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A STUDY’TO EXAMINETHE ETEEGTsON COGNITIVE .
LEARNING AND ATTITUDE OF Two EXTREME , ‘ V

. ILLUSTRATIONPROOUGTION COSTS IN ASLIOE-TARE:

PROGRAM

Dissertation for the Degree of Ph.‘ D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
GEORGE RAYMOND KOSKIV
1975

LIBRARY

Mich;

\r’ r:
c} r -
I

 

 

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

A STUDY TO EXAMINE THE EFFECTS ON COGNITIVE
LEARNING AND ATTITUDE OF TWO EXTREME
ILLUSTRATION PRODUCTION [COSTS IN
A SLIDE-TAPE PROGRAM

presented by
George Raymond Koski

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

PhJL degree in Wducation

and Curriculum

 

 

Major professor

Date July 30; 1975

0-7639

ABSTRACT

A STUDY TO EXANHNE THE EFFECTS ON COGNITIVE
LEARNING AND ATTITUDE OF TWO EXTREME
ILLUSTRATION PRODUCTION COSTS IN
{A SLIDE-TAPE PROGRNW

By

George Raymond Kbski

There are increasing signs that the financial crisis fer the
support of education will continue. Financial aid especially for
support services in higher education, appears to be in jeopardy.
While funds are becoming more difficult to obtain there is increasing
evidence that the use of illustrated instructional materials in
education is becoming increasingly popular. With decreasing revenue
and increased demand there is a need to examine the relationship
between.production costs and'benefits of illustrated instructional
material.

This study was designed to gather information on the effects
of illustration production costs on learning and attitude. .An
expensive and an inexpensive version of a slide-tape program on
canine heartworm.disease was prepared; the former by a professional
medical illustrator, and the latter by an amateur illustrator. The
cost of executing the illustrations for the expensive version of the
program was $2486.75, while the illustrations for the inexpensive

version of the program cost $135.20.

George Raymond Koski

An audiotape was prepared from a script to accompany both
versions of the slide tape program. Since the visuals in the
inexpensive version of the program were dramatically different in
appearance from the corresponding visuals in the expensive slide-
tape program, it was hypothesized that cognitive learning and atti-
tude toward the program would be significantly different.

Three sample groups were selected from second term
veterinary students to act as subjects. Since the majority of the
subjects had some prior exposure to canine heartworm disease, a
control group was established. The control group wrote the cognitive
test without exposure to either program. The experimental groups
viewed either the expensive or the inexpensive version of the pro-
gram in separate rooms . The short— term cognitive performance test
was collected from all three groups. The two experimental groups
also completed an attitudinal instrument and a general information
questionnaire .

Statistical analysis revealed no significant differences
between the two experimental groups on either cognitive performance
or attitudinal response towards the program. A significant differ-
ence was detected between the control group and the experimental
groups on cognitive performance . The experimental group viewing the
expensive version of the program tended to make slightly more posi-
tive conments in praise of the program although major differences
were not readily apparent in the analysis of the general information

questionnaire .

George Raymond Koski

Implications included fer the designers and.producers of
illustrated materials are that time should.be spent in clearly por-
traying specified concepts, but not in simulating reality. The
implication for administrators is that much valuable time and
materials are being wasted in the realistic portrayal of visual
material. The talents of gifted illustrators should be directed
toward increased interpretation and simplification of complex

concepts.

Suggestions fer fUture research include the additional study
of the effects of illustration production procedures and styles on
learning efficiency and cost. A recommendation was also made that
minimum acceptance levels of illustration criteria of instructors and

production personnel be investigated.

A STUDY TO EXAMINE THE EFFECTS ON (DGNITIVE
LEARNING.AND.ATTITUDE OF TWO EXTREME
ILLUSTRATION PRODUCTION COSTS IN
.A SLIDE-TAPE PROGRAM

By

George Raymond Koski

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State university
in partial fulfilhment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum

1975

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This study is dedicated to the combined efforts of all
those people who made it possible, especially:

Dr. Kent Gustafson, my advisor and committee chairman, who
has always been strong in his support and friendly in his persuasion.
He kept me honest .

Dr. Charles F. Reed, his funding of the original preposal
for the project made it all possible. He listened and heard, his
friendship is treasured.

Dr. James Page, Dr. William Sweetland and Dr. Frederick
Waisanen, the members of my comittee, they kept up the faith.

Mr. Rick Hall, a medical illustrator "par excellence" and
a good human being.

Barbara, Christopher and Lisa, my family, my love.

And to Michigan State University--the people I have met and

the paths I have traveled will long be with me.

George Raymond Koski

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii

Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Nature of the Problem . . . . . . . . . 2
Need fer the Study . . . . . . . . . . 8
.Assumptions of the Study . . . . . . . . . 13

Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . 13
Limutations of the Study. . . . . . . . . . 14
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . 16

Visualization . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Visual Characteristics . . .- . . . . . . . 18
Comparative Cost Studies . . . . . . . . . 22
Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Embellishment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
‘Viewer Characteristics . . . . . . . 37
Attitudes in the Learning Process . . . . . . 39
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

III. DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

Population Description . . . . . . . . . . 43
Message Design. . . . . . . 44
Production Details/Expensive Version . . . . . 46
Illustrator Qualifications . . . . . . . . 46
Production Procedure . . . . . . . . . . 46
Artwork Progression . . . . . . 47
Production Details/Inexpensive 'Version . . . . . 48
Illustrator Qualifications . . . . . . . . 48
Production Procedure . . . . . . . . . . 49
Artwork Progression . . . . . . . . . . 50

iii

Chapter

IV.

Common Elements

Narration .

Equipment and Facilities
Production Time .
Production Costs

Cognitive Instrunentation
Att itudinal Instrunentation

Additional Information Questionnaire

The Experimental Design.
Sumnary . . .

FINDINGS

Findings . . . .
Discussion of the Findings

V . SUMWARY AND CONCLUSION .

Summary .

Conclusions .

Implications .

Suggestions for Future Research

BIBLIOGRAPHY

APPENDICES

iv

0

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

3.1 Production Time (hours) Required for the Preparation of
the Expen51ve and Inexpens1ve Versions of the
Program.. ..........49

3.2 Production Cost Sunmary for Labor and Materials Required
in the Production of Illustrations for the Expensive
and Inexpensive Versions of the Program . . . . . 53

3.3 Analysis of Variance for Determining First Term Grade
Point Average Group Differences . . . . . . . . 57

3.4 Least Square Estimate of Contrasts to Determine Group
Differences in First Term Grade Point Average Between
the Expensive and Inexpensive Treatment Groups . . . 58

3.5 Least Square Estimate of Contrasts to Determine Group
Differences in First Term Grade Point Average Between
the Expensive and Control Group . . . . . . . . 59

3.6 First Term Grade Point Average Scores for the Three
SampleGroups.............. 60

3.7 Fmax Test to Determine Homogeneity. of Variance Among the
Treatment Groups . . . . 61

4.1 Analysis of Covariance on Cognitive Test Performance
Scores with First Term Grade Point Average as a
Covariate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

4.2 Adjusted Least Square Estimate of Contrasts to Determine
the Treatment Group Differences in Cognitive Test
Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

4.3 Adjusted Least Square Estimate of Contrasts to Determine
Treatment Group Differences in Cognitive Scores
Between the Control Group and Treatment Group Nunber
One (Expensive) . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.4 Raw Mean Scores for Cognitive Test Performance . . . . 68

4.5 Analysis of Variance for Estimating Attitudinal Differ-
ences Between the Tim Experimental Groups . . . . . 69

V

Table Page
4.6 Semantic Differential Group and.Average Scores . . . 70

4.7 Additional Information Questionnaire with Summarized
Results . . . . . . -. . . . . . . . . . 71

vi

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix

A. Instructions Read to Class .

B Cognitive Recall Instrument and Instructions .

C .Attitudinal Instrument and Instructions

D. Additional Information Form . . . .

E Program Objectives for Canine Heartworm.Program

F Sample Colored Photographs of Slides from the Expensive
and Inexpensive Version of the Program. . . .
Slide No. 5 .
Slide No. 14 .
Slide No. 16 .

G. Script; Canine Heartwonm Disease; Slide; Tape
Presentation . . . . .

H. Cost Documentation: Expensive version of the Program .

I. Cost Documentation: Inexpensive version of the

Program . . . . . .

vii

Page
95
97

101
104
106

108
109
110
111
112

122

124

CHAPTERI

INTRODUCTION

Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to determine the cognitive and

attitudinal effects of exposing students in higher education to
either an expensive or an inexpensive version of a slide-tape program.

An expensive version of a slide-tape program on canine heart-
worm disease was prepared by a medical illustrator for use by
veterinary students . An inexpensive version of the same program was
produced by an elementary school teacher. Only illustration costs
were documented. An audiotape to complement the slides was prepared
from a script and remained basically the same for both versions of the
program.

Instrunentation designed to gather information about the
effects of the expensive and inexpensive versions of the program
included a researcher designed short-term cognitive instrument, a
semantic differential to measure attitude, and an information sheet
designed to gather general information.

No treatment grows and a control grow were selected from
the second term of a 12 term veterinary program. The experimental
grows each viewed one version of the program separately while a con-
trol grow completed the cognitive instrument without exposure to

either program. Information collected and compared included the

cognitive scores of all three treatment groups, along with the atti-
tudinal and.genera1 infbrmation data collected from.the two experi-
mental groups.

The study specifically tested the fbllowing hypotheses:

1. .All three treatment groups will have similar cognitive
test perfbrmance scores.

2. The two experimental groups will have similar
cognitive test performance scores.

3. The cognitive test perfbrmance scores of the
experimental group exposed to the expensive version
of the program and the control group will be
similar.
4. Group membership does not significantly affect
attitude toward the slide-tape presentation.
The Nature of the Problem
Many educators have accepted the fact that there is a place
in the classroom for various forms of media and related programs
which teach by other than conventional lecture methods. This
acceptance of instructional media in the classroom has generated a
market fer hardward and instructional material that, according to
most researchers has usually been able to teach about as well as the
classroom instructor teaching the same material. Supposedly,
instructors utilizing media can become more efficient by using their
specialized skills in dealing with individual problems while the
machines take over the more routine job of transmitting facts;
According to Wittich and Schuller (1973):
.As we think about multisensory imagery-indeed, as we
think about the whole vital, stimmdating, and burgeoning

field of instructional technology . . .‘we can be sure of one
thing: the imaginative, creative teacher who refuses to be

hemmed in by today's constraints, the teacher who looks on
instructional technology as the essential tool he can use to
help free himself of these constraints--such a teacher and his
pupils have a.most exciting future ahead of them (p. 682).
While improving teaching effectiveness is considered impor-
tant it is also apparent that additional effbrts must be made to
find instructional procedures that are more efficient. The Carnegie
Conmission (1972a) examining the impact of instructional technology
in higher education suggested that instructional technology could
increase the productivity of college and university professors. They

listed the fellowing ways that technology can help:

1. By decreasing the time required by students to
learn specified.modules of infbrmation.

2. By taking maximum advantage of the capabilities of
available technological capacity.

3. By releasing faculty time.

4. By prolonging the time during which instruction is
available.

5. By utilizing quality instructional materials
produced off the campus.

6. By sharing high-quality instructional programs and
learning materials with other institutions (p. 83).

The potential of technology for decreasing educational costs
is largely dependent on how it is used within the instructional set-
ting. In a study at San Jose State College reported by Cafferella
(1973) the use of television as a magnification device was documented.
The investigators reported that:

. . in a majority of the course units investigated, closed
circuit television as a magnification device was found to
reduce substantially (in some cases by as much as 65 percent)

the time required by the instructor to present a demonstration
fer an entire laboratory class (p. 58).

The number of students benefiting from.instruction.made
possible by the use of technology is another important variable in
determining educational benefits in terms of cost. In another study,
also reported by Cafferella (1973), Carpenter and Greenhill found
that:

The economic advantages of using television begin

'with classes of about 200 students and increase progressively
from.this point as the number of students in the TV section
increases (p. 45).

While the reported number of students required by the tele-
vision to compete financially with conventional instruction varies;
there is consensus that beyond a certain figure television can reduce
educational costs. It fellows that the larger the number of students
the larger the potential savings can be.

The potential effects of technology increasing classroom
productivity while stimulating classroom instruction, have apparently
had little effect on reducing instructional costs which have con-
tinued to escalate at alarming rates. In attempting to describe the
effects of technology Rogers and Hirsch (1971) claim that:

Whatever set of educational assunptions is adopted

the increase in inputs has been greater than the increase
in output . . . productivity has steadily declined (p. 131).

Although our potential to transmit and duplicate instructional
messages electronically has increased significantly, these advances
appear to have had little significant impact on educational pro-
ductivity. According to Tickton (1970) this decline in.productivity
'can be directly related to the expenditure and management of money:
High cost and inadequate costing techniques are

clearly a major cause of instructional technologies lack
of impact on American schools and colleges (p. 26).

It would appear that technology has not become Or, is in the
initial stages of becoming, an integral part of instruction. To
date the cost benefits of instructional technology seem to be
negligible since it has been merely added on to the cost of tradi-
tional education instead of replacing it. This is particularly true
when a teacher uses technology to assist or supplement him rather
than as a replacement fer at least part of the instruction.

There is a danger that the current financial crises in educa-
tion.will result in decreasing fonds for the support of instructional
technology in educationt Any information or justification regarding
benefits derived from.current expenditures would be of assistance to
administrators and school boards who have to deal with increased
demands fbr limited budgetary fonds. It would also appear that any
increase in.productivity or more efficient expenditure of funds would
be welcomed in education where the potential of technology has not
been realized.

Nfiller (1971) succinctly stated this current dilemma in
education in the fbllowing way:

Pressing social considerations demand that our concern

fer instructional technology be more than perfUnctory. The
rising costs per student of education and the increasing
demand.f0r it by all the people face the society with costs
that are causing taxpayer revolts . . . Yet, despite its
great cost and its many problems, education is almost
universally recognized as a necessity, the primary
fashioner of a society's fUture (p. 1009).

Accountability, fbstered by public pressure, has resulted in
a greater emphasis on evaluation and sophisticated costing procedures

within the educational environment. Although the expenditure of

fUnds is being closely documented very little effort has been.made

to measure the benefits obtained as a result of the money spent.
This is especially true in the production of instructional materials.
Financial support to improve instruction is generally greater at
higher levels of education where message design becomes increasingly
more complex and individual knowledge and skills tend to be more
specialized. In many schools talented individuals hired for their
specific production skills, are working in teams to produce highly
refined, finished products which are professional in appearance.

Many institutions of higher education have set w special
marketing procedures to disseminate locally produced quality instruc-
tional materials. These marketed productions are usually of a very
high technical quality and represent the effort and pride of the pro-
fessional people that produced then. To some degree, these products
are also designed to swport the reputation of the institution that
produced the material. In most cases, however, material produced
for instructional purposes is used by the individual instructor
within the local instructional setting and may or may not be of
swerior technical quality.

The employment of instructional development procedures in
the production of an instructional product involves a number of
steps. Analysis of the problem, the development of objectives,
evaluation and the construction and reconstruction of prototypes
based on feedback are a few of the steps. A great deal of time,
energy and expense are usual 1y involved in the development of the
final product. In order for materials to be effectively and effi-

ciently designed and utilized designers must be able to apply a

variety of principles of instructional design. This study considers
the effectiveness of production techniques and the cost of labor
and.materials with related benefits.

.Allen (1960) after an extensive review of the literature on
audiovisual communication stated the need to study factors within
pictorial illustrations that lead to increased learning. Other
factors he examined were identification of the kinds of content best
communicated by still pictures, and evaluation of various techniques
fer implementing their use. In 1971 Allen wrote that there was a
continued need to examine the role of media within the instructional
process:

We should observe more intensive research efforts to

discover how to design and manipulate the media so as to
enhance their effectiveness under specified instructional
conditions (p. 14).

Carpenter (1962) has also stated his support fer additional
research in the production and use of effective and efficient
instructional materials:

It seems clear that a major and sustained effort must

be made to invent, develop and employ new production methods
and new ways of using the media so that their potential for
stimulating learning can be fully realized (p. 306).

While the major part of the literature is concerned with the
ability of instructional media to transmit a congitive message,
increased interest has been shown for the affective component of
learning. According to Urbach and Sparks (1971):

In recent years we have reached a point in the evaluation

process where we are concerned not only with the knowledge

gained, but with the willingness of the student to identify
himself‘with a given subject (p. 6).

The present study attempts to address these various issues by
documenting the production costs associated.with the illustrations of
two variations of a slide-tape program.and comparing their cognitive

and attitudinal effects.

