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Dissafia‘aion far the ‘Degree of Ph; D.

HSCHIGAN STATE UNWERSI'FY -   A ~ ‘

GEORGE Y, PALOORTHEKKATWL
1 9 7’ 4

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE THE EFFICIENCY
OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
IN KERALA STATE, INDIA

presented by ,

GEORGE Y. PALOORTHEKKATHIL

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

doctoral degree in Educ Admin

 

 

Major professor

Date October 29, 1974

 

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ABSTRACT

STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE THE EFFICIENCY OF
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN KERALA STATE, INDIA

BY
George Y. Paloorthekkathil

The purpose of this study is to devise strategies to
improve the efficiency of educational administration in
Kerala state, India, so as to enable it to meet the needs of
the people. To realise this goal, the geographic, historic,
social,economic and political conditions in Kerala were
investigated with special reference to their impact on admin—
istration. The history of evolution of educational adminis-
tration in Kerala was traced and the present administrative
situation was analysed to identify the administrative problems
that impair the efficiency of administration. Selected
literature with reference to organisation and functioning of
school districts in the U.S.A., and the "Human Relations
Approach" in administration, was reviewed to identify the
objectives of efficient administration. The current scene
of Kerala educational administration was examined with
reference to these objectives. Information derived from
these operations was used to suggest strategies to improve
the efficiency of administration in Kerala.

The study disclosed that the following administrative

and social problems require immediate attention and solution

to render the present Kerala Educational administration

able to
1.

2.

9.

10.

meet the educational needs of the people.

Lack of local control in educational administration.
Polarization of power at the higher units of
administration (centralisation).

Lack of freedom from civil power and partizan
politics.

Lack of wide ranging experimentation and adapta-
bility to change.

Absence of healthy relationships between the school
administration and the community (public).
Autocratic leadership and the slow moving adminis-
trative machinery.

Slow and inefficient communication between the ranks.
Lack of participation of all those concerned with
education, in the process of decision-making.
Alienation and lack of job satisfaction.

Soaring unemployment and overpopulation.

The features of Kerala administration listed above were

scrutinised in the light of the objectives of an efficient

administration as envisaged by American and foreign experts.

It was evident from this scrutiny that the educational

administration in Kerala falls short of these objectives, in

some cases partially, and in some cases fully. A natural

conclusion that followed from this study is that the

suggestions for improving the efficiency of administration

should address themselves to the administrative and social

problems listed above. Strategies were therefore proposed

keeping those problems in mind. They are classified into

recommendations for changes in organisational setup and

organisational behaviour. Major recommendations under changes

in organisational set up involve,

1.

Constitution of school district as a legal entity
and the establishment of local board for policy-
making, the members of which are to be elected from
the community surrounding the school and thus vest-
ing the control of education in local people.
Formation of an executive wing headed by a District
Educational Officer with required staff under him,
for implementing the policy of the board.

The constitution of an advisory body of eminent
educationists to advise the lay board in matters
pertaining to educational policy and administration.
Entrusting full responsibility of providing the
entire financial needs of the school districts to
the state governments and the central government.
The existing regulations governing the conduct of
private educational institutions should continue
without change, except that the powers now exercised
by government over the private schools will be

exercised by the school district authorities.

The major recommendations relating to changes in
organisational behavior can be summarised as follows:

1. The techniques of sensitivity-training, on-site
consulting, information feedback, personnel
counseling, and participation and appraisal system
should be used wherever possible.

2. Educational administrators in Kerala may be given
suitable training in the above techniques and
they may be provided with opportunities for
facilitating their professional growth.

Since this study has addressed itself only to the problem
of administration of high schools in the states, further
research was recommended in the area of administration of
primary (elementary) and college education. It was also
proposed that the effectiveness of the strategies suggested
in this study for changes in organisational behaviour may be

tested in the Kerala Public and Business Administrations.

STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE THE EFFICIENCY
OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN KERALA STATE, INDIA

By

George Y. Paloorthekkathil

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Administration and Higher Education

1974

Dedicated to
My Most Loving
Parents

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writer acknowledges with thanks and deep apprecia-
tion the invaluable help and advice tendered by the members
of the guidance committee, namely, Dr. Melvin Buschman,

Dr. John Suehr, Dr. Ruth Useem and Dr. Alice Davis. A
special note of gratitude is in order to Dr. Melvin Buschman
for his willingness to serve as the Chairman of the committee
and for his unfailing encouragement throughout this study.

Grateful acknowledgement is extended to my wife
Aleyamma George (Leelam) whose patience, faith and encourage-
ment provided me the moral strength needed to accomplish this
work. Appreciation is also expressed to my loving children
Annie P. George (Regine) and Anila P. George (Sajini) who
waited patiently in India for the completion of this study.

The writer is ever thankful to all the members of his
family for their encouragement and help which made this
study possible.

My special thanks are due to my friend Dominic V.
Marino, a doctoral student for his timely help and invaluable

suggestions during the course of the study.

iii

Chapter

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I INTRODUCTIONOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.000...

The Purpose of the Study..................
Need for the Study........................
Design of the Study.......................
Definition of Terms.......................
Basic Assumptions.........................
Limitations of the Study..................
Rational for Adopting the American

School System as a Model................
Organisation of Thesis....................

II REVIEW OF SELECTED LITERATURE RELATED TO

EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION....0................

Part I
Section I

IntrOdUCtionOOOOCOOOOIOOOOOOOOOOC0.0.0....
Views of Educators in Support of the
Local Control of Schools................

Section II

The Local SChOOl DistriCtOOCOOOCOO...O..

The Local Board of Education.......
Duties of Local Boards of
Education........................
Powers of Local Boards.............
Superintendent of Schools..........
The School Superintendent and the
Professional Staff...............
Fiscal Independence of the School
District.........................
Role of the State..................
Community and the School
AdministrationOOOOO0.00.0.0...0..
P.T.A. (Parent Teacher
Association).....................
Lay Advisory Committees............
Public Relations and Interpre-
tation of Educational
Programmes.......................
Suggestions Regarding School-
Community Relations Program......
Human Relations and Public
Relations........................

iv

Page

l-'
OKD mmmmmm

H
N

12
13

21
22

23
25
26
28

28
3O

31
32
33
34
35

36

Page
Part II

Behavioral Change........................ 37
Human Relations Approach................. 38
Leadership............................... 40
The GrOUPOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO. 40
Leadership in Educational Administration. 42
Kinds of Leadership...................... 43
Participation............................ 45
The Survival of the Fittest Theories..... 45
The Class Struggle Theory................ 46
Leadership and Co—Operation.............. 48
Changing Attitudes and Habits............ 48
Decision-Making.......................... 49
Delegation............................... 49
Communication............................ 50
Interpersonal Communication.............. 51
Open Communication and Its Function...... 53
Strategies of the Human Relations

ApprOaCh.0.0.0....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 54
1. Sensitivity Training............ 55
2. On-site Consulting.............. 56
3. Information Feedback............ 56
4. Personnel Counselling........... S7

5. Participation and Appraisal
System........................ 58

Part III

Change.O...O..0...OOOOOCOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOO 59

Models of Dissemination and
UtilizationCOOC0.00000000000000000 6O
(1) Problem Solver Model...... 60
(2) The R, D & D Process
Model................... 61
(3) The Social Interaction
MOdel......ooooooooooooo 63
Several Stages of Social Interaction
Perspective....................... 63
(a) Awareness................. 64
(b) Interest.................. 64
(c) Evaluation................ 65
(d) Trial..................... 65
(e) Adoption.................. 66
Summary............................. 67

III BACKGROUND FACTORS INFLUENCING THE
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM IN KERALA 69

Geographical Background.................. 69
Historical Background.................... 70
Cultural Background...................... 71
Social Background........................ 73

V

Economic Background.....................
Wealth from Water..................
Forest Wealth......................
Rare MineraISoooo-coo-0.0.0.0000...
Agriculture........................
Industries.........................

Political Background....................

Summary...............o.o...............

IV EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN KERALA.........

Part I
Evaluation of Educational Administration
in KeralaOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO

Part II

Present Administrative Set Up of

Education in Kerala...................
Constitution..o........o...........
Constitution and Education.........

Role of the Central Government.....
State Level........................

1. Government Schools........

2. Aided Schools.............

3. Recognized Schools........

4. High Schools..............

Part III

Analysis of the Current Scene...........
Education Minister.................
Director of Public Instruction.....
Elasticity, Experimentation and

Innovation.-0.00.0.0'0000000000000
DQlegation Of PowerSooooooooo-ooooo
HeadmaSterSoooooooooooooooaoooocooo
Public Relations...................
Communication......................
Staff Relationships................
Participation and Decision-Making..
Functions of the Local Educational

AuthoritYOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
Facilities for the Professional

Growth of Administrators.........
Financing of Education.............

summarYOO0.000000000000000000000.0.0....

V STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING THE EFFICIENCY OF
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN KERALA.........

Section I

Objectives of Efficient Educational
Administration.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.0...

vi

Page
75
76
76
76
77
77
81
84

86

86

88
88
89
90
91
94

94
95

96
96
97

97
98
99
100
101
102
104

106
107

107
111

114

115

Page
Section II

Examination of Current Scene of
Educational Administration............. 115

Section III

Suggesting Strategies for Improving
the Efficiency of Educational
Administration......................... 121
1. Changes in the Organizational
Set UPOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0...... 122

2. Constitution of the Board....... 123
3. Functions of the Board.......... 124
4. Executive Wing.................. 126
5. Duties and Powers of the

District Education Officer.... 127
6. Staff for the Office of the

District Educational Officer.. 128
7. Constitution of an Advisory
BOdYOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 128
8. High Schools.................... 130
9. Private Schools................. 132
10. FinanceOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 132
11. Public Relations and Inter-
pretation of Educational
Programmes.................... 136
12. Strategies for Changes in
Organizational Behavior....... 140
13. Other Recommendations........... 144
14. Evaluation...................... 145
15. Implementation of the Changes... 146

VI CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.............. 149
Conclusions.............................. 150
Recommendations for Further Study........ 154
Bibliography............................. 157
Appendix................................. 163

vii

Page
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Tables

1. Growth of Population in Kerala............. 78
2. Educated Unemployed at the End of

the Fourth Plan.......................... 80
3. Enrollment in Schools in Kerala............ 108
4. Income and Expenditure on Education........ 109
5. Summary of the Objectives of Efficient

Educational Administration............... 116
6. Proportion Between Yearly Receipt and

Expenditure on Education................. 135

Figures

1. The Need Reduction Cycle................... 61
2. Involvement of an Individual at Stages of

the Adeption Process..................... 66
3. Kerala State Education Administration

Set Up.oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo.o 110
4. The New Administrative Set Up of the

School District.......................... 129
5. Growth of Expenditure on Education in

Kerala State Over the Years 1965-71...... 134

viii

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The purpose of education in a democratic society
should be consistent with the idea that education is to
help the peeple of a nation approach the democratic
ideals. Each individual in that society has to have
opportunity to develop in such a way that he can fully
realise his own potentialities and at the same time con-
tribute to the improvement of his community, state and
nation. The educators of the country should recognise
that education constitutes an essential key for ameliora-
tion of social injustice and an agency for improvement of
man and his society, as well as a conserver and transmitter
of our most notable tradition. The purpose of education
will be considered satisfactory only when it has been
developed through intelligent participation, discussion
and understanding by the people. The administration of
education in any democratic country should beguided by
these principles while establishing, organising and oper-
ating schools designed to meet the needs of the people.

Every educational institution requires a pattern of
administration to propel it efficiently and effectively
towards realisation of goals, to maintain and sustain it

through often uncharted problem areas, and to keep it

1

2
energised and prepared to weather the challenges of fast
changing times. An institution must operate in and
through administration. In this sense administration is a
means to an end. Peter Drucker calls administration "an
essential service" which once begotten proves indispensable.
Similarly, the administrator is a necessity in all complex
educational institutions intent on the achievement of
excellence. There is no guarantee that mere presence of
money, quality, personnel, equipment, etc. will yield
excellence in education. Another force is needed to
translate the potential in to reality.1 It is therefore
obvious that administration and administrators have a vital
role to play towards the realisation of goals of education

in a democratic society.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to suggest strategies to
improve the efficiency of educational administration in the
state of Kerala, India, with a view to equipping the admin-

istration to be compatible with the goals of democracy.

Need for the Study
The present system of education in the country

instituted by the colonial power is obsolete and inept to

 

1Peter Drucker, The Practice of Management, (New
York: Harper and Row, 1954), pp. 3-4.

3
meet the challenges of the democratic India. Though there
have been quantitative improvements in education in India,
most of the inherent evils of the system in the country
still remain unchanged. Many comments have been published
in terms of social needs and local needs, explicit, or

implicit.

For example, discussing the past function of the schools

Saiyidain writes,

It has succeeded neither in developing the
individuality of its children nor in making
them feel at home in, and fruitfully
adjusted to their special environment.

It has tended to emphasize wrong objectives
and values and competitive success and
ignored the more important and basic

values and purposes. By devoting itself
exclusively to imparting book knowledge

and failing to take note of the educative
value and dignity of labour in its numerous
forms it has led to the overcrowding of
educated people in a few limited lines to
the comparative neglect of others. Thus,
as we view it from the point of view of

the individual or of society as a whole we
are driven to the conclusion that the
school as a social and educative institu-
tion is not delivering the goods.2

The school of the future should be the centre of the
community life, the community organised as a social
order. It is idle to talk of educational aims without

reference to social needs and goals of a country. The

 

2K. G. Saiyidain, Problem of Educational Reconstruction,
(Bombay: Asia Publishing House, 1957), p. 11.

4
abstract goals are always vague and lead only to the formal
and intellectual training of the individuals. There should
be a reference to which all educational activities should
be addressed. The controversy lies in the dichotomy
whether education is a means or an end in itself. Indian
educational philosophy has leaned more toward making learn-
ing an end in itself. It is now time to correct the
balance and use the educational process for democratic
living and for development of economic standards of living
of the masses.

Though India is committed to a democratic way of life,
the educational administration in India in general, and in
the state of Kerala in particular, are not compatible with
the goals of the free India. The distinguishing character-
istics of the system are too much paper work and red-
tapism, two inherent evils of bureaucracy. Instead of
being child-centered the system is tending more and more
to be file—centered. The present system is the one set
up by the British East India Company with a view to safe-
guarding the vested interests of the colonial power. The
decision making process in education, instead of being a
co-operative endeavour involving all administrative
personnel, teachers, students and community, involves
only the top level executives. Lack of communication and
mutual understanding between the personnel in different
levels of the hierarchy renders the participation of

everybody in decision making process very complicated, if

5
not impossible. The interpersonal relationship between
superiors and subordinates is formal and impersonal.
The relationship between the administrators, teachers,
students and public is so discouraging that it is strongly
criticised by the public, press and other social agencies
as moving away from the public.*

As any other state government, Kerala government also
exercises the powers conferred on them by the constitution
and administers the school system in the state through its
officers. The centralised administrative machinery moves
very slowly. All powers in steering the educational
system are entrusted to the Directorate of Education and
the Education Secretariat. The most important fact is that
the role of the department still continues as a bureaucratic
agent of the government. The relationship between the
inspecting staff and teachers will illustrate the point how
bureaucracy works in India. The inspecting staff in general
appears to have a dominating attitude and behavior. Inspec-
tion always has appeared as a few days checking and a
policing officer putting every member of the school to an
awful alert. There is an attempt to make a false show of
tip top arrangement and exaggerated accomplishments. It is
marked by the absence of a friendly atmosphere, free
exchange of ideas, and educational guidance or leadership.
,In short, the educational administration machinery in its
present form is inept to meet the goals of democracy and

the needs of the people of India.

6

The Secondary Education Commission (1952-53)3
Kothari Education Commission (1964—1966)4 and several
other individuals and agencies have pointed out the
inadequacy of the present administrative set up to take
up the challenges of time. Ever since the constitution
was adopted by India, various individual and organised
attempts have been afoot to re-orient the administrative
machinery in the country. Still, the educational admin-
istration in the country has not been able to gain the
popular support of the public. Any plan devoid of measures
to appease the popular criticism is incomplete and defective
in origin. Public opinion is a strong force in the
execution of any scheme. Decision making in any area of
administration especially in educational administration,
is a co—operative endeavour in which the public, the
administrators, teachers and students should have a legiti-
mate place to voice their concern. Hence the need for this

study.

Design of the Study

This study is designed to suggest strategies to improve

the efficiency of educational administration in the state

 

3India, Report of the Secondary Education fiCommission,
Ministry of Education, Government of India, 1954, pp. 187-
219.

4India, Report of the Education Commission, Ministry
of Education, Government of India, 1966, pp. 249—273.

7

of Kerala, India. To realise this purpose, the following

operational objectives are sought:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

Investigate the social, economic and political
conditions in Kerala with special emphasis on
their impact on administration.

Trace the history of evolution of educational
administration in the country and analyse the
present administrative set up to identify the
problems that impair the efficiency of adminis-
tration.

Review selected literature on educational admin-
istration and related fields with special
emphasis on administration of local school
systems in U.S.A. and the Human Relations
Approach in administration.

Identify and enumerate the objectives of
efficient administration with reference to
the selected literature reviewed.

Examine the current administrative scene in
Kerala with reference to these objectives.
Suggest strategies to improve the efficiency
of administration using the information
collected on items 1-5.

Make recommendations for further studies in

selected areas.

Definition of Terms

"Administration" connotes financing, budgeting,
organising, establishing goals, directing, staffing,
offering personnel services, and evaluating.

"Efficiency" for the purpose of this thesis is
measured in terms of the satisfaction of the public
derived from the feeling that they are also part of the
educational administrative machinery and the contentment
of the subordinate staff who are not alienated, but well
treated, trusted and appreciated for their contributions
towards the welfare of education in the country.

"Standard," the term used in the Indian Educational
systemfor "Grade" in the American schools.

"High School" comprises standards V, VI, VII, VIII,
IX and X.

"Behavioral Change" refers to the significance of
human factors in organisation. ‘

"Bureaucracy" is characterised by division of labour
based on functional specialisation, a well-defined
hierarchy of authority, a system of rules and impersonal

approach to interpersonal relations.

{ggsic Assumptions
1m The existing educational administrative machinery
in Kerala needs a thorough change so as to be more

helpful in meeting the needs of the people.

9
2. The administrative set up of the local school systems
in the United States of America is highly useful as a
model in this study.
3. The most satisfying organisation is the most efficient

organization.

Limitations of the Study

1. Though occasional references are made in this study to
primary schools and colleges, this study deals only
with the administration of high schools in the state.

2. The main purpose of this study is to suggest changes
needed to improve the efficiency of educational admin-
istration in the state and not to explore effective
means of implementing changes.

RationaleEOr AdOpting the American School System as a
Model

It is assumed that there is justification in drawing
implications for India from the study of administrative
system in U.S.A. because India and U.S.A. have strong
common grounds in their basic philosophy of democracy.
Comparing India and America, M.C. Chagla once said in his

speech:

Our two countries are the two greatest
democracies in the world. Yours is
more powerful, more wealthy and more
prosperous. Our is more populous....
But both our countries do not possess
merely a democratic political structure
but we are dedicated to the democratic
faith, the most important article of
which is that society and government
exist for the individual, in the

10

maintenance of his freedom lies the most
important task of the government.

We are therefore friends and comrades in
the freedom field.5

Further, the science of educational administration in the
U.S.A. is far advanced and very sophisticated research work
in this field has been done, while India is still an infant
in the area of educational administration. America
therefore is in a position to help and guide India's
progress towards the democratic ends. However, the writer
acknowledges the fact that the American model needs suitable

modification with reference to the local conditions in India.

Organisation of Thesis

This chapter presents an introduction to the study
and the need for the study. Besides, the design of the
study, the basic assumptions and limitations, definition
of terms and an orientation to the organisation of the
thesis are presented in this chapter.

Chapter II is a review of selected literature on
educational administration with special emphasis on the
organisation of local school districts in this country
and Human Relations Approach in administration. Further,
this chapter contains a small literature review on change

with special reference to the models of change.

 

SM.C. Chagla, Our Two Countries, India and America,
A Collection of Speeches Picked Up At Random, (Washington,
D.C., Information Service of India, 1960), p. 92.

11

In order to provide a frame of reference for a
deeper understanding of the administrative problems in the
country a brief account of the geographical, social,
cultural, economical and political background of the
country is given in Chapter III.

In Chapter IV the evolution of educational administra-
tion in Kerala, the description of the present administra-
tive set up in the country and an analysis of the current
educational administrative scene are provided.

Chapter V is divided into three sections. The first
section identifies and enumerates the objectives of
efficient administration with reference to the views of
learned authors discussed in Chapter II. In the second
section, the current scene of Kerala educational adminis-
tration is examined with reference to these objectives
identified. The last section suggests strategies for im-
proving the efficiency of Kerala educational administration.

Conclusions and recommendations for further study in

related areas are made in Chapter VI.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF SELECTED LITERATURE RELATED TO
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

In this chapter which is divided into three parts,
the first part containing two sections, deals with the
literature relating to the organisational structure of
local school systems in U.S.A. and the remaining two parts
are devoted to the review of literature relating to
behavioral changes and the process of change in organisa-

tions respectively.

Part I
Section I

Introduction

The different purposes of education as recognised and
accepted by the nations existing today have tended to
determine the plan for organisation, control, and admin-
istration of schools that has been developed in each
country. In democratically organised countries, however,
particularly in the U.S.A., the people generally have been
seriously concerned about avoiding centralised partisan
control of education by any group, especially in matters
relating to what is taught and how it is taught. In most
democratic nations the chief objective is to develop a
government that promotes a national welfare by educating

12

13
citizens to think through problems and reach sound
conclusions. The people in the U.S.A., by and large,
agree that the control of schools should be in the hands
of citizens instead of being vested in political or
religious leaders. Accordingly, the general plan for
organising schools in America was evolved by the American
people.

Views of Educators in Support of the Local Control of
Schools

Though the concept of local schools is not free from
criticism, there is strong support to the virtues of local
control in education. What is attacked as local control
is not always the same. Some people criticise the neigh-
bourhood school, the existence of the local school district
operationally independent from other governmental units,
the policy making powers of school boards, or even the
authority of the school board to accept or reject a curricu-
lum idea. Referring to this criticiSm, Knezevich writes,

Local control as defined herein means
placement of policy-making authority,
within legislatively defined limits,

for the direct operation of education
with the people or their designated
representatives within a legally defined
civil subdivision of the state known as
the school district. It represents an
effort to compensate for the removal of
absolute control for the educational
development of the child from the parent.
Uhder the local control concept, parental
concern over the education of their off-
spring can be effectively expressed even
though a pre-ponderance of operational
control rests with the more distant units
such as the state or the federal government.

