were given again as posttests. In the sight-reading test. Form A of the Watkins-Farnum Performance Scale was used for the pretest. Form B was used for the posttest. In the analysis of attitude. only posttest scores were used. Attitude protests were available for comparison. Because many pretest scores were already highly positive. the comparison could 76 77 inaccurately demonstrate a negative attitude with very slight differences in pretest and posttest scores. The test scores were recorded on computer cards for processing by Michigan State University Evaluation Services. Nine analyses of variance were used to determine the acceptance or rejection of the hypotheses. Hngtheses Hypothesis 1 There is no significant difference among three practice methods in learning error detection. gypgthesis 2 There is no significant difference between higher and lower 1.0. groups in learning error detection. Hypothesis 2 There is no significant interaction between method and 1.0. in the error detection analysis. The means for the above are shown in Table 10. TABLE 10 MEAN SCORES ERROR DETECTION ANALYSIS PRACTICE METHOD AND 1.0. T I P Hi IQ i - 105.91 E 3 103.91 i I 10h.92 n 8 12 n I 12 n = 12 Lo IQ i = 115.66 E = 119.17 E = 91.75 n 8 12 n = 12 n = 12 The analysis Of variance for the above data is in Table 11 (Page 78). 78 TABLE 11 ANOVA FOR DEPENDENT MEASURE: ERROR DETECTION INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: PRACTICE METHOD AND I.Q. Source SS df MS F Total 35599.889 * Method 26#1.85 2 1320.#2 2.911* IQ 280.h 1 280.“ .62 M IQ Inter 2726.9 2 1363.h5 3.00h** Within v 29948.8 66 “53.76 *P-<.10 **P-<.08 120 115 110 105 100 95 90 The interaction is noted below in Figure 1. FIGURE 1 ERROR DETECTION lETHOD/I.Q. INTERACTION HIGHER IQ -------LOHER IQ 79 prothesis ‘1 There is no significant difference between some and different instrument practice groups in learning error detection. Hypothesis 5 There is no significant interaction between method and instrument in the error detection analysis. The means for the above are shown in Table 12. TABLE 12 MEAN SCORES ERROR DETECTION ANALYSIS PRACTICE METHOD AND INSTRUMENT GROUPING T I p Mixed i'- 112.62 R - 113.25 i - 106.62 n - 8 n . 8 n - 8 Same i - 103.00 R - 106.00 R - 96.25 n - 8 n I 8 n I 8 The analysis of variance for the above data is in Table 13. TABLE 13 ANOVA FOR DEPENDENT MEASURE: ERROR DETECTION INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: PRACTICE METHOD AND INSTRUMENT GROUPING Source SS df MS P Total 25997.91? “7 553.1“? Method 591.792 2 295.896 .#3 Instru 990.083 1 990.083 1.47 M Ins Inter 21.292 2 10.696 .015 Replic 9719.583 7 674.226 80 Neither method nor instrument (main effects) were found to be significant. There was no significant inter- action as noted below in Figure 2. FIGURE 2 ERROR DETECTION METHOD/INSTRUMENT INTERACTION SAME DIFFERENT----- 115 ‘ 110 "”---' “~~“ 105 “ 100 95 T I P Hypothesis 6 There is no significant difference between two practice groups of same and different sex in learning error detection. Hypothesis 2 There is no significant interaction between method and sex in the error detection analysis. The means for the above are shown in Table 1h. TABLE I“ MEAN SCORES ERROR DETECTION ANALYSIS PRACTICE METHOD AND SEX T I P Mixed i = 112.00 E a 110.20 R 8 105.90 n = 10 n = 10 n = 10 Same i = 111.90 E = 113.00 2 = 101.20 n = 10 n = 10 n = 10 81 The analysis of variance for the above data is in Table 15. TABLE 1 5 ANOVA FOR DEPENDENT MEASURE: ERROR DETECTION INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: PRACTICE METHOD AND SEX GROUPING Source SS df MS P Total 31507.933 59 530.066 Method 903.233 2 “51.617 1.22 Sex 96.267 1 96.267 .27 M S Inter 53.433 2 26.717 .071 Roplic 3238.600 9 359.890 Neither method nor sex (main effects) were found to be significant. There was no significant interaction as noted below in Figure 3. FIGURE 3 ERROR DETECTION METHOD/SEX INTERACTION SAME 115 DIFFERENT ...... 110 105 100 82 Hypothesis 8 There is no significant difference among three practice methods in learning sight-reading. Hypothesis 2 There is no significant difference between higher and lower I.Q. groups in learning sight- reading. Hypothesis 10 There is no significant interaction between method and I.Q. in the sight-reading analysis. The means for the above are shown in Table 16. TABLE 16 MEAN SCORES SIGHT-READING ANALYSIS PRACTICE METHOD AND I.Q. T I P Hi IQ i I 111.92 i I 107.8h i I 112.66 n I 12 n I 12 n.I 12 Lo IQ i I 112.89 R I 107.b2 i I 106.75 n I 12 n I 12 n I 12 The analysis of variance for the above data is in Table 17. TABLE 1? ANOVA FOR DEPENDENT MEASURE: SIGHT-READING INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: PRACTICE METHOD AND I.Q. Source SS df MS F Total 5h60.653 71 76.911 Method 395.449 2 197.722 3.03 I Q .3“? 