W96 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF FEMALE COLLEGE GRADUATES CERTIFYING FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHING by Kenneth Eldred Beighley Statement of the Problem This study identifies and describes the female college graduates actively involved in certification for elementary school teaching at Michigan State Uni- versity during the spring term, 1963. Description includes (1) basic personal characteristics, such as age, responsibility for support of dependents, under- graduate major and undergraduate grade-point average, (2) motivations for entering the teaching profession and (3) level of professional aspirations. Other fac- ets of the study deal with (1) factors influencing the decision to become a teacher and (2) opinions of the certification program for college graduates certifying for elementary school teaching. Design of the Study One—hundred persons were identified who met the criteria established, (female, college graduate, actively involved in certifying for elementary school teaching at Michigan State University during the spring term, 1963). Kenneth Eldred Beighley A sample of 31 women was randomly selected, stratified according to age. Data were collected by two methods: (1) examination of the students' personal folders and (2) use of a planned interview schedule incorporating Open-ended type questions. Among other facets of the study, fouv variables, (age, responsibility for support of dependents, under- graduate grade-point average, undergraduate major), were examined in relation to both the pattern of underlying motivations for teaching and the pattern of professional aspirations. Data were analyzed by use of reSponse—frequency distributions, per cents, means, medians, ranges and rank. Major Findings of the Study The 31 women had a mean age of about 35 years, with an age-range from 21 to 56 years. Eighteen different undergraduate majors were represented. The mean under- graduate grade-point average was 2.71 with a range from 2.2 to 3.7. One person was widowed, three had never been married and 27 were married at the time they decided to become teachers. Five of the 31 were responsible for the support of one or more persons, while 26 had no responsi- bility for support of anyone. Major factors influencing the decision to teach were (1) need for personal satisfactions, (2) influence Kenneth Eldred Beighley of teachers and (3) economic factors. Over 80% had rela— tives in teaching. Persons most influencing the decision to teach were (1) teachers, (2) their own husbands, (3) school administrators and (4) parents. The major motivation for entering teaching was "personal satisfactions to be gained" from teaching, followed by reasons concerning "working conditions of teaching." Over 90% were quite sure of the wisdom of their decisions to teach. The group members felt that (1) love of children, (2) understanding children, (3) patience and (4) knowledge of subject matter were the most important characteristics for an elementary school teacher to possess. As for professional aspirations, (1) over 70% plan to be teaching within two years on a full-time basis, (2) average planned length of teaching is 16.4 years, (3) 94% plan to obtain permanent teaching certificates, (4) over half plan to obtain a master's degree and (5) eight plan to become educational specialists of some sort. The majority prefer to teach in grades one through four. About 75% of the comments concerning the certifi- cation program were negative, centering around (1) in- flexibility, (2) methods and other education courses, (3) credit evaluations, majors and minors and (4) in— adequate advising. Kenneth Eldred Beighley The following additional conclusions, among others, are suggested by this study: (1) age, responsibility for support of dependents, undergraduate grade-point average and type of undergraduate major each have an effect on both pattern of underlying motivations for teaching and pattern of professional aspirations, (2) school administrators can exer%:a strong influence on female college graduates to become teachers and (3) female college graduates certifying for elementary teaching are quite committed and altruistic, are pri- marily interested in intellectual and individual devel- opment teaching goals and are widely distributed through- out the state. Several recommendations for further research are included in the study. A STUDY OF FEMALE COLLEGE GRADUATES CERTIFYING FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHING By Kenneth Eldred Beighley A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1963 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer would like to express special appreciation to the chairman of his doctoral guidance committee, Dr. Charles A. Blackman, for his insightful and patient direc- tion during all phases of the study. Sincere appreciation for c00peration and assistance is offered to Drs. Troy Stearns, Floyd Parker, and Lawrence Sommers, the remaining members of the doctoral guidance committee. Dr. Clarence Vinge is thanked for participating in the oral examination. Dr. Leland Dean, Dr. Ann Olmsted, Dr. Bernard Corman and Albert Elwell rendered support and assistance for which the writer is very grateful. A special "Thank you" goes to my wife, Shirley, without whose c00peration and confidence this study could not have been completed, and to Valerie, Bradley and Becky, the children who tried to understand during completion of the study. Other persons offered assistance in many forms. Omission of names does not in any way constitute omission of gratitude. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS............... LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. II. III. IV. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY . . . . . . . Introduction Statement of the Problem Justification of the Study Relationships to be Explored Assumptions on Which the Study is Based Limitations of the Study Summary REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH. Introduction Motivations for Teaching Factors that Influence the Decision to Teach Descriptive Information about Teachers Certification of Late-Deciders Other Related Literature Summary RESEARCH PROCEDURES OF THE STUDY. Introduction Identification of the Population Selection of the Sample Development of the Interview Schedule Arrangement for Interview The Interviews Procedures for Treatment of Data Summary PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA Introduction Personal and Background Data iii Page ii 17 58 75 Chapter Page INA Cont'd Specific Factors Influencing the Decision to Become a Teacher Motivations for Teaching Professional Aspirations Opinions of and Comments Concerning the Certification Program Offered Summary V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . 170 Introduction Summary Conclusions Recommendations Closing Statement APPENDIX A—-INTERVIEW SCHEDULE . . . . . . . . . . . 209 APPENDIX B--LETTER OF INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . 219 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 iv Table 10. ll. l2. l3. 14. 15. 16. 17. LIST OF TABLES Age Distribution of Population Age Distribution of Sample . . . . Distribution of Sample in Michigan Counties . . Distribution of Undergraduate Majors Classification of Undergraduate Majors Distribution of Undergraduate Grade- Point Averages . . . . . . . Responsibility for Support of Dependents at the Time the Decision to Teach Became Definite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reasons for Not Pursuing the Field in Which the Bachelor's Degree as Obtained Factors Affecting a Change of View about the Field in Which the Bachelor' s Degree Was Obtained . . . . . . . When First Thought of Teaching Occurred. Factors Affecting Thoughts of Teaching When the Decision to Teach Became Definite Factors Helping to Make the Decision to Teach Definite . . . . . . . . . Relatives in Teaching Before or at the Time the Decision to Teach Became Definite. Teacher—Relatives and Their Level of Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . Persons Who Influenced the Decision to Teach and Extent of Influence of Each. Relative Importance of Persons InfluenCing the Decision to Become a Teacher . . . . . V Page 61 62 63 76 77 78 79 81 82 85 86 89 9O 93 94 96 98 Table 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. Persons Most Influential in Causing the Decision to Teach and How They Influ- enced . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reasons Given for Entering Teaching Positive and Negative Feelings About Becoming a Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . Content of Responses Concerning Feelings About Becoming a Teacher. . . . . . . Doubts Expressed About the Decision to Become a Teacher. . . . . . . . Present Convictions About the Decision to Become a Teacher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Factors Mentioned by Non—"Stay with Teaching" Respondents Which Would Allow Them to Get into Their Field of First Choice. . Factors Chosen by the Non-”Stay with Teaching" Respondents as Most Important in Getting into the Field of First Choice and Reasons for Selection of the Factor . . . . . . . . Characteristics Given as Most Important for an Elementary Teacher to Possess. . . . . . Stated Top Priority Teaching Goals. . . . . Sacrifices Being Made While Becoming a Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . . . Expected Rewards from Teaching. Suggested Factors/Motives for Deciding to Become a Teacher. . . . . . . . Relative Importance of Factors/Motives Sug- gested as Influencing the Decision to Become a Teacher. . . . . . . Plans for Beginning to Teach. Full -Time or Substitute Teaching as First Job . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Page 101 103 106 107 109 112 114 116 117 119 123 125 128 131 134 135 Table Page 34. Teaching as a Career or Contingent Occupation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 35. Opinions Concerning Whether Contingent or Career Teachers Do the Better Job of Teaching. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 36. Possible Reasons for Leaving Teaching. . . . . 143 37. Possible Reasons for Returning to Teaching . . 144 38. Anticipated Length of Teaching Service . . . . 146 39. Grade—Level Preferences. . . . . . . . . . . . 148 40. Plans to Obtain a Permanent Teaching Certificate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 41. Plans to Obtain a Master's Degree. . . . . . . 153 42. Plans to Obtain the Doctorate. . . . . . . . . 155 43. Plans to Become an Administrator, Supervisor Consultant or Counselor . . . . . . . . . . . 156 44. Classification of Opinion—Comments Concerning the Elementary Certification Program offered to Post-Degree Candidates . . . . . . 158 45. Positive Comments Regarding the Certifica- tion Program for Post—Degree Candidates . . . 160 46. Negative Comments Regarding the Certifica- tion Program for Post—Degree Candidates . . . 