14

The qualifying class "within the
legislatively defined units" is signifi-
cant in the interpretation of the local
control as developed herein.

No serious student of education ever
championed the extreme position of
unqualified local determination or

implied that education is a local rather
than a state function. There never was

a time in this century when a local school
system could do as it pleased. No district
is permitted to operate a school system as
bad as some people within it want it to be.
No parent can arbitrarily jeopardise and
curtail the educational deveIOpment of

his child. The local control concept

does not mean a return to the inadequately
organised school district or the one-room
school, but it does suggest keeping people
at home actively involved and concerned
about education.6

School Operations had never been exempted from
specific legislative enactments that are not in conflict
with the state constitution or the United States constitu-
tion. School terms, teacher certification, safety standards,
graduation requirements and instructional programs are
determined often by the state and serve as constraints
within which the local policies must operate. Therefore,
there is no substance to the view that people within a
local system can do as they please.

Barnard, secretary to the Massachusetts Board of
Education defined the concept of "public school" from the

point of view of community control as follows:

 

6Stephen J. Knezevich, Administration of Public
Education, (Harper and Row, Publishers, New York, 1969),
pp. 135-1360

15

A public school I understand to be a school
established by the public-supported chiefly
or entirely by the public and controlled

by the public, and accessible to the public
upon terms of equality, without special
charge for tuition.7

Discussing the desirable characteristics of decentral-
ised school system S.M. Brownell writes,

The controversy over school decentralisation
partly reflects divergent thinking about
peOple's ability to govern themselves. Those
with strong faith in man's judgement tend to
want authority and responsibility for civic
decision making to reside with individuals
and grass root groupings; those with little
faith in man's good judgement tend to want

a few selected people to exercise authority.

I happen to be one who has great faith in

the basic good judgement of citizens in making
decisions affecting children and youth. I
recognize the influence of the home in
strengthening the effectiveness of schooling,
and so I am in the camp which would structure
decision making and responsibility for the
schools as close to the home situation as
possible. I would place the responsibility
for conducting operations with the smallest
unit consistent with the social needs of
urban living and with efficiency of state

and national life.8

It is said that public education in America is unique to
her culture and her way of life. Many foreign visitors com-
ing from the European systems have found it difficult to

understand the aim and function of American public schools

 

7I.L. Kandel, Comparative Education, (Houghton Mifflin
Company, New York, 1933), pp. 793-794.

8S.M. Brownell, Phi Delta Kappan,[.fl', (January,

1971), pp. 286-288.

l6
and have questioned some of its aspects like local control,
diversified curricula, large enrollments, grading, testing
and academic standards. Several aspects of the American
educational system seem so strange to them as to be almost
incomprehensible. The explanation to this has been given
by many educationists of this country. Thurston and Roe

write,

In education we have declared or rather
progressively asserted our independence.

We have parted from Europe in our schools
and colleges and universities as in our
automobiles, our merchandising, our
management of the arts of Hollywood.

We are no more a new world instructed

by the old. We have radically veered

from the European pattern and adminis-
trative organisation as well as instruction
and detached our educational government
from the civil power. The American unlike
Europe has insulated his schools separate
and apart from national politics. The
student of continental and classic govern-
ment captivated by the logic of administrative
simplicity, shakes his head in despair. He
pleads inconsistency of having two local
governments, mentions the double threat to
the taxpayer, and asks derisively why the
school superintendent should be insulated
from local politics as if it were something
ugly and contaminating. But the American
citizen prefers it that way. His school

is something personal and special, and he
wants it within close reach of his touch
and comprehension.9

Since visitors from foreign countries look upon the

concept of "local control" with mixed feelings and some

 

9Lulla, Basant Kumar P., Study of Educational Adminis-

tration in the United States with Implications for India,
Tanublished thesis of Michigan State University, 1963),
pp. 71-73.

17

times with apprehension it cannot be construed that appreci—
ation to this democratic phenomena from foreigners are
wanting. A group of Japanese teachers who visited the U.S.A.
and studied the locally controlled school system in this
country, have acclaimed the arrangements and their approba-
tion is spelled out in the following opinion of one of the
teachers.

I was impressed by the fact that the desires

of the residents of the community are re-

flected in the schools, supported by the

independent local boards of education. I

am wondering, however, whether this system

is efficient enough to disSolve the increas—

ing gap in the degree of educational achieve-

ment between different school districts; and

also whether it is possible to avoid the

danger of too much pressure from the

community.lO

The Japanese teachers were quite favourably impressed
by the mechanics by which school decisions were taken in
the local level through consultation and debates.
In South Africa, the principle of according local bodies

a voice in the education of their children was "confirmed
and perpetuated" in the Education Ordinance of 1953. In
his address to the Provincial Council when presenting the
ordinance the then administrator said:

The parents of both racial groups demand

a voice in the education of their children.
This desire springs from their democratic

 

10Bereday and Mausi, American Education Through
Japanese Eyes, (An East-West Centre Book, The University
Press of Hawaii, Honolulu, 1973), p. 15.

18

and religious way of life and out of
their deep rooted conviction, on the

one hand, that a child belongs rather

to his parents than to the state and

on the other hand, that parental say and
communal interest are factors that must
contribute to the teaching and education
of their children.ll

Indian educational leaders also are intrigued by the
idea of local support in educational administration in
India. Discussing the changes to be brought about in the
local units of educational administration in India,

Dr. L. Mukerjee writes,

The suggested areas of local participation
whether restricted to the field of primary
education and social education of the
adults, or extended also to the administra-
tion of private secondary schools, will if
carried out, mean that the district educa-
tional bodies will be somewhat analogous to
the local educational authorities of England
or the educational district organisation

of the U.S.A. There is however one thing

to be noted. It may be argued that the
sphere of these district councils will be
large, in fact so large that effective
participation of local interest may not be
possible. To meet that argument, it may

be advisable to have smaller units,
"pargana," "taluk," town area or municipal
educational committees. These may be con-
stituted in the same way as the district
educational bodies and undertaken to manage
the educational activities delegated to them
by the district bodies, which must have the
overall charge, and not independent of the
district bodies. Perhaps by this method we
may ensure more effective local participation,

 

11Behr Mac Millan, Education in South Africa, (J.L.
Van Schaik, Ltd., Publishers, Pretoria, 1966), p. 147.

 

19

and at the same time co-ordinate local

interest with the interest at the state
level, the district bodies acting as a

link in the chain.12

School education is pre-dominantly a local—state
partnership, is the basic principle that should guide the
evolution of the delicate balance between centralisation
and decentralisation which educational planning in India
needs. It has been argued in principle that the normal
practice should be that local authority gets the right to
administer education as a privilege subject to two condi-
tions-~good administration and promoting the cause of
education. Kothari Commission set up by the government of
India in 1964 has outlined the future of local bodies in ed-

ucation as follows:

(1) As an ultimate objective, it is
essential that schools and their
local committees should be ultimately
associated in the educational process.

(2) It would, however, not be proper to
press for the universal and immediate
adoption of this principle without
reference to local conditions.

(3) The immediate goal in this respect
and this should be adopted as a
national policy in all the states is
to associate the local committees,
namely village panchayat in rural
areas, with their local schools and
to make them responsible for the
provision of all the non-teachers
costs with the help, when necessary,
of a suitable grant-in-aid from the
state.

 

12Dr. L. Mukerjee, Problems of Administration of Educa-

tion in India, (Lucknow Publishing House, Second Edition,
1970), p. 247.

20

(4) The ultimate goal to be reached is the
establishment, at the district level,
of a competent local educational author-
ity which may be designated as the district
school board which would be in charge of
all education in the district below the
university level. This should also be
accepted as national policy.

(5) In all associations of the local author-
ities with education, adequate safeguards
should be provided to ensure that the
teachers are not harassed and that they
do not get involved in local faction and
politics.13

Public schools when ruled and governed by the local
people, should be closest to the community life. As such
an institution, the school is naturally expected to contrib-
ute directly to the improvement and enrichment of that life.
Considering this characteristic of public schools, they are
sometimes called community schools. Suggesting a functional

community philosophy of education, the joint authors Harold

H. Punkee and J. Floyd Hall say,

Community--centeredness implies two-way
responsibility. --community support in
exchange for community service. To expect
persons with school-age children to
enthusiastically support bond issues,
extension of programs, etc. may be un-
realistic, unless they see how the school
serves them or how they participate in
determining the school program. A
professional staff can become narrow and
authoritarian concerning program, content
and Operation, and seek broader community

 

13Suresh Bhatnagar P., Kothari Commission (Recommendation

and Evaluation), (International Publishing House, Meerut,

21

interest only for financial or comparable
demands. This is not a professionally
constructive approach.l4

SECTION II
THE LOCAL SCHOOL DISTRICT

The local school district as basic unit of education
is an American invention. It was suited to a pioneer
culture where localism was cherished and democracy a

passion. Referring to this unique phenomena Freeman and

Cremin write,

The development of a system of public
education with opportunities for learning
available to more people than ever before
in history can be regarded as one of the
significant contributions of the United
States to the progress of civilisation.
The American pattern called for transfer
of control of schools from religious
authorities or private corporations to
the public or civil authorities.15

The seemingly simple local school district is a complex
unit. To understand it better, Knezevich says, it has to be
examined as: (l) a political entity, (2) a legal entity,
(3) a geographical entity, (4) a social institution and

(5) an educational institution.16

 

14Harold H. Punkee and J. Floyd Hall, Illinois School
Journal, L (Winter, 1970), pp. 266-274.

 

 

15R. Freeman Butts and L. A. Cremin, A Histo of
Education in American Culture, (New York, 1953), p. 253.
16

Stephen J. Knezevich, Administration of Public

Education, (Harper and Row Publishers, New York, 1969),
p. 115.

22

Local Board of Education

Any public school system to be found in the United
States is a local system which is under the direction of
a local board of education, either elected directly by the
people or appointed by a body of officers elected by the
people. Thus, in grass roots fashion, never is the board
for long very far from the people's thinking or their will
in matters educational. When it does become remote, alert
and politically conscious, citizens have a way of bringing
it back or changing it by electing members more representa-
tive of community attitudes and desires.

Discussing the merit of this arrangement 'Maclean and
Lee'write,

This in the opinion of some, is a cumbersome
method. Unquestionably it takes more time
to effect change or reform when such is
needed than would be the case under central-
ised direction and control. Quite clearly
it would be easier to discover what changes
and reforms are desirable if there were a
single pattern of process and performance
against which to test procedures and
accomplishments. But right there is the

rub. Who is to say what the single pattern
shall be? And who is to say to what extent
a given community school depart from that
pattern, and whether it is not desirable

and wise to be different? Apparently the
American people favour a minimum of central-
ised power and a maximum of local initiative,
particularly with reference to their schools.
The authors know of no evidence that proves
any other point of view preferable.l7

 

17Malcolm s. Maclean and Edwin A. Lee, Change and

Process in Educatigg, (The Dryden Press, Publishers, New
York, 1971), p. 135.

 

23

As stated in the twenty—fourth year book of the
American Association of School Administrators, this
unique character of the American schoOl system leads to
wide ranging experimentation, greater adaptability to
change, and steadily improving processes in public schools.18
It might be argued that a centralised system has the advan-
tage that the process of change in that system is faster
than the decentralised system. Still, the needle of
advantage shifts in favour of the decentralised system
because the said advantage of the centralised system is

offset by the great evil of that system that it is seldom

susceptible to change.

Duties of Local Boards of Education

In public education in the U.S.A. the local board is
the first governmental unit. Maclean and Lee have summar-
ised the duties and responsibilities of the board in the
following lines:

1. Selecting the teachers, administrators, and non-teaching
staff of the schools under their jurisdiction and
determining such matters as salary scales, conditions
of eligibility for employment and promotion, personnel

procedures regarding leave of absence for sickness or

 

~ 18American Association of School Administrators,
School ngrds in Action; Twenty-Fourth Yearbook, 1946.

3.

24
further education, and the like. This may be called
the personnel function.
Determining the nature and scope of the total offering
of the schools; this involves decisions regarding
nursery school at one end, classes for adults at the
other; whether or not there shall be a program of
vocational education; how the schools shall be organised
--that is, whether elementary schools shall comprise
six or eight grades, whether there shall be a junior
and senior high school or four year high school,
whether there shall be a junior or community college,
and if so, of what type; whether the curriculum shall
be modern or progressive or conservative or fundamental
or middle of the road; all these and others besides.
This is the educational policy-function.
Determining the number, quality, and type of the school
facilities; involving such matters as the location of
the school sites and their extent; the style of archi-
tecture of school buildings; the size and number of
play grounds and sports fields; the types of food
services to be provided; the kind and amount of supplies
and equipment for classrooms, offices, laboratories,
etc.; the selection of text books--to mention a few.

This is the management function.
Determining the budget required to carry on the program
implied in the three preceding functions, and obtaining

the necessary funds through appropriate ways and means:

25
this involves setting of adequate accounting and
control procedures; determining what fees and other
charges may properly be levied on students; determining
school-tax rates; comparing "pay-as-you-go" plans with
bonding as methods of financing capital outlays; in
otherwords paying the bills. This is the financing
function.
To these four may be added a fifth, that of keeping the
public informed concerning the objectives, plans, the
problems, and accomplishments of the public schools,
including at least the following: reports and
bulletins concerning the schools; public meetings,
official and unofficial, at which citizens may be
heard and may hear about their schools; the use of
the press, radio, motion pictures, and television
for dissemination of information about the schools.

This is the public-relation function.19

Powers of Local Boards

No truly wise board ever attempts to carry out all

the details implied in the set of five major functions

outlined above. A board of education is a board of directors

and not an executive agency. It is a policy-making body,

not a group of administrators. Executive and administrative

 

19Maclean and Lee, Op, Cit., pp. 136-137.

26
personnel are employed by the board, and all operating
responsibilities are delegated to them. Thus in all but the
smallest and weakest systems, we find superintendents,
principals, business managers, supervisors and others
whose duties are to execute the policies of the school

board.

Superintendent of Schools

The superintendency is a cluster of administrative
responsibilities. It becomes an executive position of impor-
tance to the administrator only very recently. According

to the description of Knezevich and DeKock, the superin—

tendent's role involves the following:

1. The superintendent is the chief executive officer of
the board.

2. He is responsible for carrying out all policies,
rules, and regulations established by the board. In
matters not specifically covered by board policy, he
is to take appropriate action and report the same to
the board.

3. All individuals employed by the board are responsible
directly or indirectly to the superintendent of
schools.

4. The superintendent has authority to prepare regula-
tions and to give such instructions to school employees

as may be necessary to make the policies of the board

effective.

6.

8.

10.

11.

12.

13.

27
He is responsible for preparing and submitting the
budget to cover school operations.
The superintendent has the authority within limits
of major appropriations approved by the board, to
authorise and direct all purchases and expenditures.
He recommends all candidates for employment. The board
has the authority to reject specific candidates
recommended, but personnel finally accepted should be
employed only upon the recommendation of the superin-
tendent.
The superintendent formulates and recommends personnel
policies necessary to the functioning of the school.
The superintendent is responsible for keeping the
school board informed on all matters pertaining to the
school system.
The superintendent provides professional leadership for
the educational program of the schools.
He is responsible for the development of a programme
of maintainance and improvement or expansion of the
building or site.
He is responsible for formulating and administering a
programme for supervision for all schools.
The superintendent is responsible for submitting an

annual report on the operation of the school system.20

 

205. J. Knezevich and H. C. DeKock, The Iowa School

Epard Member, (Des Moines, Iowa: Iowa Association of
School Boards, 1960), pp. 57—58.

28

The School Superintendent and the Professional Staff

The superintendent's professional relations include
contact with teachers and central office staff, as well as
with the school board. The nature of his relations and
authority in working with other school personnel is defined,
to a large degree, by the board of education. Knezevich
while discussing the superintendent's professional relations,
maintains that there is ample evidence to support the con-
tention that the unit system of school administration is
more effective than others. Under the unit plan, the
board delegates responsibility for execution of all aspects
of the educational program (for example, instruction,
logistical support, and development) to a single officer.
This single professional person, usually the superintendent,
assumes concern for the total operation, and all operating
personnel are subordinate to him. The superintendent,
in turn, is the only professional employee who regularly
reports to, and deals directly with, the board of educa-
tion. All other employees, professional and otherwise,

report to the superintendent and through him to the board.21

Fiscal Independence of the School District
The question of whether schools should be fiscally

dependent or independent has been a controversial one. A

 

21Stephen J. Knezevich, Administration of Public
Education, Second Edition, (Harper and Row, Publishers,
New York, Evanston and London, 1969), p. 241.

29

school district is said to be fiscally independent when
the district has authority to levy local tax for schools
or spend money budgeted without prior approval from some
other local governmental agency. It seems fiscal dependence
within a reasonable limit will not endanger the autonomy of
the school district. With the high incidence of voting
down of increased millage proposals by many communities,
the educational authorities in this country are forced to
seek other suitable means to finance the education. Dr.
Allan Jr., while delivering the Simpson lecture on "Educa-
tion the First Duty of Government" observed that there is
a strong relationship among the three levels of government
(Federal, State, and local) as the paramount factor in
determining the future of education. He pleads for a "flow
of action," with the Federal government creating conditions
necessary for the states to set up those conditions under
which the localities can provide education fitted to local
needs. The role of the Federal government will be to support
a far broader and more fundamental education than mere fin—
ancial provision. Such a role mandates increasing federal
activity, but it does not imply, nor should it be allowed
to develop into a national system of education. In its
role the federal government will have to act as a guarantor
of equal educational Opportunity.

Among the complexities of the whole question of federal
financial support for education an important aspect stands

out. This is related to the concept of revenue sharing,

30

so much in the fore front of current thinking about public
finance. One of the central obligations of the federal
government is the strengthening of the states, and in his
opinion, this obligation mandates that general aid be
accompanied by incentives and requirements for reform.
The general aid is only part of a sound federal policy of
financial support. The federal government has also an
obligation to provide assistance in meeting special or
short term nationally recognised needs. This function
must still be a major feature of federal participation,

implying a continuing program of categorical aids.

Role of the State

At the state level, the role of the government,
according to Dr. Allan, is an extension of that of
guarantor of equal Opportunity with the added dimensions
of being closer to the operation of the schools, and thus
more directly concerned with establishing and maintaining
the kind and quality of definitive conditions necessary
for good education.

Current conditions and future probabilities have made
it impossible to continue to ignore the long apparent need
for a drastically revised pattern of school finance. The
general pattern now existing is more often restrictive and
supportive. As the possibilities of revisionary action
comes nearer, the proposal for state assumption of all, or

substantially all, of the local costs of elementary and

31

secondary education is gaining support. The principal
objection raised to such a move is that it would consti-
tute a threat to local control. But many circumstances
and aspects of local control point to the possibility of
breaking the tie between it and local financing, not only
without detriment to the exercise of true local control or
the quality of education, but instead with a strengthening
of both.22

It seems that there is considerable weight in the
contention of Dr. Allan that removing considerations of
financing from the local level would make it possible to
realise the true intent of local control. It affords
Opportunities for both parents and school authorities to

concern themselves with the real matters of education and

to make decisions solely on the basis of educational worth.

Community and the School Administration
This country has witnessed several organised movements
which attempted towards the realisation of bridging the
gap between school administration and the public. Some of
those organisations which afforded effective public leader-
ship in mobilising and articulating lay public's concern in

education are succinctly discussed below:

 

22James E. Allen, Jr., "Education the First Duty of

Government," Excerpts from Alfred Dexter Simpson Lecture,
Harvard Graduate School of Education Association Bulletin,
VOl. XV, Number 3, Fall, 1971, pp. 1-4.

32
P.T.A. (Parent Teacher Association)

The National Congress of Mothers founded in 1897 had
undergone many changes in its form and name. In 1924 the
movement was known as the National Congress of Parents
and Teachers. Today, this movement is usually referred
to as the P.T.A.23

The National Organisation is made up of a series of
state and local PTA's. The P.T.A. is a general type of
citizens' organisation concerned with the total educational
program rather than a specific part only. The P.T.A. is
concerned with developing closer relations between home and
school, parents and teachers. According to Knezevich some
of its other objectives are:

1. Promote the welfare of children and youth in the home,
church and community.'

2. To raise standards of home life.

3. To secure adequate laws for care and protection of
children and youth.

4.. To bring closer relation between home and school so
that parents and teachers may co-operate intelligently

in training the child.

 

23Arthur B. Moehlman and James A. VanZwoll, Public

Relations, (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957),
Chapter 18.

33
5. To develop between educators and general public such
united efforts as will secure for every child the
highest advantages in physical, mental, social, and

spiritual education.24

L§y_Advisory Committees

Lay advisory committees constitute a latent force in
American public education. The purpose of such committees
was to provide two-way communication between the school
and community. They conveyed information about the schools
to the people and funneled facts about the community to
educators. It is hardly possible to come to an agreement
upon the qualification for inclusion or exclusion from
appointment to the lay advisory committee. Commenting on
this Knezevich writes,

Lay advisory committees are usually selected
to include:

1. People who have a vital interest in public
education.

2. People who are willing and able to give
time and study to problems of education.

3. Enough people to give cross-representation
of social groups within the school
committees.

After a systematic review of community participation

in education through formal and informal approaches

 

24Stephen J. Knezevich, pp. Cit., p. 465.

34

Sumption identified three levels of citizens participation:
(1) collecting and assembling information, (2) classifying
and interpreting data, and (3) making judgements and
developing recommendations.25

No one will deny the strong influence the lay advisory
committees have in public American education. They have
demonstrated their value to school communities across the
land. It seems that through the service of such committees,

misunderstandings, misinformation and mistrust about the

schools could be minimised to a large extent.

Public Relations and Interpretation of Educational Programmes
The nature of the relation between the school and the
community goes a long way in determining the quality and
quantity of educational programmes and the efficiency
of educational administration. To develOp a sound school--
community relations programme a thorough knowledge of the
community is essential. The combined authors Morphet,
JOhns and Reller maintain that a study of the community,
including the school should supply answers to such questions
as: What have been the media of school community relations?
What "publics" exist in the community? What resources are
available for use in the program? How competent are the

school personnel to participate in the program? What

 

25Mr. Sumption and Y. Engstrom, School Community
Relations, New York: McGraw Hill, 1966.