1 .397 .005 M IQ Inter 10.778 2 5.388 .07 Replic 715.517 11 65.0U7 —— 83 Neither method nor I.Q. (main effects) were found to be significant. There was no significant interaction as noted below in Figure h. FIGURE # ERROR DETECTION METHOD/I.Q. INTERACTION HIGHER 116 . LOWER --------- 110 112 110 108 106 10k T I P Hypothesis 11 There is no significant difference between same and different instrument practice groups in learning sight-reading. Hypothesis 12 There is no significant interaction between method and instrument in the sight-reading analysis. The means for the above are shown in Table 18. (Page 81:). 8“ TABLE 18 MEAN SCORES SIGHT-READING ANALYSIS PRACTICE METHOD AND INSTRUMENT T AI P Mixed i - 110.75 T . 110.13 i - 102.75 n I 8 n I 8 n I 8 Same i - 112.63 i - 109.50 R - 108.88 n I 8 n I 8 n I 8 The analysis of variance for the above data is in Table 19. TABLE 19 ANOVA FOR DEPENDENT MEASURE: SIGHT-READING INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: PRACTICE METHOD AND INSTRUMENT GROUPING Source SS df MS F Total “#42.h79 #7 9b.520 Method 896.167 2 288.083 1.50 Instru 15.187 1 15.188 .07 M I Inter 154.500 2 77.250 .91 Roplic 1364.979 7 194.997 ‘— ‘— Neither method nor instrument (main effects) were found to be significant. There was no significant interaction as noted below in Figure 5 (Page 85). 85 FIGURE 5 SIGHT-READING METHODVINSTRUMENT INTERACTION SAME 115 ~ . ‘~~-‘_ DIFFERENT ----- 110 -‘~ ‘\ 105 ~\ \\ 100 T I P Hypothesis 1} There is no significant difference between two practice groups of same and different sex in learning sight-reading._ . Hypothesis 1“ There is no significant interaction between method and sex in the sight-reading analysis. The means for the above are shown in Table 20. TABLE 20~ MEAN SCORES SIGHT-READING ANALISIS PRACTICE METHOD AND SEX T I P Mixed i . 112.00 §- 110.50 {'3 105.50 nI10 nI10 nI10 Same i I 110.60 i I 106.00 i I 110.50 n,I 10 n,I 10 n I 10 The analysis of variance for the above data is in Table 21 (Page 86). 86 TABLE 21 ANOVA FOR DEPENDENT MEASURE: SIGHT-READING INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: PRACTICE METHOD AND SEX Source SS df MS P Total 6523-933 59 110.575 Method 290.633 2 145.317 1.82 Sex 9.600 1 9.600 .12 M S Inter ”86.300 2 283.150 3.07 Replic 718.267 9 79.363 Neither method nor sex (main effects) were found to be significant. There was no significant interaction as noted below in Figure 6. FIGURE 6 SIGHT-READING METHOD/SEX INTERACTION SAME 115 DIFFERENT ----- 110 ““\\ 105 ‘\ Hypothesis 15 There is no significant difference among the three practice methods in attitude change. 87 Hypothesis 16 There is no significant difference between higher and lower I.Q. groups in attitude change. Hypothesis 1: There is no significant interaction between method and I.Q. in the attitude analysis. The means for the above are shown in Table 22. TABLE 22 MEAN SCORES ATTITUDE ANALYSIS PRACTICE METHOD AND I.Q. T I P Hi IQ i I 31.0 i I 33.5 i I 32.7 n,I 12 n I 12 n I 12 Lo IQ i I 33.3 i I 31.0 i I 29.6 n I 12 n I 12 n I 12 The analysis of variance for the above data is in Table 23. TABLE 23 ANOVA FOR DEPENDENT MEASURE: ATTITUDE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: PRACTICE METHOD AND I.Q. Source SS df MS F Total 1505.5 71 Method 22.75 2 11.375 .509 I Q 26.888 1 26.888 1.299 Inter 89.695 2 04.847 2.166 Within 1366.166 66 20.699 88 Neither method nor I.Q. (main effects) were found to be significant. There was no significant interaction as noted in Figure 7. FIGURE 7 ATTITUDE METHOD/I.Q. INTERACTION HIGHER IQ 3‘} LOWER IQ -c--------- 33 32 31 30 29 T I P Hypothesis 18 There is no significant difference between some and different instrument practice groups in attitude change. Hypothesis 12 There is no significant interaction between method and instrument in attitude analysis. The means for the above are shown in Table 24. TABLE 24 MEAN SCORES ATTITUDE ANALYSIS PRACTICE METHOD AND INSTRUMENT Mixed 5_§=I33.3 III34.1 IIP30.0 n=8 nI8 nI8 Same i = 31.1 i I 32.6 i I 32.3 n=8 n"8 n=8 89 The analysis of variance for the above data is in Table 25. TABLE 25 ANOVA FOR DEPENDENT MEASURE: ATTITUDE INDEPENDENT YARIABDES: PRACTICE METHOD AND INSTRUMENT Source 88 d! MS P Total 102k.b79 #7 Method CO.5U2 2 20.270 .909 Instru 2.521 1 2.521 .113 Inter un.792 2 22.396 1.00h Iithin 936.625 #2 22.301 Neither method nor instrument (Iain effects) were found to be significant. There was no significant interaction as noted