161 vii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY Introduction The majority of persons interested in teaching in the elementary or secondary schools of our nation enroll in a college-degree program of which certification to teach is a built-in part. There are, however, those individuals who did not receive certification with their degrees who have now decided to forsake their original goals, or who want to move in the direction of a voca- tional career. Many of these "late-deciders” are interested in elementary school teaching as a career. Certification programs have been established for these persons at many institutions of higher learning all across the country, particularly in the areas of population concentration. Little, though, is known about many of the persons who are involved in these post- bachelor's degree certification programs. At Michigan State University, it was deemed bene— ficial to the teacher education program that more be known about the persons with degrees now studying for the elementary certificate. Needing scrutinization were their basic personal characteristics, their motivations for entering teaching, factors which influenced their 1 choice of teaching as a career, their professional aSpirations, their perceptions of the certification program and other information. Statement of the Problem This study was an attempt to identify and generally describe the female college graduates who were actively involved in a certification program in elementary educa- tion at Michigan State University during the Spring term of 1963. Males were excluded from the study on the assumption that there may be significant differences in patterns of underlying motivations and levels of professional aspirations between males and females. In addition, the number of males available for study was not sufficient to yield significant results. The bulk of the elementary certification candidates who are college graduates are females. The study did not include college graduates who are candidates for secondary certification, due to differences between the elementary and secondary groups in the male—-fema1e ratio, type of undergraduate majors, possible personality types and so forth. Description of the population of this study included (1) basic personal characteristics, such as age, marital status, undergraduate major and undergraduate grade-point average, (2) motivations for entering teaching as late- deciders, and (3) level of professional aspirations. Other phases of the study dealt with (1) perceptions and opinions of the certification program for college grad- uates seeking elementary certification and (2) specific factors which influenced the female college graduate to choose and pursue teaching as a career. Justification of the Stugy There are many female college graduates today who are desirous of putting their education to either a better or different kind of use. Some are not per- sonally satisfied with their present lot in life for various reasons, be they psychological, sociological or otherwise. References in the non-professional press hold that many are housewives; thus they are often left with feelings of uselessness and lack of purpose after their children are away from home. Others are career persons who are dissatisfied with the economic aspects of their occupation. Some are "peOple-oriented" individ- uals whose occupation does not provide them with the personal satisfactions necessary for a full life. At any rate, there are many female college graduates who feel the need to do something different with their remaining years of life. Some of these individuals are interested in becoming teachers. Some do become teachers after or while going through the program’of requirements set up for them by the various state departments of instruction and various colleges of education. Some, though, are discouraged by the rigid nature of the require- ments, the quantity of requirements and the lack of individual treatment that they encounter. Thus, many who might have become very satisfactory teachers never do so. Many teacher-educators today believe that there is a growing need for a certification prOgram for college graduates that will allow for more flexibility; that is, a sort of tailoring of certification requirements to fit the individual applicant who is accepted into such a program. Much that is positive and beneficial to the individual applicant could be derived from such a tailoring of programs. The benefits to the individual would necessarily reach the students she would teach, thus assisting them and even society as a whole. For instance, consider the case of a degree—holding lady of 38 years of age. She applies for admission to an elementary certification program. Because the require— ments leading to certification are tailored to her obvious needs, within certain existing statutory limits, she feels good about the program she will take. She sees the program as meaningful and helpful, and she feels respected and worthwhile because she has been made to know that her advisor, her institution of study, be it large or small, and her society all have seen her and treated her as a worthwhile person, rather than a pawn to be fitted and used. For some mysterious reason, treatment of this sort tends to have a positive effect on an individual, and then becomes contagious. The lady considered here might well teach for 20 to 25 years, working with and affecting the same number of groups of children. In contrast, she might have been made to feel unlike a worthwhile person; the lasting effects of negative treatment might well affect many persons during the rest of her life. As it is, however, one more competent teacher has been recruited and fitted for service; the teaching shortage stands one less than before. The chances are that this lady of 38 from the time of this individual treatment on will Spread the news about the enjoyment of teaching. She undoubtedly is acquainted with other college-graduate housewives and may well be a significant factor in bringing them into the teaching fold. Again, lives have been made more meaningful, children are being well-taught by mature, happy individuals, the teaching shortage has been at least partially allayed and society has been served. Colleges of education are viewed with more respect be- cause they behaviorally manifest, at least in this instance, what they purport to believe about individual treatment. The foregoing may be distasteful to some due to its idealistic ring—-yet, the effects of treating persons as valuable, unique and worthwhile cannot be ignored. One has only to reflect for a moment about his own reactions to ways of being dealt with to realize the truth of the matter. But acting out of ignorance can be dangerous or" fruitless, or both. If the college graduates desiring to become teachers are to be given the "tailored fit," something must be known about them. It cannot be safely assumed that they are all "peas in a pod," or that they need the same program as does the undergraduate elementary education major. If certification policies are to be modified or made more flexible, there must be some basis for such action. Mere Speculation does not fill the bill. This study represents an attempt to begin to learn more about the college graduates who seek elementary certification at Michigan State University. It is hoped that the information gathered will be of value to those persons reSponsible for certification policy-making at the University. Perhaps the knowledge gained from this study will lead to a reconsideration of existing require- ments, and modification if it seems feasible and wise. Perhaps the generalizations obtained from this study concerning (1) basic personal characteristics of the study's pOpulation, (2) the population's perceptions of the certification program provided for them and (3) the probable contributions of female college graduates to the teaching profession will lead to further and more-intense study of the situation. Perhaps the day will soon arrive when certification policies will allow, and encourage, a real and sincere tailoring of programs to fit the needs and fill in the gaps of the late—decider planning to teach. This study seeks to get at the underlying motivations of late—deciders for becoming teachers. It is hOped that further study and research may lead to the develOpment and use of some sort of predictive or screening device which would deal effectively with the possible success of late- deciders as teachers. Haubrich lends support to this aspect of justification for this study: Intensive work in the following areas of research and study is urgently needed: (1) research that will disclbse the underlying motives of prospective teachers; (2) research as to possible changes in motives of teachers once they have been in the field a number of years; (3) a differential study of the impelling drives of prOSpective teachers (men and women), both while in colle e and after being in the field a number of years; 4) studies of the initial motives and lengths of staying power in the teaching profession; and (5) the possibility of a screening device for prospective teachers based on motivating factors.1 This study is justified for the following additional reasons: 1. It may serve as a stimulus leading to similar studies of college graduates seeking secondary or elemen- tary certification at various colleges and universities. lVernon F. Haubrich, ”The Motives of PrOSpective Teachers,” Journal of Teacher Education, XI (September, 1960), p. 386. 2. It may lead to a longitudinal study of this same population (or a similar one) at Michigan State University to attempt to get at the advisability of certifying late-deciders, and to ascertain their actual contributions to the teaching profession. 3. The research procedures followed in this study may be of help to other institutions interested in similar information. Colleges and departments of education are now faced with the task of providing adequate certification programs for college graduates who, due to many factors and reasons, now see teaching as desirable for themselves. It seems as though the numbers of persons deciding "late" to become teachers will increase rather than decrease. Among the factors affecting this increase are the following: 1. Teachers' salaries and working conditions are improving. 2. Society is emphasizing, idealizing and placing an emphasis on quality education, however defined. 3. The teaching field is becoming more profes- sionalized. 4. The college attendence rate is still increasing, as are the costs of attending college, causing increased financial burdens for many families. 5. People seem to continue to desire higher standards of living, creating the "need” for greater family income. 6. The concept of a woman's "proper role" in our society shifts from the domestic emphasis to the direc- tion of wage—earner. 