g, is . ,. 0...!» . o t . . ’l .0... .‘ - \ unv‘..‘. -.: .4. n ‘ .l ‘ " ‘;.‘A’ .. ua;.-..‘“ J. II»...V.. a..- .‘. ..'-. | V o. .3. . ‘ . :rw-o ‘ ".'|~. - . qr- ., \..,‘ . -' h- - .Vn ‘. .x V. .‘_R _ MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY An Analysis of the Effectiveness of Administration of Education of the Federal Government of Free India AN ABSTRACT SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE COMMITTEE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF EDUCATION by THE REVEREND PAUL LOUIS PANICKAVEDE Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan August, 1959 ApprOWWg . 1.. n .- .‘ .QO'I‘ ‘ . hie-AV“ ~. . A5 » ¢" Lo -'v0"" ‘ -U‘Va‘ ."‘ I. i» . -..ca'.’ . ... .. v. .3 0’ .o i. 5‘ I. .5 .a .0. ~ . .C 3 v. p. .r— I. .. r“ L. can ‘J -. IVA - u. I. Q- L O O ‘11 .o4 '0. AN ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OF FREE INDIA by The Reverend Paul Louis Panickavede This study attempt to analyze the effectiveness of administration of the federal government of free India. The first part of this study enumerates the major and minor problems facing India which are: 1. An analysis of the economic abilities of the Federal Government of India to impart the minimum standard of literacy to the people of India. 2. An analysis of the obstacles that hinder the efforts of imparting a minimum literacy to the people of India. 3. An analysis of the conflicts of values created by the growing nationalism in India. The second part deals with the economic analysis of the financial conditions of India and an analysis of the admin- istrative techniques employed by agencies which impart education in India. Two conclusions are presented: one, the financial resources of India are inadequate to plan for 100 per cent literacy in fifteen years; two, present prac- tices of educational administration defeat the efficiency of the agencies involved in the administration of education. Q \ u . I . c r. .p"~ - .n‘ h‘usod . I 7: Ln '3... 3'.""" -;‘:’ e3 V .. '_ ' 1' V9 .3 ‘ . ‘ ‘0 aeowaa:.‘.‘ ' ' 0‘ .I. .. 5c ‘z’: u v... u ’0 Q . . 1_.! ‘0 .0 V. D .. OH‘ .\.' W V ' 'A! C ‘ - § ‘0. ._ 1...; -_’ . , C 0’, ‘ I v -. ‘a‘ ‘.' ..‘ .q- ‘. . U 4 ‘9. AVDUO"..“.. u: 'I 9‘. . e.. Q Q. .‘ ‘ " 5.. F3. .,‘. Q. I fig t,‘ V ..__ . I ‘ ‘2'... ‘ V» 9%?" z e . ‘V- at . \ '. a" ,_;. -. i A 4‘ ‘L an 4. ’¢“.. ‘. 2‘: . " e 0.)..‘ 'e A“. C‘ .' ‘1”..th ' 3 “.- "'- On--- 'b G . . . ‘e~{“_ “‘.. a. "U ‘ l :1 $4. . I 'C - 0.. “‘3 ‘ «.1 9-- .‘. .03., - a- ". ‘1 J‘. n.‘ v Q I CM .- '. 5" _ l ‘ '§ 2 The third part analizes the advantageous features found in the administration of education of free India. The First Five Year Plan and Second Five Year Plan present some appreciable tenets: l. 2. .3. h. The two Plans have recognized the need for educa- tion as a tool for the improvement of the nation. The two Plans have recognized the need of research and study to improve the educational levels of the people and create scholars from within the population. The two Plans have budgeted a substantial portion of the national income for the educational pursuits. The Plans have welcomed the assistance of foreign experts to plan for the future education of India. The next part of this study enumerates the many weaknesses of the existing administration of education. The study identified three important drawbacks of the existing administration: 1. 2. 3. Weakness due to the neglect of considering some of the economic problems of India. Weakness arising out of the neglect of considering social problems of India in the planning for future education. Weakness in the administration of education arising out of the neglect of observing some of the scientific principles of administration. l . Q 10-. :II ‘::|“ ’I‘I V 1 "u o..-J.¢ e-.\Or.wl .\ It a e 9". .- l t .0 .- ‘ vol-obbl in sa-u. 0-- o... .L .. . . ‘I‘p‘po ‘ P4: .4. .4-n.e( -‘o.-.. q. x“ O Q‘ . F " «In-00'- (0 ..c9 e“_"_ 0' . .50 ':‘°w- ‘ ‘ --u' v 1‘ A I ‘0»... 3- «.. ..1 5 T. . J. gd.'. . o. c. tqQa‘s‘. u. .g_“ I flu 1‘ aw“. U- '.0 'De'p ‘19; . e “n-.. 9. VJ .v .. Iv.‘ ‘. C bu‘. “.55g‘0'a. ‘0 :- ‘ RI! .“J‘...-.": .’ -..-~ E:.§‘:e ~-.."-~... ‘ . H g «o f“!- -.-, Vt _I1< ‘ ’v-au ‘ d c ‘ d-- e “:1 ‘ .— '— -1. 3 The fifth part analizes some of the critical problems and issues precipitated by the study in the previous sections. The problem of future education will be resolved only through adequate control of the following issues: 1. The Administration has to define what type of education is most suited for the people of India. 2. The educational goals should be brought nearer to the national goals by adequate measures, such as: a. Controlling child marriages. b. Softening attitudes toward rigid caste system. c. Establishing values of thrift and frugality. d. Clarification of the use of land and improved ways of cultivation. e. Communicating modern methods of animal husbandry. This dissertation next outlines a program of revisions and improvements in the administration of education in India. It suggests: 1. For Basic Schools: a. Curricula to be developed out of the problems and resources indigenous to the community. b. The basic school should be open to all classes, castes and sexes. c. Basic school should be particularily available for adults. 2. d. e. For C. A The family should be the basic instructional group. The basic education should impart a skill useful for meeting life's problems. Secondary School System: The basic high schools should be modeled as institutions for continuation education from the basic primary schools giving increased specialization in skills and handicrafts. Direct instruction should be supported by laboratory training in experimental farms. The faculty for Secondary School teaching should be trained separately from other faculties. A resident board should participate in the policy-making in local Secondary School systems. Finally, this research unearths some unanswered questions left for further research. Some of these problems are: l. 3. L. What economic resources can be made available for the How public education of India? will the political parties in India affect the development of an enlightened citizenery in India? What language will become the medium of instruction? What will be the trend of the educated "Caste" in a democratic society? F a . A v a N D .e. ¢ . F‘- .. r. ...v .6. :4... g. ..c x .l‘\ . a .c a n. w ‘an > . . IA .2 t . . 4‘ u . y 0 . . u ‘ c t a .. a Y. . . § ‘ Q Q ‘0 § .4. r . u . I‘ . RI- ‘Oo C. s ‘ Q a... r. . \ d. e. For a. C. h The family should be the basic instructional group. The basic education should impart a skill useful for meeting life's problems. Secondary School System: The basic high schools should be modeled as institutions for continuation education from the basic primary schools giving increased specialization in skills and handicrafts. Direct instruction should be supported by laboratory training in experimental farms. The faculty for Secondary School teaching should be trained separately from other faculties. A resident board should participate in the policy-making in local Secondary School systems. Finally, this research unearths some unanswered questions left for further research. Some of these problems are: l. 3. L. What the economic resources can be made available for public education of India? How will the political parties in India affect the deve10pment of an enlightened citizenery in India? What language will become the medium of instruction? What will be the trend of the educated "Caste" in a democratic society? l i ' r . 9 e A .' a" C Q no: N. ...g a. to. . ‘ A .— h-‘c-s. at J. ....a..,., ,, .IO‘ . ,I ’.‘““ I J'“I-.Oe..d "0 u |.-‘ . 5 .0 .A .- I.. ..,’ U. . .~"‘-5-4.. O , g ' H‘o.‘ '-« -" e. _ A,.v . ~ ‘u..l. K" . ua': eo‘..’. K o. e “1 l" '1.’ O I-.J-'. ' MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY An Analysis of the Effectiveness of Administration of Education of the Federal Government of Free India AN ABSTRACT SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE COMMITTEE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF EDUCATION by THE LEVEREND PAUL LOUIS PANICKAVEDE Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan August, 1959 Appro‘WWag ad a].-. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY An analysis of the Effectiveness of Administration of Education of the Federal Government of Free India A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO TRE GRADUATE COMMITTEE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF EDUCATION by THE REVEREND PAUL LOUIS PANIOKAVEDE Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan August, 1959 $5 H'V'ff'I 3“ ...~ 0 U .U --..-.-o q I ~~I"-fi. O " e 0'0.“ "".. .- *e-AJ. o I:. '0. ~53: ‘L'fln ..“j ... a a“. ‘ 7-. ! QJ' V p n e a he A" V. PJ‘M- . 3. Q , . F "' "1 Q. “g. 6.6.:‘ " ‘ s . ‘ ’- .e‘ean . 74-... 5. . v. . ‘. “n ad; v M‘ 8.. _ U‘ . ‘33:. Yrfll ‘Iav. . 1' '9.‘.. I. i.“ 0”.ng k. . a, 5'. ‘ ' . u a r ‘ e ”*9. One SQ.JN‘ : A3,! _‘ ”of R'de.‘ vs..‘.‘ t:‘ , .‘Je tcfia- V ‘94 ...s O'p .;_-P e“ v -; “ o..‘. c‘ "v .’.s s ‘ - 1....c‘n‘ :“ ' Q at C.Ft ,.I. '0; -...- P . 0‘ .r‘ Ho."' .‘u',’ 4.. . n ‘ :?°'A'g-. I AN ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT OF FREE INDIA by The Reverend Paul Louis Panickavede This study attempt to analyze the effectiveness of administration of the federal government of free India. The first part of this study enumerates the major and minor problems facing India which are: 1. An analysis of the economic abilities of the Federal Government of India to impart the minimum standard of literacy to the peOple of India. 2. An analysis of the obstacles that hinder the efforts of imparting a minimum literacy to the people of India. 3. An analysis of the conflicts of values created by the growing nationalism in India. The second part deals with the economic analysis of the financial conditions of India and an analysis of the admin- istrative techniques employed by agencies which impart education in India. Two conclusions are presented: one, the financial resources of India are inadequate to plan for 100 per cent literacy in fifteen years; two, present prac- tices of educational administration defeat the efficiency 0f the agencies involved in the administration of education. o; v- .1. H QO 5,. v .Q . a- s o." d. “I . .. . 3.. b an“ O... -. ‘ . ~ - F. v .I ' ‘ r1 QSa: 2 The third part analizes the advantageous features found in the administration of education of free India. The First Five Year Plan and Second Five Year Plan present some appreciable tenets: 1. 2. 3. A. The two Plans have recognized the need for educa- tion as a tool for the improvement of the nation. The two Plans have recognized the need of research and study to improve the educational levels of the people and create scholars from within the population. The two Plans have budgeted a substantial portion of the national income for the educational pursuits. The Plans have welcomed the assistance of foreign experts to plan for the future education of India. The next part of this study enumerates the many weaknesses of the existing administration of education. The study identified three important drawbacks of the existing administration: 1. Weakness due to the neglect of considering some of the economic problems of India. 2. Weakness arising out of the neglect of considering social problems of India in the planning for future education. 3. Weakness in the administration of education arising out of the neglect of observing some of the scientific principles of administration. ne‘mvoc' v-‘I O .v .4 I I I Vlflfi ’- In- if IV...- Q'vp-«Q-u a . .u.w.3.9 ‘ "'5. the as: 8. 3" he 9;? C. Ec‘ do ::E C. 3 The fifth part analizes some of the critical problems and issues precipitated by the study in the previous sections. The problem of future education will be resolved only through adequate control of the following issues: 1. The Administration has to define what type of education is most suited for the people of India. 2. The educational goals should be brought nearer to the national goals by adequate measures, such as: a. Controlling child marriages. b. Softening attitudes toward rigid caste system. c. Establishing values of thrift and frugality. d. Clarification of the use of land and improved ways of cultivation. e. Communicating modern methods of animal husbandry. This dissertation next outlines a program of revisions and improvements in the administration of education in India. It suggests: 1. For Basic Schools: a. Curricula to be developed out of the problems and resources indigenous to the community. b. The basic school should be open to all classes, castes and sexes. c. Basic school should be particularily available for adults. '€.;. ...--o l‘. h v .p. .IU $.— 2. d. 8- For a. C. A The family should be the basic instructional group. The basic education should impart a skill useful for meeting life's problems. Secondary School System: The basic high schools should be modeled as institutions for continuation education from the basic primary schools giving increased specialization in skills and handicrafts. Direct instruction should be supported by laboratory training in experimental farms. The faculty for Secondary School teaching should be trained separately from other faculties. A resident board should participate in the policy-making in local Secondary School systems. Finally, this research unearths some unanswered questions left for further research. Some of these problems are: l. 3. A. What economic resources can be made available for the public education of India? How will the political parties in India affect the development of an enlightened citizenery in India? What language will become the medium of instruction? What will be the trend of the educated "Caste" in a democratic society? }'vqn- - 0.1 . ‘ | a .' P N. \ q . A: 3"a"5es a. ... a 3' :4‘"Q-..: ' a, .‘ o «‘iv'oU. ed at 5.. :ve:-.r’~’; . U5-..‘..~~ "' v; .. ¢J . u; ' V H“\V¢ . o "?v-\ k Q ~- . ...g . ‘ . .. I MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY An analysis of the Effectiveness of Administration of Education of the Federal Government of Free India A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE COMMITTEE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF EDUCATION by THE REVEREND PAUL LOUIS PANICKAVEDE Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan August, 1959 CHAPTER I. 11. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION .............................. The Problem .......................... Sub-Problems .................... Definitions of Terms ................. Delimitations ........................ Assumptions .......................... Hypotheses ........................... Sources of Reference ................. Methodology .......................... Procedures oeeeoeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeoooooo THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT'S RESPONSIBILITIES IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION ........ Functions of the Ministry of Education neeeeeeeooeoeeooeeeoooeeeeoo The Stages of Education .............. The Basic Education .................. The Stages of Basic Education ........ Secondary Education .................. University Education in Independent India 0.0.0.0...OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Adult Education (Social Education) in Free India coo-000.000.00.000...coo... Page a) -q 0\ (r U1 \n -F' #7 y... R) y... U1 15 20 21 2h 25 33 36 CHAPTER Page Departments under Direct Control of the Government .................... RS Propogation of Hindi ................. 51 Central Education Library ............ 56 Educational Information Bureau ....... 57 Department of Culture ................ 59 Summary .............................. 60 III. THE.ADVANTAGEOUS FEATURES OF THE ORGANIZATION.ADMINISTERING EDUCATION IN INDIA ..................................... 62 The Economic Problems ................ 7h The Budgetory Policy ................. 77 The Social Problems of Independent India ................................ 100 Summary .............................. 11h Organization Patterns ................ 117 Planning ........................ 117 Organizing ...................... 122 Delegation ...................... 126 Administrative Control .......... 126 Grouping Activities ............. 127 Development of Executive Personnel oeeeeeooeeeeeeeeeooeoo- 129 Lead€r5hip Training 0000000000000 132 . gnfifi .. ,l i oh 'i'“ -‘q.~' «civ- ' 5:. '12 7.}. 0 f u.- u S in; . O . A.~.31$trat.: Pr T"? h'.‘ a;'\-" \ "“- e—A—‘qu '-. 'u. 'v. .4. A. 5V4 no... u. E a «o..- it on .40 S \-V ‘23,... the ‘\ .A ‘0 5M 4 so. 9A; t H q‘. e\13“ § ‘3‘. O H. IV; CHAPTER coordination 0.0....00........000 Summary .00....0000..0....0000000.00.. Summary of the Advantageous Features of the Existing Organization of Educational AdNifliStration .......0..0.00.00..0000....0 THE HEAKNESS OF THE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION OF INDIAHAT FEDERAL LEVEL ....... Summary 0.0.0...0......00.0.0........o Weakness of Administration of Education due to the Neglect in Taking into.Account Some of the Economic Problems of India ......... smary OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO0.00.0.0...0 Weaknesses.Arising out of the Neglect in Taking into Account Many Social Problems by the Administration of Education ........ Summary .0.......0...0.......0.....000 Weaknesses in the Administration of Education in India Arising out of Neglect in Observing Scientific Principles of AdminiStration 0..0......0.....0......00000 Delegation 0...0.....00..0......0.0.00 The Administrative Control ........... Grouping ACtiVities 0.0.00.0...0....oo Right to Run Private Schools ......... Fundamental Rights 00.0.0.0..00......0 Summary 0.......0..000..0........0..00 Planning ....0.0...000..00.0.000. Organizing 0............0.......0 Page 132+ 135 1&0 1&6 151 152 1614 166 180 18L; 185 186 192 197 199 203 203 20a . ., O . . a C i . fl . . . . . . ' O (XMWTER IV. coordination 0......000.....0.000 Summary 00....0.....0..000.00.00.00... Summary of the Advantageous Features of the Existing Organization of Educational AdmIHIStration 0.0.0....0.....00....0.0...0 THE HEAKNESS OF THE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION OF INDIA.AT FEDERAL LEVEL ....... Summary 00....000....0..0.0........... Weakness of Administration of Education due to the Neglect in Taking into Account Some of the Economic Problems of India ......... Summafy 0.......................0....0 Weaknesses.Arising out of the Neglect in Taking into Account Many Social Problems by the Administration of Education ........ Summary 0......0.....0.0.......0....00 Weaknesses in the Administration of Education in India.Arising out of Neglect in Observing Scientific Principles of AdMiHlStration 0............0....0...0.0..0 Delegation 0..........0.........0...00 The Administrative Control ........... Grouping ACtiVities 0......0........o. Right to Run Private Schools ......... Fundamental Rights 0......0000.......0 Summary 0...00..0.000.............0..0 Planning 0........0....0........o organiZIHQ ...0...0..00........00 Page 1311 135 1&0 1&6 151 152 16& 166 180 18& 185 186 192 197 199 203 203 2011 G 4..” u...“ . d '. .fin' '00 ‘ 0’4 0.00% U a P. C) ,1 0'0 00. CHAPTER V. contrOlling .0 ....... .OOOOOOOOOOOOOO. Summary of the Weakness of the Educational Administration of India ...... SUI'E‘IARY AND IIEPLICJ‘lTIONS .......0...00........ Summary of Critical Problems and Issues .. Kind Role of Educational Programs Needed ...... Controlling Child Marriages ......... Softening Attitude Toward the Caste System ........................ The Teaching of Thrift and Frugality 0.0.0.0... ..... OOOOOOOOOOO. Teaching Land Use and Crop Development 00......OOOCOOOOOOOOOO... Animal Husbandry .................... of the Federal Government ........... Organization and Method of the Educational Program ................. The BaSiC SChOOl 00....00.....00 The Regional High School ....... The Rural University ........... Normal Colleges and Rural UHiVGI‘SitieS .00....000000000000 Needed Teachers and Their Preparation OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO UNANSWERED QUESTIONS THAT NEED FURTHER RESEARCH 0.0...0..0...00000.0.0..0.0.0.0.0.... Page 206 210 217 218 221 222 231 232 234 23b 235 237 240 . . . I- q. ‘II-O.‘ ' .— ..,. a. i““~‘v‘ 1 «.In. - D 1"“. ‘ . 3: a..:.‘r005 ‘ 009:0- ’f -. :l‘n0iu's 1:. O d-~'- . - 00-010.)! F. . .‘-A " N ' ' ‘0. ”‘0 try..: I “A z. '1') Q I. m ‘1 0- 3, ctbc. u 01" J-"" I ‘. ’ "th 3f “'8‘ O. . "7" '. n. ‘4: na‘i,_ 1 h ~41 ~".- I In 0.5 . ‘6.' ‘ 0. ‘ R ‘_ ‘y y°‘llvs:' 1' 11‘91 . 0 ' ~..;"‘;. :.;'.::.. ‘5 “L43? .: , ‘ V.‘ ‘ 3 . "Hi .u . .1 ”1 d I c S ta“. . p t- -0‘~:' . O 1.1;. "‘ts :: 1' . . C 19% '-: |'.~ ..,‘ V .65 "n‘._ ~14". .5 i... b ‘ ’ :QLQL'H "c “‘2'“. ‘V “‘2 1.5.11 5‘ ‘-0 ‘Z‘ ‘-. 10- v 911'}- PREFACE India is one of the foremost nations which had a good system of education even before the time of Christ. The impact of ancient educational systems is still felt in the nation's life. The present education is the product of contacts with many foreign nations. Greeks, Persians, Chinese and EurOpean nations had lasting influences on India's life and some of their thoughts received acceptance in India. The process of acculturation was faster when some foreign powers had temporary political control of India. india maintained an "other worldly" philosophy of life. The neglect of material progress slowly wreaked its vengeance on the nation by engulfing it in extreme poverty and famine. Its lofty philosophical attainments did not help in improv- ing the material conditions of the peOple. This writer accepted “An Analysis of the Effective— ness of the Administration of Education of the Federal Government of India" precisely to find out the real reasons for India's backwardness. This dissertation covers many aspects of life which throw light on the focal point of this investigation. The findings are laid open for public review. The indigenous and foreign educators interested in present dayiflministration of education in India will cast . I - ‘ . ‘- .---r yaks {.2 .t..- I .1100‘ ... “0: A“ a- :...:...u .v-d .000'.o .. .......,’ 0.. “ . . ' ‘ uno‘ti). b}, {‘3 cc- 0. 1 A Q n; .N‘e‘ ,(f.... iu- vv.. :e U. ~~o4-: inc: and the fa: Ann... & I SII-V'CCI .001; 3:2 L'I°r 5:3 ch”... V00.-(. ‘ their votes to determine the merits or demerits of this work. This writer avails himself of this opportunity to express his deep gratitude to many who made his American education possible. This writer is deeply indebted to the Michigan State university, its able President John A. Hannah, the Dean of the College of Education Clifford E. Erickson, Dr. Robert Hopper and the faculty who accepted him as a regular student of the graduate school and then helped him with a scholarship all throughout his education. This writer is extremely indebted to Dr. Fred Vescolani who assisted him as the enrollment officer from the very beginning and lately as the Chairman of the Doctoral Guidance Committee. His sincere gratitude is also due to the members of the Guidance Committee, Dr. Carl Gross, Dr. John Beegle, and Dr. James Tintera who guided his steps in making this study. This dissertation is placed in extreme reverence at thefeet of this writer's late mother Mrs. Ann Louis, his father Mr. P._P. Louis and his brother Sextus Louis who incidentflly was ambushed and martyred by communists in December 1958. Nazareth College June 29th, Feast of St. Peter and Paul. 1959. Paul Louis UH. Va. 0 :n o-‘ 0.0. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION It is obvious to students of Indian history that the Union Government of India is beset with manifold problems in the administration of education in her efforts to impart at least a minimum standard of literacy to &08 million people. This problem assumes greater import when the following points are taken into consideration: 1. Free India's average literacy is about 10 per cent. 8 2. The Constitution of India offers universal adult franchise, regardless of her citizen's ability to read or write. _ 3. In order to use the voting power intelligently, the masses of illiterate adults should be educated. &. The false propaganda of the leftist political parties is exploiting the ignorance of people in such a rate that socialism and communism are rapidly gaining ground among the illiterate masses. 5. The accelerated rate of population growth neces- sitates immediate expansion of educational facilities at all levels. 5. Since pri: :lzthing are still kinda, the (me: uniHon to the c 7. Candis: it” Is introduce: 5. Resources :itiml pl‘nnin; 9° The land: 6!, n u: isvermtent e f 1 "1“ 3* Prat: e'r Indium“, Cu: :3: 1".123 and disc“; a. . . ”the. 13:73::- '133 3 cs: 12. The “11 “*7: a M ., " ”Strut-tion 1. cam-micuion 7 vs India 1.3%. 4.511,; . Hing ta ta \ use politic“ 6. Since primary needs like food, shelter and clothing are still inadeQuate for the majority of the people in India, the Government is forced to spare only a secondary attention to the educational needs. 7. Compulsory education is the goal of the Government‘ and is introduced in several parts of India. 8. Resources are insufficient to implement the edu- cational planning at the Federal level. 9. The innumerable languages and dialects complicate the Government efforts to establish a uniform approach to solve the problem. 10. Each language or dialect carries with it time old traditions, customs, institutions, value systems and religious rites and discriminations, rooted deep in the hearts of people. II. The nation is confronted with the problem of introducing a common medium of communication for all. 12. The ultra nationalists are striving to eliminate teaching of English, which at present serves as a medium of instruction in high schools and colleges and as a medium of communication in all official transactions and deeds. 13. India has more than four powerful political parties contending to take over the Central Government of India. These political parties have their own political and educa- 1::an philosophies Bun along-range 1;. The econ: agitate so poor :tuot afford to s 15- india 1:: high rate of $111 hmevfil 33‘ h. Seize Mutation 2233; 1.11232 vir 1'3" Even taunt ripe o: 3“ N . \“2 People 17- Inij tional philosophies completely different from each other. Hence a long-range plan becomes difficult. l&. The economic conditions of the majority of the people are so poor that even willing parents and guardians cannot afford to send their children to school. 15. India has more than 700,000 villages with very high rate of illiteracy. The ability of reading and wmiting alone will not help them to solve their daily problems. Hence education should assume some new dimensions and roles among these villagers to be meaningful and attractive. 16. Even the well educated are feeling that the present type of education has little bearing on the needs of the people or the quality of their living. 17. India is still an infant republic and its economic, ‘social and political future will become the determinant factor on the administration of education in India. As soon as independence was realized, India Government created a Planning Commission to study the needs of the country in all walks of life. Since immediate needs of the people like food, shelter and clothing remained unresolved, greater attention was given.to the problems in those areas. This resulted in insufficient attention in many other important functions of the Government like health, education and welfare. In the progress of any nation, education has hA—w— I 1:51 the 11131:. :13 firzztiois. 31’. beta 33:11, 1311211123 1:: 13:11:13.1 issued 1'. governmental 1112.11: The need for 1' 1.100100 "agate: by the Fe: pallets quote-i at: k. lua‘xysls c .1 a 0 4.. '0 ...:ation of 11 I 0-3.1 As: "‘ Menu C) SSCIEI 1. An 3331'. “'e’m‘ent of '1'. A 9: 0.12”“A0 my to the 3‘ ' Ling a all. 5311. 1 V. to be the leader, paving the way and enlightening the directions. But because of extenuating circumstances beyond control, education did not receive its leading role. Thus education assumed its present stature with a secondary governmental attention. The need for an analysis of the educational growth directed by the Federal Government is apparent from the problems quoted above. THE PROBLEM An Analysis of the Effectiveness of the Administration of Education of India at the Federal Level in Respect to Economic, Social and Administrative Problems of India. Sub-Problems 1. An analysis of the economic ability of the Federal Government of India to administer a minimum standard of literacy to the people of India. 2. An analysis of the obstacles faced by the educa- tional administers of the Federal Government of India in imparting a minimum standard of literacy to the people of India. 3. An analysis of the conflicts of values created by the independence and growing trend of nationalism. 11511111 11111:. ',; 11:1:1ions. 31'. :1 mini, eluzatio. fixation issued 1‘, governmental 1111.11: The need for a. directed by the F11. 1731111: quoted at :‘ moms, Social 1 .s-Pr*o=.e::s 1. An “13‘ 13.12"“ to be the leader, paving the way and enlightening the directions. But because of extenuating circumstances beyond control, education did not receive its leading role. Thus education assumed its present stature with a secondary governmental attention. The need for an analysis of the educational growth directed by the Federal Government is apparent from the problems quoted above. THE PROBLEM An Analysis of the Effectiveness of the Administration of Education of India at the Federal Level in Respect to Economic, Social and.Administrative Problems of India. Sub-Problems 1. An analysis of the economic ability of the Federal Government of India to administer a minimum standard of literacy to the people of India. 2. An analysis of the obstacles faced by the educa- tional administers of the Federal Government of India in imparting a minimum standard of literacy to the people of India. 3. An analysis of the conflicts of values created by the independence and growing trend of nationalism. .Rc.1 .U. 4’ ,7 A ‘ _‘_ .2:r.vs, ‘ ‘v- V. a AP 94' vow-l U. this 3 Hints 3". J.L:sooz." V5. .9 oh. .9 | 0. \v. qwnr" a' .u A: w 326.8 l? a :3 1357. DEFINITION OF TERMS "Administration" is taken to mean financing, budgeting, organizing, establishing goals, directing, staffing, offer- ing personnel services, and evaluating. "Education" connotes training in skills, intellectual develOpments, and the art of reading and writing. "Federal Level" is taken to mean those activities of the Ministry of Education and Scientific Research organized by the Union Government of lndia at the Center. Administra- tion of education is carried on at the state level and local level, which will not fall under this analysis. "India" stands for Free India after August 15, l9h7, to 1957. DELIMITATIONS 1. This analysis accounts only for the administration actions in education carried out by the Federal Government from 19h? to 1957. ' ~ 2.1 This study is based upon the actions of the Federal Government through legislation, special and general reports of educational commissions appointed by the Parliament of India 3. This study concerns itself with administrative prob- lems in education only and thus excludes direct instruction, guidance and counseling. O r I ’ L i I f O I i _a A. ‘ , A t " U V ,... t (J- ~k ‘ 1,1 ‘ r F l j A .‘J' A e i . . x V, t L t ‘C ‘ 50 p..- h. This stoz’y :a-vission reports a foreign and local e: this and the state 1. Before in: trative organizati: mm avenue: of goal of compulsory 2. The Peder: 51: not methodical etiiistrative met lasses, e . v0 With the need: a better ‘4- Writy °f actio. 1 . :: NA awed n a 1.9592: “iii h. This study excludes all educational attempts, commission reports and voluntary recommendations done by fereign and local educational experts, private organiza- tions and the state governments. ASSUMPTI CNS 1. Before independence, India did not have an adminis- trative organization that could adequately look after the uddened avenues of education created by the constitutional goal of compulsory education for all. 2. The Federal Government in its transitional period did not methodically and scientifically organize its administrative mechanism to disseminate education to the masses. 3. With the limited resources of men and.means, India needs a better administrative organism to save cost, allocate priority of action, arouse popular support and cooperation and to play a leadership role in guiding and coordinating all efforts in the educational field. HYPOTHESES l. The existing system of administration of education is good in respect to India's economic, social and adminis- trative problems. h. This stoiy mission reports I help and local e tins and the state 0—- . Before in: . ”L r .ratmorganizati' maxed avenues of r s .ay a lea. it? c 1 T ("if "‘ “ e‘rO‘t . s in t3“ ui r '3 ’ I. T' . r fie ‘ x ‘ | ‘ 1: PA. ex‘s , M1 re e I ‘9”. Spec ““1 h. This study excludes all educational attempts, commission reports and voluntary recommendations done by foreign and local educational experts, private organiza- tions and the state governments. ASSUMPTIONS 1. Before independence, India did not have an adminis- trative organization that could adequately look after the uddened avenues of education created by the constitutional goal of compulsory education for all. 2. The Federal Government in its transitional period did not methodically and scientifically organize its administrative mechanism to disseminate education to the masses. 3. with the limited resources of men and means, India needs a better administrative organism to save cost, allocate priority of action, arouse popular support and cooperation and to play a leadership role in guiding and coordinating all efforts in the educational field. HYPOTHESES 1. The existing system of administration of education is good in respect to India's economic, social and adminis- trative problems. 2. The exist‘. at the Federal leve economc, social a: 3. The exist lithe Federal Ie‘: liiia‘s economic, h. The exist etthe Federal le‘. imam. locial . A“;- 2.43101": 01‘ 1 t 3" es. . nation 11 oration has 1 'ai‘neilts an. «raftial eau~ " 'vi :5. 2 {h 9? ar :4 .. LPQaj. Q 431*. Qt 333e,... €32 y- 2. The existing system of administration of education at the Federal level is inadequate in respect to India's economic, social and administrative problems. - 3. The existing system of administration of education at the Federal level in India is mediocre in respect to India's economic, social and administrative problems. h. The existing system of administration of education at the Federal level should be improved in respect to the economic, sncial and administrative problems. SOURCES OF REFERENCE India has a history of more than five thousand years. The signs of civilization are detected even from the begin- ning of 2000 B.C. Education assumed a formalized pattern by the middle. of 1500 B.C. and 1000 3.0. Many indigenous educators of lasting fame influenced the general structure of education in various centuries. Any analysis on Indian education has to score a correct assessing of her early attainments and failures in the fields of education. No impartial educator has ever relegated the early educational system.of India as worthless and as an obsolete practice. Hence there are many who value that system, both in India and abvoad. Scientific treatises are innumerable on the ancient systems of India. This dissertation can avail these works as a source of reference. A g. The exist atthe Federal ie‘: ecznciic, social a 3. The exist att‘oe Federal le'. Inita's economic, i. The exist it '31! Feoerai 1eo finance tacit-.1 : iniia has a The S 3-». .,.TS Cf civi “:n'. c an. ‘- “k“: 3‘ fl (Vv’y 8.: 't' w "“e “Cole cf at: an: apartial ed ca Wrote: (if 1n” H a :23: the?e a“ deleted. 