THE RELATIVE EFFICACY OF FIVE MODIFIED CLOZE PROCEDURES FOR VOCABULARY INSTRUCTION IN A SEVENTH GRADE SOCIAL STUDIES CLASS Dissertation for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY GOMEZ COLLIER PAIGE 197.6 1.18811? II‘ I' h. This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE RELATIVE EFFICACY OF FIVE MODIFIED CLOZE PROCEDURES FOR VOCABULARY INSTRUCTION IN A SEVENTH GRADE SOCIAL STUDIES CLASS presented by Gomez Collier Paige has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Elementary and Spec1aI Education degree in Major professor Date August 11, 1976 ABSTRACT THE RELATIVE EFFICACY OF FIVE MODIFIED CLOZE PROCEDURES FOR VOCABULARY INSTRUCTION IN A SEVENTH GRADE SOCIAL STUDIES CLASS BY Gomez Collier Paige The purpose of this study was to determine the relative efficacy of a series of five modified cloze pro- cedures for facilitating vocabulary instruction in a seventh grade social studies class. This study involved a sample of 127 seventh grade social studies students in five classes, each containing approximately 25 children. There were five treatment groups in each class. Two modified cloze activities were given to each treat- ment group each week. These activities were teacher made from prose selections taken from social studies content reading material. The ten vocabulary words and terms selected for study in a particular week were included in the content of these prose selections. Each cloze activity was modified by having the ten key vocabulary words or terms deleted, each being Gomez Collier Paige replaced by spaces of equal length. These activities differed for each of the various treatment groups as follows: Treatment Group I was provided only with blank spaces. Treatment Group II was given the first letter of the deleted word or term. Treatment Group III received the first and last letters of each deleted word or term. Treatment Group IV was provided with a choice of four words, among which was the deleted word or term. Treatment Group V was given only the consonants of the deleted word. The data analyses were run using the BASTAT and FINN programs at the Michigan State University Computer Center. Within the limitations of setting, population sampling, and methodology, the findings of this study derived from 15 hypotheses were: There were no significant differences among five types of cloze procedures as measured by: ‘ the vocabulary post-test the content matter post-test the vocabulary delayed post-test the content matter delayed post-test There were no significant differences among five types of cloze procedures within high, medium, and low reading achievement levels as measured by: Gomez Collier Paige the vocabulary post-test the content matter post-test the vocabulary delayed post-test There were no significant differences among the three reading achievement levels within each of the five types of cloze procedure as measured by: the vocabulary post-test the vocabulary delayed post-test the content matter delayed post-test However, there were differences of no signifi- cance among the three reading achievement levels within each of the five types of cloze procedure as measured by: the content matter post-test There was significant correlation between the vocabulary post-test and the content matter post-test. There was significant correlation between the vocabulary delayed post-test and the content matter delayed post-test. _To summarize, this study found that the five treatments using modified construction procedures over- came the differences among subjects of different reading levels for the purpose of vocabulary instruction in the social studies content area. These treatments couched their instruction in the context of the content material and successfully accomplished the goal of vocabulary acquisition without causing any sacrifice in the learning of the associated social studies content matter. Gomez Collier Paige This study has identified an instructional tech- nique using modified cloze procedures which can give teachers the freedom of a choice of cloze structure to sharpen their students' skills without impairing or interfering with content learning. THE RELATIVE EFFICACY OF FIVE MODIFIED CLOZE PROCEDURES FOR VOCABULARY INSTRUCTION INIXSEVENTH GRADE SOCIAL STUDIES CLASS BY Gomez Collier Paige A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Elementary and Special Education 1976 CDCopyright by GOMEZ COLLIER PAIGE 1976 Henrietta, my wife and dearest friend, and Judy, Gomez III, Dustin and Tiffany ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Completion of this doctoral program would not have been possible without the support and help of a num- ber of people. It is with my deepest appreciation and a sense of gratitude that these acknowledgments are extended: Dr. Lois Bader, chairperson of my guidance com- mittee and director of this research dissertation, whose guidance, advice, and professional dedication was respon- sible for guiding me through this doctoral program, and research project. She has been a most patient and help- ful friend and teacher. Dr. Glenn C00per who willingly gave of his time, advice and encouragement throughout the entire course of my doctoral studies. Dr. William K. Durr,-whose warmth and guidance in 1972 caused me to pursue my doctoral studies at Michi- gan State University. I consider myself fortunate to have had him as a teacher and a committee member. Dr. Louise Sause whose advice, encouragement, and professional courageousness has stimulated within me an increased desire for professional and personal growth. iii Most important of all, my wife Henrietta whose invaluable typing assistance, professional advice and consultation were invaluable. Her sacrifice, patience, understanding, and unwavering selfless love over the past twenty-nine years has been the source of my strength and my belief in the sweetness of life. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . vii LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . viii Chapter I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . 1 Introduction . . . . . . 1 Statement of the Problem . . . . . 1 Theoretical Framework . . . . . . 1 Research Questions . . . . . . . 9 Limitations and Scope of the Study . . 11 Assumptions of the Study . . . . . 12 Definition of Terms . . . . . . . 13 Organization of Subsequent Chapters . 14 II. RELATED LITERATURE AND RESEARCH . . . . 16 Introduction . . . . . . 16 Context Clues and Vocabulary Instruction . . . . . . . . . l7 Cloze Procedure . . . . . . . l9 Cloze Procedure as a Vocabulary Instructional Strategy . . . . . 21 Memory and Learning . . . . . . . 25 Acquisition . . . . . . . . . 26 Retention . . . . . . . . . . 28 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . 30 III.“ METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . 33 Introduction . . . . . Parent Population . . Limitations of the Study with we. espect to Population . . . . . . . 34 Selection Of the Sample . . . . . . 35 Procedures . . . . . . . . . . 36 Introductory Stage . . . . . . . 37 Treatment Stage . . . . . . . . 37 Review Discussion Stage . . . . . 39 Chapter Design of the Study Variables . . . Collection of Data Analysis of Data . Alpha Level . . Conclusion . . . IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA Introduction . . . Hypotheses and Statistical Group 1 Hypotheses . . Group 2 Hypotheses . Group 3 Hypotheses . Group 4 Hypothesis . Summary . . . . . oooool-ao (D m oooooffo V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . Introduction . . . . . . Major Results . . . Relation of the Findings to the Literature . . . . . . Implications of the Findings . Recommendations for Future Research Conclusions . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O APPENDICES vi Page 40 40 41 43 44 46 46 46 47 48 59 59 62 65 65 65 71 72 76 77 79 84 10. ll. 12. LIST OF TABLES Independent and Dependent Variables . . Design of the Study . . Analysis of Variance Tables Nested within Achievement Hypothesis 5 . . . . Analysis of Variance Tables Nested within Achievement Hypothesis 6 . . . . Analysis of Variance Tables Nested within Achievement Hypothesis 7 . . . . Analysis of Variance Tables Nested within Achievement for Treatments Levels for for Treatments Levels for for Treatments Levels for for Treatments Levels for Page 40 42 .49 50 51 Hypothesis 8 . . . . . . . . . . 52 Analysis of Variance Tables for Achievement Levels Nested with Each One of the Five Treatment Groups for Hypothesis 9 . . . 53 Analysis of Variance Tables for Achievement Levels Nested with Each One of the Five Treatment Groups for Hypothesis 10 . . . 55 Analysis of Variance Tables for Achievement Levels Nested with Each One of the Five Treatment Groups for Hypothesis ll . . . 56 Analysis of Variance Tables for Achievement Levels Nested with Each One of the Five Treatment Groups for Hypothesis l2 . . . 58 Display of the Means of the Five Treatment Groups Over the Seven Weekly Vocabulary Tests 0 O O O O O l I O O O O 60 Frequency Polygon of the Display of the Observed Combined Means: Vocabulary . . 61 vii LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. Sample of Weekly Glossary of Vocabulary Words and Terms . . . . . . . . . 85 B. Samples of Five Modified Cloze Procedure Treatment Activities . . . . . . . 88 C. Sample of a Weekly Vocabulary Test . . . 102 D. Sample of Seventy-Item Vocabulary Test . . 105 viii CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction In this first chapter there will be included a statement of the problem, the theoretical framework and background of the problem, the research questions genera- ted by the problem, the sc0pe and limitations of the problem, the assumptions of the study, a definition of terms, as well as a presentation of the organization of subsequent chapters. Statement of the Problem This study attempts to determine the relative efficacy of a set of procedures designed to integrate vocabulary instruction with content teaching. Specifically, it will address the question: How does a series of five modified cloze procedures differ in their relative efficacy for facilitating the acquisi- tion and retention of vocabulary in a seventh grade social studies class? Theoretical Framework A preliminary View may indicate that this inves- tigation is concerned with vocabulary acquisition and retention in the social studies student. A closer view, however, should indicate that there is a larger interest which is concerned with his facility in processing lan- guage. Vocabulary skills are but one component of reading, which itself is but one of the communication skills. The interrelatedness of reading, writing, speak- ing, and listening is the key to the mastery of the effective processing of language. To be able to effec- tively receive language, the user must be able to listen and read with discrimination and insight. As the pro- ducer of spoken and written language, the user needs to be clear and precise if he is to be effective. The ability of the student to articulate what he thinks is directly dependent upon the scope and depth of his vocabulary, just as his level of listening or reading comprehension may, in large part, be determined by these same vocabulary qualities. Albert J. Harris (1970) identifies vocabulary as one of the most significant aspects of language develOp- ment. The use of verbal symbols as a means of communica- tion between individuals is a behavioral characteristic most distinctive of human beings. WOrds are the medium through which we communicate and think. We use words as symbols for our thoughts, ideas, concepts, and impres— sions. The degree to which the student is able to successfully understand these word symbols will determine, in large part, the degree to which he can learn from the thoughts of others and be capable of transmitting his own thoughts to others. With the recognition of the vital role played by words in the develOpment of language and thought, the more apparent are the implications for the great responsibility for vocabulary isntruction incumbent upon all content area teachers. The ability to develop effective vocabulary and conceptualization in students is dependent upon the interrelatedness of these two factors. Conceptualization in students cannot be enhanced unless and until the stu- dent can comprehend the lexical symbols related to the concepts being taught. Conversely, the futility of try- ing to teach a word by rOte memorization, without giving the student the understanding represented by that word, can easily be seen. Therefore, instruction must be integrated to provide for an adequate experiential refer- ence base for the reader and to provide for precise accurate writing as the context in which the new word symbol is to be presented. In this way effective devel- Opment of vocabulary is directly related to the ability to conceptualize. Eddie C. Kennedy insists that "It is impossible to discover the message in printed matter unless the words symbolizing the ideas can be recognized and their meanings interpreted" (1974:13). In developing this study several principles of learning served as guides to the writer's thinking. The attentiveness of the learner, the role of discovery in learning, the affective factor in learning, and the rela- tionship between initiative and learning are among those principles considered by the writer. Other principles which the writer feels must be considered are the mean— ingfulness of instructional material as it contributes to the sequencing and structuring of learning tasks. In the following paragraphs the writer will discuss these principles as they relate to this study. The first of these principles states that atten- tiveness is necessary to learning. For a student to learn a new word he must, from the outset, keep alert and attentive to the printed words. Attention and concentra- tion must be focused to permit the learner to associate the conceptionalizations his mind had already processed for printed words previously learned, with the lexical forms of those words as he now sees them in print. He must also attend to the task of relating concepts to lexical forms new to him. Should the instructional process introduce extraneous and unrelated reading skills at this point it would only serve to complicate the learner's task and confuse him. The activities used in this study to provide practice for the learner in relating new conceptionalizations with their lexical forms fulfill the requisites of this principle. The only stimulus presented to the student is a part of the conception in its written context and a blank space into which he is to supply the prOper lexical form, thereby completing the conceptionalization. The only reading skills and tasks needed by the student are those already possessed by the student and pertinent to the solving of this particular problem. Jerome S. Bruner (1961) has emphasized the value of the discovery process as a stimulant to learning. He asserts that it has the desirable attributes of being self-rewarding, self-perpetuating, and facilitating the memorization of related items of information. The cloze procedure was selected by this writer because it is a device which lends itself so readily to the discovery process. It is self-rewarding for the learner each time he successfully tests his response to a cloze blank against the context surrounding that blank. Comprehension of that part of the cloze procedure is realized, and the learner's efforts have been rewarded. Additional efforts are prompted by previous successes. With each successful reinforcement the process becomes more self-perpetuating as comprehension of the content of material being read by the student becomes increasingly clear. Inasmuch as the student must use his skill in the utilization of the context clues provided, conceptionalizations about the content matter and the possible lexical items to be tested when answring each cloze blank, he is compelled to attend to process and to re-process the related con- tent material found in the context provided. This processing