7. The divorce rate continues to climb, thus placing more and more women in a position of having to support themselves and any dependents they may have. 8. The average life Span of the female continues to be longer than that of the male, again leaving some women in need of financial support or feelings of self-fulfillment in the later years of life. It behooves teacher-educators to keep pace, if not to 1ead--and to know who is served. Only then can teacher education adequately serve its clientele. It is felt that this study can make a contribution to "knowing who is served." Relationships to be Explored This study is exploratory and descriptive in nature and purpose. It is designed to produce generalizations and generate hypotheses for further, more Specific study. Thus the following statements are offered only as guidelines or foci of this inquiry. They are not to be considered as restrictive or limiting, as other relation- ships may be discovered during the analysis stage of the 10 study. These statements predict anticipated relation- ships but do not predict the nature or significance of the relationships. These latter entities are seen as purposes of subsequent study of this problem. 1. There is a relationship between age of student and pattern of underlying motivations for becoming a teacher. 2. There is a relationship between age of student and pattern of professional aspirations. 3. There is a relationship between undergraduate grade-point—average and pattern of underlying motivations for becoming a teacher. 4. There is a relationship between undergraduate grade—point-average and pattern of professional aspirations. 5. There is a relationship between marital status and pattern of underlying motivations for becoming a teacher. 6. There is a relationship between marital status and pattern of professional aspirations. 7. There is a relationship between type of under— graduate major and pattern of underlying motivations for becoming a teacher. 8. There is a relationship between type of under- graduate major and pattern of professional aspirations. In addition, the study attempts to identify patterns of factors which helped to influence these women to become 11 teachers after originally planning to do something else with their vocational lives. Also explored are the students' perceptions and opinions of the certification program in which they are involved. Assumptions on which the Study is Based The basic assumptions underlying this research were: (1) The number of college graduates seeking certification to teach at the elementary level will con- tinue to grow, or at least hold its present level; (2) These late-deciders as a group are worth working with as prospective teachers; (3) Late-deciders are a unique group of prospective teachers and as such warrant separate study and treatment; (4) Teacher-educators are sincerely interested in providing the best possible certification program available, within recognized limits, to each capable individual; (5) The existing certification requirements can be modified if the need is shown; (6) This study is capable of inspiring further research relating to motivations and aspirations of prOSpective teachers, particularly late-deciders; (7) A fairly good picture can be obtained from one interview which utilizes Open-ended questions and other depth-interview character- istics. A final assumption warrants separate examination; that is, that where research attempts to get at the 12 underlying motivations of an individual, and where more complete and detailed responses are desired, the use of the personal interview technique is superior to the use of the questionnaire. There are also other types of advantages. Disadvantages do exist, but for the purposes of this study the personal interview seemed far superior to the mailed questionnaire, or to the telephone interview, for that matter. Vesey lists the following advantages of the personal interview which seem to apply to this study: 1. The technique permits a rigid control of the sample. 2. Information of wider SCOpe and complexity can be obtained through interviewing. 3. The interview method capitalizes upon the personal approach. 4. The interview procedure affords a high degree of accuracy through acquisition of material direct from the source. 5. The interview technique offers the Oppogtunity to check personally the information acquired. Though not listed above, another advantage of using the interview technique is that it guarantees the receipt of data from a higher per cent of the sample, especially when the information to be obtained is lengthy. In these cases, questionnaires frequently find their way into the famous ”round file.” With the deployment of the interview technique accompanied by appointment procedures 2Margaret Alice Vesey, "A Field Follow-Up of Beginning Secondary-School Teachers " (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, Department of Education, UfluzOhio State University, 1957), p. 68. 13 used in this study, at least one oral contact is effected between the researcher and the interviewee. If the interviewee refuses the interview, the researcher then has access to an explanation for refusal which, in a study such as this, is in itself significant. Parten states, concerning the depth interview: Such focused interviews may take an hour or more. The interviewer attempts to give a verbatim account of the respondent's replies. . . As in the "advice- seeking questions," good rapport between the inter- viewer and informant is readily established by the conversational nature of Open interviewing. In a Slightly differalt context, Parten also states: One of the advantages of the long interview is that it enables the interviewer to become better acquainted with his informant and thus to secure aucloser under- standing of the latter‘s real attitude. Vesey also presents three disadvantages of the inter— view technique: 1. The interview procedure is inefficient because it gives the respondent no time for reflection. 2. The use of the interview technique necessitates a small sample, and oftentimes an unrepresentative one. 3. The subjective factor in the integview approach affects [sic] inaccuracies in the data./ As for the first disadvantage, just stated, it does not completely hold in the case of this study as the initial contact letter to each interviewee gave a general 3Mildred Parten, Surveys, Polls and Samples (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1950), p. 183. “Ibid., p. 75. 5Vesey, op. cit., p. 69. l4 overview of the nature of the study. In addition, the interviewer, at the time of the interview, gave each interviewee ample time to reflect and gather thoughts before responding. As for the second disadvantage stated above, it is felt that the size of the sample in this study (about 30%) is ample to supply a satisfactory degree of representativeness, eSpecially since the writer does not plan to make conclusive statements about the whole study population. In addition, the age variable, probably the most significant, has been taken into account in the sample selection (see Chapter III). The third disadvantage stated above undoubtedly applies to this study, but it also applies to a questionnaire study, to some extent, whenever one person makes categorical judgments about written reSponses. It is felt that the use of the interview technique with its depth and Open—ended characteristics, plus personal approach, is justifiably assumed to be superior to the questionnaire technique. Limitations of the Study This study may be limited for several reasons: 1. It may be that the sample, though randomly selected and stratified according to age groupings, will not really be representative. With the limited size of the pOpulation involved, it is almost impossible to select 15 a sample amply recognizing all the variables to be considered in the study. A 30% sample is thought to be adequate; however, where the key variable, age, is used as a basis for selection. .,2. The anticipatedresistance of a_portion ofthe interviewees, coupled with the interviewer's lack of experience_in interviewing, could result in a higher- than—desired degree of error in judgment and interpretation. However, the interviewer's experience and education, his contact with consultants and literature in the field of interviewing, plus the use of a pilot- study technique should help to affect the negative results of this possible limitation. 3. Duefitg the make-up of the clientele of this study, the results will probably be unique to Michigan State University and thus not generalizable to other groups at other institutions. For instance, a group similarly defined, but attending New York University, would probably show a quite different pattern of under- lying motivations from what the group in this study show, due to various socio-economic and sub-cultural factors, among others. 4. Some of the interviewees may already have taught prior to the time of interview, while many probably have not. This condition probably introduces a factor which will influence some of the responses for some interviewees and not for others. 16 5. In order for this study to be of value in leading to the development of a "teaching-success" predictive instrument, further research of a longitudinal and more comprehensive nature should be done, based upon the results of this study. Even if follow-up research is not done, however, the anticipated findings from this particular study should be of value to teacher—educators. Summary This chapter attempts to lay the groundwork for the subsequent portions of the study. When read, along with the next two chapters, it should help to make the data presentation, analysis and recommendations more meaningful to the reader. Chapter II will deal with a review of some of the related research done in more recent years. Chapter III will focus on the research procedures utilized in the study. Chapter IV will deal with a presentation and analysis of the data gathered in the study and Chapter V, the final chapter, will deal with summary, conclusions and recom- mendations based on the preceding material. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH Introduction This chapter will include a review of studies re- ported in the literature which are quite directly re- lated to this research. The question of what is related and not related is important because of the tremendous field of literature available. A few guidelines were developed for this review: 1. General writings in the field of occupational theory and choice were not to be explored, except where overlap with more specific works occurred. 2. Studies and writings done within the last ten years were most often to be reviewed, but, if an earlier work of significant stature was accosted it was not to be excluded. 