5: ozieet WSW“: use vork 2. The existing system.of administration of education at the Federal level is inadequate in respect to India's economic, social and administrative problems. - 3. The existing system of administration of education at the Federal level in India is mediocre in respect to India's economic, social and administrative problems. h. The existing system.of administration of education at the Federal level should be improved in respect to the economic, social and administrative problems. SOURCES OF REFERENCE India has a history of more than five thousand years. The signs of civilization are detected even from the begin- ning of 2000 B.C. Education assumed a formalized pattern by the middle of 1500 B.C. and 1000 B.C. Many indigenous educators of lasting fame influenced the general structure of education in various centuries. Any analysis on Indian education has to score a correct assessing of her early attainments and failures in the fields of education. N0 impartial educator has ever relegated the early educational system.of India as worthless and as an obsolete practice. Hence there are many who value that system, both in India and abvoad. Scientific treatises are innumerable on the ancient systems of India. This dissertation can avail these works as a source of reference. —_._._~——.u '— .- '— inz'ia was so: .‘ “tu- . F ‘ . 0 533973. ...u3 .. i ‘Q . are Euro-ream e'... I y . cultures have tee." 4 . tmzanogny V:..“ I V I I “ ‘. r.:.er. are in... " a. | I “92.5 ' V . _W.:n‘ . . “.- -~-=«' vrztzr "WHY-3 0f :31“ W a ‘ “a ‘A‘ Ffl“ { ‘ : Vt \V-‘~ . n ‘ . ‘7: "‘0 7» ‘ ‘ “Os ' U hr“.:. .h" u,“ h“ ‘ ‘ a‘ “3 -12 «.2 L H ‘ § ne‘esvern a v ' flash“ :59 a , -v fisjntry a. ‘ \ L“-o> . ._,Q’ “:31,“ ~13 a "r‘ to c- “I!“ .Jg' : ‘ ‘ p‘¢~‘.2‘e 8 India was subjected to various invasions from outside powers. Thus foreign powers ruled India at intervals, casting lasting influences of Greek, Persian, Mongolian and European cultures. Some influences of these foreign cultures have been so engrained into the indigenous systems that it is difficult to separate them. Pe0ple have accepted them and pay values for them equal to those of their own ancient and indigenous system. Hence this dissertation treats with many-written literatures resulting from foreign invasions and their aftermath in India. After her independence, the world focused its atten- tion to the subcontinent of India in a special manner. Impartial writings were scarce that depicted the actual picture of'modern India. India assumed a decisive role in world politics with its enormous population on one side, and the myths, mysticisms and mysteries on the other side, thus arresting the attention of the world in general and the Western scientists in particular. Western scholars in numbers visited India to get first-hand information of the country and its inhabitants. Innumerable books, pam— phlets, reports and magazine articles featured India. Many of these writings are dramatized literary babies written to capture the market rather than to reproduce the exact picture of India, her people and places. But there unbiased studies of economic conditions, social life and " a . O . ‘ 0 1'" t . I \ ’r A ’ v I , . 0 . . 1' e “1‘ ‘\/"! [a ' r p a f e” ' u . 1 i - n 1“ ‘ .l e u." r. ,' a , I" \ I 0 e l . 1., i|"'1 l" ,4 I‘L 0 ~.. , . ‘ a 1‘ I 2'..th ‘ '. .,4.' - . o: 12:59 stones 9 - u l:3€?€.:39?.2 0.“. 0"?0' y‘ao‘.;3'_‘ Volt in... I x : ot;eet.ves. .4 “A ' ; \ 9.3.3212, 33: -3 . I v on. ai-:‘.‘ . A..‘.\a'a§ : ao.ab-a:ve “‘5?“ a. . 1“ 9‘ . .10.‘E.‘ trai’e‘o e... A“ .3 cued. ‘ad.3n. T 9 cultural criticisms. This dissertation plans to use some of these studies as background references. Independence imposed on Free India to sell itself to the other nations for political, economical and cultural objectives. Indian scholars wrote extensively about India's economic, social and cultural attainments which were in a vague and un-understandable state to foreigners due to deliberate misrepresentation and pure misconception by foreign travelers who wrote as if out of first-hand information. Thus Indian writers produced innumerable volumes, some praising India to the heavens, others trying to repudiate the misconceptions voiced through the many prevalent writings by outsiders and some representing an honest evaluation of India's true picture. This dis- sertation will use the materials described in the third category. India Government has published many Commission Reports undertaken by very able persons from 19h? to 1957. These reports are replete with first-hand statistics of varied and important operations and state of things. This dis- sertation will use these materials extensively. METHODOLOGY 1. Analyze the establishment and acceptance of a systematized education in the ancient India. . I l ‘ ‘ e i e. ‘ 9 - " ,. D "1 I “ I .- 1 ' ° ' ’ r O .' h‘ | V . .. ' A f o r" i H ' fi . 1 . J a‘ ' ’I l I O l r I‘ I ' ' i r , 1 § ‘ ’ ' h i '\’ .- . I (I, L I" v t O -\ A i 'l‘ V \l '. I I t V \i "w t 1' . ,e . i . .,-, ”“h‘ra‘ fl"..‘.‘.'. fl." VOAVO'. 9.; e “" 0. “959 5")"1‘ Inferenderce ,' i 3: iterates. ir...~ i i ‘ econom, son. a rage at err-unim- “o‘er ‘ ““5“ trave‘nu‘ “'30— s: Q ““"—~av-j.‘. T-v‘; prevalent "Tit‘ ,, h . honest evaluagi ~ ”nation ‘11 i 9 cultural criticisms. This dissertation plans to use some of these studies as background references. Independence imposed on Free India to sell itself to the other nations for political, economical and cultural objectives. Indian scholars wrote extensively about India's economic, social and cultural attainments which were in a vague and un-understandable state to foreigners due to deliberate misrepresentation and pure misconception by foreign travelers who wrote as if out of first-hand information. Thus Indian writers produced innumerable volumes, some praising India to the heavens, others trying to repudiate the misconceptions voiced through the many prevalent writings by outsiders and some representing an honest evaluation of India's true picture. This dis- sertation will use the materials described in the third category. India Government has published many Commission Reports undertaken by very able persons from 19A? to 1957. These reports are replete with first-hand statistics of varied and important operations and state of things. This dis- sertation will use these materials extensively. METHODOLOGY 1. Analyze the establishment and acceptance of a systematized education in the ancient India. ‘ ( w 9 ¢ ‘ ‘ I I ‘ , ‘_ ‘7'. ‘ ' C t A A ; f: 7‘ ‘ l ' A ; I '5 r ‘ f v. ‘(t ‘ l ‘ ' . Q ‘ ‘ + ' J 4' J i ‘ 1 O ‘ 1‘ I 0 o " ,T a . t. 2. Ltalyze inz'asisns and 5:: . . I h . 1519! an: 59:..3 : ‘p-‘. I u ..... ~ \ o. n““"‘"\ ‘ '- l ud‘yc'...‘ “‘ 'n 3:15.392: 01 36:13:13 am- . . on: .11 n ”A “. Dy‘- cation of In: P I ‘ attain the E35 mar-:3. lO 2. Analyze the impact of invastions in India. How invasions and foreign rule affected the indigenous philos- ophies and methods of living. 3. Establish a chronological pattern of development of education during the British period as seen throug1the establishment of Fort schools, church schools, village schools and state supported school systems. h. Study the various Commission Reports organized by the British Government and India Government. Analyze these reports to evaluate their influence on present edu- cation of India. How far the Federal Government and other agencies for the propagation of education put into practice the recommendations of these reports or are striving to attain the goals and objectives are pointed out in these reports. ' 5. Identify the goals of education in India from the mind of the Constitution, the speeches of the "Founding Fathers," many publications from the Central Ministry of Education and writings from contemporary educators and critics. 6. Compare goals, measures and steps taken by the Central Government to achieve these goals. 7. Since the major political parties differ in their educational philosOphies, a change of political control can affect the education as a self-destroying process. 8. 1332' 12:; for the future. scene}, help the : appoint the resear "emanctal 1““ “no A.“ 9". Statements. '2“- 0 n 4 31 1e? ‘ . ll 8. Money has become the primary yardstick in planning for the future. Ability to build schools, hire the per- sonnel, help the pupils with books, clothes and meals and appoint the research group to test pilot plans depend on the financial ability of the Central Government and State Governments. The national income should be analyzed as to its possible trends and fluctuations to make the recommenda- tions practical and feasible. The administrative part of education gravitates on material means. 9. The social and cultural heritage can help or hinder the work to disseminate education. In order to attract cooperation of the public, an intelligent assessment of socio-cultural trend is very helpful. Any plan devoid of measures to appease popular criticisms is incomplete and defective in origin. 10. The public opinion is a strong force in the execution of any scheme. The public opinion is the product of press propaganda, speeches and writings of experts of the locality and the creation of interest groups and pressure groups. In an administrative planning consideration should be given to this public opinion. When the above referred areas are analyzed, a research student can see the arguments and trends that advocate or I reject a certain course. The final part of the methodology fie is to arrive at can: tian that mid yte‘. 3329?. After verbaltzii :sput it in black 2; me, step by step. :‘zzzghts tn the t :1 1. The data V Let there is met tretian at educatt: flit be proved in 131331119 histaric 12 is to arrive at conclusions conducive to a better organiza- tion that would yield optimum benefit to the maximum number. PROCEDURES .After verbalizing the methodology, it is necessary to put it in black and white how the dissertation plans to move, step by step. The writer plans to expatiate his thoughts in the following way: I. The data will be collected and presented to prove that there is need for a more organized study of adminis- tration of education in India. This part of the problem will be proved in two ways: (a) external arguments, that is, uSing historical evidences culled through a survey of education history of India up to the point of independence of India; and (b) internal arguments, that is, by analyzing the‘administrative principles of sound and scientific administration and comparing it with the existing adminis- tration of India. 2. The next step will be to construct a better organization for an effective administration of education in India. In order to suggest a better organization, this dissertation will strive to study the various functions that fall under the portfolio of the Central Ministry of Education in India. The writer will analyze these operations O U . 'x I x " . k Ll .‘ a I \ ' t C . U ’ _ I“ H r f \ . a s r" 1' ‘ I 1 ‘ ‘1 IF" 'V. I V L I ‘ A . . t 1 . ! O . r / p -‘ ’ ’- r t a ‘ L“ ( ’ Q o F ' rK‘ . I ' o e t ’ f r l‘ | a 0 r - I ‘ ‘ ' r' f ‘ A ‘ . v w ‘. .‘ fl ' O s ' ‘ ' O t r t 1 ' I r. r . x F r - ‘ ‘ ‘ \ I \ i ‘f ‘ ' ' r c ( ~¢ _. . I 1:‘ fl 0 ' V ' ‘ a, I l I t ‘ . O ' “ It A ’ (I , [ i f ‘ I . . q F. .L . r V t ‘ f" r | Q I U , " 3 ‘ ’ ' { ‘ a t .5» I I r H ‘ r I ( l r‘ l ( a‘ . . , f i ( , 1 ‘ e I k. t... A I it 1 f ’l' r‘ O J V is tt arrive at can. tier that mid yie. truer. tcpat it in bias}; a me 3t ‘ " , 2;: by step. 13:23:21: in the {:1 I. The data a 6“” 1.. LEE. tutti is need h. Nation at educatl it'll be preved in 13. aster; histor‘ rig. ~ “VA tit. a history 321“ e “41a, a‘nd (5‘ “a ti ~ ' ' Eadmntstrati' sfiaaalstratICH .. C key. “in or In A u if Sign tqnizgtisn 0' {it . -ndta a 1n 12 is to arrive at conclusions conducive to a better organiza- tion that would yield optimum benefit to the maximum number. PROCEDURES After verbalizing the methodology, it is necessary to put it in black and white how the dissertation plans to move, step by step. The writer plans to expatiate his thoughts in the following way: 1. The data will be collected and presented to prove that there is need for a more organized study of adminis- tration of education in India. This part of the problem will be proved in twO‘ways: (a) external arguments, that is, uSing historical evidences culled through a survey of education history of India up to the point of independence of India; and (b) internal arguments, that is, by analyzing the administrative principles of sound and scientific administration and comparing it with the existing adminis- tration of India. 2. The next step will be to construct a better organization for an effective administration of education in India. In order to suggest a better organization, this dissertation will strive to study the various functions that fall under the portfolio of the Central Ministry of Education in India. The writer will analyze these operations tithe light of szi. therein idea of fix “‘1! a . ' ‘a.. Leit‘t‘acn is Kit.” . 3. Hematite a iiaistr of Ed::ati: thewiter viii st: eizcatisnai ideals; new organization 3': life: of all major 13 in the light of scientific management principles with the main idea of finding whether the Central Ministry of Education is employing its time and resources in the right kind of operations or not. 3. Meanwhile analyzing the present operations of the Ministry of Education of a politically democratic government, the writer will strive to compare these activities with educational ideologies of other political parties. The new organization should be brought as close to the philoso- phies of all major political parties. ‘ h. .After establishing the most acceptable course for all political parties, this dissertation will analyze the various obstacles in the way of attaining the educational objectives. The most important problems that beset future planning are economic problems, social problems and linguistic problems. An adequate exploration of these problem.areas will offer an insight into the hurdles that should be crossed in drawing a blueprint for a new organiza- tion pleasing to all interest groups and political groups 81d still remain within the resources of the nation. 5. After establishing goals and drawing the paths how to achieve these goals, the administration has another duty of comparing the extent and degree to which these educational goals are being met by administrative practices. 6. gr; Ali e Ct 15 gt. arm 'id I a; e a“ .ecor~e ’.j i 7 niat‘ “ . Fin 5:: an r “ally til" .y viii 1 e s‘ huh: “xiii ma“ tie C" war.“- :t'! 1LL 6. .All earlier researches in similar areas will be used to guide and compare the effectiveness of the findings and recommendations of this research. 7. Finally in making some practical recommendations, this study will share philosophies with other nations which made changes in educational planning after World‘War II. '.‘J. a “ram: 1?. centuries of vat“. of three setarata (2] State Saver-r: m . mas €183” or . " ' Mel J3VE‘“"° ti" #1 ,. Laval; 13 a t q :4. o, A on“ 31 Jove??- 395-73 '11:: “M 1‘ Vi: tie n .. Ventral 33“ I}. “fut: Q: V‘QCQ A. 4“ bu -“ tangent. *‘ v 3'4 n ““ “irect t‘- p G 12::er CHAPTER II THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT'S RESPONSIBILITIES IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION Education in the present Republic of India, after centuries of various influences, is now under the control of three separate bodies, namely, (1) Central Government, (2) State Government, and (3) Local Bodies. This dissertation is an analysis of the work of the Central Government only. It is interesting to note that according to the Constitutions of the India Republic, education is a duty and obligation of the States, not the Central Government. By the word education, the Constitution means "imparting of elementary education" only. Meanwhile the Central Government has many fields reserved to it. Egggtions of the Ministry of Education Since August 15, 1947, an educational ministry has been constituted at the Federal level to control, organize and direct the total picture of education of its vast number of citizens. In 19h? the ministry was organized with the following personnel: a. An educational advisor and secretary, b. An aid. ajvisc: c. Two dc; adviscz d. Four 0 if". He There Vite meat which will The work : ihiflens, name b. d. 16 An additional secretary, a Joint educational advisor and an ex-officio Joint secretary, Two deputy secretaries and four deputy educational advisers, Four office managers at‘washington, London, Bonn and Nairobi.l There were periodic changes in the original arrange- ment which will be described later. The work of the Ministry has been split up into six divisions, namely: 1. 2. 3. ll. 5. 6. Administration and university Education Hindi and Cultural Relations Technical and Scientific Education Scholarships and Information Basic and Social Education Secondary Education.2 The organization of the Ministry of Education in l9u7 was a natural outgrowth.of the Central Advisory Board of Education instituted in 1921. This Board had been functioning for over 26 years in the control and direction of the educational system in the area, working for the most part under the direct rule of the British Central 1 India, Ministry of Information, Manager Press, New Delhi, 1955, p. 332. S. N. Mukerji, Education in India, Today and Tomorrow, .Achatya.Book Depot, 1957, p. In. . , interment. The E. :eccmeidattons ti. native states. in. arguitation and faced it after the tin at the Rant: 1. The Exam 2. The Educa cherrtzer. Fifteen : merit of 1" “lie Fat: Q. Stiecte 3s THO Pie: Sh ind: llVes I L Us 17 Government. The Board did not influence even with directive recommendations the educational policies within the 650 native states. Independent India assumed the existing organization and tried to retool it to do the work which faced it after the withdrawal of the British. The organiza- tion of the Educational Ministry consisted of: 1. 2. The Honorable Minister of Education (Chairman), The Educational Advisor to the Government of Government of India, Fifteen members to be nominated by the Govern- ment of India, four of whom were to be women, Five members of Parliament, two from the Upper House and three from the Lower House to be selected by the Parliament, Two members of the Inter-university Board, nominated by the Board from among the representa- tives of universities of India, Two members of All-India Council forTechnical Education to be nominated by the Council, One representative of each state government who should be the Minister-in-charge of Education. If he were unable to attend a particular meeting, he might nominate an officer of his Department for that meeting, and by the 3: The Beard m that have a heart: :a‘ee 1011; range a reeds of the C327". states and to all sappssei to Lia-2e their respective injia group can insures. The r fire:tive am :1 the states . '3: 0| Fat they are a] 3?. 331mm“ 18 8. Secretary of the Board who would be appointed by the Government of India. The Board meets every year and discusses matters that have a bearing on all India. Its primary work is to make long range and short range plans to meet the educational needs of the country, thus representation is given to all states and to all forms of government. The members are supposed to make known any or all problems that arise in their respective field before the Board so that an.A11 India group can study the problems and propose remedial measures. The decisions taken by the Board have only a directive and no coercive power over the administration of the states. The states are independent in this matter; yet they are always willing to give due deference to the recommendations coming from the Educational Ministry after discussion by the Board. The Board has established good and friendly relationship with the states and thus created a healthy tradition.3 There is a Central Bureau of Education attached to the Board. The two functions of the Central Bureau are taken care of by two educational secretaries, one dealing with overseas and the other with internal informations. 3Education in India 1953-5u,.Ministry of Education, Government of India, New Delhi, p. 127. 8. Secretary ; by the 3:‘I" The Board meet: that have a hearing are in; range 3' ~' needs a! the countr; states and to all f; sapplsed to make in theirrespective 1". Am 9’33? can at. 39231315. The Ger c’iresttve and no .. II", R ‘ '2‘ tut} are alfi. it". . 3.23ch 3:13 C a: A. “3.1155133 by 1"” kid Iriendiy re! - A: ”.8 l L. Lin] trajit There is a 3‘9 “are. The are of "x M Allen C 18 8. Secretary of the Board who would be appointed by the Government of India. The Board meets every year and discusses matters that have a bearing on all India. Its primary work is to make long range and short range plans to meet the educational needs of the country, thus representation is given to all states and to all forms of government. The members are supposed to make known any or all problems that arise in their respective field before the Board so that an.All India group can study the problems and propose remedial measures. The decisions taken by the Board have only a directive and no coercive power over the administration of the states. The states are independent in this matter; yet they are always willing to give due deference to the recommendations coming from the Educational Ministry after discussion by the Board. The Board has established good and friendly relationship with the states and thus created a healthy tradition.3 There is a Central Bureau of Education attached to the Board. The two functions of the Central Bureau are taken care of by two educational secretaries,one dealing with overseas and the other with internal informations. 3Education in India 1953-54, Ministry of Education, Government of India,‘New'Delhi, p. 127. Tris Bureau 331‘. tion about ei.:s pr. 19 This Bureau collects the most recent statistical informa- tion about education necessary for planning. This information is distributed to the agencies of State and Central Governments who are engaged in educational adminis- tration. The data collected by the Bureau are also given to foreign agencies like UNESCO to keep their books up to date. The Bureau publishes the annual and quinquennial Reviews of Education and its progress. The Bureau studies many educational problems and makes this infonmation available to the educators and to the general public by publishing several educational reports of great importance.“ . Although education is a state prerogative according to the mind of the Indian Constitution, the Union Govern- ment is directly responsible for the administration of institutions of national importance. These institutions can be broadly divided into the following: 1. Institutions of scientific or technical importance, financed totally or partly by the Union Government, 2. Four Central Universities, viz, Banares University, Aligarh University, Delhi University and the Viswa Bharati University, Elbfd, p.‘T31. ' i {A ‘ v! on: .. I l ’ ' -‘sI ‘ l d I if .\ .v‘ , l . I“. |." O r .. '1 J rabrn4 In. ‘1 L. In}... a» i. «er “urns.“ { .n:3 Q" 20 3. The Central Government also deals with central agencies and institutions like: (a) professional, (b) vocational, and (c) administrative (such as training police) institutions,” A. Institutions for the promotion of special studies and research, and 5. Scientific and technical assistance to the agencies employed in the investigation of crime. The Stages of Education At the lowest level, the desire of the Union Govern- ment is to see that all schools provide nursery schools for the children between three and six. These nursery schools have not gained too much universality because of the many external reasons that stifle education as a whole. After nursery education, the child is supposed to move up into the primary orelementary schools which are designed for children of 6-11 age group. The words primary and elementary are used interchangeably in various states, since the time element of courses are mostly the same. The secondary schools come after the primary. The secondary schools are also subdivided into middle schools and high schools. The age groups for these are from ll-lh and lh-lé respectively. In a few states, the secondary schools are called higher secondary schools, and they cater to the '2! E733 9f 1“”7‘ r I :N' I é . MI .. .1 333519 _.. ”.5 J ' P O"; _ traizzu. Lter ..... ‘ £ 9". Iiirma mu 2.. I. I . . ‘ I G ‘flfip : u r: L: Uraodbb o ~i~ :ian, a four-year :3 7:5 first two voar c N vp ....ses and the last 252 jun cazplete t‘ q” Iv . szczessfully Q3521! z” ...i‘&iaded '4 CH 8 2A env53$ 21 age group of lh-l7. After high school, a student can go into some professional institutions which give technical training. After this training, the student is awarded a diploma which entitles him to an occupation suited to his training. But to those who plan for a college educa- tion, a four-year course is offered in accredited colleges. The first two year courses are called Intermediate College courses and the last-two years Degree Colleges. Those who just complete twijears‘of college or Intermediate College can get a diploma attesting to this and those who successfully complete four years of college get a degree from the University to which the College is affiliated. For professional education, the student can take either the diploma course or degree course. When he takes a degree course, the professional college has to be affiliated with a University and the right of control will be invested with the University as in the case of the Liberal Arts Colleges accredited to that University. The Basic Education The elementary education of India is divided into primary grammar schools and primary basic schools. India's Government has officially accepted the basic schools as the pattern of national education. Basic education is a system of education proposed by Mahatma Gandhi for the use of entire India. He called I C ; ( O 24 I. '1 f . . 2. .. 3 0‘ l ‘ I \ ~- * 't "‘ rr ' 5 v ' "" ;.i v‘ ,. r , .. 1‘ "‘ r1 ‘4 ." . I. - ~I \. . V I .‘ ' \l - a..- .. -.._. UV ‘ .. " v r .‘s \ t I u i . '51. ' I :0 ."e‘ ‘ 1‘-” .d a ‘3. O L‘ a AAA 'f-u; '- :5.» .V'Zu 2.. .'I ‘I ' ‘ P :..ip.ra in 1.7 :szslsary ed.- Io'n .‘ ‘_ 'h ._ \ - pa- . ,.‘~ 'QQQV‘ 6.“: “9 SPECial 1 NH T820229“:‘ -‘tma “ “' \ 5:1‘1.’ Jan” ‘f'de e 22 it "Nai Talim", (new education or basic education). It was accepted by the National Congress convened at Haripura in 1938 as the standard of universal, free, and compulsory education, lasting seven years. Gandhi was not specific in many areas and hence the Zakir Hussain Report interpreted many of its obscurities. Sargeant in his celebrated Scheme of 194A recommended it as a good system of education fitted to the conditions of India, but he also made some reservations as to the full employ- ment of the scheme. The Sargeant Report denied the value of "self-support" emphasized byGandhi in basic education. The University Commission of 19h9 also was in favor of basic education. In 1953 the secondary education commission made special studies of all the aspects of basic system and redommended it as the one pattern of education for India. The National Congress for the first time in history took over seven provinces under its direct rule in 1937. It did not take time to really study educational needs of the masses, especially in the villages. Mahatma Gandhi proposed his scheme through an article in "Harijan" called "Nai Talim" or "New Scheme" on July 31, 1937: By education, I mean an all around drawing out of the best in child and man, body, mind, and spirit. Literacy is not the end of education nor even the beginning. It is only one of the means whereby r I V ‘ . n . f a , -r I J 1‘ ‘i I ' , r 1‘ , 9. . ‘ t - O '. ‘ ‘ C . . _ ’ L (‘1 I' — C '1 I ' -\ l ’ f Y t a \ 1 r - l r I ,. 5 - 1 (,., , \ v‘ ( ' A ' I . i . L " r I :~ I . ' f 0 t 4'. ( t ‘ J Ir, ‘ e . i 3 0" 1 7 3 l I ' (l- ‘ i I ' l. 1 Q I 1 - x I. ‘ |» l ‘ O; t )' -A \ ‘ .‘. ’ :4 f (x i up 2\ . Q ' l I ( .r\ " . . I . ‘ ~( {I . . ‘ r. v (‘1 I ‘, 1‘- ‘ I O I; ‘ ’ ‘ r ,. e 4 l ‘- . I ‘ .. , 4’ 3 ‘.-, .(. . . - 4 r- , I . I' . - .. ‘l O O t 2 \’ f "‘ i — I. 1, ( ~ 1 ¥ ‘. I i I I an and wore: : :se‘.“ is no 21' begin .2 ch11: useful h niicr: in: the tan-er: every 3:11:31 3 caution heir. Iamz‘actures : Basic educatit “JI‘ .....e:e ievelcre .1“. ' .....en, tmuzh a 0'. ‘0‘ , l “'1 A' . m- V.‘L“I‘ 3 “'Y‘ n. ‘A: Vet 113mm: 50.: . v‘d X 3“" ‘ ‘ce. § 3 ‘H kefiw: I...“~ .‘J I 354 .4 t“. 23 man and woman can be educated. ,Literacy in itself is no education. It would, therefore, begin the child's education by teaching it a useful handicraft and enabling it to produce from the moment it begins its training. Thus, every school can be made self-supporting, the condition being that the State takes over the manufactures of these schools.5 Basic education is meant to be the harmonious and complete develOpment of the child, as an individual and citizen, through a productive craft or crafts suited to the child's environment. Such an education should result in a better social, economic, and physical environment for the total growth of the student and a better social order. - It is called the "basic" education because it is meant to be the base for*the development of the future citizen. Villages in India are the primary cells that con- stitute the nation and the basic education is primarily intended for them. It is "basic" because it is the "first in time and first in importance" to an individual. Basic education is also called "National" education because it is meant for the whole nation, and because it fits into the new democratic socialist type of government. India aspires to. It is called "National" again because it is in keeping with Indian national culture, tradition, needs, and tendencies. 5min. July 31. 1937. 24 The Stages of Basic Education Basic education offers a total of five stages so as to reach all stages of life. 1. Education of the parents and adults, 2. Pre-basic or nursery education, 3. Basic education, A. Post basic education, and 5. University Rural education. The syllabus of basic education is centered around ...four or five activities which experience has shown to be of the most fundamental importance for life and which offer the richest education opportunity. These are (l) the practice of clean and healthy living, (2) the practice of self-reliance (3) the practice of a productive basic craft, (A) the practice of citizenship in a community, and (5) the practice of recreational and cultural activities.6 The usual subjects assigned are mathematics, science, social studies, including elements of economics, civics, history, and geography, drawing and painting, drama and art, games and other extra-curricular activities are to be taught in relation to the five activities quoted above. Knowledge in basic education is correlated to real experience as opposed to mere theoretical knowledge. Knowledge is connected with a life situation. Besides the life situa- tions, the very social, economic and physical atmOSphere, 6India 1956-52. Government of India Press, New Delhi. -‘n 0a. ”L3‘j kn; ._' ye..- . . I, ’a‘ ‘- ‘::~:F~ rF",“ LA - ..¢os4A555 A ‘ Igr‘gna t B- v- -n a .6 no: e'v I . 'W 9!“ M-" -.wii-' Mu- Vv-. ‘ ‘n I Fwa" h. "‘ de~Se "HI" 3‘: ’I:J.D“.t‘ “I ‘v :1 f') t) 9.! LI. .‘J’ .o H- 1]. '1 '1 .b (I) I‘- ‘3 h -E_, , Q s U- 5 3 fl Yet. 1 o A R v \ E a. a‘ u I? w W I.) 25 the child breathes and lives are taken to impart necessary and useful knowledge. The child should live through the learning process. Hence basic education becomes more child- centered than syllabus-centered. The child is not isolated from the community and his living environment but brought closer to his own real life. Basic education imparts the technique of a craft. In ordinary trade schools the subjects plus a craft are taught, while in basic schools subjects are taught through the crafts. Hence the Craft chosen is rich in educational possibilities. The main interest is centered on one craft with others as subsidiaries. Books merely supplement the basic education, but do not control it. .The basic educa- tion goes a step further: the child not only learns by doing but it earns while doing. Gandhi expected that the post-revolution Congress would walk his way and give shape to his dream of a new social order based on ‘ decentralization of administration. . . . The post-independent Congress walked the other way about. Secondary Educatigg With the growth of primary or elementary education, there arose a pOpular deSire for higher education. Since primary education did not and could not give an adequate 7Dhirendra Nazumdar "Nai Talim in the Crucible," Modern Review, 1955, p. 313 ’00 I I nr -1. a... bee‘. 3 9: ti ..3 by .5. 0 do: a a!“ 'V ‘ azi mod 12.. : PP f '._‘“ O Q‘hflfi ... bunny-J- v9?! 0"! s 3 educatian v35 R up .1 R a: \- 9 Q» «(I A”; A\ ”I. O s . s a r a a .3 .a a n A. 4. 7. a. n_. u” «as 3 VI. .- Av 15... .v I. . fit a: N. 8 r . . 4 u. e a - I 26 command on any particular field, and since a higher education was a prerequisite for government service, higher education came to be a necessity. Secondary schools were opened to serve this need.8 In 1936 the Government sought the advice of Abbott and Wood on problems of introducing vocational education. The Abbott-Wood Report presented a hierarchy of vocational studies by opening separate vocational primary and secondary schools. The Government opened a few "Poli-technic" secondary schools, an innovation in the secondary education of India. 1 In 1937 Madras Congress Government brought out a scheme along the lines suggested by Abbott-Wood Report and the Wardha Scheme of Gandhiji. The idea was to divide secondary education into two channels, one leading into college education and the other into vocational institutes. Since the Congress Ministry resigned in 1939, this plan did not materialize. In l94h the Central Ministry of Education drew up a national scheme of education, usually known as the "Sargeant Scheme", after Sir John Sargeant, the then educational advisor to the Government of India. It 8Report of the Secondary Education Commission, Delhi Publication Division, 1953, p. 319. envisaged a 5:5: all boys and 91:. try establish 3; . suggested that f 3:932:15 should ccurses sh uld '; the students 13 xcupatigns. T} fivers’lfied Cu:- The ethane as; kilate and 3:: stfiet1s_ The F 3282‘: to brlfi; The Cent: fl exclusively i- “penal” in uMIQRd to t The .. “5'11“- 53'} ‘ liafing Sh - fl -— 1 . e The $1.3. (.4 27 envisaged a scheme for universal compulsory education to all boys and girls between the ages of six and fourteen by establishing elementary and middle schools. He also suggested that from middle school on, various vocational subjects should be integrated in the curriculum. These courses should be so planned and carried out as to enable the students to enter into industrial and commercial occupatiens. The high school consisted of completely diversified curricula of academic and technical courses. The scheme also subscribed to the abolition of the inter- mediate and addition of one-year courses to the high schools. The plan estimated that it would take forty years to bring these changes about, but the Kher Committee appointed in 1945 put the estimated span to sixteen years. The Central Advisory Board recommended that the Government should appoint a commission that would go exclusively into the question of secondary education, especially in relation to the proposed basic school educa- tion and to the university education. The university Education Commission of l9uB made the followdng suggestions: 1. The standards of admission to the university should not be lowered; 2. Premotion policies should be tightened; and 3. university control of secondary education. In 1952 tze 5233623! 