35
mass media of communication serve the community? and What
cOntributions can they be expected to make? What power
structures and what organisations exist in the community?
What are the values of the community? What are the major

strengths and weaknesses of the schools.26

Suggestions Regarding School-Community Relations Program
The combined authors have recommended among other
things the following guide lines to develop a programme

to promote school-community relations.

1. Multi-directional communication is essential and must
be both the basis of the program and one of its
purposes.

2. The program must be planned.

3. Reporting is an essential element of the total programme
and needs to be developed in an effective manner with
reference to the variety of groups to be reached.

4. Involvement of many citizens and the employment of a
wide variety of media are desirable.

5. The central Office should take responsibility for a few
system-wide school community relations activities and
should concentrate its energies on the development of

a staff for more effective participation in the work.

26Morphet, Johns and Reller, Educational Administration,

(Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, 1959), pp. I33;134.

36

6. Responsibility for co-ordination and leadership in school-

community relation should be fixed upon some one person.
7. Evaluation of the program and of its various aspects
is of vital importance.27

The purpose of school-community relations is not

reporting and interpreting alone. It may be looked upon
as an arrangement to carry forward a public enterprise
with laymen and educators. It appears that a public rela-
tions program designed under the above guidelines would

promote co-Operation between community and its educational

leaders.

HUman Relations and Public Relations

The public is people. What is known as public relations
might better be called "human relations" because it is
concerned with informing people, persuading people and
integrating the attitude of some people with others. As
Roethlisberger has pointed out, human relations is the way
in which one learns to relate himself to his social
surroundings. It is the way of acting or not acting toward
other human beings in terms of the ideas and rules of the
society. Human relations skill is the capacity of a person
to communicate his feelings and ideas to others, to receive
such communication from others and to respond to their

feelings and ideas in such a fashion as to promote congenial

 

27Ibido, pp. 135-136.

37

participation in a common task.28 It therefore follows

\
that for establishing a sound relationship between the
school and public, the administrator must have deep insight

in human relations.
PART II

Behavioral Change
The sociologist Max Webber coined the term "bureaucracy"

as a label for a type of formal organisation in which
impersonality and rationality are developed to the highest
degree. Bureaucracy is a system of law, more than of man;
a system in which rules cover all contingencies and where
obedience is assured through the appointment of technically
expert supervisors who administer law with precise and cold
impartiality. Discussing the role of individual in bureaucra-
tic organisation, Tannenbaum writes,

Members are more or less taken for granted.

They are expendable, replaceable, inter-

changeable; they are expected to "fit" and

not to get in the way of the grand design

of the formal organisation. There is

little accounting in the picture of an

organisation for personality, for individual

differences in value and attitude, for

personal initiative, or for expression of

feelings or emotion.29

In such a system, the decision making process is one man's

job, involving only the top level executives. The

 

28F.J. Roethlisberger, Training for Human Relations,

(Boston Division of Research, Harvard University, 1954),
p. 172.

29Arnold S. Tannenbaum, Social Psychology of the Work

Organisation, (Tavistock Publications, Ltd., 1966), p. 7.

38
interpersonal relationship between supervisors and sub-
ordinates is only formal and it is vitiated by lack of

understanding and trust.

Human Relations Approach

The human e1ement—-that complex, elusive, emotional,
social and some times non-rational being whose behaviors
comprise the substance of the organisation, has received
greater attention of the administrative scientists in
recent years. Referring to the significance of the human
factor in organisations Charles Perrow writes,

It appears, at first glance at least, that
most of the problems of organisations do
arise from the peOple within them. In a
simpler period of history this probably

was less true. Mechanical devises were
imperfect and problems of capital, land,

and labor markets predominated. People

were largely taken for granted and "leader-
ship" was not the elusive and the vital
resource that it seems to be today. Leader-
ship required only strong will and a few
relatively simple ideas--at least in
contrast to the complexity of modern
organisations. Today in organisations

as well as in society in general, as Riesman
has told us, our problems are people
problems--interpersonal relations--rather
than the material conditions of life and

the concrete machinery of organisation.30

 

3OCharles Perrow, Organisational Analysis: a
Sociological View, (Tavistock Publications, Ltd.
1970), p. 3.

39

The Human Relations Approach was born out of the
reaction to the classiCal formal approach. Elton Mayo is
generally recognized as the father of the school:
John Dewey indirectly and Kurt Lewin most directly also
contributed to its initiation. A series of studies
conducted at the Western Electric Company's Hawthorne
WOrks in Chicago from 1927-1932 marked the inauguration
of this movement. Etzioni has summarised the findings
of Mayo and his associates in the following lines:

1. The amount of work carried out by a
worker (and hence the organisational
level of efficiency and rationality)
is not determined by his physical
capacity but by his social capacity;

2. non-economic rewards play a central

role in determining the motivation
and happiness of the worker;

3. the highest specialisation by no
means is the most efficient form of
division of labour; and

4. workers do not react to its manage-

ment and its norms and rewards as
individuals but as members of the group.

31

He points out that the emphasis laid on the role of
communication, participation in decision making and demo-
cratic leadership as the positive contributions of the
"Human Relations School" towards the science of administra-

tion. The significance of "informal organisation" consti-

tutes another major finding of Hawthorne Studies.

 

31Amiatai Etzioni, Modern Organisationg, (Prentice-
Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1964), p. 32.

40

It appears that the Human Relations Approach assumes
that the most satisfying organisation would be the most
efficient. It seems that the workers could not be happy
in the "formal" "cold" rational organisations that satis-
fied Only their economic needs. It did not view the pro-
blem of worker satisfaction and productivity as unsolvable.
The management has to encourage the development of social
groups on-the-job and provide them with democratic, partici-

pating and communicative leadership.

Leadership

Since 1925, hundreds of research studies done on group
characteristics, leader behavior, human relations, formal
and informal organisations and similar areas have created
a new and exciting body of knowledge which has changed the
concept of leadership and administration. Though there are
several leadership theories, the "interactional" or "group
approach" is generally accepted as being the mOst productive
to the understanding of leadership. The focus of most
research on leadership is now "on leader behavior" rather

than leader traits.

The Group

The school administrators spend most of their time
working with groups. Effective educational leadership
involves in understanding of behavior of people in groups.

One of the most significant studies of group behavior was

41

made by Homans. His principal finding is that the
elements of behavior of a group are sentiment, activity and
interaction. He examined these two systems together being
conceived of as making the total social system. The senti-
ment, activity and interaction of a group are conditioned
by the external environment of the group. The group in
turn will attempt to change the environment. Thus the
entire external system is constantly changing.32

Homans then examined the same three elements of
behavior in the internal system of the group. He defined
the internal system as group behavior that is an expression
of the sentiments toward one another developed by members
of the group in the course of their life together.33 As in
the external system, sentiment, activity, and interaction
are mutually dependent in the internal system. The mutual
dependence of the various elements of the behavior in the
internal system, changes it constantly. Homans also observed
that the total internal system of thekgroup affects the total
external system of the group and that the total social system

of a group is constantly changing.34

 

32George C. Homans, The Human Group, (New YOrk:

Harcourt, Brace & Company, 1950), pp. 81-90.

33Ibid., p. 110.

34Ibid., p. 123.

42

It seems that observations of Homanshave greater
application in educational administration. If an adminis—
trator is not accepted by the teachers as a member of the
teacher group then he is an outsider and part of the exter-
nal environment of the group. If a member of a group violates
or offends the norms and sentiments of the group, the group
itself disciplines the group member, by making him (the

administrator) as an "outsider."

Leadership in Educational Administration

A thorough grasp of leadership and group phenomena is
of vital importance to educational administrators. As he
has to deal with many groups, both formal and informal
within and without the school system, his job is more
complicated. Campbell, describing the conflicting expecta-
tions faced by administrators has stated that different
groups within the community and within the school system
have different perception of the role that should be played
by the administrator. The group called the Board of Educa-
tion also has its perception of the administrator's role.
Individuals even within the same group have different per-
ceptions of the role of the administrator. The administra-
tor has his own perceptions of his role and some how he must

reconcile all these differences in role perceptions.35

 

35Campbell and Gregg, Administrative Behavior in
Education, (New York: Harper and Brothers, Publishers,
1957), Chapter VII.

43
Kinds of Leadership

In an administrative set up of conflicting roles and
expectations, which is the most effective and desirable
form of leadership? A series of studies were begun under
the guidance of Kurt Lewin with a view to comparing styles
of leadership. Three types of leaders were assigned to
direct children in arts and crafts, work in four different
clubs. The first type of leader was "authoritarian." He
was to remain aloof from the group and to use mostly orders
in directing the group activities. The democratic leader
was to offer guiding suggestions, and to participate in the
group. The third type of leader, the laissez-faire,
supplied knowledge to the group members, but showed little
emotional involvement and a minimum of participation in
the group activities. The group members were matched for
IQ, pOpularity, energy, etc., and all worked on same craft
project of making masks. Differences among the group's
reactions to various leadership styles were obtained through
observations, examination of masks produced, and "experiments"
e.g., seeing how the groups reacted when the leader left the
room for a specific period.

It was found that the group under democratic leader-
ship manifested warm and friendly relations among other
members; members frequently participated in group activi-
ties; when the leader left the room, the group showed the

ability to be independent and to continue the working on the

44

project. The democratic did not produce as much as the
authoritarian leadership. But the quality of their masks
was considered higher. The laissez-faire group did not
come off particularly well either on achievement or group
satisfaction.36 Coach and French have demonstrated that
democratic leadership greatly affects the worker's attitudes
towards their jobs.37

Etzioni has stated that following these experiments
and the writings of Mayo and Lewin, the Human Relations
Approach came to emphasize the importance of communication
between the ranks, of explaining to the lower participants
the reasons why a particular course of action is taken;
the importance of participation in decision-making in which
lower ranks share in the decisions made by higher-ranks,38
and the virtues of democratic leadership.

Educational administration is more related to people
than any other branch of administration. Educational admin-
istrator may be viewed as the leader of a big group consti-

tuted by the administrative staff, teachers, children and

the community. It seems that the best type of a leader in

 

36R. Lippitt and R. K. White, An Experimental Study of

Leadership and Group Life, Swanson, et. al., Readings in
Social Psychology, 1952, pp. 340- 355.

37L. Coach and J.R.P. French, Jr., Overcoming Resistance

to Change, Swanson, 33. al., Readings in Social Psychology,

38Amiati-Etzioni, Modern Organisations, (Prentice-Hall,
Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1964), p. 38.

45
such a situation is the democratic leader who is flexible
and tends to see as well as stimulate the best in others,

sharing and working as one of them.

Participation

Only through co-operative procedures, the co-operation
of all concerned in education can be ensured. To have a
deeper appreciation of the real value of the co—operative
procedures a brief survey of some of the basic theories is
attempted below:

The Survival of the Fittest Theories

Malthus laid the foundation for the "survival of the
fittest theory" in his famous essay on population written
in 1798. Darwin, stimulated by the work of Malthus, wrote
his "Origin of Species" in 1859. His basic assumption was
that more of each Of species is born than can possibly
survive. The surplus starts a struggle for existence, and
if any individual varies in any way profitable to itself
it has a better chance of survival. Thus the surviving
individual has been naturally "selected." The scientist
Huxely supported and advanced still further the theories of
Darwin in his "Struggle for Existence" written in 1888.
The philosophical justification needed by the theories of
Darwin and Huxely was supplied in a masterly fashion by
Neitzsche in his "The Will to Power" written in 1889. He
concluded that theories of equality and democracy had been

disproven by the laws of selection and survival and that

46

therefore democratic procedures were decadent.39

The Class Struggle Theory

Marx and Engels, from a materialistic view of history
developed a theory of human relationships quite different
from the survival of the fittest theory but equally ruthless.
According to them the arrangement of social classes and
political institutions is for the purpose of production.
As the conditions of production change, the arrangement of
social classes and political institutions must change.
But this cannot be done by voluntary co—Operation because
political and social institutions lag behind and can be
changed only by revolution. This theory contemplates a
forced type of co—operation for accomplishing the goals
and no confidence whatsoever is placed in voluntary
co-operation?o

Kropotkin, an anthropologist rejected the Darwinian
concept that the struggle for existence pitted every
animal against every other animal of the same species.
He contended that competition within the same species has
only limited value and that mutual aid was the best
guarantee for existence and evolution. Based on studies
of conditions for survival of animals, savages, barbarians,

etc., he suggested that the unsociable species were doomed

 

39Morphet, Johns, Reller, EducationaliAdministration,

(Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, 1959), pp. 107—108.

4olbid., pc 109.

47
to decay. His studies on human beings, regardless of the
stage of civilisation, led to the same conclusions.
Montague, another anthropologist, assembled an array
of evidence from the investigations of many scientists,
and concluded that the true nature of man's life is co-
operation.41

La Barre, an anthrOpologist, has presented a synthesis
of sciences of man, an integration of human biology,
cultural anthrOpology, psychiatry, and their related fields.42
The findings of La Barre support the thesis that the evolu-
tion and growth of mankind is primarily dependent on co-
operative procedures which assume that all members of human
society are brothers and essentially equal.

The evidences available from many fields of sciences
indicate that the conditions for survival of mankind are
minimised by living in isolation, and maximised by co-
operative living. The concept of co-operation has special
application in public education. In this country, the
schools belong to the people. Public education cannot be
the monopoly of professional educators. Co-operation between

educators and laymen is essential to the development of a

satisfactory program.

 

4lIbid., pp. 110-111.

42Weston La Barre, The Human Animal, (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1954), p. 225.

48
Leadership and Co-operation
The findings of Lippit and White study reported

earlier support the fact that the democratic leadership is
more conducive to the spirit of participation. The auto—
cratic atmosphere generated a higher degree of tension than
the democratic, and in general, children preferred the
latter type of leadership. Commenting on the findings of
this study, Tannenbaum writes,

In these studies, the hOpe for the

democratic approach lay in the more

desirable psychological atmosphere which

prevailed in the democratic groups and in

the ability of these groups to sustain

themselves constructively in the absence

of the leader.43
Changing Attitudes and Habits

During World War II, certain food items, such as

steaks and chops, were short supply though beef hearts,
sweet breads, and kidneys were in abundance. Government
wanted to change basic attitudes so that people would con-
sume more of the latter unpopular foods? Lewin and his
subordinates showed that housewives who participated in
discussion groups that came to a consensus concerning the
use of the less pOpular foods were more likely to make
the change than were a comparable group who were lectured

on the desirability of the change.44

 

43Arnold S. Tannenbaum, 92! Cit., p. 87.

 

44Ibid., p. 87.

49

Decision-Making

Participation is one approach suggested by the
"Hawthorne Study" to the problems of authority. In general,
it refers to the formal involvement of members in the
exercise of control, usually through decision-making. Simon
has indicated that within an organisational structure,
decision is a group process and is so oriented. Rodney
thinks that directing an organisation requires the making
of innumerable decisions. Decision-making involves the
selection of one course of action over another. It
involves deciding on an action to be taken in preference
to alternatives. According to him decision-making should
not rest exclusively with the chief executive, unless he
so wills. Thus each unit level would be concerned with
its own Operational problems and its head would have
decision-making authority to meet them. Delegation of
decision-making to the level that can handle it best
relieves the tOp administrator of an additional task and

involves subordinates in an important phase of management.45

Delegation

 

The horizontal or flat organisation forces delegation
of responsibility and authority to the subordinate members

of the organisations and thus afford them an opportunity to

 

45Lynn 5. Rodney, Administration of public Recreation,

(The Ronald Press Company, New York, 1964), p. 46.

50
participate in the process of decision-making. One of the
four major testable propositions laid down by Griffiths
under his theory of administration is as follows:
"If the administrator perceives himselves as the controller
of the decision-making process, rather than the maker of
the organisation's decisions, the decisions will be more
effective." The effectiveness of an administrator accord—
ing to Griffiths, is inversely proportional to the number
of decisions made by him personally for the whole organisa—
tion. His formula for this prOposition is:

E(t) =

 

l

€D(t)
Where E is effectiveness in achieving the objectives of
the organisation; IED is the sum total of the number of
decisions, t is the specific time interval.46

It is evident that Griffith's theory is based on the
democratic and decentralised setting in this country. In
educational administration Griffith's theory has great
implications because students, teachers and the community

are demanding more and more voice in the decision-making

process in education.

Communication

Simon defines communication as any process whereby

decisional premises are transmitted from one member of the

 

4 . . . . . . .
6Daniel E. Griffiths, Administration as DeciSIOn-

Making, Edited by Fred D. Carver and Thomas J. Sergiovani,
(McGraw-Hill Company, New York, 1969), p. 147.

51
organisation to another.47 The problem of communication is
a vital issue in any bureaucratic organisation. Thompson

writes,

Modern bureaucracy attempts to accommodate

specialisation within an hierarchial frame

work. A hierarchy is a system of roles--

the roles of subordination and super-ordination--

arranged in a chain so that role 1 is subordinate

to role 2; 2 is super-ordinate to l but sub-

ordinate to 3; and so forth until a role is

reached that is subordinate to no other role

(but perhaps to a group of people, such as

board of directors or an electorate).48
The structure of bureaucratic organisation is a barrier to
effective communication. Leavitt strongly feels that mechan-
ical barriers are the least important barriers to communica-
tion in human groups. According to him, among other things,
"status barrier" stands the most important barrier between
superior and subordinates that limits communication in
either direction, because of fear of approval on the one

hand, or loss of prestige on the other.49

Interpersonal Communication

In its attempt to provide us a vision of more democra-
tic, more sensitive and more human organisations, the
human relations school has emphasized the need for improving

the process of interpersonal communication in modern

 

7Herbert A. Simon, Administrative Behavior, Second
Edition, (The Free Press, New York, Collier-MacMillain,
Ltd., London, 1957), p. 154.

48V1Ctor A. Thompson, 93. Cit., p. 190

49Harold J. Leavitt, Managerial Psychology, 3rd Edition,

1972, p. 203.

52
organisation. In an introductory essay entitled
"Communication and Organisations," Cherry points out:

When "members" or "elements" are in
communication with one another, they are
associating, co-operating, forming an
"organisation," or some times an
"organism." Communication is a social
function. The old cliche, a whole is
more than the sum of its parts" expresses
a truth; the whole, the organisation or
organism, possesses a structure which is
describable as a set of rules, and this
structure, the rules, may remain unchanged
as the individual members or elements are
changed. By the possession of this
structure the whole organisation may be
better adapted or better fitted for

some goal-seeking activity. Communica-
tion means sharing of elements of
behavior, and modes of life, by the exis-
tence of set of rules.50

Referring to this point of Cherry, Griffiths has stated that
the elements of behavior or modes of life can only be shared
by those who can perceive common stimuli in a common manner.
In order, then, for communication to exist in an organisa-
tion and between the organisation and the outside, common
perceptual bases must be established; that is there must
exist the set of rules referred to by Cherry. It is clear
that, if decisions are to be made and put into operations,
there must be co-Operation and co—ordination of the
activities of many individuals. Communication is the pro-

cess by which co-Operation and co-ordination takes place.51

 

SOColin Cherry, Human Communication, (Published by
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., and the Tellicherry Press, 1957),
p. 6.

SlDaniel E. Griffiths, pp. Cit., p. 145.

53

Open Communication and Its Functions

E.G. Bogue in one of his essays entitled "One Foot in
the Stirrup," has observed that an administrator should
develOp an organisational climate of Open communication
where ideas are free to flow in all directions in the organ-
isational hierarchy. He proposes that open communication
produces an organisational climate of trust which stimulates
high productivity. According to him, another function of
open communication is to govern the balance of power in
organisational operation. The mechanism of this function

has been described by John Gardner:

I would lay it down as a basic principle
of human organisation that the individual
who holds the rein of power in any enter—
prise cannot trust themselves to be adeq-
uately self-critical. For those in power
the danger of self-deception is very great,
the danger of failing to see the problems
of refusing to see them is ever present.
And the only protection is to create an
atmosphere in which any one can speak up.
The most enlightened top executives are
well aware of this. But I don't need to
tell those readers who are below the
loftiest level of management that even
with enlightened executives a certain
amount of prudence is useful. The Turks
have a proverb that says "the man who
tells the truth should have one foot in
the stirrup."52

Crooke has pointed out that the efficiency, productivity

and morale of a group is primarily dependent upon the degree

of understanding and acceptance that exists among all its

 

52E.G. Bogue, "One Foot in the Stirrup," Phi Delta

Kappan, (April, 1972), pp. 506-507.

 

54
members and that communication plays an important role in
promoting understanding among the members of a group to a
great extent. If communication (information given, received
and understood) is incomplete in an organisation, under-
standing will be incomplete and then one cannot expect the
members of the group to make intelligent adjustments to
various situations confronting them. In order to make an
intelligent adjustment to a situation, a person must know
what it is all about. In conclusion, Crooke has pointed
out that communication within an organisation is the first
step in establishing and maintaining and improving the
morale and efficiency of any group. Where communication is
missing, incomplete, or ineffective because of misuse, one

can expect to find low morale, low productivity, and

antagonism.53

Strgtegies of the Human Relations Approach

It is not surprising that the human relations
strategies for change are directed typically toward indi-
viduals and groups. Some of the strategies used by adher-

ents of the approach to achieve their goals are briefly

examined below:

 

53Henry A. Crooke, Supervisor and Staff Morale,

edited by James E. Herald, Louis G. Romano and Nicholas P.
Georgiady, (The MacMillain Company, London, 1970),
pp. 368-369.

55

Sensitivity Training

Sensitivity training or the use of T—groups is an
attempt to change individual and interpersonal behavior
through unstructured group process. Kurt Lewin and L.P.
Bradford were early leaders in the use of small group
technics for interpersonal training. Technics are now well
established, and training institutes have been established
throughout the country (one example is the famous National
Training Laboratories at Bethel, Maine). The T-group
strategy may be summed up as follows:

The training process relies primarily and
almost exclusively on the behavior exper-
ienced by the participants; theggrogp
itself becomes the focus of inquiry.
Conditions are promoted whereby group
members, by examining data generated by
themselves attempt to understand the
dynamics of group behavior, e.g., decision
processes, leadership and influence
processes, norms, roles, communication
distortion, and effects of authority on

a number of behavioral patterns, personality
and COping mechanisms, etc. In short, the
participants learn to analyse and become
more sensitive to the process of human
interaction and acquire concepts.54

 

Sometimes the members are drawn from a single organi—
sation and sometimes many. Regardless of group composition,
the goal is to focus on the interpersonal relationship of
the group and then to use the insights gained thereby to

change home organisation.55

 

54John Suehr, What is Sensitivity Trainin , unpublished

material.