Need fer the Study

 

Hitchens (1971), in discussing the cost of education and the
implications for technology, has written that:
One of the chief concerns of today is money-~and/or the
lack of it for education . . . Thus, the wedding of tech-
nology and the cost of instruction is particularly appropriate
in this time of short budgets and long accountability (p. 7).
Due to increasing financial pressures and the need to extend
the benefits of education, the effective use of resources in higher
education is receiving increased attention. The Carnegie Commission
(1972b), in studying the more effective use of resources in higher
education, concluded that total institutional expenditures must be,
should be, and can be reduced by nearly 10 billion dollars (in 1970
dollars) by 1980 as compared with the costs which would be incurred
if the trends of the 1960's were to be continued. This represents a
20 percent reduction which the commission felt could be accomplished
without any general deterioration in the quality of higher education.
In describing how COStS could be reduced no mention of the need for
a more effective or efficient expenditure of funds for the purchase
or production of instructional materials was made.
In a study of the financial situation at 41 colleges and

universities, Cheit (1971) concluded that due to inflation and

declining rates in the increase of income:

. . . Schools will have to learn to live on budgets approaching
"rock bottom” which allow fer substantially no growth at all
in several major cost components (p. 17).

These predictions, based on extensive studies, appear to be
even.more significant at the present time in view of national and
international monetary crises, generally depressed economic condi-
tions and escalating inflation.

unfortunately, costing techniques and procedures vary and
are difficult to document and compare across different conditions.
The situation becomes more complex when considered in terms of total
input, productivity and learner output.

Levin (1971) maintains that schools and school districts
have little, if any, objective data with which they can make deter-
minations based upon the relationship between costs and performance
of alternative instructional strategies:

There simply is no available knowledge that schools can

draw upon to determine whether the new instructional

approaches will be more effective, once costs are taken
into account than are traditional instructional approaches

(p. 3).
The financial crisis and the problem of making effective
decisions in education is also addressed by Johnson and Dietrich
(1971):

At present cost data on educational technology is almost
non existent. The lack of these data severely impedes the
academic decision:making process. Regardless of costing
procedures used . . . ways must be found to place costs of
educational technology in perspective. Present inadequate
cost data are frequently so subjective that they are nothing
more than pious hopes. The time is here to come to grips
with the reality of cost analysis in the academic decision-
making process (p. l).

10

With increasing financial constraints economic factors are
becoming one of the main.considerations in the selection of classroom

instructional materials. According to the National Education

Association (1972):

Economic and financial considerations often act as
constraints upon selection. Rightly or not, the persons
involved in selection may reject or limit the purchase of
certain materials because "they're too expensive for us,"
or "we can't get that kind of money from the front office"

(p. 51).

Since production costs affect the nature and price of the
final product it would appear logical to look at factors which
influence these costs. If production costs can be reduced while
maintaining efficient and effective learning procedures these results

will have significant implications for the production of instructional

materials. According to Wilkinson (1973):

With limited fonds possible increased output, due to
design modifications, are viewed as having potentially
significant implications for local production centers

(p. 15).
Carpenter (1970) has written that:

Few school systems can describe the resources that go
into existing programs, let alone estimate what existing
programs or alternative programs will require in the
future (p. 27).

Wilkinson (1973), in examining the problem of trying to
isolate learning differences caused by specific variables within

instructional technology, remarks that:

. . . There is that long history of no significant dif-
ference to contend with. With such a lack of established
differences between instructional strategies, the cost of
effectiveness question is often reduced to finding the
cheapest method of presentation . . . (p. 16).

11

Dubin and Taveggia (1968), in re-analyzing the data of
approximately 100 comparative studies of different college teaching
- methods, support Wilkinson's parsimonious stand. They feund.no
evidence for preferring one teaching method over another as measured
by student performance on course examination. The authors concluded:
Indeed since there are no differences among a wide range
of teaching technologies we may assume that their respective
benefits are equal. This, then turns the attention in cost-
benefit analysis to the cost side of the issue. In.making
the costing decisions the obvious strategy would seem to be

to pay out as little as possible for instructional costs
(p. 49).

Wilkinson (1973) implies that those strategies which can
attain the objectives at the lowest Cost are being considered in
education. Whether or not this is actually the case is open to
speculation.

Cheit (1971) has expressed the need for more efficient
expenditure of funds in the following way:

In a society devoted to human betterment in a world

of scarcity, requiring that resources are productively
used need not contradict the premises and values of higher
education. Colleges and universities ought to know what
their fUnctions cost, what their purposes are, and whether
by some responsible standard they are spending their
money more efficiently (p. 55).

In considering the production costs of instructional materials
one of the primary questions that should be asked before the expendi-
ture of fUnds is: Can the costs incurred be justified by the
results obtained? It would appeathhat this basically simple
question has been ignored or is not receiving the amount of attention

in education that it deserves. Few guidelines or studies are avail-

able to educators upon which to base production or expense decisions.

12

.A number of authors such as Mager (1968) and Edling (1972),
have documented the importance of attitudes in the learning process.
Increasing attention has recently been fecused on the ability of
instructional media to influence attitudes in the learning process.
According to Kinder (1973):

.Attitudes and behavior changes are facilitated by means
of instructional media, as are the getting and holding of
many students' attention. Instructional media have been
shown to induce greater acquisition and longer retention
of factual information and to stimulate interest in
voluntary reading . . . (p. 19).

While the importance of cognitive test perfbrmance has been
acknowledged, the role of attitudes in education is receiving
increased attention. The importance of emotions and motivation in
the learning process has been aptly stated by Mager (1968):

The likelihood of the student putting his knowledge
to use is influenced by his attitude for or against the
subject; things disliked have a way of being forgotten

(p. 11).
According to D. C. McLelland, as reported by Barber et a1.
(1971):

Educational technology has been utilized to convey
information better, arousing attention and arousing and
sustaining achievement motivation. However, very little
is known about the effect of quality of production on the
affective and cognitive aspects of learning (p. 25).

.A general lack of information about attitudes in learning is
also expressed by MCDonald, as reported by Barber et a1. (1970):
There are many instances in which instructors attempt
to influence the attitudes of their students toward a

subject matter area, but rarely is an attempt made to
measure the effects of these efforts (p. 115).

 

 

 

 

[ll’li’lv’lIlll‘nII’I’l‘ [({Ii [([{ (Ill-I Ilil 0‘

13

While attitudes are generally accepted as an important part
of the instructional process, there appears to be a very limited

amount of information available about media and attitudes.

Assumptions of the Study

 

This study, which examines two basic hypotheses related to
production costs, makes the following assumptions:

1. Learning is conveyed, in part, through the visual
channel of audio-visual presentations;

2. The affective and cognitive domains can be
measured independently; and

3. Evaluative meaning, as explained by Osgood et a1.

(1957) and as tested by the semantic differential
technique, is a valid indicator of affective learning.

Definition of Terms

 

Que: Any specifiable attribute of the environment, which the
Gestalt psychologists or other students of perception discover as a
consistent basis for discrimination.

Picture: .A faithful picture, as defined by Gibson (1954),
is defined as one which reflects or transmits a sheaf of light rays
to a given point which is the same as would be the sheaf of rays from
the original to that point. In general a good pictorial surrogate is
one which corresponds to the original with maximum fidelity.

Expensive Program: Executed by a medical illustrator

 

utilizing 50phisticated production techniques to produce illustra-
tions with a high degree of realism.

Inexpensive Program: Executed by an elementary school

 

teacher utilizing rudimentary production techniques to produce

illustrations with a low degree of realism.

 

£11.. ill-[lei h.

14

Graphics: WOrds and graphs which have the potential to
communicate ideas clearly and succinctly.

Illustrations: Drawings and pictures which have the potential

 

to communicate concepts and ideas clearly and succinctly.

.Affective Learning: Evaluative meaning, or the discrimina-

 

tive judgment made by an experimental subject on a series of 7-point
semantic differential scales of bipolar adjectives with respect to a
given concept or topic. Direction (positive or negative) and the
intensity with the meaning is indicated by the location of the judg-
ment from the neutral, central position.

Cognitive Learning: The recall of factual data as measured

 

by scores on a presentation related post-test.

Semantic Differential: A measurement and scaling technique

 

developed by Osgood, Succi and Tannenbaum (1957) by which objective
measurements of the connotative meaning of a concept to an individual
may be made. Subjects indicate valuative judgments on 7-point scales

of bipolar objectives.

Limitations of the Study

 

1. This study limits itself to second-term veterinary
students.

2. Only immediate, cognitive recall and attitudinal
measures, were determined.

3. The cost of the program was restricted to determining
the cost of production for the graphics and illustrations
only. The same audiotape was used for both programs.

4. All learners started and finished the program at the
same time with no opportunity to alter the pace,
review the material or study for the test.

IS

5. Elements that were available free, i.e., radiographs,
photomicrographs and photographs were included in
both versions of the study.
Summary

The financial crisis within education is forcing administra-
tors to closely examine the expenditure of funds for instructional
purposes. The lack of cost data relating cognitive and attitudinal
benefits to the cost of producing illustrated materials makes the
wise expenditure of funds extremely difficult.

The present study, by providing information on the cost of
illustrations in an expensive and inexpensive slide-tape program,
will provide cost documentation with its related benefits in the
cognitive and affective domain. Hopefully, this information will be
of value to educational administrators or producers of instructional
illustrations. Guidelines or additional information on the execution
of illustrations with cost implications is also viewed by the
researcher as being very important for the future production of

economical and efficient visuals.

CHAPTER 11
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

The literature search fbr the present study was restricted
to those areas dealing with the nature, interpretation and costs of
visualized material in the instructional process. Information con-
cerned with human limitations in perceiving a visualized message and
the effect of individual feelings toward the instructional message
itself were also examined.

Specific areas of interest that were searched included the
characteristics of visuals, the role of visuals in education and
comparative cost studies of modified media presentations. Factors
affecting cost and their relationship to the learning process were
also examined. They included quality of illustrated materials,
color and the role of embellishment in the learning process.
Infermation on characteristics of the viewer that could influence
individual ability to perceive visual infbrmation was also studied.
The search was concluded by examining the literature dealing with
the effects of how attitude influences learning.

The literature reviewed in this chapter is divided into
five general areas:

1. Effective visuals and their components.

2. Comparative cost studies involving illustrated

instructional material.

16

17
3. Quality and the effect of additional information
to basic visuals on learning.

4. Perceptual limitations and.characteristics of
the viewer.

5. .Attitudes in the learning process.

Visualization

 

Hern (1963) has accounted fer the widespread use of visual
material as an aid to instruction in the following manner:

The visually expressive instructor can overcome customary
mental resistances of the student with the support of the
striking graphic image. For the academically gifted child
the visual can excite the imagination; for the average
student, stimulate; fer the retarded child, clarify the
verbal image (p. 7).

The popularity and use of visuals within the instructional
process has also been extensively documented and researched by
individuals such as Dwyer (1972), Farris (1963), Felming (1960),
Cropper (1963a) and Miller et a1. (1957). According to Dwyer (1967):

It is relatively apparent that visual illustrations
are rapidly becoming an almost universal means of instruc-
tion: slides, photographs, cartoons, transparencies,
filmstrips and sketches are now in use from kindergarten
through college (p. 250).

The ability of visuals to condense, simplify and clarify
information and ideas has led to their general acceptance within the
classroom setting. Visualization within textbooks, in poster fbrmat
and in projected, still and motion form, are used to bring the
macroscopic and microscopic events of the world into the classroom.

Dwyer (1972), after an extensive review, has documented the

following claims made in the literature in support of the use of

visuals in education:

18

Visualization of content material is said to be able to:

l. Facilitate the accuracy and standardization of the
message being communicated;

2. Bring into the classroom inaccessible processes,
events, situations, materials, and phase changes
in either space or time;

3. Illustrate, clarify, and reinforce oral and printed
communication, quantitative relationships, specific
details, abstract concepts, and spatial relationships;

4. Provide concreteness (realistic detail) in the
learning situation;

5. Increase student interest, curiosity, and concentration;

6. Present to the learner the opportunity to perceive an
object, process, or situation from.a variety of
vantage points;

7. Provide important instructional feedback (p. 1).

Based on research and observations by such individuals as
Dwyer (1972) and Horn (1963), the potential role of illustrated
instructional material in education is great. With an increasing
demand for visualized material and an increasing need for more
effective teaching methods, the present study is viewed by the

researcher as being highly relevant to the needs of education today.

Visual Characteristics

 

A good graphic, according to Wittich and Schuller (1958),
should be clear, precise, accurate, simple, bold, readable and
interesting. Bowen et al.(1960) list the fbllowing requirement of
recognizable shapes or form; simplicity, symetry, continuous contour,
relatively large enclosed area, either shortly angular or simple
curved forms, and familiarity in the sense of having a familiar name.

Thompson (1969) has described the characteristics of a

successful graphic in the following way:

19

An important attribute of graphics . . . is their
ability to compress information, to remove the inconse-
quential and the superfluous in order to predict the
essence of the referent. .A successful graphic goes to
the heart of the matter. It records and emphasizes what
is truly important, ignoring details which tend to confuse
or obscure relationships (p. 49).

 

Spaulding (1956) modified illustrations within booklets
designed to help newly literate adults in Latin.America with their
farming skills. He found that illustrations usually, though not
always, helped the reader get more information out of the booklets
used in the study.

In a careful examination, designed to help account for
learning differences in three of the booklets used, the author found
an inverse relationship between complexity of an illustration and its
effectiveness in communicating clearly. Spaulding listed the follow-
ing implications of his study:

1. An illustration as such has no educative value, and.may

even be a detracting influence, if the drawing content

has not been presented in terms of the past experience

of the intended audience.

2. Illustrations that are intended to communicate specific

ideas will be most effective if (a) the number of objects

that must be seen to correctly interpret the illustration

are kept to a minimum, (b) the number of separate actions
necessary to correctly interpret the basic message of the
illustration are kept to a minimum, and (c) all objects

and inferred actions are realistically portrayed and not
open to dual interpretation or secondary inference .

(p; 45).

It should be noted that Spaulding in his reference to
realism refers only to the need to portray actions and objects
clearly, without fuzziness of detail. He does not advocate photo-

graphic realism.

20

Traverse (1964a), after examining the effects of realistic
details on learning in one of his earlier studies, concluded that:

. . Emphasis on "realism" found in books on the design
and in use of audiovisual materials is the worship of a
false god (p. 380).

On another occasion the author again concluded:

. Flooding of the learner with information and a
stress on realism.is likely to provide a poor learning
situation (p. 384).

Levi and Dickie (1973) in analysing the application of media
to various instructional settings, summarized a number of studies
in which the effects of varying the amount of detail in illustrated
instructional materials were studied. They reported the findings
of the fbllowing authors:

Travers (1969) found that addition of interior detail
and shading to outline drawings increased the recogniza-
bility of tachistoscopically presented pictures.

Cobun (1961) compared photographs, perspective drawings
and outline drawings in teaching fish anatomy, finding that
while outline drawings were best for teaching nomenclature
of external anatomy, photographs were best for internal
structure.

Dwyer (1970) varied pictorial cues (simple line
drawings, model's, photographs in color or black and white)
in a unit of instruction to learners of several grade
levels tested on several criteria . . . In cases where pace
of presentation was fixed (slides, television), visuals
containing little detail tended to be more effective.‘
Visuals high in realism.tended to be more effective when
the individual learner could control his rate of
exposure . . . (p. 873).

After reViewing the literature Levi and Dickie (1973) con-
cluded that:

Realism cues which are not relevant to the learning task
may produce divergent responses, especially under conditions
of high infOrmation loads. Hewever, learners usually express
preferences for realistic presentations, and if given
adequate time, may learn more from them when they provide
more information (p. 875).

21

Wheelbarger (1970) after examining the role of pictorial
complexity in visual perception concluded that the amount of realism
did not appear to be of primary concern. Significant differences
were not found in the test scores of five groups of sixth grade
students who were exposed to variations of line drawings and shaded
drawings.

The influence of realism theories is strongly entrenched in
most production centers for instructional materials. .According to
Wheelbarger (1970):

Realism theories continue to determine practice in

audiovisual education, but they have come into question
in recent years (p. 2) .

Dwyer (1972), after extensive research on the properties of
visuals, has challenged the notion that learning will be more complete
as the number of cues in the learning situation increases:

. Presenting a student with a wealth of stimuli that

approximate reality is not necessarily the most effective
way to facilitat learning . . . Excesses of realism may
actually interfere with the effectiveness of visual
materials (p. 7).

Nbrbert (1966) referred to the amount of information within
a stimulus as density. He also felt that density could become a
factor impeding efficient transmission of information. In Norberg's
words: "Some presentations may be too realistic” (p. 307).