351331 problems In Us updated to surx education. The: SnniHudaliar.‘ Itpumlshei its The repzrl 1123“ I Suma: taxation in 1; Natives of : °f Present and in the Past; he goals of sec an” Dilated Out 11' L DQVe‘; ' Del/1:1 ‘ 2:1“: In ‘3?er Educ '. atlvn, the EM “I meter-Inf?! 1. Hi.” In , R \,"O“ m K 28 In 1952 the Central Advisory Board appointed a Secondary School Commission to study the most pertinent problems in that field. It was the first commission appointed to survey exclusively all the fields of secondary education. The chairman of the Commission was Dr. Lakshmana Swami Mudaliar, Vice-Chancellor of the Madras University. It published its lengthy Report in 1953.9 I The report had fifteen chapters with ten appendices. It gave a summary of the existing system of secondary education in India. It tried to reorientate the aims and objectives of the secondary education to suit the problems of present and future. New Democratic India cannot live in the past; hence the Commission tried to establish the goals of secondary education in a Democratic India. They pointed out three distinct objectives for India: I a. Development of rich personality; . b. Development of democratic citizenship behavior; and c. Improvement of vocational ability and efficiency. In order to attain the primary objectives of secondary education, the Commission presented the following measures and procedures:10 1. High school education should begin after four or five years of Junior basic education. It should comprise ;Report of the Secondannyducation Commission, Delhi, ,Publication Division, 1953, p. 312. 10lbld, p. 320. H :3 H “-1 ) \ 1 \ Secondary S prfideas in appointed t education. SEES. ‘r'scia‘ it publish he r 11 gave a 9335.31 3:1 °b3ectlve :f PTEEe: in the pa I" Gals 9“ painted 1 28 In 1952 the Central Advisory Board appointed a Secondary School Commission to study the most pertinent problems in that field. It was the first commission appointed to survey exclusively all the fields of secondary education. The chairman of the Commission was Dr. Lakshmana Swami Mudaliar,'Vice-Chancellor of the Madras University. It published its lengthy Report in 1953.9 l The report had fifteen chapters with ten appendices. It gave a summary of the existing system of secondary education in India. It tried to reorientate the aims and objectives of the secondary education to suit the problems of present and future. New Democratic India cannot live in the past; hence the Commission tried to establish the goals of secondary education in a Democratic India. They pointed out three distinct objectives for India: ' a. Development of rich personality; ' b. Development of democratic citizenship behavior; and c. Improvement of vocational ability and efficiency. In order to attain the primary objectives of secondany education, the Commission presented the following measures and procedures:10 1. High school education should begin after four or five years of junior basic education. It should comprise ;Rep9rt of the Secondagy_£ducation Commission, Delhi, Publication Division, 1953, p. 312. lolbid,'p. 320. a“ all ny: ... a“. {Y n» I o‘- ul- 29 various studies of language, general science, civics and crafts. 2. Regional language should become the medium of instruction while the Federal language and a foreign language should also be taught. 3. The character formation should be attended to through the education of religion, moral instruction, and extra-curricular activities outside of school time. h. Multi-purpose schools should be started to encourage vocational interests. 5. The school records, as well as public examina- tion results, should be considered in deciding promotions. 6. Secondary school teachers and graduate teachers should be trained at separate levels. 7. Besides the State Advisory Board for Education, there should be separate boards for secondary education. 8. The Management Schools should be registered under the Company Act to discourage mismanagement and free lancers in the secondary school areas. These recommendations were made after a thorough investigation of the field. Most of the recommendations will receive favorable attention from the Central Advisory Board of Education. Although the Report was made by eminent educators, it is not infallible. Most of its recommendations are already in effect, bl: Lterpretation Ca lanai r; :3we cl! ‘5 ion 53?? Emission, a: we?! he 51213 the nev patter 522331332117 3:: The All-: in Secmdary . language ”3.: 1. ”A” 0 Wm AAA ”A I“ H. m n. J VU U v“.- n t?’ m 5.1"»; 30 in effect, but a few points of the recommendation need interpretation and clarification. On January 15, 1956, the Central Advisory Board of Education surveyed the progress which had been made in introducing the recommendations of the Secondary Education Commission, and found that it had been rather slowu More- over, the students would be definitely handicapped unless the new pattern were accepted simultaneously by the secondary schools and the universities. The All-India Council considered the place of English in secondary education and recommended the following language requirements: 1. (a) Mother tongue, ' (b) or regional language, (c) or a composite course of Mother tongue and a regional language, (d) or a composite course of regional and classical language, (e) Hindi or English, (f) A.modern Indian or a modern European language, provided it had not been taken in any quoted above. ).As above, ) English or modern European language, Hindi (for non-Hindi speaking areas) or another modern language (for Hindi speaking areas). This scheme seems to overburden the students with languages. One language thoroughly mastered is more valuable than a smattering of various tongues, especially since very few students excel in this subject. ‘ 9 ‘ :r.s 63:3“ a, 0"”. O. U“. A h .41 4.! » :1y 5 1!?! 0 A v. at , 0‘ ‘3 was 2 Is. .‘g. :QIAA H...) II ‘0 c. V. 3— who ‘5 r. a: :. elk Q.‘ 31 During 1955-56 the recognized secondary schools enrolled 8,526,509 students which was about 23.7 per cent above the previous years. The number of schools rose only 18.h per cent in the same time. The total number of girls enrolled in secondary education was 1,870,023. Out of this number #0.2 per cent were in coeducational schools. 338,188 teachers were employed in secondary schools; there were only 58,929 women teachers in secondary schools com- pared to 279,259 men. The percentage of trained teachers was highest in Delhi (90.3 per cent). The teacher-pupil ratio was 26 to l in middle schools and 23 to l in high schools. The pay scale of secondary sdnool teachers remained unchanged in most states. The accepted pay scale in most states is Rs. 75-5100 --EB-6ltO-Eb-7-l75. This pay scale was raised in a few states to Rs. 120-6-168 --Eb-8-200.* Table I is offered to show just how great a share (more than half) of the burden of secondary education is borne by private sources. The Government at both Federal and state level has been unfavorable to these schools and has imposed various pressure on them with the ultimate view of nationalization of secondary education. Even the Secondary School Commission seemed to favor this policy which is definitely discouraging to a healthy, diversified syston of schooling. *One Indian rupee is equivalent to twenty-one cents, United States currency. ---'—“ U‘atdd. Source .- SVa 7‘: U. o . . a a a . a — .Q a «J N ‘A mm "do a. ‘¢ \.~ fl..‘s “ism. sou T a“ t 5 .2 .3 3 .. . y e a C C C. as .. a h. «D a. t . ‘6 ‘ ‘.U I re VU a. . a M. .mu .Me a. .r a. 5 o. o s a a Y. I. Id . v =5 H IQ fl NJ 9 a. 0 u. « u “a V A Ti « J h u h... C. .h. I l .v p\ . 1 I ‘ ll r ,u .. . . .. .f or r. o - . - . I l- to V i . _ , _ . . o . n l 9 _ _ . C t _ . , - _ t _ - 8 . J l . . . . I l . . . . OI D G l l v . l u v v) ~Y? \ . u-" rs. ,... ’ ’ .il find-— 32 TABLE I DIRECT'EXPENDITURE 0N SECONDARY SCHOOLS fl fl Source 195h-55 , 1955-56 Government Funds 192,692,559 2t6,826,952 District Board Funds 19,146,119 ‘ * 24,930,765 Municipal Boards 8,266,231 10,761,54h Fees 192,211,31h 200,h92,267 Endowments 1h,203,375 15,039,h55 Other Sources 28,678,730 32,143,638 Total . 455,198,328 530,19h,6l9 This amount can be again classified into: Government 125,h97,236 23.7 per cent District Board 78,972,716 1t.9 per cent Municipalities 25,89h,8h9 h.9 per cent Private Bodies: Aided 255,33h,17h h8.l per cent Unaided Ah,h95,6hh 8.4 per cent Source, India., 1955-56. Government of India Publishing House, New Delhi, I956, p. 123. .. . .u c r- .I- o a a I a I a . a s a. a . a a o a .p. C n c. a la a a I“ \C 2) av Lu f. q S I 3 FL. ‘ u. 3.. v.6 1 Va. 9w A L .M ~ a . a K .5 We on 3 : _ .e a. a .U A a 3 I!‘ “.5 I. «V 1“ j a. O .url‘ OL' I i ‘ a a a”! .v 7c . t. .n a s a be .m a .- ~51 c. in... a.“ D. Hun 9&4 we 9. 5 0‘2. .1.» I a . ' 9 ll 4 It fl. 1 . r o 1 o . . r . , u . . .. . a a \ c a m. ( ti rrv .. H a l. . . y .. _ l s q I .r x l _ . ' v a, to- 'x .. r. u . . . ‘ O . o.| . l\ _ o . t _ '\ n o . _ — o . . ll: . v P c r r» .l . o . fl . .w l t\ 0 l\ o\ .r\ a\ I\ f. e\ ls 0‘ vs C 2 m s x . l ( O\ a! 0‘ !\ It I\ l '\ 0‘ l, o\ . .\- or . I) . l o _ r . v. - . . ~ I t l \ i L A u . x \ I. I a | . _ O O O o I l\ I\ I\ at 0\ DA '5 \ r... u h I. I, V ’\ I\ t I\ 't t '\ N y H l . . t r, .. , _ . . l x a t\.\ I . i z — l.. 9. if .v v 33 University Educatiggin Independent India In 19h8 the Government of India appointed the Uni- versity commission under the leadership of Dr. Radhakrishna, the present Vice President of India. It inspected many ' colleges and the University Syndicate administration, presenting its recommendations in June 1949. After review- ing the history of university education in India, the Report commented on university education in present-day India under existing social and political conditions as follows: 1. That the multiplication of universities on a regional basis is disadvantageous to the total university education of India. 2. That rural universities should be founded. 3. That a University Grants Commission should be set up. h. That the importance of religious instruction should be stressed. 5. That the use of regional language in the university education as the medium of instruction should be favored. 6. That qualifications and salaries for teachers should be improved. 7. That entrance examinations should be more stringent and physical education should be compulsory. V" 0‘. contact. wit: .. ," Inv- : bu“ 3 m and or! ‘u‘ on a“‘ In " ‘ “Ova-.1 3f tm Uni V’T‘ V‘C ‘ ‘ ‘. .:?:n-d ‘ "=“‘~'-§ the a L guaraafjs : Of IL“ 5 Nu- Vortisz “led a‘_ . ‘ “5 0? t. a u a ”1 Lars;- '3 ‘ "a V "Jabfl " in tr. . ‘ '- ?§r: .313 Vis,“ “a c3325 (‘91 34 The Commission showed a preference for a tutorial system in which the teacher would have more personal contact with the students. The Commission also deplored the fact that competent men and women avoid the teaching profession because of undisciplined attitudes of the students and poor methods of hiring. The Commission also considered university education in three aspects, namely, liberal education, general education, and occupational education. The key note of the Report is that the education of India should be carried on according to the spirit and tradition of India. In Novemoer, 1953, according to the recommendations of the University Commission, another Commission was organized called University Grants Commission. It is intended to advise the Central Government on problems regarding the coordination of facilities and maintenance of standards in the universities. An important function of the Commission will be to inquire into the financial needs of the universities and to advise the Central Govern- ment of the allocation 6f funds for grant-in-aids. In March, 1956, a University Grant Commission Bill was passed in the Parliament and received the assent of the President. The University Grant Commission appointed various visiting committees to visit the colleges in connection with the specific develOpment projects initiated in cooperation wit innocent. Some 1. Construc‘ libos‘xs to the .9, Universities; d. Pabllcat 3- Rehab!” r n- » . .. ~ . ,. ' “lament, etc.‘ Q ’ ( . ' . .. ., - . L. EXPERSI: ( " a; A I ,' - x . I r'. : LN PoSI grad-Jet ‘ ' 5' ReSQar; ' r t ( D. gxtensi r \ 7' Prc est . , . l I1«leer science r * 393109,: 35 in cooperation with the grant-in-aid received from the Government. Some of the projects under consideration are: 1. Construction of library buildings and addition of books to the existing stock of library books of the universities; 2. Publication of research work of merit; 3. Rehabilitation of laboratories in scientific equipment, 'etc.; h. Expansion of facilities for scientific research and post graduate training; 5. Research work in humanities; 6. Extension work by university teachers; 7. Projects in new fields of research, such as, nuclear science, electronics, marine biology, and applied geology. A.school of international studies was established with financial assistance from.the Commission,as a constituent college of Delhi university. The Rural Higher Education Committee appointed by the Ministry of Education in October, 1951.. submitted in its report the recommendation of the establishment of rural institutes for training youth for leadership in the rural areas and communities. ‘With the assistance of the Ford Foundation and in cooperation with the Community Projects Administration, a pilot scheme of "Student Apprenticeship in Village Bevel: The Gavel-rue examine the ques' degree as a prey ll serllce. The yet found in t5, "Othe Sta: 3 pet-10:! 31‘ ms Canstl educathn i he 399 of 36 in Village Development" was tried out in West Bengal. The Government of-India appointed a committee to examine the question of the requirement of a university degree as a prerequisite for entry into government 11 service. The recommendations of this committee are not yet found in the regulations of the Government. Adult Education (Social Education) in Free India Article as of the Indian Constitution holds out the promise: ...the State shall endeavor to provide within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution for free and compulsory education for all children1 until they complete the age of fourteen years. 2 This promise was a recognition of the grave problem adult education presents in the underdeveloped areas of the world, for without it democracy cannot function. In the telling words of a great authority in education: India's present condition is like China's where.the national Government came into, power-~uneducated and illiterate adults, children without schools to attend or teachers to teach them. There is therefore no hope of adults getting cake when the child is still without bread. 3 lIEducation in universities of India. Delhi, Manager of Publications, I95E, p. 93. . . 12Indian Constitution, Article hS, op. cit. 13T. N. Sequiera, Education in India, Madras, Good Shepherd Press, l95h, p. 156. 0-" of Educat c to this: ...the still i claimed which a techni; The F1 intensive e 5333311132.: «1123th UT, 53 99-? can: 120,-. Case .3; leach, 6311:3113“ 37 The Hand Book on Social Education issued by the Ministry of Education, Government of India, in 1953 bears testimony to this: ...the whole movement of Social Education is still in a fluid state and no finality can be claimed either for the objects and purposes 3221321232.“:fiériar‘123; §§e§°§£2§£§§2$ium The First Five Year Plan laid down the rules for an intensive educational development scheme. In a few states consolidation, more than expansion, was necessary. The Federal Government's special agents for social education travelled far and wide giving expert directions in the state's effort to introduce social education. In 1953-5h a newrscheme was launched called "Scheme to Relieve Educated unemployment." The Central Government shared 50 per cent of the expenses and the state government took care of the other 50 per cent. This scheme recruited many teachers for single teacher schools and for social education. The result was satisfactory. India had to coordinate the many agencies specializing in social education. The community development department was going ahead independently of the education department of the Central and State for social education. 50 also the various State Departments of Public Instruction labored in the same field.‘ Hence the Central Ministry of Education IuAHandbook on Social Education, Ministry of Education of India, New'DelhI, 1953, p. 17. fund it necessar‘ the various agen: organized dislri: behind. the USE; ' tackle the prob; item-mg to 1:. me had very s The India: Cf the Central Cmittee var?“ central as wel camEditee 3153 :f ”Ciel edu: taper-tan“ an instituted a: 38 found it necessary to coordinate the planned efforts of the various agencies into a single program and thus they organized district social education organization. The idea behind the DSEO was to decentralize authority so as to tackle the problem efficiently at the various local levels according to the needs of the individual place. This move had very successful results.15 i The Indian Government also created a standing committee of the Central Advisory Board of Social Education. This committee worked as an expert advisory position for the central as well as the state Government. The standing committee also studied the role of libraries in the field of social education and advised the Governments of their importance and wise allocation. The Government also instituted an independent library. committee. By arrangements with the Ford Foundation and the United Nations Educational and Socio Cultural Organization, the Central Ministry of Education acquired the services of Dr. Rudolph Frlesch, an.American expert in the technique of writing for the masses, and of Mr. P. Martin Smith, the ‘ National Secretary of Adult Education in New'Zealand. These men visited social education organizers' training centers, block development officers' training centers, centers for 15D. G..Apte, Social Education at a Glance. Baroda, university Press, 1956, p. IS. training social e schools of sacia rafting for the They also \Oure: and social grow The Audio- Of Education is tion. The; f; Milo-Vistdal E. departments 0: Various "aids‘ ”Hath/y '2‘. films that a: Beat.” Ans 1,1 aspects .~ and experi: "Maine: xfilm's s 39 training social education workers, universities and schools of social work, community projects and organizations-- working for the promotion of social education in the country. They also toured India giving speeches to different cultural and social groups. The AudiOAVisual Department of the Central Ministry of Education is a key agency in disseminating adult educa- tion. They formed a new board, the National Board for Audio-Visual Education, and advised the Central and state departments of education. It also leased and loaned the various "aids" to the socid education agencies all over the country.- This agency also supervises the educational films that are added to the film library under the depart- ment.16 The.Ministry of Education and Scientific Research publishes a quarterly journal,.AudioAVisual Education. It contains interesting and stimulating articles on various, aspects of the subject. Reports pertaining to the schemes and experiments relating to audio-visual education are contained at the stock feature entitled ”The AudioAVisual News." It gives descriptive details about the films ISMinistry of Education. All India Report of Social Education, Delhi, Publication DivisiOn, l95u, p. 1§S. ho published at Center, State, and Abroad. It also publishes a descriptive account of the measures taken in a particular state showing its failures and success. Reviews of films and film strips are included. Delhi has been a leader in social education. It developed a scheme of Travelling Exhibitions and Educational [Melas, which have evoked considerable enthusiasm and inter- est in the field of social education. A.caravan of jeeps and trucks takes the exhibition to the villages and served to stimulate interest among the people. It is followed by intensive literacy campaign conducted by a band of teachers and social workers who are specially trained for this work. They conduct classes for six to eight weeks. .After this spade work, this job is turned over to the local teachers who are given charge of continuing education. The Teacher Education for Social Education is given in the Janta colleges which specialize in this field. No one should confuse social education with ordinary basic or primary education. The students are different, the schools are different, the curriculum and syllabus are different. That is why the teachers in social education are given special training.17 The average rural school of India today is not con- sidered the major focus of communities. Its only clientele I7indlanAdult Education Association. .Annual ReEort of National Seminar. New Delhi: Government 0 Ind a ress, 1r I . J" a": :ne cm- 7.- our school is us. .‘ A .4 - _. C357. he 9 b . that :1 ‘ Q'— .-t 913291? I ing a‘ 3&2 t ~l‘l ‘ 4‘ U a “v I ‘3 mantra tn #1 are the children who enter to stay for about two years and leave when they are nine years old. Thus the rural school is not considered a genuine part of rural life. Little effort has been made to improve this situation. The attitude of the Government and local Board is to keep the community out of the school politics. They seem to feel that the intervention of the community can only hinder the freedom of the few persons who control the rural schools. Since Independence, there is a trend of attracting the help of the community in improving rural schools. Some progress toward making the rural schools a real part of their community has been achieved at present. Adults as well as children attend, and there is more cooperation between the peOple and the school. A fallacy exists in conceiving adult education as mere attainment of literacy. The adults are given the teaching to be good citizens of the country. Thus the adults share a better responsibility in their community activities, beginning from taking part actively in the community school operations. The adults receive intellectual, social and vocational training through their adult education classes. The social education has defined a set of new goals and objectives to elicit interest from the public. This new approach has almost revolutionized Q If; h“ ‘ . ”at an. Uri a.) the entire 0313' ntrOdu:t‘.o new problems in school and com: tion of school a interested c3231; techniques and : transition? It problems should to have so far 331.3lete iniepe 142 the entire outlook of education in India.18 Introduction of the new objectives has precipitated new problems in the community. How can the cooperation of school and community be brought about? How can the coopera- tion of school and community wake up the dormant and dis- interested community people into active action? What techniques and methods should be used to bring about this transition? It is obvious that the solution to these problems should not be left to the rural school teachers who have so far administered and controlled schools with complete independence. The teachers are almost as ill equipped as the community for the job of accomplishing these changes. The State and Federal Government should rightly be the agent in this transition. The Janata College is an institution very similar to American Community College. Setting up Janata College may well be the solution to this problem and many others encountered in social education. Janata Colleges are institutions with manifold functions. First, they are training centers for future administrators and teachers who go into the social education. Second, they serve as a community center where the elementary training is imparted by the technique of coordinating the school and community luCommunity Projects Administration. Manual of Social Education. Delhi, Publication Division, 1955: p. llO. activities. into the pill bases of each infinity Car. alternative I: the merits an .‘aaata Colic; participation left the s:‘- ~ div: F In l§57 i lay iii-Fortes: 0“ To. . a «Activation. up no tit/PBS c mml- In t we? direct, C 7' o’ t.at‘on of r 2. ..~ SVQOI. us activities. They have a research department which inquire into the philosophical, psychological and sociological bases of each new method or technique to be adopted in the Community Center. They also design experiments to try alternative methods and techniques and finally evaluate the merits and demerits of each experiment. Third, the Janata College teaches the students to solicit more active participation of the community and in some cases to con- vert the school into a community social center. Departments under Direct Control of the Government In 1957 the Ministry of Education was reorganized with many important changes in the portfolio of the Ministry of Education. The Central Ministry of Education keeps up two types of administration. One is through "direct" administrative control, and the other is through'nndirect" control. In the following pages the analysis of the functions under direct control hull be set forth. ~ The following are activities under the direct adminis- tration of the Ministry of Education and Scientific Research: ‘l.. Foreign Student Scholarships, 2. Scholarships of the scheduled classes, 3. Public School Scholarships, h. Scholarships in Research in Humanities, Science and Technology, Mt S. Scholarships to Foreign Students from Asia, Africa and Commonwealth Countries, 6. Publications, 7. Overseas Information Bureau, 8. Training Institutions, 9. Indian Council of Cultural Relations, 10. Social Welfare Fellowships, 11. National Museums, 12. National.Art Treasure Fund, 13. Social Welfare Board, 1h. Propogation of Hindi, 15. Research Grants, 16. National Academy of Letters, 17. National Cultural Trust, and 18. National Gallery of Modern Arts. From these one can see that the preliminary work of the Ministry of Education is to disburse scholarships to able Indian students and foreign students who are sent to Indian universities on exchange basis. Besides disbursing scholarships, the Ministry also controls some universities and colleges under its direct control and many cultural activities. The Government of India is offering many scholarships for competent students to receive overseas education. India needs many trained personnel to operate her administrative in Village Level The Govern: examine the one degree as a p:; 11 yet fond in t‘: outhe 3‘1; a Period e nus Cans educating adult eduCati thE' 9 void, 1- the telling “hire tr Power__H N 36 in Village Development" was tried out in West Bengal. The Government of India appointed a committee to examine the question of the requirement of a university degree as a prerequisite for entry into government service.11 The recommendations of this committee are not yet found in the regulations of the Government. Adult Education (Social Education) in Free India Article us of the Indian Constitution holds out the promise: ...the State shall endeavor to provide within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution for free and compulsory education for all children1 until they complete the age of fourteen years. 2 This promise was a recognition of the grave problem adult education presents in the underdeveloped areas of the world, for without it democracy cannot function. In the telling words of a great authority in education: India's present condition is like China's where.the national Government came into, power--uneducated and illiterate adults, children without schools to attend or teachers to teach them. There is therefore no hope of adults getting cake when the child is still without bread. 3 . lIEducation in Universities of India. Delhi, Manager of Publications, 195h, p.T93. 12Indian Constitution,.Article AS, op. cit. 13T. N. Sequiera, Education in India, Madras, Good Shepherd Press, l9Sh, p. 156. in Village Bevel Tie Govern: examine the ques degree as a peer service.11 The yet loud in the Article 15 Praise: "‘the State ‘ Period of this CDnstu educatian f: the 352 of 1 This Proxi: It Lie warld, f 36 in Village Development" was tried out in West Bengal. The Government of India appointed a committee to examine the question of the requirement of a university degree as a prerequisite for entry into government 11 service. The recommendations of this committee are not yet found in the regulations of the Government. Adult Education_LSoCial Education) in Free India .Article us of the Indian Constitution holds out the promise: b ...the State shall endeavor to provide within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution for free and compulsory education for all children1 until they complete the age of fourteen years. 2 This promise was a recognition of the grave problem adult education presents in the underdeveloped areas of the world, for without it democracy cannot function. In the telling words of a great authority in education: India's present condition is like China's where-the national Government came into, power--uneducated and illiterate adults, Children without schools to attend or teachers to teach them. There is therefore no hope of adults getting cake when the child is still without bread. 3 . lIEducation in universities of India. Delhi, Manager of Publications, I95h, p. 93. . 12Indian Constitution, Article hS, op. cit. 13T. N. Sequiera, Education in India, Madras, Good Shepherd Press, 19Sh, p. 156. . he Hand Book on S oiidncatlon, {love to this: ...the “.318 I: still in a flu claimed either which are ind: techniques the The First Fix intensive educati: “AU :onsoiidation, "‘ Federal Sever-nae: travelled far an: state's effort t: I new scheme RES )0 per cent of i. took c are 0f the Han" . 1 teachers 1‘: A.” 37 The Hand Book on Social Education issued by the Ministry of Education, Government of India, in 1953 bears testimony to this: ...the whole movement of Social Education is still in a fluid state and no finality can be claimed either for the objects and purposes Yfiéfiflléiis‘i‘fii‘i‘i’ifi; §§.§°§e§’3;n$§§2§i’iu“d The First Five Year Plan laid down the rules for an intensive educational development scheme. In a few states consolidation, more than expansion, was necessary. The Federal Government's special agents for social education travelled far and wide giving expert directions in the state's effort to introduce social education. In 1953-5h a newfscheme was launched called "Scheme to Relieve Educated Unemployment.” The Central Government shared 50 per cent of the expenses and the state government took care of the other 50 per cent. This scheme recruited many teachers for shngle teacher schools and for social. education. The result was satisfactory. India had to coordinate the many agencies specializing in social education. The community development department was going ahead independently of the education department of the Central and State for social education. So also the various State Departments of Public Instruction labored in the same field.' Hence the Central Ministry of Education TuA.Handbook on Social Education, Ministry of Education of India, New'UeIHI, I953, p. 17. hand it ne: the various organized d behind the tackle the :corc‘in; 1 save had Vi The I: 5f the Can Emittee . central as “mules 3f “Ciel 1n:- “ortl‘xfi. \o‘ 38 found it necessary to coordinate the planned efforts of the various agencies into a single program and thus they organized district social education organization. The idea behind the DSEO was to decentralize authority so as to tackle the problem efficiently at the various local levels according to the needs of the individual place. This move had very successful results.15 ' The Indian Government also created a standing committee of the Central Advisory Board of Social Education. This committee worked as an expert advisory position for the central as well as the state Government. The standing committee also studied the role of libraries in the field of social education and advised the Governments of their importance and wise allocation. The Government also instituted an independent library' committee. By arrangements with the Ford Foundation and the united Nations Educational and Socio Cultural Organization, the Central Ministry of Education acquired the services of Dr. Rudolph Frlesch, an American expert in the technique of writing for the masses, and of Mr. P. Martin Smith, the . National Secretary of Adult Education in New'Zealand. These men visited social education organizers' training centers, block development officers! training centers, centers for A 15D. G..Apte, Social Education at a Glance. Baroda, University Press, 1956, p. IS. trainins 53:: schools or 53 writing for 1 may also 136 and social 91' The Audi: of Education 1' tion. The; 1': Audio-Visual E departments of various ”aids" country. Thi s 39 training social education workers, universities and schools of social work, community projects and organizations-- working for the promotion of social education in the country. They also toured India giving speeches to different cultural and social groups. The Andio4Visual Department of the Central Ministry of Education is a key agency in disseminating adult educa- tion. They formed a new board, the National Board for Aud104Visual Education, and advised the Central and state departments of education. It also leased and loaned the various ”aids” to the socid education agencies all over the country.- This agency also supervises the educational films that are added to the film library under the depart- ment.16 The Ministry of Education and Scientific Research publishes a quarterly Journal, Audio4Visual Education. It contains interesting and stimulating articles on various- aspects of the subject. Reports pertaining to the schemes and experiments relating to audio-visual education are contained at the stock feature entitled "The AudioAVisual News.” It gives descriptive details about the films Ishinistry of Education. All India Report of Social Educatipn, Delhi, Publication Division, l95h, p. I95. training social schools of 53:1: strain; for the They also taste and social 9:3; The Au§i3-‘ 0! Education is “33' The? for Andie-Visual 3: “Fifteen” Of tafiaus "aids" country,‘ This Til 39 training social education workers, universities and schools of social work, community projects and organizations-- working for the promotion of social education in the country. They also toured India giving speeches to different cultural and social groups. The AudiOAVisual Department of the Central Ministry of Education is a key agency in disseminating adult educa- tion. They formed a new board, the National Board for .AndiOAVisual Education, and advised the Central and state departments of education. It also leased and loaned the various ”aids" to the socid.education agencies all over the country.