55J. Victor Baldridge, "Organisational Change: The

Human Relation Perspective Versus Political Systems Per-
spective," Educational Research, (February, 1972), pp. 4-10.

56

2. On-Site Consulting

There is another strategy for promoting change in
an organisation. The Tavistock Institute in England
pioneered the effort to bring psychological and sociolog-
ical information directly to bear on change processes in
organisations. Tavistock personnel would go to a troubled
organisation to suggest changes that might help. The
Tavistock people examined the natural systems in terms of
interpersonal relationships to determine the way it func-
tioned. Their solution to interpersonal conflicts usually
involved changes in managerial attitudes and in the rela-
tions between peer groups. The works of Cyril Sofer (1961),
Elliot Jaques (1957) and A.K. Rice (1963) exemplifies the
Tavistock Institute's style of analysis. Chris Argyris work
is an outstanding example of the consultant's approach in
the U.S.A. In each case the consultant attempts to go
behind the overt symptoms to search for the social blocks
to effective communication and interpersonal relationships.56
3. Information Feedback A

This strategy is exemplified in the research of Floyd
Mann and L.R. Hoffman (1960). The information gained in
on—site research is used for promoting change in group
process. Much of the work of this kind has been done by

the Institute for social research at the University of

 

SGIbid., p. 6.

57

Michigan. The basic attempt here is to gather information
about the attitudes of organisation personnel, to feed
the data back to both management and workers, and then to
use that information to structure interpersonal relation—
ships more effectively.57
4. Personnel Counsellipg

Personnel counselling was originally proposed by the
Hawthorne researchers as the major application stemming
from their work. It seeks to improve the morale of workers
and to help them to adjust to their work situations. The
mechanics of counselling are relatively simple, though not
uniform. The counselor seeks out problems of human rela-
tions in the work situations, and he is available to all
personnel when he needs his services. A subordinate or his
superior consults the counselor when they have difficulties.
The counselor discusses the problem confidentially with the
employee and tries (a) to discover from what the employee
says what the real problem is and (b) to help the employee
discover what the real causes are.58

All human relations problems are not related to

employees' personal adjustments. Roethlisberger and Dickson

 

57ibid., p. 6.

58Arnold S. Tannenbaum, Social Psychology of the Work

Organisation, (Tavistock Publications, Ltd., 1966), pp.
103-104.

58

illustrate the hypothetical case of a hard-working girl
who was denied a chance to improve her position. The
counselor discussed this problem with the girl and her
supervisor and the outcome was a happy one. She was
restored to normal effectiveness and her efficiency
increased.59
5. Participation and the Appraisal System

This is one of the participation techniques and its
application is very useful in the personnel area. Basically
this system involves the enumeration of the subordinate's
success and failures during the last year by his superior
and suggests ways in which the subordinate might improve.
Unfortunately, it does not always have the desired effect,
since it arouses anxiety and defensive behavior on the part
of the person being evaluated. Maier says that the sub-
ordinate may leave the appraisal interview without having
learned much and may resist behavior changes_that could
lead to improvements. He has, therefore, provided a problem-
solving approach to the appraisal interview. The superior
does not play the role of a judge. The main purpose of
this approach is to stimulate development in the sub-
ordinate. The superior in this case does not propose goals

for the subordinate; rather he attempts to stimulate the

 

59Roethlisberger, F.J. and Dickson, W.J., Management

epd the Worker, (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard university
Press, 1964), pp. 600-601.

 

59
thinking of the subordinate and he is willing to consider
the subordinate's ideas. The appraisal interviewer uses
questions not to point out weaknesses or errors, but to
help the subordinate to evaluate his own ideas and formu-
late his own plans. Thus the subordinate plays a more

active participative role in the appraisal process.60

Part III

Change

We are living in a world where there is nothing
constant except change. If the educational institutions
are to meet the challenges of the time they have to keep
abreast of these changes. Changes are inevitable because
the knowledge is exploding at an alarming rate. In the
preface to the book Change and Process in Education, the

combined authors Maclean and Lee have observed that in our

life time the expansion of knowledge to be taught, the evo-

lution of our understanding of students and how they learn,

the research into methods of teaching have all been prodig-

ious and have brought many striking changes in the educa—
tional process and practice. Though we can cite examples

of accidental changes, by and large, changes have been

brought about through deliberate dissemination and utilisa-

tion of knowledge, which involves the transfer of messages

 

60Arnold S. Tannenbaum, Op. Cit., pp. 105-106.

60

by various media between resource systems and users.

Models of Dissemination and Utilization
Havelock has pointed out three models for the dissemin—

ation and utilization of knowledge.61

They are examined
below:
(1) Problem Solver Model
To most practitioners and to those who work most
closely with them, the need of the client whether
stated, implied, or assumed, is only one place to
start an analysis of knowledge utilisation and this
view point finds its expression in such terms as
"client-centered therapy." The writings of Thelen,
Lippit, Benne and Miles and Lake among others appear
to be influenced by this basic value premise. Even
though most of these write as outside "change agents"
they stress collaboration with the client system
and diagnosis of client systems' needs as the two
essential ingredients of the change process.
Successive stages in this model generally follow
the psychological theory of need reduction through
problem-solving. The process can be depicted as a
cycle of five stages as shown in the figure below,

beginning with "la" and concluding with "1b" if the

 

61Ronald G. Havelock, Planning for Innovation Through

Dissemination and Utilization of Knowledge, (Institute for
Social Research, the university of Michigan, Ann Arbor,
1971), pp. 2-40-2-43.

(2)

61
solution is right. The fifth stage (application of a
solution) leads to a reduction of the need "lb" if
the solution is right. If it is not right then pre-
sumably stage "la" is reinstated and cycle is repeated
until a solution which is truly need-reducing is
discovered.

FIGURE 1
THE NEED REDUCTION CYCLE

l.a. FelE need

l.b. Need reduction

5 . Application \
of solution

 

2. Articulated as.
a problem

4. ChOice 3. Segéch for
of solutions

solutiom“‘___"‘,/I

This model is a general one and could apply to a
process inside a single person, inside a group, an
organisation, a community or society as a whole. In
this model, the problem solvers may also be outside
specialists ("change agents", "resource persons", etc.),
but they will act in a two-way reciprocal and collabor-
ative manner if they are to be effective.

The R,_D&D Process Model

The underlying principle of this process is that
if there is knowledge, a user will be found for it.
According to this view point research does not begin

as a set of answers to specific human problems, but

62
rather it starts as a set of facts and theories about
the nature of the universe, knowledge which can only
be made useful to men through an extensive process of
development. Once knowledge has passed through this
develOpment phase it is ready to be mass produced
and diffused to all members of the society for whom
it might be useful. This model has been popular in
American culture for at least a generation. However,
there is only a dim understanding of how the knowledge
gets transformed into something useful. One field
which appears to exemplify the transformation process
in a very clear way is that of agriculture. There is
a transformation of knowledge from basic research to
applied research and develOpment which goes on in the
agriculture-related departments of the land grant
colleges and universities. This R&D process is
systematically linked to the Cooperative Extension
Service, an elaborate mechanism which diffuses the
developed knowledge to the farmer. This system taken
as a whole seems to exemplify the orderly transition
of knowledge from the research to develOpment to
diffusion and finally to adoption by the consumer.
Since this agricultural model appears to be so
elegantly mapped out and so successful, it has been

used in other fields like medicine, education, etc.

63
(3) The Social Interaction Model

This approach emphasises the diffusion aspect,
the measurement of the movement of messages from
person to person and system to system. It gives us
the theory of two step flow of knowledge and has
thoroughly demonstrated the importance of such
factors as opinion leadership, personal contact and
social integration. This is exemplified in education
by Mort, Carlson, etc. The social interaction theorists
see the society as a network of roles and channels
of communication with organisational and formal and
informal association forming barriers and overlapping

connection.

Seyeral Stages of Social Interaction Perspective

In this model the unit of analysis is the individual
receiver, and the focus is on the receiver's perceptions
of and response to knowledge coming from outside himself.
Authors who write on this model are concerned with the
stages through which individuals pass as they reach a
decision to adopt an innovation. Studies in this area
have shown that the most effective means of spreading
information about an innovation is through personal
contact. This model assumes that the innovation to be
adopted is already available in a develOped form for use.

Roger's five stage process is the model which has been most

64

used in studying adOption through the process of interaction.
The five stages identified by Rogers are discussed briefly
below:
(e)_ Awareness

According to Rogers, in this initial stage of awareness,
the individual is exposed to innovation but lacks complete
information about it. He is aware of the innovation, but
is not yet motivated to seek further information. The
primary function of this stage is to initiate the sequence
of later stages. Rogers describes this stage as a relative-
ly passive one on the part of the receiver; he feels
awareness of an innovation does not generally come about
as a result of need, but rather that awareness of a new idea
creates a need for that innovation.
(b) Interest

This stage is characterised by active information-
seeking about the innovation. The individual favours the
innovation in a general way, but he has not yet judged its
utility in terms of his own situation. The function of the
interest stage is mainly to increase the individual's
information about the innovation. Rogers points out that as
the individual's behavior becomes purposive in seeking
information, his psychological involvement increases.
Therefore we can conclude that active seeking of informa-

tion implies some degree of personal commitment and many

 

62M.) pp. 10.30-10.33.

62

65
presage later stages are more likely to result in
adoption.
(c) Evaluation

Rogers has identified a third stage, namely, Evaluation,

 

as a period of "mental trial." At the evaluation stage the
individual mentally applies the innovation to his present
and anticipated future situations and then decides whether
or not to try it. Rogers considers the evaluation stage to
be the least distinct and the most difficult phase about
which to obtain information. He thinks that different
types of evaluation occur at each stage in the adoption
process, but the decision to try the new idea occurs, by
definition, only at the evaluation stage.
(d) Trial
If the results of the individual's "mental trial" are

favourable, he is ready to move on to the trial stage.
Rogers describes this stage as follows:

At the trial stage the individual uses

the innovation on a small scale in order

to determine its utility in his own

situations. The main function of the

trial stage is to demonstrate the new

idea in the individual's own situation

and determine its usefulness for possible

complete adoption.
Referring to this Havelock says that it is not possible
to try out all innovations on a small scale. He therefore

suggests as an alternative in some cases to make a trial

on a temporary basis before going on to true adoption.

66
(e) Adoption
The final stage which Rogers considers is that of
Adoption. It is at this stage that the results of the
trial are considered, and on the basis of this, the
decision is made to adopt the innovation. Rogers defines
adoption as "continued use of the innovation in the

future."

The Adoption Curve
A graphical representation of the different levels of
involvement of the individual at each stage of the
adoption process is given below:
FIGURE II

INVOLVEMENT OF AN INDIVIDUAL AT
STAGES OF THE ADOPTION PROCESS

Adoption

  
   
  

Trial
Evaluation

Interest

CUMULATIVE INVOLVEMENT

Awareness

 

 

TIME

Adapted from Ronald G. Havelock, Planning for Innovation
Through Dissemination and Utilisation of Knowledge,

p. 10.34.

67
Summary

Though the concept of local control in education is
not free from criticism, its virtues have been appreciated
both by American and foreign experts. Local control does
not imply complete freedom for the peOple in a local system
to do as they please because there are state laws which
serve as constraints within which the local policies must
operate.

The local school district is the basic unit of educa-
tion in America. This is under the direction of a local
board of education elected directly by the people, which
serves as the policy making body in the administration of
school districts. In order to implement the policies of
the board there is an executive wing headed by a superin-
tendent and other administrative personnel under him.

The fiscal independence of the school district though
it sounds idealogically marvellous is not always desirable.
It seems fiscal dependence within a reasonable limit will
not endanger the autonomy of the school district. In the
future, the federal and state governments will be obligated
to meet the financial needs of the school districts.

In American schools, to promote a healthy relation-
ship between the school and the community the services
of P.T.A. and Lay Advisory Committees are extensively
used.

Human Relations Approach, unlike bureaucracy pay

greater attention to the human element in organisations.

68
Among the various leadership theories, the "interactional"
or "group approach" is the most productive to the under-
standing of leadership. Research findings lend full
support to the superiority of democratic leadership
over other kinds of leaderships. Democratic leadership
is more conducive to the spirit of co-operation. Democratic
organisations tend to be decentralised and maintains
effective communication both formal and informal between
the ranks. Some of the major strategies of Human Relations
Approach are sensitivity training, onsite consulting,
information feedback, personnel counselling, participation
and appraisal system, etc.

We are living in a world of change. Educational institu—
tions, to meet the challenges of the time, have to keep
abreast of these changes. According to Havelock, there
are three models of changes and they are, Problem Solver
Model, Research, Development and Diffusion Model and the

Social Interaction Model.

CHAPTER III
BACKGROUND FACTORS INFLUENCING THE
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATIVE SYSTEM IN KERALA

Any attempt to study the educational system and
the administrative problems of a country in isolation
from its geographical, historical, social, cultural,
economical and political background is vague and incomplete.
Kerala is no exception, if not the rule. By virtue of its
unique geographical position and peculiar physical features,
Kerala has had the distinction of being an independent
geographical political entity. These distinct features of
the country would serve as a frame of reference to a deeper

understanding of the administrative problems in the
country.

ggggraphic Background

Just around the corner of Cape Comerin, the southern
most tip of India, a strange land of delightful paradox
begins. This land called "Kerala" is one of the most
interesting and picturesque parts of India, with all
aspects of a trOpical paradise. It occupies a thin strip
of land of 360 miles in length along the south-west coast
of India, and is walled and warded of by the western ghats
in the east and washed and waved by the Arabian sea on

the west. This geographical position has helped to some

69

70
extent Kerala's political and cultural isolation from the
rest of the country and also facilitated its extensive
and active contacts with the countries of the "outside
world."63
Kerala State lies between 80 18' and 120 48' North
Lattitude and between 740 52' and 770 24' East Longitude.
It has a total area of 38,855 square kilometres which

represent just 1.3% of the total area of the Indian Union.64

Historical Background

The beginnings of Kerala history are shrouded in the
mist of tradition. The discovery of microliths points to
the presence of man in Kerala as far back as 4000 B.C.
The first direct allusion to Kerala is found in an inscrip-
tion of Emperor Asoka (3rd Century B.C.). The people of
Kerala were well-advanced in navigation from pre-historic
times. It is believed that the Jews arrived on the coast
of Kerala about the 6th century B.C. and settled down in
Kerala in first century A.D. Besides, Egypt and Asia Minor,
the Assyrian and Babylonian empires at the zenith of their
power, the Grecians, the Romans and the Chinese had trade

relations with Kerala. In 1498, Vasco da Gama, the

 

63A. Sreedhara Menon, A Survey_of Kerala History,

(Sahitya Pravarthaka Co-Operative Society Ltd., Kottayam,
1967), p. 1.

64India, Kerala, Ministry of Information and Broad-
casting, Government of India, 1968, p. 1.

71

Portugese Captain came to Kerala and began a struggle for
the Kerala Pepper among the nations of Europe. Later the
Dutchland finally the English came to Kerala for purposes of
trade in 1583. They founded the East India Company and
their supremacy was established over different regions of
Kerala.65

Prior to India's independence (in 1947) Kerala was
composed of three different Kingdoms, Travancore, Cochin
and Malabar, each under separate rulers. In 1949 Travancore
and Cochin were integrated into one unit. In 1956 Kerala
State was formed by integrating Travancore—Cochin and Mala-
bar into one administrative unit with a governor as its

head.

Cultural Background

The state of Kerala differs greatly from the rest of
India in many respects. In the field of religion and
culture it presents a greater variety, and we may say that
every phase of culture, from the most primitive to the most
advanced is represented in its life. In clothing, food and
everyday habits of life, the people show even a marked
distinctiveness compared to the rest of India. Rightly,

therefore, Kerala has been described as a "living museum

 

65Ibid., pp. 7-11.

72
of ethnology, culture, and religion, presenting every stage
of development."66
A unique feature of Kerala is its unity among diversity.
If India as a whole has been a melting pot of diverse
cultural traditions, the vicissitudes of history have made
Kerala a replica in miniature of the larger arena. The
integrative traditions which she evolved over centuries can
offer valuable cues to regions in India and abroad, where
the integrative process is not complete.67
Kerala is a land of temples and mosques, of cathedrals
and synagogues. Sixty-one percent of the people are Hindus,
twenty-two percent Christians and sixteen percent Muslims.
Nearly 9% of the total population belongs to scheduled
castes and scheduled tribes.68 The most significant
feature of Kerala life from the earliest time has been a
wide sense of tolerance and mutual respect among the differ-
ent communities. Christians and Muslims and Jews live side
by side with Kerala Hindus in a state of perfect understanding
and amity, respecting each other's customs and avoiding

interferences.69

 

66L.A. Krishna Iyer, Social History_of Kerala, Vol. I,

(Book Centre Publications, 1/155, Mount Road, Madras, 2,
1968 .

67Krishna Chaitanya, Kerala, (National Book Trust,
India, New Delhi, 1972), p. 32.

68S.C. Joseph, Kerala--The Communist State, (The

Madras Prenuer Co., Madras, 1959).

69K.M. Panicker, A History of Kerala, The Annamalai

University, 1960.

73

In this most thickly populated state of India 13.1
percent of the population live in towns and the remain-
ing reside in villages.70 Agriculture is the main
occupation of the majority of the peOple. Staple food is
rice along with tapioca, yams, sweet potatoes and other
starchy root crOps. Nearly 90% of the pOpulation have
Malayalam as their mother tongue, while others speak Tamil

and some other languages.

Social Background
Nowhere in the country has caste got such a tight
and fatal grip on society as in Kerala. Castes are the
primary units of the society and they are hierarchially
arranged. The brahmins though form a very minor part of
the population are at the apex of the caste system and the
untouchables are at the bottom. Till recently, not only
untouchability, but unapproachability was practiced in
Kerala. A fantastic protocol prescribed the superiority
of one caste over another.71
Till the beginning of the 20th century the caste system

was dominant in every aspect of life, such as food, dress

and denotations of houses of various castes. The joint

 

70National Council of Applied Economic Research,

Industrial Programmes for the Fourth Plan-Kerala, New Delhi,
1969.

71D.R. Mankekar, Red Riddle of Kerala, (Manaktalas,

Bombay, 1965), p. 57.

74
family system helped to a great extent to maintain these
traditional norms. The low castes were illiterate. While
the upper castes enjoy several privileges such as entrance
to temple, public schools and government services, these
were restricted to the lower castes. Each caste was com-
pletely segregated from the other. Consequently, social
mobility was prevented to a maximum extent.

The custom of reckoning kinship, descent, succession and
inheritance in the female line is an interesting feature of
life in Kerala. This is known as the "Marumakkathayam
system." The Kshatrias, the Ambalavasi, the Nayars, some
among the Ezhavas and some Muslims followed this system.

The family is matriarchal, tracing its descent from a

common ancestor. The joint family system-~the tarwad as it
is called--is the prevalent social unit, where the members
live under the same roof and the eldest male member of the
family, called Karanavan, exercises full powers over the
affairs of the family.72

In the last half a century, there has been a spectacu-
lar progress in almost every sphere of people's social and
cultural life in the state. The main prOps of the old order--
the caste system, matriarchy, joint family, untouchability,

etc. have almost crumbled, and several communities have

 

72India, Op. Cit., p. 30.

75
given up their ancestoral occupations and taken to new ones.
Modernity, science and technology penetrated into the tradi-
tional societies, and the traditional social structure began
to show signs of tottering. They play a prominent role in
changing the attitude, values and beliefs of the younger
generation. But this change is taking place only at a slow
pace.

The mode of life of the Keralites has fostered a narrow
parochial out look among them. Confined to and self-
contained in his hamlet indifferent, if not antipathetic
to his neighbour, the Malayalee found himself unamenable to
the wider concepts of modern society, difficult to discipline
and organise for a common cause involving subordination of
one's individuality. The range of his social thinking
stretches from self to his joint family and sub-caste, and
then finally to his caste. This constitutes a real barrier

to any social or administrative changes in the country.

Economic Background

Kerala's rivers provide an unparalleled scope for
hydro electric projects. When fully developed, in the
course of ten years Kerala will be able to produce more

than twamillion Kilowatts of power and sell it cheaply

 

73L.A. Kirshna Iyer, Social History of Kerala, VOl. II,

(Book Centre Publications, Madras-2, 1970), p. 161.

73

76
at about 75 percent of what it costs any where in

India.74

Wealth From Water

The 360-mi1e coast line and large number of back
waters and fresh water streams provide Kerala with an
inexhaustible source of aquatic wealth. The annual landings
from the sea are estimated at about three lakhs tons, which

is more than 30 percent of the total fish-catch in India.

Forest Wealth

 

The Kerala forests are rich in magnificent forest flora,
and fauna. Forest resources are being exploited in many
ways. Nearly 600 species of timber are grown in the
forests. Among minor items of forest produce are reeds,
sandalwood, rattan, honey, wax, rubber, ivory, charcoal,

cardamom and a variety of rare medicinal herbs.

Rare Minerals

Kerala has deposits of thorium-bearing mineral, monozite.
The coastline belt in Quilon District is rich in heavy
minerals like monozite, ilmenite, rutile, zircon and
zillimanite. The graphite deposit found in some parts of

the state contribute another source of mineral wealth.

 

74Mankekar, pp. Cit., p. 16.

77

Agriculture

 

Though agriculture forms the mainstay of the popula-
tion, the proportion of the people--50 percent—-depending
on farming in Kerala is much less than the all-India
average of nearly 75%. Out of the total area of the state
(nearly 96 lakh acres) only about 50 lakh acres are under
cultivation. Fragmentation of land holdings in the country
has rendered mechanised farming difficult. The peasant is
reluctant to resort to scientific methods of cultivation
either due to ignorance of such methods or because he is

slow to change. Food crOps as well as cash crops are culti-

vated.

Industries

An intelligent and efficient labour force, cheap electric
power, abundance of raw material resources, a network of
good roads and waterways for cheap transport and above all,
a congenial industrial climate afford good scOpe for setting
up new industries in the state. There are several major
industrial concerns now functioning in the state and they
are established and managed by the Government.75

The potential resources of Kerala are overshadowed by

problems of over pOpulation, unemployment, under consumption

 

7SIndia, pp. Cit., pp. 12-19.

78
and poverty.76 Kerala, though the smallest, is the most
densely populated state in India. As is evident from the
Table 1. the rate of growth of population in Kerala has
been higher than in any other parts of India.