and re-processing of items must be considered to be an important aid to the memorization of related items of information. The use of the cloze procedure as a vocabulary instructional strategy, therefore, may have ramifications for the committing to memory of certain items of content matter information which may be used in the context material in a particular cloze device. Piaget (1962) maintains that cognitive learning does not occur without involvement of the affective aspects of the learner. The student needs to feel that his efforts will bear fruit. Motivation to learn is stirred into action by the feelings of the learner. This occurs not simply because he has processed a given amount of cognitive information, but rather because of how the learner feels about what he has learned cognitively. These feelings produce the energy which fuels motivation for more learning. The student's knowledge that he, through his own efforts, has successfully filled in the blanks, and in effect provided clozure to the comprehen- sion puzzle which the cloze procedure presented to him, will positively nourish the affective aspects of the learner's desire to acquire knowledge.' The cloze procedure when used as an instructional device seeks to satisfy other principles of learning. Inherent in this procedure is the_problem that needs to be solved. The missing lexical forms represent the chal- lenge of that problem. The comprehension, which is not possible until there is clozure when the problem is solved, represents the "need to know" which is a neces- sary prerequisite to learning. An additional principle addressed is that of encouraging the learner to assume responsibility for his own learning. The need to understand the mutilated material of the cloze procedure requires the student to take the initiative and direct his efforts toward the goals of clozure and comprehension. In this process he must test, evaluate, and re-test possible solutions, which he must originate. Success is in the hands of the learner. This procedure requires that the reader analyze his own reading process and seek the solutions which result in success. The teacher, as the creator of the cloze proce- dures to be used as instructional devices, must be cog- nizant of and provide for accountability to these last two learning principles to be discussed in this study. When developing instruction in vocabulary, as with other content, the teacher must provide a learning strategy which permits students to move from the specific to the more generalized, from the concrete to the abstract. Instruction must first be centered around the develop— ment of the conceptualization desired, then the lexical form or symbol should be associated to provide for the specific and concrete aspects of vocabulary acquisition. Generalization and abstraction can be provided by the instructor when designing practice activities which utilize content matter material as contextual situations in which the student is to gain practice in the proper use of the newly acquired vocabulary. The last learning principle is one that acknowledges that it is easier to learn material that is meaningful to the student. The teacher, by carefully constructing the cloze procedures, can guarantee the meaningfulness of the vocabulary to be acquired by couching it in a context drawn from the content material in which the learner expects the words to be encountered. The specific vocabulary items inherit a functional meaningfulness whne used in a cloze procedure. They are, of course, lexical symbols which pro- vide comprehension of the larger reading passage and they are, as well, the devices by which the learner accomplishes clozure for the task at hand. In this section the writer has discussed the theoretical framework and principles of learning involved in this study. Research Questions In the previous section the writer presented rationale for the selection of the cloze procedure as a focus of study. In this section aspects of the cloze chosen for examination are presented as research questions. To guide the investigation the following ques- tions were formulated: 1. Will there be significant differences in vocabulary acquisition among five groups receiving vari- ations of modified cloze procedure activities over a period of seven weeks, as measured by a vocabulary word recognition post-test? 2. Will there be significant differences in content matter comprehension among five groups receiving variations of modified cloze procedure activities over a seven-week period, as measured by a content matter post-test? 3. Will there be significant differences in vocabulary retention among five groups receiving vari- ations of modified cloze procedure activities over a seven-week period, as measured by a vocabulary word recognition delayed post-test? 4. Will there be significant differences in con- tent matter retention among five groups receiving vari- ations of modified cloze procedure activities for a 10 seven—week period, as measured by a content matter delayed post-test? 5. Will there be significant differences in vocabulary acquisition among the three achievement levels in the five groups receiving variations of modified cloze procedure activities for a seven-week period, as measured by a vocabulary word recognition post-test? 6. Will there be significant differences in content matter comprehension among the three achievement levels in the five groups receiving variations of modi- fied cloze procedure activities for a seven-week period, as measured by a content matter post-test? 7. Will there be significant differences in vocabulary retention among the three achievement levels in the five groups receiving variations of modified cloze procedure activities for a seven-week period, as measured by a vocabulary word recognition delayed post-test? 8. Will there be significant differences in content matter retention among the three achievement levels in the five groups receiving variations of modi- fied cloze procedure activities for a seven-week period, as measured by a content matter delayed post-test? 9. Will there be significant differences within each treatment group:h1vocabulary acquisition among the three achievement levels, as measured by a vocabulary word recognition post-test? 11 10. Will there be significant differences within each treatment group in content matter comprehension among the three achievement levels, as measured by a content matter post-test? 11. Will there be significant differences within each treatment group in vocabulary retention among the three levels of achievement, as measured by a vocabulary word recognition, delayed post-test? 12. Will there be significant differences within each treatment group in content matter retention, among the three achievement levels, as measured by a content matter delayed post-test? 13. Will there be a significant correlation between scores on the vocabulary word recognition post- test and the content matter post-test? 14. Will there be a significant correlation between scores on the vocabulary word recognition delayed post-test and the content matter delayed post-test? 15. Will the patterns of growth in vocabulary acquisition be different among the five groups receiving variations of modified cloze procedure activities, as measured by six weekly vocabulary word recognition tests? Limitations and Scope of the Study This study is restricted to five seventh grade social studies classes. These classes were all in one 12 middle school on the south shore of Long Island, New York. Although there is a wide range of socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds within the student body and those students taking part in this study were selected ran- domly, it must be remembered that only about one-third of the seventh grade social studies students from this school are involved. The materials and methodology used in all such classes, while not always identical, are similar. Students involved in this study were not aware that they were in an experimental situation. The popula- tion to which the findings of this study may be general- ized should be limited to seventh grade social studies students coming into the subject school in the immediate future. No attempt will be made to generalize beyond the population of this study. This study was limited to the determination of the relative efficacy of five variations of modified cloze procedure as activities for the acquisition and retention of vocabulary in seventh grade social studies class. Assumptions of the Study 1. It was assumed that the sex of the students would have no bearing on their ability to acquire or retain vocabulary in a seventh grade social studies class. 13 2. No attempt was made to control for extrane- ous variables outside the actual classroom situation. It was assumed that they would be similarly operative in other seventh grade social studies classes in the subject school. 3. Since all five classes were taught by the same teacher it was assumed that instruction did not vary significantly from one class to another. 4. Since students were randomly assigned to treatments within each class, it was assumed that factors such as time—of-day would not affect the study. Definition of Terms Achievement levels: Achievement levels are defined as being high, medium, and low levels of reading ability. High ability students in this study are those with reading level scores of 7.5 or higher on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills. Medium ability students are those whose reading level scores were not lower than 6.5 and not higher than 7.4 on the above test. Low ability stu- dents are those whose reading level scores were 6.4 or below on the Iowa Test of Basic Skills. Modified cloze procedure activity: A modified Cloze procedure activity is defined as a prose reading selection constructed to include the use of ten vocabulary words drawn from social studies content reading material 14 with the selected words deleted and replaced by blank spaces. Retention: Retention in this study is defined as the ability to correctly associate vocabulary items with their meanings on the post-test or the delayed post- test constructed by the investigator or to correctly answer questions on the content matter delayed post-test constructed by the investigator. Comprehension: Comprehension is defined as the ability to correctly answer questions on content-matter weekly tests and a post-test administered at the end of the experiment. Vocabulary acquisition: Acquisition is defined as the ability to correctly associate vocabulary items with their definitions on weekly vocabulary tests and the vocabulary post-test. Organization of Subsequent Chapters Chapter I has included a statement of the problem, the theoretical framework and background of the problem, several research questions, a look at the scope and limi- tation of the study, some assumptions of the study, a definition of terms, and a presentation of the organiza- tion of subsequent chapters. A review of the literature and related research is presented in Chapter II. It includes sections on 15 context clues and word recognition, the cloze procedure and comprehension, the cloze procedure as a vocabulary instructional strategy, and memory and retention. In Chapter III a description of the methodology used in this study is presented. Chapter IV is a presentation of the findings of this study. It will include an_ organization and analy- sis of the data of this study. Chapter V is organized as follows: (1) major results, (2) relations of findings to the literature, (3) implications of the findings, and (4) recommendations for future research. CHAPTER II RELATED LITERATURE AND RESEARCH Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to present a review of the related literature and research. The specific tOpics included are context clues and vocabulary instruction, cloze procedure, the cloze procedure as a vocabulary instructional strategy, and memory and learning. The aim of this study is to discover which of a series of five cloze procedure exercises can best be used to aid in the teaching of vocabulary to a seventh grade social studies class. Teachers of reading have long known the value of the use of context clues as an aid to unlocking the mean- ing of previously unknown words. They have also taught the use of context clues along with phonetics and struc- tural clues to verify the pronunciation of words. This study, however, uses context clues along with some phonetic and structural clues as a strategy for providing instruction in the acquisition and retention of vocabu- lary in social studies. 16 17 There is a paucity of literature and research on the use of the cloze procedure as an instructional strategy. The writer pursued the search for previous research on this particular utilization of the cloze procedure through the use of ERIC computer searches as well as the more classical methodologies. Context Clues and Vocabulary Instruction While acknowledgment of the importance of vocabu- lary instruction has caused it to become one of the more extensively discussed subjects in reading instruction, Richard Barron reported that "Knowledge regarding effec- tive ways to implement vocabulary instruction is sparse and equivocal"(197l:4). Barron's observations hold true when one considers the reporting of means to effec- tively implement instruction in the use of context clues in vocabulary instruction. Authorities such as Emerald V. Dechant (1970), Albert Harris (1970), Arthur W. Heilman (1961), H. Alan Robinson (1963), Nila B. Smith (1963), and Emmet A. Betts (1946) are among the many who have stressed the importance of context clues in teaching word identification. William S. Gray states, "Context clues are perhaps the most important single aid to word perception" (1960:25). Authorities are also in wide agreement as to the need for teaching the use of context clues as an aid to 18 word recognition. For example, Ellen Thomas and H. Alan Robinson (1975) write: "Context clues can be a major self-help technique for students in learning the vocabu- laries of many of their subjects. They should be given all possible help in learning to use context clues as an aid in getting at the meaning of unknown words." Robert Karlin has cautioned, "It is not realistic to assume that we can teach students all the words they will need in order to read with understanding. A much better strategy is to teach them how to use their own and other resources in treating unfamiliar vocabulary" (1975:109). Among the many other authorities concurring in these views are Kathleen Hester (1964), and Tinker and McCullough (1962). Wherever found, discussions of the use of con- textual analysis, or the use of context clues to antici- pate the identification and meaning of unknown words, were consistently devoid of examples or suggestions as to the practical application of these principles. In this section the researcher has referred to representative findings in the literature concerning the use of context clues and vocabulary instruction. A review of the research revealed considerable work in the area of the use of context analysis and reading compre- hension, but an apparent absence of research relating to context analysis and the acquisition and retention of vocabulary in content areas. 19 Cloze Procedure The Cloze procedure was originally introduced by Wilson Taylor (1953) in 1953 as a measure of readability. Researchers have attempted to demonstrate that the abili- ties necessary to complete a Cloze exercise are signifi- cantly correlated to abilities necessary for comprehension in reading. Raymond Horton (1973) employed factor analy- sis to study the cloze procedure and found that there was a high degree of relationship between verbal comprehension and clozure. Vincent Louthan (1965) concluded from his study that the cloze procedure increases comprehension when the student has increased success in finding the correct word. Comprehension decreased, however, when there was no immediate feedback. Bloomer and Heitzman (1967) have hypothesized that the filling of cloze blanks, correctly, was self- reinforcing at the levels where students found the material to be challenging, but not frustrating. J. Wesley Schneyer (1965) conducted an experi- mental study to explore the effects of the cloze proce- dure upon the reading comprehension of sixth grade students. The study used two sixth grade glasses. The experimental group was a class of 32 pupils. The control class had 34 pupils. 