3. If studies were to be restricted to either (a) just females, or (b) just post—degree certification candidates for elementary school teaching, or (c) both, or if just elementary education students were considered to the exclusion of secondary, there would be very few studies to report. Therefore, studies dealing with both pre- and post—degree, both male and female, and both elementary and secondary education students will be 17 18 included if the tOpic and sc0pe of the study is considered relevant and significant. Studies of present teachers may also be reported. Reviews of studies or referrals to them and other writings will concentrate on the tOpics, (l) Motivations for Teaching, (2) Factors influencing the Decision to Teach, (3) Descriptive Information about Teachers, (4) Certification of Late—deciders, (5) Programs offered for College Graduates seeking Teacher Certification. Motivations for Teaching Some of the studies reported in this section may well qualify for inclusion elsewhere in the chapter, due to overlapping coverage of tOpics. They are included here, however, due to their emphasis on the motivational aspects of teaching. Fielstral studied 230 students in an education course at the University of California at Los Angeles. The group consisted of 48 men and 182 women. Ages of the men ranged from 19 to 43 years of age with a median age of 20 years. He found that the ages at which the members of the group had decided to teach ranged from elementary school years to post-graduate years. Opportunities in teaching as seen by the 230 students, in rank order were: lClarence Fielstra, ”An Analysis of Factors Influ- encing the Decision to Become a Teacher," Journal of Educ- ational Research, XLVIII (May, 1955), pp. 659—667. 19 1. To help youngsters develop sound values, desirable citizenship attitudes and deep appreciation of the good and the beau- tiful. 2. To work with children and adolescents and be an inspiration to them. 3. To make a significant contribution to the preservation and extension of the democratic way of life. 4. To work in a profession which makes possible and encourages continuous growth in service. 5. To work in a subject-matter field of interest and to help youngsters gain knowledge and skill in that field. 3 Fox used an opinionnaire with 173 juniors in education courses. The group was comprised of 121 women and 52 men, 75 of which were elementary educae tion majors and 98 were secondary education majors. The instrument consisted of 25 factors, which were the most-frequently—mentioned items of influence for teaching found in the students' autobiographies. The results of the research, determined after a weighting of responses to the items in the opinionnaire, show the following rank—order listing of factors, according to order of importance, from most— to least-important: 2lbid., p. 667. 3Raymond B. Fox, "Factors Influencing the Career Choice of Prospective Teachers,” Journal of Teacher IEducation, XII (December, 1961), pp.fi427-432. 0mm ‘\10\U‘|4:U)I\Db—' H. o F—J I—'}--' U.) [UH l4. l5. l6. 17. 18. 19. 20.5. 20.5. 22. 23. 24. 25. 20 Desire toiwork with children or adolescents. Desire to impart knowledge.. Opportunity to continue one's own education. Desire to be of service to society. Liking for a particular subject. Experience in working with youngsters. Opportunity to leave the teaching profession and return to it later. Desire for security. Influence of former teachers. .Comparatively short school day, long summer vacation, many other vacations. The shortage of teachers. Contact with other students who are planning to become teachers. Desire for social prestige. Opportunity to move from one city or state to another. Dissatisfaction with poor teachers. Trend toward increasing salaries for teachers. Influence of parents or relatives. Influence of college teachers. High grades received in school. Opportunity to use teaching as a stepping- stone to another career. Results of vocational interest inventories. Receiving a scholarship for teaching-education. Guidance received from a college counselor. Guidance received from a high school cgunselor. Membership in a Future Teacher's club. Women more often emphasized "desire to work with children or adolescents," "opportunity to leave and return to teaching" and "membership in an ETA club" than did men, and less often emphasized "liking for a particular subject," "trend toward increased salaries," "results of vocational interest inventories" and "oppor— tunity to use teaching as a stepping-stone."5 CHM? study rnight have been more revealing had the responses been ulbid., pp. 429-430. 5ibid., p. 431. 21 compared also on an elementary-secondary basis.) Women in the group decided to teach at various stages in their life. Twenty-seven per cent decided while in elementary school, 55% in high school, 15% in college and 3% while on another job.6 Haubrich7 used a questionnaire with 195 students in the College of Education at the University of Utah. Sixty- six per cent of the group planned to be secondary school teachers and the remaining 34% elementary school teachers. Only 35% 0f the group indicated that their major life goal was to become a successful teacher. The group were asked to indicate their reasons for entering the College of Edu- cation, which really gets at the question of why they plan to become teachers. About one-third of the group gave "liking children” as first, second or third choice, as did 30% for "security" and 29% for the "professional standing" it gave them. An additional 4% indicated "short hours," 1% "longvacations"and 0% "easy work" as reasons.8 Ostlie9 obtained opinions from 1,374 college stu- dents in beginning education courses in eight schools of education in southern California. Features of the teaching profession which appealed to these prospective teachers V-w 6Ibid., p. 432. 7Vernon F. Haubrich, ”The Motives of Prospective Teachers," Journal of Teacher Education, XI (September 1960), pp. 381-386. 8lbid., pp. 384-385. 9Selmer 0stlie,_"Motivations for Entering Teaching," ilournal of Teacher Education, VII (March, 1956), pp. 80-81. 22 were: (1) opportunity to serve, (2) opportunity to work with young people, (3) Opportunity for professional growth, (4) salary, (5) security and (6) vacations. The idealistic factors, (nos. 1, 2, and 3), headed the list, though the factors were all quite equally mentioned. One facet of the Yale-Fairfield Study of Elementary TeachinglO involved contact with 839 experienced elemen- tary school teachers and 1066 teacher's college or school of education seniors in elementary education. When asked to state what they liked most about teaching, the teachers most-frequently responded: (l) "I like children," (2) "I like to see their progress," and (3) "I like to feel that I am making good citizens."11 Both groups were asked to indicate their reasons for deciding to become a teacher. Some of the most frequent responses, along with their rank of mention in parentheSes were: (1) "desire to work with young peOple," (teachers, 1st, seniors, 1st), (2) "nature of the tasks involved in teaching]'(teachers,Ehui, seniors, 3rd),(3) "concept of social service involved in teaching," (teachers, 3rd, Seniors,2nd), (4) "family attitude toward teaching," (teachers, 4th, seniors, 8 l/2th), (5) "acces- sibility of teacher-training institutions," (teachers, 5th, seniors, 4th).l2 This fairly comprehensive study indicates, loClyde M. Hill (ed.), Yale-Fairfield Studypof Elementary Teaphing, Abridged Edition of the Report for 1954Fl955 by Burton P. Fowler (New York, 1956), pp. 1-24. 11Ibid., p. 20. 12Ibid., p. 24. 23 as do most of the studies of motivations for teaching, the primary importance of the child-oriented, service-type rea- sons for teaching, and the corollary importance of the more realistic factors of any job or occupation, such as working conditions and duties. Jantzen,l3 several years ago, used a checklist of 16 reasons for teaching with a population of 248 seniors (145 men, 103 women) in two state colleges in northern Califor- nia. He also asked 45 members of Phi Delta Kappa, who had all taught five or more years, to complete the checklist. Both groups agreed on the four top-ranking items, which were: (1) special interest in dealing with children and young pe0ple, (2) summer for study, travel, and relaxation, (3) reasonable assurance of an adequate income, and (4) lifelong opportunity to learn. The women in the student group ranked "retirement system” last and ”advancement possibilities"next to the last. They also added the fol- lowing reasons for choosing teaching: (1) "life insurance policy," (2) ”gives me faith in myself," and (3) "it helps me to be a better parent." Jantzen states that both groups possessed a ”high degree of idealism."ll‘L Stier15 asked 782 students in two courses to com- plete a free-response, unstructured written exercise. l3J. Marc Jantzen, "Why College Students Choose to Teach," Phi Delta Kappan, XXVIII (April, 1947), pp. 333-335. ”isle... p. 335. l5Lea1and D. Stier, "Orientations of Prospective Teachers,” Educational Forum, XXV (January, 1961), pp. 167-173. 24 A part of this study involved reasons for selection of teaching. Elementary education majors listed, in order of descending importance: (1) enjoy working with a particular age-group, (2) security, (3) a way to assist students to a better way of life through teacher con- tributions and direction, (4) prestige, (5) preparation for motherhood and (6) improvement of self through study.1 Best17 dealt with a population of 214 seniors in the School of Education, University of Wisconsin, who were all prospective high school teachers. The most—listed reasons for choosing teaching were: (1) genuine interest in children and youth, (2) Opportunity to work in field of major interest, (3) life—long opportunity to learn, (4) desire to work with people, rather than things, (5) security, (6) service to society, and (7) good job for emergency, long vacations, travel, study and has an adequate income.18 Orton19 categorized the reasons or factors which had attracted 146 students, predominantly from rural areas, at the University of Utah School of Education into teaching, as follows: (1) altruistic or idealistic reasons, 16Ibid., p. 169. 17John W. Best, "Study of Certain Selected Factors Underlying the Choice of Teaching as a Profession," Journal of Experimental Education, XVII (September, 1948), pp. 201—259. 18lbid.,-p. 226. 19Don A. Orton, ”What Attracts College Students to 'Teaching,” Educational Administration and Supervision, XXXIV (April, 1948), pp. 237-240. 25 (2) personal development, (3) security, (4) prestige of the profession, (5) enjoyment of people and children, and (6) salary reasons. These factors are reported in order of importance to the students, but items five and six were "tied".for fifth position. 