TABLE 1
GROWTH OF POPULATION IN KERALA

 

 

 

Year POpula- Growth Over Previous All India
tion in Period Increase
Millions Percentage

In In 2:32:
Millions Percent-
age

1931 9.5

1941 11.03 1.53 16.04 14.23

1951 13.55 2.52 22.82 13.34

1961 16.90 3.45 24.55 21.49

1971 21.28 4.38 25.91 22.80

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

While Kerala is privileged to have the highest liter-
acy rate in India (63% as per 71 Census), it is plagued by
the highest rate of unemployment. In 1966, the number of

persons unemployed was 13.6% of the labour force, or 4.4%

 

76A.K. Gopalan, Kerala4_Past and Present, (Lawrence
and Wishart, London, 1959).

79

of the total pOpulation. In 1968, the unemployment was over
25% of the total labour force of the state.77

Unemployment among technically and professionally
qualified persons is still more acute according to recent
studies on some of the crucial categories of manpower. It
is estimated that the number of unemployed among graduate
engineers and diploma holders in engineering at the end of
the year 1970 is of the order of 3,500, and 5,600 respective—
ly. The unemployment among the medical graduates is also
increasing to serious proportions and it is estimated that
the number of unemployed doctors at the end of the year is
the order of 650. As the present trend indicates, this
situation which is already bad is likely to deteriorate
further at the end of the Fourth Five Year Plan. Table
No. 2 is a projection by the State Planning Board with
regard to the educated unemployment at the end of the 4th
Five Year Plan. Among the employed, 8% are high school
graduates and among the unemployed there is a larger
percentage (26.5%) who have high school graduation or

higher qualifications.

 

77N.A.C.R., Industrial Prpgrammes for the Fourth

Plan-Kerala, New Delhi, 1969, p. 7v).

80

TABLE 2
EDUCATED UNEMPLOYED AT THE END OF THE 4TH PLAN@

Diploma Holders (Engineering) 18,380
Graduate Engineers 8,283
Craftsman 73,850
Doctors 970
B.Eds 5,000
T.T.C. Holders 15,000

@Projections by the State Planning Board
State Planning Board--Fourth Five Year Plan Draft,
Kerala--p. 50
While Kerala is rich in potential resources and is

rightly described as the "favourite child of the nature"
it is still economically backward with a national per capita
income of less than $40 per year. A substantial part of
the total Kerala budget is apprOpriated for education. In
view of the meagre economic resources, Kerala has to
explore other possibilities to tackle the problem of cur-
tailing the alarming rate of unemployment in the country.
The proliferation of high school graduates and college
graduates who are desperately seeking jobs, should provide
the clue as to where we should look for the remedy. It is
obvious then that the educational system which produces
qualified manpower every year without any prOper plan or
foresight, is partly, though not solely, responsible for
the miserable state of affairs. This warrants drastic

changes in the educational system in the country. Organisa—

tional and behavioral changes are imperative in the present

81
educational administration before it is ready to address

itself to the needs of the people.

Political Background

India is committed to Parliamentary democracy which
opens the door for a cluster of political parties oriented
in different political ideologies, who vie with one another
to capture the power through the system of voting both in
the centre and the states. Competition is the name of the
game. Only the party which can rightly feel the pulse of
the electorate, and reflect their hopes and aspirations
in the election manifesto has the prospects of winning in
this game of gaining the massive popular support.

The political scene in Kerala is hectic of all Indian
states. The Keralites are more conscious of their rights
and privileges than the people in any other parts of India.
The intellectual integrity and high literacy of Keralites
would account for this unique phenomena of political con-
sciousness possessed by them. A peculiar feature of Kerala
politics is that it is dependent on and influenced by
communalism, which represents another form of caste system.

When votes began to count more than traditional status,
small but powerful groups such as Nambudiri Brahmins, lost
most of their importance, while the communities that could
marshal large numbers gained in political status. In
Kerala today there are two Hindu castes and two non-Hindu

communities each of which in its own way is as powerful

82

as any of the political parties. The Christians form the
largest of these groups, totaling about 25 percent of the
pOpulation; the Ezhavas follow them with 20 percent, Nairs
with 18 percent and the Muslims with 17 percent. In other
words, the four great communities comprise roughly 80
percent of the population of Kerala, and no administrative
reform can be implemented successfully unless at least three
of them support it.78 The fate of the Education Bill which
was passed by the Communist Government in Kerala in 1957,
corroborates this statement. About 62% of the schools in
Kerala are in the private sector and they are owned and
managed individually or collectively by persons belonging
to communities mentioned above. Since those communities
felt that the provisions of the said bill, if implemented,
will endanger their interests they unanimously opposed its
implementation without modifications to safeguard their
interests. Though this bill was passed into law the later
governments had to modify the law at the implementation
stage on account of the pressure from those communities and
the political parties supported by them.

A centralised, well integrated, hierarchially well-
knit bureaucracy has a history of more than one hundred and
fifty years in the country. In a developing society,

bureaucracy and political parties are always competing for

 

8George Wood Cock, Kerala, (Faber and Faber, 24 Russel
Square, London, 1967), pp. 253-254.

83
sharing political power. It seems that in Kerala the polit-
ical parties are gradually asserting their authority over
bureaucracy and trying to control it. The socialisation
of the peOple has to be performed by political parties.
C.P. Bhambhri maintains that all the roles of education,
socialisation, etc., which go with "political participation"
have to be performed by political parties in India. Polit-
ical participation means an involvement of the peOple in
governmental decision-making. According to him there is
no area of governance from which the people are forbidden

to participate in a democratic state.79

The underlying
concern for a "democratic" or "effective" public administra-
tion (in Kerala educational administration is part of Public
administration) is the belief that public administration
must be based on public consent or support. The action of
public agencies and officials, should reflect the aspira-
tions, interests, demands and support of the peOple it

serves and directs.80

In view of the peculiar political
situation in Kerala it is obvious that the educational
administration in the country cannot function efficiently

unless it reflects the views and aspirations of the peOple.

 

79C.P. Bhambhri, Bureaucracy and Politics in India,

(Vikas Publications, Delhi, 1971), pp. 3-4.

80Eldersveld, Jagannadham, Barnabas, The Citizen and

the Administrator in a Develo in Democrac , (The Indian
Institute of Public Adm n stra ion, New e- i, 1968),
p. 3.

 

84
Summary

In this chapter an attempt has been made to provide
a brief survey of the geographical, historical, cultural,
economical and political background of Kerala with a view
to gaining a deeper insight into the basic problems Of
education and educational scene.

Kerala is culturally and politically isolated from the
rest of the country and it has a distinct individuality.
This can be explained in part by the unique geographical
position and peculiar physical features Kerala has. The
variations in climate and seasons in the country have
great impact on the vegetation and the development of
agriculture.

There are evidences to show that Kerala was a well-
established and powerful kingdom even before the christian
era. Kerala had trade contacts with foreign countries
like Egypt, Greece, Rome and China in the distant past,
and with Dutch, Portugese, and the English in the recent
past.

In Kerala, one of the most thickly populated states
in India, most of the people live in villages. Farming is
the main occupation of the majority of the people. Kerala
is a land of traditional culture with a variety of races,
castes and religions, the main religions being, Hinduism,
Christianity, and Moslems. Hindus predominate in the
population. The traditional caste system still existing

in the state has a great impact on the various aspects

85
of the progress of the society. The society, by and large,
is non-receptive to change.

Kerala is rich in potential resources which if exploited
fully, prosperity will again go around the country. But
problems like over population and unemployment overshadow
the state. The high rate of population explosion accom-
panied by low economic growth has produced a high rate of
unemployment. Since the financial resources of the state
are meagre, the remedy for the crucial problems that ail
the country lie in the reformation of the education system.

Keralites are very politically conscious of their
rights and privileges. The intellectual integrity and
high literacy will explain this phenomena of political
consciousness of Keralites. In a parliamentary democracy
political parties articulate the needs of the people. A
peculiar feature of Kerala politics is that it is not free
from the influence of communalism which is another form of
caste. There are two Hindu castes and two non—Hindu castes
each of which in its own way is as powerful as any of the
political parties. In other words, no administrative reform
can be successfully implemented unless these communities
support it. In Kerala political parties are gradually

asserting their authority over the bureaucracy and trying

to control it.

CHAPTER IV
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN KERALA

As part of public administration, educational adminis—
tration in Kerala functions as a bureaucratic wing of the
government. While we cherish the ideals of democracy we
have not let them permeate through the rigid bureaucratic
structure of educational administrative system. Our national
leaders were fully aware of the need to change the warp
and woof of this system before it is ready to meet the needs
of the peOple. Even though there have been several calcula-
ted efforts afoot to change the system, the inherent evils
of the system still remain unaltered. It seems that a brief
review of the factors that influence educational administration
in the country will lead to a better understanding of the
administrative problems facing the country. The discussion
of this chapter is divided into three parts: evolution of
educational administration in the country, description of
the present educational administrative set up in the country
and an analysis of the current scene.

PART I

EVOLUTION OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN KERALA

A state administrative machinery of the modern type did
not exist in the pre-British period and education was not

controlled by external agencies. When the British East India

86

87

Company occupied the country it did not find a system of educa-
tion but a number of educational institutions established in
more settled parts of the country. As Mr. Arthur Howel,
the famous British Historian remarks, education in India under
the British Government was first ignored, and then violently
and successfully opposed, then conducted on a system now
universally admitted to be erroneous and finally placed on its
present footing.81

Education in Kerala during the modern period began with
the historic proclamation of 1844 by the Maharaja of
Tranvancore that for state employment preference would be
given to those educated in English schools. The beginnings
of an organised public system of education were made in the
years following the famous Wood's Despatch of 1854 which
gave direction to the educational development in India during
the subsequent years. Throughout Kerala, Christian Missionar-
ies played an important role in the spread of education.
Raja's free school at Trivandrum started functioning as
early as 1834 and it was the first school to impart English
education in Tranvancore.

In Cochin state Rev. Dawson opened an English school
in 1818. Thereafter English schools were opened at three

different places.

 

81A.P. Howel, Education in British India, (Calcutta,

Government Printing, 1872), p. l.

88

In the Malabar area the Local Boards Act of 1834 and
the Elementary Education Act of 1920 promoted the establish-
ment of several elementary schools. Private agencies were
encouraged to Open schools by liberal grants-in-aids, the
disbursement of which was done by the respective District
Educational Officers, since 1939.

The Private Secondary Schools Scheme was introduced in
Travancore-Cochin from lst December 1951, and payment to
the teaching staff of private schools was made direct from
the treasury from that date. Payment to the non-teaching
staff of private schools was made by managements till Blst
June, 1959.

In 1956, Kerala state was formed by the union of
Travancore—Cochin and Malabar as one administrative unit.

The Kerala Education Act and the rules issued thereunder

were enforced with effect from lst June, 1959.82
PART II
PRESENT ADMINISTRATIVE SET UP OF EDUCATION IN KERALA
CONSTITUTION

India after Independence in 1947, adopted the National
Constitution in 1950 which declares her as the Sovereign
Democratic Republic. It purports to ensure to all citizens

justice, equality, liberty and fraternity among them. This

 

82Kerala, Administration Report of the Kerala Education

Department for the Year, 70-71, Ernakulam, 1972, pp. 1—2.

89
is stated in the pre-amble of the constitution which pre-
cedes all other parts and gives purpose and meaning to the
whole document. Part III deals with the fundamental rights
which each citizen enjoys under the Indian Constitution.
Part IV lays down the directive for the state's policy in

order to translate the above ideals into practice.

Constitution and Education

 

According to the Indian Constitution the responsibility
for education was allocated to the states delegating them
the authority to make laws regarding education including
higher education, and to have full responsibility and control
over the educational facilities within their respective
borders.83 As a democratic constitution it has recognised
education as the state function and as the important public
affair. It serves as the basic philosophy of the nation
and gives purpose to the educational system. The basic
theory is that the self-government can operate only with
the literate and enlightened citizenry. There are some of
the educational meanings derived from the democratic and
national philosophy expressed in the Indian Constitution.
They are,

(1) Education for all

(2) Education for social justice

 

83John A. Laska, Planning and Educational Develgpment

in India, (Teachers College, Columbia University, New York,
1968), p. 9.

9O
(3) Education for liberty

(4) Education for equality and fraternity

Role of the Central Government

 

In the post—independence period, at first there was an
overlapping effort of the centre and the state in educational
re-organisation.84 At present the centre has assumed only
limited functions in the field of education. The central
government is now concerned with the co-ordination of educa-
tional facilities and determination of standards in respect
of higher education, research, scientific and technical
education. The central government exercises most of its
responsibilities for education through the central Ministry
of Education. Over and above its constitutional responsi-
bilities, Union Ministry performs broad leadership function
for Indian education.

A number of Advisory Bodies have also been constituted
by the Government of India in order to assist it in carrying
out its educational responsibilities. Among them, the Central
Advisory Board of Education and the University Grants Commission
have especially an important role in determining national
educational policy.85 Kothari Education Commission and the

Secondary Education Commissions appointed by the Government

 

84L. Mukerjee, Problem of Administration o£;Education

in India, (Lucknow Publishing House, 1970), p. 70.

85John A. Laska, Op. Cit., p. 9.

91
of India represent two significant events in the history of
education in India. Both these Commissions have proposed
drastic reformation measures in the administrative machinery
of secondary education in the states, which if implemented
fully, will go a long way in the solution of several admin-
istrative problems facing the country. At present the cen-
tral government seeks co-ordination of school education
through a standing committee of the Central Advisory Board
of Education. This board lays down the general educational
policy. Its four standing committees dealing with elementary,
secondary, university and social education, formulate aims
and objectives, assess prevailing position and draw up future
plans in these respective fields. A steering committee of

the board co-ordinates their activities.86

State Level

At the head of the educational machinery in the state
is the minister responsible to the legislature. He is chosen
by the Chief Minister from among the members forming his
party or group of parties for his interest in educational
affairs. The Education Minister discharges his executive
responsibilities through the Directorate of Education,
headed by the Director of Public Instruction. There is another
institution in between the Education Ministry and the Dir-

ectorate, called the Secretariat of Education headed by the

 

86India, A Reference Manual, Ministry of Information
and Broadcasting, Research and Reference Division-~1968,
pp. 61-75.

92

Education Secretary. This officer works closely with the
state Ministry of Education in the formulation of policy.
The Secretary is usually assisted by Deputy Secretaries
and Assistant Secretaries under them. Assistant Secretaries
are in turn assisted by several Superintendents and Assistants
under them. The number of Assistant Secretaries, Superin-
tendents and Assistants depends on the volume of the work
to be attended by the Department.87

While the policy making is left to the Secretariat,
the execution of the policy is left with the Directorate.
The Director of Public Instruction is assisted by a number
of Deputy or Assistant Directors depending on the size of
the state. His major functions include the inspection of
schools, the development of rules and regulations, the
operation of certain educational institutions on behalf of
the state, the collection of educational statistics and the
provision of technical advice in educational matters to the
schools and the Minister of Education. He supervises the
work of the government officials, and is in charge of the
leave and transfers of all of them. As most of the institu-
tions especially at the secondary level are run by non-
government agencies supported by the government grant-in-

aid, the director is the final authority to determine the

 

87Kerala, The Kerala Secretariat Office Manual,
The Government Press, Shoranur, 1964, pp. 2-4.

93
amounts of grant, though normally he accepts the recommenda-
tions of the inspecting officer.

Upon the formation of Kerala State in 1956, the adminis-
trative set up of the Education Department was re-organised.
The general administrative set up of the Education Department
in Kerala will be better understood from Figure No. III, Page 110.
For educational purposes Kerala is divided into three
educational regions under three Regional Deputy Directors
and different educational districts under several District
Educational Officers having control over high schools and
training schools. The director as the head of the depart-
ment is assisted by the Regional Deputy Directors and the
District Educational Officers in the administration of the
Education Department and the administration of secondary
schools.

Other agencies are also involved in the process of
educational decision-making at the state level, as a result
of the delegation of the state authority. The Kerala State
Advisory Board constituted under Section 4 of the "Kerala
Education Act, 1958" advises the government on matters per-
taining to educational policy and administration of the
department of education. Kerala encourages the local govern-

mental authorities and private agencies to manage educational

institutions.88

 

88K.K. Narendran, The Kerala Education Act, 1958,

(Southern Book Company, Law Publishers, Ernakulam, Cochin-20,
1971), p. 7.

94

Depending on the administrative responsibilities, the
school systems in the state are classified under three
categories.
1. Government Schools

The technical as well as administrative control of these
schools rests with the state government who runs and manages
the schools through the different officers of the hierarchy
in Education Department.
2. Aided Schools

The staff of these schools are paid by the government,
but the administrative control rests with the manager of the
school who may be an individual owner or the representative
of an organisation owning the school. The education depart-
ment imposes technical control over these schools so as to
maintain the quality of education. Aided schools are almost
identical to government schools in all respects with the
exceptions that the former are managed by private agencies
who are the appointing authorities in respect of the staff
in these schools.
3. Recognised Schools

Government have little control over these schools except
the fact these schools are entitled to train their students
and send them to the high school graduation examination con-
ducted by the organisations and maintain a comparatively

higher standard even though they are few in numbers.

95

High School

A single school is the basic unit of administration, the
administrative head of which is the Headmaster who is assisted
by the teaching and non-teaching staff in academic and admin-
istrative functions of the school respectively. In Kerala
Lower Primary Junior basic covers 4 years (standards I to IV),
Upper Primary Senior basic, 3 years (standards V to VII), and
High post basic 3 years (standards VIII to X). Malayalam is
the medium of instruction at all stages; other languages like
Tamil, Kannada and English are allowed to those pupils whose
mother tongue is different from Malayalam, if there are
suffiCient number of pupils. English and Hindi are compul-
sory subjects in standards III to X and V to X respectively.
There is one compulsory public examination at the end of
Standard X. Though compulsion is not in force, education
is free in classes I to VIII in government aided schools.89

The teaching staff of a high school is constituted by
High School Assistants for subjects and languages separately,
and special teachers. Non-teaching staff includes Clerks,
Attenders, Peons and other Contingency employees like
Sweepers, Watchers, etc. The strength of teaching staff in
high schools are fixed on the basis of the number of recog-

nised class divisions and periods of work.

 

89A. Biswas and J.C. Aggarwal, Education in India,
(Arya Book Depot, 1972), p. 17.

96

PART III
ANALYSIS OF THE CURRENT SCENE

Education Minister

 

Education Minister who is the head of the educational
machinery generally lacks the administrative experience and
has to depend on the permanent officials for his guidance.
The immediate subordinates to whom the minister turns for
help among the administrative officers are the Education
Secretary and the Director of Public Instruction. During
the British Regime, it has been the policy of the government
to entrust all responsible and policy making tasks to the
members of the Indian Civil Service. In fact, in 1922, the
late Mr. Lloyd George described the members of Indian Civil
Service as the "Steel Frame" which held together the entire
structure of administration. Perhaps this steel frame was
necessary when the British ruled, for it meant a group of
officials, mostly British, who were loyal to their masters.
But the trouble is that even today this basic structure is
being retained, though an Indian member of the Indian Admin-
istrative Service has replaced the British Civil Servant.
The trouble with this sytem is that though this brings a
certain amount of administrative efficiency, yet that
efficiency lies mostly on the surface, in the presentation

90
of neat reports. In most cases secretaries who assume

 

90L. Mukherjee, Problems of Administration of Education

in India, (Lucknow Publishing House, Second Edition, 1970),
pp. 77-78.

97
charge of Education Department have no technical training
or previous experience in educational administration
essentially needed for the job they have to do. Consequently
they lack the foresight which an educationist should have, and
are often led away by narrow and immediate considerations
overlooking a wide, more comprehensive and far-reaching view
which is some times necessary to take in initiating educa-

tional changes.

Director of Public Instruction

There were occasions when this post was also held by
a non-technical man, in most cases by a member of the Indian
Administrative Service. As the executive head of the depart—
ment, the director is responsible to tender technical advice
to the Minister in all educational matters and to carry out
the policy of the department and also to provide an efficient
leadership in education to the lower units. So a non-technical

man is a poor incumbent to this post.

Elasticity, Experimentation and Innovation

The rigid bureaucratic, centralised structure of educa-
tional administration in Kerala practically denies freedom
for teachers, subordinate staff and individual institutions
for experimentation. The existing system because of the
polarisation of power at the secretariat and the directorate
does not permit each institution to go ahead and to try out

new ideas. Decisions taken at the top level seldom reflect

98
the views of the subordinate staff and lower units in the

hierarchy who implement the decisions without question.

Delegation of Powers

Though at the state level all powers in steering the
educational system are vested in the secretariat and director-
ate limited powers as detailed in the appendix to this
thesis, have been delegated to the lower units.

It is evident from a perusal of the powers delegated
to the Director of Public Instruction, Regional Deputy
Directors and District Educational Officers that they are
purely routine in nature and that it does not provide any
latitude to these officers to do things at their own pace
and try out new ideas without the sanction of government.
Starting with the Director of Public Instruction the
spectrum of powers becomes wider in terms of the number of
powers, but insignificant in terms of their limits, when
it gets to lower levels especially in the district level
which as the corner stone of the administrative system
stands the stress and strain of implementing the various
educational programmes. While the Director enjoys more
freedom and powers than his subordinates he has to perform
his duties under the following constraints:

(1) His power of expenditure is subject to budgetary
provisions.
(2) His power of expenditure is subject to monetary

limits set by government.

99
(3) Some of his powers are subject to government approval
and have to be in conformity with other rules and
regulations issued by government from time to time.
He is authorised by government to sanction reapprOpriation of
funds from one minor head to another-~vide item no. 25.
This does not, however, afford him the freedom to utilise
the surplus funds under a minor head for a new item which
is not contemplated in the budget.
The limitations and constraints to which the Director
of Public Instruction is subjected would apply to the
Regional Deputy Directors and the District Educational
Officers with the difference that the monetary limits set
are low and that they have to exercise some of their powers
subject to the approval of their immediate higher authority.
For example, the District Educational Officer is competent
(item no. 22) to sanction distribution of budget allotment
for the institutions under his control subject to the rules
in the budget manual. Here again the officer has no freedom
to divert the surplus funds, if any, under any of the detailed

heads for a new purpose which is not detailed in the budget.