below in Figure 8. FIGURE 8 ATTITUDE METHOD/INSTRUIENT INTERACTION ‘SAIE a. ”"an p” \ 33 \\ \ 32 ‘\ \\ 31 \\ 3° \ 90 Hygothesis 20 There is no significant difference between two practice groups of same and different sex in attitude change. gypothesis 21 There is no significant interaction between method and sex in the attitude analysis. The means for the above are shown in Table 26. TABLE 26 MEAN SCORES ATTITUDE ANALYSIS PRACTICE METHOD AND SEX T ‘ I P Mixed i I 32.3 i 8 30.5 i = 31.9 n 8 10 n 3 10 n = 10 Same i 3 31.2 i 8 30.7 i = 32.5 n I 10 n 8 10 n 8 10 The analysis of variance for the above data is in Table 27. TABLE 2? ANOVA FOR DEPENDENT MEASURE: ATTITUDE INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: PRACTICE METHOD AND SEX Source SS df MS F Total 2265.000 59 Method 27.230 2 13.615 .329 Sex .150 1 .150 .000 Inter 7.900 2 3.950 .096 Within 2229. 700 5“ ’41 . 290 91 Neither method nor sex (main effects) were found to be significant. There was no significant interaction as noted below in Figure 9. FIGURE 9 ATTITUDE METHOD/SEX INTERACTION SAME 33 DIFFERENT ------- 32 31 30 In summary. two of the twenty-one hypotheses were rejected (Page 77). Hypothesis one was rejected at the .10 level of confidence. Hypothesis three was rejected at the .08 level of confidence. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Summary One purpose of this study was the investigation of music students' proficiency in sight-reading and detecting errors after completion of a specified practice procedure. The second purpose was to investigate students' after they had practiced with a specified method. The effects of some practice environments upon learning increments were also in- vestigated. One hundred and eight students at Jenison Junior High School participated in this experiment during the second so- mester of 1971. The students were given the following tests as pretest and posttest: The Vatkins-Farnum Performance §gg;g. an error detection test. and an attitude test. Form A of the Watkins-Parnum Performance Scale was used as a pre- test for sight-reading. Form B was used as a posttest. In the analysis of attitude. only posttest scores were used. Twenty units of practice were assigned to fifty-four pairs of students over a ten week period. The practice ses- sions were assigned twice each week for approximately twenty- two minutes a day. The students were randomly divided into 92 93 three treatment groups. These three groups (T. I. and P). were compared in all analyses. One group was assigned practice time with a teacher in a traditional practice period (Method T). another group was given free practice time (Method P). A third group was assigned practice time without the presence of a teacher. but with prescribed methods of practice (Method 1). All of the fifty-four pairs assigned to one of the three method groups (T. I. and P b 18 pairs in each). were also assigned practice environments designated as: higher or lower I.Q.. practice with same or different instruments (brass and woedwind). and practice with a member of the same or opposite sex. All of the students within the groups were selected at random from the specified categories. and an attempt was made to balance numbers of students in method and practice environments. Conclusions Three main hypotheses and eighteen secondary hypoth- eses stated in null form. were tested for statistical signi- ficance producing the following research results and conclu- sions: fiypcthesisg; There is no significant difference among three practice methods in learning error detection. Rejected. F = 2.91 P =<.1O T i = 110 I i = 111 P i = 98 94 Students who work in small groups with a teacher and students who work in groups with a prescribed method of prac- tice. have a greater increment of learning to detect errors. than those students who practice without guidance. The mean score of the students practicing with a teacher (110). and the mean score of those students practicing without a teacher (111). but with a prescribed method of practice. are cne'point apart. Students can learn error detection skill with these methods ' with or without the presence of the teacher. and have approxi- mately the same increment in learning. The moan score of students practicing without a teach- er. but with a prescribed method. was slightly higher than the , traditional way of practice with a teacher. In this study. students did slightly better in error detection learning when the teacher was not directly involved. Students practicing in the P group ended with a lower error detection posttest score . than a pretest score. The conclusion is that guidance is nec- essary for learning error detection. Students will not in- crease their error detection skills by only spending time prac- ticing together. In review. the last two numbers in the raw score above 100 indicate the gain score. 