20 in his book on educational careers, points Wynn, out that when peOple are asked why they became a teachers, they usually respond with five major reasons (ranked): (1) fondness of working with young peOple, (2) challenge of an important service to society, (3) intellectual interests and stimulation, (4) job security and other favorable working conditions and (5) professional pre- paration at a nominal cost. He points out that he lists these five major reasons as a result of examining many studies dealing with motivations for teaching. Richey and Fox21 studied 969 students, generally freshmen of whom about 10% had already decided to teach. These students listed most often as desirable features of teaching: (1) Opportunity for social service, (2) Opportunity to work with youth, (3) prestige and satis- faction, and (4) opportunity for satisfying social contacts. 2ORichard Wynn, Careers In Education (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1960), p. 12. ‘ 21Robert w. Richey and William H. Fox, An Analysis of Various Factors Associated With the Selection of Teaching as a Vocation, Bulletin of the School of Educa— tion, XXIV (Bloomington, Indiana: Division of Research and Field Services, Indiana University, 1948), pp. 1-59. 26 Hoyt22 studied 970 prospective teachers in 19 college of education in an attempt to identify areas in the lives and experiences of pre-service teachers which influence the decision to teach at either the elementary or secondary school level. She used ques- tionnaires, free reSponse sheets and personal interviews to accomplish her purpose. A few of her findings are relevant to this study: 1. Social prestige and social contacts were minor factors in the choice of either divi- sion of teaching, by all groups in the study. 2. The greatest advantages to teaching as seen by the 970 students were "desire to teach a particular age of child" and "ideals, democracy, guidance and social reSponSibility." 3. The major reasons for teaching were idealistic in all groups contacted.23 Richey, Phillips and Fox24 studied about two and one-half per cent of the total Indiana high school pOpu- lation, grades 9 through 12. Motives for teaching, as seen by this group of high school students, in order of highest frequency to lowest, were: (1) liking to work 22Mildred C. Hoyt, "Factors Which Influence Pre- EService Teachers' Choices of Elementary or Secondary :Division" (Unpublished Ed. D. dissertation, Stanford [halversity, 1955). 231bid., p. 133. 2“Robert w. Richey, Beeman N. Phillips and William H. iFox, Factors that the High School Students Associate with {Selection of Teaching as a Vocation, Bulletin of the School of Education, XXVIII (Bloomin ton, Indiana: The Indiana Ihliversity Press, March, 1952 . 27 with young people, (2) interest in teaching a particular subject, (3) encouragement from others, (4) service to children, (5) Opportunity for permanent employment and (6) liking to work in a school. This set of "motives" seems to reflect the age-group from which it originates, as one would expect, (e.g., response number six). Pro— bably, too, "encouragement from others" is more of a factor of influence than a motive for teaching. Mork25 analyzed the responses to a questionnaire of a group of high school and college students who had already decided to become teachers, and found these reasons for teaching: (1) always enjoyed working with children and/or youth, (2) always enjoyed a particular activity or subject and (3) had a great ambition to help raise moral standards and develop the younger gener— ation. Richards26 administered an attitude inventory to 530 new College of Education students at The Ohio State University in 1958. Over 80% of these students felt that teaching was a good career choice because of these factors: 25Vernon N. Mork, ”An Analysis of Influential Factors Related to How and When Certain High School and College Students Selected Teaching as a Career” (unpublished Ph. D. dissertation, University of North Dakota, 1954). 26Rachel Richards, ”Prospective Students' Attitudes Toward Teaching," Journal of Teacher Education, XI (September, 1960), pp. 375—380. 28 Good preparation for family life. Free summers. Variety of work, not boring. Is a help even if one is going into other professions. The satisfactions outweigh the bad features. It gives one a chance to help others. It is an Opportunity to help children learn. Doesn't have too many duties after hours. Satisfactions other than paycheck. 27 Won't find children hard to handle. OKOCDNOUT tUJI'DI—J }_.| In addition, the students listed "important job considerations," with the following results: (1) 92% ranked "doing work that one enjoys” lst or 2nd, (2) 66% ranked "salary" lst, 2nd, 3rd, or 4th, (3) 59% ranked "chance to serve humanity" lst, 2nd, 3rd, or 4th and (4) 53% ranked "security” somewhere among the lst four positions. The students were primarily interested in doing work they like and salary-security features.28 It is probably safe to assume that these 530 students felt that teaching would meet these standards, at least for them, Since they had chosen teaching. Certain studies of attitudes toward and satisfac- tions from teaching can contribute to an understanding of teachers' motivations for teaching as an occupational choice. Gowan29 did a follow-up study of 60 highly select elementary women teachers who were rated in the tOp 5% _ 27ibid., p. 376. 28Ibid., p. 377. 29David G. Ryans, Characteristics of Teachers (Washington, D. 0.: American Council on Education, 1960), pp. 362-366. 29 of a group of over 6000 teachers involved in the Teacher Characteristics Study.3O This high rating came about as a result of observed classroom behavior. Gowan selected these 60 women, of whom 25 agreed to participate in the study, but ended up with only 20 who actually did. Data were gathered from personal interviews and the use of various inventory materials. These included (a) the Guilford—Zimmerman Tempprament Survey, (b) Cgllf fornia Psychological Inventopy, (c) Allport-Vernon Study of Values and (d) the Kuder Preference Test-Vocational. The age-range of the 20 teachers was from 22 to 56, with a mean of 39 years. Fifteen of the 20 had been or were married. Generally, they were from strong teaching families, including parents and other relatives. All 20 said they had had ”early teaching experience." Concerning school achievement, (level not designated), 12 were rated I I "superior,' five ”average' and three ”below average." The following represent the more-typical responses given by the 20 to the question, ”What are the main satisfactions and appeals of teaching?” Being with children. Watching change and growth of children. Observing changing attitudes. Dealing with individual differences. Dealing with leaders of tomorrow. Encouraging progress of children. Chm-EWPOH 30A study directed by David G. Ryans, involving 6,179 teachers in about 450 school systems and 1700 Separate schools. For further elaboration, see pp. 38-39. 30 7. Stimulating pupil reactions. 8. Observation of happy accomplishment. 9. Personal contact with children and people. 10. Fun of meeting children. 1:. ggeative :pportigities offergd. . y n pu ng eas across. Hills and Downs32 did a questionnaire survey of a random sample (340) of 2,241 upper division male stu— dents at a southern state university, during the winter term, 1961. The students were to select three items apiece from a list of traits of occupations on two bases: (1) those traits important for a career choice and (2) those traits satisfied by teaching as an occu- pation. Their findings will be reported in this way; the trait will be listed, followed by a "C," representing the words, ”Important for Career Choice," followed by the per cent of students choosing the listed trait, then followed by a "T," representing the words, "Satisfied by Teaching,” followed by the per cent choosing the trait listed. Results were: (1) advancement, (C-26-T-5), (2) stable employment,(C—23—T—l9), (3) to use abilities, (C-l8-T-l6), (4) work with people, (C—l2—T-46), (5) free- dom, (C-9-T-7), (6) high income, (C-8—T-0), (7) desirable ( associates, (C-2—T-2), (8) free leisure time, C-0—T-4), 31Ibid., pp. 363-364. 32John R. Hills and Harry R. Downs, ”College Students' Attitudes Towards Teaching as a Profession," Journal of ’Teacher Education, XIII (December, 1962), pp. 396:401. 31 (9) prestige, (C-O-T-O).33 Obviously, these males did not view teaching with any great favor, except where "working with people" is concerned. Keep in mind that these were males in all the various curricula. 34 Coffman asked 420 in-service teachers, "Do you feel that being a teacher gives you an Opportunity to make a significant contribution to society?" The re— sponse, a 91% "yes"-level, could be taken partially as an expression of motivation both for going into teaching and as an expression of reason for staying in teaching. However, one would rarely expect a group of teachers to overwhelmingly deny that their role was Significant. This would constitute a.self-attack in some cases. Dilley35 attempted to get at some values of future teachers by using a forced-choice, paired- comparison scale consisting of 136 pairs of statements based on 17 basic items cross—paired. The items dealt with personal values, which provide much of the basis for occupational motivations, if they are not the actual motivations themselves. The scale was used with 359 students, including 266 future teachers and 33lbid., p. 399. 34W. E. Coffman, "Teacher Morale and Curriculum De- velopment," Journal of Experimental Education, XIX (June, 1951). pp. 305-332. 35N. E. Dilley, ”Personal Values held by College Students Who Enter Teacher Education Programs," Journal of Teacher Education, VIII (September, 1957), pp. 289-294. (~ L) f k) 93 future engineers, the latter being used as a comparison group. The 266 prospective teachers contained 64 men and 202 women. The 202 women ranked the items as follows: Marriage and children. A husband. Opportunity to help people. The respect of the community. Pride in your work. Contacts with children and/or adolescents. A home of your own. A regular income. Regular contacts with educated peOple. 10. Freedom to live exactly as you please. 11. A trip to Europe. 12. An 8-hour working day. 13. Fine clothes. 14. A personal library of selected books. 15. Ten thousand dollars at one time. 16. A new auto_obile. l7. Solitude.3 000-40014:me Dilley concludes that the distinct personal charac- teristics of college students in teacher education are: (a) desire for contacts with children and/or adolescents and (b) desire for Opportunity to help other peOple.37 Commitment to teaching is generally considered closely related to motivation for teaching. Some studies, or facets of studies noted here, tend to get at commitment to teaching, either directly or indirectly. Gowan38 asked the 20 female teachers in his group, ”What would be your choice if you could do anything you wanted vocationally?” Fourteen out of 20 responded that 36Ibid., p. 291. 37Ibid., p. 294. 38Ryans, Op.cit., p. 364. 