Headmasters

The chain of delegation of powers ends with the district
office. Headmasters, the heads of the basic unit of
administration, the school, are at present ignored. The
government schools suffer the most in this respect. The

headmasters are not always consulted with regard to the

lOO
transfer of staff from or to their schools; they are not
generally involved in the selection of their assistants;
they have no authority to fill short term vacancies in their
institution with the result that these posts remain unfilled
for days together.91 There is a general complaint that they
are unduly fettered by the rules and regulations of the
Department and are not able to put any new creative ideas
or suggestions into practice. The teachers have similarly
complained that they have not enough freedom to work out

their ideas and in their case it is stated it is the

headmaster who stands in their way.92

Public Relations

There is a wide gap in the relationship between the
public and the school administration and no positive measures
have been taken to bridge this gap. Public in general,
gather information about education from Newspapers. The
Newspapers neither tell the whole story nor give any signifi-
cance to educational news. Consequently, the public are
highly critical of educational administration in place and
out of place. In the powers delegated to the officers of
education department there is no provision which enjoins that

they will canvass the support of the public or work for a

 

91India, Report of the Education CommissionJ 1964-66,
Ministry of Education, Government of India, New Delhi,
1966, p. 262.

92India, Report of the Education Commission,_l952—53,
Ministry of Education, Government of India, New Delhi, 1954,
p. 236.

lOl
better relationship with the public. The rule of conduct
of government officers does not permit any of them to work
with or to be associated directly or indirectly with any
non-governmental agency without the prior sanction of govern-
ment. At the school level there is a parent's conference
which is held once in every year, preferably at the end of
the school year. For various reasons this conference is
not able to accomplish anything towards the promotion of a
better relation between the schools, school administrators

and the public.

Communication

The different levels in the department hierarchially
arranged provides a tall structure to the organisation.
The arrows in Figure III, page 110 indicate the flow of formal
communication in both direction along the vertical level in
the department. This type of communication is called
communication through "proper channel," which normally
prohibits jumping from a lower level to a higher one skipping
one or two levels in between along the vertical line. The
channel of communication along the horizontal level stands
closed except through prOper channel which follows a zigzag
path. This communication pattern would account for the
"redtapism" in the department which is usually criticised as
the evil of bureaucracy. This slow moving machinery deprives

the teacher and other clerical staff in the department of

102
their own legitimate right to mitigate their grievances by
petitioning to the appropriate authorities direct.

Another area of communication where its absence is
conspicuous both along the vertical and horizontal level is
"interpersonal communication." Most administrators seem to
be conversant only with written language, and rules,
regulations, orders and circulars are their media of communi-
cation. Person to person communication is at a discount in
the department. A teacher who is desirous of making an
oral representation to a higher officer has to seek the per-
mission of his immediate superior, the headmaster, which would
in most cases be denied. The State Advisory Board of Educa-
tion which does not come under the chain of command maintains
some informal and interpersonal relationship with the Educa-
tion Secretary and the Education Minister. This relationship

is indicated in Figure III along the horizontal level with

dotted lines and arrow marks.

Staff Relationships

As Saiyidain has observed "Administration" in India has
developed certain fixed habits of mind and stereotypes of
action which has sloWed down the speed and efficiency of our
work in all departments of national life.93 The educational

administration in Kerala is file-centred rather than child-

centred. It fosters an unquestioning respect for red-tape

 

93K.G. Saiyidain, Problems of Educational Reconstruction,

(Bombay, Asia Publishing House, 1957), p. 194.

103
and files and wheels-within—wheels of administrative machinery
with which the bureaucratic administrator is often apt to
become irresistibly imbued.

At present the administrators and inspecting officers as
well as the management often play "big boss" over headmasters,
denying them the courtesy and respect which is their due,
the headmasters in their turn "take it out" of their teachers
who ultimately revenge themselves, consciously or unconsciously
on their children. And children since they cannot hit back,
they often develop ugly complexes which creates problems for
teachers in schools and the parents at home and later when
they grow up, for the society as a whole. The teachers in
the country are still under the pressure of authoritarianism.
The Minister of Education, the Director, Inspector, Manager
and the Headmaster tend to be feared and obeyed by the teacher
without question.94 This type of relationship obviously falls
short of all democratic principles and practices.

Summarising the defects in the present pattern of super-
vision and inspection the combined authors Drs. Lulla and
Murthy have stated among other things,

(1) inspectors and supervisors are bureaucratic-minded,
(2) cleavages seemed to develop between teachers and super-
visors due to the development of the concept of "manger-

worker" relationships, and

 

94S.P. Chaube, Secondary Education for India, (Atma

Ram & Sons, Delhi, 1956), p. 154.

104
(3) there are no objective procedures for evaluating
teacher's work or the functioning of the schools.

In the office of educational administrators there are a
number of clerical staff who are completely ignored and some
times maltreated by their superiors. For want of proper
acknowledgement and appreciation of their role and perform-
ance in the administrative machinery they have no feeling of
job satisfaction or sense of belonging. The ministerial
staff as well as the teachers are bound by the inflexible
bureaucratic rules and are under the strain of authoritarian
leadership. Officers have no confidence in their subordinates
who hate their superiors but is scared of their power.
Virtually, there is no exchange of opinion between them or
any type of verbal communication. They always talk in terms
of rules and regulations and that too through papers. Instan-
ces in which the treatment of the subordinates by superiors
have been dehumanising and degrading are also not wanting.

The administrative staff who among themselves have no under-
standing and co-ordial relationship have a negative attitude

towards the public and the parents and children.

Participation and Decision-Making

In the present set up of the Education Department, the
public, parents, teachers and the ministerial staff have
little voice or influence in the process of decision-making
in education. It does not foster a climate conducive to

co-operation and good will. Decisions are taken at the

105
top level and imposed at the lower level for implementation.
The teachers and the clerical staff who shoulder the burden
of implementing the decision have no freedom to discuss
the impact of these decisions. The associations of which the
ministerial staff and teachers are members, are not encouraged
to share the responsibility in decision making or to make
their contributions to the total educational enterprise. The
activities of these associations which are duly recognised by
government are limited to conserving the associations and
to a certain extent mitigating the grievances of its members.
The concerns and apprehensions of the parents and
children who are directly affected by these decisions did not
receive due consideration because they are not part of the
decisions. The Kerala Education Act, 1958 provides for the
constitution of Local Educational Authorities for the purpose
of associating people with the administration of education
and to preserve and stimulate local interest in educational
affairs. Each local educational authority shall consist of
the following seven members.
(a) Each District Educational Officer having jurisdiction
in the local area-ex-officio member;
(b) One member elected by the managers of aided schools in
the local area from among the members;
(c) One member elected by the graduate teachers of govern-
ment and aided schools in the area from among themselves;

(d) One member elected by the non-graduate teachers of

(f)

106
government and aided schools in the local area from among
themselves; and
Two members, being persons who have experience in

education nominated by the government.

Functions of the Local Educational Authority

(1)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

The Local Educational Authority shall

assess the educational needs of the local area and pre-
pare each year schemes for the develOpment of education
and submit the same to government;

supervise the implementation of the scheme of noon-day
feeding of school children;

promote conference, exhibitions or other measures cal-
culated to create among the public an interest in
education; and,

carry out such other functions as may be prescribed.

Obviously, this local educational authority is not a

policy making body like the school board in the U.S.A. Its

powers are so limited that it cannot influence any of the

decisions of the government. The representation of the public

in this body is very small, and the rest of the members con-

stituting the authority represent conflicting interests.

However, no local educational authority has been constituted

so far as contemplated in the Act.

95

 

95K.K. Narendran, Op. Cit., pp. 21-22.

107

Facilities for the Professional Growth of Administrators

Due to paucity of literature in administrative science,
our administrators are unaware of the research works done
in the field and also the modern administrative theories of
administration. No positive efforts have been made to
educate and retrain them to meet the demands of the modern
democratic age. In the absence of proper incentive from
government the administrators are indifferent to their

professionalqgrowth.

Financing of Education
At present, education in Kerala is mainly supported by
the grants allotted by the state government. The tuition -
fee paid by the students as price for educational benefits
is the single source (internal) of finance in education.
The central and state governments, the local bodies and the
rest of the world are the external sources of finance. The
financial support given by the household (through tuition
fees) private endowments and charitable institutions is
usually referred to as the private source of finance.96

The pressure for enrollment in schools is on the

increase from year to year as is evident from the table

no. 3 below.

 

96"Financing of Education in India," Indian Educational
Review, V01. 6, No. 2, (July, 1971), p. 121.

108

TABLE 3
ENROLLMENT IN SCHOOLS IN KERALA

 

 

 

Number of Students (in Lakhs) Percentage
Increase
Year Boys Girls Total in the
Year
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5)
1965-1966 25.58 19.10 41.68 3.94
1966-1967 23.71 20.34 44.05 5.69
1967-1968 24.22 20.96 45.18 2.57
1968-1969 24.57 21.58 46.15 2.15
1969-1970 24.98 22.00 46.98 1.80
1970-1971 25.52 22.48 48.00 2.17
(10 lakhs 1 million) Adapted from Economic Review

Kerala - 1970 - Government of Kerala Publication, p. 54.

Though Kerala is the smallest state in India it has the

reputation of being one of the states with the highest

percapita expenditure on education.

The Table No.

4 contains

information on the income and expenditure on education in

Kerala. Though Kerala spends a substantial part of its

income on education it is not able to meet the educational

needs of the community at large and hence faces sharp

criticism from the public.

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110

ST T LEG T RE

J

W

J1

UC TION MINISTER
J, “’6' STATE

ADVISORY
RIATB « I BOARD OF

EDUCATION

 

 

DIRECTOR OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

BOARD F PUBLIC REGIONAL TEXT'BOOK
EXAMINATIONS DEPUTY COMMITTEE
DIRECTORS
INSTITUTE
OF
EDUCATION AND
SCIENCE
DISTRICT EDUCATIONAL
OFFICERS
' ’r
ASSISTANT V} Jv
EDUCATIONAL HIGH TEACHERS
OFFICERS SCHOOLS TRAINING
l ' SCHOOLS
PRINARY UPPER RRIMARY
SCHOOLS SCHOOLS

 

 

FIGURE NO. III.

KERALA STATE EDUCATION ADMINISTRATION
SET-UP

111

Summggy

Educational administration in Kerala is part of Public
Administration. The present administrative set up in Kerala
is the legacy of the British rule in India and it still
remains unaltered with all its inherent defects even after
independence.

According to Indian Constitution, the responsibility
for education including higher education rests with the state
government. The central government is now concerned with
the co-ordination of educational facilities and providing a
broad leadership in education. Among the advisory bodies
constituted by the central government to assist it in carry-
ing out its educational responsibilities the appointments
of Kothari Education Commission and the Secondary Education
Commission represent two significant events in the history
of education in India.,

In the state's administrative set up of education,
there is a department of education working under the direct
control of a minister who has a seCretary to assist him at
the secretariat level and a director of public instruction
as the executive head of the department to offer him technical
advice in all educational matters. For administrative and
educational purposes the state is divided into three regions
under the control of Deputy Directors and several educational ‘

districts under the control of District Educational Officers.

112

Based on the administrative responsibilities, the
school systems in the state are classified into Government
Schools, Aided Schools, and Recognised Schools.

An analysis of the current educational scene discloses
that the Kerala Educational Administration lacks several of
the modern concepts of good and efficient administration and
hence it faces severe criticism from the public. The Educa—
tion Minister, the Education Secretary and some times even
the Director of Public Instruction lack the administrative
experience and the technical expertise essential for the
jobs they have to do. The centralised bureaucratic structure
of administration practically denies the freedom for teachers,
subordinate staff and individual institutions to try out new
ideas and to do things at their own pace. For want of
sufficient delegatiOn of authority the lower units and the sub-
ordinates in the department are not able to make their contri-
bution towards the improvement of the total educational
enterprise.-

While there is a wide gap in the relationship between
the public and school administrators, the relationship
between the superiors and subordinates in the department is
vitiated by the absence of communication, both formal and
informal, understanding and trust. The administrative set up
provides no avenues for effective participation of either
the public or the subordinate staff in the process of decision-
making in education. For want of sufficient incentive from

the government the administrators are indifferent to their

113
professional growth. Though the state appropriates a sub-
stantial part of its income for education it is not able to
meet the needs of the people and to appease the public

criticism.

CHAPTER V
STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING THE EFFICIENCY OF
EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN KERALA

The general administration is mostly concerned with
securing conformity with rules and regulations, but an
educational administrator has to perform his tasks with
greater imagination and encourage experimentation with new
ideas. To do this complicated job school administrator
besides being an efficient manager, must be a good education-
ist, an expert in human relations, a man of profound faith in
democratic ideals and a man who can stimulate the best in his
fellow workers not by co-ercion but by co-Operation and good
will.

In educational administration the efficiency cannot be
measured in terms of the proportion between inputsand outputs.
By manipulating exaggerated statistics, a top level administra-
tor can put up a Show of efficient administration. The public
or the staff in lower level can never be convinced of the
efficiency of administration unless they feel that they are
part of it. Educational administration in Kerala when viewed
from this angle lacks the essential elements of an efficient
administration. This chapter, therefore, attempts to devise
strategies to improve the efficiency of the administration
of education in Kerala. The first section of this chapter

identifies and enumerates the objectives of efficient

114

115
administration with reference to the views of learned
authors discussed in Chapter II. In the second section,
current scene of Kerala educational administration is examined
with reference to these objectives identified. The last
section of this chapter suggests strategies for improving
the efficiency of Kerala educational administration.
Section I

Both American and foreign writers acknowledge the
significance of democratic ideals in the organisation of
educational institutions and in the art of educational admin-
istration. "American public school system" and "HUman Rela-
tions Approach" are outstanding examples which have converted
these ideals into reality. Table No. 5 summarises the
objectives of an efficient administration as envisaged by
American and foreign experts.

Section II
Examination of Current Scene of
Educational Administration

The components constituting the educational adminis-
trative machinery in the state are a legislature to perform
legislative functions and a minister of education responsible
to the legislature, who is assisted by the Education
Secretariat presided over by a Secretary in framing educa-
tional policies, and a Directorate with Director of Public
Instruction as the technical head of the department in
executing the policies of the government. The government

officials seem to think that the public has no business to

interfere with the process Of administration, which the

116

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118
administrative personnel alone are competent to handle.
The local community which is served by the schools is not
involved or consulted at any level of the administration.
It is assumed that the public at large on a state wide basis
influences the broad educational policies through their
elected representatives in the legislature. Since these
representatives are seldom interested in the total welfare of
the country rather than their narrow political interests,
educational policies are often corrupted by partisan politics.
Thus it is clear that the Kerala Educational Administration
does not meet the first and third objectives listed out in
the table.

For want of delegation of sufficient powers to the lower
units in the department, the picture of decentralisation in
education is not very bright. There is intense polarisation
of power at the higher levels in the hierarchy, namely at
the Secretariat and Directorate level. The powers the lower
units are authorised to exercise are quite inadequate to
experiment with innovative ideas in education. The objectives
(2) and (10) will be satisfactorily achieved only if more
freedom and authority are conferred on the lower units.

The organisational structure of the administrative machinery
which is oriented towards centralisation has little
adaptability to change. Keralites, traditionally are not
very receptive to change. This non-receptive character of

administration to change resists all experimentation with

119
innovative ideas. Objective number (4) which accounts for
the dynamism of educational programmes is at stake in
Kerala administration.

As already pointed out in Chapter IV, there is no con-
structive programmes to take the school to the community or
to bring the community to the school. The so-called "Parent
Teacher Conference" provides the parents an opportunity for
a confrontation with the teachers once a year. The single
occasion in a year practically accomplishes very little
towards the promotion of a better understanding and rela-
tionship between the schools and the public. Public, by and
large, gather information about school programmes from news-
papers which often exaggerate and twist the truth. Thus
objective number (5) is almost overlooked by Kerala
Administration.

Administration and inspecting officers as well as the
managements, play "big boss" over teachers and subordinate
non-teaching staff, and demands from them unquestioning
respect for rules and regulations issued by the top level
executives. As pointed out in Chapter Iv, the teachers and
the subordinate staff are under the pressure of authoritar-
ianism. The rigid bureaucratic structure of the administra-
tive machinery does not give due consideration to the
objective number (6) of providing a democratic leadership.

As the chances of informal and interpersonal communica-
tion are conspicuously absent the only channel of communica-

tion is formal communication through papers. The flow of

120

formal communication is very slow on account of the several
levels in the hierarchy. Restriction on communication along
the horizontal level further aggrevates this situation.
Thus it follows that the pattern of communication in the
department is not adequate enough to meet objective (7)
listed out and hence needs improvement. Decision making in
education in Kerala is not loOked upon as a co-operative
endeavour, but is handled by a handful of tOp level adminis—
trators. Decisions taken at the tOp level are imposed on
the teachers and clerical staff for implementation. Teachers,
clerical staff and students have their own recognised unions
who will be glad to share this responsibility of decision
making if they are encouraged to do so. Unfortunately,
they are kept outside the administrative circle limiting
their activities to try for mitigating the grievances of its
members. Kerala Education Act, contemplates the constitution
of local educational authorities for the purpose of associa-
ting peOple with educational administration. But so far no
such authorities have been constituted. Even if they are
constituted, it is doubtful how far it can encourage public
involvement. Therefore, the administration has to think of
other suitable measures to meet the objectives (8) and (9)
satisfactorily.

In the state's educational administration, the adminis-
trators, teachers, non-teaching staff and students are forced
to fit into the mold and do role-playing at the neglect of

their individuality and personal needs. They do not derive

121
any satisfaction out of their job, lack a sense of belonging
and hence feels completely alienated. Instead of being
motivated by respect, understanding and trust, the teachers
and subordinate staff are whipped to work by fear of in—
schrity in the job and disciplinary proceedings. Adminis-
trative efficiency that results from objective (11) being
met, cannot be achieved in an atmosphere of fear and

insecurity.

Section III
SUGGESTING STRATEGIES FOR IMPROVING THE
EFFICIENCY OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
Obviously, Kerala Educational Administration is unable
to meet the objectives enumerated in the table because it is
overshadowed by several serious problems which impair the
efficiency of administration. Though these objectives need
modifications with reference to local conditions in Kerala,
it is imperative to eradicate these problems with a view
to improving the administrative efficiency. The problems
of the state which need urgent attention have been derived
from the discussions in Chapter III and IV and listed as
follows:
1. Polarization of power at the higher units of administra-
tion (centralisation).
2. Lack of local control in educational administration.

3. Lack of freedom from civil power and partisan politics.

4. Lack of wide ranging experimentation and adaptability

to Change.

5.

10.

122
Absence of Close relationship between the school, school
administration, and the community (public).
.Autocratic leadership.
Slow and inefficient communication between the ranks.
Lack of participation of all concerned with education
in the decision making process.
Alienation, lack of job satisfaction and lack of respect
for worker's individuality and personal needs.
Soaring unemployment, overpOpulation, etc.

The suggestions made in this thesis are made on the

assumption that the most satisfying organisation would be

the most efficient organisation. They involve changes in

organisational set up and in organisational behavior.

Changes in Organisational Set Up

1.

The executive power of educational administration rests
ultimately with the state functioning through its
cabinet, supported by the education secretariat located
in the capital. But the mass of people for whom the
educational administration is carried out live in districts.
It is there the majority of people feel the impact of
government policies spelled out at the capital. The
success of the constructive venture on which our country
has embarked depends on the active participation of the
people themselves in the educational activities at the
grass root level. This participation can be brought

about by entrusting the responsibility to the local

123
communities normally untrammelled by external inter-
ference. It is, therefore, suggested, (a) For educa-
tional purposes and administrative conveniences, sanction
should be accorded for the constitution of school
districts throughout the state as a legal entity. In
view of poor communication and transportation
facilities, the school districts so constituted must be
smaller than the existing educational districts. (b)
A statutory local authority called "District School
Board," should be established in each District and
this should be in charge of all education below the
university level. This board will have under its direct

control all schools now conducted by the government.

Constitution of the Board

2.

(a) The board shall be constituted by members elected
from among the people in the community within the school
district irrespective of their educational qualification
or political or religious affiliation, for a term of not
more than 5 years. To ensure continuity of the education
programmes and to avoid frequent disturbance and the
hassle of election a much longer term is advisable. But
if an inefficient board is in office and the community
wants to substitute it by another board which can inject
new life and young blood in to the administration, the
freedom to do so is limited if a longer term is recommended.

Hence the term of five years appears to be reasonable.

124

(b) The number of members to be elected to each local
board shall be fixed in between 5 and 7, preferably 5.
It is hoped that a small nUmber of members will help to
minimise the confusion and indecisional dilemma in board
meetings. The small size of school district recommended
earlier will also justify this suggestion. (c) The
office-bearers of the school board shall include a

chairman or president, a secretary and a treasurer.

Functions of the Board

 

3.

(a) The responsibility to fixing qualifications of
administrators, teachers and the non-teaching staff in

the school system and for their selection and recruitment
cannot be entrusted to the school board under the present
conditions obtaining in the country. Government being

the major employer in the state, employment policies
should be uniform throughout the state so as to provide
equal Opportunities for all. This can be best achieved-
by delegating the responsibility and power for selection
and recruitment of the staff to an independent body like
Public Service Commission. The district recruitment board
of the Public Service Commission shall select and recruit
the required staff at the request of each school district.
The government shall fix the qualification for the various
posts in consultation with the Public Service Commission.
However, it shall be the duty of the board to determine

such matters as salary scales, eligibility for promotion,

125
leave, fringe benefits and the like. The employees in
each district will be paid by each district. All the
employees (except the chief administrator of the District)
once recruited and appointed to a particular district shall
continue as the staff of that district until retirement.
This arrangement would help to avoid frequent disturb-
ances through transfer, and to develop a sense of
loyalty to the institution for which they are working.
This may be called the personnel function.
(b) Subject to the state laws, the board shall determine
the nature and scope of the total offering of the schools,
i.e., whether the curriculum shall be modern or progressive
or conservative or fundamental or middle of the road; all
these and others besides.. This can be called the educa-
tional policy function.
(c) The board shall also determine the number, quality
and type of the school facilities; involving such matters
as the location of the school sites and their extent; the
size and number of play grounds and sports fields; the
kind and amount of supplies and equipment for classrooms,
offices, laboratories, etc., the selection of text books--
to mention a few. This is called the management function.
(d) While it shall be the duty of the board to determine
the budgeting, accounting and control procedures for
reasons discussed later, it is not feasible to authorise
the board to raise the finance needed for the operation

of the schools. This is the financing function.

126
(e) The board shall keep the peOple of the community
informed and aware of status, progress and problems of
their schools. This is called the Public Relations
functions. Detailed recommendations in this regard

will be made later.