20 Schneyer gave two types of cloze procedures to his experimental group. One was a tenth-word-deletion cloze procedure based on reading material from a basal reading series. The other type of Cloze procedure was one which deleted alternate nouns and verbs. Three of each of these two types of cloze activities were given to each child in the experimental group for each reading level, from level one through level six. These exercises were given one each day until all 57 had been attempted. All subjects in both groups took the California Test of Mental Maturity and all were pre-tested on the Gates Reading SurveyiForm I. The post-test device was Form II of the same Gates Reading Survey. Both classes were also given an informal word recognition test which consisted of lists of twenty words at each level from preprimer through level twelve. Comprehension scores were analyzed by an analysis of covariance. There was no significant difference found between those students who used the cloze procedures and those who did not. Schneyer did find that the perform- ance of the experimental group, and the tenth—word- deletion cloze exercises, were significantly related to verbal ability, reading comprehension, Speed of compre- hension, reading vocabulary, and word recognition. This study suggests that while practice in cloze exercises did not contribute to improvement in 21 comprehension abilities, there is a significant related- ness between skills used in the completion of Cloze exer- cises and important skills involved in reading comprehension. Schneyer suggested that pupils apparently need to verbalize the reasons for their choices in the completion of cloze deletions if cloze exercises are to have value as an instructional device. The literature has revealed a heavy dependency on use of the cloze procedure as a measure of the read- ability of reading material presented to students. Much energy has also been expended by researchers in verifying the close correlation between the cloze technique and reading comprehension scores on accepted standardized reading tests measuring reading comprehension. The Schneyer study was unable to establish a significant dif- ference in comprehension scores, among students using the cloze procedure and those who did not. Cloze Procedure as a Vocabulary Instructional Strategy Research in the use of the cloze procedure as an instructional strategy in the teaching of vocabulary was found to be almost nonexistent by this writer. Helen Huus points out that "Only a few studies have been made using the cloze approach to instruction, and results are inconsistent" (1968:145). This was certainly confirmed by this investigator's survey of the research. 22 A study by Vineyard and Massey (1957) indicates that there is a high degree of relatedness between com- prehension and vocabulary proficiency. They found that with intelligence held constant, the relationship between comprehension and knowledge of word meaning was high enough to warrant an attempt to improve comprehension through vocabulary training. L. L. Krantz (1957) found that reading comprehen- sion and vocabulary were related to achievement in social studies. Reading subscores from the Iowa Tests of Basic Skills of 471 seventh graders were correlated with the subscores of 256 of these same students at the ninth grade level along with 215 of them again on the eleventh grade level, but this time, on the Iowa Tests of Educa- tional Development, this last test being a measure of content area achievement. Reading vocabulary and reading comprehension were found to be the best predictors of success in social studies. Another interesting finding was that study skills in map reading; use of reference materials; use of index; reading graphs, charts, and tables were also related to success in the social studies. Krantz's study substantiates the contention that achieve- ment in social studies is correlated with vocabulary development. Richard Bloomer (1962) used the cloze technique as a teaching device, with significant improvement in 23 comprehension and college grades but not in reading rate or vocabulary. Two groups of 44 students each were selected at random from students volunteering for a non- credit college remedial reading course. The experimental group was given a series of Cloze procedure exercises which were derived from commercial basal reading, science and social studies programs for the elementary school level. Students in the control group pursued a regular course of studies during the semester with no special assistance. The experimental group showed a significant increase in comprehension between the initial and final tests. Although there was gain in vocabulary scores, these differences were not significant for the experi- mental group. Bloomer also believed that his study demon- strated that cloze exercises appeared to be more highly motivating than a more conventional program when the teacher personality was eliminated. Emans and Fisher (1967) reported a study which they conducted in 1967. They administered a series of six cloze exercises to each of 781 subjects from grade three through grade ten. Misspellings, incorrect verb tenses and incorrect inflexive endings were counted as correct answers. These investigators were able to estab- lish a hierarchy as to the relative difficulty level of 24 each of these exercises when used to aid children in developing the use of context clues. These researchers revised exercises found in the Gates Reading Survey to deve10p six forms of cloze exer- cises. Form I was a multiple choice form. The key word was omitted and a correct response was to be selected from four choices supplied. In Form II the first and last letter was given while other letters were omitted. Only the first letter was given in Form III. The con- sonants were given in place of the key word in Form IV. Form V gave only a line of equal length for each key word. In Form VI the entire word was omitted and was replaced by a line, the length of which was determined by the length of the omitted key word. The results of this study showed that there was indeed a hierarchy of difficulty in the use of this type of exercise, which was significant at the .001 level. In ranking from most difficult to easiest they were: 1. Form V--no clue given 2. Form III--first letter only given 3. Form VI--length of word given 4. Form II--first and last letters given 5. Form I--four word choice given 6. Form IV--consonants given The authors did not indicate if multiple letter graphemes were used as well as single letters in Forms 25 II, III, and IV as phonetic clues. They did, however, conclude that, in general, the more clues that a reader has the easier it is to unlock an unknown word. These authors also felt that these exercises could be put to practical use for teaching context clues in the class- room. In reviewing the research in this category the investigator noted that there was a notable lack of studies using the cloze approach for instructional pur- poses. Of those few that do exist the results were inconclusive. This writer has been unable to uncover any research using the cloze procedure to teach vocabulary in social studies or other content areas. Memory and Learning The earliest major studies done on memory and learning were carried out by Hermann Ebbinghaus, in the late 18005. Dr. Ebbinghaus (1913) described experiments which he performed on himself. He concentrated on the number of times it was necessary to repeat an unknown lexical item before it was committed to memory. His procedure was to first commit to memory the list of unknown lexical terms. After he had memorized them and could repeat them perfectly, he then periodically tested his ability to recall the terms. 26 Ebbinghaus relied on nonsense terms because he did not wish to contaminate the results of his experi- ments with the influence of prior memories. Since Ebbinghaus, other researchers have reported the importance of prior or associated memories and con- sider them to be a meaningfulness factor. In using mean- ingfulness theory they profess that meaningful terms are easier to learn and recall than those that are less meaningful. Acquisition Investigators Cieutat, Stockwell, and Noble (1958) conducted a study using 170 Montana State University col- lege students. The subjects were asked to memorize a list of paired verbal items. After a period of time the first word in each pair was used as a stimulus in an attempt to cause the subject to respond by giving the second of the paired words. Four groups of students were used, each receiving a different list of words. Each list was of varying degrees of meaningfulness between the paired words, rang- ing from high to low in the meaningfulness factor. The results of this study demonstrated that meaningfulness exerted a profound effect on the rate of learning. It would seem that this study shows that words are easier to learn if they can be linked with other words or images already stored in one's memory. 27 Additional evidence of the importance of the meaningfulness of the verbal context to an ability for acquiring new words is provided by experimenters Miller and Selfridge (1950). Their study was performed at Harvard University, using twenty students from that institution. Eight sets of strings of words in a varying degree of approximation of English were constructed. The first set consisted of an approximation made up of words randomly selected although biased according to their frequency of occurrence in the language. The second set of approximations was develOped by submitting a stimulus word to several persons who were then asked to create sentences utilizing the stimulus word. From these samples eventually were produced a string of words of the required length. More complex approximations were constructed in an analogous manner, iflmz difference in complexity being that longer and longer units are used in building word chains for each additional set. As each approximation becomes longer the chains<1fwords make up units that have more meaning. The range of these approximations run the gamut from the simplest, which seem totally inco- herent, to the highest form of approximation which con— tains a series of stream-of—consciousness passages. 28 These investigators found that for passages ranging in length from ten words to fifty words, their subjects' recall improved as the order of approximations more closely simulated familiar English. One of the important findings of this study was the indication that improvement in the memorization of verbal material appears to be dependent upon the con- nectedness of the material to be learned. Retention A classic study was conducted by C. W. Luh (1922) on "The Conditions of Retention." Luh used ninety series of nonsense syllables, consisting of twelve syllables in each series. Twenty college students were used to test the effects of five Specific methods of remembering. The five methods of remembering tested were: recognition, relearning, free recall, written reproduction, and serial anticipation. The subjects were tested periodically over a 24-hour period following their memorizing of the nonsense syllables. Recognition proved to be the easiest of the five procedures. Seeing the words themselves appeared to be the best cue to remembering them. Relearning was the next most successful method of remembering. The reason for this is most probably the same as that for recogni- tion. If memory is so closely related totflmzcircumstances 29 in which the verbal material is to be retrieved, then with the right clues present, information that has apparently been forgotten could easily be recalled. A final study on retention seems worthy of note. It is one conducted by A. F. Zeller (1950) at Johns Hop- kins University. His research was conducted using twenty male and female college students. Nonsense syllables and simple motor tasks were employed. The purpose of the study was to explore whether the feeling of failure can repress memories. A summary of Zeller's results demonstrated that induced failure at a task serves to reduce the ability to recall previously known material that had become associated with the fail- ure task. Success that had been induced at that same associated task serves to increase the ability of the subjects to recall the original nonsense syllables and simple motor tasks. Although it is unlikely that repression can account for all forgetting, it does seem to account for some forgetting when associated with unpleasantness. In summarizing the research cited in the Memory and Retention sections of this chapter, the writer pre- sented material which emphasized the following four points: (1) meaningful, image-evoking verbal materials are easier to learn and remember than those that are meaningless and lack imagery; (2) verbal materials that 30 are connected and more "English-like" are easier to learn and remember than those verbal materials that are randomly ordered; (3) much of the apparent inability to retain learned verbal material is a function of interference, such as being associated with experiences which tend to induce failure; and, finally, (4) practice and review using the verbal material to be acquired and retained appears to produce the best cues for remembering. Summary This chapter covered the review of the related literature in four sections. In the first section litera- ture was cited which summarized the position of accepted authorities.in reading, that context clues are vital to successful vocabulary instruction. The need for research and knowledge of the more efficacious ways of implement- ing vocabulary instruction was emphasized. The apparent absence of research utilizing context analysis in the acquisition and retention of content area vocabulary was noted. Research covered in the second section of this chapter presented a picture of the more traditional use of the cloze technique as a measure of readability and reading comprehension of material. The absence, however, of research dealingvfidfllthe usefulness of the cloze pro- cedure as a teaching strategy is evident. 31 The specific use of the cloze procedure as a vocabulary instructional strategy was considered in the third section. The relatedness of reading comprehension, vocabulary, and success in the social studies was reviewed in this section, as was the relatedness of reading comprehension and vocabulary proficiency. Research by Bloomer failed to significantly improve vocabulary using the cloze technique as a teaching device in a college remedial reading course. Finally, the experiment of Emans and Fisher was reported, in which they established a highly significant hierarchical ranking in the relative ease or difficulty of each of six varying cloze exercises. They concluded their report with the suggestion that these exercises could be put to practical use in teaching context clues in the classroom. The concluding body of research reviewed discussed the importance of the meaningfulness factor in the acqui- sition and retention of verbal items. Miller and Sel- fridge further demonstrated that the more English-like the context in which unknown lexical terms were couched, the greater was the ability to learn and recall those terms. Additional research by C. W. Luh demonstrated that the more frequently the actual verbal items are seen by the subjects, the greater was their ability to recognize and relearn them. The final study by Zeller pointed out that situations which induce failure at a 32 task, similarly reduce the subject's ability to recall verbal items, previously studied. A review of the literature and research presented in this chapter has made clear a lack of systematic research concerning the use of the cloze technique as an efficacious teaching strategy for vocabulary, yet the research suggests a need for studies in this area. Therefore, the purpose of the present research is to obtain, analyze, and compare data regarding the use of five different modified Cloze procedures as activities for vocabulary instruction in seventh grade social studies class. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Introduction This chapter elaborates on the methodology employed in conducting the study. It identifies and defines the population and sample. The procedure used for gathering data is outlined. The treatment and test- ing instruments employed with their administration and statistical treatment is explained. Parent Population The children in this study came from a community which has representative segments from all of the various socioeconomic groups. The subject school is the only junior high school in the school district; therefore, all of the junior high school students in that school district go to this school. The reading scores of these seventh graders ranged from a level of 10.6 to a lower level of 3.2, as tested on the reading portion of the Iowa Test of Basic Skills at the end of their sixth grade year. The percentage of children of Negro and Hispanic heritage is not unlike that found in many school districts 33 34 of Long Island, New York. Approximately 60 percent of those students graduating from this system's schools enter college. The community has a population of approximately 50,000 persons. It is located in Suffolk County in New York State. The community is essentially a "bedroom com- munity" from which many of the working adults commute to New York City and its environs. A large percentage of the balance of working adults are professional and ser- vice industry workers which support the commuter popula- tion. The county welfare office is also located in this community. Inasmuch as there is inadequate public trans- portation within the county, there is a smaller percentage of the population who have come to live in the community because of the need to be near their source of public assistance. Limitations of the Study with Respect to Population The findings of this study will be limited to the population with which the research was carried out. One may possibly generalize to seventh grade social studies students coming into the subject school, until such time as the population or conditions might change. 35 Selection of the Sample This study involved a sample of 127 seventh grade social studies students in five classes, each containing approximately 25 children. These boys and girls were studying, in the first half of the seventh grade, an American history program. They were all in the middle or average track in the sub- ject junior high school. The average track was made up of all those children who generally have no severe read— ing or learning problems. Children who are gifted intel- lectually are placed in the upper track. The parents of a few of these gifted children chose not to have their children placed in the upper track. Intellectually gifted children, therefore, were also found in the middle track. All those children within the middle track were randomly assigned to the several teachers who taught social studies to the middle track. The investigator taught each of the five classes participating in this study. There were several other groups of such classes taught by other teachers not participating in this study. The boys and girls randomly assigned to the investigator's classes were then randomly assigned to each of the five treatments in this study by using a table of random-ordered numbers. 36 The reading scores of the children in the sample ranged from 10.4 at the upper limit to a 3.2 lower level. Procedures This study contained five treatments which were conducted in each of the five subject classes. The students in each treatment group were grouped according to high, medium, or low reading ability. Those students whose reading scores on the reading segment of the Igwa Test of Basic Skills fell below the 6.4 level were assigned to the "low" group for the purpose of the sta- tistical analysis of this study. Those students whose scores fell between 6.5 and 7.4 were allocated to the "medium" group and those with scores above 7.5 were placed in the "high" group. The subject students had no knowledge of this ability grouping. Similarly, assign- ment of treatments was in no way influenced by ability grouping. The students in the subject sample were randomly assigned to the five various treatment groups from a list of random-ordered numbers. Instruction consisted of an introductory stage which was common to all treatment groups. The second stage contained five treatments made up of different modified cloze activities. A review discussion, common to all groups, composed the third stage. The weekly 37 testing, the post-tests, and the delayed post-tests comprised the final stage and was also common to all treatment groups. Introductory Stage A ninety-item word recognition test was given to all students in the sample in early September. These words were extracted from the seventh grade social stud- ies content reading material. They were words and terms which are peculiar to the social studies or words which have several meanings but also have a meaning special to the social studies. Seventy of the most frequently missed terms or words were then selected as the vocabu- lary to be taught during the seven weeks of the treatment. At the beginning of each week each student was presented with an individual glossary listing the words and definitions of the ten vocabulary words or terms to be taught that week (see Appendix A). These words were pronounced and the meanings explained, discussed, and tried in oral practice situations. The activities in this stage were conducted in whole-class groups. Treatment Stage There were five treatment groups in each class. Two modified cloze activities were given to each treat- ment group each week. These activities were teacher-made from prose selections taken from social studies content 38 reading material. The ten vocabulary words and terms selected for study in a particular week were included in the content of these prose selections. Each Cloze activity was modified and then had those ten key vocabulary words or terms deleted and each replaced by spaces of equal length. These activities differed for each of the various treatment groups as follows (see Appendix B): Treatment Group I was given the modified Cloze activity with only the above described blanks. This group was forced to use context clues alone to complete the activity. Treatment Group II was given the same activity with blank spaces which had the first letter of the deleted vocabulary word or term filled in. They were able to use the phonetic clues provided, as well as the context clues given to Treatment Group I. Treatment Group III was given the same modified cloze activity with the same blank spaces but with the first and last letters filled in. They had the addi- tional phonetic clues provided by the final letters plus those of Treatment Group II and the context clues given to Treatment Groups I and II. Treatment Group IV was given a cloze activity with blank spaces as was given in Treatment Group I and a separate list containing four words for each blank 39 space. This list contained the deleted vocabulary word and three differing words or terms used as foils. This group had the context clues provided in Treatment Group I, the phonetic clues provided in Groups II and III, as well as the multiple choice items and structural analy- sis clues. Treatment Group V was provided with the blank spaces as above with the exception that the consonants in the deleted vocabulary word had been provided in each blank. These consonants appeared in their proper order with apprOpriate space being left for the insertion of the missing vowels by the students. The students individually completed these activi- ties without interacting with their classmates. They did not refer to notes, textbooks, glossary, or any aid other than the particular modified cloze treatment activity provided them, to complete this phase of the procedure. Review Discussion Stage The teacher then conducted a review discussion with each whole class immediately after the completion of the cloze activities. The discussion stressed the use of context clues as well as the clues particular to each of the five treatments, and answered questions raised by that particular day's activity. These 40 discussions were held constant as much as possible for each of the five subject classes. Design of the Study This study is an experimental study of the repeated measure type (Campbell et a1., 1963). Table 1 illustrates the five levels of the independent variable treatment and the four dependent variables. TABLE l.--Independent and Dependent Variables. Outcome Measures Assign- Treat- Post-Tests Delayed Post-Tests ment ment Vocab. Content VOcab. Content R X1 01 O2 03 04 R x2 01 O2 O3 04 R X3 01 02 O3 04 R x4 01 O2 O3 04 R X5 01 O2 O3 04 Variables The five treatment levels in the study are the five different modified cloze treatments applied to the five different treatment groups. 41 The four dependent variables in the study are the scores on (1) the vocabulary post-test, (2) the content matter post-test, (3) the vocabulary delayed post-test, and (4) the content matter delayed post-test. The five treatment levels for the descriptive part of this study are the five different modified cloze treat- ments applied to the five different treatment groups. The six dependent variables for the descriptive part of this study are the scores on each of the six weekly vocabulary word recognition tests given to each of the five treatment groups. Table 2 illustrates the design of the study. Collection of Data A ten-word recognition test was administered on the last school day of each of the first six weeks of treatment. This device tested only the vocabulary words studied that week (see Appendix C). The results of these tests were then computed to describe the patterns of growth shown by each treatment group over the course of weeks. On the last school day of the seventh and final week of the treatments, a seventy-item, no time limit, word recognition test was given. This tested the degree to which the vocabulary used in the treatments had been acquired by the students (see Appendix D). On the first school day of the eighth week, a fifty-item social studies content matter test, covering 42 A 2m 2 m m A 2 v m A z m m E A z m m A . . . 2 Am A m Hounds Hound: mum s o acoucoo A Am. o> ucousoo aoAsndoo> = m m o m N A m own Ao>0A mmsouw u .85 Rafi—”And ucofiumoun. mammalumom 099269 mumoaiumom Rookie __ mumps .Amoo> haxooz .wosum man no cmAwmouu.~ mAmme 43 the unit of work completed during the past seven weeks, was administered to all students in the sample. The same seventy-item word recognition test which was used as a seven-week post-test was then re-administered as a delayed post-test to evaluate vocabulary retention. It was given on the last school day of the ninth week after the commencement of treatment. An equivalent form of the content matter post-test was given as a delayed post-test on the first day of the tenth week after the commencement of treatment. The pur- pose of this testing was to determine to what degree content material had been retained by the sample. Analysis of Data The writer used the student as the unit of analy- sis for the following reasons. Communications between the teacher and the various classes was identical and held constant, eliminating the intervening variable of differing information being pre- sented in the review or introductory stages to the various classes. Inasmuch as each treatment group was further divided into high, medium, and low sub-cells, there were as few as five students in one sub-cell and approximately eight in most of the other sub-cells. 44 The data from the five independent variables and four dependent variables were treated by a two-way repeated measures analysis of variance. The patterns of growth of the various treatment groups over time, as represented by their scores on the seven weekly word recognition tests, were examined. These patterns were displayed with a frequency polygon. Alpha Level The investigator set an overall cumulative alpha level of .14 for the fourteen hypotheses being tested in this study. This overall alpha level will be divided by fourteen to avoid an inflated alpha problem, the limita— tions of which may distort some of the results. The figure represented by the quotient of the sub-division of the cumulative alpha level of .14 will be assigned to each of the individual hypotheses as their apportioned alpha level. This would provide an alpha level of .01 for each of the individual hypotheses. The overall alpha level is .14. This means that this results in an 86 percent overall level of confidence. Conclusion This study was conducted to determine the rela- tive efficiency of a series of modified cloze procedures, using context clues along with phonetic and structural 45 clues, to facilitate word recognition and retention in seventh grade social studies classes. In this chapter the writer identified the popula- tion of interest to this study, and the random selection of the subject sample. The procedures used in developing the treatment and testing instruments were explained. The administration of these devices was described. Finally, in this chapter the writer detailed the manner in which the statistical data of this study was gathered and treated. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA Introduction The purpose of this study was to determine the relative efficacy of five modified Cloze techniques as strategies for the acquisition and retention of vocabu- lary and content matter by students in seventh grade social studies classes. The previous chapter illustrated the methodology for the collection and treatment of the data. In this chapter the writer will present the statistical analysis as it relates to the several hypotheses. Hypotheses and Statistical Tests Hypotheses 1 through 4 were analyzed by two-way repeated measures of variance, while Hypotheses 5 through 12 were subjected to statistical analysis by a two-way univariate analysis of variance. Hypothesis 15 utilized the two-way analysis of variance only to obtain the dis- play of the means. These above mentioned analyses were run using the FINN program at the Michigan State Univer- sity Computer Center. Their BASTAT program was used to compute a Pearson product moment correlation between the 46 47 dependent measures for Hypotheses l3 and 14. The find- ings relative to Hypothesis 15 will be graphically displayed. Group 1 Hypotheses The hypotheses in this group were treated by a two-way repeated measures of variance. H1: There will be significant differences in vocabu- lary development among five groups receiving variations of modified Cloze procedure activities as measured by a seventy-item, short answer, vocabulary word recognition post-test. The F ratio of .7654 (4 and 112 df) was not statisticalLy significant. The hypothesis was, there— fore, not supported by the data (p < .5500). The F ratio for the multivariate test of equality of mean vectors, run for Hypotheses l and 3 equaled .6131, certifying that the data failed to support these two hypotheses as statistically significant (p < .7665). H2: There will be significant differences in content matter comprehension among five groups receiving -variations of modified cloze procedure activi— ties, as measured by a fifty-item, short answer, content matter post-test. The F ratio of 1.0137 (4 and 112 df) was not sta- tistically significant. The hypothesis was not supported by the data (p < .4036). The F ratio for the multivariate test of equality of mean vectors, run for Hypotheses 2 and 4 combined equaled .8732 (8 and 222 df), again veri- fying the failure of the data to statistically support these hypotheses to a significant degree (p < .5399). 