33 they would still be teachers. In Best's study,39 the majority of both men and women indicated they would stay with teaching, regardless. (They were college seniors; some probably changed their minds at a later date.) HaubrichLLO found that 18% of his study group had a life goal of marriage, but 52% indicated that marriage would be their reason for leaving teaching. Forty—three per cent considered themselves "career" teachers, but on the other hand, 42% planned to teach less than 10 years, and 31% less than five years. Seventy-nine per cent indicated that, if they do leave teaching, they will probably do things outside the field of edu- cation. Most interesting is the fact that only 6% reported that "work had some real meaning in life" for them. The Research Division of the National Education Association,“1 in 1956, asked teachers, "Suppose you could go back to your college days and start over again; in view of your present knowledge, would you become a teacher?” Women responded ”certainly would" or "probably would" 80.7% of the time, compared to fr? 39Best, op.cit., p. 226. 40 Haubrich, op.cit., pp. 383-385. 41National Education Association, The Status of the American Public-School Teacher, XXXV (February, 1957). p- 38. 34 only 53.9% of the men doing so. Within the ranks of women teachers, married women responded in the two above-named categories 84% of the time, compared to 75% for the single women teachers.42 There are those who feel that motives for teaching as verbally expressed are actually outgrowths of the deeper segments of the self, such as basic personality structure and its needs. Symonds43 did a study involving 19 teachers, F4 women and five men. Nine of the teachers were married and 10 single. Teaching experience of the group covered all levels and ranged from five to 35 years per person. Data-collection involved three approaches: (1) use of tests, (Rorschach and Thematic Apperception Test), (2) interviews, (10 with each of the 19 teachers), and (3) classroom observation. Symonds describes teaching as a function of the teacher's personality. Findings of interest to this study are: (1) there was no dif— ference between the adjustment of single and married teachers, and (2) different persons derive satisfactions from different ages and types of children, with the uglbid., p. 40. uBPercival M. Symonds, ”Teaching as a Function of Teacher Personality,” Journal of Teacher Education, V (March, 1954), PP- 79-83- 35 converse being also true. Symonds states, "Different personality needs are satisfied by different school levels."uu Lang45 explains the construction of a scale used to obtain pyggt motivation measures which could be re- lated to such things as (1) relative social accepta— bility of the stated reason and (2) measures of teaching effectiveness, satisfaction with teaching and measures of covert motivation, such as personality needs. Stern46 reports the background, approach and re- sults of a comprehensive study concerning unconscious factors in motivation for teaching. The study was done in conjunction with the United States Department of Health, Education and Welfare and is reported in the publication, Unconscious Factors in Career Motivation for Teaching. Stern identifies and elaborates on three patterns of motives: (1) instrumental patterns, or the most superficial motives, in the sense of being relatively explicit and conscious, (2) expressive patterns, the more "respectable" motives that imply measures of altruistic, selfless dedication and (3) impulse-ridden patterns, ““1bid., p. 83. uSGerhard Lang, ”An Experimental Scale to Measure Motives for Teaching,” Journal of Educational Research, LI (March, 1958), pp. 687—693. 6George G. Stern and Others, Unconscious Factors in Career Motivation for Teaching, Final Report, U. S. Ikapartment of Health, Education and Welfare, Syracuse Ilniversity Research Institute (June 30, 1958), pp. 1-124. 36 which are often unconscious but produce substantial 47 effects in the classroom. Factors that Influence the Decision to Teach As has been pointed out previously, some of the studies concerned with motivations for teaching have incorporated influential-factor elements. While it is often difficult to distinguish, semantically, at least, between a "factor” and a ”reason”, studies cited here, or the portions of studies, tend to con- verge on the "factor" realm. 48 Orton used a questionnaire with 405 under- graduates at the University of Utah College of Edu- cation. He asked them, "What experiences have you had which either caused you to want to become a teacher or contributed to your fitness to become a teacher?” In rank-order, the responses were: 1. Previous teaching in church auxiliaries, including scouting. Like children. Encouragement toward teaching through personal experiences in school. Substituted for or helped a teacher at school. Previous teaching experience in the Armed Forces. Served as leader for young people's groups (non-church). Baby-sitting and tending children. \1 O\ U‘I-P’ DOM “71bid., pp. 5-9. 48Don A. Orton, "Why Do They Want to Teach?,” Phi pglta Kappan, xxx (April, 1949), p. 343. 37 8. Private tutoring and music lessons. 9. Miscellaneous. Willcox and Beigel)49 used as a study population 152 students, 59 male and 93 female, enrolled in teacher education courses at two New York institutions. The students were asked to write their answers to, "What particular happening, experience or occasion first turned your thoughts to teaching?" Items of response are listed below, with the per cents of students volun- teering each response: 1. "Satisfaction found in working with children," (30% total, 24% male, 33% female). 'Example of teacher," (22% total, 10% male, 29% female). 3. "Desire to teach goes back to childhood, but can't recall any specific incidents," (21% total, 7% male, 30% female). 4. "Influence of families," (18% total, 13% male, 21% female). 5. "Result of satisfying school experience," or "interest in their major field," (10% total, 20% male, 3% female). 6. "Read articles on teacher shortage,’ or "re- sult of recruiting efforts by teachers and friends," (9 1/2% total, 9% male, 10% female). 7. Other factors, such as ”lack of funds for other kinds of college education," (7%), "low self-appraisal,” (7%), and "unsatisfying experiences in other occupations," (7%). 2. A doctoral study by Nelson50 attempted to identify factors leading to a choice of teaching a particular grade ‘ "9Isobel Willcox and Hugo G. Beigel, "Motivations in the Choice of Teaching," Journal of Teacher Education, IV (June, 1953) pp. 106-109. L— )OByron B. Nelson, "The Reasons for Choice of Teache 19%; Level by Prospective Teachers" (unpublished Ph. D. d1Ssertation, George Peabody College for Teachers, 1952)- 38 level. He used both a checklist and personal information with 9,340 education seniors at 133 Southern Region col- leges. The group included both Negro and white students, of which about one—third were elementary education majors. A few of the conclusions made by Nelson seem to be some- what related to this study: (1) previous experience with children is a major factor in choosing the elemen— tary teaching level; (2) the most important reasons for choice of grade level were desire to work with that grade level and previous experience with that age group of children; and (3) social status and economic factors had little, if any, effect on choice of a particular grade level. One of the most, if not the most, comprehensive studies of teachers was directed by David G. Ryans. This study, the Teacher Characteristics Study, sponsored by the American Council on Education, involved 6,179 teachers in some 450 school systems and 1700 separate schools.51 Around 100 separate researches were done as facets of the total project. Over a period of about six years, various research techniques were utilized, including (1) observations, (2) paper and pencil inven- tories, (3) use of various instruments on attitudes, preferences and vieWpoints, (4) surveys of activities and (5) comparisons of defined groups of teachers. The study has produced many descriptions of teachers as ¥ 51Ryans, op.cit., p. 368. 39 classified according to various systems. One such brief description pertinent here is the exposition on teacher characteristics as related to influences affecting the choice of teaching.52 According to the findings of the Teacher Characteristics Study, teachers who say they entered teaching (1) because of its intellectual nature, (2) because they hadljked school and (3) because of the public and social-service character of teaching generally scored higher on most of the characteristics considered in the study, ("higher" being associated with the charac- teristics of teachers known as "good" or "effective"). The teachers who scored lower entered teaching (1) be- cause they were advised or urged to by parents or rel- atives, (2) because of its attractiveness from the standpoint of its desirable position in the community 53 and (3) because of favorable prospects for advancement. 54 Richey and Fox concluded, among other things, that: 1. Women with relatives in teaching appeared to be more influenced toward teaching than were men with teacher—relatives. 2. The students were more influenced on voca- tional choice by parents than by any other persons. 52lbid., p. 394. 53Ibid. 54Richey and Fox, op.cit., pp. 1-59. 4O 3. There seemed to be a definite relationship between amount of experience of a teaching nature which students had and selection of teaching. 4. Over half the 969 students reported little or no assis ance from teachers in selecting a vocation. Statements such as number three above need to be examined further to see if the relationships cited are causal or effectual in nature. The students in Best‘s study56 reported the fol; lowing factors of probable influence for teaching: 1. 78% had close friends or relatives in teaching. 2. 36% were children of teachers. 3. 60% said a personal ideal influenced them. These were most-often senior high school teachers and second-most-often college teachers. (These students were all future secondary teachers themselves.) 4. 75% had been advised ghat they were poten- tially good teachers. Stier58 reports that the future elementary school teachers in his study group listed the following in- fluences for deciding to become a teacher, in order of importance: (1) worked on playgrounds or served as cxhnp counselor, (2) inspiration of another teacher, ¥ 551bid. 56Best, op.cit., pp. 201-259. 57Ibid., pp. 225-226. 58Stier, op.cit., pp. 167—173. 41 (3) from a family of teachers and (4) taught Sunday School.59 Richey, Phillips and Fox60 concluded: 1. There was a slight tendency for more of those who definitely planned to teach to come from large city schools than from smaller city, village or rural schools. It appeared that a slightly large percent- age of the students whose parents had incomes under $6000 were considering teaching as a profession. Students whose fathers were businessmen or skilled laborers had somewhat more tendency to look with favor upon teach- ing as an occupation than did those whose fathers were in other occupations. A student's chances of selecting teaching as a career were greater if he had a rel— ative, especially a mother or father, who was or had been in teaching. There was a positive relationship between the amount of experience of a teaching na- ture that a student had and héI selection of teaching as an occupation. Ostlie62 reports that at the highest level of influence teachers were mentioned more often than all Other groups of persons combined. Concerning experi- ences which had some influence on the decision to teach, over 80% of the group gave ”informal experiences WiJfllcflflldlen" high significance and almost two—thirds —— 59lbid., p. 168. 