110 indicates a gain of 10 points in detecting error from the pretest to the posttest. 98 indi- cates a loss of 2 points in error detecting achievement. Hypothesis 2 There is no significant difference between higher 95 and lower I.Q. groups in learning error detection. Accepted. F I .62 Higher i I 100 Lower i I 113 There is no significant difference between the incre- ments of learning error detection for students with higher and lower I.Q. However. the mean score for the students with low I.Q. was higher than for students with higher I.Q. Possibly the gain for the low 1.0. group can be attri- buted to the motivation to learn from a peer. Perhaps the stu- dents found that their practice partner was on a similar per- formance level. with the same frustrations for trying to sue- ceed. Practicing with a student who had similar performance problems became a motivation for students to try for greater achievements. . Instrumental music teachers should give the lower I.Q. level students in their classes more opportunities to work and practice together. Such an opportunity should be given in ad- dition to small group help given in a traditional environment with teachers giving the guidance. When the students practice in pairs independently from a teacher. specific goals should be outlined for the student. As demonstrated in this study. communication of procedures and goals can be presented with a tape recorder. without the pres- ence of a teacher. Hypothesis 3 There is no significant interaction between method 96 and I.Q. in the error detection analysis. Rejected. F I 3.004 P I<.08 There is an interaction between the methods of this study. and students with either higher or lower I.Q.‘s. in the learning increments of detecting error in one's own per- formance. _ The gain in error detection achievement for students with higher 1.0. was about the same with all three teaching methods. Students with lower I.Q. gained most when they had guided practice without the presence of a teacher (Method I). These students with lower I.Q. gained the least when they were given free practice time (Method P). The greatest variation in achievement with the three methods was made by students with lower I.Q. Hypgthesis h There is no significant difference between same and different instrument practice groups in learn- ing error detection. Accepted. F I 1.#7 Same i I 109 Different i I 110 Woodwind students practicing with other woodwind stu- dents. cr brass playing students who practice with other brasses. will have no greater increment in learning error detection than those practicing with mixed pairs of woodwind and brass. Students are not distracted in their learning of error detection when they help another student practice on an instru- ment that they do not play. Students will be concerned about 97 the notation and music performance. and will not be detracted by the mechanical differences of their practice partner's instrument. Hypothesis 5 There is no significant interaction between method and instrument in the error detection analysis. Accepted. P I .015 There is no interaction between the methods of this study. and the practice environment with same or mixed instru- ments. in the learning incremants of detecting error in one's own performance. Hypgthesis 6 There is no significant difference between two practice groups of same and different sex in learning error detection. Accepted. F I .27 Same i I 107 Mixed I 110 There is no statistical difference in the increment of learning error detection for male and female students practi- cing music together. or students practicing with the same sex. Junior high wind instrument music students are not detracted or motivated in their error detection learning by having boys and girls paired together in practice sessions. Neither are they detracted or motivated by practicing with students of their own sex. Hypothesis 7 There is no significant interaction between method 98 and sex in the error detection analysis. Accepted. F I .071 There is no interaction between the methods of this study. and male and females practicing either with their own or opposite sex. in the learning increments of detecting er- ror in one's own performance. Hypgthesis 8 There is no significant difference among three practice methods in learning sight-reading. Accepted. F I 3.03 TiI112 Iii-107 Pia-107 Independent