- This agency also supervises the educational films that are added to the film library under the depart- 16 ment. The Ministry of Education and Scientific Research publishes a quarterly journal, Audio4Visual Education. It contains interesting and stimulating articles on various. aspects of the subject. Reports pertaining to the schemes and experiments relating to audio-visual education are contained at the stock feature entitled ”The AudioAVisual News.” it gives descriptive details about the films I6Ministry of Education. All India Report of Social Education, Delhi, Publication Divi§i0n, I95h, p. 195. published at 5‘ pihllslies a Cl”: aparticular 5 Reviews of £11 Benn has developed a s: Helas, which I est in the iii A carava: to the villa; Wie- it i conducted by Speeially tra “1 to eight turned We? 1 continuing e: The Tea; in the ' Janta primary are d no published at Center, State, and.Abroad. It also publishes a descriptive account of the measures taken in a particular state showing its failures and success. Reviews of films and film strips are included. Delhi has been a leader in social education. It developed a scheme of Travelling Exhibitions and Educational Melas, which have evoked considerable enthusiasm and inter- est in the field of social education. A.caravan of jeeps and trucks takes the exhibition to the villages and served to stimulate interest among the people. It is followed by intensive literacy campaign conducted by a band of teachers and social workers who are specially trained for this work. They conduct classes for six to eight weeks. .After this spade work, this job is turned over to the local teachers who are given charge of continuing education. The Teacher Education for Social Education is given in the Janta colleges which specialize in this field. No one should confuse social education with ordinary basic or primary education. The students are different, the schools are different, the curriculum and syllabus are different. That is why the teachers in social education are given special training.17 The average rural school of India today is not con- sidered the major focus of communities. Its only clientele I7IndianAdult Education.Association. ‘Annual Re ort of National Seminar. New Delhi: Government of India Eress, IQRM. are the chili?! aid leave when school is has Little e? we attitiie : the commit; feel that the hinder the ff r131 5:173:15 & receive a . a... their '- ~: 04"“ ief _ 41 are the children who enter to stay for about two years and leave when they are nine years old. Thus the rural school is not considered a genuine part of rural life. Little effort has been made to improve this situation. The attitude of the Government and local Board is to keep the community out of the school politics. They seem to feel that the intervention of the community can only hinder the freedom of the few persons who control the rural schools. Since Independence, there is a trend of attracting the help of the community in improving rural schools. Some progress toward making the rural schools a real part of their community has been achieved at present. Adults as well as children attend, and there is more cooperation between the peOple and the school. A fallacy exists in conceiving adult education as mere attainment of literacy. The adults are given the teaching to be good citizens of the country. Thus the adults share a better responsibility in their community activities, beginning from taking part actively in the community school operations. The adults receive intellectual, social and vocational training through their adult education classes. The social education has defined a set of new goals and objectives to elicit interest from the public. This new approach has almost revolutionized the entire 3-. Introdu: new problems sciaol and c. tion of scho: interested c techniques a. transition roblems sh: to have so ca3:“«h2te in: eQUipped as QQSQ Chang.- ”shtly be 1 The '=-. VG. “entail C3: Well he the BR‘COfintEred instxtm on training Ce- h2 the entire outlook of education in India.18 Introduction of the new objectives has precipitated new problems in the community. How can the cooperation of school and community be brought about? How can the coopera- tion of school and community wake up the dormant and dis- interested community people into active action? What techniques and methods should be used to bring about this transition? It is obvious that the solution to these problems should not be left to the rural school teachers who have so far administered and controlled schools with complete independence. The teachers are almost as ill equipped as the community for the Job of accomplishing these changes. The State and Federal Government should rightly be the agent in this transition. The Janata College is an institution very similar to American Community College. Setting up Janata College may well be the solution to this problem and many others encountered in social education. Janata Colleges are institutions with manifold functions. First, they are training centers for future administrators and teachers who go into the social education. Second, they serve as a community center where the elementary training is imparted by the technique of coordinating the school and community 18Community Projects Administration. Manual of Social Education. Delhi, Publication Division, l9557'p. llO. adivities into the 1 bases of I :33E1311}' aternati the merit imata Cc participa vert the us activities. They have a research department which inquire into the philosophical, psychological and sociological bases of each new'method or technique to be adopted in the Community Center. They also design experiments to try alternative methods and techniques and finally evaluate the merits and demerits of each experiment. Third, the Janata College teaches the students to solicit more active participation of the community and in some cases to con- vert the school into a community social center. Departments under Direct Control of the Government In 1957 the Ministry of Education was reorganized with many important changes in the portfolio of the Ministry of Education. The Central Ministry of Education keeps up two types of administration. One is through "direct" administrative control, and the other is through-"indirect" control. In the following pages the analysis of the functions under direct control will be set forth. . The following are activities under the direct adminis- tration of the.Ministry of Education and Scientific Research: ‘i.. Foreign Student Scholarships, 2. Scholarships of the scheduled classes, 3. Public School Scholarships, h. Scholarships in Research in Humanities, Science and Technology, 5. Scholar: Africa a 6. Pubiica 7. Oversea 8. Trainir 9. Indian 10. Sciai 1m 5. Scholarships to Foreign Students from Asia, Africa and Commonwealth Countries, 6. Publications, 7. Overseas Information Bureau, 8. Training Institutions, 9. Indian Council of Cultural Relations, 10. Social Welfare Fellowships, 11. National Museums, 12. National Art Treasure Fund, 13. Social Welfare Board, 1h. Propagation of Hindi, 15. Research Grants, 16. National Academy of Letters, 17. National Cultural Trust, and 18. National Gallery of Modern.Arts. From these one can see that the preliminary work of the Ministry of Education is to disburse scholarships to able Indian students and foreign students who are sent to Indian universities on exchange basis. Besides disbursing scholarships, the Ministry also controls some universities and colleges under its direct control and many cultural activities. The Government of India is offering many scholarships for competent students to receive overseas education. India needs many trained personnel to Operate her administrative :. .ndia VIA c 1‘ k . S M4 5. Scholarships to Foreign Students from Asia, Africa and Commonwealth Countries, . Publications, Overseas Information Bureau, Training Institutions, \0 G) 'x'l O‘ 0 Indian Council of Cultural Relations, 10. Social Welfare Fellowships, 11. National Museums, 12. National Art Treasure Fund, 13. Social Welfare Board, - 1h. Propagation of Hindi, 15. Research Grants, 16. National Academy of Letters, 17. National Cultural Trust, and 18. National Gallery of MOdern Arts. From these one can see that the preliminary work of the Ministry of Education is to disburse scholarships to able Indian students and foreign students who are sent to Indian universities on exchange basis. Besides disbursing scholarships, the Ministry also controls some universities and colleges under its direct control and many cultural activities. The Government of India is offering many scholarships for competent students to receive overseas education. India needs many trained personnel to Operate her administrative b Q... U Vile a V - O. I... m p. 1 n) I.) 1') in A.... ‘1 “a: 9 § gf }_I. U :1 J) 45 machinery. These scholarships are offered usually to teachers of high schools and colleges so that after their overseas training they may be able to impart that knowledge to other Indian students and thus improve the standards of Indian institutions. These scholarships are opened for any citizen in India regardless of caste or creed. Besides some scholarships opened for all in India, there are a few reserved scholarships for citizens of Delhi, Himachal Pradesh Manipur, Minicoy and Amindiv Islands. The Ministry of Education.also Offers some foreign language scholarships which are on the point of revocation because of the shortage of funds. India and Germany have agreed to an Industrial Coopera- tion Scheme. This agreement entitles twenty-five scholar- ships for Indian students to train in German industrial plants. The German Government has offered to employ them in German plants while taking their education. India needs more people with technical "know how". Only those who have a working knowledge in German are chosen for the many scholarships in Germany. Germany has also offered many Opportunities for Indian students to train in German industries. This training does not lead to a degree or diploma but just to impart the knowledge. India has offered in return many scholarships 45 machinery. These scholarships are Offered usually to teachers of high schools and colleges so that after their overseas training they may be able to impart that knowledge to other Indian students and thus improve the standards of Indian institutions. These scholarships are opened for any citizen in India regardless of caste or creed. Besides some scholarships opened for all in India, there are a few reserved scholarships for citizens of Delhi, Himachal Pradesh Manipur, Minicoy and Amindiv Islands. The Ministry of Education also Offers some foreign language scholarships which are on the point of revocation because of the shortage of funds. India and Germany have agreed to an Industrial Coopera- tion Scheme. This agreement entitles twenty-five scholar- ships for Indian students to train in German industrial plants. The German Government has offered to employ them in German plants while taking their education. India needs more people with technical "know how". Only those who have a working knowledge in German are chosen for the many scholarships in Germany. Germany has also offered many Opportunities for Indian students to train in German industries. This training does not lead to a degree or diploma but just to impart the knowledge. India has Offered in return many scholarships zen in .s' l earea .t aw d e I 1 i518 . c 5 .s a .l. ‘l Wk “.31 IAAJ‘a a. 523‘ #5 machinery. These scholarships are Offered usually to teachers of high schools and colleges so that after their overseas training they may be able to impart that knowledge to other Indian students and thus improve the standards of Indian institutions. These scholarships are Opened for any citizen in India regardless of caste or creed. Besides some scholarships Opened for all in India, there are a few reserved scholarships for citizens of Delhi, Himachal Pradesh Manipur, Minicoy and Amindiv Islands. The Ministry of Education also offers some foreign language scholarships which are on the point Of revocation because of the shortage of funds. India and Germany have agreed to an Industrial Coopera- tion Scheme. This agreement entitles twenty-five scholar- ships for Indian students to train in German industrial plants. The German Government has offered to employ them in German plants while taking their education. India needs more people with technical "know how". Only those who have a working knowledge in German are chosen for the many scholarships in Germany. Germany has also Offered many Opportunities for Indian students to train in German industries. This training does not lead to a degree or diploma but just to impart the knowledge. India has Offered in return many scholarships fa: Germs st: .icst German st science, 9201: Those ur. utcuchab i e s Etucati seal 1;: ‘Iifd than the :ffering rese stufards. ( 'eeme of a raise their I.“ey are 91V Mutation. milieu and the help re: Willem a :28 M‘stitut c U the Sch; India ..iejuaed ‘ h6 for German students to train in Indian universities. .Most German students choose the study Of art, music, social science, geology, Indian philosophy and astronomy.19 Those underdeveloped people in India who were called untouchables or low class are now termed "scheduled castes". Educationally, economically and culturally they are ingfigbgck- ward than the other people Of India. The primary idea of offering reserved scholarships is to improve their social standards. Gandhi called this people "Harijans," the "people of God". They need special governmental help to raise their standards of life to the average Indian life. They are given special financial help all throughout their education. Harijan students receive food, books, free tuition and clothing for attending the schools. Through the help rendered, many of them have turned to be very important and capable members of the leaders of India. Dr. Ambeckar who collaborated in the writing of Indian Constitution and Commendery to the Constitution belonged to the scheduled castes. India Government Offers twelve scholarships for the scheduled castes and meet their entire expenses of travel, 19India 1955. Government of India Publication, New Delhi, , p. 3. V I a O r r t - F e i ,' x . i l a ‘ ‘ f .I ~ ‘ I ‘ l v L. r ‘ r c l ' V I I 0 v ‘ ‘ “y I C r I ‘ I \ I " \ "ae “p’a I. .1 O m damn “-06.6 :zezce, $01133. .‘ ’LA‘ “4" A“ nut-e msw€r€‘\ g’Om‘p'A K1 '1 ultuhLau 25 OT 19. :énn .‘K. V! I'Ivahlielalll, C 3:. - .4 n. - fl..- lmi‘i the 3‘ ' ‘ " Luise-e t" e'en "42.143 resen'Ed s sitciarc's. Gandhi I seal J‘ " ‘* , gm 0. uod". . u! . k.’ .uS: heir stasis“ we? are given spec 'h-‘t' .I‘.“SA . ~71 m clct~" a... 13"5 PM rendere‘ ‘) 5:31;} an“ a c .. aSg¢3 1‘71 ‘ '1 .a'L. “11:3 ‘ ‘ v“‘l , ‘4‘ 1 1w- h6 for German students to train in Indian universities. Most German students choose the study Of art, music, social science, geology, Indian philosophy and astronomy.19 Those underdeveloped peOple in India who were called untouchables or low class are now termed "scheduled castes". Educationally, economically and culturally they are inggehéfik- ward than the other people of India. The primary idea of Offering reserved scholarships is to improve their social standards. Gandhi called this people "Harijans," the "people of God”. They need special governmental help to raise their standards of life to the average Indian life. They are given special financial help all throughout their education. Harijan students receive food, books, free tuition and clothing for attending the schools. Through the help rendered, many of them have turned to be very important and capable members of the leaders of India. Dr..Ambeckar who collaborated in the writing of Indian Constitution and Commendery to the Constitution belonged to the scheduled castes. India Government offers tweIVe scholarships for the scheduled castes and.meet their entire expenses Of travel, 19India 1955. Government of India Publication, New Delhi, , p. 3. :‘cr Germs since: scz'ence, genie-3y, Those under: untouchables or i Educaticnaii‘j, e: we than the at uttering reserve Sluiards. Gan“ hey are 91V€n . education. Far tuition and c1.. £3509 ‘rwtmt and I .7. Aubec‘rzar y ...stitution a is . tue scnedul India Cm 32:. .' ‘ ‘ ”“90 cas1 h6 for German students to train in Indian universities. .Most German students choose the study of art, music, social science, geology, Indian philosophy and astronomy.19 Those underdeveloped people in India who were called untouchables or low class are now termed "scheduled castes". Educationally, economically and culturally they are inerehmek- ward than the other people of India. The primary idea of offering reserved scholarships is to improve their social standards. Gandhi called this people "Harijans," the "people of God". They need special governmental-help to raise their standards of life to the average Indian life. They are given special financial help all throughout their education. Harijan students receive food, books, free tuition and clothing for attending the schools. Through the help rendered, many of them have turned to be very important and capable members of the leaders of India. Dr. Ambeckar who collaborated in the writing of Indian Constitution and Commendery to the Constitution belonged to the scheduled castes. India Government Offers twelve scholarships for the scheduled castes and meet their entire expenses of travel, 19India, 1955. Government of India Publication, New Delhi, We. tuition, board a: have become very h A»— U the 3 require india and 2 indian scholars VI! in China and -“‘~ history- ECU?! continue for s: dcor 1181912be in “1853 V“:- W“. J 'v is? tuition, board and private expenses. The jobs in India have become very competitive and an overseas education has become a requirement for high gazetted posts. India and China keep up a policy of exchanging scholars. Indian scholars even from the time of Buddha were accepted in China and Chinese scholars visited India all throughout history. However, for the last two hundred years this bilateral communication Of cultural exchange did not continue for some reason or other. China is India's next- door neighbor. China and India never entered in a war in these hOOO years of coexistence. This is why India and China resumed exchange of scholars after Indian independence. At present the number is restricted to five on both sides. Both Governments host the visitors. .A program of exchanging visitors between Czechoslovakia is underway. This program started only in 1957. and the first group has already left India. Although this program is a part of exchange of scholars, for convenience sake they are still termed as students. The language barrier has precipitated some difficulties, although they use English as the medium Of communication. India and Iraq have a common cultural exchange program of scholars. This also initiated in 1957. Two scholars have already left for Iraq. Since India has a considerable number of ti is die CCtEd 9 «- 1nd- \‘ ‘fl‘fi‘ JV. 1““ - paid 3:" ~.3“ed t, 48 number of Mohammedans, this scholar exchange program is directed to create better communal amity. India Government has instituted a scholarship at St. Anthony's College, Oxford, in memory of the late (Miss) Agatha Harrison. The scholarship offers five years of study on any Asian problem.with some special reference to India. The Government of India also has Opened twenty fully paid scholarships at universities abroad. This scheme is geared to help intelligent and competent youths between twenty and twenty-five, with the Object of meeting the shortage of trained personnel. In the course of time, Indian institutions will have more foreign trained personnel, which will mark a clear trend of improvement. They will improve the standard of teaching and research in Indian educational institutions, man-lead schemes, and public Office administration. The Government of India.offers travel grants to students going abroad for education. In order to be eligible for grants, these students must prove that they have merited assistantships or fellowships in foreign countries. Those from the scheduled class get priority of consideration. Many American universities offer scholarships and fellowships that would cover tuition and living expenses but not rount-trip travel expense. Such cases are helped through the program of travel grants. o n ‘ . The .o.o: prort'mity to Schere. The 54 Ministry of H- hr cases with the Palitical m 1 bbrne by :1: 3f the n,“ Our 3th” Eova Telly priva t:'\ Ih_ r,- ‘ &Va.s :\ , . a. #9 The Colombo Plan and Point Four Plan have set aside many scholarships for deserving Indian students. The members of the Commonwealth countries are given an opportunity'to help each other through the Colombo Plan Scheme. The selection of candidates is vested with the Ministry of Education and Scientific Research and in some cases with the Ministry of Finance or otherwise called Department of Economic Affairs. The emphasis is given to those who desire to train for administrative posts. The political machinery needs trained persons for efficient administration.20 The Australian Government has offered a few scholar- ships fbr students in "Teaching Methods of Technical Education." The United States has Offered the biggest number of scholarships through the Point Four Plan or otherwise called Marshall Plan. The expenses of these scholarships are borne by many governments, but chiefly by the government of the United States. Besides this general offer with other governments, the United States Government has Offered many private scholarships through many state universities 20India 1256. New Delhi, Government of India Publica- tions, p. . The Colo: nany scholarsh‘ na‘sers of the orcortunity to Setters. The 5. Ministry of 2;; cases with the Ernartrzerr of 1 those who :‘esi: political mach au'ciristration Russian.» The Unite scholarships . Emmi Plan borne by many r o. the Unit e: A9 The Colombo Plan and Point Four Plan have set aside many scholarships for deserving Indian students. ‘ The members of the Commonwealth countries are given an Opportunity to help each other through the Colombo Plan Scheme. The selection of candidates is vested with the Ministry of Education and Scientific Research and in some cases with the Ministry of Finance or otherwise called Department of Economic Affairs. The emphasis is given to those who desire to train for administrative posts. The political machinery needs trained persons for efficient administration. 20 The Australian Government has offered a few scholar- ships for students in "Teaching Methods of Technical Education." The United States has offered the biggest number of Escholarships through the Point Four Plan or otherwise called Marshall Plan. The expenses of these scholarships are borne by many governments, but chiefly by the government of the United States. Besides this general offer with other governments, the United States Government has offered many private scholarships through many state universities ZOIndia 1256. New Delhi, Government of India Publica- tions, p. . oi the United 5‘. as the coordinatl students in thcs are geared to tr. . - of the India ”ex-I for these schaia.l .\ States Gave T211322“. The United ‘ Organization (he: scholarships fer scholarships 15 . in overseas univ 50 of the united States. The.Ministry of Finance has served as the coordinating agency for recruitment of competent students in these areas. Many scholarships of Point Four are geared to train personnel for the Department of Finance of the India Government. The students who are selected for these scholarships receive total aid from the united States Government. The united Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organization (hereafter termed UNESCO) has offered many scholarships for Indian students. The nature of these scholarships is primarily pointed to social welfare studies in overseas universities. The Government of India acts as the sponsoring authority and meets the inland cost of the student's expenditure. .All other expenses are met by the UNESCO's funds . It also offers many technical fellowships for students who wish to specialize in the fields assigned and required by the national laboratories. It offers a few more scholarships through the UNESCO's Participation Program. ’ It has offered a new set of scholarships to students who wish to specialize in the fields of "Production of Reading.Material for Neo-Literates." UNESCO also offers a few scholarships for "Regional Cultural Studies." - of the Uni as the co: students 1 are geared of the in: for these States Get the 5 “I‘v- ‘ FVHS| 91A S‘ds-El‘il‘ S “Ks-330‘ s 50 of the United States. The Ministry of Finance has served as the coordinating agency for recruitment of competent students in these areas. .Many scholarships of Point Four are geared to train personnel for the Department of Finance of the India Government. The studentswho are selected for these scholarships receive total aid from the United States Government. The United Nations Educational, Social and Cultural Organization (hereafter termed UNESCO) has offered many scholarships for Indian students. The nature of these scholarships is primarily pointed to social welfare studies in overseas universities. The Government of India acts as the sponsoring authority and meets the inland cost of the student's expenditure. All other expenses are.met by the UNESCO's funds. It also offers many technical fellowships for students who wish to specialize in the fields assigned and required by the national laboratories. It offers a few more scholarships through the UNESCO's Participation Program. A It has offered a new set of scholarships to students who wish to specialize in the fields of "Production of Reading.Material for Neo-Literates." UNESCO also offers a few scholarships for ”Regional Cultural Studies." Through ti”. has offered a f island. These receive the eat the inland expe The foreig offer of schola assistance a na Tne 'knoy have! Standard Of a C P70 Seation Cf A administered 13‘, iesearCh. APR; Mia has to u. nation {ram 19‘ enacted in t'n The Gay 91213;th I SVQFY Small 51 Through the agency of UNESCO, the Poland Government has offered a few scholarships for special training in Poland. These students who are selected for UNESCO awards receive the entire expenditure from.UNESCO. In some cases the inland expenditure is borne by the India Government. The foreign governments were overgenerous as to their offer of scholarships to Indian Nationals. The best assistance a nation can receive from another is education. The ”know how" is the key factor that determines the standard of a country and the measurement of growth in the immediate future. Propagation of Hindi PrOpogation of Hindi is a special department directly administered by the Ministry of Education and Scientific Research. According to the mind of the Constitution, India has to use Hindi as the official language of the nation from 1965.' The rate of advancement so far effected in the teaching of Hindi has not been encouraging. The Government has enforced teaching of Hindi in all high schools as a compulsory second language.' Yet the number that attend high schools from the total population of India is very small and so it will take many years through that means alone to make the general public use Hindi for their official matters.21 2fS. N. Mukerji. Higher Education and Rural India. Baroda, Aeharyo Book Depot, 1956, p._3h2. Besides institutions such faciliti- them is again introduced by teaching of r. eXpenses nee: of non-Hindi t° the public used for Can offered in t1: In Order Pimple Of 110::- has “feted E: major in Hind in Phral area available f3: in Hindi. The Mini the Hindi Sig: Propogauon c \a\ Swazi} if; ‘ . nc 52 Besides the high schools, there are many private institutions that offer teaching of Hindi. Even though such facilities are available, the number that utilize them is again very small. In 1956-57 a new scheme was introduced by the Ministry of Education to accelerate teaching of Hindi. The Ministry offered to meet the expenses needed for teachers and other personnel in areas of non-Hindi speaking states, who offer free Hindi teaching to the public. Usually the local school facilities are used for conducting these classes. Mostly the classes are offered in the evening and sometimes in the nights. In order to give a better incentive for the local people of non-Hindi speaking areas, the Central Ministry has offered many scholarships to students who wish to major in Hindi. These students are trained to be teachers in rural areas for teaching Hindi. Many scholarships are available for intermediate, graduate and post-graduate courses in Hindi. The Ministry of Education and Scientific Research uses the Hindi Siksha Samati as its most potent weapon for the 22 propagation of Hindi. The Semati consists of twenty-three 22E. W..Aranya Nayaleam. The Stor of Twelve Years. Sevagram, Hindustani Talim Sangh, p. . _ 52 Besides the high schools, there are many private institutions that offer teaching of Hindi. Even though such facilities are available, the number that utilize them.is again very small. In 1956-57 a new scheme was introduced by the Ministry of Education to accelerate teaching of Hindi. The Ministry offered to meet the expenses needed for teachers and other personnel in areas of non-Hindi speaking states, who offer free Hindi teaching to the public. Usually the local school facilities are used for conducting these classes. M0st1y the classes are offered in the evening and sometimes in the nights. In order to give a better incentive for the local people of non-Hindi speaking areas, the Central Ministry has offered many scholarships to students who wish to major in Hindi. These students are trained to be teachers in rural areas for teaching Hindi. Many scholarships are available for intermediate, graduate and post-graduate courses in Hindi. The Ministry of Education and Scientific Research uses the Hindi Siksha Samati as its most potent weapon for the 22 propogation of Hindi. The Semati consists of twenty-three 22E. W;.Aranya Nayaleam. The Stor of Twelve Years. Sevagram, Hindustani Talim Sangh, p. . , nazbers. Tra‘rir: alss sge 2. emits: Most of private I._J 53 members. Each state has one representative in the Samati. The main works of the Samati are: 1. To write a model syllabus for the "Hindi Teachers Training College," in the non-Hindi speaking states and also specify the courses to be taught in these colleges. 2. To create examination boards in all states to conduct and evaluate Hindi examinations on a common scale. Most of the students who appear in these examinations are privately tutored. The State Hindi Board of Examination conducts statewise Hindi examinations and evaluates the papers. It gives promotion according to its findings. The efficacy of a tutorial college is measured according to the number of students who come out suscessful in the state-held examinations. In order to coordinate and standardize the currioilum of Hindi private schools, the Examination Board assigns the curriculum for each course. The Ministry has recognized the following measures for the propogation of Hindi under Seccnd Five Year Plan: 1. Preparation for technological work through Hindi standard literary works. 2. Collection and indexing of all vocabularies on arts and crafts. 3. Investigation of technological materials in the chi literature. 4. Preparation of technical encyclopedias, diction- aries and other reference books. VI' (1') a \() o 10‘. (A rams: 10. 51+ Publishing revised and critical editions of standard Hindi works now out of print. Publishing paper back volumes of all important Hindi'writings. Organization of debating teams of schools and colleges from non-Hindi speaking areas and vice versa. Organization of lecture tours by prominent Hindi scholars and writers of Hindi areas to non-Hindi speaking areas and vice versa. Holding of Hindi-seminars for teachers in Hindi from non-Hindi speaking areas to Hindi-speaking areas and vice versa. Offering rewards and money prizes for the best Hindi publication. The Ministry is also supervising many other organiza- tions and activities for the propogation of Hindi. The following are a few of such endeavors: 1. 2. 3. Hindi Encyclopedia, Preparation of Devanagari.A1phabet charts, Preparations for manuals on the bases of terminologies, Grants to states, Creating technical terminologies, and Creating Board of Examiners. The ‘ Ministry 4 to collec etch are help the size dict Sizi Hindi sch keyboard Hindi shs °TQaIiiZej in [1311.51 of the a: Emil als 1’1in has to teach the have} 55 The teaching of Hindi should be made easy. The Ministry of Education has organized a group of scholars to collect and coordinate the words of other languages which are derived from Hindi roots and vice versa. To help the students, these words are grouped into a pocket- size dictionary. Similarly the Board is working through a group of Hindi scholars in writing an English-Hindi dictionary, a keyboard of Hindi type for typewriter and teleprinter, Hindi shorthand and abbreviations. The Ministry has organized a touring exhibition that will travel especially in non-Hindi speaking areas to teach the public about some of the achievements made by the Board of scholars. The Board also controls a Central Library of Hindi literature. India has a literacy of 16 per cent. The primary goal is to teach these people their own vernaculars, at least to the.level of reading and writing. Teaching a second language is more difficult than the first. Learning is depending on need; many are not quite convinced about the need of Hindi. Compared to usefulness, learning a foreign language like English is more useful to the people than learning Hindi. These are some of the intricaciesse 000000 scams A000 canny masanecm 0.00 3 0.0 0.0 :.mm 0.0 «:00 0.m~ 0.m~ “noses 00000 203000: encossaz 0.00 we: seen 00m ~00 000000000 :0 aoaoaosm 0.500 000.00 «sen 000.0m 00~.~0 “.000 00040 cacao some ”so: 0.mm N00 noon :m0.~ 0.000 aces 0000060» as 0000 000 000 noon 0.000 0.0 .0000 no>eooe6664 0.00 0.000 ”sea 0.000 0.0: Anson econsocov 00600000 soacos< 0.00 0.00 neon 0.0: 0.00 Anne» 0004. ecosoo 0.0: 0.0 neon 0.00 0.0 Anson assoc Hoop» consecwe ecuuoouocm flomhumsncu 0.00 000 mean 000 00m “mason 0x00 consumeces 0.00 00 noon 0: 0m Ase 000040 absoacou noesooaca aeaonneoofim 0.000 0.m noon 0.0m 0.0m Races 0:040 sumo» “so :.Nn :.m 0:00 o.mm m.om Annoy nanny ocuo eumsw m.3 0.0 2:0 0.3 0&0 333 0%.: 33. m.:0 0.00 none 0.00 0.0m “000.0 0:040 060060 Annoy adiv ecaaeo coom 0.0m“. .moinsfia .lmmw 00m coseosoomm Hmnoeesoecqa oaaopooa omm~ eo>o omo~ omimmqfi noduoaoocm oududoooom eo>o onasooea omaoeoea amiommg m~z<4m HmmHm mxh mMQZD mhzmzm>mHmu<.Qz<.mHm0mH mdmfih 89 for maintenance and teacher salaries is called "direct educational spending." When money is spent on residence halls, buildings, scholarships, library grants, research and inspection, it is classified as "indirect educational spending." The Government budgets every year the necessary funds for educational expenses through Parliamentary enactments. It is not the only agency contributing to education. Local units such as cities, municipalities, and “Pachayats" apportion certain grants for education. Most of these local governing bodies have schools and colleges directly under their management. Besides these local governing bodies, there are many private agencies undertaking education in the country, such as temples, churches, wealthy persons, and independent institutions. Besides the aforesaid groups many endowments, public collections, subscriptions and fees share the burden of financing the nation's education. Table'V demonstrates this situation. 3 The allotment of funds from the Federal and state governments seems inadequate for the increased expenditures ushered in by the enforcement of compulsory education. The policy of compulsory education is more than an educa- tional problem inasmuch as it precipitates a chain of other problems. No state can enforce compulsory education without 90 .0m .0 .0000 .006000000000 000:0 06 scoscno>60 «00000.202 .0000 .00000 06 083000000H 0.000 000.00.00.00.“ 0“ 000.00.00.m0.~ 00060 0.0 000.00.00000 000.mn.00.00 0000060 00:06 0.0 000.00.00.m 000.00.00.: esc0szouc0 0.0m mo0.m0.00.00 m 000.00.00.00 0000 0.0 000.0m.m:.0 000.00.00.0 00000 00000 00000000: m.m 000.00.00.0 0m~.:m.m0.0 00000 00060 00000000 0.00 000.00.0N.Ne.