6ORichey, Phillips and Fox, op.cit., p. 49. 61 62 Ibid. Ostlie, op.cit., pp. 80—81. 42 accorded high significance to "experiences in occupations similar to teaching" and "organized experiences with children." Richards' group reported greatest influence from teachers, followed by parents, to a much lesser extent, with friends holding down third position.63 Hill claims that the women teachers in his study group were most influenced by (1) parents, (2) teachers and (3) friends. The older teachers were more influ- enced by their parents than were the younger ones.64 He reports that 38% of the teachers had been influenced by teachers.65 Factors purported to have been most influential to the group in Fielstra's study66 were: (1) an in- spirational teacher, (2) a friend or relative, (3) news- paper accounts on the need for teachers, (4) leaflets, magazine articles and books on teaching and education and (5) parents. Over 18% of the students in his group had one or more teaching parents. Hoyt67 reports that: (1) elementary school teachers had had slightly more experience with children 63Richards, op.cit., p. 380. 6"Hill, Op.cit., p. 25. 65Ibid., p. 27. 66Fielstra, op.cit., p. 667. 67Hoyt, op.cit., p. 133. 43 than had secondary school teachers, and also more recent experience and (2) elementary school teachers had been more influenced by their parents than were secondary school teachers (with regard to choice of teaching level). Elementary school teachers were less influ- enced by other elementary school teachers than were secondary school teachers by other secondary school teachers. College professors had almost no influence. Hoyt states, "It is possible that if many students in the secondary division had a knowledge of younger children, some might choose to be elementary teachers."68 For a comprehensive look at the literature (before 1956) concerning factors influencing choice of teaching, the reader is referred to a study by Chaltas.69 Descriptive Information About Teachers Several studies have been done which offer de- scriptive information about teachers, groups of teachers and types Of teachers. The studies reported here do not exhaust the field, but do provide relevant information. The Yale—Fairfield Study of Elementary Teaching found that about 88% of the elementary school teachers 68Ibid., p. 136. 69John G. Chaltas, "Factors Influencing the Choice lRegarding a Teaching Career--a Review and Analysis of the Literature" (unpublished doctoral dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1956). 44 in the study were women, about two-thirds of them are college graduates and their median age is about 39 years.70 Thirty-three per cent had had doubts about their choice of teaching, with the major doubt con- cerning their own capabilities as good teachers.71 Arthur states that about 70% of women teachers today are married.72 Riccio73 studied 488 students at The Ohio State University in their first education course. There were 123 males and 365 females in the group. He found that the range Of ages when the women decided to teach was from five to 40 years of age, with a mean age of 15.08. The range for the males was 10-28 years, with a mean of 17.5 years. Thus, he concludes 74 that women decide to become teachers earlier than men. 75 Chase received questionnaires from 1,784 teachers in 43 states, and concluded: (1) that women are slightly more enthusiastic than men, (2) married teachers 7OHill, op.cit., pp. 17-18. 71Ibid., p. 26. 72Robert G. Arthur, "The Dual Dilemma of Married Women Teachers," New York State Education, L (May, 1963), p. 23. 73Anthony C. Riccio, "When Do they Decide to Teach?," Peabody Journal of Education, XXXIX (September, 1961), pp- 94-95- 74Ibid. 75Frances S. Chase, "Factors for Satisfaction in Teaching," Phi Delta Kappan, xxx111 (November, 1951), pp. 127-132. 45 are slightly more enthusiastic than single teachers and (3) 92% of all the teachers are satisfied with their school systems. The "enthusiasm" referred to their school system, its practices, administrators and other factors. LaGrone76 studied the availability, recruitment, selection, preparation, characteristics and success in teaching of non-certified college graduates by analyzing the unpublished reports of nine selected projects, spon- sored by the Fund for the Advancement of Education, and other related information. From this study LaGrone found: 1. The average grade—point average of all the persons participating in the programs was around a "C." 2. Eighty per cent were women. 3. The age distribution was bi-modal at 23 and 33 years. (Some programs emphasized recent college gtaduates while others excluded them.) Ryans78 offers the following "generalizations about ' based upon various studies, in- outstanding teachers,‘ cluding the Teacher Characteristics Study: 1. Superior intellectual abilities. 2. Above-average school achievement. 76Herbert F. LaGrone, "The Availability for Teaching of Noncertified College Graduates" (unpublished Ed. D. dissertation, University of Texas, 1959), reviewed in Dissertation Abstracts, XX (Ann Arbor, Michigan: University Microfilms, 1959), p. 1686. 77 78 ibis. Ryans, op.cit., p. 366. \OCDN OUT-13L» 46 Good emotional adjustment. Attitudes favorable to students. Enjoyment of pupil relationships. Early experience in teaching and caring for children. History of teaching in the family. Family support of teaching as a vocation. Strong social service interests. Ryans reports some of the findings of the Teacher Characteristics Study by relating some teacher charac- teristics to certain variables. The following are some of the findings pertinent to this study: 1. Teacher Characteristics related to Men vs. Women. Elementary women were: (a) higher on responsible, businesslike, systematic classroom behavior and (b) lower on attitude toward democratic classroom practices, per— missive, child-centered educational view- points and emotional stapglipy_than were elementary men teachers.’y Teacher Characteristics related to Marital Status. Elementary married teachers were higher on: (a) understanding, friendiy classroom behavior, (b) repponsible, busi- nesslike classroom behavior, (0) stimu— lating classroom behavior, (d) favorable attitudes toward pupils and (e) child- centered educational vieppoints than 80 were single (never-married) teachers. Teacher Characteristics related to Aca- demic Achievement. Outstanding students were higher on: (a) friendly, under— standing classroom behavior, (b) stimu- latingyiimgginative classroom behavior, '(6) favorable attitudes toward pupils, (d favorable attitudes toward democratic school_practices and (E) permissiye, child— centered educational viewpointsfijdL 79lbid., p. 391. 801bid., p. 392. 81 Ibid., p. 394. 47 This study also showed that: (l) the educational viewpoints expressed by secondary school teachers were of a more traditional and learning-centered nature, while those of the elementary school teacher leaned more in the direction of permissiveness and (2) neither "amount of teaching experience" nor "age” appeared to be very highly associated with teacher attitudes.82 Gowan presents a list of "Personal Qualities Which Appear to Characterize a Group of Elementary Women Teachers Highly Selected with Respect to Over- all Classroom Behavior."83 Among these qualities are: 1. Frequently give as reason for teaching, "liking for children and interest in their develOpment." 2. Express satisfaction with teaching (and also with teachers' salaries); intend to continue teaching indefinitely. 3. Frequently engaged in teaching activity as a child. 4. Decision to become a teacher frequently made prior to college enrollment; had planned to be a teacher from a relatively early age. 5. Enjoyed school when they were students themselves. 6. Showed superior accomplishment when in school. 7. Report large number of teachers among parents and relatives. 82Ibid., p. 385. 83lbid., pp. 365-366. 48 8. Eighty-five per cent are married. 9. More interested in ocial service than the average adult.8E Certification of Late-Deciders "While their children are young, young mothers who are liberal arts college graduates without pro- fessional training should have the Opportunity to pre— pare in easy stages for teaching. The data show that a teacher in her thirties is quite likely to continue teaching for 30 or more years."85 Since late—deciders for teaching are generally older when they start tea- ching than are those persons who from the start have prepared for teaching, Hill's point is relevant. Zapoleon86 adds more information along these lines. She reports that a woman working at 20 years may expect to work 41 years, if single, and 31 years if married but childless. Women employed at age 50 may be expected to work 14 more years. These data are interesting in light of the fact that many of our undergraduate education majors (early-deciders) 'teach less than 10 years in their lifetimes. ‘ 84Ibid. 85Hill, op.cit., p. 138. 86O. D. David, The Education of Women -——— Signs I£L§_the Future (Washington, D. 0.: American Council on Ediacation, 1959), pp. 57-58. 49 Hill points out that there is a trend in the direc- tion of more and more liberal arts college graduates going into teaching. About 25% of the teachers returning questionnaires during the Yale—Fairfield Study were liberal arts graduates. About 17% of the teachers over 35 years of age, 33% of those between 25 and 35, and 41% of those under 25 years of age were liberal arts graduates, thus illustrating the trend.87 One facet of the Teacher Characteristics Study is apropos at this point. The study showed that when teacher characteristics are related to age, older teachers (55 or older) were at a disadvantage in com- parison with the younger ones, except on "systematic and businesslike classroom behavior” and "indicative of learning-centered, traditional educational view- points."88 LaGrone's study of non-certified college graduates revealed that the younger group of teachers involved in special professional programs had a high program com- pletion per cent but dropped out of teaching due to nmarriage and family status reasons at a high rate, ‘Whereas the older group had a lower completion rate but tended to stay in teaching at a higher rate. Even from 87Hill, op.cit., p. 29. 88Ryans, op.cit., p. 390. 