.Additional support for simplified visuals was obtained by
Moore and Sasse (1971), who compared the effect of modified illustra-
tions and photographs of various sizes on learning. They found that
students exposed to medium sized line drawings had the highest mean

scores while photographs, at all picture sizes, had the lowest mean

scores .

22

Vitz (1966), in attempting to determine individual prefer-
ences fer complexity within visualized material, concluded that
humans have optimal or preferred amounts of visual complexity.
Hewever, he also obtained inconclusive evidence when he attempted
to correlate increased exposure with the amount of complexity pre-
ferred.

According to Levie (1973):

Learning cues may take on a wide range of physical

variations without destroying their critical attributes,
so long as image quality, sound quality, etc., are suf-
ficient to allow the learner to "read" the appropriate
cues, no decrement in learning should be expected (p. 24).

The literature reviewed suggested that the success of illus-
trations used in an instructional setting is dependent on the
characteristics and appropriateness of the visual. The research '
seems to indicate that realism, which in many instances is still
being sought, is inefficient in transmitting some infbrmation and may
even be detrimental to the learning process. The difficulty appears

to be in determining the amount of simplification required to

obtain best results.

Comparative Cost Studies

 

While a number of studies have been conducted on the general
effectiveness of visualized materials in the instructional setting,
few researchers have examined the effects of varying the production
costs.

Zuckerman (1954) conducted a study on picture quality. A
storyboard-based fihmstrip of about 250 frames was used. This film:

strip closely paralled a finished motion picture. The visuals in

23

the filmstrip were relatively crude sketches as contrasted with the
combination of live action and elaborate animation used in the final
color films.

Zuckerman (1954) concluded that the filmstrip, which repre-
sented a significantly smaller financial investment than the
finished film, could be used to predict the relative teaching
effectiveness of the final motion picture.

Mbor and Sasse (1971) examined the hypothesis that a signifi-
cant difference existed in the amount of content immediately recalled
from.pictures when the same subjects viewed pictures described as
line drawings, as paintings, or as photographs. Three treatment
groups were set up to examine the relationship among the character-
istics of the visual, size of the projected image and cognitive test
performance. .At all picture sizes tested, line drawings consistently
had the highest mean scores in comparison to paintings and photo—
graphs.

In a partial explanation for the popularity and effectiveness
of line drawings Thompson (1969) has claimed that:

Plain line drawings and cartoons are good examples of

precompressed information fer they emphasize the boundaries
of things rather than the interiors--thus omitting unnecessary
detail while stressing the most relevant information (p. 50).

In an exploratory study designed to assess the importance of
factors generally regarded as entering into the degree of "polish"
or quality of the pictorial componenthay and Lumsdaine (1958) com-
pared two levels of 16mm production.

The authors compared a finished Kbdachrome film with a crude

black and white, semi-animated film called a "pencil-test running

24

reel." The latter was composed of motion picture footage taken of
the preliminary "story board" sketches that had been used in the
planning of the film.

The total cost for preparing the pencil-test version was
estinated at about $1500.00 or $75/minute. The finished Kodachrome
cost approximately 10 times as much or $750/minute.

An analysis of the learning generated by the two films dis-
closed that the final polished version of the film apparently taught
no more than the crude pencil sketch presentation.

McBeath, as reported by May (1965), compared a silent cap-
tioned filmstrip, a sound captioned filmstrip, a sound filmstrip
without captions, and a simplified version of a motion picture for
relative effectiveness in teaching the facts and concepts contained
in a 6th grade social science lesson. The sound filmstrip and the
simplified 16mm film contained the sane narration. The simplified
film was more polished and used more audiovisual embellishments. All
subjects were pre- and post-tested with a 60 item test on facts and
concepts. A retention test was given after a period of three weeks.
No differences were found on the immediate post-test or on the
retention test. Other studies reported by May (1965) which compared
filmstrips presenting the same content, were James (1924), McClusky
and McClusky (1924), Brown'(1928), Carson (1947), Vernon (1946),
Hovland, Lumsdaine and Sheffield (1949), and Gibson (1947), all indi-
cate that filmstrips are about as effective as films and in some

cases more so, for teaching facts, and concepts.

25

After an extensive search of the literature for information
dealing with the relative effectiveness of films vs. simplified
versions of films, and simplified versions of films vs. captioned
sound filmstrips, May (1965) concluded that:

. For some types of materials used for some purposes,

the simpler presentations are about as good as the more

complex ones. No dependable generalizations can be made
from these experiments as to the kinds of materials that
should be produced in simplified.forms (p. 82).

Carpenter (1954) attempted to determine whether motion pic-
tures could be as effective as simple and less expensive audiovisual
aids. .A 16mm film was compared with two versions of a filmograph
made of the original film. One filmograph eliminated motion by
copying frames from the base film, The other filmograph used still
photographs and diagrammatic representations and substituted stock
photographs in place of the original complex scenes. Both versions
retained the original sound track.

The difference in means between the group viewing the
original motion picture and the group viewing the first filmograph
produced from stills of the original motion film, was small, but
significant in favor of the group seeing the original motion.picture.
The difference between means of the groups seeing the two simplified
versions of the film was not significant. .Attitude measures showed
no significant difference among the three groups tested. There
appeared to be some question as to whether the more elaborate and
expensive production justified the small mean difference in factual

learning over the more simple filmographs prepared from the original

motion picture.

26

.May (1965), after examining the results of comparative
studies with regards to complexity of production, felt that either
costs could be reduced or efficiency could be increased, or perhaps
even both, by the following procedure:

. . . Eliminating from a film or ETV program all materials
which by experiment are feund to contribute little or
nothing to the amounts learned and retained. Another is

to substitute simpler and equally effective modes of pre—
sentation (p. 62).

Bullard (1969), in examining instructional differences
associated with an expensive, static visual of high quality and a
very inexpensive version of the same visual, feund no significant
differences in cognitive learning. The author also acknowledged the
strong, direct relationship between cost and quality.

In discussing the need for additional information on illus-
trations to clarify concepts Miller (1957) has written that:

. . . Special attention-gaining devices should help if
they direct attention to the relevant cues and hinder if
they fail to do this. These expectations are in line with
the general opinion of experts that artiness and slick
production techniques are of no use unless they contribute
directly to the clarity of the presentation (p. 83).

.After reading the above studies the researcher found little
support directly relating the expenditure ()f funds for the produc-
tion of instructional materials with positive learning benefits.
Virtually all of the studies examined reported that the simplified

version or the least expensive method of transmitting the informa-

tion was as effective as the higher quality or more expensive product.

27

Opal ity

A number of authors have attempted to describe the compo-
nents and.nature of quality in illustrated materials. Lumsdaine
(1958) has referred to the components of quality in the produced
image as degrees of precision, neatness and fidelity. May and
Lumsdaine (1958) refer to the combination of these variables as
"degree of polish" or slickness. .According to Bullard (1969)
quality is determined by the production medium, the transmission
medium and the precision, neatness and fidelity of the produced
image. Carpenter (1971) views quality as being synonymous with
effectiveness.

Studies by Bullard (1969), and Travers (1969), have attempted
to define and analyse individual variables within visual symbols to
determine the effects of variation on the level of learning.

Travers (1969) attempted to discover the effects of adding
realistic details to recognition capabilities in a group of children
and a group of adults. His data showed that as the number of cues
increased by adding details to a drawing, identifiability increased.
He also feund that the addition of interior detail added as much to
recognizability as shading which has the function of creating an
illusion of depth. In addition Travers' data supported the position
that children in the second grade have recognition processes that
are closely similar to those of adults provided only familiar objects
are involved. No evidence was found to support the hypothesis that

young children were more dependent on cues related to contour.

28

Levie (1973), after examining the literature on infermation
related to visual interpretation and quality concluded that:

. . variations in technical quality do not affect the
acquisition of information so long as the relvant cues are
available to the learner. When the attainment of cognitive
learning objectives is the criterion, insistence upon
flawless technique is unjustifiable. Amateurish technique
may, however, increase the likelihood of negative attitudinal
reactions (p. 24).

Bullard (1969) produced a high quality graphic and compared
it with an inexpenSive, low quality graphic of the same visual. .A
number of hypotheses were stated to test the effects of both visuals
on learning efficiency and reaction toward flmereproduced graphic.
Bullard concluded that graphic slickness did not significantly con-
tribute to the learning of specific facts as measured by immediate
recall on tasks which required only a few minutes of effort. It was
noted that subjects, when asked to rank visuals of predetermined
quality showed a preference for the "slick" or quality graphics.
Carpenter (1971) has described the problem of quality and
its relationship to instructional media in the fellowing way:
The definition and delineation of factors, conditions
and determinants of quality and/or effectiveness have
largely eluded the grasp alike of investigators and
practical educators. The disturbing and ubiquitous find-
ings of "no statistically significant differences" have
arisen by the hundreds to smite those who have striven by
neatly controlled research and analytical procedures to
bring the variables and contingencies of quality into
ordered conceptual and operational frames (p. 868).
While an attempt has been made by such individuals as
Bullard (1969) to list the factors affecting the quality of graphic

materials, in the final analysis, the decision regarding degree of

quality appears to be largely subjective. According to Bach (1963):

29

There are no real standards which can be used to judge
the effectiveness of artistic communication when the work
of art is created. Only time really determines the
effectiveness of any art and, even so, there are ups and
downs of artistic acceptance (p. 84).

In conclusion, the literature in the area of artistic
quality reveals some confusion regarding the nature and definition
of instructional materials described as "quality" products. In
cases where instructional products have been labelled as ”quality”
little evidence was found by the researcher to support justification
for their production in the attainment of cognitive measures.

Student preference, when obtained, was usually found to be in favor

of the "quality" products.

Embellishment

 

Perhaps the best way to explain embellishment is to look at
simplicity in terms of lack of embellishment. The fellowing
definition of simplicity by Thompson (1969) is useful in under-
standing embellishment:

Simplicity is what is left when redundancy has been
removed. It is the elimination of.the superfluous and.the
disfunctional. To put it another way, simplicity means
that "less is more" (p. 56).

In a learning situation anything that can be removed from
the instructional material that does not impede the attainment of
specific learning objectives could be considered to be embellishment.

Travers (1967a) has described the parts of an illustration

that are not necessary in the communication of a specific piece of

infermation as embellishment. .According to Travers (1967a):

30

The process of embellishment may . . . include embellish-
ments which add to the realism of the visual display as
when color is used, . . . as when a particularly significant
component of a machine is shown in red. Embellishments do
not add information and what they add is often not even
remotely relevant to the message that the audiovisual
instructional device is designed to convey (p. 37).

May and Lumsdaine (1958), in an exploratory study, examined
factors generally regarded as entering into the degree of "polish"
or quality of the pictorial component of teaching films. Both
factors were considered closely related to the cost of producing and
printing films. In comparing a crude pencil sketch film and a highly
finished Kodachrome version of the film they feund no differences in
cognitive learning between the two films. Since the control of
content presented between the two films varied slightly, the results
were interpreted as meaning that a crude presentation could at least
equal, in teaching effectiveness, a polished color fihn.

Lumsdaine and Gladstone (1958), in examining the effects of
film modification suggested that the learner's attitude may in some
way be modified by the embellished pictorial presentations. Their
reasoning is that students who feel positive about the visual material
they are observing may in fact be conditioned to respond to the sub-
ject matter in the same positive way.

.Although attention.may be improved, Levie (1973) has reported
that studies cited by Reid anchacLennan, and Skornia show no improve-
ment in learning as a result of additional refinements. Background

music, sound effects, optical effects and professional graphics have

not increased test performance.

31

Baker and Popham.(1969) working with public school administra-
tors, examined the value of three embellished and three unembellished
versions of the same program, It was found that ratings on two of
the programs favored the embellished version. On the third program
all affective ratings favored the unembellished version. They explained
these findings by stating that there were differences in the style or
quality of embellishments used in the three programs which might
account fer these results. The authors arrived at the following con-
clusion:

For similar t0pics and similar learners the cost of

preparing embellished versions may not be justified by
the results (p. 34).

Baker and Popham (1969) also noted that during the early
developmental testing, several learners reported that they were
distracted by the cartoons. They speculated that the perception of
embellishments might be influenced by the sophistication of the
learner along with the difficulty of the subject matter being trans-
mitted.

In an experiment with preservice teacher education candidates
Baker and Popham (1965) compared an embellished and unembellished
version of a tape-slide program, The results indicated that there
were no differences between the two programs with respect to cognitive
measures, but affective differences favoring the cartoon-embellished
version were feund. Learners rated the embellished version signifi-
cantly higher than its unembellished counterpart in terms of interest
and enjoyment. The authors urged that further research be carried out

to examine the merits of the increased cost of pictorial embellishments.

32

May and Lumsdaine (1958), after comparing the teaching
effectiveness of a polished film presentation and a simplified
version of the same film, came to the following conclusion:

Slickness may possibly have some effect on acceptability

to students and their consequent motivation (though this has
never been clearly demonstrated). More likely, its major
effect may simply be in impressing training supervisors and
administrators . . . (p. 90).

The research cited above revealed little support for the
practice of embellishment. Support fer embellishment was found in
only one case. In other studies the additional expense of adding

extraneous material or information to the basic instructional message

did.not appear to have any positive effects on cognitive learning.

Color

 

The issue concerning the effects of color has received con-
siderable attention in the literature. While some research does
exist, largely in the affective domain, to support the use of color,
it would appear that the usual doubling of production costs incurred
by the addition of color, cannot be justified.by increases in cog-
nitive learning.
.According to Spaulding (1956):
Color in illustrative material adds to the interest
potential of the drawings. Hewever, unless used
realistically and functionally, color may detract from
the communication potential of the drawings. This is
especially so in the case of drawings which utilize only
one color or two colors in addition to black and white.
In.most cases where full color realism cannot be achieved,
it may be wise to limit the use of color to border and
decorative motifs (p. 45).

Dwyer (1972) in examining learning differences in favor of

color when static pictorial materials were used, reported on 36

33

comparisons between color and black and white versions of illustra-
tions used to complement verbal instruction. Color was found to be
superior in all cases, most notably where color apparently served to
accentuate details relevant to the learning objectives. Color was
found to facilitate learning when used in a way to draw attention
to critical learning cues.
Lumsdaine (1963) has summarized the general status of the
color versus black and white issue as follows:
The clearest case for the use of color is . . . where
color cues are essential for a discrimination that is to be
learned. In films and printed materials color differentia-
tion is also obviously advantageous when multiple color codes
keep otherwise confusing visual elements separable and
readily followed . . . But the evidence suggests strongly
that only general value of color for increasing learning
through increased strikingness or attractiveness has
probably been overrated (p. 635).
In a study designed to test the development of perception
in children, Travers (1970) discovered the use of color in a picture
facilitated very substantially the perception of the dynamic features.
Travers (1970) explains:
It seems that color gives a lifelike appearance which
has great potential for changing a still picture into a
dynamic ongoing scene (p. 55).
In another search into the effect of color Travers (1967a)
concluded that:
The reviewer feund no adequate analysis of functions
which color might perform in the transmission of informa-
tion (p. 42).

On the other hand, Gibson (l954),in summarizing his research

into the effects of color, concluded:

34

Realistically colored illustrations are more effective
than black and white, but the amount of added effectiveness
may not always be significant. .Addition of one color to
black and white illustrations may not be worth it . . .

(p. 43) .

The literature reviewed indicated that the successful use of
color is dependent on the nature of the specified objectives in the
learning situation being considered. In situations where color
identification is not a specified task the addition of color appears
to be of questionable value in the attainment of cognitive objectives.
Some evidence exists to suggest that the most important contribution

of colored illustrations lies in the affective domain.

Perception

 

Since the perception of events surrounding the human learner
is partly based on the physical limitations of the individual involved,
the fellowing principles are considered by Broadbent (1958) to be
important:

1. .A nervous system acts to some extent as a single
communication channel, so that it is meaningful to
regard it as having a limited capacity.

2. .A selective operation is performed upon the input to
this channel, the operation taking the fbrm of selecting
infermation from all sensory events having some feature
in common.

3. Selection is not completely random, and the probability
of a particular class of events being selected is
increased by certain properties of the events and by
certain states of the organism.

4. Properties of the events which increase the probability
of the information, conveyed by them, passing the limited
capacity channel include the following: physical intensity,
time since the last information from that class of events
entered the limited capacity channel . . . , high frequency
of sounds, as Opposed to low . . . , sounds as opposed to
visual stimuli . . . (p. 297).