~ m m00.:m.m0.00 00:00 ocoeceo>oo omwpeoocem mmmaaom ca mongoooeom nomaasm ca seesaw pesos< ucsoe< 0muwmos mm-:m00 wmomDOm >m ZO~H m4mand 2h0,h50 warnings for absenteeism were issued in 1956. Prosecution proceedings for non-attendance and non-enrollment were also initiated to enforce the Compulsory Education .Act. .All these services were a drain on funds allotted for the indirect expenditures in education. If compulsory education should be enforced in more towns and villages, more class rooms and trained teachers hall be required. How far such an expense of this kind will be allowed under the Second Five Year Plan remains to be seen. At the present time, when the majority of school age children have no means to buy their books, clothes and lunch, the government will have to provide them sustaining a considerable additional expense. Meanwhile the trend of primary education is toward basic schools. The basic schools are much more expensive to run than the regular primary schools. The basic school system has been accepted as the norm of future education at the primary and secondary level by the National Congress and the Federal Government. In 1956 the number of basic 93 schools rose from 38,515 to 07,813. On percentage basis the rate of increase was 20.1 per cent against 7.6 per cent in the previous years. The nature and operation of the basic school system will be analyzed later, and here only‘ the economic aspect of the problem will be considered. There are 11,073 junior basic schools, 31,232 primary basic schools, and 0,802 senior basic schools. The corresponding figures for the previous years were: junior basic, 6163; primary basic, 31,232; and senior basic, 1,120 schools. The total direct expenditure on basic schools increased by Rs. 08,692,063 to Rs. 121,671,970, and constituted direct expenditure of 8.1 per cent of the total educational expenditure. The total expenditure on junior basic schools amounted to Rs. 50,063,905 in united Province alone; while the Nation's expenditure is Rs. 81,072,081 on junior basic schools. On a percentage basis, the expenditure increased to: junior basic, 90.3; primary basic, 5.0; and senior basic, 005.9. This increased rate of expense is due to the extra facilities, raw'materials and tools needed to operate a basic school. The basic school system combines the teaching of crafts with the liberal education. In order to teach various crafts, the school has to procure various kinds of rawhmaterials so ifluat the students can learn by practice. The advocates of 90 basic schools say that the products manufactured by the students can be sold in the market to buy the materials needed by the school, but this anticipated result has not occurred. There is little market for the products coming from the inexperienced hands of the student. .A chair made by a student carpenter will not fetch the cost of the wood spent on it. .Although the idea is praiseworthy, the economic problem remains. The annual cost per pupil in the basis system is: Junior Basic School Rs. 27.8 Primary Basic School Rs. 19.5 Senior Basic School Rs. 30.5 In addition to the basic training schools, the Govern- ment also experimented with basic teacher training colleges. The multiplication of basic schools demanded special training for teachers to staff these schools. There were 29 teacher training colleges for the basic system in 1956. 2,307 students, of which 1,966 were men and 381 were women, received training in these colleges. The expenditure on these institutions amounted to Rs. 1,567,092. The average annual cost of basic teacher training turned out to be Rs. 601.5. The economic problem is the number one obstacle to the primary education of the masses of India. Meanwhile the leaders lack the scientific knowledge by which they could best utilize even the resources which they have. Scientific 95 management techniques could greatly increase the productivity of each Ruppee now spent on education. Experience wall lead them from these more evident but superficial objectives to the fundamental goals of creating the psychological premises of a modern economy, bringing to life a generation of men and women, able to read and write, count their receipts and expenditures, decide what is good for them, and work deliberately of their own volition to improve their economic and social status, unafraid of new ideas and ways, unafraid of taking chances of incurring temporary defeats and loss. 7 After World War II the major countries realized the importance of assisting the underdeveloped countries of the world. Hatred and unrest are the fruits of discontentment and misery. The world has long realized that "poverty anywhere is a menace to prosperity everywhere.“ under the auspices of the united Nations, many measures were inaugurated to cure the economic maladies of underdeveloped, or as they are termed in modern political phraseology, uncommitted nations. Colombo Plan, Point Four Plan, Com- munity Projects, etc., are helping to rebuild nations. Thus in India development projects like River valley Projects, Community Projects, Norwegian Plan for the development of fisheries are being tried. 17W. S. Woytnsky. India The Awakening Giant. New York: Harper. 1957. p- 55. 96 India itself is trying to work out a small business scheme called Cottage Industry. This system was the pet project of Gandhi. He wrote: The industries came in as a handmaid to khadi. They cannot exist without khadi; and khadi will be robbed of its dignity without them. Village economy cannot compete and be complete without the essential village industries such as hand grinding, hand pounding, soap making, paperamaking, match making, tanning, oil pressing, etc. Gandhi did not believe in major industries. His whole philosophy and his theory of labor were against them. He says: "...there is not much scope for voluntary labor in them (industry). Each industry will take the labor off frmm a certain number of hands."19 He had reason to believe that industry would cause unemployment. His opinion of industrialization is no longer shared by Indian leaders: The task of revival and expansion could be approached from several angles; modernizing industrial plants, building new factories, exploring mineral resources, developing water power, training a skilled labor force, promoting heavy indu§6ry, encouraging scientific research, and so on. But until.major industries are able to assimilate the unemployed, the cottage industries will serve the nation. IaK.M. Gandhi. Constructive Programm . Ahamedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1908, p. l 19K. M. Gandhi. HarIZan. September 1937. 20W. S. Woytnski. India The Awakening Gian . New York: Harper and Bros., 1957, p. 50. 96 India itself is trying to work out a small business scheme called Cottage Industry. This system was the pet project of Gandhi. He wrote: The industries came in as a handmaid to khadi. They cannot exist without khadi; and khadi 'will be robbed of its dignity without them. Village economy cannot compete and be complete without the essential village industries such as hand grinding, hand pounding, soap making, papeiamaking, match making, tanning, oil pressing, e c. Gandhi did not believe in major industries. His whole philosophy and his theory of labor were against them. He says: "...there is not much scope for voluntary labor in them (industry). Each industry will take the labor off n19 from.a certain number of hands. He had reason to believe that industry would cause unemployment. His opinion of industrialization is no longer shared by Indian leaders: The task of revival and eXpansion could be approached from several angles; modernizing industrial plants, building new factories, exploring mineral resources, developing water power, training a skilled labor force, promoting heavy induéary, encouraging scientific research, and so on. But until major industries are able to assimilate the unemployed, the cottage industries will serve the nation. IBH. M. Gandhi. Constructive Programm . Ahamedabad: Navajivan Publishing House, 1908, p. 1 19K. M. Gandhi. Harijan. September 1937. 20W. S. Woytnski. India The Awakening Gian . New York: Harper and Bros., 1957, p. 50. 97 The economic picture of India is undergoing fast changes due to the various development projects initiated to utilize the natural resources. India has a considerable mineral resource which is being mined to increase the ou tp ut . She has a reserve of high grade iron ore, one among the best in the world. At Dharwar and Cuddppa, we find haematites and magnetites with iron contents ranging between 60 and 70 per cent. It is estimated that the total deposit may be over 0,500 million tons. Including the udnzo reserves at Damodar Valley, Salem, Mysore, Ratnagiri and Kumaon, the experts estimate a total deposit of 10,000 million tons. Manganese is another product which is found plentiflil in India. Good ores containing 50 to 60 per cent contents of good manganese may have around 150-200 lakh tons. The Indian ore is mostly non-friable and therefore easy to transport. There are around 20 to 30 lakh tons of vanadium, about 500,000 tons of kyanite, and undetermined quantity of zir- conia and corundum are also located in various parts of India.‘ Gold is mined in Kolar which amounts to 21,100 ounces. The current annual output of copper is 353,000 tons. The 98 total estimate of bauxite is around 2,500 million tons. India produces 70 to 80 per cent of the supply of mica for the world demand. The output was around 019,000 cwt. in 1955. The beryls of Rajastan and the monazite of Kerala are two strategic minerals used in atomic fission. The Gaye District of Bihar has sites having uranium deposits. Ilmenite and zircon are also plentiful in Kerala which fall under the strategic minerals. Besides, India has some deposits in alum, apatite, arsenic, asbestos, barytes, felspar, fuller's earth, garnets, quartz, saltpetre and gypsum. When these mineral resources are fully exploited and used in industrial production, India can hope to rise up as an industrial power of the world. Analysis of the economic problems of India has deter- mined that the present administration of education gains some of its strength from the economic life of India: 1. The educational administrators made the best use of available capital in the dissemination of education. 2. The administrators of education strived to offer an adequate education to the refugees who found asylum in India after the partition of India into Pakistan and India which precipitated the communal riots. 3. The budgetory policy of India was such as to meet both ends against the mounting prices, living index fluctua- tion, inflation and devaluation of currency. 99 0. The administrators of education realized the soaring unemployment, an alarming recurrence of business failures and diminishing purchasing power among the con- sumers. They made speedy steps to face these adversities realistically and steer the people to less discomforting grounds. 5. Tight money policy accepted by the sterling belt nations generated bigger economic loss to India through the loss of markets and the loss of sources of raw materials. The administrators of the nation fought back in creating new'markets and raising their own raw materials. 6. Since India's insufficiency of raising enough food grains to feed her teeming millions, major portion of national income was spent on buying food grains from outside. This situation necessitated apportioning lesser amount for health, education and welfare programs. The administrators of education budgeted the available resources for the maximum benefit of the crusade for literacy. 7. The creation of war-like atmosphere in the Cashmir borders necessitated expending national wealth and .trade reserves on military purposes. This situation still crippled the educational abilities of the nation. The administrators of education withstood this trial creditably. 8. The Constitution of India desired the enforcement of compulsory education in India. This step was taken when 100 the nation as a whole was still donning the worn out garments of economic depression. The courage and optimism of the administrators of education accepted this challenge against many a financial disability and satisfactorily enforced compulsory education in many parts of the nation. .9. The introduction of "prohibition" deprived the nation of a source of excise income levied on liquor licensing. This tax was primarily expended on education. When the administrators of education found that their efforts should be continued without the excise tax income instead of drop- ping some departments which were financed through excise tax income, the administrators of education accepted lesser wages and increased work load to attain the governmental goals. The analysis of the economic problem reveals some of the advantageous features of the present administration of education, especially the trend of accommodation to any savage change that occur in the economic picture of India. THE SOCIAL PROBLEMS OF INDEPENDENT INDIA Social problems tell the story of man. The growing trend of the population of India stands as the major social problem of free India. Many Western demographers have made extensive research in the population problems of India. 101 The future of India will depend on the race between papulation growth and the growth in food production. The various studies done in the area of population of India find the problem to be grave but not critical. India is the world's second most populous country. The census of India gives some general picture of the steady increase of population with very little variance from.year to year in the general trend. The census reports are accepted as the factual situation, but in a country like India it is rather impossible to make an impeccable census because of the type of workers who went around collecting data, the inaccessible nature of human habitation, and the religious barriers that prohibit reaching the family heads to get the census data in full. Growth of P0pu1ation (1891-1951) Census Year Population Increase or Decrease 1891 235,900,000 1901 235,500,000 Minus 000,000 1911 209,000,000 Plus 13,500,000 1921 208,100,000 Minus 900,000 1931 275,500,000 Plus 27,000,000 1901 312,800,000 Plus 37,300,000 1951 356,900,000 Plus 00,100,000 Sourcez. India Government Reports, India 1957" p. 7. This statement shows that from 1921 there has been an increase of 111 million people. A.minute scrutiny of the same statement also reveals that the pattern of growth did 101 The future of India will depend on the race between population growth and the growth in food production. The various studies done in the area of population of India find the problem to be grave but not critical. India is the world's second most populous country. The census of India gives some general picture of the steady increase of p0pulation with very little variance from year to year in the general trend. The census reports are accepted as the factual situation, but in a country like India it is rather impossible to make an impeccable census because of the type of workerswho went around collecting data, the inaccessible nature of human habitation, and the religious barriers that prohibit reaching the family heads to get the census data in full. Growth of Population (1891-1951) Census Year Population Increase or Decrease 1891 235,900,000 1901 235,500,000 Minus 000,000 1911 209,000,000 Plus 13,500,000 1921 208,100,000 Minus 900,000 1931 275,500,000 Plus 27,000,000 1901 312,800,000 Plus 37,300,000 1951 356,900,000 Plus 00,100,000 Source:_ India Government Reports, India 1957” p. 7. This statement shows that from 1921 there has been an increase of 111 million people. A minute scrutiny of the same statement also reveals that the pattern of growth did 102 not keep a definite proportion. The famine and pestilence repeatedly controlled the population by increased death rate. The agricultural output kept pace with the population during most of these years. The population study is important in understanding the social changes that take place in any nation. The sheer size of the papulation bespeaks the cultural, religious and socia1.patterns of a nation. Many underdeveloped countries of the world are laboring under the burden of overpopulation at present. There is excessive manpower available in such nations. Unutilized manpower creates unemployment, restlessness, dire poverty and famine. The overpopulation cannot be condemned as a bad consequence. If the nation can develop its industrial facilities, the manpower can be geared into productive pursuits which in turn can create a regular circle of production, employment, higher wages and better consumption. If these overpopulated nations can employ the Western technology and mechanized methods of production into the industrial life, availability of labor will transform itself into the superior advantage of that nation. India, according to the latest census, has 370 million people, which constitutes one-sixth of the world population. ‘The net increase is 5 million a year, or an increase of 1.3 per cent. Does this increasing population warrant an 103 emergency in India? The death rate is reduced by better sanitation and medical care than it had for the previous times. The average age is also increasing as a better standard of life is available to the people. Hence some social scientists get alarmed about the rapid growth of the population. The resulting increase in population, which accounts to nearly five million a year, apart from its low survival value, need not constitute for us a problem, if the Indian level of living were high enough to absorb the additional popu- lation without reducing the existing standard of living. But our level of living is so low that any further addition to the number of the poor familes may well be disasterous, and as they are so numerous, it may be generalized that the total population as such wilé find further increase as a great problem. 1 The problem of population assumes greater import when it is compared with the available arable land. The net increase in ten years, starting from.l9ul to 1951, was about u2 million acres with a percaitage of 13.h. The total land area of India is only 1.18 million square miles. Hence density per square mile is 303 people.22 Kingsley Davis has computed the possible pepulation it: the year 2005 and came to a staggering number of 800 Inillion people in India. Can the land stand this number and 21"The Determinants and Consequences of POpulation Trends.','. New York: United Nations, 1953, pp. 160-161. ' 22R. A. Gapalaswami, ”Census of India 1951 Report." New Delhi: Government of India Press, 1953, p. 5. _ 104 give at least a subsistent level of life, or is the popula- tion growth leading this peOple to a self-anihilating process? These are problems which have to be left to speculation. The standard of life depends upon the per capita income. In 1930 the per capita income according to V.K.R.V. Rao's estimate was only Rs. 65 per annum or $19.50. The studies done by the United Nations in 1950 have come to a better figure of $57 per annum. In 1950 India used 13.67 ounces of food per day. This rate has only decreased in subsequent years. Every four.seconds a new baby is born to compete for the available food resources. In 1957 India imported seven million tons of cereals to provide 1950 level of consumption. This does not include the nation's agricultural increase from 1950 to 1957. On 13.67 ounces of food, one is still living a sub-subsistence level. If India has to give 16 ounces of food to her people, it should need 16 million tons of additional import. This account does not take into consideration the loss of crops through natural calamities.23 The census of 1951 compares the death rate of infants in 1918 to 1951. One-ninth of the babies born die before 23S. Chandrasekhar (Director of India Institute of Population Studies), India's POpulation Fact and Policies. London: George Allen and Urwin-Ltd., 1955, p. 5. 105 attaining the age of one. IIn 1900, 232 babies died out of 1,000 In 1918, 261 babies died out of 1,000 In 1951, 116 babies died out of 1,000. Death is the immediate effect of the sub-subsistent level of life. The consideration of the average distribution of food does not seem too deplorable, but in a country like India where the rich becomes richer and the poor become poorer, there is a majority group who get 13.67 ounces of food per day. The truth is that there are many who go to bed without breaking their fast for the entire day. Causes of death are also different in India. .A study has come with the following findings:2u Death per 1,000 Cholera Small Pox Fever Dysentery 0.h 0.2 13.0 0.11 Percentage 1.8 0.9 58.1 0.5 Heart and Lungs Injury Other 0.9 1.9 10.6 Percentage u.l 8.1 26.5 The deaths are attributed to child marriages, unhealthy living conditions, derogatory superstitious practices and poverty. The child marriage law has been tackled from 1929. ‘The Child Marriage Restraint.Act of 1929, passed and enforced lxy the British Government, made permitting, marrying and 2&5. Chandrasekhar. Hun r Pegple and Empty Lands. London: Allen and Urwin, 1951:, p. 71. 106 attempting child marriages as criminal acts. It stipulated the marriageable age for males as 18 and females as 1h. Yet there were revealing surprises when the census was taken in 1951. In spite of the Act of 1929 there were: 2,833,000 married males 8 6,118,000 married females ‘ 66,000 widowers and 13h,000 widows between the ages of 5 and lu. India has more than 600,000 villages. The social problem of the country takes root in these rural areas. It is necessary to take a bird's eye view of the village life and its economy. There are many scientific studies about Indian villages done by indigenous and foreign social scientists. India always remained as a challenge to soci- ologists and anthropologists of all times. India, with its fascinating mysteries, myths and mysticism, did capture the inmginations of people from far and wide. India's future depends upon the growth and transformation of these teeming Inillions of villagers. India's social prOblems should be studied with due considerations to the following situations: 1. The balance of caste separations and inter-caste dependence. 2. The relation of land tenure to social structure. 3. The importance of maintaining status relationship between castes and between individuals, and the 106 attempting child marriages as criminal acts. It stipulated the marriageable age for males as 18 and females as 1h. Yet there were revealing surprises when the census was taken in 1951. In spite of the Act of 1929 there were: 2,833,000 married males 6,118,000 married females ‘ 66,000 widowers and 13h,000 widows between the ages of 5 and 1h. India has more than 600,000 villages. The social problem of the country takes root in these rural areas. It is necessary to take a bird's eye view of the village life and its economy. There are many scientific studies about Indian villages done by indigenous and foreign social scientists. India always remained as a challenge to soci- ologists and anthropologists of all times. India, with its fascinating mysteries, myths and mysticism, did capture the imaginations of people from far and wide. India's future depends upon the growth and transformation of these teeming Inillions of villagers. India's social problems should be studied with due <30nsiderations to the following situations: 1. The balance of caste separations and inter-caste dependence. 2. The relation of land tenure to social structure. 3. The importance of maintaining status relationship between castes and between individuals, and the 107 possibilities of change in status of groups or individuals. A. The anxieties and quarrels that have to do with status. 5. The influence of ancient codes or ideal - agres- sive protection of honor for "warriors," ascetic withdrawals for others.25 ‘ The changes are reaching widespread dimensions, result- ing in the disintegration of social systems, which are based on group or corporate relationships like state. The decline of social system is creating less specialization of occupations, increasing use of money as a medium of exchange and a mounting growth of factionalism. "United Front" has turned to be an appealing invitation for the lower-classes and castes. In their struggle to thwart the yoke thrusted on by tradition and religion, the depressed cIaSses find a common cause and a common goal. It is no wonder then if they Join shoulders in their united efforts to crack the barriers against their march to freedom. There are two changes happening in the minds of the low castes. One is termed "Sanskritization" or orientation to the native cultures. Indians will have’to learn a lot about India before they can be true Indians. The history, heredity and culture are still to be internaliZed by the 25McKim.Marriott. ‘Villa e India. Chicago: Chicago university Press, 1955 (intro uction). 108 majority of the masses. People were in a way blindfolded for centuries through the erection of narrow domestic wails that their vision was curtailed. Sanskritization plays as an educational agent. The rebirth of India into an Independent Union Republic has given the Spur from within among the depressed and scheduled classes to put in a concerted effort to rise as one man. This has been a challenge and a way of action for the low castes for the last twenty years. 'But together with the learning for achieving social, political and economic recognition, they also learned a new device to defeat the higher castes in just and unjust competitions. The communists are trying to exploit this situation in the political theaters. The numerical strength of the low castes is aligned against government, management and.land-owners by communist agitators thus opening an opportunity to prove the power of the United Front. 'Even in school and college student body elections, the idea of a united front is employed to the detriment of democracy, law and order. Thus the real value of Sanskritization has been demoralized in recent times by misuse and misinterpretations. Westernization is another phase of the internal development among the low caste groups. 5anskritization alone will offer only a part of the education needed for 4. . . ' . . I ‘ Q l I ‘ v r . . ‘ . Q ( ~ 'v 1' » . ‘ r. O ' '- f ‘1 a. \ ‘ a 1’ I ' ‘v ; A O , t . . 3" '1'! ‘r ’\ l r r l . J ‘ _ Q | , 7 \ ‘ n\ . r t n 1' ' . , J.‘ u t l . ' l : 7i ' I',‘ . . ‘ I I . O I ‘ ' ur- l . . . '. . , c~ " ‘ . \ ‘ ' f - . , . . H . l v . -—I . . . g \ 109 the growth of the total oriental personality; hence the need for westernization. 'By Westernization, it is taken into account not only the values and institutions of the West but also the technique and the creativity inherent to the West. Westernization has been emphasized as a strong and enticing objective for the people of India whether they belong to the orthodox or heterodox groups. The East is entering into a competition to keep abreast with the race in science and education which the West is engaged at present. The result of WesternIZation of Brahmins was that they interposed themselves between the British and the rest of the native population. The result was a new secular caste system, superimposed on the traditional systems, in which the British, the new "Kshatryas," stood at the top, while the Brahmins occupied the second position and the others stood at the base of the pyramid.2 This statement goes to prove that even the process of Westernization did not imbibe the true sense of the word but left behind an adulterated connotation before the general public of India. Perhaps this new meaning of Westernization is inevitable, as it was the by-product of Sanskritization and Westernization at the same time. Instead of saying that the phenomenon of caste is due to fusion, the reality is just the opposite. The cultural ‘ZSMN. Srinivasa. Democratic Government in India. New Delhi: The World Press ftd., 195M, p. 85. 110 and historical studies done about the caste system have proved that the caste is due to the lack of fusion. They have devised an inter-group relation or behavior which avoids mental interference or merging so that the identity of the original group is not lost. The identity of the original group can be changed only through the following processes: 1. By mutual change of ideas and mutual accommodaflon. 2. By internal adjustment within a group, and adjustments between groups. The rural prosperity depends upon many factors. Villagers have their own little world in which to live, and the contributing and complimenting factors of their welfare are completely different from those of the general public. The social scientists who go into the study of the rural problems should not be looking for urbanizing the rural people. In fact many do by the way of their recommendations. The rural peOple have their own pet value systems which may be meaningless to the urban people. It can happen that the meaningful objects of the urban people may be quite meaning- less to the rural peasants. The rural credit c00peratives are not functioning in many places as they ought to because of the lack of communica- 111 tion between the rural people and the urban organizers who operate these credit unions. To what extent the rural indebtedness is due to the thriftlessness or extravagence on the part of the raiyats cannot be definitely asserted, but there is no denying the fact that there is an inherent defect in the credit organization of the country. The dependence upon the village money-lenders and the usurious rates of interest charged by them, are sapping the foundations of the rural prosperity of the country.27 In 1892 the said financial problem of the rural people attracted the attention of the Government, and they appointed Sir Frederick Nicholson to inquire and report on the matter. He submitted his report in 1895, which turned to be the beginning of the cooperative unions in India. Sir F. Nicholson's report contains some interesting viewpoints: ' The lesson of the universal agricultural history is that an essential of agriculture is credit. Neither the condition of the country, nor the nature of the land tenures, ‘ nor the position of the agriculture, affects the one great fact, that the agriculturists must borrow; This very condition of their existence in tenure to borrow and t borrow freely, annually and continuously.2 The years 1938 and 1939 were years of fundamental changes in the land tenure and indebtedness of the peasantry. 22?. Banerjea. A.Stuqy of Indian Economics. Calcutta: Calcutta university Press, 195I, p.368? 28?. Banerjea, op. cit., p. 369. 112 "The most important and urgent problem of the country," ‘declared the Congress Session of 1936 at Luchnow, "isthe appalling poverty, unemployment and indebtedness of the country." The Congress accepted these problems as the major targets to be solved for 1937. The 1937 Election Manifesto included these statements: Pending the formation of the fuller programme, the Congress stands for ... a reform of the system of land tenure and revenue and rent, and equitable adjustment of the burden of the agricultural land, giving immediate relief to the smaller peasantry, by a substantial reduction of agricultural rent and revenue, now paid by them, and exempting uneconomic holdings from payment of rent and revenue. The question of indebtedness requires urgent consideration, and the formulation of a scheme, including the declaration of a moratorium, an inquiry into and scaling down of debts, and the provisiog of a cheap credit facilities by the States. 9 The various state governments initiated many new approaches to emancipate the farmer and the tenant which helped to keep them alive under the devastating periods of depression. World War II changed the total outlook of agricultural problems, but ushered in further problems due to overpOpulation and division of Hindu homestead. The fertility of the land depends much upon the precipitation. .Although the whole subcontinent of India lies north of the Equator and approximately 60 per cent lies 29Reginald Coupland. The Indian Problem. London: Oxford university Press, 19hh, p. 137. 113 in the temperate zone, its climate is predominantly tropical. "We always think of India as essentially a tropical country _and rightly so, for the whole area within the mountain walls must be considered as a unit with a common type of climate throughout the tropical monsoon."30 The rainfall of India depends primarily on monsoon. The peninsula of India divides the monsoon into two branches. The first and stronger branch comes in from the Arabian Sea, and strikes the Western Ghats where it is cooled and converted into very heavy rainfalls. Those clouds that fly over the Western Ghats provide a scanty rain in Deccan, which saves that area from being a complete desert. The other branch of the monsoon comes from the Bay of Bengal and hits the Ganges Delta. The Punjab areas receive a big portion of rain, making the Ganges, Indus and Brahma Putras Rivers inundate, and thus irrigate the fertile valley known as the "graneny of India." - The vital question is whether or not the monsoon is regular. The melancholy answer is that it is not. Sometimes the rain fails to come, or again it comes with greater than its accustomed violence. In either case the tragedy is likely to follow.. It is the irregularity of fine monsoon that has made India a land of famine. 1 30Stamp Dudley. Asia (2d Ed.). New York: Dutton 3. Co., 1939, pp. 175-76. 31Kingsley Davis. Population of India and Pakistan. Princeton, N.J.: PrincetonUniversityPress, I951} P. 11. 114 The Government of India at present is trying to utilize every drop of rain fall the country gets. There are several great river-valley projects under construction. The American technicians, Point Four Plan experts, the Colombo Plan and United Nations Technical Assistance crew are working with the great hydroelectric and irrigational projects. They are very hopeful about the outcome of these efforts. In spite of the appalling p0pulation number, India will be able to feed her people and reach the stage of self-sufficiency. SUMMARY The present state of educational administration has taken into consideration many crying social problems of the nation. 1. Population growth has become one of the most out- standing social problems of the nation. Increasing population creates added needs for more schools, teachers and other services of the education department. The administrators of education are doing everything possible to eliminate illiteracy that results from population increase. 2. Disease, pestilence and other natural evils attack the villages of India often causing heavy tolls in life and property. The education administration strives to impart to the people the basic ideas in sanitation and food habits. Village uplift programs are not officially included in the activities of the education department; yet the education 115 department realizes the need of sharing the burden of villages with other socializing agencies. Hence the teacher training institutions take special care in training the teachers in the basic techniques of rural uplift programs. 3. India is a nation composed of many villages. These villages are social units with their superstitions and religious beliefs, practices, social distinctions, class barriers and illiteracy. Future of India depends on the revival of villages into cultural habitations. The present administrators of education realize the necessity of eradicating the ignorance and illiteracy of the 700,000 villages of India and transform them to healthy cells of the national organism. h. The villages are torn between two ideologies, one of West and the other of East. The Westernization caused by the rule of foreign powers and contact with educational philosOphies of the West is drifting a segment of the population from the norms of Sanskritization which is traditionally cherished in the Orient. The education administrators hold the responsibility of acquainting the peasantry of both values. The present administration of education strives to be an unbiased exponent of both tenets. 