48 H3: There will be significant differences in vocabu- lary retention among five groups receiving vari- ations of modified cloze procedure activities as measured by a seventy-item, short answer, vocabu- lary word recognition delayed post-test. The F ratio of .4676 (4 and 112 df) was not sta- tistically significant. The hypothesis remains unsup- Oorted by the data (p < .7588). The F ratio for the multivariate test of equality of mean vectors run for Hypotheses l and 3 combined equaled .6131 (8 and 222 df), verifying that the data failed to support these hypotheses as significant (p < .7665). H4: There will be significant differences in content matter retention among five groups receiving variations of modified Cloze procedure activities as measured by a fifty-item, short answer, con- tent matter delayed post-test. The F ratio of .7766 (4 and 112 df) was not sta- tistically significant. The data were again unable to support the hypothesis (p < .5652). The F ratio for multivariate test of equality of mean vectors for Hypothe- ses 2 and 4 equaled .8732 (8 and 222 df) . The statistical significance of these hypotheses remained unsupported by the data (p < .5399). Group 2 Hypotheses The following eight hypotheses were statistically analyzed by using a two-way univariate analysis of variance. 49 Within each achievement level there will be sig- nificant differences in vocabulary development among five groups receiving variations of modi- fied Cloze activities as measured by a seventy- item, short answer, vocabulary word recognition post-test. TABLE 3.--Analysis of Variance Tables for Treatments Nested within Achievement Levels for Hypothesis 5. Achievement Levels Mean of Five Treatments Squares df Ratio p < High 112.6493 4 .3635 .8342 Error 309.876 114 Medium 7.4935 4 .0242 .9989 Error 309.876 114 Low 244.5643 4 .7893 .5345 Error 309.876 114 1. Within the high achievement level the F ratio of .3635 (4 and 114 df) was not statistically signifi- cant. The data failed to support the hypothesis (p < .8342). 2. Within the medium achievement level the F ratio of .0242 (4 and 114 df) was not statistically sig- nificant. The data failed to support the hypothesis (p < .9989). 3. Within the low achievement level the F ratio of .7892 (4 and 114 df) was not statistically significant. The data failed to support the hypothesis (p < .5345). 50 Within each achievement level there will be sig- nificant differences in content matter compre- hension among five groups receiving variations of modified Cloze procedures as measured by a fifty-item, short answer, content matter post- test. :1: m TABLE 4.--Ana1ysis of Variance Tables for Treatments Nested within Achievement Levels for Hypothesis 6. Achievement Levels Mean df F < for Five Treatments Squares Ratio p High 10.9405 4 .0620 .9929 Error 176.5285 114 Medium 181.5027 4 1.0282 .3959 Error 176.5285 114 Low 97.1237 4 .5502 .6993 Error 176.5285 114 1. Within the high achievement level the F ratio of .0620 (4 and 114 df) was not statistically significant. The data failed to support the hypothesis (p < .9929). 2. Within the medium achievement level the F ratio of 1.0282 (4 and 114 df) was not statistically sig- nificant. The data failed to support the hypothesis (p < .3959). 3. Within the lower achievement level the F ratio of .5502 (4 and 114 df) was not statistically significant, and the data failed to support this hypothesis (p < .6993). 51 Within each achievement level there will be sig- nificant differences in vocabulary retention among five groups receiving variations of modi- fied cloze procedure activities as measured by a seventy-item, short answer, vocabulary word recognition delayed post-test. TABLE 5.--Analysis of Variance Tables for Treatments Nested within Achievement Levels for Hypothesis 7. Achievement Levels Mean df F < for Five Treatments Squares Ratio p High 110.5010 4 .3663 .8323 Error 102.8518 114 Medium 22.3860 4 .0742 .9899 Error 102.8518 114 Low 246.3121 4 .8165 .5173 Error 102.8518 114 1. Within the highest achievement level the F ratio of .3663 (4 and 114 df) was not statistically sig- nificant. The data did not support the hypothesis (p < .8323). 2. Within the medium achievement level the F ratio of .0742 (4 and 114 df) was not statistically sig- nificant. The data failed to permit the acceptance of this hypothesis (p < .9899). 3. Within the lower level of achievement the F ratio of .8165 (4 and 114 df) was again not statistically 52 significant. The hypothesis could not be supported by the data (p < .5173). H : Within each achievement level there will be sig- nificant differences in content matter retention among five groups receiving variations of modi- fied cloze procedure activities as measured by a fifty-item, short answer content matter delayed post-test. TABLE 6.--Ana1ysis of Variance Tables for Treatments Nested within Achievement Levels for Hypothesis 8. Achievement Levels Mean df F < for Five Treatments Squares Ratio High 70.5080 4 .6855 .6035 Error 102.8518 114 Medium 45.9377 4 .4466 .7747 Error 102.8518 114 Low 57.5918 4 .5599 .6922 Error 102.8518 114 1. Within the higher level of achievement the F ratio of .6855 (4 and 114 df) was not statistically significant. The hypothesis cannot be accepted because of the failure of the data to support (p < .6035). 2. The medium level of achievement had an F ratio of .4466 (4 and 114 df) which was not statistically significant. The hypothesis failed because it was not supported by the data (p < .7747). 53 3. Within the lower achievement level the F ratio of .5599 (4 and 114 df) was not statistically sig- nificant. The hypothesis could not be supported by the data (p < .6922). Within each treatment group there will be sig- nificant differences in vocabulary development among three achievement levels as measured by a seventy-item, short answer, vocabulary word recognition post-test. H9: TABLE 7.--Ana1ysis of Variance Tables for Achievement Levels Nested with Each One of the Five Treat- ment Groups for Hypothesis 9. Achievement Nested Mean df F < Within Treatment Squares Ratio p Group I 1852.1812 2 10.5386 .0001 Error 175.7521 116 Group II ’ 1104.7990 2 6.2861 .0026 Error 175.7521 116 Group III 1583.3974 2 9.0093 .0003 Error 175.7521 116 Group IV 2550.8101 2 14.5137 .0001 Error 175.7521 116 Group V 1107.5520 2 6.3018 .0026 Error 175.7521 116 54 1. Within Treatment Group I, the F ratio of 10.5386 (2 and 116 df) was statistically significant. This hypothesis is supported by the data and therefore is accepted (p < .0001). 2. Within Treatment Group II, the F ratio of 6.2861 (2 and 116 df) was statistically significant. This hypothesis is accepted, as it is supported by the data (p < .0026). 3. With Treatment Group III, the F ratio of 9.0093 (2 and 116 df) was statistically significant. This hypothesis is accepted, as it is supported by the data (p < .0003). 4. Within Treatment Group IV, the F ratio of 14.5137 (2 and 116 df) was statistically significant. The hypothesis is accepted, as it is supported by the data (p < .0001). 5. Within Treatment Group V, the F ratio of 6.3018 (2 and 116 df) was statistically significant. The hypothesis is accepted, as it is supported by the data (p < .0026). H Within each treatment group there will be sig- nificant differences in content matter compre- hension among three achievement levels as measured by a fifty-item, short answer, content matter post-test. 10‘ 1. Within Treatment Group I, the F ratio of 2.1990 (2 and 116 df) was not statistically significant. 55 TABLE 8.--Analysis of Variance Tables for Achievement Levels Nested with Each One of the Five Treat- ment Groups for Hypothesis lO. Achievement Nested Mean df F < Within Treatment Squares Ratio p Group I 365.2923 2 2.1990 .1156 Error 116.1146 116 Group II 181.6759 2 1.0937 .3385 Error 116.1146 116 Group III 17.9595 2 .1081 .8977 Error 116.1146 116 Group IV 214.4750 2 1.2911 .2789 Error 116.1146 116 Group V 227.2045 2 1.3678 .2588 Error 116.1146 116 ‘ This hypothesis failed because it was unsupported by the data (p < .1156). 2. Within Treatment Group II, the F ratio of 1.0937 (2 and 116 df) was not statistically significant. The hypothesis was unsupported by the data (p < .3385). 3. Within Treatment Group III, the F ratio of .1081 (2 and 116 df) was not statistically significant. The hypothesis was not supported by the data (p < .8977). 4. Within Treatment Group IV, the F ratio of 1.2911 (2 and 116 df) was not statistically significant. 56 The hypothesis was not accepted as it was not supported by the data (p < .2789). 5. Within Treatment Group V, the F ratio of 1.3678 (2 and 116 df) was not statistically significant. The hypothesis was not supported by the data (p < .2588). H11: Within each treatment group there will be sig- nificant differences in vocabulary retention among three levels of achievement as measured by a seventy-item, short answer, vocabulary word recognition, delayed post-test. TABLE 9.--Analysis of Variance Tables for Achievement Levels Nested with Each One of the Five Treatment Groups for Hypothesis ll. Achievement Nested Mean F Within Treatment Squares df Ratio p < Group I 1328.7437 2 7.7590 .0007 Error 171.2525 116 Group II 1357.5651 2 7.9273 .0006 Error 171.2525 116 Group III 1313.6814 2 7.6710 .0008 Error 171.2525 116 Group IV 2852.6661 2 16.6577 .0001 Error 171.2525 116 Group V 1169.2260 2 6.8275 .0016 Error 171.2525 116 57 1. Within Treatment Group I, the F ratio of 7.7590 (2 and 116 df) was statiStically significant. The hypothesis was supported by the data (p < .0007). 2. Within Treatment Group II, the F ratio of 7.9273 (2 and 116 df) was statistically significant. The hypothesis was supported by the data (p < .0006). 3. Within Treatment Group III, the F ratio of 7.6710 (2 and 116 df) was statistically significant. The hypothesis was supported by the data (p < .0008). 4. Within Treatment Group IV, the F ratio of 16.6577 (2 and 116 df) was statistically significant. The hypothesis was supported by the data (p < .0001). 5. Within Treatment Group V, the F ratio of 6.8275 (2 and 116 df) was statistically significant. The hypothesis was supported by the data (p < .0016). H Within each treatment group there will be sig- nificant differences in content matter retention among three achievement levels as measured by a fifty-item, short answer, content matter delayed post-test. 12‘ 1. Within Treatment Group I, the F ratio of 4.3352 (2 and 116 df) was statistically significant. The data supported the hypothesis (p < .0153). 2. Within Treatment Group II, the F ratio of 7.6265 (2 and 116 df) was statistically significant. The hypothesis was supported by the data (p < .0008). 58 TABLE lO.--Ana1ysis of Variance Tables for Achievement Levels Nested with Each One of the Five Treatment Groups for Hypothesis 12. Achievement Nested Mean df F < Within Treatment Squares Ratio p Group I 276.8430 2 4.3352 .0153 Error 63.8598 116 Group II 487.0245 2 7.6265 .0008 Error 63.8598 116 Group III 897.3680 2 14.0521 .0001 Error 63.8598 116 Group IV 435.1106 2 6.8135 .0016 Error 63.8598 116 Group V 410.4116 2 6.4268 .0023 Error 63.8598 116 3. Within Treatment Group III, the F ratio of 14.0521 (2 and 116 df) was statistically significant. The hypothesis was supported by the data (p < .0001). 4. Within Treatment Group IV, the F ratio of 6.8135 (2 and 116 df) was statistically significant. The hypothesis was supported by the data (p < 5. Within Treatment Group V, the F ratio of 6.4268 (2 and 116 df) was statistically significant. The hypothesis was supported by the data (p < .0016). .0023). 59 Group 3 Hypotheses Hypotheses l3 and 14 were statistically evalu- ated by using the Pearson product moment correlation between the four major dependent measures. There will be significant correlation between scores on the seven-week vocabulary word recog- nition post-test and the seven-week content matter post-test. H13: The data revealed a correlation between the scores on the seven-week vocabulary word recognition post- test and the seven-week content matter post-test at .39137697. The r = .39137697 was significant beyond the .01 level. The data therefore supports this hypothesis (Ferguson, 1966). H14: There will be a significant correlation between scores on the vocabulary word reCOgnition delayed post-test and the content matter delayed post-test. An r = .59188897 was computed for the correlation between the scores on the vocabulary word recognition delayed post-test and the content matter delayed post- test. The correlation was significant beyond the .01 level and does support this hypothesis (Ferguson, 1966). Group 4 Hypothesis This hypothesis was treated to obtain the diSplay of means which is presented in Table 11. H The pattern of growth in vocabulary development will be different between the five groups receiv- ing variations of modified cloze procedure activi- ties as measured by seven weekly, vocabulary word recognition tests. 15‘ 60 TABLE ll.--Display of the Means of the Five Treatment Groups Over the Seven Weekly Vocabulary Tests. Treat- Observed Means--Vocabulary ment N= _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Group X1 X2 X3 X4 X5 X6 X7 TI 25 92.00 80.00 84.80 73.60 90.00 91.60 88.80 TII 26 91.15 91.54 93.85 73.46 91.54 97.31 92.69 TIII 27 87.78 87.04 85.93 72.59 94.44 95.93 87.41 TIv 26 88.85 82.69 85.38 73.08 83.85 96.15 85.77 TV 23 86.52 83.91 87.83 68.70 90.87 96.52 89.57 An inspection of the diSplay of the means reveals that the patterns of growth in vocabulary development were relatively similar for all five treatment groups over the seven-week period (also see Table 12). Table 12 graph- ically illustrates the display of the observed means over the seven weekly vocabulary tests for each of the five treatment groups. A t-test on the differences among means of the seven weekly vocabulary tests between Treatment Groups I 7, number of weekly tests). and V was done (N = Using the SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) t-test procedure the resulting t .11 was not sta- 12= tistically significant (p < .917). Using the SPSS t-test procedure on the differences among the means between Treatment Groups II and V (N = 7, number of weekly tests) resulted in t12 = -.90 which was not statistically 61 Weekly Vocabulary Observed Means 1004 95. 90. /i I: \ .8: we: .53 351 80. 75. 70. 65. 60< 554 50. 45, 40 \ \ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Weekly Vocabulary Tests TABLE 12.--Frequency Polygon of the Display of the Observed Combined Means: Vocabulary. 