35

Fleming has attributed the limited ability of an audience to
attend to and process the designer's message as limited capacity of
the central nervous system, This limitation, according to Fleming,
fbrces the individual to selectively perceive complex message inputs.
In the words of Fleming (1970):

Selective perception is in part physical, i.e., each

input channel has load limits, and the total information
processing capacity from all inputs is limited. The

stimulus potential of the environment is great, but the
perceiver can attend to only a limited amount at a time

(p. 83) .

Along with physical limitations, Gibson (1966) has acknowledged
"economical perception" as a learned response in identifying the sali-
ent features of objects and events. .According to Gibson, a minimum
principle operates in the economy of selection. Gibson's rule is that:

Only the information required to identify a thing

economically tends to be picked up from a complex informa-
tion. .All the other available infermation that would be
required to specify its unique and complete identity in
the whole universe of things is not attended to (p. 286).

Hochberg (1964) has combined simplicity and the minimum
principle as laws of combination:

The principle appears to be . . . that our nervous

systems organize the perceived world in whatever way will
keep changes and differences to a minimum (p. 87).
In attempting to explain why we see things as we do, he concludes:

Whether by early perceptual learning or by inborn

arrangement, our nervous systems seem to choose those ways
of seeing the world that keep perceived surfaces and objects
as simple and constant as possible (p. 99).

Travers (1964b) after carrying out an extensive review of the

research on visual perception concluded with the following comment:

36

. . . The research leaves the overall impression that pro-
cedures which elaborate the process of transmitting informa-
tion, either by embellishment or by other devices, do not
facilitate reception perhaps because the human receiver does
not have the capacity for utilizing this added information.
This impression is consistent with the . . . picture of the
human receiver as a limited capacity input channel (p. 2:56).

.As articulated by Fleming (1970) the translation of perceptual
research into practical graphic design applications is difficult at
the present time. The author makes a strong recommendation that the
following suggested applications be tested and validated with
reference to the constraints of each kind of situation: the types
of message, materials, learners, and objectives.

1. Men's perception is relative rather than absolute.

A. Provide anchors or reference points to which
perception can be related . . .

B. Pace the message relatively . . .

2. ‘Man's perception is selective
A. Limit the range of aspects presented . . .
B. Use pointers . . .

3. IMan's perception is organized
A. Make apparent the organization of messages . . .
B. Choose organizations consistent with concepts or
subject matter . . . (p. 97).

Fleming (1970) accounts for individual perceptual differences
by stating that:
In addition to the general tendencies for perception

to be relative, selective, and organized, perception is
variable, i.e., man perceives what he expects . . . to see

(p. 97).
unfortunately, as noted by Fleming (1970), the problems of

perception are complicated by factors beyond the limitations of the
central nervous system to absorb infermation. Cherry (1957) has

explained this phenomenon in the fellowing way:

37

. . . Human recognition is a psycho-physiological problem
involving a relationship between a person and a physical
stimulus; it is a phenomenon which can scarcely be explained
solely in terms of properties of the object or patterns
alone. Fer when a person perceives or recognizes an object,
a spoken phrase, a face or any pattern, he is making an
inductive inference, and associating that perception with
some general concepts, class, or universal; and part of the
clues upon which that individual operates may be private to
him.and depend upon his own past experience (p. 299).

The literature reviewed implied that perception is a complex
phenomenon involving survival, limitations of the individual per-
ceiver, circumstances surrounding the event to be perceived and the
previous experience of the viewer. Perception was also described in
the literature as being selective and difficult to predict because
of individual differences. Little specific advice was feund on

designing efficient and effective graphics.

Viewer Characteristics

 

In examining chronological age and preference fer different
picture types within instructional settings, Moore and Sasse (1971),
have summarized the following points from research by others:

1. Younger children prefer simple illustrations showing
little detail (French, 1952).

2. Older children and adults prefer complex and detailed
illustrations (French, 1952).

3. Ybung children tend to look at parts of an illustration
rather than the illustration as a whole (Miller, 1938;
Elkind, Koegler and Go, 1964).

4. The ability to receive information from a picture tends
to be a developmental process (Travers, 1970) (p. 438).

The sophistication of the learner in the successfu1 interpre-
tation of visual cues is also acknowledged by Thompson (1969).
Today's students are also thoroughly familiar with a

variety of graphic clues to visual cues. They know that
devices such as underlining, enlarging, changing color,

38

encircling, boxing and the like are indicative of the
importance of certain parts of a message . . . the more cues
we already have within our response repetoire, the more
meaning a graphic has fer us (p. 57).

Travers (1964b) in examining the research and theory related
to audiovisual infermation transmission found research to support a
statement of a direct relationship between intelligence and the
ability to interpret and.remember visuals.

MtBeath and Finn (1961), after comparing the relative effective-
ness in factual learning of a captioned filmstrip, a captioned film:
strip with narration, a sound.filmstrip and a filmograph, found that,
although no one method was significantly superior, students with
higher intelligence did significantly better than those with lower
intelligence.

Miller (1957) concluded that the nature of the audience viewing
illustrated material might influence the need fer details which would
influence the information transmitted:

With highly motivated students who are experienced

viewers of pictures, one might expect such factors as size
of screen, distance from screen, angle of view, and illumina-
tion to be critical only if they interfere seriously with
the presentation of the relevant cues (p. 82).

The literature cited above suggests that the ability to inter-
pret and remember visuals is directly related to the intelligence and
motivation of the viewer. It is also suggested that viewing skills

increase with age and, if the message is relevant, can be interpreted

with.a minimum number of cues by the sophisticated viewer.

39

Attitudes in the Learning Process

The importance of emotions in the learning process has been

summarized by Edling (1972):

Historically the term affect has served as a class name
for feeling, emotion or mood. As such, the concept has a
great deal of relevance to the educational enterprises for
it is clearly recognized that the feeling dimension of the
learning process is as critical as the cognitive dimension,
and that affective outcomes are as relevant as cognitive
outcomes, when considering educational objectives (p. 91).

.Authors such as Mager (1968), Kinder (1973), and Triandis
(1971), have all attested to the importance of attitudes in the
learning process. The ability of instructional media to affect

attitude and even change attitude has also been documented and

reported by Peterson and Thurstone (1933):

. . . The experiments we conducted show that motion pictures
have definite, lasting effects on the social attitudes of
children and that a number of pictures pertaining to the
same issue may have a cumulative effect on attitude (p. 66).

Kinder (1973) has also made strong assertions in favor of the

media being able to positively affect attitude:

Attitude and behavior changes are facilitated by means
of instructional media, as are the getting and holding of
many students' attention. Instructional media have been
shown to induce greater acquisition and longer retention
of factual information and to stimulate interest in

voluntary reading . . . (p. 19).

Barber et a1. (1970) has expressed a similar sentiment by

stating that:

,Media presentations in themselves represent an
important means of influencing attitude learning or imple-
menting attitude change in the larger social context (p. 116).
In an expansion of the theme of continuing education and the
importance of learning beyond the immediate classroom situation,

Carpenter (1962) has written that:

.40

The higher levels of motivation lie close to some of the
best educational objectives, such as the development of the
self-motivated or autonomous learner, and the encouragement
of the exceptional student to whom learning is its own
reward (p. 300).

While many authors have acknowledged the importance of the

affective domain in the learning process, Travers (1967b) has dis-
cussed some of the hazards involved in the measurement of attitude:

Clearly this is an area of emerging knowledge but many
of the discoveries are not yet so definite that straight
ferward application is possible . . . Simple communication
sometimes changes attitude and sometimes does not, depending
on the presence or absence of other circumstances (p. 404).

Similarly Osgood (1957) has cautioned:

.Attitude is one--but only one--of the dimensions of

meaning, and hence provides only part of the information
necessary for prediction (p. 189).

Instrumentsreferred to in the literature designed to measure
attitude include the fellowing three which have received the most
attention and use; the method of equal appearing intervals (Thurstone
and Chave, 1929); the method of summated ratings (Likert (1932); and
the semantic differential technique (Osgood, Suci and Tannenbaum,
1957).

While some information does exist, little is known about the
role that attitude toward the nature of the instructional material
itself plays in the learning prceess. According to Travers (1967b):

Few studies of attitude have been undertaken as studies

of learning phenomena. IMost of the research undertaken
represents the efforts of social psychologists to understand
social phenomena. Interest in attitudes as the product of

learning represents a new emphasis in this research field
(p. 409).

41

The literature, while acknowledging the importance of atti-
tudes in the learning process also cautions against the difficulty
of interpretation of attitudinal measures. Instructional media are
cited as having the potential to create or modify attitude through
the use of mediated messages. .A lack of studies regarding the nature

and importance of attitudes in education is noted by TraVers (1967b).

Summary

The literature reviewed above leaves the general impression
that the realism strived fer in.most instructional media productions
is difficult to justify. The additional expense and time involved
in the pursuit of perfection, according to the majority of research
reviewed, is open to serious questioning.

While some support can be feund for the use of color, quality
and other embellishments this support falls mainly into the affective
domain. Apparently students, given the choice, will usually select
"quality" materials, however, this selection is not reflected on
cognitive test perfbrmance.

In the comparison of various levels of illustration complexity
on cognitive learning, the results have almost consistently favored
the simplified.message design. This simplification has usually been
associated with a savings in production costs and, in some cases,
higher cognitive test perfbrmance when compared with results obtained
in using more complex visuals.

Some evidence was also feund to support the theory that the
higher the ability level or SOphistication of the learner, the less

need there is for embellishment.

42

Support for the importance of attitude in the learning
process was found. While most literature reviewed indicated that
media was capable of influencing attitude, problems of significance

and interpretation were well documented.

CHAPTER III

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

The principle concern of this study was to examine any cog-
nitive and attitudinal differences resulting from student exposure
to an expensive and inexpensive version of a slide-tape program. It
was postulated that extreme differences in the production costs of
illustrated materials might affect both the amount of information

transmitted by the medium, and attitude of the viewers.

@pulation Description

 

The 111 subjects represented the entire second term class of
veterinary students at Michigan State University. Forty were females
and 71 were male. These second term students were the products of
intensive competition to enroll in the College of Veterinary Medicine
and academically, represented some of the most intellectually
talented individuals in the educational system. They were selected
from a total of 754 applicatants, had a science grade point average
of 3.28 and an average age of 21.7 years.

Students were assigned to three grows by an alphabetic
process. Instructions, on a typewritten page, were given to the
classroom instructor to read (see Appendix A). The list contained
the names of the first and last person in each group along with an
assigned group location. With limited time this sample procedure

43

44

proved to be an efficient way of initiating the treatment. Tests
‘were carried out later to determine if there were any group differ-

ences due to non-random assignment.

Message Desigp_

 

.A current problem.in the field of small animal veterinary
medicine has been the alarming increase in the incidence of heart-
worm disease in dogs. The fbllowing information, pUblished.by
Michigan State University (1974), indicates the seriousness of the
problem:

In the pase decade, heartworm desease has moved from

non-existence or insignificance in the State of Michigan
to one of our major debilitating diseases of the dog (p. 1).

While the seriousness of the problem is generally accepted,
support material fer classroom instruction has been extremely
limited and restricted to graphs, photographs of adult heartworms,
photomicrographs of microfilariae and radiographs of infected dogs.

As part of the instructional development process the need
for sequential, clearly illustrated instructional support material
became apparent. IMuCh of the existing support material examined was
feund to be confusing and incomplete in regard to the life cycle,
treatment and preventionof the disease.

Financial support was obtained fer the production of illus-
trations and hardward. The original intention was to reproduce
prepared illustrations on.microfiche with an accompanying written
script. Each student could then purchase a copy of the program at a

very reasonable price. In reality, the final product became a

45

synchronized slide-tape program which, in its expensive format, has
since been placed on sale fer national distribution.

Objectives for the program were established (see Appendix E)
and.an in-depth examination with feedback from.parasitologists and
other experts in the field was conducted. .A rough storyboard.includ-
ing the problem, lifecycle, prevention and treatment evolved over
approximately a six month period. Sketches of the storyboard.were
then prepared and photographed onto 2 x 2 slides. This rough proto-
type of the program was shown to senior students who commented on the
clarity of the information being transmitted. Student feedback which
primarily concerned itself with the crudity of the sketches, was
taken into account and, based on student and additional faculty feed-
back, production commenced on the final version of the program in
both versions.

The final versions of the program consisted of 49 slides
(see Appendix F fer sample slide reproduction). The participating
veterinarian prepared a script (see Appendix G) to accompany the
illustrations and a seventeen minute synchronized cassette audiotape
was produced.

In the production of illustrations for the inexpensive version
of the program.differences were maximized to increase the chances of
finding differences on measures of the independent variable--cost.
Extremes of individual illustrator qualifications and production
techniques were selected to increase the potency of the variables to

try and avoid "no significant difference" results (see Appendix F).

46

Production Details/Expensive version

 

Illustrator Qualifications

 

A medical illustrator with a Master of Science Degree in
JMedical and Biological Illustration prepared the illustrations. This
person also has extensive experience in the production and packaging

of medically related slide-tape presentations for instructional

purposes.

Production Procedure

 

The majority of artwork done in the slide-tape presentation
utilized cell animation techniques. They can be broken down into
videoboard or carbon dust technique, backpainting and simple graphics.

The illustrations that it was felt required detail and a
realistic look were accomplished by a carbon dust or videoboard
technique. This was a new application of an old classical medical
illustration technique. In this method, pastel dust was prepared in
the colors to be used; then using brushes and other tools, the dust
is applied to a clay coated paper called videoboard. .After basic
ferms are laid down, further details are added with dust and colored
pencils. Great flexibility and detail can be accomplished with this
technique.

Another technique utilized was cell acetate backpainting and
simple ferms on cell acetates. In this technique, a prepared sketch
is placed under an acetate cell and an inked tracing made of the
sketch. When dry, the inked cell is flipped over; and using acrylic

paints, the reverse side is painted in reverse light to dark. This

47

effective method utilizing flat color is the same method used by walt
Disney Studios for their cartoon films. Another effective flat
technique utilized is to cut paper forms attached to cell acetate.
This resembles backpainting and allows flexibility with background
colors and overlays. .Additional cells may be added above or below
the prepared cell acetate. Approximately one-third of the illustra-
tions in the expensive version of the slide-tape programrused these
methods.

Other simple graphic methods were used fer the remaining
illustrations. .All graphics (basic lettering) was done with dry
transfer lettering (white and black) directly on acetate cells. The
original layout, style, and point sizes were predetermined prior to
actual production. Use was also made of 3M Color-Key for special
effects and color graphics. These simpler methods were employed in
the graphics unit of the medical art department and did not involve
the medical illustrator to any great extent.

The use of cell animation techniques and special color
effects was specifically planned so the final result was a smooth

flow of visual material in a slide-tape fermat.

Artwork Progression

 

Thumbnail sketches prepared

Approval of thumbnail sketches

Small, more detailed sketches prepared

Correction of small sketches

Large, full scale master drawings completed. At this point
the visuals fer the slide-tape program were essentially
completed. .All ideas were then finalized and put into

48

finished graphic fermat. These drawings were then
ready to photograph for the initial evaluation of the
program.

- Final artwork completed

- Photographed in final format

Production Details/Inexpensive version

Illustrator Qualifications

 

An elementary school teacher who had a special interest in
media illustrated the inexpensive version of the program. This
individual had limited experience in free lance photography and had
completed one graduate level introductory course in graphics.

The coordinator of the original program worked closely with
the elementary school teacher who produced the inexpensive version
of the program. The script and the thumbnail sketches from the
original production were used.by the coordinator to insure that the
illustrated.messages on both programs conveyed the essential informa-
tion. Care was taken not to expose the illustrator of the inexpensive
version of the program to any of the illustrations or rough story-
board sketches produced for the expensive version of the program.

The original rough storyboard prepared for the expensive version of
the program was used as a guide in the preparation of visuals for the
inexpensive version of the program. The design for the inexpensive
version of the program was transferred.from.the original rough story-
board onto 3 x 5 cards by the researcher. Final design details were
planned by the researcher and the illustrator using the prepared

cards and the script to determine the essential message components.

49

working closely with the script, only details necessary for trans-
mission of the essential message components were included in the
inexpensive version of the program. Every attempt was then made to
keep cost at a minimum in the production of the final product.

The techniques and methods employed were designed to provide
results as efficiently as possible. The difference in production

time, approximately 300 hours, is reflected in the following table:

TABLE 3.l.--Production.Time (hours) Required for the Preparation
of the Expensive and Inexpensive versions of the

 

 

Program.
Expensive Program. Inexpensive Program
Illustrator 180 21
Photographer 6.5 3.5
Student 145.5
TOTAL 332.0 24.5

 

Production Procedure

 

Basic outlines were copied from medical journals and related
articles onto tracing paper. These tracings were then transferred
onto colored construction paper and cut out. Labels were typed
using a primary typewriter, cut into squares which could be readily
moved, and were re-used on a number of illustrations. .Acetate over-
lays were drawn so the same basic figures or base cell could be used

in illustrating a number of different situations.