5. The land tenure policy has been an obstacle to the prosperity of the masses. Education has an indirect 116 obligation to find a way out from this everlasting problem to redeem the landless. The present administration of education has stood for a reorganization of land tenure policy. The social education now offered is focusing its attention to teach the people saving and investment principles. Education is volatile and will take the direction which the administrators of education let it flow. The basic education and social education of India are primarily intended to remedy the social maladies of the people. 6. The multiplicity of languages in India offers another hurdle to the administrators of education. The division of the nation into linguistic states shows the tension created by the language groups. The administrators of education are offering special emphasis on the mother tongue or vernacular forseach state and Hindi language as a common medium of communication for the entire nation. In order to alleviate the burden of multiplicity of languages the educational administration plans to withdraw the teaching of English as a compulsory language. 7. Many special committees are formed to study the scripts and thus reduce the burden of extensive scripts now in use in almost all the vernaculars of India. This attempt will lead into creation of many technical terms and organization of dictionaries. 117 8. India needs a national language of its own. The Constitution of India has verbalized its intention of making Hindi as the national language. A.common language will help to build national spirit and better cohesion among the various castes and creeds of India. ORGANIZATION PATTERNS This section is set up to determine whether the present administration of education organization has any salient feature acclaiming it as a good organization. Scientific principles in management and administration demand several important elements as imperative for a good organization of administration.32 Most of these principles are analyzed in the existing organization of educational administration of India. A. Planning It is a duty of the administrator to draw clearly and succinctly the policies and goals of the enterprise he is administering. By policies it should be understood as all the written and unwritten laws which bind the organization}:5 32Dalton E. McFarland. Mana ement Principles and Practices. New York: Macmillan 0., 1958, p. 10. Ordway Teed. The.Art of Administration. New'York: 118 Planning also takes into consideration the establishment of goals and objectives. Every operation in an enterprise should be pointed to the acquisition of its goals.3’4 The following is the resolution on aims and objectives adopted by the Constituent.Assembly on the motion of Pandit Jewaharilal Nehru, the Premier of India on January 25, l9h7: ‘We the People of India having solemnly resolved To constitute India into a Sovereign Democratic Republic and to secure to all its citizens: Justice, Social, Economic and Political Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; Equality of status and of opportunity; And promote among all, Fraternity, assuring the dignity of the individual, And the unity of the Nation; In our constituent assembly, this twenty-sixui day of November, l9h9, Do hereby adopt, enact, and give ourselves this Constitution.35 3EIbid, op. cit., p. 101. 3 N. Sreenivasan. The Democratic Government of India. Bombay: The World Press Ltd., l95h, p. 1&9. 118 Planning also takes into consideration the establishment of goals and objectives. Every operation in an enterprise should be pointed to the acquisition of its goals.3u The following is the resolution on aims and objectives adopted by the Constituent Assembly on the motion of Pandit Jewaharilal Nehru, the Premier of India on January 25, 19h7: We the People of India having solemnly resolved To constitute India into a Sovereign Democratic Republic and to secure to all its citizens; Justice, Social, Economic and Political lLiberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship: Equality of status and of opportunity; And promote among all, Fraternity, assuring the dignity of the individual, And the unity of the Nation; In our constituent assembly, this twenty-sixflr day of November, 19h9. Do hereby adopt, enact, and give ourselves this Constitution.35 EElbid, op. cit., p. 101. 3 N. Sreenivasan. The Democratic Government of India. Bombay: The world Press Ltd., 195u, p. 1&9. 119 Any government launching out a development plan for every phase of life will have to set up a special program for education, since the educational system has such an intimate bearing on the attainment of the general objectives because it determines the quality of the manpower and the social climate of the nation. The Indian Planning CommisSion realized the need of setting up a general plan giving the goals and objectives as well as the policies and by-laws. In a democratic set up the role of education becomes crucial, since democracy can function effectively only if there is an intelligent participation of the masses in the affairs of the country. The Government of India realized the importance of a national planning and created a Planning Commission at the very outset of independence. The education ministry at present is putting into effect the Plans drawn by the First Five Year Plan of 1951 and the Second Five Year Plan of 1956. How much administrative skill and intuition these planners had in doing the job is worth analyzing. The Plan focused its attention on "integrity, efficiency, economy and public cooperation."37 Planning is impossible unless every component of the organization contributes its share to the total result. ... The executive may not consciously 36The First Five Year Plan. New Delhi: Planning Commis- sion, GovernmentIo? India Press, 1952, p. 13. 37The First Five Year Plan, op. cit., p. 116. use them, but all his work, whether he knows. it or not, is in some gay concerned with the unfolding of the plan. The Ministry of Education was imposed with the burden of assembling, processing, combining and distributing the men,.material and resources budgeted by the Government. Intelligent disbursement of these resources to produce the maximum benefit and optimum usefulness necessitated a meticulous drafting of the plan. Indian administrative systems needed a complete revision because of the mal-practices which were perpetrated during the British period. The planning had to foresee this necessary change of attitude of service. Formerly he served a foreign government, but by independence the same executive has to serve his owo.nation. The required trans- fonmation was not possible in all cases. The planners had to contend with this as a major problem. Hence the Plan- ning Commission emphasized on ”integrity" as the most important factor of change. I A Time is a basic element in planning. The plans are for changes and changes take place slowly. The plans start at an immediate present and go into an indeterminant future. The long and short range planning are two aspects of the same process. EUDimock Marshall. The Executive in Action. New'York: Harper & Brothers, l9h5, p. 12h. 120 use them, but all his work, whether he knows. it or not, is in some 33y concerned with the unfolding of the plan. The Ministry of Education was imposed with the burden of assembling, processing, combining and distributing the men, material and resources budgeted by the Government. Intelligent disbursement of these resources to produce the maximum benefit and optimum usefulness necessitated a meticulous drafting of the plan. Indian administrative systems needed a complete revision because of the mal-practices which were perpetrated during the British period. The planning had to foresee this necessary change of attitude of service. Formerly he served a foreign government, but by independence the same executive has to serve his own.nation. The required trans- fonmation was not possible in all cases. The planners had to contend with this as a major problem. Hence the Plan- ning Commission emphasized on "integrity" as the most important factor of change. Time is a basic element in planning. The plans are for changes and changes take place slowly. The plans start at an immediate present and go into an indeterminant future. The long and short range planning are two aspects of the same process. 36DimockMarshall. The Executive in Action. New'York: Harper & Brothers, l9h5, p. 12h. use them, but all his work, whether he knows. it or not, is in some 35y concerned with the unfolding of the plan. The Ministry of Education was imposed with the burden of assembling, processing, combining and distributing the men,.material and resources budgeted by the Government. Intelligent disbursement of these resources to produce the maximum benefit and optimum usefulness necessitated a meticulous drafting of the plan. Indian administrative systems needed a complete revision because of the mal-practices which were perpetrated during the British period. The planning had to foresee this necessary change of attitude of service. Formerly he served a foreign government, but by independence the same executive has to serve his own nation. The required trans- formation was not possible in all cases. The planners had to contend with this as a major problem. Hence the Plan- ning Commission emphasized on "integrity" as the most important factor of change. _ . Time is a basic element in planning. The plans are for changes and changes take place slowly. ‘The plans start at an immediate present and go into an indeterminant future. The long and short range planning are two aspects of the same process. EBDimockMarshall. The Executive in Action. New'York: Harper & Brothers, l9h5, p. IZh. 121 Education was not equally administered in all parts of India. Hence the plans were geared to create structural changes to raise the level of administration in the less advanced states and encourage these states to take up the responsibilities to initiate the recommended plans.39 In the same group of plans, some deserve priority of action and attention. Hence the administrator's function is to organize these plans into a ladder or hierarchy so that consistency and contiguity could be served without distOrting the total picture. The Planning Commission took care to stipulate the step by step execution of plan so that the administrators could be guided naturally into the total picture of the plans. Some confusion still exists as to the fusion of long range and short range planning. The ability of administrator can be measured in the way he fuses the long range and short range plans. The short range plans become an integral part of the long range plan by the dexterity of blending them together smoothly and naturally. The short range plans are linked together according to importance and scope in the great pyramid of the total planning. Whether the plan 39First Flvejear Plan. New Delhi: Government of India Press,‘1952, pp. 117-120. I.‘ ‘ All||l ll I‘ll-III 122 be for the total nation, state or village, the operation should start from the lower level so as to add to the economy and efficiency. The educational planning in India received high caliber advice from experts both foreign and native. During the British overrule, special attention was given to plan at elementary, secondary and university levels as described elsewhere. When the analysis goes into the areas of adminis- trative operation, efforts will be made to state whether inefficiency is due to planning or other functions of administration. Here this writer strongly accepts that the educational planning given in India was good and should be credited as strength of the present organization. B. Organizing Organizing is an administrative terminology that denotes many operations. One meaning is capitalization or 'assembling the material means to operate the enterprise. In state education, capitalization depends upon the Govern- ment which allocates certain amount for education. The amount allocated by the Government has to be budgeted prudently to realize the maximum benefit. This Operation is not done in the best scientific way and Should be con- sidered as a weakness. Hence budgeting educational funds will be treated in the next chapter as a weakness. 123 Organization is also taken to mean drawing hierarchy of operation. In order to understand whether the hierarchy of organization is in the field of administration, it is necessary to analyze the component parts of the adminis- tration organisation of education. An organization is good or bad according to the spread of authority, responsibility and accountability. Efficiency is the product of a well balanced organization. Have the education administrators of India's Federal Government realized the total meaning of authority? Authority is defined as: Authority is a character of communication or order in a formal organization by virtue of which it is accepted by a contributor to or "member" of the organization as governing the action he contributes; that is, as governing or determining what he does, or is not tfi do so far as the organization is concerned. 0 Authority is shared by the executives of higher and lower echelons. Sharing of authority leaves behind the all important element of responsibility and accountability on the part of the recipients of authority. Authority gives power to enact a certain function; responsibility obliges the person to perform the act demanded expressly or inwardly by delegating or sharing of authority. The definition of “OI. Barnard Chester. The Functions of the Executive. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uthersity Press, [9&6, p. 163. 12h authority generates clearly spelled out objectives. The objectives should lay out what performances are expected from.each. Performance of each objective helps to the realization of the objectives held by another team in the same organization. Thus a systematized team work is effected. The chief administrator is responsible for setting up the objectives for all rank and file. The goal of each administrator's job should depend upon the contribution he has to make'to the success of the larger unit of which he is a part. Thus the three features of authority, responsibility and accountability are brought into balance. India's administrators of education are trained in the English system of public administration. In the present system, the coordination of authority and responsibility are not very clear. The clarity of the power spread depends on the levels of the organization chart. The organization chart shows a head-heavy structure which denotes too much centralization and lack of spread. This feature also should be counted as a weakness. Yet there are some clear assign- ment of jobs among the rank and file. Job assignments depend on a good system of job analysis. When a job is clearly stated with the four boundaries, rights and obliga- tions, the administrator can demand an exact performance 12h authority generates clearly spelled out objectives. The objectives should lay out what performances are expected from each. Performance of each objective helps to the realization of the objectives held by another team in the same organization. Thus a systematized team work is effected. The chief administrator is responsible for setting up the objectives for all rank and file. The goal of each administrator's job should depend upon the contribution he has to make'to the success of the larger unit of which he is a part. Thus the three features of authority, responsibility and accountability are brought into balance. India's administrators of education are trained in the English system of public administration. In the present system, the coordination of authority and responsibility are not very clear. The clarity of the power spread depends on the levels of the organization chart. The organization chart shows a head-heavy structure which denotes too much centralization and lack of spread. This feature also should be counted as a weakness. Yet there are some clear assign- ment of jobs among the rank and file. Job assignments depend on a good system of job analysis. When a job is clearly stated with the four boundaries, rights and obliga- tions, the administrator can demand an exact performance 125 and the subordinate can know the exact expectations out of him. .Although the job analysis is not based on time study or motion study which offer a scientific approach to job analysis, the administrators of education of India have experienced enough to depict the job clearly. Job analysis is important in keeping out encroachments within line and staff. Jurisdictional disputes often slow down the per- formance and pollute the morale of the organization. Education administration in India works on three distinct levels. Federal, state and local controls are provided for by the words of the Constitution. The lack of concerted action can minimize the fruits from the three areas of operations. The Federal Government through the Ministry of Education is taking over the work of the Coordinator. The Union Government has to watch the total picture impartially and give the directive mandates to produce the very best of results. The administrators of education are often confronted with workers who are so short sighted they cannot see the over-all picture of what the India Government is trying to effect or others who are too far sighted as to ignore the individual perfection of each job. This state of thing is very common with all types of organization. The Federal government serving as a coordinating agency tries to iron out this deficiency. The 125 and the subordinate can know the exact expectations out of him. .Although the job analysis is not based on time study or motion study which offer a scientific approach to job analysis, the administrators of education of India have experienced enough to depict the job clearly. Job analysis is important in keeping out encroachments within line and staff. Jurisdictional disputes often slow down the per- formance and pollute the morale of the organization. Education administration in India works on three distinct levels. Federal, state and local controls are provided for by the words of the Constitution. The lack of concerted action can minimize the fruits from.the three areas of operations. The Federal Government through the Ministry of Education is taking over the work of the Coordinator. The union Government has to watch the total picture impartially and give the directive mandates to produce the very best of results. The administrators of education are often confronted with workers who are so short sighted they cannot see the over-all picture of what the India Government is trying to effect or others who are too far sighted as to ignore the individual perfection of each job. This state of thing is very common with all types of organization. The Federal government serving as a coordinating agency tries to iron out this deficiency. The 126 Ministry of Education has its own departments under direct control, and it is not difficult to steer the entire work toward the common goal. But in departments of state or local school systems, the Federal Ministry of Education can only use the directive power to line them up as members of a vast chain of actions toward a common goal. In a vast nationlike India where class struggles are so keen, coordina- tion becomes a difficult feat. Yet the Federal Government Ministry of Education is doing a fine job of it. Hence this should be considered as strength of the present organization. C. Delegation Delegation is another administrative action by which the authority is shared with others for better efficiency. Analyzing the present set up, it seems that the present set up of administrative organization is lacking in a scientific system of delegation. Hence it should be counted as a weakness on the part of the Federal Ministry of Educa- tion to centralize all operations in the Center and allow minimum leeway for delegation. This concept will be developed in the next chapter as another weakness of the administrative organization. D. Administrative Control The efficiency of any organization depends upon the type of control exercised in the organization. The authority 127 and responsibility are vested in the line organization. The theoretical spread of authority and responsibility should be brought under to the level of everyday practical life. The force that brings the authority of the line to satisfactory execution of each job is called managerial control, and it lies in the guidance and supervision of the operating team. Control in the ordinary sense looks like an odious term. In the running of the organization, control plays a very important part. By the power of control, a person in authority guides those working under him so as to receive a quantitative performance expected of each of them, The control becomes hard to bear only when conditions necessary for scientific management are ignored. The managerial control has not been playing a good part in the education administration of India due to two reasons: (1) poor organization of administration; and (2) poor evaluation and appraisal of performance. Since these are weak sides of the present organization, this part will be elucidated in the next chapter. E. Grouping Activities For efficiency, economy and control the administrator can group a few activities into one distinct group or category.l The nature of some other activities may suggest separation as the best way to control them. In other cases 127 and responsibility are vested in the line organization. The theoretical spread of authority and responsibility should be brought under to the level of everyday practical life. The force that brings the authority of the line to satisfactory execution of each job is called managerial control, and it lies in the guidance and supervision of the operating team. Control in the ordinary sense looks like an odious term. In the running of the organization, control plays a very important part. By the power of control, a person in authority guides those working under him so as to receive a quantitative performance expected of each of them, The control becomes hard to bear only when conditions necessary for scientific management are ignored. The managerial control has not been playing a good part in the education administration of India due to two reasons: (1) poor organization of administration; and (2) poor evaluation and appraisal of performance. Since these are weak sides of the present organization, this part will be elucidated in the next chapter. E. Grouping.Activities For efficiency, economy and control the administrator can group a few activities into one distinct group or category. The nature of some other activities may suggest separation as the best way to control them. In other cases 128 separated activities can be combined into a single group for effective operation. Some norms should be set up for effective grouping: 1. Activities which need similar skills should be grouped together. 2. Activities which have intimate association should be grouped together. 3. Some activities may tend to be of interest to certain peoples, although the activities, as they are, have no common relationship; such activities should be grouped together in view of the persons who may operate them. h. .Activities should be grouped according to sequence in the composition or assembly in line. These principles are effectively put into practice in many industrial organizations and should bear fruit invariably in the administration of education. By prudent grouping of activities, the administrator can inject a certain amount of flexibility into the total operation. It is discouraging to find that in the existing adminis- tration of education organization, little effort is given to group the many activities. Since this feature also falls under the weakness of the organization, a real analysis showing how the grouping of activities has been ignored will be included in the following chapter. 129 F. Development of Executive Personnel kln the administration of education one can employ very few of the soientific innovations which are being used in industry. Business deals with the things while education deals with persons. There are many ways of training executive personnel: (1) learning on job; (2) rotation; (3) use of committees, conferences and courses; and (h) by special assistance on individual job. Scientific management principles demand a complete inventory of the skills and abilities of the administrators or aspirants to administrative positions. There are innumerable but not infallible tests which can reveal the intangible qualities of mind and heart with some degree of accuracy. The chart can reveal the adequacy or inadequacy of the training needed for persons to be good in adminis- tration. After the chart is made, which normally may seem like many hills and valleys, a systematic course of training can be given. The goal of such training is to fill up the valleys or gaps which denote the absence of certain abilities and to de-emphasize qualities which tend to unbalance an equilibrium of attitudes, aptitudes, abilities and interests. The training is geared to the work at which it is aimed. Hence the various methods of training are administered 130 according to the type of the job the trainee is preparing to handle. In the administration of education do they consider the need of training the junior executives in the science of administration to be able to take over the administration when the seniors retire? Surely they do. In overseas universities there are more than 1,700 Indian students preparing for specialized education. Out of these a good ,many are former executives of the public administration. Seeing their hnate abilities, the Government sent them to foreign countries for special training in administration. The many scholarships and exchange positions offered by foreign governments have helped to improve the quality of the personnel in public administration. Hence this aspect should be counted as strength of the present organization. .Apprenticeship is a kind of in-service training. The aspiring administrator is given the opportunity to observe and practice slowly and steadily so as to master the whole technique in a given period of time. Meanwhile the willing- ness of the personnel under whom one is taking the apprentice- ship can be capitalized in the process of learning. .Appren- ticeship is the time old method of training from the "Guild Systems" and even now practiced in many industries. Indian administrators also employ this as a useful method 131 of training junior executives to get the "know how" of the work assigned to them. “ The main purpose of the third method, the rotation of jobs, is calculated to develop abilities in conducting varied and different kinds of jobs. An executive has to know the intricacies of the total operations from bottom to the top. Only when he has the general knowledge of the different operations which make up the job can he demand top performance of all workers. Hence some organization permits rotation of jobs to develop executive ability. In Indian administrative systems, rotation of jobs is very infrequent. A.person employed in one department very seldom is moved into another. The first reason for this is because of the scarcity of jobs. .A person entering in one department of public administration usually retires in the same department with a minor improvement in salary and rank. In-service training, apprenticeship and rotation on jobs can be called "training from within." They use the facilities within the organization to develop executive skills to run the operations of that organization. In other cases the executive training is given from outside sources. ‘Training from outside is based on a broader outlook. When the training is imparted from within, there is a danger 132 that the trainee is given only that amount of training needed to operate the organization but not any universal principles of efficient management. For this reason more value is given to training given in specialized areas like ' colleges and universities. From the colleges and univer— sities come the up-to-date philosophies of sound management. Students trained for a specific job but are given a broader and richer education which will give them insight into the problem itself will be more efficient than those who know just one technique of operation. In order to train adminis- trators of education in India, many students undergo extended courses in foreign universities so as to fit into the administrative chair. The modern scientific techniques of management are finding their way into the administrative positions of India Government. Hence this aspect also should be counted as strength of the present organization. G. Leadership Training In the present complicated system.of management, the executive should function as an aggressive leader who can Hunts decisions as cases arise.ul In many advanced schools for administration there is too much negative emphasis on problems and problem solving. The case studies presented ErUrwiok. The Span of Control - Some Facts About the Fables. AdvanceManagement, November 19567. 132 that the trainee is given only that amount of training needed to operate the organization but not any universal principles of efficient management. For this reason more value is given to training given in specialized areas like ' colleges and universities. From the colleges and univer- sities come the up-to-date philosophies of sound management. Students trained for a specific job but are given a broader and richer education which will give them insight into the problem itself will be more efficient than those who know just one technique of operation. In order to train adminis- trators of education in India, many students undergo extended courses in foreign universities so as to fit into the administrative chair. The modern scientific techniques of management are finding their way into the administrative positions of India Government. Hence this aspect also should be counted as strength of the present organization. G. Leadership Training In the present complicated system of management, the executive should function as an aggressive leader who can make decisions as cases arise.LLI In many advanced schools for administration there is too much negative emphasis on problems and problem.aolving. The case studies presented thrwick. The Span of Control - Some Facts About the Fables. AdvanceTManagement, NOVember 1956.. 133 to the students would make them believe that an administrator spends all the time threading his way out of labyrinths. This kind of training should be replaced with something more positive and dynamic. An administrator is much more than a genius who can escape without being hurt. A good admin- istrator is a leader who can lead others into the virgin lands of higher productivity and greater output. He is a creator who can vision beyond the immediate; if there is to be progress, he must become more than a conserver. He has intuition based on logic and reasoning but not on whim and urges; he knows how to unlock the doors of the latent abilities, potentialities and innate talents of his sub- ordinates; he is one who can see beyond the petty horizon that limits the average vision by projecting his intuitive genius; he knows the secrets of human actions and reactions and also knows how to tie them together on the plow tail to initiate a team action; most of all, an administrator knows the value of human feelings and respects them. To become such an administrator is the goal the professional colleges and universities should offer to their students. The institutions that offer administrative training should emphasize the develOpment of the total personality of the student so that he becomes a good human being who can use . r. v A o.A It o . V_ v _ \ . l\ rl. . i . w. t. r 0 ‘ . \ ~ . v. L l 1 y . u . O . I . 1" I ’1l 0 \ I . . ‘ v . . . I l . A I .l . 1 x . . ~ . t l .v .1 .t i . . V 9 . I o. t .. x a l . . ’y . i . .r , i w r r c e i v I I \ r1 .5 0' I. . O x . . . x i . r v .i > . ,- x x . I‘ . K .‘ c . . x . I _ C I, A . . rl I - \ rl . . f r r . . . ‘ . I, . . i. i . i v 134 authority with prudence, discretion and dexterity}*2 With due deference to the great many educators of India, this writer has to write a minute about the quality of education offered in Indian colleges, schools and training institutions. They have failed to impart the genuine virtue of leadership and failed to spark the innate potentials of the students entrusted to their train- ing. This also is reflected in the rank and file of adminis- tration of education. Only those with genuine interests in others will take time to improve the quality of their fellow creatures. When every person is competing against another, every caste is competing against the rest; every language group is competing against the rest, and every religious group is competing against the rest, it is hard to find genuine interest in the growth of others. The technique of leadership comes more from the heart than from the books. H. Coordination One important job of the administratoris to coordinate 'the various functions and operation. By ordering according ‘to pmdority and sequence, the total activities can be brOUght under’an organized team work. According to the principle thalph C. Davis. The Fundamentals of Top Management. New York: Harper and Bros., 1951, pp. 385389. 131+ authority with prudence, discretion and dexterity."2 With due deference to the great many educators of India, this writer has to write a minute about the quality of education offered in Indian colleges, schools and training institutions. They have failed to impart the genuine virtue of leadership and failed to spark the innate potentials of the students entrusted to their train- ing. This also is reflected in the rank and file of adminis— tration of education. Only those with genuine interests in others will take time to improve the quality of their fellow creatures. When every person is competing against another, every caste is competing against the rest; every language group is competing against the rest, and every religious group is competing against the rest, it is hard to find genuine interest in the growth of others. The technique of leadership comes more from the heart than from the books. H. Coordinatigg One important job of the administrataris to coordinate the various functions and operation. By ordering according to priority and sequence, the total activities can be brought under an organized team work. According to the principle ”Ralph c. Davis. The Fundamentals of Top Management. New York: Harper and Bros., 1951, pp. 388-3g9. l O I O 's ,. r n , i , , r o v 135 of balance "each portion and function of an enterprise should operate with equal effectiveness in making its allotted contribution to the total purpose."u3 Some authors do not agree to the above definition. To them coordination is the basic principle of any organization. Coordination is intimately bound with administrative leader- ship. It is the systematic linking of various activities according to their importance and steps at the various levels. "It expresses the principles of organization in 'toto' nothing less."uu I Ooing into the administration of education in India, one can easily see that more could be done in the matter of coordination. Since the administration has not made a scientific spread of authority and responsibility, it also failed in creating a good coordination. Hence this should go into the neat chapter as a weakness of the present organization. SUMMARY The terms "management" and "administration" need clarification, since many early authors used these terms promiscuously. There is a clear distinction between E3Urwick. The §pan of Control - Some Facts.About the Fables. Advanceananagement, NovemberCIQSE. ”uflflenry C. Metcalf and L. Urwick (eds.). ngamic Administrgtion: The Collected ngers of Magy Par er Follett. New'York:Harper Bros., IQHD} p. 71. 