practice. traditional practice procedures without a teacher. and a prescribed method of practice. all have about the same effect on the increment of learning sight- reading. Spending time practicing together. seemed to be im- portant for increasing skill in sight-reading in this study. The presence and guidance of a teacher had only a small in- fluence for students to achieve greater sight-reading skill. Hypothesis 9 There is no significant difference between higher and lower I.Q. groups in learning sight-reading. Accepted. F I .005 Higher i I 109 Lower i I 109 The difference of higher and lower I.Q. does not in- fluence increments in learning sight-reading with the three methods used in this study. Although I.Q. had a considerable . 99 effect on error detection achievement in this study. I.Q. had ‘no measurable effect on learning sight-reading. Hypgthesis 10 There is no significant interaction between method and I.Q. in the sight-reading analysis. Accepted. P I .07 . There is no interaction between the methods of this study. and students with either higher or lower I.Q.‘s. in the learning increments of sight-reading. Hypgthesis 11 There is no si ificant difference between same and different nstrument practice groups in learn- ingfisight-reading. Accepted. P I .07 Same i I 110 Different i I 109 woodwind students practicing with other woodwind stu- dents. or brass playing students who practice with other brasses. will have no greater increment in learning to sight-read. than those practicing with mixed pairs of woodwind and brass. Hypgthesis 12 There is no significant interaction between method and instrument in the sight-reading analysis. Accepted. P I .01 There is no interaction between the methods of this study. and the practice environment with same or mixed instru- ments. in the learning increments of sight-reading. 100 Hypgthesis 13 There is no significant difference between two practice groups of same and different sex in learning’sight-reading. Accepted. F I .12 Same i I 109 Hixed i I 107 There is no statistical difference in the increment of learning sight-reading for male and female junior high school students practicing together. or with the same sex. Hypgthesis in There is no significant interaction between method and sex in the sightnreading analysis. Accepted. P I 3.07 There is no interaction between the methods of this study. and male and females either practicing music with their own sex or opposite sex. in the learning increments of sight- reading. H thesis 1 There is no significant difference among the three practice methods in attitude change. Accepted. P I .589 T i = 32.“ I i,“ 32.3 x I 31.2 Independent practice. traditional practice procedures without a teacher. and a prescribed method of practice. all ‘have about the same effect on practice attitude. Hypothesis 16 There is no significant difference between higher 101 and lower I.Q. groups in attitude change. Accepted. F I 1.299 1 Higher i I 32.5 Lower i I 31.3 The difference of higher and lower I.Q. does not in- fluence attitude with the three methods used in this study. Hypothesis 12 There is no significant interaction between method and 1.0. in the attitude analysis. Accepted. F I 2.166 There is no interaction between the methods of this study. and students with either higher or lower I.Q.‘s. in practice attitude. W There is no significant difference between same and different instrument practice groups in attitude change. Accepted. P I .113 Same i I 32.0 Different i I 32.5 ' Woodwind students practicing with other woodwind stu- dents. cr brass playing students who practice with other brasses. will have about the same practice attitude as those practicing with mixed pairs of woodwind and brass. Hypothesis 19 There is no significant interaction between method and instrument in the attitude analysis. Accepted. F I 1.004 There is no interaction between the methods of this 102 study. and the practice environment with same or mixed in- struments. in practice attitude. Hypothesis 20 There is no significant difference between two practice groups of same and different sex in attitude change. Accepted. P I .004 Same i I 31.5 Different i I 31.5 There is no statistical difference in practice atti- tude for male and female students practicing music together. or students practicing with the same sex. Junior high wind instrument music students are not motivated in their practice by having boys and girls paired together in practice sessions. Neither are-they detracted or motivated by practicing with students of their own sex. Hyppthesis 21 There is no significant interaction between method and sex in