50

Two x two 35mm slides were taken of the various illustrations
using different overlays in combination along with the apprOpriate
descriptive labelling.

The cut-outs, reusable labels and acetate overlays resulted
in a minimum expenditure of effort and materials for the results
obtained.

Materials utilized in the production of the inexpensive
version of the program.consisted of: an xacto knife, scissors, metal
straight edge, colored felt pens, Hunt crow-quill pen and penholder
'with India ink, primary typewriter, paper cutter, ball point pen, #2

pencil, rUbber cement, and colored construction paper.

Artwork Progression

 

Consultation between the producer and the illustrator was
carried out on a continuing basis and constant communication was
maintained to insure that the same essential content information

would be transmitted in.both versions of the program.

Common Elements

 

Common elements to both programs consisted of five photo-
micrographs, three photographs and two radiographs. These 2 x 2
transparencies were supplied by the participating veterinarian. These
slides depicted either heartworms in the dog's heart, radiographs of
infected dogs or photomicrographs of'microfilariae in the dog's
blood. For identification purposes these slides would have been
extremely difficult, if not impossible, to reproduce by artistic or

other techniques. On this basis and since they were provided free,

51

they were incorporated into both the expensive and inexpensive

versions of the program.

Narration

.A final script (see Appendix G) was prepared by the partici-
pating veterinarian after corrections were made based on feedback
by the researcher. The 17 minute audio portion of the tape was
narrated.by the veterinarian. .A slight modification was made in the
narration of the inexpensive version of the tape (see Appendix G).
Since the inexpensive version was not produced by the Biomedical
communications Center and two of the credits were no longer appro-
priate, this information.was edited out of the narration for the
inexpensive program. The recorded infermation regarding canine
heartworm disease remained.the same in both programs.

Synchronization of both slide-tape programs was identical and
was accomplished by placing a 1000 hz. signal onto a cassette audio-

tape.

Equipment and Facilities

 

Both versions of the slide-tape program were played back on
Wbllensak model 2550 tape recorders synchronized with Kbdak carousel
slide projectors with four to six inch zoom lenses. Both treatment
rooms contained wall mounted projection screens which permitted the
projectors to be placed in such a way that the images were the same

size and filled each screen.

52

Production Time

 

Difficulty in interpretation of differences in production
time between the two programs is complicated by the production
sequence followed. The inexpensive version of the program utilized
the rough storyboarding which was planned and developed for the
expensive version of the program. Although this material was not
used directly, it was of great assistance to the researcher who used
it to plan the sequence and basic layout of the inexpensive program.

Students were employed by the Biomedical Conmunications
Center mainly for the production of graphics. Their production
efforts were supervised by the medical illustrator. The time
reported for the illustrator represented time spent on production

only and did not include other supervisory and developmental time.

Production Costs

 

The illustration production costs represent estimates pro-
vided by swport services at Michigan State University. These
figures were compiled during the winter and spring of 1974 and have
risen dramatically since. Thus the current cost of producing the
program would be considerably higher (see Table 3.2) .

The expensive version of the program, except for the composite
titling of six slides, was produced by the Biomedical Communications
Center. The facilities of the Instructional .Media Center were
utilized for the production of the inexpensive version of the program.
Cost estimates were provided by these swport services at Michigan

State University. (See Appendices H and I for a documentation

53

TABLE 3.2.--Production Cost Summary for Labor and Materials Required
in the Production of Illustrations for the Expensive and
Inexpensive Versions of the Program.

 

 

Item Expensive Program. Inexpensive Program
Labor Illustrator $ 900.00 Illustrator $ 48.30
Photographer 32.50 Photographer 17.50
Student 727.50
TIBBUTUU' $ 65.80
Materials $ 826.75 $ 69.40
TOTAL $2486.75 $135.20

 

of labor and.material cost for both programs.) When compared to
rates charged outside the university, the cost of producing instruc-

tional materials within the university can be considered conservative.

Cognitive Instrumentation

 

Based on the objectives developed for the program.on canine
heartworm.disease (see Appendix E), a 34 item.quiz was assembled by
a veterinary parasitologist. TWO tenth term.students assisted in
the initial construction of the instrument. They viewed the program
and then attempted to answer the quiz. Their comments and suggestions
for change were helpful in constructing the initial instrument. The
original revisions resulted in a 34 item constructed response quiz.
The validity of this instrument was tested with 25 tenth term students
since second term students were unavailable at the time. The answers,
which consisted of either a single word or a short phrase, were scored
by a veterinary parisitologist. The results were then submitted to

the University Evaluation Services for analysis.

54

On the basis of calculations of their index of discrimination
and index of difficulty scores, nine of the original 20 questions were
revised and three eliminated. The veterinary parisitologist and the
coordinator of the program then worked on the final revision of the
c0gnitive test which contained a total of 19 items and 31 blanks.
Students were requested to respond with either a single word or a
short phrase to complete the sentence in the space provided. (See
Appendix B for a copy of the final instrument.)

Based on revisions made during the pre-testing and the develop-
ment of the cognitive measuring instrument by an expert in the study
of canine heartworms, the instrument was considered valid although no
validity measure was obtained. Content on the slide-tape program and
the information required to complete the cognitive measuring instru-
ment were closely examined to determine content validity. .All of the
infermation required to answer the questions was feund on the slide-

tape program.

Attitudinal Instrumentation

 

One of the most widely used methods of measuring affect is the
semantic differential. This instrument allows the researcher to pre-
sent a variety of attitude objects. .A series of scales, bound by
bipolar adjectives, are employed and the subject reacts to the
attitudinal object on this set of standards.

The popularity of the semantic differential is partly

explained by Darnell (1964) in the following manner:

55

One of the strong advantages that the SD (semantic
differential) has over other comparable instruments is
the speed.with which it generates data. It can be
administered to groups of subjects limited in number only
by convenience (p. 4).

The criterion instrument used for measuring attitude in this

study was 3 Semantic Differential. The scales used were selected

intuitively to simulate an evaluative response from lists developed

by Osgood. Three tenth term students provided feedback on the

suitability of the bipolar adjectives selected to evaluate the pro-

gram. Based on their response four of the adjectives were replaced.

(See Appendix C for a copy of the final instrument.) The procedures

fellowed are described below and were drawn from a dissertation by

Bellman (1972).

1.

Twenty scales were selected from Osgood's list and
written in polar position as given by Osgood.

The scales were numbered for purposes of random drawing.
Individual slips were prepared for numbers 1 to 20.

The numbers were drawn to determine their order of
presentation according to the following decision rules:

.A coin was flipped to see if the first draw should
be "+" or "-” in polarity where "+" polarity is the
order given by Osgood and "-" polarity was considered
to be the reverse.

.After appropriate instructions were developed, an

example was given fellowed by the 20 ordered scales
as determined in number 4.

Additional Infermation Questionnaire

 

.A questionnaire was constructed to gather additional informa-

tion for comparative purposes. The first question was designed to

compare whether students liked or disliked the program with the

56

results of the semantic differential. Questions 2 and 3 asked if
subjects had any difficulty seeing or hearing the program and if they
had previously seen the program.on canine heartworm disease. The
last question was open-ended and asked for general comments on the

program‘viewed.

The Experimental Design_

 

The experimental design for the present research incorporates
two treatment groups and a control group. The second term veterinary
class, consisting of 111 students, acted as subjects for the experi-
ment. The subjects were divided into three groups of 37, 36 and 38
respectively. A.cognitive test instrument was designed to measure
short-term factual recall of information presented on the slide-tape
program.on canine heartworm disease. Experimental group number one
viewed the expensive version of the program while experimental group
number two viewed the inexpensive version of the program. The control
group was not exposed to either version of the program. .All three
groups completed the cognitive test instrument. Since there was
reason to suspect that the subjects had some prior information regard—
ing canine heartworm disease, it was considered important to determine
how much information the subjects had prior to exposure to the program.
The control group served this function. In addition to the cognitive
instrument the two experimental groups also completed an attitudinal
instrument designed to measure student attitude toward the slide-tape
program viewed. .A general information questionnaire designed to gather

general information was also completed by the two experimental groups.

‘57

Due to non-random assignment to groups, possible differences
‘were tested by an analysis of variance using first term.grade point
average as a measure. It was postulated that this grade point
average would be the best indicator of future student success.

An "F" test was selected to test for significant differences
among group mean scores. An alpha level of .05 and a two tailed test
were selected for rejecting the null hypothesis.

The specific null hypothesis tested was:

There is no difference in first term grade point
average among the three sample groups.

TABLE 3.3.--Ana1ysis of variance for Determining First Term Grade
Point Average Group Differences.

 

 

Sources df MS F P
Treatment between groups 2 .8476 3.8478 P<.0244
Treatment within groups 108 .2203

 

F = 3.15 at alpha .05

The null hypothesis that there was no difference among the
treatment groups based.on first term grade point average was rejected.
An estimate of contrasts was then perfOrmed at the 95% confidence
interval to explore for differences between specific groups. An
indication of the possible difference between the groUp means was
obtained by computing a confidence interval as described by Kirk (1968).
The confidence interval provides the estimated range of values with a

given probability (l-alpha) of including the true difference between

58

the population.means. If a confidence interval does not include
zero, the hypothesis that the two population means are equal is
rejected. According to Kirk (1968), confidence interval estimation
permits an experimenter to reach the same kind of decision as when
significant tests are used. In addition, confidence interval pro-
cedures permit an experimenter to consider all possible null

hypotheses simultaneously.

TABLE 3.4.--Least Square Estimate of Contrasts to Determine Group
Differences in First Term.Grade Point Average Between
the Expensive and Inexpensive Treatment Groups.

6 i t/z 5.8.

51 is Expensive vs. Inexpensive

C.I. = -.08 i (2.0) (.11)

C.I. = (~.301<o < .14)

1

 

Since the confidence interval spans zero the null hypothesis
that there was no significant difference between.the first term
grade point averages between the two experimental groups was not
rejected. This finding was considered important by the researcher
since both treatment groups were exposed to alternate versions of the
program. Significant differences in first term grade point average

‘would have jeopardized cognitive score comparisons between the two

groups.

59

A second comparison was made to determine if there were any
differences in first term grade point average between the expensive

treatment group and the control group.

TABLE 3.5.--Least Square Estimate of Contrasts to Determine Group
Differences in First Term Grade Point Average Between
the Expensive and Control Group.

 

.2 . .
o is Expen51ve vs. Control

C.I.

-0.29 i (2.0) (.11)
C.I.

{-.51 < o < -.07)

2

 

Since the confidence interval does not span zero, thus the
null hypothesis was rejected. .A significant difference between the
first term grade point averages between the expensive experimental
group and the control group was feund. The null hypothesis was
rejected.

Since no difference was found between the two experimental
groups it was assumed that the control group also differed in grade
point average from the inexpensive experimental group. The raw mean
scores among the three sample groups reflected.the differences
determined by analysis of least square estimates (see Table 3.6).

In summary, the analysis of grade point average revealed a
significant difference among the three groups at a P value of less
than .02. Least square estimate of contrasts between the two treat-
ment groups revealed no significant differences as indicated by the

confidence interval (-.30, .14). .A significant difference was feund

60

TABLE 3.6.--First Term Grade Point Average Scores for the Three

 

 

Sample Groups.
Group Score
Treatment 1 (Expensive) 3.34
Treatment 2 (Inexpensive 3.26
Control 3.05

 

between the expensive treatment group and the control group

since the confidences interval did not span zero (-.51, -.O7).
Since there was no difference between the two treatment groups it
was inferred that the control group was also different from the
inexpensive treatment group.

Due to initial group differences it was decided to test the
predictive powers of first term grade point average as a predictor
of cognitive test scores. The correlation between grade point and
cognitive measure was relatively low (.13).

Since sample group sizes were slightly unequal, a statistical
test, as recommended by Kirk (1968), was perfbrmed to determine
homogeneity of population-error variance. The Fmax statistic was
selected because of its relative simplicity in comparison to more
complex methods (see Table 3.7) .

Since the Fmax statistic was less than the tabled value, the
assumption of equal variance among the groups was not rejected. The
assumption of normality was also made fer statistical purposes. Both

experimental groups viewed the slide-tape programs under similar

61

TABLE 3.7.--Fmax Test to Determine Homogeneity of Variance Among the
Treatment Groups.

 

 

”2 largest 2
Frnax=AJz =i%=l_g_°%g_=2.05
oj smallest 3.01 '
n - l = 37
n = largest sample group

Tabled Fmax (o- 0.5) 3, 37 m 2.40

 

conditions. Crowded conditions were not seen as factors influencing
test results. The projected picture size in both classrooms was the
same and the acoustics were similar. Thus the assumption of inde-
pendence was made based on the above observations.

An analysis of covariance, using first term grade point
average as a Covariate was carried out to enhance the statistical
test. .Although the correlation between first term grade point
average and cognitive test performance was below what normally would
have been considered of value, it was postulated that this adjustment
could only strengthen the statistical test. According to McNemar
(1962) an analysis of covariance is not dependent on a.minimum
degree of correlation or on a definite amount of group difference on
the uncontrolled variable. The author goes on to explain, however,
that if there is only a small chance difference between groups on the
uncontrolled variable the use of the covariance adjustment may not be

worth the effort.

62

Since a difference in first term grade point averages was
feund among the groups, an analysis of covariance was performed to
test the first null hypothesis. .

Null Hypothesis 1:

No difference will be feund in the c0gnitive
mean scores among the three sample groups.

If a significant difference is feund in cognitive test per-
formance among the groups then a least square estimate of contrasts
'will be used to compare differences between the treatment groups and
between the expensive treatment group and the control group toward
the two versions of the program.

Null Hypothesis 2:

No difference will be found between the mean
cognitive test perfOrmance score of the expensive
and inexpensive treatment groups.

Since the control group had some previous knowledge of canine
heartworm disease it was hypothesized that:

Null Hypothesis 3:

No difference will be feund between the mean
cognitive test perfbrmance scores of the control
group and the treatment group receiving the
expensive treatment.

For the attitudinal instrument it was decided that since no
difference was found in first term grade point average between the
two treatment groups, an analysis of variance would be an appropriate
statistical test.

Null Hypothesis 4:

No difference will be found between the mean
attitudinal scores of treatment groups exposed

to the expensive and inexpensive version of the
program.

63

Additional information.was collected on a questionnaire com-
pleted by the two treatment groups. Students were asked.whether they
liked or disliked the program, whether they had trouble seeing or
hearing the program and if they had seen the program before. General
comments and reactions to the program were also requested in an open
ended question. Results collected by the researcher were listed and

summarized into appropriate categories and reported.

Summary

The second term veterinary class of 111 students at Michigan
State University acted as subjects fer this study. An expensive and
inexpensive version of a slide-tape program.cn canine heartworm
disease was prepared. An appropriate cognitive short-term.recall
instrument was developed along with an attitude response form to
determine attitude toward the slide-tape program viewed. .A general
information questionnaire was also developed to gether additional‘
information. Three groups were selected for the experiment by an
alphabetical procedure. An analysis of variance using first term
grade point average was performed to determine possible differences
due to non-random assignment to groups. .A difference was feund between
the control group and the two experimental groups. Based on this
result an analysis of covariance was used as the appropriate statistic
to attempt to adjust mean cognitive scores based on initial differences.

The two experimental groups viewed the two versions of the
program under similar conditions and completed the cognitive instru-
ment, the attitudinal response ferm, and the additional information

questionnaire. The control group completed the cognitive instrument

64

without exposure to the program to determine student knowledge of
canine heartworm.disease prior to exposure to the program. .After
Collection of the instruments, coding was carried out and the results
of the cognitive instrument were shuffled and given to a veterinary
parasitologist to act as a blind scorer. After collection by the
researcher, results from the semantic differential were transformed
where appropriate and summed to determine group evaluative response
toward the slide-tape program. Responses to the general questionnaire
were summarized according to each question and analysed for notable
differences or specific trends between the two experimental groups.
The null hypotheses were then listed for statistical test purposes.
Statistical procedures used to test the feur null hypotheses included
an analysis of covariance on possible cognitive test perfbrmance dif-
ferences among groups, estimates of least square contrasts to
determine possible differences between groups, and an analysis of
variance to test for attitudinal differences between the two treatment
groups. Results from.the general information questionnaire were

summarized and presented for comparative and analytical purposes.