136 management and administration. While the administrator draws clearly the policies, goals and by-laws for the new organization, the manager puts into practice the various functions and operations in accordance with the policies and by-laws. The goals of Free India were defined on January 25, l9h7, incorporated in a motion passed in the Assembly. In order to achieve these goals, the Government of India created a Planning Commission to draw the steps to attain these objectives. Any administration has to realize the importance of planning. The Ministry of Education of India developed a plan to reach long range and short rangedevelopments. Plans are blueprints to certain goals. in charting the track, a good planner has to designate priority of action based on continuity and cohesiveness. The plans are intended to give efficiency. Efficiency is the maximum output at the lowest possible time, labor and cost. All organizations tend to increase efficiency. An organization is immaterial udthout its living functionaries. PeOple need to be directed in their endeavor so as to move toward the final goals. Direction needs authority. There should be someone to give orders and someone to take orders. Authority and responsibility assume 13? their inseparable role in team works. In an organized endeavor like the Federal Ministry of Education, there are various levels in the administrative organization which demand persons vested with authority and persons obliged to responsibility. The effectiveness of an organiza- tion depends on the coordination of authority and respon- sibility. When there is responsibility, there arises accountability or obligation to a satisfactory performance of one's duty. One is imputable to the quality of performance he turns out. The education administration of India is in the hands of three distinct groups: namely, federal, state and local authorities. .Although these three agencies are independent to some extent, for the sake of better efficiency and coordination they operate as a team. The responsibility of education is resting with the Federal Government in principle. But for the better execution, these obligations and responsibilities are shared with those in the lower level through delegation. Delegation is an important function of those in authority. There are many principles to be borne in mind in intelligent delegation. The principles of delegation are based on the right kind of authority in action. There are four types of authorities in an organization, namely, line, staff, functional and committee. 138 The primary purpose of line authority is to animate an organization, while staff authority is one without the right to command. It is an auxiliary power to facilitate the operation. The functional authority is a type of "ad hoc" power invested in a certain person for a definite function. By the operation of that function or by the absence of the job to be done, functional authority ceases to exist. Committees are created to help the line in an advisory status. They have merely directive power and no coercive power. The second facet of an organization is cmtrolling. The force that brings about a satisfactory execution of operation is called control. In other words, it is a perfect combination of authority and responsibility in action. Control is effected by a bilateral communication between the superior and subordinate. In all levels of the organization, there is a free flow of ideas whereby the persons concerned understand what is expected of each and perform that to specification. Fulfillment of duty in all levels should invariably result in an effective organization. .Each Job is determined as to its size and rating. Each worker has to perform that Job up to expectation so that there amy'not be any work stoppage in the entire organization. 139 Somebody has to supervise this operation in order to enforce control. How'many works can a certain supervisor supervise? It depends upon the type of the work. The span of control differs according to the nature of the work supervised. Some use reports and procedures as tools of control. Another way of adding to efficiency is to group activities that are similar. The administrative control can be made easy by aligning activities which are con- tiguous and that have intimate association. Most administrators like very detailed plans so that their share of responsibility be shifted on plans. The meticulous adherence to plans are good in some cases whereas in other cases the plans should suit as a guidepost but not a slavish one foot track. The plans are to be made that they can accept modifications according to need. Administration needs administrators. Administrators are not born but trained or made. .After finding the skills and abilities of Junior executives, they should be given the opportunity to share responsibilities with the top personnel. Training can.be in-service or rotation in Jobs. The administrative capacity of a person depends largely (ml the leadership quality one has. This leadership quality can also be infused by proper training. lhO The administrator should primarily coordinate the total works. But he has to consider individuals as individuals. Each individual needs some incentive for peak production. This incentive is given by respecting seniority, promotion, transfers, increment in salary, etc. The administrator should have the skill to evaluate the performance of his crew; Compensation should be commensurate with the appraisal each receives. The administrators of India need a better orientation in scientific administrative principles. The knowledge they have at present is what they have gained through a hit or miss experience on the Job. Such a system of knowledge can create too much respect for tradition and custom. ‘When a system.bases its operations to antecedents alone, the possibility of progress becomes meager. These are some of the administrative challenges the Indian administrators hear over the hills. It is time to investigate these cries and re-examine the stand they have taken with a false sense of infallibility and immunity. SUMMARY OF THE ADVANTAGEOUS FEATURES OF THE EXISTING ORGANIZATION OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION l. The present educational administration of the Federal Government of India is not an expedient development of education. It is the product of a gradual growth through more than five thousand years. Many salient aspects of the lhl education of the past have been incorporated in the present educational administration. a. The present system accepted many educational practices from the ancient methods of education in India. b. The present education abstracted many important administration principles from the European system of education. The present system enjoys the educational principles from the Portuguese and English educational systems. The contact 'with various nations and continents helped the present system to borrow from their systems. c. The present administration of education has taken the main thoughts of many modern Indian educators. This feature has supplemented the system with pure Indian thoughts which were to some extent relegated to secondary place because of the influx of Western ideals during the colonial period of India. 2. The existing system of educational administration has benefitted from the economic problems of the nation. a. .Although the available capital for education was small, the administration employed every penny for the advancement of education. lhl education of the past have been incorporated in the present educational administration. a. The present system accepted many educational practices from the ancient methods of education in India. b. The present education abstracted many important administration principles from the European system of education. The present system enjoys the educational principles from the Portuguese and English educational systems. The contact ‘with various nations and continents helped the present system to borrow from their systems. c. The present administration of education has taken the main thoughts of many modern Indian educators. This feature has supplemented the system with pure Indian thoughts which were to some extent relegated to secondary place because of the influx of Western ideals during the colonial period of India. 2. The existing system of educational administration has benefitted from the economic problems of the nation. a. .Although the available capital for education was small, the administration employed every penny for the advancement of education. 3. lh2 The administration has also planned to live within means against a soaring unemployment, tight money poliqy of the sterling belt nations, military spending due to the war-like atmosphere of Cashmir and crop failures in the nation. In spite of the economic disabilities, India went ahead with the introduction of compulsory educa- tion. The enforcement of "prohibition" crippled further the economic availability for education, yet the administration stood to the principles than accepting defeat. The administration proved that money is not the only factor for serving the nation through education. The administration of education accepted the Challenge hurled by many social problems of the country. The attempt to increase the literary rate is thwarted by ever-increasing population. In spite of the adverse current, the educational administrators steered the department so as to produce visible improvement in the literacy of the nation. The education has taken a new form in the modern schools. The social evils are accepted as the credit courses in schools. By this method more lhs students are trained to handle the problems of sickness, pestilence, floods, droughts and acts of God. The educational administrators try to improve the lots of villages of India which remain the most backward section of the nation. Education is concentrating to the upliftment of villages. Villagers are facing a conflict between ideologies of West and East. Through better social education the educational administrators try to help them in their plight. The land tenure policy of India has been retarded throughout the centuries. ‘The administration of education tries to enlighten the people about a more equitable reorganization of land. The society is split on the issue of languages which symbOlizes the history and culture of various people. The present administration is trying to iron out the differences originating from language preferences through the introduction of a national language. Many special committees are entrusted with the work of forming easier scripts so as to expedite reading and writing among the illiterates. it. 1141+ The present educational administration is in line with many salient administrative principles: a. The administration of education has accepted a clear set of goals and objectives. The educational administration has drafted a series of short term and long term plans. The existing system of administration of education is working on a clear cut organization showing the spread of authority and responsibility. Even though this is a good feature, much more could be done to improve efficiency. Something is better than nothing. A.certain amount of control is enforced by the administration of education according to the spread of line and staff functionaries. It also can and should be improved to effect better control. The caliber of the executives is undergoing drastic hmprovements through manylraining procedures. The administration of education has realized the need of training the executives and doing their best to avail the opportunities that loom through foreign scholarships and training seminars and conventions. CHAPTER IV THE WEAKNESS OF THE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION OF INDIA AT FEDERAL LEVEL ’ ' In the previous chapter all features that contributed to the strength of the administration of education at Federal level in India were discussed. It is also important to know all the features that remain as weaknesses in the same system so as to arrive at a clear picture of the amninistrative system. Even the best systems of the world carry with them some imperfections attributing to their weakness. In the amninistrative systems of an infant nation like India, there can be many weak spots which need improvements. On close examination, one can find that some features of the existing organization of education in India are in conflict 'with the cultural past and heritage of India. 1. The present system of education is enforced in Lndia by the British Government. In introducing the new system, they did not take into consideration the values and beliefs of the people of India. The British adminis- tratixne personnel opened schools primarily for their own family and for those natives who worked under them. Individual lho Englishmen, missionaries and orientalists played an important part to bring in Western culture through education into India. The British Government was interested in the education to the extent they could get trained clerks and typists for manning their office work. Thus Western education was imparted for purely utilitarian ends of the British Government. 2. English knowledge turned to be a condition necessany for public employment. In order to satisfy this popular demand, many Sanskrit colleges and Madrassas were converted into part-time English schools. This attempt did not 'work well as students found it difficult to coordinate two entirely different disciplines. The only solution was to drop all Sanskrit colleges and schools and convert them into English type schools. Indian aristocracy desired an English type of school system, since it unlocked gates to higher administrative jobs and other desirable employments. Some Indian leaders joined with the British to enforce .British.type of education in India. Lord McCauly and Raja Ram Mohan Roy employed their joint influence to offset the IJudian educators who demanded greater emphasis on Indian type of education. In 1835 Lord Bentick signed the cuelebrated "McCauly's Minutes" on education, affirming A - a. that: “+7 the great object of the British Government ought to be the promotion of EurOpean literature and science amongst natives of India and that all funds appropriated for the purpose of education would be heft employed on English education alone. 3. Although many Hindus accepted this resolution, the Muslim majority objected to it. They refused to attend the English sponsored schools until Sir Syed Ahemed Khan urged them to avail the opportunity of English education and improve their social standings. In 188h the Government of India announced that preference would be given to those who knew English and Western sciences for all civil employment. Coerced by the pronouncement of the Government, most schools strived to accept English as a compulsory subject and gave up some of the studies offered in Sanskrit and oriental sciences. Lord Aukland came with a historic announcement in favor of English education. I make it my principal aim to communicate through the means of English language, a complete education in European literature, philosophy and science to the greategt number of students who may be ready to accept it. 1Syed Narulla and J. P. Naik. A.Histony of Education in India. Bombay: McMillan, 1951, p.2h5. ' 2Op. cit. p. h7. 1&8 When Thomas Babington McCauly came with his famous "Minutes," many Indian educators were skeptical about the effectiveness of the new system of education. The British system stemmed from a Christian civilization while the t Indian system originated from Hinduism, Buddhism and HOhammedanism. They believed that English education was ; devised as a means to unite the whole India in one sweep. Many Indian schools were supported by tax-free endow- ments or "mufais," left for education. A vast number of vernacular elementary sdhools were forced to close by this measure. The "mufais" according to the English mind were not doing satisfactory service to the village as educational centers. Secondly, they thought that the existence of mufais in some way impeded the organization of new schools according to Western standards. Thus they made an ordinance to confiscate the mufais and thus to stifle the existence of village schools. A. The English education created a new class or caste in India. The people who came out graduates from English educational systenm remained as a special class without any interaction *with the uneducated groups. This caste system had worse effects upon the society than the religious caste system. .vl 149 The educated caste received the important civil jobs and had a better standard of living. They kept aloof from their own kins who did not get an education. This was quite against the tradition of India. The Indian scholars after their education came nearer to the uneducated fellow L citizens while the new educated class kept aloof from the rest. . ' . The English education brought a widening of Indian horizon and admiration fon English literature and institutions, a revolt against gasses means.aegilfigalpglgnmhfnad new professional class took the lead in political agitations, which consisted chiefly , fin sendin re resentations to the overnment. n lish e uca ed peo Is in the pro e331ons a n services formed in effect a new class, which was to grow all over India, a class influenced by Western thoughts and ways e , rather cut off from the mass of t pOpulation.3 Some Indian educated people of impartial minds understood the degradation in the values of education. The separation of the educated groups from the masses turned to be a big problem in the progress of the nation as a whole. The educated people shunned the association of the uneducated; thus the opportunity of imparting and employing the knowledge ‘they were privileged to learn was not shared with the less 3J. H. Nehru. The Discovegy of India. London: Meridian Book Depot, 1956, p. 320. lSO fortunate inhabitants of the same soil. English education to some extent undermined the time old values of India, without a gradual break. The lofty ideals of self-improve- ments and cultural imbibements were set aside in exchange of Ruppees, Annas and Pies. Some of the educated c00perated with the foreign rulers to perpetuate the colonialism they were in. They even forgot the trust the nation had invested in them by being ones to know better. Mahatma Gandhi lost no love when he addressed these groups of intelligensia: Our love for the English language in preference to our own mother tongue has caused a chasm between the educated politically-minded classes and masses. We flounder when we make the vain attempt to express abtruse thoughts in the mother tongue. There are no equivalents for scientific terms. The result has been disasterous. The masses remain cut off from the modern mind. We are too near to our own times, correctly to measure the disservice caused to India by this neglect of its great languages. It is easy enough to understand that unless we undo the mischief, the mass mind must remain imprisoned. The masses can make no 4 solid contribution to the construction of SWARAJ. India has lost its heritage due to the neglect it suffered during the period of foreign rules. At present :it is even hard to assess the values of the past and present and decide which way the education should turn.‘ 4K. M. Gandhi. Constructive Programme. Ahemedabad: Navajivan Press, 1948, p. 113. . 151 SUMMARY The administration of education of India has some features that stand against scientific principles of manage- ment and which should be considered as weakness of the existing system. 1. The present system of education which was originally introduced by the British Government did not take into account the values and beliefs of the people. Many European people failed to understand the values of India and in a hurry judged that past values of India as derogatory to progress. ' 2. The existing system of administration of education enforced a foreign language as an obligatory subject of education. Meanwhile the same system indirectly forced out the study of Sanskrit which is the only gate to the ancient literary treasures of India. 3. Indian education was ruled out as an acceptable .form of education by the British Government. Civil employ- Inent was opened only for those who knew English. English (education was acceptable because it was more useful. The Latilitarian trends of British liberalistic education found iLts way into the Indian educational systems. h. English believed in feudalism or a class stratifica- t:Jon of society. The same trend found its place among 152 the educated people of India. The English education created a new caste called "educated castes" who lived apart from the environments of the uneducated. The educated people of India refused to mix with the uneducated brothren of the same family. Hence they did not try to improve the lot of the less fortunate people of India. 5. The introduction of Western education in Indian soil resulted in a confusion of values. This slowed down the interest in acquiring education. The vast illiteracy is partly due to the apathy against a Western form of education. These are some of the weaknesses of present system of education. It has failed so far in defining the right notion of values. WEAKNESS OF ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION DUE TO THE NEGLECT IN TAKING INTO ACCOUNT SOME OF THE. ECONOMIC PROBLEMS OF INDIA The administration of education in India did not take into account some of the important economic problems of ‘the infant nation. This is primarily due to the extreme optimism the people had and cultivated immediately after ’the Independence. The department of education under the (:3entral Ministry of Education was invested with functional enuthority only. Thus the blame for the weakness in reality 153 should be imputed to the Udon Government. In 19h8 Prime Minister Nehru stated that the conflict between the social state and the profit motive would go on and that only one would survive. He said: "it is clear that the State will survive and not the group which represents the private motive in industry."5 Industry has not grown since 19h7. The businessmen protested against state control and failed. The present stagnation is their revenge and retaliation. The progressive tax systems introduced at the time of Independence has forced savings into hoardings. Investments will publicize the amount of wealth and thus result in higher taxations. Hence, many people who really could take part in revitalization of India economically are unwilling to come forward. They feel that they are better off by being clandestine about their-savings. The inability to bring out this shy capital is one of the reasons for abandoning many projects envisaged 1J1 the Plans. The Second Five Year Plan has its emphasis cni industrial expansion, but the time has still to tell how much and how far the shy capital from the skeptical cnwners has been pumped into the economic pipeline. The stock markets have been static and sluggish for the last 5The Statesman. Calcutta, April 16, 19h8, p. 9. 154 12 years. What has been prophesied by a financial reporter is still holding true: A sepulchre silence has settled on the hall of the exchange; and the marking up of single quotations has become quite an occasion for the handful of brokers who now meet where dozens used to congregate to about their prices a year or two ago. No country can expand unless it can save for future invest- ments. The balance of trade statistics are alarming and show a very cloudy future: India's Foreign Trade In Lakhs of Ruppees7 - Sea, Air and’Land’Borne (Lakh means 100,00T Exports 19u9-50 506,02 1952-53 577.65 1950-51 601,35 1953-511, ,_ 530,62 1951'52 732:9“ 1954-55 583,06 Imports 19u9-so 62u,91 1952-53 seu.ou 1950-51 623,36 1953-5h 580,67 1951-52 95u.59 195u-55 636,11' Balance of Trade in Merchandise 19u9-50 -118,89 1952-53 -86,39 1950-51 - 22,01 1953-5u -50,13 1951’52 -221,65 195h-55 '53:08 ‘Bven the peak year of 1951-52 left behind a huge debt in foreign trade. When a country cannot save, it must live 6The Statesman. Calcutta, September 20, 19h8, p. 1h. 78. C. Sarkar (editor). The Hindustan'Year Book. Calcutta: S. C. Sarkar 8. Sons, 1956,,pp. 570-57I. 155 on its reserve or fall into greater debts. In a deficit financing situation, many distressing consequences seem inevitable. If this trend continues, the production will decline because of inadequate replacement of capital equip- ment. During werld War II India had built up some balance of trade with foreign countries. For some time India was a source of supply to the Allies, but since she has been incessantly dipping her hands into the reserves. In a statement of the Indian Government made in April 19h8, the following principles were enunciated: l. The generation and distribution of electric power will be regulated, and in certain instances will be the function of the Government. 2. The State will have an exclusive monopoly in the case of munitions, atomic energy, and the railways. 3. All new projects in such fields as coal, iron, steel, aircraft, oil, shipbuilding, radio, telegraph and telephone apparatus will be the concern of the government; and after ten years private enterprise in all these fields will be reviewed by the Government. h. The State must have the power to plan and regulate certain basic industries, listed in eighteen categories, in addition to those mentioned above. 5. Foreign capital hull be welcomed but the major interest and effective control of all projectg financed from abroad must be in Indian hands. ‘ 6Economic and Commercial Conditions in India. Longon: HislMaJestyIS Stationery, 1949, pp. 220122h., 156 The above mentioned government policy declaration was one among the major causes that discouraged the private sector from entering into industrial pursuits. To add oil to fire, Prime Minister Nehru came up with the follow- ing utterance in a later speech: We would rather delay our developments, industrial or otherwise, than submit to any kind of economic domination of any country. That is an axiom which is accepted by everyone in India. India's Foreign Exchange Reserve in Lakhs of Ruppees Assets Liabilities Net Assets Movements 1950-51 963,86 129,00 83h,86 - 18,h7 1951-52 795,311 1110.75 6514.59 -180.27 1952-53 813,79 102,79 711,00 + 56,hl 19514-55 827. 611 75.81 751, 83 ,-e 5. 88 .As soon as imports became greater than exports, India's accumulation of savings started draining away. Hence, F further saving became impossible and the chances of reinvest- ments were also impeded. The only other alternative in such an economy is foreign investments, and unstable political philosophy of India and her international policies discouraged 9Press Release April 21, l9h9. Washington, D. C.: Government of India, Information Service, p. 5. 105. G. Sarkar (editor). The Hindustan Year Book. Calcutta: S. C. Sarkar & Sons, 1956, p. 570. 157 these. The Government was wary of the foreign investments since economic imperialism can be just as disasterous on a nation as colonial imperialisms-India rigorously regulated foreign investments. Very few citizens of foreign countries will be foolhardy enough to go into a nation with a social- istic philosophy where labor struggles and lawlessness can precipitate trouble. Governments even warned their citizens about the dangers of investments in countries where the government did not guarantee repatriation of the invest- ments in case of nationalization of that industry. When the people are poor and domestic investments are meager, industry will have to depend on Government invest- ments. In the years l951-56,the years covering the First Five Year Plan, the government channeled its entire “ resources in improving agriculture, and neglected industry entirely. Suddenly there was a drop in industrial output which fell down to the 1939 level. Even agriculture suffered a setback to add chaos to confusion. The budgets sanctioned for health, education and welfare were taken over by the Government to meet more imperative needs. The Government had planned on agrarian reforms by buying land from the landholders with Federal funds, and this project had to be abandoned for the-time being. If the Indian Government had followed the practice of other Asian and African land reforms, the offering of long-term non-negotiable government 157 these. The Government was wary of the foreign investments since economic imperialism can be just as disasterous on a nation as colonial imperialism. India rigorously regulated foreign investments. Very few citizens of foreign countries hull be foolhardy enough to go into a nation with a social- istic philOSOphy where labor struggles and lawlessness can precipitate trouble. Governments even warned their citizens about the dangers of investments in countries where the government did not guarantee repatriation of the invest- ments in case of nationalization of that industry. When the people are poor and domestic investments are meager, industry will have to depend on Government invest- ments. In the years l951-56,the years covering the First Five Year Plan, the government channeled its entire ' resources in improving agriculture, and neglected industry entirely. Suddenly there was a drop in industrial output which fell down to the 1939 level. Even agriculture suffered a setback to add chaos to confusion. The budgets sanctioned for health, education and welfare were taken over by the Government to meet more imperative needs. The Government had planned on agrarian reforms by buying land from the landholders with Federal funds, and this project had to be abandoned for the time being. If the Indian Government had followed the practice of other Asian and African land reforms, the offering of long-term non-negotiable government 158 bonds instead of outright cash purchase, it might have had more success in this project. The inflations of wartime resulted in skyrocketing of prices. If the index in 1939 was 100, the index of 19h9 was h58. In 1950 prices came down to h13 to stay. This situation created an intolerable burden on industrial work- ers. The white collar workers and the middle class suffered most from this economic situation; in fact, they were almost wiped away economically speaking. An observer in South East .Asia stated: "The general picture in postwar India is that of the rich getting richer, the middle group shrinking, and the poor getting relatively and perhaps absolutely poorer."11 1950 also witnessed a succession of natural calamities such as floods, drought, pests and earthquakes, which destroyed about six million tons of food grains according to government reports. Although the Government of India established a goal of self-sufficiency, by 1951 the importa- tion of foreign food grains only increased year by year. The Food Import 19h8 nearly 3,000,000 tons l9h9 nearly h,000,000 tons 11Daniel Thorner. "Prospects for Economic Development igsgoutherfi.Asia." Foreign Policy Reports, XXVI,.April 15, D p O 3 o _ _ . . 159 The cost of l9h9 food grain import was very near to 113,000,000. The purchase was not altogether from the countries belonging to the sterling belt. .A considerable amount was purchased from the dollar belt which drained the countries ability to buy. Being forced to buy food grains for home consumption, India lost her big dollar reserve which in l9h9 was close to $600,000,000. According to the Five Year Plan, this reserve was earmarked for the purchase of very important capital equipment for the various projects included in the Plans. There are a good many statements and reports given by foreign economic experts concerning the validity of India's economic plans in the light of rea1ities.12 ‘ Meanwhile, even the Indian Congressmen began to consider the Plans as merely wishfulgoals and to feel that more immediate measures must be taken to keep the people from complete starvation. Millions of people died of hunger in Behar and many other parts of the country. In the "Ambassador's Report" Chester Bowles describes this very tragic situation and tells how he implemented the signing 12Cfr. D.R. Gadgil. The Economic Prospects in India. New York: The Pacific Affairs, XXII, June 19D9, pp, 115:129. Phillips Talbor. India and.Pakistan: A.Foreign Policy 322223; XXV. June 15, 19kg? 160 of a pact with the United States for food grains. Imports steadily increased due to various causes, and increased costs of production within India forced Indian manufacturers to charge higher prices which in turn cut down the foreign demand. The lack of adequate facilities for transport was another factor which adversely affected India's foreign trade. Before the partition of India, because of her geographic position, she kept up what is called "Entrepot Trade" with Western and Eastern countries. In other words, India played a middleman's or broker's part in the EastQWest trade. The commodities would pass through Indian ports, or India would directly buy and sell for countries in Asia and Europe. The transactions were the major part of her foreign trade, but the partition took them away, and the loss of her intermediary position between.Asia and the West was another terrible blow to her efforts to achieve a forable balance of trade. Therefore, in order to entice foreigners to continue trade with India, the following measures were taken: 1. Progressive liberalization of export control for export promotion. 2. Bilateral trade agreements and arrangements with foreign countries. 3. Consolidation of commercial services abroad. 161 h. Participation in international fairs and exhibitions. 5. Opening of show rooms in important centers of world trade. 6. Standardization of Indian goods and commercial servicing and publicity through the various units of the Ministry. 7. Restriction of imports to the minimum of the country's needs. 8.” Reduction of export duties on particular items. 9. Formation of "Export Promotion Councils" for different goods such as textiles and engineering.13 Economically, India has changed very little in the last two thousand years. Why is this static state? Indian ideology has as its fundamental a search for the absolute, the changeless; and this rigidity has permeated every department of life. Even after four hundred years of contact with.Western culture, the Indian orthodox thinking has not changed perceptibly. Independence has, however, encouraged at least some hope of detouring from the beaten paths of dead habits. There is seen a fahHLIight of the resurgence, a new willingness to meet life in the changing IsM. C. Sarkar (editor). The Hindustan Year Book. Calcutta: M. C. Sarkar & Sons, 1956, p. 570. 