62 significant (p < .386). The SPSS t-test procedure results for Treatment Groups III and V (N = 7) were t12 = —.24 which also was not statistically significant (p < .817). The final t-test was run for Groups IV and V also with an N = 7 resulting in t .28 which was not sta- 12= tistically significant (p < .787). This hypothesis cannot be accepted because it is not supported by the data. Summary The major findings reported within the limitations of the study in this chapter were: 1. There was no difference in vocabulary devel- Opment among the five treatment groups as measured by the vocabulary post-test. 2. There was no difference in content matter comprehension among the treatment groups as measured by the content matter post-test. 3. There was no difference in vocabulary reten- tion among the treatment groups as measured by the vocabulary delayed post-test. 4. There was no difference in content matter retention among the treatment groups as measured by the content matter delayed post-test. 5. There was no difference in vocabulary devel- opment among the five treatment groups within each 63 achievement level as measured by the vocabulary post- test. 6. There was no difference in content matter comprehension among the five treatment groups within each achievement level as measured by the content matter post-test. 7. There was no difference in vocabulary reten- tion among the five treatment groups within each achieve- ment level as measured by the vocabulary delayed post- test. 8. There was no difference in content matter retention among the five treatment groups within each achievement level as measured by the content matter delayed post-test. 9. There was a significant difference in vocabu- lary development within each treatment group among the three achievement levels as measured by the vocabulary post-test. 10. There was no difference in content matter comprehension within each treatment group among the three achievement levels as measured by the content matter post—test. 11. There was a significant difference in vocabu- lary retention within each treatment group among the three levels of achievement as measured by the vocabu- lary delayed post—test. 64 12. There was a significant difference in con- tent matter retention within each treatment group among the three achievement levels as measured by the content matter delayed post-test. 13. There was a high correlation between scores on the vocabulary post-test and the content matter post- test. 14. There was a high correlation between the scores on the vocabulary delayed post-test and the content matter delayed post-test. 15. There were no considerable differences in the patterns of growth among the five treatment groups. The configurations of their performances in vocabulary development were similar. The t-tests revealed no sig- nificant differences among the means of the five treat- ment groups over the seven weekly vocabulary tests. CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction The purpose of this study was to determine the relative efficacy of a set of procedures designed to integrate vocabulary instruction with content teaching. Specifically, it addressed the question: How does a series of five modified cloze procedures differ in their relative efficacy for facilitating the acquisition and retention of vocabulary in a seventh grade social studies class? The preceding chapters described the theoretical framework of the problem, a discussion of the related literature and research, an explanation of the method- ology, and a presentation and analysis of the data gen- erated by this study. This chapter is organized as follows: (1) major results, (2) relations of findings to the literature, (3) implications of the findings, and (4) recommendations for future research. Major Results Within the limitations of the setting, population sampling and methodology, the results of this study are: 65 66 1. There was no significant difference in vocabu- lary development among the five treatment groups as mea- sured by the vocabulary post-test. Each group receiving cloze activities, varying in the degree of structure pro- vided to aid the subject, showed vocabulary develOpment with little variation. No subject suffered any negative effect resulting from a difference in the particular modified cloze activity applied. 2. Content matter comprehension among the five treatment groups showed no significant differentiation as measured by the content matter post-test. Comprehen- sion of content matter among the five treatment groups was similar at the end of the treatment period as mea- sured by the content matter post-test. Regardless of the type of treatment applied, none of the treatment groups showed any diminution in their ability to compre- hend the content matter. 3. Each of the treatment groups demonstrated a relatively equal ability to retain learned vocabulary, as measured by a delayed post-test given two weeks after the conclusion of the treatments. 4. Similarly, each of the treatment groups dis- played relatively equal ability to retain learned content matter, as measured by a delayed post-test given two weeks after the conclusion of the treatments. 67 5. Another of the important findings of this study was that at the higher, medium, and lower reading ability levels there was no significant difference shown in vocabulary development among five treatments as mea- sured by the post-test. All five modifications of the cloze treatments applied, allowed for equivalent deve1- Opment of vocabulary within each of the levels of read- ing ability of the subject students. 6. Within each achievement level there was no significant differentiation in content matter comprehen- sion among the five treatment groups, as measured by a content matter post-test. Again, all five modifications of the cloze treatments allowed for equivalent develop- ment of content matter comprehension within each of the levels of reading ability of the students. 7. There was no significant difference in vocabu- lary retention within each of the three reading ability levels among the five treatment groups as measured by the vocabulary delayed post—test. Subjects, regardless of the type of treatment received, were able to display an ability to retain learned vocabulary to an equal degree within their levels of reading ability. 8. Within each achievement level there was no significant differentiation in the retention of content matter among the five treatment groups as measured by a content matter delayed post-test. As was the case with 68 content matter comprehension, the subject students within each level of reading ability were able to retain their learned content matter without regard to which of the five cloze treatments they had received. 9. A significant difference in vocabulary deve10pment was revealed among the three reading ability levels, within each of the treatment groups, as measured on the vocabulary post-test. The subject students were able to acquire vocabulary commensurate with their read- ing ability level regardless of the cloze treatment used. Subject students of lower reading ability were not able to experience vocabulary development, over the seven-week treatment period, at a rate comparable to those subjects of a higher level of reading ability. 10. There was no difference of significance in content matter comprehension within each treatment group among the three ability levels as measured by a content matter post-test. Content matter comprehension did not significantly vary among the high, medium, and low read- ing ability groups in each of the five treatment groups. None of the subjects had his understanding of content matter lessened as a result of the particular cloze treatment given. 11. There was a significant difference in vocabulary retention within each treatment group and among the three abilities levels as measured by the 69 delayed post-test. The level of vocabulary retention differed among the subjects in each of the ability groups, in accordance with the level of their reading ability. This phenomenon held true within each treatment group. 12. There was no significant difference in con- tent matter retention among the three achievement levels, within the treatment groups as measured by a content mat- ter delayed post-test. Once again, the findings demon- strate that none of the cloze treatment procedures, as applied by any of the three reading achievement levels, restricted the subject students in their ability to retain content matter over a two-week period of time. 13. The high correlation between the scores on vocabulary and content matter post-tests indicates that the cloze treatments used as vocabulary instructional strategies were indeed highly compatible with the acqui- sition of the content matter to which they were linked during that same period of time. 14. Similarly, the significant correlation between the scores on the vocabulary and content matter delayed post-tests illustrates the use of the modified cloze treatments for vocabulary instruction and retention was compatible with the retention of learned content mat- ter with which the vocabulary instruction was linked. 70 15. Finally, upon inspection of the observed means of the vocabulary weekly tests, there proved to be no significant difference among these means. The five treatment groups performed with relative equality and displayed very similar patterns of growth. All five treatment groups experienced a sharp drOp in performance, as demonstrated by the diSplay of the combined means, on the fourth weekly vocabulary test. This appeared to be caused by some confusion throughout the seventh grade and ' was unrelated to the study. The data supports the find- ing that there was no significant difference between the five cloze vocabulary instructional strategies over the seven-week instructional period. To summarize, this study found that the five treatments using these modified cloze procedures overcame the reading ability differences among the subjects for vocabulary acquisition and retention in their social studies content materials. Whether the subject was a poor reader or not, he or she could still experience suc- cess using the modified cloze activities when they were utilized to teach vocabulary in a social studies context in this study. Further, inasmuch as general comprehension appears to be a global skill and appears to be closely related to verbal ability, it is not surprising that the results indicated that post-test content matter comprehension did 71 not lend itself to significant differentiation among the three reading ability groups receiving the treatments in vocabulary instruction. The difference in content matter retention as exhibited between the content matter post- test and the content matter delayed post—test may be due, in some part, to a difference in long-term and short-term memory abilities which may exist among chil- dren of differing reading abilities. The factor which did find itself sensitive to the effect of the various treat- ments was that of vocabulary acquisition and retention. This was accomplished without inhibiting the acquisition and retention of the content matter. Relation of the Findipgs to the Literature The findings of this study tend to complement the findings of Schneyer (1965). He reports that the globalness of reading comprehension_scores were resistant to change as a result of the cloze prOcedures he used in his efforts to improve reading comprehension scores of his sixth grade subjects. This writer has noted the relative inability of the cloze techniques he employed to cause a significant differentiation in the post—test content matter comprehension among subjects of differ- ing reading ability. L. L. Krantz (1957) reported that reading com- prehension and vocabulary were related to achievement in 72 social studies. The high correlations obtained among the scores of the vocabulary and content matter post-tests and delayed post-tests apparently give additional substance to the relatedness of the importance of vocabulary deve10p- ment and achievement in social studies content area. This study, unlike the Emans and Fisher (1967) study, failed to reveal a hierarchy in the levels of difficulty of the various kinds of Cloze procedure struc- tures reported by them. In the present study the writer used five of the six cloze forms reported by Emans and Fisher. The data obtained in this study showed no sig- nificant difference in the relative efficacy among any of the five techniques used by this researcher as strate- gies for vocabulary instruction in the subject social studies groups. However, the Emans and Fisher study focused on relative difficulty within a diagnostic framework and this study focused on instruction strate- gies. Therefore, this study does not disprove the Emans and Fisher findings. Implications of the Findings The implications of this study are several. At this point, the investigator will move beyond the data to share his thinking. The results of this study, in the opinion of this investigator, may give validity to the theory that 73 the ability to deve10p effective vocabulary and con- ceptualization in students is dependent upon the inter- relatedness and connectedness of these two factors. The correlations among vocabulary and content matter scores on both the post-tests and the delayed post-tests appear to give additional credence to this theory. As previously stated, conceptionalization in content matter material cannot be enhanced beyond the student's ability to understand the vocabulary related to the concepts of the content matter material. An implication of the present study would seem to be that instruction in content matter material should be integrated with vocabu- lary instruction, and the cloze strategies used herein appear to provide for an effective method for meshing these instructional objectives. With the modified cloze techniques used in this study, the instruction in vocabu- lary development is directly related to the student's ability to conceptionalize content material. The reader should be reminded that in this section the writer is sharing his intuitive feelings with the reader. In carrying out this investigation, the researcher was continually impressed by the students' enthusiasm for each of the cloze treatment activities. The enthusiasm was manifested in each of the reading ability levels and lasted throughout the treatment period. The attentiveness 74 motivation of the subjects would appear to give credence to several principles of learning. The puzzle or game-like quality of the various cloze procedures used in this study seems to have enhanced the attentiveness factor which, as was previ- ously described, is so essential to learning. Attention and concentration of the subjects appeared to have been stimulated and held as they attempted and then proceeded to successfully complete the clozures. As the lexical problems were solved, the enthusiasm of the students for the content matter tended to swell as the meaning and concepts of the content context became more clear. Bruner's (1961) assertions that the value of the discovery process lies in its attributes of being self- rewarding, self-perpetuating, and its facilitation of the memorization of related items have the quality of appearing to have been specifically tailored as a description of the apparent reasons for the affinity and zeal for these cloze exercises exhibited by the sub- ject students and witnessed by this observer. The sub- jects eagerly looked forward to these exercises. Even those students who were less successful in other phases of their class work would take pride in their successes with these activities and the Opportunities they afforded them for meaningful participation in other areas of con- tent work. 75 As Piaget (1962) has proclaimed, cognitive learning does not happen without the involvement of the affective aspects of the learner. The positive involve- ment of the affective aspects of the subject learners in this study seemed to have been captured by the knowledge gained by the student that his own successful efforts were responsible for completing the clozures and unravel- ing the comprehension puzzle of the content context in these treatment exercises. The study has found an instructional technique using modified Cloze procedures that is effective in vocabulary development through the use of content matter context material. It may, indeed, be so effective that it may obliterate the differences among readers of higher and lower ability, with respect to variations in treat- ment. Apparently, the amount or type of structure which a teacher puts into the cloze activity will not inhibit or restrict his students' learning of content matter. The teacher can, therefore, feel comfortable in using whatever cloze structure that he feels may sharpen stu- dents' connotations and interpretations of words, word perception skills, or phonic skills while honing skills in context analysis. Inasmuch as this study did not uncover the same hierarchy as did the Emans (1967) study, this writer is 76 of the Opinion that there is the possibility that a teacher can feel free to select the form of cloze struc- ture which will best help his students with vocabulary development skills without the fear of interfering with their ability to acquire and retain content matter material. Recommendations for Future Research There remains a paucity of research in the use of the cloze technique as an instructional device. There remains much in this area to be investigated. Some suggestions for further research which were gen- erated from this study are: 1. This study should be replicated using chil- dren with a wider range of reading abilities. The ranges used to divide the subjects into high, medium, and low reading ability groups in this study may not have been broad enough to be sensitive to the relative effective- ness of the five different treatments. 