CHAPTER IV

FINDINGS

Findings
The results of statistical tests on the null hypothesis and
responses to the general questionnaire are reported in this chapter.
The first hypothesis tested in the present study for dif-
ferences due to treatment was:
Null Hypothesis 1

No difference will be feund in the cognitive
mean scores among the three sample groups.

The reader will recall the initial group differences were
determined by analysis of variance on first term grade point averages.
Initially it was postulated that this average would be a good indi-

cator of future student success in the veterinary program.

TABLE 4.l.--Analysis of Covariance on Cognitive Test Performance
Scores with First Term Grade Point.Average as a

 

 

Covariate.
Sources df MS F P
Treatment between groups 2 1435.6231 108.55 P < .001
Treatment within groups 107 13.2253

 

F = 3.15 at alpha .05

65

66

The null hypothesis that there was no difference among the
groups was rejected at the .05 level of confidence. It was apparent
from the statistical results that major differences existed between
at least two of the three groups.

Since a significant difference was feund among the groups,
comparisons between specific groups was performed to determine which
groups were different from.each other. These post hoc group compari-
sons were made by using least square estimates of contrasts to
determine confidence intervals .

The second hypothesis tested is:

Null Hypothesis 2:

No difference will be found between the mean
cognitive test performance score of the expensive
and inexpensive treatment groups.

An adjusted least square estimate of contrasts was calculated

to determine the 95 percent confidence interval between the two

groups.

TABLE 4.2.-<Adjusted Least Square Estimate of Contrasts to Determine
the Treatment Group Differences in Cognitive Test Scores.

 

1

Adjusted 6 i t/Z s.e.

81 = Expensive vs. Inexpensive
C.I. = .32 i 2 (.85)
C.I. = (-l.39 < o < 2.03)

1

 

67

Since the confidence interval spans zero no difference was
found between the adjusted.mean cognitive scores of the two experi-
mental groups. Thus the null hypothesis is not rejected. In other
words, sUbjects viewing the expensive version of the program did not
score higher than subjects viewing the inexpensive version of the
program. In fact, this is consistent with the raw mean scores of
17.5 and 17.8 respectively, fer subjects viewing the expensive and
inexpensive versions of the program.

The next pair of interest is the treatment group exposed to
the expensive version of the program.and the control group.

The third hypothesis tested is:

Null HypOthesis 3:

No difference will be feund.between the mean
cognitive test performance scores of the control
group and the experimental groups viewing the
expensive version of the program.

An adjusted least square estimate of contrasts was calculated
to determine the 95 percent confidence interval between the control

group and the treatment group exposed to the expensive version of

the program.

TABLE 4.3.--Adjusted Least Square Estimate of Contrasts to Determine
Treatment Group Differences in Cognitive Scores Between
the Control Group and Treatment Group Number One

(Expensive).

 

Adjusted 8 : t/2 s.e.

2
a2
C.I.

= Expensive vs. Control
-10.90 i Z (.87)

C.I.

(~12.64 < 02 <-9.l6)

 

68

The confidence interval, which does not span zero indicated a
significant difference between the adjusted cognitive scores of treat-
ment group number one (expensive) and.the control group. Thus, the
null hypothesis was rejected.

Since no significant difference was found in cognitive test
scores between the two treatment groups, and the raw mean score for
subjects viewing the inexpensive version of the program was slightly
higher than subjects viewing the expensive version of the program, it
was inferred that the control group test perfOrmance was also different
from.the inexpensive treatment group. The raw mean scores for the

groupS‘were:

TABLE 4.4.--Raw Mean Scores for Cognitive Test PerfOrmance.

 

 

Group Score
Treatment 1 (Expensive) 17.51
Treatment 2 (Inexpensive) 17.75
Control 6.32

 

.A semantic differential was constructed to measure student
evaluative response to both versions of the programs. TWO extreme
variations in the cost of producing illustrations for the programs
led to the hypothesis that student attitude toward the two programs

would be different.

69

The fourth hypothesis tested is

Null Hypothesis 4:

NO difference will be fOund.between the mean
attitudinal scores of treatment groups exposed
to either the expensive or inexpensive versions
of the program.

.Attitudinal results were transtrmed so that in all cases one
represented the most positive attitude and seven the least positive
attitude. The results were then summed.and a group evaluative
response of the program was obtained.

Since no differences were found between the two treatment
groups and the attitudinal instrument was restricted to the treatment

groups, an analysis of variance was used to compare group attitudinal

responses.

TABLE 4.5.--Analysis of variance for Estimating Attitudinal Differ-
ences Between the Two Experimental Groups.

 

 

Sources df MS F P
Treatment between groups 1 23.1380 .1289 P < 7209
Treatment within groups 68 179.5213

 

F = 4.00 at alpha .05

The resulting F value Of .13 is well below the critical value
necessary for significance at the .05 level of confidence. Thus the
null hypothesis of no difference in attitudes between the two groups
cannot be rejected. Because the null hypothesis was not rejected no

difference in attitude between the two groups was found.

70

The following raw scores were Obtained from the attitudinal

instrument.

TABLE 4.6.--Semantic Differential Group and Average Scores.

 

 

Tbtal Group Average Score for
Group Score 20 Items
Expensive 58.06 2.90
Inexpensive 59.21 2.96

 

The results indicate that scores for the two treatment groups
were very similar with the inexpensive treatment group being slightly
more negative than the experimental treatment group. This slight
difference was not statistically significant.

Additional data was generated by a questionnaire designed to
gather information about treatment conditions and reactions to the
program.(see Table 4.7).

Reaction by each treatment group was generally positive
toward its version Of the slide-tape program. Suggestions were made
that such a program.would.be useful in a self-study situation or,
with some modifications, for educating the public about this disease.
Some individuals in each group felt that too much information was
presented in the allotted time and that a second viewing would.have
been extremely helpful.

Students viewing the inexpensive version of the program noted

the rather confusing nature of some of the illustrations, i.e., the

71

TABLE 4.7.--Additional InfOrmation Questionnaire with Summarized
Results.

 

Expensive Inexpensive

 

1. Did you like or dislike the slide-
tape presentation, CANINE HEARTWORM
DISEASE?
Like 36 33
Dislike l 3

2. Had you ever seen the slide-tape
program on CANINE HEARTWORM DISEASE
before?
Yes 37 35
NO 0 1

3. Did you have difficulty either seeing
or hearing the program on CANINE
HEARTWORM DISEASE?
Yes 6 3
NO 31 33

4. Please list any conments about the
program which you may wish to express
in the remaining space.*

Category of Comments:

 

Pesitive or complementary 4 4
Negative or derogatory

Presentation rate too fast (additional
repetition required) 5 6

Improvement Of technical quality
required 1 3

Suggestions made to improve presenta-
tion format to increase learning 2 4

Improvement of evaluation instrument,
i.e., multiple choice instrument
suggested 4 1

Complexity of difficulty of subject
matter mentioned 2 2

Self-study use suggested

Should not be used to teach veterinary
students 0 1

 

*The total number Of comments for the expensive version Of
the program was 16 while there were 21 comments on the inexpensive
version of the program. Some comments are reported under more than
one category.

72

mosquito, and the general grey appearance of some of the figures.
Suggestions to improve the inexpensive version of the program included
improving the clarity of the illustrations, adding microscopic slides,
increased repetition and some form of questioning to accompany the
presentation .

Comment from students viewing the expensive version of the
program tended to be more positive in their appraisal of the program,
i.e., "excellent, outstanding presentation." Suggestions to improve
the expensive version of the program included the need for increased
repetition and final evaluation in the form of multiple choice
questions was suggested.

In each grow some difficulty was reported either seeing or
hearing the program. This was attributed to the crowded conditions
of the experimental classrooms where the programs were viewed. While
playback conditions were not considered to be ideal for both grows,
they were considered to be adequate for the basic transmission of
the message. Cognitive test performance of the treatment grows

also indicated that learning had taken place.

Discussion of the Findings

 

The first hypothesis tested was designed to determine any
effect that treatment might have among the three sample grows .

An analysis of covariance using first term grade point average
as a covariate rejected the null hypothesis of no difference among the
three sample groups at the .05 level of confidence. On closer

analysis of the tabled values it was revealed that the null hypothesis

73

was rejected beyond the .001 level of confidence indicating a strong
difference due to treatment between at least two of the groups.

In analysing the effectiveness of the covariate it was
obvious that first term grade point average was a poor predictor of
cognitive test perfOrmance. .At a correlation value of .13 it would
have been desirable to obtain other possible covariates such as
aptitude. Since other possible predictors were unavailable the
researcher decided to continue his analysis using first term grade
point average. It was apparent that the adjusted scores would not
significantly effect the results, however, the slight adjustment
could only improve the results. The difference between subjects
exposed to the expensive program and the control group was signifi-
cant at the .05 level of confidence.

The second hypothesis dealt with the effects on cognitive
learning of exposure to either version of the program. The estimate
of least square contrasts revealed no significant differences in
short term cognitive recall between the two treatment groups. It is
interesting to note that, although not statistically different, the
mean of the treatment group exposed to the inexpensive version of the
program was 0.236 higher than the treatment group exposed to the
expensive version of the program. 1

Recent publicity on canine heartworm.disease and previous
student experience with veterinary practices prompted the formulation
of the third hypothesis. It was hypothesized that cognitive test
results would not be significantly different between the experimental

and control groups. The results of the adjusted least square estimate

74

of contrasts demonstrated, at a 95 percent level of confidence, that
a difference existed.between the control and experimental groups.
The results, as measured by short term cognitive recall, demonstrated
that vital information required to pass the cognitive test in canine
heartworm disease had been transmitted during the treatment effect.
The mean score for the experimental groups exposed to the expensive
and inexpensive versions of the program were 17.5 and 17.8, respec-
tively. The mean score for the control group was 6.3. From these
scores it appears evident that the slide-tape program had a signifi-
cant impact in transmitting new information about canine heartworm
disease to second term veterinary students.

The qualifications of the two illustrators, the techniques
used to produce the illustrations, and the costs of the two versions
of the program.varied considerably. The price differential of approxi-
mately $2,300.00 was reflected in the appearance of the illustrations
in the two programs. The fourth hypothesis stated that student
attitude would be more positive toward the expensive, professionally
prepared program when compared with the inexpensive version of the
program. An analysis of variance of semantic differential scores
revealed no significant difference in the attitude between the two
groups toward either version of the program. .A P value Of less than
.7209 indicated no significant difference between the groups.
Apparently the attitude, or evaluative response as measured by the
instrument, did not detect any differences between the two groups.

Raw mean scores for the expensive and inexpensive treatment

.groups on the semantic differential were 2.90 and 2.96, respectively.

75

Since four represented a neutral score and one was the most positive
score possible, the results were interpreted as being somewhat
positive toward each version of the program.

One possible explanation for the lack of differences in
attitude is the desire and the ability of highly competetive second
term veterinary students to absorb new information. It is also
possible that the primary concern of the students was the mastery of
new cOmplex concepts. under these conditions the method or techniques
. used to illustrate the concepts may have been reduced to a level of
secondary importance. The importance of the message in relation to
the seriousness of the problem of canine heartworm.disease would
tend to heighten the above effect.

The additional infOrmation questionnaire revealed that
students in both treatment groups generally liked the program. This
may partly be explained by the previous lack of information in an
illustrated program about canine heartworm disease. It is also
possible that students liked the logical or sequential development
of the program.

Apparently some difficulty either seeing or hearing the pro-
gram was reported by a total of 9 out of a possible 73 subjects. One
posSible explanation for this result was the lack of desirable space
in the veterinary clinic for conducting the experiment. The decision
to conduct the experiment under less than ideal conditions was
prompted.by the limited options available to the researcher. Since
it was necessary to minimize disruption of normal classroom procedures,

the two available instructional spaces most conveniently located were

76

utilized. It was postulated that although some communication inter-
ference occurred due to limited space, treatment conditions were
sufficient for transmission of the basic message.

No differences in the number of positive responses was noted
in comparing both versions of the program. It was noted, however,
that a few student responses toward the expensive version of the
program.tended to be somewhat more positive, i.e., ”an excellent
program,” "outstanding." .Apparently a few students did appreciate
the talent and the resources required to produce the final expensive
version of the program.

A major concern of a number of students was the presentation
rate. One possible explanation for this observation was the complex
nature of the transmitted.message and the automated manner in which
it was presented. Since students had no control over the rate of
presentation and were not given the Opportunity to view the material
a second time it was to be expected that comments on the presentation
rate would be made. The rate of presentation and the complexity of
the subject resulted in suggestions to improve the teaching effi-
ciency of the program. These suggestions included greater repetition
within the program, the use of questioning to accompany the program
and.improved evaluation techniques.

Results from the attitudinal measures and the general
questionnaire were difficult to compare directly. However, it did
appear that the respective programs were each favorably received by

the groups.

CHAPTER‘V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Summary

The present research studied the effect on cognitive learn-
ing and attitude of an expensive and inexpensive version of a slide-
tape program. The automated presentation was designed to provide
veterinary students with information on canine heartworm.disease.

TWO illustrators, with wide differences in professional preparation
and graphic ability, prepared and documented.the cost of producing
the illustrations. Production costs for the two versions of the pro-
gram.are restricted to the cost of producing illustrated material
fer 39 out of a total of 49 slides. The inclusion of ten visuals
(eight photographs and two radiographs) in both versions of the
program were a possible source of contamination to the final results
of this study.' These visuals, which were provided by the veterinarian
and considered important to the program, were included because the
researcher did not know of any way to economically reproduce the
visualized concepts.

The 17 minute script, which was prepared by the veterinarian,
in consultation with the researcher, was transcribed onto an audiotape
by the veterinarian. Professional recording facilities and expertise
were utilized. The final cost of reproducing the script onto a

cassette audio tape was approximately twenty dollars and required one

77

78

hour of recording time. This cost was not included in the compara-

tive costs for both versions of the program.

Developmental time, which was also not accounted for in the
final cost comparison, was substantially greater for the expensive
version of the program. The fact that existing information.was limited
and often confusing, required a concerted effort over an eight month
period to research and prepare the first rough storyboard on which
the final versions of both programs were based. Since the inexpensive
version of the program was based on the rough storyboard prepared for
the expensive version of the program, the developmental time was much
shorter. Consequently, suitable illustrations for tracing purposes
were collected over a two week period by the researcher.

Although the costs of producing the visualized.materials in
both programs have risen dramatically during the last year, the
researcher feels that the absolute production costs between the two
programs has remained basically the same.

TWo experimental groups and one control group of second.term
veterinary students, selected alphabetically, acted as subjects. The
experimental groups viewed either the expensive or inexpensive version
of the program While the control group completed the cognitive instru-
ment. In addition to the cognitive instrument, which was designed to
measure short term recall of program.content, the experimental groups
also completed an attitudinal instrument and a general questionnaire.

Due to non-random assignment to sample groups an analysis of
variance was performed to determine possible group differences using

first term grade point averages. No difference was found between the

79

experimental groups, however, a significant difference was fOund
between the control group and the experimental groups. This finding
was not viewed as a significant threat to the study since the differ-
ence was restricted to the control group. Since no ethnic or other
group differences could be identified within the sample population
the researcher could only attribute significant group differences in
first term grade point averages within the control group to chance.

The results from the cognitive, attitudinal and general
infermation questionnaire were collected and coded. All the results
from the cognitive instrument were then shuffled and submitted to a
veterinary parasitologist to act as a blind scorer. The researcher
collected and sorted the other results. The final results from.the
cognitive and attitudinal instruments were subjected to statistical
analysis. Since a difference in first term grade point average was
found between the control group and the two experimental groups, first
term grade point average was used as a covariate to test for differ-
ences in cognitive test perfOrmance. First term grade point average
was a weak predictor of cognitive performance (.13), however, since
no other predictors were available, it was used.

The following four hypotheses were examined by the following
statistical procedures. Hypothesis one was examined.by analysis of
covariance. Hypotheses two and three were examined by adjusted
least square estimates, and hypothesis four was examined by an
analysis of variance.

The appropriate null hypotheses were:

1. No difference will be fOund in the cognitive mean
scores among the three sample groups.

80

2. No difference will be found between the mean
cognitive test performance score of the expensive
and inexpensive treatment groups.

3. No difference will be found between the mean
cognitive test performance scores of the control
group zuni the experimental group receiving the
expensive treatment.

4. No difference will be fOund between the mean

attitudinal scores of treatment groups exposed
to the expensive and inexpensive versions of
the program.

One of the primary difficulties encountered by the researcher
was finding a suitable time and space to conduct the experiment. An
extremely heavy course schedule and limited available space to con—
duct the study imposed certain hardships on the researcher and the
subjects . Although the arrangements made were not considered to be
ideal, they were considered adequate to test the statistical hypothe-
ses and are assumed not to have affected the results.