the attitude analysis. Accepted. F I .096 There is no interaction between the methods of this study. and males and females either practicing music with their own sex or opposite sex. in practice attitude. Discussion Error Detection. From observation of the data. it is determined that the three methods for teaching students to detect errors in their own performance varied in 103 effectiveness. Students who practiced by themselves with free practice time experienced a loss in error detection achievement. Students in groups T and I made a gain score of 10 or more. In this study tape recorded instructions helped produce the same learning increments in error detec- tion. as the presence of a teacher giving personal help. Within each method group. students with varied en- vironments also had varied results in achievement. Students in lower I.Q. groups gained considerably over those students in higher 1.0. practice groups. For higher 1.0. groups. er- ror detection achievement was about the same in all three methods. ’ , Students with lower 1.0. made the most error detec- tion achievement when they were given a specified practice procedure without the presence of a teacher. Students in lower I.Q. groups practicing without instructions. had a considerable loss in gain score. The greatest difference with the lower I.Q. group in error detection. was the differ- ence between the gain for those in free practice (91.75). and those with a specific practice procedure (119.17). Students practicing with a specific practice procedure on tape scored 27.u2 points higher than students practicing with free prac- tice time. Sight-Reading. In learning sight-reading. students with higher I.Q. gained the least in the I practice method. When students in the higher I.Q. groups practiced with teacher guidance. or 104 with free practice time. a minimum gain score of 11 was achieved. Students within the lower 1.0. group achieved more with traditional teacher guidance. One initial concern of this study was to see if learn- ing to detect error in one's own performance would compliment ability to sight-read. It was thought that possibly learning in the one area would influence the other to about the same degree. This envisaged effect of sight-reading performance and the ability to detect error. being directly related. was dispelled in this study. The correlation between the change in sightareading and error detection scores was rho I +.0b2 (Pearson productbmoment). Students may knew'where they make the errors. but this is not helpful to motivate them to play without error. Per- haps there are other factors that contribute to better sight- reading achievement that are more crucial. Perhaps a student's expectation to make errors in performance. depends primarily on how'much desire he has to eliminate error. Knowledge of an er- ror apparently does not activate most students to accordingly correct their errors for a better performance. Teachers who instruct students to become better in error detection achievement. should not expect these students to gradually eliminate their errors. and thus become better sight-readers. Perhaps instilling a desire for precision in all school class work is a factor for motivating students to become better music performers. 105 §p§. The possibility that junior high students would be more motivated if they practiced music with students of the opposite sex. was also disproven. Despite the varied stages of social. physical. and psychological maturity in junior high school. these students can practice instrumental music with mixed. as well as the same sex.) ' 1 At seventh and eighth grade levels. the student's re- action of being assigned to practice with the opposite sex. appears to be one of embarassment. This was true for the boys in this study: the girls were often.ncncommittal in their atti- ' tudes about practicing music with boys. Music educators should use freedom to assign practice to all pairs in their classes. without a concern to match sex. Instrument. When students practiced with the same instrument type. brass with brass. and woodwind with woodwind. those prac- ticing with a teacher (Method T). or with a specified practice procedure (Method I). made the best gains in detecting error. When the students practiced with the instruments mixed in free practice time (Method P). the least amount of gain in error detection was made. ' ' When the students practiced in mixed instrument groups for learning better sight-reading. the group practicing with free practice time. was again the group with the least amount of gain. When students practiced with like instruments. the gains in sight-reading were similar in all three methods. 