2. A research study should be conducted compar- ing the relative efficacy of the five treatments of this study to other methods of vocabulary instruction in the content areas. 3. A follow-up study making use of Barron's (1971) iterative methodology would be desirable. This approach would allow for greater flexibility and 77 refinement of research methods as the study progressed, possibly resulting in a more definitively effective instructional device. 4. Research should be carried out using severely disabled readers from the secondary schools who have had negative attitudes toward previous attempts at remedi- ation. The more mature format of these cloze techniques, couched in content context, being used as instructional strategies seems to be worthy of investigation for dis- abled readers. 5. The use of modified Cloze procedures as vocabulary development techniques in the Language Experi- ence Activites strategy could be highly compatible and seems to be deserving of investigation. Conclusions While the findings of this study are limited to setting, population sampling and methodology, the sig- nificant results were that the five treatments using modified construction procedures overcame the differences among subjects of different reading levels for the pur- pose of vocabulary instruction in the social studies content area. These treatments couched their instruction in the context of the content material and successfully accomplished the goal of vocabulary acquisition without causing any sacrifice in the learning of the associated social studies content matter. 78 This study has apparently developed an instruc- tional technique using five modified cloze procedures which can give teachers the freedom of a choice of cloze structure to sharpen their students' skills without impairing or interfering with content learning. BIBLIOGRAPHY 79 BIBLIOGRAPHY Barron, Richard F. "The Use of an Iterative Research Process to Improve a Method of Vocabulary Instruc- tion in Tenth Grade Biology." Ph.D. dissertation, Syracuse University, 1971. Betts, Emmett A. Foundations in Reading Instruction. Chicago: American Book Co., 1946. Bloomer, Richard H. "The Cloze Procedure as a Remedial Reading Exercise." Journal of DevelOpmental Reading 5 (Spring 1962): 173-81. Bloomer, Richard, and Heitzman, Andrew J. "The Effects of Non-Overt Reinforced Cloze Procedure Upon Reading Comprehension." Journal of Reading (1967): 213-33. Bruner, Jerome S. "The Act of Discovery." Harvard Edu- cational Review 31 (Winter 1961): 21-32. Campbell, Donald T., and Stanley, Julian C. Experi- mental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Research. Chicago: Rand McNally College Pub- lish1ng Co., 1963. Cieutat, V. J.; Stockwell, F. E.; and Noble, C. E. "The Interaction of Ability and Amount of Practice with Stimulus and Response Meaningfulness (M,M) in Paired-Associated Learning." Journal of Experimental Psychology 56 (1958): 193-202. Dechant, Emerald V. Improving the Teaching of Reading. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970. Ebbinghaus, Herman. ConcerningyMemory. New York: Teachers College, 1913. Emans, Robert, and Fisher, Gladys Mary. "Teaching the Use of Context Clues." In Elementary English, Vol. 44, pp. 343-46. Champaign, 111.: National Council of Teachers of English, 508 South Sixth Street, 1967. 80 81 Ferguson, George A. Statistical Analysis in Psychology. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1966. Gray, William 8. On Their Own in Reading. Chicago: Scott, Foresman and Co., 1960. Harris, Albert J. How to Increase ReadingyAbility. New York: David McKay Co., 1970. Heilman, Arthur W. Principles and Practices of Teaching Reading. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc., 1961. Hester, Kathleen B. Teaching Every Child to Read. New York: Harper and Row, 1964. Horton, Raymond Joseph. "The Construct Validity of Cloze Procedure: An Exploratory Factor Analysis of Cloze, Paragraph Reading, and Structure of Intellect." Ph.D. dissertation, Hofstra Univer- sity, New York, 1973. Huttenlocher, J. "Childrens' Intellectual DevelOpment: Piaget's Position." Review of Educational Research 35 (April 1965): 117-18. Huus, Helen. "Innovations in Reading Instruction: At Later Levels." In Innovations and Change in Reading Instruction, Sixty-Seventh Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, pp. 126-58. Edited by Helen M. Robinson. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Jongsma, Eugene. The Cloze Procedure--A Surveyyof the Research. Bloomington: Indiana University, 1971. Karlin, Robert. "Developing Comprehension Skills in the High School Student." In Teachers Tangibles, Techniques: Comprehension of Content in Reading, pp. 108-116. Edited by Bonnie Smith Schulwitz. Newark, Del.: International Reading Association, 1975. Kennedy, Eddie C. Methods in Teaching Developmental Reading. Itasca, Ill.: F. E. Peacock Publishers, Inc., 1974. Krantz, L. L. "The Relationship of Reading Abilities and Basic Skills of the Elementary School to Success in the Interpretaion of the Content 82 Materials in the High School." Journal of Experimental Education 26 (1957): 97-114. Louthan, Vincent. "Some Systematic Grammatical Deletions and Their Effects on Reading Comprehension." The English Journal 54 (April 1965): 295-99. Luh, C. W. "The Conditions of Retention." Psychological Monographs 31 (1922): No. 142. Miller, G. A., and Selfridge, J. A. "Verbal Context and the Recall of Meaningful Material." American Journal of Psychology 63 (1956): 176-85. Piaget, Jean. "The Stages of the Intellectual Develop- ment of the Child." Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic 26 (1962): 120-45. Robinson, H. Alan. "A Study of the Technique of Word Identification." The Reading Teacher 16 (January 1963): 238-42. Schneyer, J. Wesley. "Use of the Cloze Procedure for Improving Reading Comprehension." The Reading Teacher 19 (December 1965): 174-79. Smith, Nila B. Reading Instruction for Today's Children. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1963. Strang, Ruth; McCullough, Constance M.; and Traxler, Arthur E. The Improvement of Reading. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill BOOK—CO., 1967. Taylor, Wilson. “Cloze Procedure: A New Tool for Mea- suring Readability." Journalism Quarterly 30 (Fall 1953): 415-33. Thomas, Ellen Lamar, and Robinson, H. Alan. Improving Reading in Every Class. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, Inc., 1975. Tinker, Miles A., and McCullough, Constance M. Teaching Elementary Reading. New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, Inc., 1962. Vineyard, Edwin E. and Massey, Harold W. "The Inter- relationship of Certain Linguistic Skills and Their Relationship with Scholastic Achievement When Intelligence is Ruled Constant." Journal of Educational Psychology 48 (May 1957): 279-86. 83 Zeller, A. F. "An Experimental Analogue of Repression. II. The Effect of Individual Failure and Suc- cess on Memory Measured by Relearning." Journal of Experimental Psychology 40 (1950): 411-22. APPENDICES 84 APPENDIX A SAMPLE OF WEEKLY GLOSSARY OF VOCABULARY WORDS AND TERMS 85 serfs noble Islam Muslim Crusades astrolabe APPENDIX A SAMPLE OF WEEKLY GLOSSARY OF VOCABULARY WORDS AND TERMS Vocabulary List poor farmers who served and worked for the wealthy landholder or nobles; a member of the lowest feudal class; bound to the land and owned by a lord or noble; a slave a rich landholder who owned a castle and controlled the lives of the serfs on his land; of high hereditary rank; a lord a religion based on the teachings of Mohammed the prophet and believing in one God (Allah) a person who follows the teachings of Mohammed (Moslem) a series of holy wars fought between Chris- tians and Muslims between about the years 1100 A.D. and 1300 A.D. to regain the Holy Land for the Christians; any zealous move- ment for a cause a tool or instrument used by seamen to find their position at sea, to tell them where they are 86 compass latitude longitude navigation 87 a tool or instrument which always points out north and enables travelers to figure out the direction in which they are going distance, measured in degrees, north or south of the equator distance, measured in degrees, east or west of the Prime Meridian, or Greenwich, England the act of controlling the course of a ship, or voyaging over water in a ship APPENDIX B SAMPLES OF FIVE MODIFIED CLOZE PROCEDURE TREATMENT ACTIVITIES 88 APPENDIX B SAMPLES OF FIVE MODIFIED CLOZE PROCEDURE TREATMENT ACTIVITIES Vocabulary Practice Activity: Treatment I Directions for cloze exercise: Read the exercise carefully. You are to use the information given and the understanding that you get from reading this exercise to discover each of the missing words. Each of these missing words is a word that was on this week's vocabulary list. Re-read your exercise frequently. You will find that the job usually becomes easier with each new blank you fill in. About the year 1000, when Norsemen made their voyages to America, Western EurOpe was not yet ready for an Age of Discovery. Most people lived in small villages and worked on the land of some rich (1) . The village as well as the land around it belonged to the (2) . Most of the peOple who lived in the vil- lage and farmed the land were called (3) . The (4) was expected to protect his (5) from robbers and raids from another (6) . In return, the (7) were expected tx> farm the land and work for the (8) in other ways. Hard work, scanty food, and poor living conditions caused many (9) to become ill and die at an early age. 89 90 About the year 600 a new religion, called (10) , sprang up in Arabia. Just as Christianity is based upon the teachings of Christ, so (11) is based upon the teachings of Mohammed. The followers of Mohammed, known as (12) , believed that theirs was the only true religion. These (13) captured the Holy Land and threatened to overrun Chris- tian Europe. The Pope of the Roman Catholic Church urged kings, knights, and even poorly armed men to fight a series of holy wars called the (14) . After 200 years of this warfare the Christians lost the (15) and the Holy Land remained in the hands of the (16) . Few people in Western EurOpe had traveled far from home before the (17) . As Europeans began to trade and travel, they began to build more seaworthy ships and improved their skills in the art of sailing and (18) . With their improved skills in sail- ing they could reach a distant port even when sailing out of sight of land. They learned that a magnetized iron needle would always point north. This knowledge was used to make a (19) , which told them in which direction their boat was sailing. A new invention made it possible to tell more exactly where their ship was. It was called an (20) . This instrument could 91 be used to figure out the (21) , or how far north or south of the equator the ship was. The (22) was checked by using tables of time-and- distance sailed. (23) and (24) could locate a place exactly. These new methods took much of the guesswork out of (25) and made long ocean voyages possible. Europeans were even more eager to trade with the East. 92 Vocabulary Practice Activity: Treatment II Directions for cloze exercise: Read the sentence carefully. You are to use the information given and the understanding that you get from reading this exercise to discover each of the missing words. Each of these missing words is a word that was on this week's vocabulary list. Re-read your exercise fre- quently. You will find that the job usually becomes easier with each new blank you fill in. About the year 1000, when Norsemen made their voyages to America, Western EurOpe was not yet ready for an Age of Discovery. Most people lived in small villages and worked on the land of some rich (1) n . The village as well as the land around it belonged to the (2) n . Most of the people who lived in the vil- lage and farmed the land were called (3) s . The (4) n was expected to protect his (5) s from robbers and raids from another (6) n . In return, the (7) s were expected to farm the land and work for the (8) n in other ways. Hard work, scanty food, and poor living conditions caused many (9) s to become ill and die at an early age. About the year 600 a new religion, called (10) I , sprang up in Arabia. Just as Christianity. is based upon the teachings of Christ, so (11) I is based upon the teachings of Mohammed. The followers of Mohammed, known as (12) M , believed that theirs was the only true religion. These (13) M cap- tured the Holy Land and threatened to overrun Christian 93 EurOpe. The Pepe of the Roman Catholic Church urged kings, knights, and even poorly armed men to fight a ser- ies of holy wars called the (14) C . After 200 years of this warfare the Christians lost the (15) C and the Holy Land remained in the hands of the (16) M . Few peOple in Western EurOpe had traveled far from home before the (17) C . As EurOpeans began to trade and travel, they began to build more seaworthy ships and improved their skills in the art of sailing and (18) n . With their improved skills in sailing they could reach a distant port even when sailing out of sight of land. They learned that a magnetized iron needle would always point north. This knowledge was used to make a (19) c , which told them in which direction their boat was sailing. A new invention made it possible totxflj. more exactly where their ship was. It was called an (20) a . This instrument could be used to figure out the (21) 1 , or how far north or south of the equator the ship was. The (22) 1 was checked by using tables of time-and-distance sailed. (23) L and (24) 1 could locate a place exactly. These new methods took much of the guesswork out of (25) n and made long ocean voyages possible. Europeans were even more eager to trade with the East. 94 Vocabulary Practice Activity: Treatment III Directions for cloze exercise: Read the sentence carefully. You are to use the information given and the understanding that you get from reading this exercise to discover each of the missing words. Each of these missing words is a word that was on this week's vocabulary list. Re-read your exercise fre- quently. You will find that the job usually becomes easier with each new blank you fill in. About the year 1000, when Norsemen made their voyages to America, Western EurOpe was not yet ready for an Age of Discovery. Most people lived in small villages and worked on the land of some rich (1) n s. The village as well as the land around it belonged to the (2) n 5. Most of the people who lived in the vil- lage and farmed the land were called (3) s s. The (4) n e was expected to protect his (5) s s from robbers and raids from another (6) n e. In return, the (7) s s were expected to farm the land and work for the (8) n e in other ways. Hard work, scanty food, and poor living conditions caused many (9) s s to become ill and die at an early age. About the year 600 a new religion, called (10) I m, sprang up in Arabia. Just as Christianity is based upon the teachings of Christ, so (11) I m is based upon the teachings of Mohammed. The followers of Mohammed, known as (12) M s, believed that theirs was the only true religion. These (13) M 3 cap- tured the Holy Land and threatened to overrun Christian 95 Europe. The POpe of the Roman Catholic Church urged kings, knights, and even poorly armed men to fight a series of holy wars called the (14) C 5. After 200 years of this warfare the Christians lost the (15) C s and the Holy Land remained in the hands of the (16) M s. Few people in Western Europe had traveled far from home before the (17) C s. As EurOpeans began to . trade and travel, they began to build more seaworthy ships and improved their skills in the art of sailing and (18) n n. With their improved skills in sailing they could reach a distant port even when sailing out of sight of land. They learned that a magnetized iron needle would always point north. This knowledge was used to make a (19) c s, which told them in which direction their boat was sailing. A new invention made it possible to tell more exactly where their ship was. It was called an (20) a e. This instrument could be used to figure out the (21) 1 e, or how far north or south of the equator the ship was. The (22) l e was checked by using tables of time-and-distance sailed. (23) L e and (24) 1 e could locate a place exactly. These new methods took much of the guesswork out of (25) n n and made longocean voyages possible. EurOpeans were even more eager to trade with the East. 96 Vocabulary Practice Activity: Treatment IV Directions for cloze exercise: Read the exercise carefully. You are to use the information given and the understanding that you get from reading this exercise to discover each of the missing words. Each of these missing words is a word that was on this week's vocabulary list. Re-read your exercise fre- quently. You will find that the job usually becomes easier with each new blank you fill in. r _ “K .'