50 this select group, (about 500 were selected from ap- proximately 1000 applications), teaching success was not as high as expected. LaGrone also tested the assumption that liberal arts graduates constitute a reservoir for new public school teachers. He found that the number of non—certified graduates was probably less than was anticipated by the project planners, since: (1) college graduates make up only 4.5% of the total United States population, (2) 90% of men graduates were prepared in fields directly related to future careers and 96% of them were employed in four major occupational classifications, (3) 75% of the women were prepared in fields directly related to a future career, and over 52% of them had prepared for teaching as undergraduates, and (4) 75% of the women college graduates were classified as being married (or had been married), while three-fourths of these had one or more children. LaGrone concluded: l. The pool of non-certified graduates is limited in itself, and further reduced by conditions of the labor market, economy, marital and family patterns, and the teaching profession itself. 2. Possession of a college degree does not assure that the person can, or would want to, teach. 3. The non-certified college graduate who teaches needs, wants and profits from special preparation for teaching. 51 4. Factors other than possession of a college degree must be considered ég the selection of public school teachers. Kloosterman90 studied students, 40 years of age and older, who completed requirements for the Michigan Provisional Teaching Certificate through Wayne State University, to determine if the practice of certifying these middle-aged persons is advisable and thus should be not only continued but encouraged. His study group of 34 persons consisted of 29 women and five men. The mean age of the group was 45.75 years. Thirty—three of the 34 persons were married or had been married. One person was single, three widowed, two divorced and 28 were married. About two-thirds of the group had parenthood responsibilities. Kloosterman studied, as evidence, such factors as: (1) employment, (2) re- employment, (3) change of employment, (4) additional college credit (graduate/undergraduate), (5) progress toward permanent Michigan certification, (6) involve- ment in professional associations and activities, (7) a realistic appraisal by these peOple of the teacher's task, (8) a realistic appraisal of the program of cer- tification as determined by these peOple and (9) other —‘ 89LaGrone, op.cit., p. 1686. 90Winton A. Kloosterman, "Study of Middle-Aged Persons Who Have Received Teacher's Certificates to Determine the Advisability of Certifying Such Persons as Teachers" (unpublished Ed. D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 1962). 52 evidences of success/non—success in contributing to the need for well—qualified, professionally committed tea— chers. The four general areas of study for each of the 34 persons were: (1) background, (2) program of certi- fication, (3) subsequent experiences and (4) potential employment for middle-aged beginning teachers. The consultation of personal student folders, interviews, and, in some cases, questionnaires were used to collect data. Among the findings of this study are: 1. There are employment opportunities for non-experienced, fully certified teachers 40 years of age or older. 2. Professional involvement, as measured by membership in professional associations, does not appear to be a strong poiag for the middle—aged beginning teacher. 3. There is no evidence that such factors as age, time elapsed since first registering in college, the extent of work completed in teacher education as Opposed to non- teacher education, and type of life pat- tern which prevailed prior to seeking the certificate to teach are valid cri- teria for either encouraging or discour- aging middle—aggd adults who wish to be- come teachers. 4. Quantity of professional service by these middle—aged teachers during the first three years of teaching has been as adequate as is typical of anyubeginning—teacher group in the nation... 91lbid., p. 128. 921bid., p. 135. # 93Ibid., p. 142. 9"Ibid., p. 143. # 53 Certification Programs for College Graduates No attempt will be made here to summarize or de- scribe the various programs being offered to certifi- cation candidates who possess degrees. The programs are too numerous and varied. Rather, the reader will be directed to some sources of information on these programs. Woodring's book,95 New Directions in Teacher Education, provides an overview of some of the new plans (in 1957) for professional programs for liberal arts college graduates, programs designed for "older" college graduates and programs leading to degrees such as the Master of Arts in Teaching. The book's appendix describes 25 projects supported or assisted by the Fund for the Advancement of Education, and on pages 139-141 it lists guides to the publications of these programs. A report from the American Council on Education 96 by Herzog also gives a comprehensive description of master's degree and non-degree certification programs offered in the United States in both secondary and elementary school teaching. 95Paul Woodring, New Directions in Teacher Educa- tion, An Interim Report published by the Fund for the Advancement of Education, (New York: The Fund, 1957). 96John D. Herzog, Preparing College Graduates to Teach in Schools (Washington D. 0.: American Council on Education, 1960). 54 A new publication by the National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards (NCTEPS) presents annotations of some 323 teacher education programs and innovations representing 188 colleges, universities and public school systems in 46 states.97 A few of the listings deal with certification programs and 5th—year programs for college graduates. The report, Teacher Preparation for Mothers Who are College Graduates,98 elaborates on a program de- signed for mothers with degrees so they might be able to get involved in professional education experiences leading to certification to teach. The program was cooperatively conducted by Yale University and the Fairfield, Connecticut, Public schools. It involved eight mothers over a three-year period of time, in a class designed particularly for them. Though it is not yet published, a bulletin "written for mature women who are interested in teaching" is being COOperatively developed by the National Commission on Teacher Education and Profes- sional Standards and Catalyst, a nation-wide agency ‘ 97National Commission on Teacher Education and ffi?ofessional Standards, Directory of Innovations in (Reacher Education, Prepared for Use in The Columbus TEPS COrdErence, June 25-28, 1963 (Washington, D. C., 1963). 98Teacher Prpparation for Mothers Who Are College Greuduates, The Yale-Fairfield Study of Elementary Teaching Nfiw Haven, Connecticut: September, 1959). 55 designed to foster the utilization of the capacities of intelligent women who want to combine family and work. The bulletin will describe some programs of professional education designed especially for women college graduates. Other Related Literature The need for elementary teachers remains. In 1956, Slightly over one~third of the secondary edu- cation graduates didn't accept teaching positions while about 20% of the elementary education graduates 100 also failed to accept a teaching position. It was not, however, because there was a dearth of teach- ing positions at the elementary teaching level. A more recent survey showed that the ratio of prospective high school teachers to prospective elementary teachers was 8/5 and that it needed to be just the reverse.101 An even more recent study points out that for 1963, the ratio of prospective high school teachers to pro- spective elementary school teachers is 9/6 and should 99"Women's Group Enlist TEPS Aid in Publishing Report," TEPS Newsletter, VI (May, 1963), p. 10. H 100National Education Association Research Division, The 1956 Teacher Supply and Demand Report, " Journal of Teacher Education, VII (March, 1956), p. 54. 101Research Division, National Education Association, "(Teacher Supply and Demand in Public Schools," NEA Research Iailletin, XL (October, 1962). p. 93. 56 be 6/9. Also reported is the prediction that about 82% of the eligible elementary education graduates will enter active teaching in September, 1963.102 The Maine State Department of Education has been given a grant from the U. S. Office of Education to conduct a study on the assignment of college—edu— cated women to part—time work in schools. Among other things, the study will attempt to find out: 1. How many women are now employed part-time and in what capacity. 2. Necessary_qualifications, including certi- fication. Prospective and probable assignments. 4. Issues and problems in part-time employ- ment of women in schools.10 Director of the project will be Hayden Anderson of the state department. The study is expected to be done by 1964. 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The reljited-major group was more influenced by "good working 133 conditions," "help put children through school," and "professional relationships" than was the unrelated- maJor group. Professional Aspirations The two preceding sections have dealt with some of the more Specific factors which contributed to the making of a decision to become a teacher and some of the under- lying motivations for choosing teaching rather than some other field. Now that these facets of the study have been presented, a look at the professional goals and "wild dreams" should reveal more about the "late-deciders" for elementary teaching certification at Michigan State “University. Starting to Teach The 31 certification candidates were asked, "How soon.do you want (plan) to begin teaching?" Table 32 :reports the response-distribution for this question. A sizeable portion (38.8%) of the group, as suSpected, had already been teaching for a short period of time, generally on a.substitute or special certificate basis. Over 35% ;plan.to be teaching within two years. One has decided ruaver'to teach, and 16.1% will wait over five years, geruzrally because of small children or other family obligations. TABLE 32 PLANS FOR BEGINNING TO TEACH Number of Years Hence Frequency Per Cent of Total.. O-l 6 19.4 1-2 5 16.1 2—3 0 0.0 3-4 1 3.2 4-5 1 3.2 over 5 5 16.1 Already have taught 12 38.8 Will never teach l 3.2 Total 31 100.0 Agg,--In the youngest age—group (21-27), 72% are already teaching or will be within one year. This high percentage is perhaps a function of the need factor of younger families. The "young family" age members, (28-34), are being held up the longest from teaching. Only 51% are teaching or will be within two years, and the remaining 49% will all wait four or more years. In the three groups from 35 years on up, 83% are now teaching or will be within two years. "Freedom-from—young-children" types of responsibilities probably comes into play in this case. ReSponsibility for dependents.——The group with