Executive Wing

4.

(a) Board is a policy-making body, not a group of admin-
istrators. Here emerges the need for an executive and
administrative wing to implement the policies of the
board, with all operating responsibilities delegated to
them. The executive head of this wing shall be designa—
ted as the District Educational Officer and he should be
given adequate powers and status.

(b) The state government shall constitute a State
Educational Service, and the members selected to this
service shall, at the request of the District Board, be
appointed as the District Educational Officers. Matters
such as their service conditions, salary scales, retire-
ment benefits, etc., shall be determined by the state
government. However, the school board shall be the dis-
ciplinary authority over the District Educational Officer
for the period for which he serves the school district.
One might be dubious if this arrangement would invoke
undivided loyalty of the District Educational Officer to
the school district, because he has to serve two masters.

In order to attract highly competent people they have to be

127
assured career opportunities and security of job. In a
school district the District Educational Officer has no
avenues for promotion and the possibilities of finding
another job are very remote if he is thrown out by a
district in view of the low age limit fixed for entry
into government service and also the acute scarcity of
jobs. Hence there is no other choice but to be content
with this arrangement.
(c) Under no Circumstances, a District Educational
Officer shall be transferred from a school district before
the completion of seven year's service except on promo—
tion or at the request of the school district board.
(d) Qualifications to selection to Kerala Educational
Service shall be fixed as Masters in Educational Admin-
istration and two year's teaching experience, or Masters
in any other area of Education with three year's adminis-
trative experience. Educational administrators in Kerala
at present are either senior teachers with no prior admin-
istrative experience or public administrators with no
teaching experience. Besides being an expert education-
ist, the job of the District Education Officer calls for
a combined skill in teaching and in the art and science
of administration. Hence it appears that the qualifica-

tions proposed are in order.

Duties and Powers of the District Education Officer
5. (a) The District Education Officer, being the chief

Executive Officer of the Board, shall be responsible for

128
carrying out all policies, rules and regulations employed
by the Board. In matters not specifically covered by the
board policy he shall take appropriate action and report
the same to the board.
(b) The District Educational Officer shall be the only
employee who regularly reports to, and directly deals
with, the Board of Education. All other employees,
professional and otherwise, report to the District
Educational Officer and through him to the board.
(c) He shall be responsible for preparing and submitting

the budget to cover the school operations.

Staff for the Office of District Educational Officer

6.

The staff in the office of the District Educational
Officer shall consist of a Deputy District Educational
Officer (Instruction), another Deputy District Educational
Officer (Administration) and clerical staff and typists
under a supervisor called Manager. The proposed organisa-
tional set up of a school district will be seen from

Figure IV, page 129.

Constitution of an Advisory_Body

7.

(a) For the purpose of advising the lay board in matters
pertaining to educational policy and administration a
District School Advisory Board consisting of officials

and non-officials shall be constituted.

129
FIGURE N0. IV

 

BOARD
OF
EDUCATION

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ADMINIS-
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I 5 §
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Key

THE NEW ADMINISTRATIVE SET UP OF THE SCHOOL DISTRICT

 

130
(b) The District Educational Officer shall be an ex—
officio member of the board. Three other non-official
members shall be appointed by the board from persons who
are distinquished educationists or who have rendered
eminent service to education or who have experience in
the administration of education.
(c) The term of the members of the board, other than
the ex-officio member shall be three years.

The members of the lay board as they are drawn from
different walks of life lack experience and insight in
educational administration and hence the need for the
constitution of an advisory board. Also, a small school
board of 5 members was recommended earlier taking into
consideration the fact that an advisory body is needed

at any rate.

High Schools

8.

(a) An individual school is the most important unit in
an educational set up where the real process of develop-
ing the individuality of a child is going on. To '
accomplish this goal the school should be equipped with
competent personnel and resources besides providing an
organizational Set up and climate with more freedom to
teachers and headmasters to experiment with innovative
ideas. At present our schools are not able to provide
the children any health services and counseling and

guidance services. For want of suitable qualified

131
persons and financial resources the question of appoint-
ing regular Health Assistants and counselors for each
school cannot be thought of. Though limited, these
services are available in the community surrounding the
school. It is therefore recommended that the Headmasters
of each school may be authorised to refer the students
on reports from the respective teachers, with serious
problems, to the nearest centres available in the
community for medical help or counseling services.
(b) The Headmaster shall have adequate delegation of
powers to run the institution under his control
efficiently without unnecessary interferences from the
District staff, of course, in conformity with the educa-
tional policy of the district.
(c) The Headmasters shall be free to discuss with the
District Educational Officer directly in person the
needs and problems of his school without resorting to
the formalities of the bureaucracy.
(d) Headmasters shall be authorised to fill up short
term vacancies in their schools for a maximum period
of three mOnths or until the temporary hand is replaced
by the Public Service Commission nominee, whichever is
earlier.
(e) The teachers Shall be given more freedom to use
methods and materials of their own choice within the
frame work of curriculum approved for the school

district.

132

Private Schools

9. Most of the private schools in Kerala are owned and
managed by people belonging to major communities in
the country, individually or collectively. As pointed
out in Chapter III, political parties and communities
are mutually dependent on in safeguarding their vested
interests. Any reform disturbing the status quo which
will usurp the rights and privileges of those private
agencies will have to face strong opposition. Hence
the following suggestions are made:

(a) The ownership and management of the private schools
shall continue as at present.

(b) Instead of government, the school districts shall
pay the grant-in-aid to aided schools on the
recommendation of the D.E.O.

(c) The school district authorities shall exercise all
powers now exercised by government over the private
schools within the District, so as to maintain the
quality of education.

(d) The private managements shall be the appointing

authorities in respect of the staff in their schools.

hFinance

10. Fiscal independence of the school districts though
sounds ideologically good, is not a practical idea in an
economically backward country like Kerala. The expendi-

ture on education in the state is steadily increasing

133
as shown in Figure No. V, page 134. The revenue from
education is estimated to be less than 10% of the expen-
diture every year and that too tends to decrease from
year to year-vide table no. 6. The prospects of raising
the finance needed to meet the expenses of the school
district from the people in the community by levying any
kind of taxes is also dim. Therefore, the school
district, to be a financially viable unit needs to be
financed adequately by the state and the central
government.

A possible criticism against financial aid from
government, which is purely idealogical in nature, is
that such aids will endanger the autonomy of the school
district. It seems that there is no harm in some reason-
able restrictions being imposed on the local district by
the state government and the union government without
endangering the operational freedom of the local unit to
organise programmes which would meet the needs of the
children of the community and to appropriate the aid
money for those programmes according to their discretion.
If a local unit fails to provide quality education to
the children, it is only fair that the state and central
government intervene to correct the situation. It is,
therefore, recommended, (a) As education is a state
subject, the state government shall meet all the
financial needs of the school districts. (b) The

central government shall enhance their financial aids

in Millions

RS.

60

50

40

30

20

10

 

134

FIGURE NO. V

 

GROWTH OF EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION IN KERALA
STATE OVER THE YEARS 1967-71
(0 t\ (I) m C H
“3 “3 ‘fi’ “3 P. 7
LO LO l‘ Cl) C» O
RD 0 K0 K0 k0 l‘
03 0‘ OX ON ON O\
H H H H H H

,4
(D
D}
'1
U)

135
TABLE NO. 6

PROPORTION BETWEEN YEARLY RECEIPT
AND EXPENDITURE ON EDUCATION

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Year Yearly Yearly Percentage
Receipt Expenditure of Receipt
(RS) (RS)
1965-66 2,28,53,231 24,93,29,135 9%
1966-67 1,35,75,178 28,40,47,758 4.78%
1967-68 1,32,17,718 36,50,10,519 3.62%
1968-69 1,72,35,521 43,08,95,185 3.99%
1969-70 NA NA NA
1970-71 1,28,72,570 52,56,39,025 2.45%

 

 

 

 

 

NA = not available
$1 = RS 7.5 (approximately), 10 Lakhs = 1 Million

10 Million = l Crore

136
to secondary education in the states in future.
(c) The school authorities shall be granted the freedom
to raise whatever resources they can from the community
in the form of voluntary contributions of money,

property and free services.

Public Relations and Interpretation of Educational Programmes

Organisation of local units alone will not guarantee

community involvement. Local district authorities have to

organise suitable programmes to get the public involved in
the activities of the school. Hence the following recommenda-
tions are made:

11. (a) To develop a sound school-community relations
programme, a thorough knowledge of the community
is essential. Therefore a thorough study of the
community including the school, shall be made with
reference to the points such as, the type of media
available in the community and their contribution,
resources available, competency of the school
personnel, power structures and organisations in
the community, strengths and weaknesses of the
schools, etc.

(b) The programme should be planned, multi-directional
communication must be used, the essential elements
of the programmes must be reported and interpreted
and the programme must be evaluated.

(c) The office of the District Educational Officer should

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

137
take up the responsibility for district wide
school—community relations activities and the
responsibility for co-ordination and leadership
in this programme should be fixed on the District
Educational Officer (Administration).
The frequency of the Parent Teacher Conference
shall be increased at least to three times a year
as against the present practice of meeting just
once a year.
The Parent Teacher Conferences as they are convened
at present serve only as a social get-together of
all parents, teachers and students. It does not
afford either the teacher or the parents oppor-
tunity to discuss the problems of a child individ-
ually. The teachers shall, therefore, be encouraged
to convene in individual cases conferences with the
parents of problem children as and when need arises.
Through Parent Teacher Conferences the community
is brought to the school. Since school-community
relations is a two-way traffic, bringing the school
to the community and the community to the school,
both operations are necessary. It is therefore
suggested that teachers shall be encouraged to
visit the homes of the children.
Lay Advisory Committees can exert decisive influ—
ence in school education. They can convey informa-

tion about the schools to the peOple and funneled

138
facts about the community to educators. It
appears that through the service of such committees
misunderstandings, misinformation and mistrust
about the schools could be minimised to a large
extent. It is therefore recommended that Lay
Advisory Committees shall be formed and their
services utilised for promoting a healthy rela-
tionship between schools and community.

(h) Representatives of businessmen, religious institu-
tions, government institutions, different social
groups and different communities and press shall
be incorporated in the Lay Advisory Committees.
Since they are part of the total environmental
system of the school, their participation and
support are unavoidable for the success of the
educational programmes.

It seems that the new organisational set up proposed,
would vest the control of schools in the local community and
would foster an atmosphere conducive to local participation
in decision making. Through this arrangement, the local
unit, the school district, is assured complete operational
autonomy without interference from the higher units. The
process involved in this arrangement is decentralisation which
is compatible with democratic ideals. The new structure of
the school district is not easily vulnerable to partisan
politics nor is it totally dependent on the government. It
is hOped that the organisational climate in the new school

districts will afford teachers and administrators more

139
freedom and opportunities for wide ranging experimentation
and to try out innovative ideas at their own pace. A
decentralised set up is more receptive to change than
centralised organisation. There are only fewer status levels
in the hierarchy of administration proposed for the school
district and it may accelerate the flow of communication in
the organisation. It is expected that the absence of too
many status positions and the freedom prevailing in the
school district would promote open interpersonal communica—
tion in the district administration resulting into elimina-
tion of the red tape in the department.

Open communication especially at the interpersonal
level, it is hoped, will generate a spirit of co-operation,
trust and understanding. In this atmosphere both the teachers
and the non-teaching staff may derive a sense of belonging
and more job satisfaction. In a fearless situation the
administrators can stimulate the best out of the teachers
and other subordinates and thus provide a democratic
leadership.

Population in Kerala is exploding at an alarming rate
especially in a few selected areas of the state. A large
majority of students who discontinue their education after
high school are ignorant of problems relating to sex or
family planning measures. The inclusion of topics like sex
education and family planning in the high school curricula
is indispensable to check the population explosion, which
threatens the state. In the new organisational set up,

subject to the defensible minimum fixed by the state, the

140

school districts are at full liberty to set up programmes
for sex education, or for imparting instruction in family
planning measures according to the needs of the community.

High school graduates and professional diploma and
degree holders make the major contribution towards the con-
stitution of educated unemployed labour force in the country.
In a country where even medical graduates and engineering
graduates are desperately looking for jobs, it is a waste to
run professional Colleges throughout the state or offer the
same type of vocational courses in all the high schools in
the state. Based on the pursuit of profession the state can
be divided mainly into farming communities and business
communities. Within these categories distinct subclassifica-
Itions are again possible. The new school district as an
independent unit could provide appropriate professional
courses depending upon the needs of the particular community.
This type of selective education may equip the high school
graduates to join the main stream of life in the community
either by working with their parents or by starting small
enterprises of their own without waiting for a white collar
job as a teacher or a Clerk which ever remains a dream never

becomes a reality.

Strategies for Changes in Organisational Behavior

Changes in organisational set up alone will not yield
maximum efficiency unless it is followed by changes in the
behavior of veteran teachers and administrators who have

through years develOped a stereotype behavior pattern. To

141

accomplish this objective the following recommendations are

made:

12.

(a)

(b)

The technique of Sensitivity Training shall be

used to bring out behavioral changes in the
individuals and groups involved in educational
administration. The participants in the

training programmes shall be drawn from the
administrators, teachers, non-teaching staff,
students and the public. Through this technique,
the trainees learn the dynamics of group behavior,
e.g., decision processes, leadership and influence
processes, norms, roles, communication distortions,
and effects of authority on a number of behavioral
patterns, personality and coping mechanisms. The
participants become more sensitive to the process
of human interaction. The participants can use the
insights gained from this training for changing
their home organisation.

The strategy of On-Site Consulting shall be used
for resolving interpersonal conflicts in school
districts. The solution to interpersonal conflicts
according to this technique involves changes in the
attitudes of tOp level administrators and also in
the relation between peer groups. In each case

the consultant attempts to go behind the overt
symptom to search for the social blocks to effective

communication and interpersonal relationship.

(c)

(d)

(e)

142
The technique of Information Feed-back shall be
used to structure interpersonal relationships
more effectively in educational organisations.
The basic attempt here is to gather information
about the attitudes of teachers, non-teaching
staff, students and administrators and feed the
data back to them and then use this information
for structuring the interpersonal relationships.
In order to improve the morale of the subordinate
staff (both clerical and teaching) in the district
organisation the technique of Personnel Counseling
shall be made available to all personnel irrespec—
tive of his or her status. Improvement of the
morale of those involved in educational administra-
tion will improve the quality and quantity of
education.
In order to stimulate develOpment in the subordinate
the technique of Participation and Appraisal System
should be used. In this technique, the superior
(The District Educational Officer or The Headmaster
in the case of a teacher) uses questions not to
point out weaknesses or errors but to help the sub-
ordinate to evaluate his own ideas and performances
and formulate his own plans. If the main purpose
of evaluation is "development" this technique is
very useful to inspecting officers who evaluate

teacher performance. The subordinate plays a

143
more participative role in the appraisal process.
(f) With a view to implementing the recommendations
(a) to (e) adequate training should be given to
selected number of District School Administrators
in the Summer Institute in New Delhi. This
institute in the capital city of India was
established and is now functioning with the co-
operation of experts from the U.S.A. who visit
this institute to give in-service training to
teachers. The institute might be able to bring
in competent persons from the U.S.A. to train the
administrators from Kerala in the techniques
referred to above.

Though the techniques mentioned above were developed
for improving the administration of business organisations,
it appears that they have far greater application in the
administration of educational institutions because of its
emphasis on interpersonal relationships and behavioral
Changes in the organisation. Educational administration is
from person to person and not from file to file or from
machinery to machinery. Better interpersonal relationships
will lead to positive behavioral changes in the organisation
and it will generate an atmosphere of trust and understand-
ings. Since these techniques aim at meeting the employees'
individual, emotional and social needs also he is likely to
feel happy and satisfied. "The contented cow gives more

milk." The satisfied and happy worker, whether he is a

144
teacher or member of the non-teaching staff, is stimulated
to contribute his best towards the improvement of the

efficiency of educational administration.

Other Recommendations
The recommendations made in the foregoing paragraphs

are directed towards changes in organisational structure and

behavior. The following suggestions though they do not prima

facie address themselves to these problems, it is hoped that

they would ultimately improve the efficiency of administra-

tion.

13. (a) At present the administrators do not receive any
incentive to facilitate their professional growth.
They continue in their respective positions by
virtue of long years of service or seniority.
Arrangements should therefore be made to provide
inservice training to these administrators through
workshOps, conferences, lecture by eniment admin-
istrative scientists, free distribution of recent
professional literatures, etc.

(b) The administrators should be encouraged to form a
professional association of their own and govern-
ment should grant them due recognition.

(c) Administrators shall invite representatives of the
professional associations of students, teachers,
non-teaching staff and administrators for discussion,

encourage and appreciate their views on matters

145

pertaining to education and educational adminis-

tration and report their views with their

recommendations to the board for considerations

while framing the educational policies.

(d) The teachers training colleges in Kerala shall

give high priority in training educational admin-

istrators and planners in future. The curricula

for Educational Administration majors should

include at least the following topics:

1.
2.

Evaluation

Theory of administration

Group dynamics

Principles of democratic school administration
Administrative behavior

Decision making and policy formulation

Human relations in educational administration
Personnel management

Instructional leadership

School building facilities

If the purpose of evaluation is the total development

of the personality of the individual evaluated, the present

system of examination in the high schools in Kerala do not

appear to achieve this purpose. Much emphasis is given to

the achievement of the student in the examinations,

especially in the final state wide public examinations.

It is alleged that an undesirable aspect of such examinations

146

is that they tend to test what the student does not know
rather than what he does know. In view of the vital role
played by the process of evaluation towards the success of
any programme, it seems that the present system of examina-
tion in high schools calls for urgent modification for the
efficient operation of the new administrative set up
proposed. Hence the following proposals are recommended.
14. (a) The present method of evaluation emphasising

annual external examinations for final promotions,

should be revised to give more importance to the

internal assessment programmes. 2

(b) All activities related to the learning process
should be evaluated and given credit for

promotion.

Implementation of the Changes

Successful implementation of the recommendations made
earlier involves a painful process which demand major
adjustments and attitude changes in the individuals involved
in educational administration which cannot be expected to
occur spontaneously. At present the initiative for change
and development comes from government alone. The govern-
ment bureaucracy which is characterised by centralisation
is not at all favourable for any major change. The pressure
for change has, therefore, to come from outside, the public.
The people of Kerala by nature are unamenable to the wider

concepts of modern society, difficult to discipline and

147

organise for a common cause. As pointed out in Chapter III,

the range of his social thinking stretches from the self to

his joint family and subcaste and then finally to his
community. The best way to approach and influence them

may be to work through the influentials and opinion leaders

of the community who have more access to the people than

an outsider. It is hoped that the following recommendations

would facilitate the process of change in the community

which would in turn exert pressure on the schools for

change.

15. (a) A conference of the influential leaders of the
various communities in the state should be convened
and the need for change in the educational admin-
istration on the lines suggested above should be
explained to them. The task of changing the public,
though not easy, is not impossible because these
influentials and the influenced have been victims
of the evils of the present administrative system
quite often.

(b) Professional associations of students, teachers,
non-teaching staff and administrators may be moved
to pass resolutions urging changes in the present
educational administration and send them to govern-
ment. Such measures as this will press the
government for change and influence teachers,
non-teaching staff and administrators who are

part of the administrative machinery, for change.

(C)

(d)

148
Besides community leaders there are other media
like radio, press and other publications to
reach the people and influence them. The services
of these media should be extensively used to
disseminate the message of change among the
people.
Public, by and large, are apprehensive of adopting
changes because they are very dubious about their
results. It is, therefore, recommended that a
Pilot School District should be constituted and
tried before the prOposed changes are implemented
throughout the state. If this trial succeeds and
produces better results, then the task of escalat-
ing those changes to other parts of the country

would be lot easier.

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Educational Administration in Kerala forms part of the
state's bureaucracy which is the legacy of British Rule
in India. Since independence, though there has been consider-
able improvement in quantity, in the field of education in
the states, the quality of education has been steadily
deteriorating due to the inherent incapacity of the admin-
istrative machinery to provide a system of education meeting
the needs of the people.

Every organisation needs a pattern of administration
to propel it efficiently towards the realisation of goals.
Who determines efficiency and what is it? This thesis is
written on fundamental assumption that the public who are
served by the educational institutions are the final author-
ity to judge the efficiency of the administration and that an
administration which satisfies their need is efficient
administration. This thesis, therefore, attempts to devise
strategies to improve the administration of high schOols
in Kerala, in India so as to enable it to meet the needs of
the peOple. To realise this goal, the geographic, historic,
social, economic and political conditions in Kerala were
investigated with special reference on their impact on
administration. The history of evolution of educational

administration in Kerala was traced and the present

149

150

administrative situation was analysed to identify the admin-
istrative problems that impair the efficiency of adminis-
tration. Selected literature with reference to organisa-
tion and functioning of school districts in the U.S.A. and
the Human Relations Approach in Administration, was reviewed
to identify the objectives of efficient administration.

The current scene of Kerala educational administration was
examined with reference to these objectives. Information
derived from these Operations was used to suggest strategies

to improve the efficiency of administration in Kerala.

Conclusions
This study has disclosed that the following administra-
tive and social problems require immediate attention and
solution to render the present educational administration in
Kerala able to meet the educational needs of the people.
1. Lack of local control in educational administration.
2. Polarization of power at the higher units of administra-
tion (centralisation).
3. Lack of freedom from civil power and partisan politics.
4. Lack of wide ranging experimentation and adaptability
to change.
5. Absence of healthy relationship between the school
administration and the community (public).
6. Autocratic leadership.
7. Slow and inefficient cOmmunication between the ranks.
8. Lack of participation of all those concerned with

education, in the process of decision making.

9.

10.

151
Alienation, laCk of job satisfaction, and lack of
respect for worker's individuality and personal needs.
Soaring unemployment and overpopulation.

On tracing evolution of the administrative set up of

Kerala education, it was observed,

1.

The existing administrative set up was the one
established by the British people with a view to serving
their colonial vested interests and still remains
unaltered even after independence.

If the democratic India wants to meet the educational
needs of her people, the present machinery requires
immediate re-organisation in consistence with the ideals
of democracy.

The examination of the current scene of educational

administration in Kerala has further revealed that,

1.

3.
4.

No experimentation of innovative ideas are being tried
in the schools of Kerala.

The public is completely ignorant of what is going on in
Kerala schools and hence they are highly critical of
educational administration in place and out of place.
Administrative machinery is moving very slowly.‘

The subordinate staff as well as teachers in the educa—
tion department do not have a sense of belonging and
hence alienated. The administrators are not able to
stimulate them to contribute their best.