.'.0 About the year 1000, when Norsemen made their voyages to America, Western Europe was not yet ready for an Age of Discovery. Most people lived in small villages and worked on the land of some rich (1) . The A village as well as the land around it belonged to the (2) . Most of the people who lived in the vil- lage and farmed the land were called (3) . The (4) was expected to protect his (5) from robbers and raids from another (6) . In return, the (7) were expected to farm the land and work for the (8) in other ways. Hard work, scanty food, and poor living conditions caused many (9) to become ill and die at an early age. About the year 600 a new religion, called (10) , sprang up in Arabia. Just as Christianity is based upon the teachings of Christ, so (11) is based upon the teachings of Mohammed. The followers of Mohammed, known as (12) , believed that theirs was the only true religion. These (13) cap- tured the Holy Land and threatened to overrun Christian 97 Europe. The Pope of the Roman Catholic Church urged kings, knights, and even poorly armed men to fight a series of holy wars called the (14) . After 200 years of this warfare the Christians lost the (15) and the Holy Land remained in the hands of the (16) . Few people in Western EurOpe had traveled far from home before the (17) . As Europeans began to trade and travel, they began to build more seaworthy ships and improved their skills in the art of sailing and (18) . With their improved skills in sailing they could reach a distant port even when sailing out of sight of land. They learned that a magnetized iron needle would always point north. This knowledge was used to make a (19) , which told them in which direction their boat was sailing. A new invention made it possible to tell more exactly where their ship was. It was called an (20) . This instrument could be used to figure out the (21) , or how far north or south of the equator the ship was. The (22) was checked by using tables of time-and-distance sailed. (23) and (24) could locate a place exactly. These new methods took much of the guesswork out of (25) and made long ocean voyages possible. Europeans were even more eager to trade with the East. Word Choices: 98 Treatment IV Directions: numbered the same as the blank you are answering. After reading your cloze selection, fill in each numbered blank by choosing the word below from the line Select the word which will make the most sense in the sentence. Remember the word you choose must also be one of those on this week's vocabulary list. prOper numbered space on your cloze selection. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.. 19. (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) noples nobles syrups notables serfs- neples serfs noples surfs Island Isle Muslims Muzlems Crusades Cockades Mausoleums Crusades irrigation compress (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) nobles noples surfs mobiles syrups mobiles surfs nobles serbs Israel Islam Muslins Mausoleums Cockades Crusades Muzlems Cockades notation compost (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) notables mobiles serbs nobles surfs notables serbs notables serfs Islam Island Mausoleums Muslins Cavalcades Cascades Muslins Cavalcades navigation compose (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) Write your selection in the mobiles notables serfs noples serbs nobles syrups mobiles syrups Isle Israel Muzlems Muslims Cascades Cavalcades Muslems Cascades immigration compass 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) (a) astrolabe lassitude literature longitude lateral navigable (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) (b) 99 astrobol literature longitude literature literature immigration (0) (c) (c) (c) (c) (c) costrolabe latitude lassitude lassitude lassitude navigation (6) (d) (d) (d) (d) (d) astrology longitude latitude lateral latitude irrigation 100 Vocabulary Practice Activity: Treatment V Directions for cloze exercise: Read the exercise carefully. You are to use the information given and the understanding that you get from reading this exercise to discover each of the missing words. Each of these missing words is a word that was on this week's vocabulary list. Re-read your exercise fre- quently. You will find that the job usually becomes easier with each new blank you fill in. About the year 1000, when Norsemen made their voyages to America, Western Eur0pe was not yet ready for an Age of Discovery. Most people lived in small villages and worked on the land of some rich (1) n bl s. The village as well as the land around it belonged to the (2) n b1 3. Most of the people who lived in the village and farmed the land were called (3) §_££§. The (4) g_bl_ was expected to protect his (5) §_££§ from robbers and raids from another (6) g_bl_. In return, the (7) §_££§ were expected to farm the land and work for the (8) n bl s in other ways. Hard work, scanty food, and poor living conditions caused many (9) §_£§§ to become ill and die at an early age. About the year 600 a new religion, called (10) _§l_m, sprang up in Arabia. Just as Christianity is based upon the teachings of Christ, so (11) _§1_m is based upon the teachings of Mohammed. The followers of Mohammed, known as (12) M sl ms, believed that theirs was the only true religion. These (13) M 31 ms captured the Holy Land and threatened to overrun Christian EurOpe. 101 The Pope of the Roman Catholic Church urged kings, knights, and even poorly armed men to fight a series of holy wars called the (14) Cr 5 d 3. After 200 years of this warfare the Christians lost the (15) Cr 3 d s and the Holy Land remained in the hands of the (16) M 31 ms. Few people in Western Europe had traveled far F“ from home before the (17) Cr 3 d s. As EurOpeans began E to trade and travel, they began to build more seaworthy ships and improved their skills in the art of sailing and (18) n v g t n. With their improved skills in sailing they could reach a distant port even when sailing out of sight of land. They learned that a magnetized iron needle would always point north. ~This knowledge was used to make a (19) 0 mp ss, which told them in which direction their boat was sailing. A new invention made it possible to tell more exactly where their ship was. It was called an (2) str 1 b . This instrument could be used to figure out the (21) l t t d , or how far north or south of the equator the ship was. The (22) 1 ng t d was checked by using tables of time-and-distance sailed. (23) L t t d and (24) 1 ng t d could locate a place exactly. These new methods took much of the guesswork out of (25) n v g t n and made long ocean voyages possible. EurOpeans were even more eager to trade with the East. APPENDIX C SAMPLE OF A WEEKLY VOCABULARY TEST 102 APPENDIX C SAMPLE OF A WEEKLY VOCABULARY TEST NAME Vocabulary Test A DATE Period # MULTIPLE CHOICE: Select the word which best matches the definition. Write that letter on the line before the definition. l. The act of controlling or planning the route of a ship as it travels. (a) navigator (b) compass (c) navigation (d) astrolabe (e) navigatable 2. Distance, measured in degrees, away from the equator in a north or south direction. (a) longitude (b) lassitude (c) latitude (d) longevity (e) longest 3. Distance, measured in degrees, away from the Prime Meridian in an east or west direction. (a) longitude (b) lassitude (c) latitude (d) longevity (e) longest 4. An instrument used to point out magnetic north (a) astrolabe (b) sextant (c) compass (d) compose (e) compress 5. A tool or instrument used by seamen to find their position at sea (a) astrobol (b) astrolabe (c) compass (d) compress (e) compose 6. A series of holy wars, fought between Western Europeans and Turks for control of the Holy Land (a) Cascades (b) Cavalcades (c) Crusades (d) Cockades (e) Palisades 103 “”ET 7. 10. 104 A person who is a follower of the teach- ings of Mohammed (a) Muslim (b) Muzlem (c) Muslin (d) Mausoleum (e) Musleem A religion, believing in one God, and based on the teachings of Mohammed. (a) Isle (b) Island (c) Israel (d) Islam (e) Islet Rich landlords of the Middle Ages who owned castles and controlled the lives of the poor farmers on their land. (a) nodules (b) nobels (c) notables (d) nobles (e) noples Poor farmers in the Middle Ages who worked for, and served wealthy landlords (a) serbs (b) serfs (c) surfs (d) serves (e) kerfs \. APPENDIX D SAMPLE OF SEVENTY-ITEM VOCABULARY TEST 105 h. APPENDIX D SAMPLE OF SEVENTY-ITEM VOCABULARY TEST NAME PERIOD GROUP DIRECTIONS: Find a match for each of the definitions. There are five definitions in each group. Select the term or word which best matches a definition, in that group, from the list of ten items above each group. Write the letter, which is in front of your choice, on the space provided before the prOper definition. a. serfs d. armada g. causeway b. nobles e. Muslim h. Crusades c. colony f. invader > i. Latin America j. astrolabe l. a land or region which is controlled by another country 2. a large naval fleet sent by Spain, in 1588, to defeat England 3. one who enters by force in order to subdue or overrun 4. a raised road traveling across water or a marsh- land 5. the over 20 Spanish speaking nations in the Western Hemisphere a. astrolabe d. Aztecs g. conquer b. conquistadors e. latitude h. compass c. navigation 1 f. Tenochtitlan i. Incas j. longitude . Spanish explorers and conquerers . a civilized Indian nation in Mexico, conquered by Cortes the capital city of the Aztecs to defeat or overrun a civilized Indian nation in Peru, conquered by Pizarro osooo \ION 106 I -. - 107 a. Latin America d. Muslim 9. Islam b. causeway e. armada h. nobles c. Crusades f. invader i. serfs j. colony 11. poor farmers who served wealthy landowners ___ 12. a landholder of high rank who controlled the —_— lives of others 13. a religion based on the teachings of Mohammed, — the prophet b“ 14. a person who follows the teachings of Mohammed -& -—_'15. a series of holy wars, fought between 1100 A.D. "— and 1300 A.D. * a. latitude d. conquistadors g. longitude b. navigation e. Incas h. compass i c. Tenochtitlan f. astrolabe i. conquer b j. Aztecs ___ 16. a tool or instrument used to find position at sea ___ 17. a tool or instrument which always points to the north ___ 18. distance, measured in degrees, north or south away from the equator l9. distance, measured east or west from the Prime ___' Meridian ___ 20. the act of controlling the course of a ship a. divine right d. empire h. representative b. invincible e. missions government c. indentured f. trading company i. expedition servant 9. convert j. charter 21. settlements made by Spanish priests to teach ___ religion to Indians ____22. unbeatable and unconquerable 23. a trip, or march by an organized group ::: 24. a controlling nation plus its colonies ___ 25. to persuade one to adopt a certain religion or belief 108 a. proclamation d. proprietor h. hemisphere b. portage e. compact i. isthmus c. Separatists f. Pilgrims j. circumnavi- g. toleration gation 26. to sail completely around someplace -—'27. an official announcement ___ 28. one half of the earth ::: 29. a narrow strip of land connecting two larger bodies of land ____ 30. a short route between two waterways a. charter d. trading company 9. expedition b. missions e. invincible h. empire c. divine right f. indentured 1. convert servant j. representative government ___ 31. the belief that God gives kings the power to rule without error 32. a business organized to colonize and deal with '__— distant areas 33. a document granting the right to begin a colony ___ 34. one who agrees to exchange years of service for ___ passage to America ___ 35. a government where people are ruled by persons of their own choosing. a. Pilgrims d. hemisphere h. portage b. proclamation e. toleration i. circumnaviga- c. compact f. isthmus tion 9. proprietor j. Separatists 36. an agreement between persons which binds them ___' together ' 37. to recognize and respect the opinions and prac- '__- tices of another 38. persons to whom the king has granted land for ___ colonization ___ 39. Englishmen who had broken away from the Church of England __y 40. those that fled from England, to Holland, and then to America 109 a. blockhouses e. natural h. tidewater b. speculator resources i. plantation c. estates f. frontier j. triangular d. stockade g. piedmont trade 41. a large farm, Operating for profit, as in the ___ Southern Colonies 42. the broad plain along the coast Of the Southern '—__ Colonies 43. the foothill region between the Applachian Moun- ——_' tains and the coastal plains in the Southern Colonies 44. one who buys an item, hoping tO sell it for a -_—' profit later 45. the trade in rum, slaves, and molasses--between ___' the Colonies, Africa, and the West Indies. a. cargo d. apprentice g. majority b. massacre e. minority h. witchcraft c. slave trade f. democracy 1. estates \ j. plantation 46. the products carried in ships ___ 47. the buying and selling Of people for forced ___' labor ___ 48. a group Of persons or things numbering less than half ___ 49. the greater number or part Of something ___ 50. a sizable piece of land with a large home a. massacre d. blockhouses h. mother country b. at stake e. victorious i. parliament c. tactics f. frontier j. natural 9. stockade resources ___ 51. things found in nature which are used by man ___ 52. a region just beyond or at a settled area 53. a high fence made Of pointed logs ___ 54. two-story cabins built at the corners Of ___ stockades 55. a savage and unselective killing 110 a. sparse d. tutor g. devout b. apprentice e. almanac h. garrison c. supreme f. democracy 1. forfeit j. witchcraft 56. a person who learns a trade from a skilled craftsman 57. a person who instructs or teaches another person ___ 58. an annual publication with information on many subjects 59. a government controlled by the people being governed 60. having dealings with the devil a. mother country d. proclamation g. invader b. parliament e. tactics h. victorious c. causeway f. convert i. at stake j. compact 61. the country at the head Of a colonial empire 62. the lawmaking body of the British government 63. the art Of using one's forces against an enemy 64. tO be conquering; to have defeated 65. something tO be won or lost a. garrison d. armada g. sparse b. serf e. charter h. minority c. supreme f. compact i. devout j. forfeit 66. not crowded or densely settled 67. greatest in rank and importance 68. deeply religious and serious 69. the troops permanently assigned to a military post 70. something which is surrendered as a penalty WIITIIIIIIIIIIII 3 1293 mI U H II" N N N