106 ngy Students with low I.Q. had a significantly greater in- crement in learning to detect error with the methods used in this study. than students with higher I.Q. See error detection and sight-reading. pages 102 and 103. Attitude. Student attitudes varied only slightly with three methods of practicing. lower and higher I.Q.. instrument. and sex. Students seemed to adjust to a variety of practice situ- ations with no measureable effect on attitude. The student who is given freedom to practice as he chooses does not change his attitude for music practice. Neither will students who are given practice guidance. with either personal help or taped instructions. alter their atti- tudes about instrumental music practice. Attitudes developed over a longer period of time are not altered by a practice method carried over a few months. What has been found true of the students who took part in this study cannot be assumed to be true of every junior high school student. The conclusions drawn from this study relate primarily to the sample frOm which data were obtained. From the research in this study. one can make the fol- lowing implications for instrumental music educators: 1. Methods for teaching higher and lower I.Q. groups of instrumental music students should be deveIOped with tech- niques that are different in presentation. A method that is appropriate for a student with a higher I.Q.. may not 107 necessarily be best for students with lower I.Q. 2. To increase the ability.of a student to observe errors in his own performance does not readily effect his possibilities for better sight-reading performance. The stu- dent can better recognize his error. but he may still not be motivated to strive for a flawless performance. 3. Music educators should develop more self-admin- istered methods of instruction relating to music performance. Teaching music performance without the teacher's presence can be successful. The teacher in instrumental music classes can prescribe methods to give the student more independence in his practice environment. 0. Music students can practice well together in pairs of two with prescribed methods of practice. They can practice with either members of like or different sex. or with like or unlike wind instruments. to accomplish results. This variety for student practice situations greatly increases the practice assignment possibilities for the school music educator. 5. Music educators may use Method I designed in this study in instrumental music classes to increase learning incre- ments for error detection. With this method a teacher does not have to be directly involved with teaching the students. 6. The attitude test (Practice Attitude Inventory) deveIOped in this study can be used to measure changes in practice attitudes. 108 Suggestions For Future Research 1. A similar study should be develOped for students in high schools and colleges. to investigate the effect of these practice methods upon more advanced music students. 2. A similar study should be made involving a variety of populations to investigate social and cultural influences upon attitude and learning increments. 3. A similar study should be developed with pairs of students with opposing I.Q. levels. and opposing practice attitudes. 0. Experimental testing of factors other than practice techniques for improving sight-reading ability. should be investigated. 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Robert J. ”Lost Innocence-Modern Junior High School Youth.” Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary_School Principa 8. pr . 9 . G. LeBlanc Corporation. The Influence of Parents' Attitude QQgChildren's Musical ActIVity. KenoSha: LeBlanc Corporation. 1961. 116 Spohn. Charles L.. and William Poland. An Evaluation of Two Methods Usin M etic Ta e Recordin s for Pro ammed Instinction in hhe Elemental Materials of Music. Final Report of Title VII. Pro3ect No. 876. National Defence Education Act of 1958. Grant No. 7-3fl-OU30-172. Columbus. Ohio: The Ohio State University. November. 1963. Strolle, Roland S. Surve of Jenison Public Schools. Kalamazoo: Western hichigan University School of Education 3 1 969e APPENDIX A SUBJECT INFORMATION 117 m H mm 8 sea mm m3 HNM: «av-4.4.: mod H SH mm m: mm moH mm m: mmommmmmommm zmzmmmmmmmmzz honpo 333mm33333'm3mm OJ cc .3 UN \0 b— m) cm to 3m3m33333333m3 B H m B m H m H m a a B a a m ransom no” mmmum usazcooz seem a mass NHL H mospamm\wsossmwmsH psossupmsH hospasm no xom convex sow .a.H poomnsm Goran: Qz< BZMSDmBmzH .Nmm ..G.H .on642momzH Bufihmbm mN mqm