Influence of partisan politics quite often corrupt

educational policies.

152

6. The professional growth of administrators is a totally
neglected area.

7. Top level educational administrators, most of them, do
not have any qualification in educational administration'
or any practical experience in that field.

8. As the centralised bureaucracy is opposed to disturbance
of status quo, the pressure for change has to come from
the community.

The features of Kerala administration listed out above
were scrutinised in the light of the objectives of an
efficient administration as envisaged by American and foreign
experts. It was evident from this scrutiny that the states
educational administration falls short of these objectives,
in some cases partially and in some cases fully. A natural
conclusion that followed from this study is that the
suggestions for improving the efficiency of administration
should address themselves to the administrative and social
problems identified from Chapters III and IV. Strategies
were proposed in Chapter v keeping those problems in mind.
They are classified into recommendations for changes in
organisational set up and organisational behavior. Major
recommendations under changes in organisational set up
involve,

1. Constitution of school districts as a legal entity and
the establishment of a local board for policy making,

the members of which are to be elected from the

153
community surrounding the school and thus vesting
the control of education in the local people.
Formation of an executive wing headed by a District
Educational Officer with required staff under him, for
implementing the policy of the Board.
Constitution of an advisory body of eminent educationists
to advise the lay board in matters pertaining to educa—
tional policy and administration.
Entrusting the full responsibility of providing the
entire financial needs of the school districts to the
state government and the central government.
The existing regulations governing the conduct of private
educational institutions should continue without change,
except that the powers exercised now by government over
the private schools will be exercised by the school
district authorities.

The major recommendations relating to charges in organ-

isational behavior can be summed up as follows:

(1)

(2)

(3)

The technique of sensitivity training, on site consult-
ing, information feedback, personnel counseling, and
participation and appraisal system should be used
wherever possible.

A selected number of school administrators may be given
suitable training in the above techniques through the
service of the Summer Institute in New Delhi.

For the professional growth of administrators,

arrangements should be made for in-service training,

154

for the formation of a recognised association of Admin-
istrators and arrangements for training students in
Educational Administration in training colleges should

be made immediately.

Recommendations for Further Study

This study in its scope and breadth is limited because
it deals only with the administration of High School Educa-
tion which serves as a connecting link between elementary
education and college education. Within the area of high
school administration itself, there are other related
problems which merit consideration and intensive research.'
It is hoped that this study will provoke similar studies in
the administration of college education and elementary educa—
tion. The situation in other branches of administration,
namely, public administration and business administration is
also not at all encouraging. It appears that the approach
used in this study towards the realisation of the goals
especially related to changes in organisational behavior
can be used as a model with suitable modifications in
business and public administration.

The following recommendations are made for considera-
tion for further research.
1. Similar studies may be made in the area of elementary

education and college education.
2. The effectiveness of the strategies suggested in this

thesis for changes in organisational behavior may be

tested in the Kerala public and business administrations.

10.

155
The relationship between teacher's behavior and personal-
ity and the behavioral changes in the student may be
studied.
A study may be conducted to devise effective methods
for the evaluation of teacher performance.
The rate of diffusion of innovation in the present
administrative organisation may be studied.
Public attitude towards decentralised organisation may
be studied.
A detailed study may be conducted to suggest effective
methods of implementing the Changes suggested for
educational administration.
What economic resources other than state grants can be
made available for high school education in Kerala.
A study is necessary to establish the dimensions of those
resources, if any.
In a democratic set up political parties can exert
decisive influence in the state's administration. It
is worthwhile to study the extent to which the political
parties in the state influence and control the state
bureaucracy. '
It is high time for teachers training colleges in
Kerala to think of training students for degrees in
Educational Administration. A thorough study may be
done to draw out a suitable curricula for education

administration majors.

156

11. A study may be conducted to determine the future role

of the Directorate and Secretariate of Education.

This writer does not claim that the'Strategies suggested"
is the panacea for all the administrative problems facing
the country. It, however, presents an earnest and calculated
effort to fight the major problems facing the educational
administration in Kerala. This writer is happy if this

effort would at least set the ball in motion.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

157

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Bhambhri, C. P. Bureaucracy and Politics in India, Vikas
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a._'_
I

APPENDIX

163

l
'Kfl—n.’

.1"- . '

E .

3.

4.

5.
6.

APPENDIX

Delegation of Powers

The Director of Public Instruction
To appoint and promote non-gazetted officers and to
make promotion to lowest appointments in the Gazetted
cadre in each service in sanctioned posts other than
the post of District Officers subject to Public Service
Recruitment Rules.
To transfer and post non-gazetted officers from the
jurisdiction of one Regional Deputy Director of Public
Instruction to the jurisdiction of another to and from
his office.
To sanction all kinds of leave except study leave and
special disability leave to non—gazetted officers and

to all Gazetted officers whose maximum pay does not

exceed Rs. 550 and to make charge arrangements in such

cases.

To sanction casual leave to Regional Deputy Directors of
Public Instruction, Deputy Director and Administrative
Officer, Finance Officer, Research Officer and Basic
Education Officer.

To sanction vacation duty to officers.

To institute disciplinary proceedings and dispose of
appeals as per Kerala Civil Services (Classification,

Control and Appeal) Rules.

164

‘ a on) "
l

7.

8.

10.

11.

12.

165

To be appellate authority in respect of original orders
imposing penalty on Government Servants by the Regional
Deputy Directors, Deputy Director and Administrative
Officer.
(a) To sanction or to withold increments in the cases

of all officers whom he is competent to appoint.
Note: The provisions of the Kerala Civil Services

(C.C.&A) Rules should be observed before an

— v s'—? ~T*F_—a_~_3’—7‘.y
- ’ ‘. I

order withholding increment is passed.

fi_—.

(b) To sanction payment of belated increments in

a»

O " .
..

._ .~

respect of all officers whom he is competent to
appoint.

To sanction the creation of part-time posts paid for

from the contingencies subject to budget provision

and subject to orders of government in the matter.

Note: The actual filling up of the post will however

be done by the Heads of Offices concerned.

To fix headquarters of the subordinate offices of the

Department other than District Offices.

To sanction journey on duty of non-gazetted officers

outside the state.

(a) To convene or issue sanction to convene conferences
of Departmental Officers and sanction payment of
T.A.

(b) To depute officers of the Department to attend
conferences convened in the state and to sanction

T.A. for the purpose.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

166

To sanction purchase of books, maps, laboratory
accessories, educational appliances and other stores
not exceeding Rs. 1,00,000 (Rs. lakh) at a time

subject to budget provision and Store Purchase Rules.
To sanction purchase of furniture from P.W.D. WOrkshops
or any Government agency subject to Budget provisions. ,
To sanction advertisement charges up to Rs. 1000 in F1

each case subject to budget provision and also to the

 

condition that the rates are approved by the Director
of Public Relations. %
(a) To sanction write off of the value of unservice-
able articles subject to the annual limit of
Rs. 5,000 when the book value does not exceed
Rs. 500 in each case.
(b) To sanction write off of irrecoverable arrears
of revenue not exceeding Rs. 50 in each case
subject to a limit of Rs. 1,000 per annum.
Write off should be communicated to Audit with
specific mention of the circumstances of the same.
To sanction disposal of unserviceable articles or
surplus stores when the book value does not exceed
Rs. 500 in each case without annual limit.
To sanction disposal of condemned buildings by auction
when the book value does not exceed Rs. 25,000 in each
case.
To sanction investigation of arrear claims by
Accountant General to all officers and under contin-

gencies which are not more than five years old.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

167

Note: Time barred claims under Art. 65 K.F.C. are
excluded.

To accord administrative sanction for estimates of

works, the cost of which does not exceed Rs. 1,00,000.

To sanction maintenance and petty construction and

repairs work up to Rs. 5,000 in each case on a proper B

estimate. 1
To incur non-recurring contingent expenditure up to

Rs. 1,000 in each case subject to budget provision.

 

To sanction local purchase of stationery in urgent and

unforeseen cases up to a limit of Rs. 100 in each case,

subject to an annual limit of Rs. 1,000. This power

will be exercised only in urgent and unforeseen cases

and subject to rules.

Note: If the amount exceeds Rs. 50 the purchase should
be made after inviting competative quotations.

To sanction shifting of an office from one building to

another and hiring of private buildings the rent of

which does not exceed Rs. 200 per mensem subject to

the condition laid down in G.O. (p) 400/58/PAR dated

31-3-1958.

To sanction reappropriation of funds from one minor

head to another according to the rules of the Budget

Manual.

To sanction distribution of budget allotment under

several items of expenditure subject to the rules in

the Budget Manual.

21.-.-

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

168

To sanction printing of forms, circulars, pamphlets,

etc., in Government presses.

To sanction destruction of old records as per rules.

To incur all expenditure in connection with the conduct

of Public Examinations in the Department subject to

rates which may be approved by Government.

To sanction the drawal of T.A. and contingent charges

not exceeding the estimated expenditure sanctioned by

government subject to a maximum of Rs. 5,000 in respect
of conferences, refresher courses, seminars, etc.

To sanction refund of revenue as contained in the Book

of Financial Powers (vide rules 41 to 43 of K.F.C.).

To sanction subject to the rules of the Fund Withdrawals

from P.F. deposits in all normal cases without limit

and in cases requiring special sanction up to a maximum

limit of Rs. 1,000.

To sanction pension to officers whom he is competent

to appoint.

To award scholarships of a state-wide nature according

to rules approved by government.

(a) To place orders for printing of books in Government
Presses.

(b) To place orders for printing of books in private
presses after inviting tenders and after selection
of the tender by the committee constituted for the
purpose by the government provided the rates have
the approval of the superintendent of Government

Presses.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

169

(C) When the Superintendent of Government Presses
cannot meet the requirements of the Department
within a month, the work will be got done locally
at a cost not exceeding at a time Rs. 2,000 on
condition that the rates should not be above the
rates to be prescribed by the Superintendent of
Government Presses. In emergent situation
authorised without referring to the Superintendent
of Government Presses, to entrust with private
presses jobs of work not costing more than Rs. 50
at a time and subject to an annual monetary limit
of Rs. 500. In all cases quotations should be
invited and other formalities observed. The
schedule of rates prescribed by the Superintendent
of Government Presses should also be followed.

To approve tour programmes of Regional Deputy Directors

of Public Instruction and countersign their T.A. Bills

and also of the Gazetted officers in his office.

To sanction renewal and supply of uniforms according to

the pattern and scale approved by Government.

To accept endowment and prizes and approve rules therefore

in respect of schools.

To execute agreements with managements of schools on

behalf of the Governor under Art. 229(1) of the

Constitution of India (G.O. 394/Edn. Dates 13-6-1962).

To sanction advance against Examination Contingent

charges up to 15,000 at one time subject to provision

in the Budget.

l.

2.

7.

170
Regional Deputy Directors

To appoint and promote non-gazetted officers to sanc-

tioned posts in all non-gazetted scales in his office

and offices under his control subject to the Public

Service Recruitment Rules.

To transfer and post non-gazetted officers from the

jurisdiction of one District Educational Officer to the

jurisdiction of another District Educational Officer
or to and from his office.

(a) To sanction all kinds of leave except study leave
and special disability leave to non-gazetted
officers in his office and to all gazetted officers
in the region whose maximum pay does not exceed
Rs. 400 and to make charge arrnagements in such
vacancies of gazetted officers.

(b) To sanction additional pay while making charge
arrangements in leave vacancies of Heads of high
schools.

To sanction casual leave to District Educational

Officers and the gazetted officers in his office and

Social Education Officers.

To sanction vacation duty to officers under his control.

To institute disciplinary proceedings against non-

gazetted officers whom he is competent to appoint as

per Kerala Civil Services (C.C.&A) Rules.

To be appellate authority in respect of penalty imposed

on Government Servants by District Educational Officers

Assistant Educational Officers.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

171

To sanction or withhold increments including those at
the stage of efficiency bar, in the case of all non-
gazetted officers in the region.
Note: The provisions of the Kerala Civil Service

(C.C.&A) Rules should be observed before an

order withholding increment is passed.
To sanction payment of belated increment in respect of
all non-gazetted officers in the region.
To appoint part-time contingent employees to posts
sanctioned by the Director of Public Instruction subject
to the general orders of Government in the matter.
To sanction the convening conferences within the region
of Departmental Officers subordinate to him.
To depute officers of the Department to attend conferences
convened in the state subject to the condition that the
journeys undertaken beyond the limit of jurisdiction of
the Regional Deputy Director should, however, obtain the
approval of the Director of Public Instruction.
To sanction purchase of books, laboratory accessories
and educational appliances and other stores subject to
budget provision and store purchase rules, not exceeding
Rs. 20,000 at a time.
To sanction purchase of furniture from P.W.D. WOrkshops
or any Government Agency subject to budget provision.
To sanction at a time local purchase of articles of

furniture upto Rs. 15,000 required for schools in his

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

172

region subject to an annual limit of Rs. 2 lakhs provided
that no Government Agency is able to supply the required
furniture in time and subject to stores purchase rules
and availability of funds.

To sanction advertisement charges upto Rs. 250 in each
case subject to budget provision and also subject to the
condition that the rates are approved by the Director

of Public Relations.

To sanction write off of the value of unserviceable
articles subject to the annual limit of Rs. 2,000 when
the book value does not exceed Rs. 200 in each case and
also subject to the condition that such sanction will be
communicated to audit with specific mention of the cir-
cumstances of the same.

To sanction the disposal of unserviceable articles or
surplus stores when the value does not eXceed Rs. 250

in each case. Craft articles produced in schools can

be disposed of in auction without limit.

To sanction disposal of condemned buildings by auction
when thebook value does not exceed Rs. 10,000.

To sanction auction sale of standing trees, when
absolutely necessary, and fallen and dead trees in

the grounds under his control.

To sanction auction sale of usufructs of trees and

lease of premises of his office for cultivation.

To sanction investigation of arrear claims by the
Accountant General of all officers and under contingen-

cies in all cases except time-barred claims.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.
30.

31.

173

To accord administrative sanction for estimates of

works, the cost of which does not exceed Rs. 50,000.

To sanction maintenance and petty construction and

repairs for execution upto Rs. 3000 on a proper

estimate in each case.

To incur non-recurring contingent expenditures up to

Rs. 500 in each case subject to budget provision.

To sanction local purchase of stationery in urgent and

unforeseen cases up to a limit of Rs. 50 in each case

subject to an annual limit of Rs. 250, after inviting

competative quotations.

To sanction shifting of an office from one building

to another and hiring of private buildings the rent

of which does not exceed Rs. 150 per mensem subject

to the conditions laid down in G.O. (P) No. 400/PAR

dated 31-3-1958.

To sanction printing of forms, circulars and pamphlets

in Government Presses.

Note: Printing of new forms and registers should have
the approval of Government.

To sanction destruction of old records as per rules.

To sanction refunds as per instructions in the Book

of Financial Powers.

To sanction subject to the rules of the fund, with-

drawals from Provident Fund Deposits in normal cases

without limit and in cases requiring special sanction

up to a maximum of Rs. 500 in respect of officers under

his control.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

174
To sanction pension to officers whom he is competent to
appoint.
To arrange for the audit of accounts of the offices
and institutions under his control including aided
schools.
To pre-audit claims relating to grant-in-aid bills and
post-audit of all grant-in-aid bills.
To forward applications to District Collectors for
acquisition of land for school purposes.
To review inspection reports sent by District Educational
Officers, Social Education Officers, and Inspectors
of Muslim Education.
To supervise the distribution of text books to schools
within the Region.
To approve tour programmes of District Educational
Officers, Social Education Officers and Inspectors of
Muslims Education and countersign the T.A. Bills. .
To sanction journeys on duty of other officers under
him.
To inspect offices of the District Educational Officers,
Assistant Educational Officers, Social Educational
Officers and Inspectors of MUslims Education.
To sanction the reimbursement of Medical Expenses of
his subordinates subject to Rules.

To accord sanction for the grant of Cycle advanCe

subject to Rules.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

175
To place departmental building declared unsafe by
the Public WOrks Department at the disposal of that
department for being demolished or auctioned.
To place lands required for construction of buildings,
etc., at the disposal of the Public WOrks Department.
To effect transfer during first year from training
school to another in the same region to trainees
undergoing T.T.C. Course in exceptional cases and for
sufficient grounds.
To effect transfer of trainees during second year of
T.T.C. Course from one training school to another
within the same region during vacation or one week
from the date of re-opening in exceptional cases
and for sufficient reasons.
To meet the expenditure on account of T.A. in respect
of claims of last December and previous from the current
year's allotment.
To sanction repair charges of motor vehicles upto Rs.
500 in each case subject to Budget provision and
competitive tender or quotation and subject also to
the procedure ordered in G.O.(P) 248/Public Department
dated 24-4-1962.
To grant stipend and subsistence allowance to the
trainees undergoing B.Ed./T.T.C./Language Teacher's
Training/Post Graduate Basic Training Courses accord-

ing to rules in force within the Region.

50.

51.

176

To sanction parallel divisions in English Medium in
the next higher standards progressively when once a
school is granted English Medium standards, under
intimation to the Director of Public Instruction.

To condone the deficiency in attendance upto a maximum
of 25% of the minimum attendance subject to the

procedure ordered in G.O. (P) 669/Edn dated 22—10-1962.

District Educational Officers
(a) To appoint and promote non-gazetted officers to
sanctioned posts (in the scale of Rs. 80-180 and
below) subject to Public Service Recruitment Rules.
(b) To appoint part-time contingent employees to post
sanctioned by the Director of Public Instruction
subject to general orders of government.
To transfer and post non-gazetted officers within his
jurisdiction.
To sanction all kinds of leave except study leave and
special disability leave to non-gazetted officers under
his control. To sanction also casual leave to Heads of
Office and Heads of Secondary and Training school under
his control, and also to gazetted members in his office.
To sanction vacation duty to offiCers under his control.
To institute disciplinary proceedings against non-
gazetted officers whom he is competent to appoint as per

Kerala Civil Services (C.C.A.) Rules.

6.

10.

11.

12.

13.

177

To sanction or withhold increments in the case of all

non-gazetted officers in his District.

Note: The provisions of the Kerala Civil Services
(C.C.A.) Rules should be observed before an order
withholding increment is passed.

To sanction payment of belated increments in respect of

all non-gazetted officers in the District.

To sanction purchase of books, maps, laboratory

accessories, educational appliances and other stores,

subject to Budget provision and Stores Purchase Rules
not exceeding Rs. 10,000 at a time.

To sanction local purchase of articles of furniture upto

Rs. 5,000 subject to an annual limit of Rs. 50,000

provided that no Government Agency is able to supply

the required furniture in time and also subject to

Stores Purchase Rules and on availability of funds.

To sanction purchase of furniture from P.w.D. WOrkshops

or any Government Agency subject to Budget Provision.

To sanction advertisement charges upto Rs. 100 in each

case subject to budget provision and also the condition

that the rates are approved by the Director of Public

Relations.

To sanction write off of the value of unserviceable

article subject to the annual limit of Rs. 1000 when the

the book value does not exceed Rs. 100 in each case.

To sanction disposal of unserviceable or surplus stores

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

178
when the book value does not exceed Rs. 50 in each case
subject to an annual limit of Rs. 2,000.
To sanction auction sale of living trees when it
endangers life or property and fallen and dead trees
in Departmental premises.
To sanction auction of usufructs of trees and lease of
premises of his office and High and Training Schools,
for cultivation.
To sanction investigation of arrear claims by
Accountant General to all officers and under contin-
gencies when the claim has remained in abeyance for
three years or less.
To accord administrative sanction for estimates of
works the cost of which does not exceed Rs. 25,000.
To sanction maintenance and P.C.R. works for execution
upto Rs. 2,000 on a proper estimate in each case and
subject to the provisions in Articles 176 and 177 of
Kerala Financial Code, Vol. I.
To incur non-recurring contingent expenditure up to
Rs. 50 in each case subject to budget provision.
To sanction local purchase of stationery in urgent
unforeseen cases up to a limit of Rs. 25 in each case
subject to an annual limit of Rs. 150 after inviting
quotations.
To sanction shifting of the office from one building
to another and hiring of private building the rent of

which does not exceed Rs. 100 per mensem for office and

22.

23.
24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.
33.

179

Departmental Schools subject to the conditions laid down
in G.0. (P) No. 400/RAR dated 31-3-1958.

To sanction distribution of Budget allotment for the
institutions under his control subject to the rules in
Budget Manual.

To countersign T.A. bills of Heads of High Schools.

To sanction withdrawals in normal cases from Provident
Fund deposits by subordinates upto a maximum of Rs. 600
and Rs. 300 in special cases subject to rules of the
Fund.

To sanction pension to officers whom he is competent to
appoint.

To award scholarships in cases when the selection is
confined to a particular institution.

To give recognition to Nursery Schools.

To inspect secondary and training schools and offices
of Assistant Educational Officers and submit inspection
reports to Regional Deputy Directors.

To decide finally complaints regarding class promotions.
To permit change of language and subject to study of
pupils upto Standard Seven.

To dispose of questions relating to collection,
remission or refund as per rules of fees and fines
levied on pupils.

To condone break of study for purposes of fee concession.
To withdraw ordinary fee concession, review fee
concessions awarded by Headmasters and decide complaints

regarding grant of the same.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

180

To grant special fee concession to children of deceased
Government servants and aided school teachers who die,
in harness or within 6 (six) months from the date of
retirement.

To accept cash contribution as also lands and buildings
from public for educational purposes.

To sanction farewell parties and addresses to Officers
of the Department under his control arranged by teachers
and pupils.

To sanction grant—in-aid to hostels and special insti-
tutions in the State according to rules.

To arrange for the distribution of text books to schools
under his control.

To sanction re-imbursement of medical expenses to non-
gazetted officers under him subject to rules.

To sanction disposal of condemned buildings of

Primary Schools by auction when the book value does not
exceed Rs. 5,000.

To sanction provisional admission of pupils in school
pending production of T.C. after obtaining written
undertaking from the guardian.

To condone deficiency in attendance upto a maximum

of 15% of the minimum attendance. There shall be no
appeal against the decisions of the D.E.O.

To permit the introduction of sessional system in

schools, where the strength of pupils is 1000 or more.

181
44. To sanction aid to recognized nursery schools according

to rules approved by Government within the Budget

allotment.

 

Vide,G.O. (P) 350/65/Edn Dated, Trivandrum, 25th June 1965.

will

62