Based on exposure to the program the findings revealed a
significant difference in cognitive test perfOrmance among the three
sample groups. On closer analysis no difference was found between
the two experimental groups. .A significant difference was fOund
between the control group and the two experimental groups.

The attitudinal hypothesis of no difference between the
treatment groups was not rejected, thus finding no support fer the
hypothesis that increased expense for illustrations improves student
attitudes. The researcher speculates that one possible reason for

failing to reject the null hypothesis was student motivation and the

nature of the message. under circumstances in which students are

81

highly motivated and the message perceived is considered to be
important, it is possible that the importance of attitudes is
diminished. A

A second possible explanation for similar cognitive test
performance scores between the two treatment groups is that students
viewing the inexpensive version of the program may have received all
their information from the audio channel. It is possible that the
poor visuals may have caused students to completely ignore the
illustrated messages.

A third possible explanation for similar cognitive performance
scores is that students viewing the inexpensive version of the program
may have consciously blocked out imperfections in the visual channel
mile switching to the audio channel for their information. In
other words, channel selection for information may have been based on
the clarity and synchronization between the audio and visual message.
It is recommended that future research in this area isolate specific
channels of communication for examination purposes.

The information gathered in the general questionnaire did not
reveal any major differences between the two experimental groups.

This finding was consistent with the results of the semantic differ-
ential which revealed no major differences in attitude between the two
groups. A few comments on the questionnaire were noted as being
slightly more positive for subjects viewing the expensive version of
the program but were not reflected in cognitive test performance or
attitudinal scores. Difficulty in either seeing or hearing the progran

was attributed to less than ideal treatment group conditions, however,

 

 

«all... ll'll'lllll’llll III II
II . I'll-

82

it was postulated that conditions were adequate for the basic trans-
mission of the message. It was also noted that treatment conditions

fer both groups were essentially the same.

Conclusions

 

Several conclusions are made from the findings summarized
above:

1. Cognitive test perfOrmance, as measured by the cognitive
instrument, was not significantly different between students exposed
to the expensive and inexpensive versions of the program.

2. Students who were not exposed to the program.had cogni-
tive scores significantly lower than students exposed to the program
indicating that the program did in fact teach.

3. The attitudes of students as measured by the semantic
differential was not affected by the cost involved in the production
of illustrations fer the expensive and inexpensive versions of the
program.

4. A.few student comments toward the expensive version of
the program were interpreted as being more positive, however, this
was not reflected in group cognitive test perfOrmance or attitudinal

scores .

Implications

 

Similar COgnitive performance and attitudes toward both
versions of the program.indicate that the time (8 weeks), and the
expense ($2486.75) required to produce the expensive version of the

program was unwarranted. Despite possible contaminants of the study

83

such as two channels of infOrmation and use of ten of the same
visuals in both versions of the program, the researcher feels that
production costs for illustrations can be lowered without reducing
the effectiveness of instruction. The results of this study imply
that the designers and the producers of illustrated material should
give more attention to excluding extraneous visual details in the
attainment of specified objectives. The efforts of talented indi—
viduals would thus be spent in clearly portraying specified concepts
and.not in the simulation of reality. While developmental time may
remain essentially the same, substantial time could be saved and
output increased during the production stage. Material cost could
also be reduced by emphasizing simplicity and legibility in the
transmission of infOrmation designed to meet basic instructional
objectives. These findings are in accord with research reviewed
fer this study which has established the increased learning effective-
ness of simplified visuals.

Implications for administrators are that money spent on
highly refined, realistically portrayed products may be a waste of
money. Where alternative inexpensive products are available that
convey the same message, they should seriously be considered for
purchase. This may be even.more true in areas of education such as
medical education where new information and changing theories tend
to date the production of much illustrated material in a short
period of time. The ultimate success of the final product is closely
related to the amount of time and effort spent in determining the

essential features to be illustrated.

84

Illustrations prOduced to simulate reality may be useful for
identification purposes, however, based on the results of this study
and the literature reviewed, the researcher has concluded that the
effort and expense of realistically portraying most illustrated
material cannot be justified on the basis of improved learning out-

comes .

Suggestions for Future Research

 

The results of this study along with the majority of the
literature reviewed indicated no direct relationship between the cost
of production of instructional materials and the educational benefits
derived. .Additional support to either refute or support the above
statement is required.

The following research is recommended:

1. Cost-benefit studies be carried out at all production
levels to determine the most efficient means to design and produce
more effective instructional materials.

2. In comparing the effectiveness of production costs an
attempt should be made to identify the separate channels of communi-
cation along with their specific contribution. This would allow a
more detailed comparison of cost and benefit.

3. Instructor tolerance levels fOr varying production pro-
cedures should be determined. It is postulated that these minimal
standards would be well above student stimulation threshold limits.
Guidelines or information in this area could be extremely useful for

the designers and producers of instructional materials.

85

4. Additional research is required to determine the exact
nature of the perceptual process and the minimal cues required in
the identification of messages.

5. Research is required to document the amount of ”realism"
being produced or used within an instructional setting. Documentation
of individuals using this material, instructional effectiveness and
the establishment of quality standards would all help in analysing
and understanding this phenomenon.

6. A study is needed in Which a professional illustrator
produces two extreme cost variations of the same program and a
comparison is made of learning efficiency and effectiveness between
the two programs.

7. Replication of this study with refined instrumentation
and random sampling procedures in medical education is highly

recommended.

B I BL IOGRAPHY

86

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alkin, Marvin C. "Evaluating the Cost Effectiveness of Instructional
Programs ." Center for the Study of Evaluation of Instruc-
tional Programs, University of Los Angeles, California.
Report No. CSE-R-ZS, U.S. Department of Health, Education
and Welfare, 1967.

Allen, William H. Audiovisual Communication Research, Encyclopedia
of Educational Research, 3rd ed. Edited by C. W. ihrris.
New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1960, pp. 115-137.

 

 

"Instructional Media Research, Past, Present and Future."
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Bach, Robert 0., ed. Communication: The Art of Being Understood.
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Baker, E. L., and Popham, W. J. "Value of Pictorial Embellishments
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Barber, William H, et al. The Affective Domain, A Resource Book for
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Bollman, Charles G. "The Effect of Large-Screen, Multi-Image Display
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Bowen, Hugh M., et a1. "Optimum Symbols for Radar Displays." Himan
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Broadbent, D. E. Perception and Communication. London: Pergamon
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Bullard, John R. "An Exploratory Study of the Effects of Graphic
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Cafferella, Edward P. "The Cost Effectiveness of Instructional

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87

88

Carnegie Commission on Higher Education. The Fourth Revolution:
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. The More Effective Use of Resources: An Imperative for
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Carpenter, C. R. "Evaluation of the Film: IMilitary Police Support
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"Boundaries of Learning Theories and Mediators of
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"The Quality of Instructional Materials." To Improve
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Carpenter, Margaret B., and Haggart, Sue A. "Cost Effectiveness
Analysis fOr Educational Planning." Educational Technolggy,
VOl. 10 (October, 1970), 26-30.

 

Cheit, Earl F. The New Depression in Higher Education: .A Study of
Financial ConditiOns at 41 Colleges and Universities. New
YOrk: IMcGraw-Hill, 1971.

Cherry, Colin. On Human Communication: .A Review, A Survey, and a
Criticism. NeinOrk: John WiIey, 1957. ’(Science‘Ed. 1961).

DUbin, Robert, and Taveggia, Thomas C. "The Teaching-Learning
Paradox: .A Comparative Analysis of College Teaching
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Dwyer, Francis M. Jr. VAdOpting'Visual Illustrations for Effective
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(Spring, 1967), 250-263.

 

A Guide for Im roving Visualized Instruction. State
College,’Penn.: Learning’Services, 1972.

 

 

Edling, Jack v., et al. The Cognitive Domain, A Resource Book fOr
Media Specialists. Washington D.C.: ‘Gryphon HOuse, 1972

 

 

Farris, G.; Mo1dstat, J.; and Frye, H. Improving the Learning
Environment. washington D.C.: U.S. Department ofTHealth,
Education, and welfare, Office of Education, Government
Printing Office, 1963.

 

 

89

Fleming, Malcolm.Lee. ”An Experimental Exploration of Three Communi-
cator Strategies for Increasing the Predictability of
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dissertation, Indiana university, 1960.

"Perceptual Principles for the Design of Instructional
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tion, Indiana University, VOl. 46, No. 4 (July, 1970).

 

Gibson, James J. "A Theory of Pictorial Perception." Audiovisual
Communication Review, VOl. 2 (Winter, 1954), 3-23.

 

 

. The Senses Considered as Perceptual Systems. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1966.

 

 

Glass, Gene V., and.Stanley, Julian C. Statistical Methods in
Education and Psychology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice
Hall Inc. , 1970 .

 

 

Grayson, Lawrence P. "Costs, Benefits Effectiveness: Challenge to
Educational Technology." Science, VOl. 175 (March 17,
1972), 1216-1222.

Gropper, George L. "Why is a Picture WOrth a Thousand WOrds?”
Audiovisual Communication Review, vo1. 2, No. 4 (19633),
75-79.

 

HA Behavioral Analysis of the Role of vusuals in
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Station, Pa. Report NO. NDEA4VIIA-637-l (1963b), ED003211.

Hitchens, HOward B. "Technology and the Cost of Education."
Audiovisual Instruction, VOl. 16, No. 9 (November, 1971).

 

HOchberg, Julian E. "The Psychophysics of Pictorial Perception."
Audiovisual Communication Review, vo1. 10, NO. 5 (1962),
22-54.

 

HOrn, George F. HOW to Prepare Visual Materials. WOrcester, Mass.:
Davis PublicatiOns Inc., 1963}

 

Hsia, HOwer J. "The Information Processing Capacity of Modality
and Channel Performance." Audiovisual Communication
Review, vo1. 19 (Spring, 1971), 51-75.

 

. "On Channel Effectiveness." Audiovisual Communication
Review, VOl. 16 (1968), 245-267.

 

Johnson, F. Craig, and Deitrich, John E. "Cost Analysis of
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ED039730.

 

90

Kirk, Roger E. Experimental Desigp: Procedures fOr the Behavioral
Sciences. Belmont, Calif.: BroOks/ColeIPublishing COmpany,
1968.

Kerlinger, Fred N. Foundations of Behavioral Research. New York:
Holt, Rinehart andTWinston, 1973.

 

Kinder, James S. USing Instructional Media. New York: D. van
NOstrand Company, 1973.

 

Levie, W. H., and Dickie, K. E. "The Analysis and Application of
'Media." Second Handbook of Research on Teaching. Edited
by R. M. W. Travers. Chicago: Rand.McNally and Company,
1973, pp. 858-882.

 

Levie, HOward W. ”Technical Quality and Color in Training Films."
National Center fOr the Development of Training Materials
in Teacher Education, School of Education, Indiana University,
Report No. 4, November, 1973, (mimeographed).

Levin, Henry M. "Cost Effectiveness Evaluation of Instructional
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Edited by Sidney G. Tickton. New York: BoWker, 1971.

 

Likert, Rensis. "A Technique fOr the Measurement of.Attitudes."
.Archives of Psychology. Edited by R. S. WOodworth.
VOl. 22, NOs. 140-146. New York: Columbia University,
1932, pp. 1-55.

 

Lumsdaine,.Arthur H., and Gladstone, A. "Overt Practice and Audio-
visual Embellishments." In Learnin from.Film, pp. 58-71.
Edited by M. A. May and A. H. Lums ine. Wew Haven, Conn.:
Yale university Press, 1958.

 

Lumsdaine, Arthur H. "Instruments and Media of Instruction.: In
Handbook of Research on Teaching, pp. 583-682. Edited by
N. L. Gagne. Chicago: Rand.MCNally, 1963.

 

jMager, Robert F. Develgping.Attitude Toward Learning. Belmont,
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May,.Mark A., and Lumsdaine,.Arthur.A. Learning from Films.
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May, Mark A. "Enhancements and Simplifications of Motivational and
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91.

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Michigan State University. "Recommendations for Heartworm Disease
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McNemar, Q. Psychological Statistics. New York: John Wiley and
Sons, 1962.

 

Miller, Neal E. "Graphic Conmunication and the Crisis in Education."
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Moore, David M., and Sasse, Edward B. "Effects of Size and Type of
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National Education Association. Selecting Instructional Materials
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Peterson, Ruth C., and Thurstone, L. L. Motion Pictures and the
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Pophan, James W. "Pictorial Embellishments in a Tape-Slide Instruc-
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. Essentials of Learning.. An Overview fOr Students of
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Pub. 943, 1961.

 

APPENDI CBS

94

APPENDIX A

INSTRUCTIONS READ TO CLASS

95

READ THE FOLLOWING TO THE ENTIRE CLASS:

TOday, thanks to the cooperation of Dr. Cunningham,
you are asked to participate in a short experiment. Your assist-
ance will be invaluable and in return it is hoped that you will

find the experience interesting.

Group I A-l49 Anderson

Gorham

Group 11 S-123 (Instrumentation Room) Goring

NOvosac

Group III Auditorium Nurse

Zimmer

Please return to the Auditorium as soon as you have

completed the examination.

Thank you.

96

APPENDIX B

COGNITIVE RECALL INSTRUMENT AND INSTRUCTIONS

97

CANINE HEARTWORM DISEASE
COLLEGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

NAME

 

TERM

 

DATE

 

GROUP

 

This instrument has been designed to measure your
knowledge of and attitude towards the slide-tape
presentation on CANINE HEARTWORM DISEASE.

Please print your answers in the right hand column
and fOllow all instructions.

This instrument is solely for experimental purposes
and has nothing to do With your course evaluation.
YOur assistance and COOperation are appreciated.

Thank you.

98

CANINE HEARTWORM DISEASE
POSTEST

Answers may be a single word or a short phrase:

 

The two techniques used to (1)
detect circulating larval stages-
by concentration and killing are (2)
(1) and (2) .
DevelOpment of the second stage
takes place in the (3) of the vector. (3)
Clinical signs of an infected (4)
animal may include (4) , (5) ,
and (6) . (5)
(6)
Chemotherapy may include use of (7)
(7: and (8 for killing of
u t and crofilaria Larvae (8)
respectively.

The primary host of the

heartworm is the dog; (9)
another domestic host

occassionally infected is the (9)

.A surgical procedure which could

be used for removal of heartworm (10)
is a (10).

Juvenile worms appear in the (11) of (11)
the heart after (12) months post

infection. (12)

The larval stage (L ) ingested by (13)
the vector is called a (13).

Signs seen on radiographs of the (14)
thorax of a clinically affected
dog may include (14) and (15). (15)

99

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

100

Length of the adult heartworn
is approximately (16).

An animal in the wild that has
been occasionally fOund infected
is 17 .

The following characteristics of
dirofilaria immitis larva provide
a differential diagnosis based on
morphology (l8) , size (19) , and
motility (20) .

Clinical signs of'heartworm
disease principally involve

the (21) system.

The stage of larva most
susceptible to prOphylactic

chemotherapy is the (22!
at (23) days post i ection.

Mature adults are found in the
24 by (25) months post
ection at the earliest.

The infective larval stage is
called the (26) and exists
from.the vector via the (27) .

The cell type which may
increase in numbers during a
heartworm infection is the (28).

Differential diagnosis must be made
between (29) and (30) .

Diagnosis of heartworm.infection
in the asymptomatic dog is
accomplished by the fOllowing
kind of test. (31).

(16)

(17)

(18)
(19)
(20)

(21)

(22)
(23)

(24)
(25)
(26)
(27)
(28)

(29)
(30)
(31)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPENDIX C

ATTITUDINAL INSTRUMENT AND INSTRUCTIONS

101

INSTRUCTIONS

The purpose of this instrument is to measure the meaning of
things to various people by having you judge them against a series
of descriptive scales.

The next page contains a tOpic followed by several pairs of
adjectives which are opposite in meaning. You are to check one of
the seven blank spaces between each pair of objectives according to
how you rate the concept at the tOp.

EXAMPLE
FARMING
IMPORTANT : : : : : : : UNIMPORTANT

 

The more "IMPORTANI" you feel this concept is, the closer to the
word "IMPORTANT" you would place your check mark. the more "UNIMPORTANT"
you feel the concept is, the closer to the word "UNIMPORTANT" you would
place your check mark .

If it is hard to decide if it is "IMPORTANT" or 'UNIMPORTANI", or-
you feel the adjective pair is not relevant to the particular concept,
place a check nark in the central space. A check mark at the center
of the scale means "undecided" or "Irrelevant". You are to rate the
concept at the top of the page on all the scales on that page.

There are no right or wrong answers. Your task is to indicate
your personal feeling toward the concept by placing a single check mark
( ) on each adjective scale. The best response is what m feel is
appropriate RIGHT NOW. Put down your first impression. Although
the adjectives may not express your exact feelings, you should work

fairly quickly and give your first impression on each scale.
102

 

 

fill!!!

EXAMPLE
C(XDD

103

° BAD

 

(very) ' (quite) ° (slightly) .Eeutral) '(sifghtly) ' (quite) ° (very) °

Please place a check mark ( ) between each pair of adjectives to

show your personal feelings at this moment toward the SLIDE-TAPE

PRESENTAT ION :

REPUTABLE
SUBTLE
INTERESTING
DIRTY
SMOOTH
CARELESS
SIMPLE
FALSE
SUCCESSFUL
WORI'HLESS
COLORFUL
SUPERFICIAL
CLEAR
UNPLEASANT
IMPORTANT
VAGUE
VALUABLE
COMPLEX
PLEASING
BAD

CANINE HEARTWORM DISEASE

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

: DISREPUTABLE
: OBVI OU S

: BORING

: CLEAN

: ROUGH

: DEL IBERATE

: COMPLEX

: TRUE

: UNSUCCESSFUL
: VALUABLE

: COLORLESS

: PROFOUND

: HAZY

: PLEASANT

: UNIMPORTANT
: PRECISE

: WORTHLESS

: SIMPLE

: ANNOYING

: GOOD

APPENDIX D

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FORM

104

The following infOrmation will also be of assistance:

Did you like or dislike the slide-tape presentation, CANINE
HEART-WORM DISEASE?

Like

Dislike
Had.you ever seen the slide-tape program on CANINE HEARTWORM
DISEASE befOre?

Yes

NO
Did you have difficulty either seeing or hearing the program on
CANINE HEARTWORM DISEASE?

Yes

NO
Please list any commments about the program which you.may wish to

express in the remaining space.

 

 

 

 

 

105

APPENDIX E

PROGRAM OBJECTIVES FOR CANINE HEARTWORM PROGRAM

106

COLLEGE OF VETERINARY MEDICINE
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

CANINE HEARTWORM PRESENTATION

Program Objectives:
After studying the slide-tape program on canine heartworm

disease, the veterinarian will be able to:
1. Identify the seriousness of the problem

2. List the microfilaria developmental sequence and
molting time in the mosquito and the dog.

3. List diagnostic procedures for heartworm detection.

4. List a preventive medicine program for dogs in an
endemic area.

5. List therapeutic measures for dOgs found infected.

107

APPENDIX F
SAMPLE COLORED PHOTOGRAPHS OF SLIDES FROM THE

EXPENSIVE AND INEXPENSIVE VERSION OF THE PROGRAM

108

109

LIFE CYCLE &TRANSM' EON OF HEARTWORM

 

Slide No. 5 - Expensive S/T Program

Masquno If“1‘03)$

 

Slide No. 5 - Inexpensive S/T Program

110

 

Slide No. 14 - Expensive S/T Program

 

 

Slide No. '14 - Inexpensive S/T Program

 

 

Slide No. 16 - Expensive S/T Program

 

Slide No. 16 - Inexpensive S/T Program

APPENDIX C
SCRIPT
CANINE HEARTWORM DISEASE

SLIDE - TAPE PRESENTATION

112

Slide N9.

 

1

2

SCRIPT ( ) — Omitted from altered
version
P - Microphotographs, photo-
graphs, radiographs
CANINE HEARTWORM DISEASE
Produced for the College of Veterinary Medicine

Prepared by the Biomedical Communications Center

Description

 

"Canine Heartworm Disease," is a slide-tape program.

Created and produced for the College of Veterinary Medicine
(by Bio-medical Communications Center,) Michigan State
University.

Canine dirofilariasis or heartworm disease has become

of national importance as it has spread from the costal
areas of the South Atlantic and Gulf States to the northern
and western United States.

In Michigan, canine dirofilariasis has reached epidemic
proportions during the past decade.

The life cycle of Ditofiitaaia.immitia principally involves
the dog and mosquito. The cycle in the dog requires about 6
months and in the mosquito 10-14 days.

The dog is regarded as the primary definitive host. Only a
few cats have been fOund infected, but this may be misleading
since we have not examined many cats fOr this infection.

In the wild, the red fOx in the NOrth Central States has been

113

10

11

12

114

fOund to occasionally harbor heartworm. It is a doubtful
reservoir host. Over 40 human cases have been reported,
but these are mostly incidental findings.

Over 30 species of mosquitoes have been reported as possible
vectors. MOst of these have been experimentally infected
with few showing develOpment of infective forms. In any
given geographic area, it is likely that there is a certain
species best suited for transmission of heartworm.

The mosquito becomes infected by ingestion of the first
larval stage (L1) or microfilaria, when it feeds upon

blood of an infected dog.

In the mosquito, a biological develOpment of three larval
stages occurs. The mosquito then is a necessary vector.

As stated previously, this requires 10-14 days.

The L is ingested via the food channel of the proboscis

l
and arrives in the posterior part of the midgut in approx-
imately 12 hours. It is 300M at this time. After 36

hours, the L is found within the cells of the Malpighian

l
tubules and shortens in length to l70-210u. It is then
known as the "sausage" fOrm.

An intracellular molt to the second larval stage or L2 form
occurs during the first week.

A second molt then takes place during the second week, and

the third larval stage or L3 form moves into the hemocoel.

The L3 is the potential infective stage, and may fulfil that

13

14

15

16

17

115

role if it passes into the labial channel which is an
extension of the hemocoel.

TO recapitulate the cycle in the mosquito, the L1 is
ingested via the fOod channel of the proboscis, moves to

the Malpighian tubules via the alimentary tract, molts to
the L2 stage while within cells which line the tubules,

and then molts to the L3 or infective form which passes

into the labial channel of the proboscis.

TO continue the life cycle of the heartworm, the infected
mosquito must then find a dog. Mbsquitoes are infective for
life and thereby serve as an important reservoir of infection
for the dog population.

The dog also is a biological host as it is necessary for

to the L and

develOpment of the heartworm from the L3 4

then to the L5 or juvenile adult stage.

The mosquito penetrates the skin with its proboscis,
except fOr the labium which is bent back. A pool of
hemolymph escapes from the labium and collects over or
near the puncture wound caused by the piercing mouthparts.
Infective larvae present in the hemolymph may then pass
down through the skin as the proboscis is withdrawn. The
L3 form at this time is about 1000p or 1.0 mm in length.

After 10 days in the subcutaneous tissues, it molts to

the L4 stage.

18

19
20

21

22 P

23 P

24 P

116

The L may begin its migration after 60-70 days. Its route

4
through the viscera is poorly understood. It may reach

the heart after passing through the liver, or may arrive in
the lungs, and then reach the heart via the pulmonary
arteries. The L5 or juvenile adult then appears in the
right side of the heart.

The L is seen about 3-4 months after infection, and is 1-3 cm

5
in length. Maturation is reached by 4-7 months, with adults
often moving from the right ventricle into the pulmonary
arteries. Females are 20-30 cmm long and males 15 cmm. At
this time, microfilariae are produced. Here it should be
emphasized that 6-7 months may be required from.time of
infection (mosquito season) until circulating microfilariae
are fOund (time of'patency in an asymptomatic dog).

To summarize, the L is an infective form transmitted by

3
the mosquito, the L4 migrates through the viscera, and

the L5 or juvenile adult is found in the right ventricle.
Microfilariae are produced by the adult, circulating through
the peripheral vasculature, and may be ingested by mosquitoes
during a blood meal.

Adults may congregate in the right ventricle, sometimes

in large numbers such as 1-2 dozen as shown here.

The arrow just to the right of center points out the entrance
to the pulmonary artery into which these worms may move.

Adult males are fewer in number than females and are readily

distinguished by their cork-screw-shaped tail.

 

III) I Ill II 1" III. [1.1 III.

25

26

27

28 P

29 P

30

117

Diagnosis of heartworm disease can be made based on (1)
clinical signs, (2) thoracic radiography, (3) blood exam
fOr microfilariae, and (4) eosinophilia.

Clinical signs may include decreased exercise tolerance,
dyspnea, possible prostration, frequent respiratory
infections, and even death due to cardiac failure.

If an adult heartworm.infection is suspected confirmation
can often be made by thoracic radiography. Lateral and
dorsoventral radiographs may show right ventricular
hypertrOphy (RVH) , pulmonary artery hypertrophy (PAH), post
vena cava dilatation, and increased tortuosity of pulmonary
vessels.

This lateral radiographic view of the thorax shows loss

of both anterior and posterior waists (arrows at base of
heart) and PAH (arrows at upper right).

This dorsoventral view of the thorax shows rounding of the
cardiac silhouette. NOte the arrow pointing to the left
border of the heart.

Examination of venous blood for microfilariae is recommended,
especially in the Spring prior to the mosquito season.

.A direct smear may be made to determine if microfilariae are
present and to ascertain type of motility if they are fOund.
Concentration techniques are frequently used so that false

negatives due to low numbers are not reported. One of these

31

32

33

34P

118

methods is the use of the microhematocrit tube, in which
microfilariae will appear in the plasma near the buffy

coat after centrifugation. Plasma may be placed on a
microslide by breaking the tube, and.motility may then be
observed.microscopically. The other two techniques kill

and concentrate the microfilariae and are described by the
following two slides.

The modified Knott's technique employs fOrmalin (2%) to
preserve integrity of size and shape of the microfilaria.

A one ml blood sample is mixed with 10 ml of formalin,

the supernatant decanted and methylene blue is then added

to the precipitate, mixed, and a drOp of this stained
preparation is examined microscopically.

A newer technique is the filter method in which blood is
mixed with a detergent for lysis of cells using 35 ml lysing
fluid to 5 ml blood, the mixture is passed through a Su pore
filter and the filter is then stained and examined micro-
scopically. The lysing solution causes a shrinkage of micro-
filaria by 75-100u. TO prevent this, formalin may be

used in lieu of lysing solution.

Eosinophilia often accompanies heartworm disease, with
eosinOphils accounting fOr 50-70% of the total white blood
cell count. This may be due to sensitization of body tissues.

A canine eosinophil is shown here in the middle of the field.

35

36
37

38

39 P

40 P

41 P

42 P

43

119

A.diagnostic problem results from confusion of the micro-
filariae of Dipetatonema teconditum with those of D. immitis.
Dipatalonema adults are nonpathogenic parasites of the
subcutaneous tissues, their microfilariae are fOund in the
peripheral circulation, and the flea serves as their vector.
Differential diagnosis is therefOre important.

Diaofiifania microfilariae are many in number, vigorous

but with little forward progress, and 290-320u x 6.7-6.9u.
In contrast microfilariae of Dipctafonema are few in number,
exhibit rapid and progressive motility, and are 240-285u x
4.7-5.8u.

Diaofiitania microfilariae have tapered heads and straight
tails, whereas about 1/3 of the Dipctafonema.microfilariae
have button-hook tails and blunted heads with anterior
sides being parallel.

This is a photomicrograph of a Diaofiifania.microfilariae
which illustrates the tapered anterior and posterior ends.
The Dipetafonema microfilaria shown here has a blunted
anterior end and a button-hook tail.

.A comparison of the anterior ends of Ditofiitaaia and
Dipetafonemu.microfilariae.

A comparison of the posterior ends of Diaofiitania and
Dipetafonema microfilariae.

A treatment program.may employ either chemotherapy or

surgery.

44

45

46

120

Surgery is indicated if marked cardiorespiratory changes

are detected by clinical signs, electrocardiography and
thoracic radiography. Often large numbers of adults may

be responsible fOr clinical changes, and require surgical
removal, e.g., pulmonary arterotomy. Dogs which are
seriously diseased may not tolerate chemotherapy which kills
the adult worms and produces emboli which are then carried
to the pulmonary circulation.

Chemotherapy may be elected to rid a dog of its adult
heartworm burden. This is usually initiated in late Winter
or early Spring in the temperate zone, often because it

is not until then that microfilariae are detected. Prophy-
laxis is used during the mosquito season.

Chemotherapy begins with intravenous injection of an arsenical
such as CaparsolateR twice a day for two days, in order

to kill the adult heartworm. It is suggested that the
animal be hOSpitalized during the treatment period in order
to monitor liver function. After 6 weeks, a.microfilaricide
such as dithiazine iodide or DizanR should be used until
microfilariae are no longer fOund in blood samples.
Prophylactic treatment is used to kill migrating larvae, i.e.,
the L4 stage, just following its molt (10-20 days post-
infection). Diethylcarbamazine compounds such as CaricideR
may be used in tablet or liquid form on a daily basis during
the mosquito season. If a dog does not tolerate daily

dosing, treatment every second or third day can be tried.

47

48

49

121

The compounds displayed are commonly used in therapy,

viz., CaparsolateR, DizanR and CaricideR.

In summary, canine heartworm disease has become a problem
in much of the United States. It principally involves

a dog-mosquito cycle with the length of the cycle about
10-14 days in the mosquito and 6-7 months in the dog. Dogs
clinically affected display dyspnea, decreased exercise
tolerance and cardiac changes. Therapeutic treatment

may be surgical or pharmaceutical. The goal is to eliminate
adults and then microfilariae. Prophylactic treatment is
necessary to prevent visceral invasion of the migratory
larval fOrm.

This material has been prepared by Robert M. Corwin (and
Richard C. Hall of) Michigan State University (with
grateful acknowledgement for the counsel and coordinating

efforts of George KOski.)

 

APPENDIX H
COST DOCUMENTATION
EXPENSIVE VERSION OF THE PROGRAM

122

123

BIOMEDICAL COMMUNICATIONS CENTER
LIFE SCIENCE A-252 353-9700

JOB ORDER

DATE DELIVERED February 15. 1974

ACCOUNT NUMBER

 

 

J08 NUMBER _££_/w ,_-____

DATE January 3, 1974 ___

 

CLIENT_D!‘: R. M. Corwin, Vet. lbd. PHONEm-Qfiz - ye; minidDEPARTMENT__Y§t-_@; - _____
A17

 

 

 

FINAL DUE DATE TAKEN av R. C. Hall _ APPROVED 8" __'_':_‘_“_d_"£"§ . ..___._.
JOB DESCRIPTION ASSIGNED T0 ‘ D's":
Partial or complete revision of slide New Rich um -

 

dirofilaria imitis (heartworm) in dogs. Milti W

 

 

 

mph -- approx. 40 - 50 pieces total with W i

student b 6 w handout

 

 

Estimated developmental time - 60 hours

 

 

 

 

SPECIAL INSTRUCTIONS (Final format, Reproduction technique,

Publication specifications)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

IJ-‘BORDevelopmental Time -- 8 weeks MATER'ALS
“‘7'" 130 hr. prod'n. (plus 60 admn.) "was 3- 11x14 Pos. 1 Prints O 1.00 -- $3.00
Student: Lmda' - 8.5 MWWW
ThOLlL' 30_0 Ruth L 39 8x10 photo prints @ 8.00 78.00
Judy ~12.0 Kathv 14 150 Acme Animation Cells @ .11 16.50
Photographers - 6.5 40 P05 1 Neg. film Kodelith-llx14@ 2.50 100.00
JOB COST 50 sheets 3M color key (wh .) @ 1.50 75.00
10 sheets Chartpak lettering e 1.50 15.00
Artist - 180 hr'. @ 5.00 - 900.00 25 slILets 3M color ke @ 2
Student 145.5 hr @ 5.00 727.50 3.5 rolls of f_ilm Ed pmessmg' . ____fl8...0.0__.
Photographer 6.5 hour @ 5.00 32.50 PM cam-“’1“ titling “5'75
Materials 416' 75 I l

 

25 Medical Illustrations @ 8.00 200.00
42 graphics (lettering graphs) 210.00
6 5.00 ——

TOTAL $2436. 75

 

APPENDIX I
COST DOCUMENTATION

INEXPENSIVE VERSION OF THE PROGRAM

124

COST: INEXPENSIVE VERSION

Labor:
Illustrator -- 21 hr. at $2.30/hr ...... $48.30
Photographer -— 3.5 hr. at 5.00/hr . . . . . 17.50

 

$65.80
Materials:

12 Sheets acetate (8 x 10) @ .05¢ ...... .60

10 Sheets multi colored construction
paper (18 x 12) @ .04 ........... .40
40 Sheets tracing paper @ .Ol¢ ....... .40
3.5 Rolls of film plus processing ...... 31.50
Composite titling of 6 slides ........ 36.50
69.40

TOTAL $135.20

125

   

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