162 modern world. .A stable and progressive society can be built up only when the nation as a whole becomes less obsessed with the ideas of stability, security and survival of race. The group ideas as represented through autonomous castes, the joint family and the communal self-government of life were the pillars of the villagers' system. .All these survived because they served useful-purposes, and were supports to rural people who had no criteria of life except those related to past traditions and customs. The alien rule for the past four hundred years has prejudiced many Indians against Western ideas, good and bad; and they have clung to such a background, even though that clinging meant spiritual starvation. Inevitably, this ideological confusion caused complexes, prejudices and phobias to grow and darken the mind. .As the poet laureaum Rabindra Nath Tagore, puts it "the narrow domestic walls of dead habits" arise out of ignorance and create mental steel curtains in groups and communities. The spirit of communalism and regionalism which ensue from such a state of mind in the nation impedes mobility and change. India has been long subjected to such an ordeal; and to break the old mental bonds, she requires a complete restatement of values. Herein may be one of the reasons for what success socialistic and communistic phiksophies have had. Change from the old patterns to the new and progressive calls for 163 for violent distortion of old institutions, sanctions, status roles and value systems. History stands in testimony to the fact that these changes are never made in slow motion or in calculated strides. We are sometimes told that the present Government of India with its ownership and control of rail- ways, and a growing control of and interference in industry, finance, and, indeed, life in general, is moving into a socialist direction ... Though there is some limitation of capitalist functions, the system 3 based on the protection of the privilege.1 Yet India will never find the solution to her economic ills in the acceptance of more socialistic or communistic ideologies. It is time to rewrite her policy. The two Five Year Plans which urged private investments failed just because the private investor was intimidated by the public utterances made by persons in authority advocating socialistic approaches. One of America's greatest economic critics of Asiatic problems says in part: There is the historically conditioned attitudes and abilities of men and, ultimately, a social system that has not been conducive to dissemina- tion of modern knowledge and to the development of an efficient and inflexible labor force and a sufficient number of aggressive and imaginative managers of enterprises. IEJ. Nehru. The Discovery of India. London: Meridian Book, Ltd., 1956, p.51h. 15W. S. WOytnsky. India The Awakening Giant. New York: Harper and Brothers, I957, p. 5h. 161, This is the true cause of the economic stagnation of the (Drient. A socialistic trend cannot offer the incentive for cieveIOpment. If the Government takes upon itself the obligation of training and deveIOping the management men to initiate the mass industrialization, it will discover that it has neither the time to train its personnel nor the money to subsidize the work for which it is training them; moreover, collectivization of agriculture and nationalization of industries are not compatible with the democratic phiIOSOphiis of the ruling part or the peOple. SUMMARY There are many aspects in the present administration of education by the Federal Government of India which are economically unscientific and which should be reckoned as vveaknesses of the existing system. I. The Prime Minister of India, many important persons of the Indian Cabinet, some leaders of‘the National Congress Party and the writers of the Second Five Year plan give un- due importance to the "socialization" of India and the plan for "nationalization" of key industries. This attitude has frightened away the private investment in the industriali- zation of Free India. At the beginning stage of a nation such Verbalizations prove to be very injurious. The potential domestic capital shied away from investments. 165 LBreakdown in the Second Five Year Plan has adversely affected the administration of education. 2. The growing socialist and communist tendency within India has chased away the possible foreign investments from operating in India. The Second Five Year Plan presumed a certain amount of foreign investments to attain the objectives of the Plan. Failure of the Plan affected the administration of education also. 6 3. Because of the magnitude of the Plan and using reserves for importing food grains, India was faced with a heavy drainage in the balance of trade. The war-time savings were used up, and India again accepted the role of a debtor nation. The economic competency is an important factor in planning for education. An unfavorable balance of trade curtailed the educational efforts of the nation. h. When a nation is devoid of domestic investers and foreign investments, the same government would be forced to governmental investments to keep up the production and employment. India was forced to enter into the industry even though there were many other crying needs in the nation. The additional strain on available capital induced to ignore areas of health, education and welfare. 5. The mounting prices due to inflation opened the way for more black market practices. No salary or wage was adequate to buy a subsistent level of living standard. The wages and salaries of the educational personnel were increased two to three times and in some places more. Even though the Government allotted a bigger amount for education, because of the increased expenses, only less could be achieved. Thus the administrators of education could not effect sizeable improvement against the current of inflation. 6. The common people understood that the Second Five Year Plan did not succeed and their hope for a better future dwindled down. This psychological defeat ushered in a bigger number of communist card carrying members and many more communist sympathizers. .A democratic education seemed unconvincing to the majority of students as a solution to the national problems. The administrators of education found it difficult to keep discipline among the students and in some cases among the faculty. WEAKNESSES ARISING OUT OF THE NEGLECT IN TAKING INTO.ACCOUNT-MANY SOCIAL PROBLEMS.BY.THE.ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION The existing system of administration of education has not accepted the challenges of an increasing population. ‘The social problems emanating from a rapid growth of popu- lation have slowed down considerably the efficacy of the administration of education. 166 adequate to buy a subsistent level of living standard. The wages and salaries of the educational personnel were increased two to three times and in some places more. Even though the Government allotted a bigger amount for education, because of the increased expenses, only less could be achieved. Thus the administrators of education could not effect sizeable improvement against the current of inflation. 6. The common people understood that the Second Five Year Plan did not succeed and their hope for a better future dwindled down. This psychological defeat ushered in a bigger number of communist card carrying members and many more communist sympathizers. .A democratic education seemed unconvincing to the majority of students as a solution to the national problems. The administrators of education found it difficult to keep discipline among the students and in some cases among the faculty. WEAKNESSES ARISING OUT OF THE NEGLECT IN TAKING INTO.ACCOUNT MANY SOCIAL PROBLEMS BY.THE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION The existing system of administration of education has not accepted the challenges of an increasing p0pu1ation. ‘The social problems emanating from a rapid growth of popu- '1ation have slowed down considerably the efficacy of the administration of education. adequate to buy a subsistent level of living standard. The wages and salaries of the educational personnel were increased two to three times and in some places more. Even though the Government allotted a bigger amount for education, because of the increased expenses, only less could be achieved. Thus the administrators of education could not effect sizeable improvement against the current of inflation. 6. The common people understood that the Second Five Year Plan did not succeed and their hope for a better future dwindled down. This psychological defeat ushered in a bigger number of communist card carrying members and many more communist sympathizers. .A democratic education seemed unconvincing to the majority of students as a solution to the national problems. The administrators of education found it difficult to keep discipline among the students and in some cases among the faculty. WEAKNESSES ARISING OUT OF THE NEGLECT IN TAKING-INTO.ACCOUNTCMANY SOCIAL, PROBLEMS.BY.THE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION The existing system of administration of education has not accepted the challenges of an increasing population. The social problems emanating from a rapid growth of popu- lation have slowed down considerably the efficacy of the administration of education. 167 Since the administration of education failed to handle these overwhelming problems of social nature, effort to impart literacy cannot show too much improvement percentage- wise. These are some of the social problems which reflect as weakness in the administration of education: Among the Hindus, the "Vivaha" (Marriage) is considered generally as an obligatory ceremony for persons of both sexes. This practice is based on the religious belief that every person should have a son to attain heaven. The son is called "Putra." They believe that there are many gates to be unlocked to reach "Moksha" or heaven. One passes through fourteen hells to reach the gate of heaven. One of the hells that faces a soul is called "Puth" which can be opened only by the "Putra" or son. Thus Putra is one who delivers the parents from the hell called Puth. The religious books also admonish marriage as the end of creation: "To be mothers were women created; and to be fathers men; therefore the Vedas ordain that 'dharma' (duty) must be practiced by man, together with his wife."16- Hindu Books have glorified marriage as "The"-duty, or mutual debt of man and women. One has an obligation to enter into this state of life. When these holy books were 16Manu IX, 96. 168 interpreted by the Hindu teachers, they demanded something more than the great law giver King Manu, prescribed to the people. Child marriage came to being as a vitiation of Manu's Code. -"Vivaha" is one of the "sarva samskara" (sacrament sanctifying the body) through each of which every man and woman must pass at the proper age and time. Manu considers it as a social institution for the regulation of proper 17 relations between the sexes. Child marriages create various social evils such as unhealthy children, infant mortality, extended family system, unprovided families, immature parents and unskilled work force. Before a youngster can acquire skill in any craft or be able to gain some ways of supporting a family, or before getting a satisfactory education, that person is dragged into wedlock, from where there is no escape to freedom. Divorces and remarriages are forbidden to women, 'which create many more social problems. Connected with the same problem is also the religious sanction or demand to .marry one's own blood relations, like first cousins. This idea was devised to conserve the family property within the <:lan from being divided or shared by other clans. This rite {is self-perpetuating many hereditary sicknesses, pollution 17P. N. Prabhu. Hindu Social Organization. Bombay: Pepular Book Depot, 1951;, p. 151. , 168 interpreted by the Hindu teachers, they demanded something more than the great law giver King Manu, prescribed to the people. Child marriage came to being as a vitiation of Mann's Code. '"Vivaha" is one of the "sarva samskara" (sacrament sanctifying the body) through each of which every man and hmman must pass at the proper age and time. Manu considers it as a social institution for the regulation of proper relations between the sexes.17 Child marriages create various social evils such as unhealthy children, infant mortality, extended family system, unprovided families, immature parents and unskilled ‘work force. Before a youngster can acquire skill in any craft or be able to gain some ways of supporting a family, or before getting a satisfactory education, that person is dragged into wedlock, from.where there is no escape to freedom. Divorces and remarriages are forbidden to women, which create many more social problems. Connected with the same problem is also the religious sanction or demand to marry cne's own blood relations, like first cousins. This idea was devised to conserve the family property within the clan from being divided or shared by other clans. This rite is self-perpetuating many hereditary sicknesses, pollution 17P. N. Prabhu. Hindu Social Organization. Bombay: Popular Book Depot, 19514., p. ISF. 168 interpreted by the Hindu teachers, they demanded something more than the great law giver King Manu, prescribed to the people. Child marriage came to being as a vitiation of Mann's Code. ’"Vivaha" is one of the "sarva samskara" (sacrament sanctifying the body) through each of which every man and woman must pass at the proper age and time. Manu considers it as a social institution for the regulation of proper relations between the sexes.17 Child marriages create various social evils such as unhealthy children, infant mortality, extended family system, unprovided families, immature parents and unskilled work force. Before a youngster can acquire skill in any craft or be able to gain some ways of supporting a family, or before getting a satisfactory education, that person is dragged into wedlock, from where there is no escape to freedom. Divorces and remarriages are forbidden to women, which create many more social problems. Connected with the same problem is also the religious sanction or demand to marry one's own blood relations, like first cousins. This idea was devised to conserve the family property within the clan from being divided or shared by other clans. This rite is self-perpetuating many hereditary sicknesses, pollution __ 17P. N. Prabhu. Hindu Social Organization. Bombay: POpular Book Depot, 195u, p. [SIT , 169 of blood and an inescapable dependence to the family patriarch. The caste system and the discriminations connected with it are officially done away with legal measures. In spite of that, in the hearts of people, there still exists the value systems that supported caste system. The factors that tend to perpetuate caste system are many. "The factors which tend to preserve the caste system are uncertainties, responsibilities and unknown dangers which might certainly be imposed upon men, where station in life is at present low, if they should be forced to compete on terms which they cannot understand."18 Within the time of independence, it should be noted that the caste prejudices are waning away. The Reform in Hindu Code has opened a new way. They were under the thralldom of caste discriminations, extended family system and closed-shop type occupational restrictions. These peOple are breathing a new life of independence and individuality. The transformation of the inchoate mass of Hindu people into a community has been a slow process, but clearly it is taking place now. In the place of the elementary conception of the joint-family and the sub-caste, we are now working our way toward a single community, held together, not merely by a common culture, but by common social institutions.19 laGardner Mrphy. In the Minds of Man. New York: Basic Books Inc., 1953, p. 170. 19K. M. Panikkar. Hindu Society at Cross Roads. New Delhi: Asia Publishing Heuse, 1955, p. 90. 170 The India Government understood that there can be no satisfactory change toward progress if this caste prejudices and discriminations continued. Hence, they included in the Constitution all necessary clauses to do away with the classes and castes. Article 15 (l) The State shall not discriminate against any citizen on grounds only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them. Article 17 "Untouchability" is abolished and its practice in any form is for- bidden. The enforcement of any disability arising out of "untouchability" shall be an offense punishable according with the law. ' Article 37 The State shall strive to promote the welfare of the people by securing and protecting as effec- tively as it may a social order in which justice, social, economic and political shall inform all 20 institutions of the national life. Even then some people occupying conspicuous positions of life assert that the Hindu social changes of the last twenty years are the product of p0pu1ar upheavals. What is urgently required is the legislative ramifications of social ideas, already accepted, giving them universal applications and a uniform character. ... Hindu social conscience has been crying for basic changes in social structure for some time. The abolition of untouchability, for example, has been not only a major demand of our political parties but one 20The Constitution of India. New Delhi: Manager Press, 1951. _ . 171 of the spheres of devoted activity by re ormers of all castes for the last half century. In 1928 the British Government assigned another team to study the soil problems of India. The Royal Commission drew largely on Dr. Veelker's Report. They analyzed the various issues of land tenure, farming habits and farming economy of the Indian farmers. Their report contains some interesting statements: At his best, Indian Raiyat or cultivator is quite as good as, and in some respects, the superior of the average British farmer, whilst at his worst, it can be only said that this state is brought about largely by an absence of facilities for improvement, which is probably unequalled in any other c0untry...certain it is that, I, at least, have never seen a more perfect picture of careful cultivation, combined with hard labor, perseverance and fertility of resource, than I have seen at many of the halting places in my tour.22 In 1928 Report arrived at the same findings which Voelker did in 1889. Those conditions have not changed even in 1958. If anything should be done to redress the situation, the recommendation made by Voelker should be attended. Dr. Veelker pointed out three main reasons for poor cultivation: 21K. M. Panikkar. Hindu Society at Cross Roads. New Delhi: Asia Publishing House, 1955, p. 66. 22B. Manilal Nanavati and J. J. Ansaria. The Indian Rural Problem. Bombay: Vora and Company, 19117, p. 83. 172 1. Differences inherent in the people themselves as cultivating classes; for instance, the fact that farmers from certain castes and races are not good at farming, while those belonging to others are good cultivators. 2. Differences arising from purely external surround- ings such as (a) natural causes such as climate, soil, facilities for water, manure, wood, grazing, etc.; and (b) economical or political conditions like the relative ease or difficulty of living, paucity or pressure of population, etc. 3. Differences arising from the "want of knowledge" for instance the existence of a diversity of agricultural practices in different practices of the country.23 The solutions to the agricultural problems should be inferred from many sources. Agricultural research in soil, seeds, veterinary science are the most important of many. Then the second part of the project should be educa- tion.and demonstration of the findings to the ordinary villagers. Some efforts are taken to compile agricultural statistics. The Government is trying to introduce new and better seeds by importing high quality seeds, such as rice from Japan and cotton from Egypt. k 23Royal Commission Report. The Government of India Publicatfifib I928. 173 The existing method of transporting and marketing farm products are quite inadequate. Since India has no refrigerated warehouses and storing places available to farmers, farm products are destroyed in the process of storing and transporting. The wastage in farm products is outrageous, more especially when we consider the hungry people around. The damage through rats, monkeys and pests is another important matter to be remedied. The transporta— tion system is so poor that sometimes it is uneconomical to transport farm products from place to place through available method of transportation. The fishery products, which could alleviate considerably the food shortage of the nation, seem to be ineffective, primarily because of poor tranSportation and marketing facilities. The financing of agricultural pursuits is also hindering than helping the cause. The village money lender is the .most heartless of persons who practices without scruples, usury and extortion. At present the government is sponsor- ing credit cooperatives in rural areas with the hope that these social agencies can help the farmer. It is not uncommon to see the same village money lender become the president of the Credit C00perative Society. The unpredictability of precipitation has hindered agricultural pursuits considerably. The economic conditions 1711 of the farmers are so low that one drought or flood or any other "act of God" can completely destroy the liquidity of the farmers to bear the loss. When the modern projects are completed, the farmers can h0pe for a steady supply of water and less failures in crop. Water is not the only element adversely affecting the farmers. The soil erosion through depletion and overexploitation of earth are other stumbling stones in good farming. India is building up a few fertilizer manufacturing factories. The land utilization is a group project, rather than an isolated effort. The modern machine technology should help the people to attack the soil problem as a united team. But the mechanization is a retreaval from the traditional norms. The machine technology has brought in a certain unbalance in man's rural life and occupation. It disturbs the intimate relations the farmer has with the mother earth. This phenomenon is well seen in the Indian village. The change agents and the social workers who try to influence the village are finding that they are up against a brick wall caused by the redstence to change. This resistence is not based purely on the lack of knowledge but is also founded on many religious and superstitious sanctions and prohibitions kept up through centuries. 175 As the facilities of travel, communication and intercourse break the barriers of physical and social isolation, the interrelationships of the village change. The village or hamlet ceases to be altogether self-sufficient. An isolated clump of houses, or the brink of a marsh or edge of a forest, and a hamlet in a slightly elevated site, or a river on a forest clearing, are far less self-sufficient than H adverse compact village in a spacious valley. This is what an American visitor remarked about the sincere self-help endeavors he found in India: No where else do so many people put so much labor into getting water; and in no where else25 is the problem of heating water more dramatic. India is one among the largest cattle stock countries in the world. These animals do not relieve the country's food needs, excepting by providing a part of the dairy needs. The Hindus are forbidden to eat beef by their religious books. The quality of the livestock is so miserably poor that the dairy needs cannot be taken care of by its yields. India's cattle resource is: 170,000,000 Cows A6,000,000 Buffalo hh,000,000 Sheep 56,000,000 Goats 1,083,000 Camels 1,838,000 Horses 2/ 1,918,000 > Donkeys O 2LLRadhakamal Mukerjee. Man and His Habitation. London: Longman Green, 19h0, p. 180. 25W. Norman Brow. The United States, India and Pakistan.S Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard—University Press, 3 Po - 26India 1956-57. New Delhi: Government of India, 1957. pp. TIE-28. 176 Considering the p0pu1ation of the country, there is one cattle for two people, which is a very satisfactory ratio. But because of the poor quality of the breed, this advantageous ratio has no practical meaning. The feeding problem of such enormous number of cattle with the meager fodder available in the land is virtually deteriorating the breed year by year. So many of the unproductive animals could be done away with and the fodder saved for the better ones. But the strong anti-cow slaughter movement fanatically upheld by the majority of Hindus remains like a dog in the manger. About 200 million monkeys, protected under religious immunity, feed on nature's table to aggravate the food and fodder shortage. No wonder that Malthus was horrified at the thought and cried out in despair: "...too many guests at Nature's mighty feast." One may think that the number of cattle may contribute to the improvement of the cultivatable soil. The cattle drops are not used entirely for fertilizing the soil. India has no oil or gas hearths. It has to depend on fire woods or any other substitute for fuel. Hence the cow dung is mixed with straw or husk of paddy and is used as cooking fuel. Cow dung is a potent natural fertilizer, but it is used for some other important need of the society like fuel, washing deturgent and in some cases an an anticeptic and floor coloring. 177 The Government is urging the farmers to improve the breeding and feeding habits of their livestock. In 1956, with better care, India could raise 750,000 pedigreed bulls. The animal need is around a million bulls to keep up the quality of the livestodk. It is high time to introduce artificial insemination. The Michigan State University Extension Service at Vietnam has done wonders, according to reports, in improving the breeding of cattle. Such a scheme would have been of tremendous help in India's struggle to improve her livestock. The housing problem is another difficulty that hurts the quality of the peOple of India. The houses in the villages may be divided into three categories according to their quality. I. The well built houses: They are fairly ventilated and accommodate both cattle and men in separate extensions, yet under the same roof. These are brick homes, mostly owned by the Brahmins, and the upper crust of the p0pu1ation, the Banias, landlords and village officers. The number of such houses may be 10 per cent of the total. 2. Mud houses: These houses can be mud masonry with thatched or tiled roofs. The majority are ill-lighted, ill- ventilated and low roofed. In those houses, the family and the cattle share the rooms except during the hot seasons. These homes are highly unsanitary and unhygienic. Most of I i ‘ l ' I \. - . ‘ ' I ' Y Q t ‘ 0 :~ 1 - ' l I. r k C a ' n l I a 1', ‘ C A I - ~ -- 1 . . 1 \ ‘r ‘ ,, l‘ . , \ \" _ _ , . U { ' . . ‘ I i . s . V 1 ‘ g l T p O C -. , V .1 I I . ( 1. 1 H‘ 1' . l l A. . .' i V . C O I .. .. . 0 . . .-.. _ . I I r 1 l l ‘l ’ r \ I I ' ’ 1 I . 1 . I v , g , , I ,1 O -. , ,-- . . 1 _ . 1 . ’- i t l J ,. 178 them have no windows, or even if they have, they are perma- nently closed. There are no chimneys in the houses, and cooking is done in the living room. Consequently, smoke and soot hover inside the roofs. Since there are no ceilings, Spiders, lizards and odier kinds of venomous creepers freely use the roof and the thatching. 3. The mud houses or huts: The mud huts are completely inadequate for human habitation. More than 60 per cent of India's population live in such kind of huts. The four walls are erected from crude mud, with but one Opening. The roof is thatched with dried grass or straw. At what time these teeming millions are going to crawl out of their despicable habitats is a matter of pure specu- lation. Nevertheless, unless and until they are reborn to average human life, they will continue in a state of slavery, even though democratic and free decrees are enacted for an independent country from the Parliament House of New Delhi; There is no harder and more painful slavery than that slavery from within. Why do they accept such a down-trodden .life? Because their eyes are tightly closed by the darkness (of ignorance; their suffering is sifted and soothed by the tshoight of an almost criminal "here-after" reward. There 'is a despicable resignation to the inevitable, impregnable 179 philosophy of "Destiny or Karma" according to which man is undergoing a prefabricated package deal of life's stipula- tion. The whole system should undergo changes. The people should be given an opportunity to get out of the endless knots that bind them. Karl Marx invited the people of this sort with a welcoming invitation: "Workers of the world, arise, you have nothing to lose but your fetters." The life of the "Kamia" or tenant is described thus: A."Kamia" is just a serf... the Kamia is given a small plot of land on which to build a little mud house, for he must live somewhere. He might grow a few vegetables, but his time was his master's, and frequently when he had succeeded in producing a little maze or vegetables, his master sends his servants to take them for his own table. If the social system is permitted to change, one has to eradicate these social irregularities one after anoUier. The Kamia could be given a cash wage for his labors than to submit to indefinite rewards, sometimes heartbreaking punishments as quoted above. The Kamia should be given an opportunity to save up some money so that one day he can own his thirteen cents of land on which to live and to work. Sometimes the negative virtue of remunication, which Gandhi and his followers turned into a creed, seemed merely 27Marshall, MOrgan and Scott. Village India. London: G. P. Pittman and Company, 1951, p. 28. 180 to represent the simple aesthetic standards. .Alas, Tagore once lamented: "My cheerless country, donning the worn out garment of decreptitude, Loaded with the burden of wisdom, You imagine you have 386“ through the fraud of creation. SUMMARY Evidence that the weakness of existing system of administration of education under the Federal Government of India, due to lack of insight into the social problems of India, emerges through the following analyses: The administration of education of India has overlooked many important social problems that cripple the growth and advancement of the peOple of India and failed to contribute to the leadership expected from the Department of Education in resolving these problems through adequate measures. 1. The biggest problem the nation is encountering is the problem of overp0pulation which can be handled mainly through education. Education failed in teaching the people the gravity of the issue of overpopulation. The many reasons which foster the rapid increase in p0pu1ation can be sum- marized thus: 2BVera Brittain. Search.After Sun Rise. London: McMillan and Co., 1951, p. 263. 181 a. Child marriages. b. Birth control through natural abstinence. c. Child care. 0. Superstitions beliefs in the necessity of having lchildren to attain heaven. e. Parental obligations toward children. 2. The second big problem is the caste system so deeply rooted in the minds of people. The evils of caste systems are many; the following are some of them: a. Parochialism among classes. b. Lack of cooperation in deve10pment schemes. c. Unnecessary and destructive competition. d. Clan and communal riots. e. Distrust among fellow creatures. 3. The education administrators did not plan to bring together widening estrangement of life of the masses, the quality of their life and the type of education they receive. Education is going forward completely disinterested in the community problems and the daily riddles bf the common man. An education which has no reference to the social problems of the community is a failure as an educational srstem. h. The education offered by the administrators failed to teach the people thrift and frugality. Pe0p1e enter into heavy debts just for celebrating some religious rituals 182 or aggrandizing occasions like weddings, funerals and anniversaries. Education as the leader of the community has an obligation to remedy some of these extravaganzas. 5. The society lacks the spirit of cooperation in all socio-economic activities like credit unions, village cooperatives, farmers bureaus and producers associations. Education holds the trust as the guardian of the fund of knowledge. Administrators of education are the peOple who sit in the driver's seats, steering the destinies of the community. Hence the exigencies of the existing system of education should be imputed as weakness of the administration. 6. The land tenure system of India is in a state of topsy-turvy. The root causes of the dissatisfaction among the propertyless people stem from the disorder in the land tenure policies. Many left-wing philosophies are ushered 'into India because of the disparities existing between haves and have-note. Education cannot claim immunity and wash hands under these circumstances. Education has to impart the right principles. The improvements will be effected in due time through political actions if education cares to do its part. This neglect should be reckoned as ’another weakness of the existing system. 7. Education failed to impart the basic techniques of soil conservation and good farming practices. The soil 183 erosions have depleted the contents of soil for arable purposes through minimizing the fertility. Consequently, the productivity of the-land has reached the worst world records. Here also the administrators of education deserve the blame for culpable negligence. 8. India has one cattle for every two persons according to census. Yet this cattle has become the least productive in the world. They in no way are helping the economy of the nation or the food problems of the people. No effort was ever made to improve the quality of the cattle heads. The livestock can and should alleviate food shortage of 'India. The superstitious and religious sanctions prohibit slaughtering animals or using it as food materials. Educa- tion has the eyes to see. Those with vision should lead the blind to safety. Education failed miserably in this very crucial test the nation is facing. Social problems move nearest to man's life. Man acts one way or another according to the pinch he receives from the society because he lives and moves in society. Education should help to purify this society as bet as it can so that man may have better living surroundings and thus help him to attain his material and spiritual goals of life. 18h WEAKNESSES IN THE ADMINISTRATION OF EDUCATION IN INDIA.ARISING OUT OF NEGLECT IN OBSERVING SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF ADMINISTRATION , Educational administration in India should work on three distinct levels: Federal, State and Local control which are provided for by the words of the Constitution. The lack of the concerted action can nullify the efforts from these three levels. The Federal Government through the Ministry of Education is taking over the work of a 29 The Union Government has to watch the coordinator. total picture impartially and give the directive mandates to produce the best results. Among those employed in education, some may be totally circumscribed by their own limited vision and can only turn like a cog in the wheel. Others may be such perfectionists that nothing can satisfy them. The administrators in the Ministry are confronted with people from both these groups. .Administrative prin- ciples demand that these administrators should keep the total picture of operation and act wisely toward the achieve- 30 ment of the main goals. Hence the administrators have to nghe First Five Year Plan. Planning Commission. New Delhi: Government of India Press, 1951, p. 178. 30I. Barnard Chester. The Functions of the Executive. Cambridge: Harvard University Press,‘l9h6, p. 162. F. L. Brech. Mane ement, Its Nature and Significance. Londonszitman & Son, 19 2, p. I8. 185 be speciaflzed functional managers. So far the administrator of education has not conquered the adverse conditions pre- vailing in the organization. The lack of coordination is visible in the recent reorganization of departments. Port- folio of departments is created on a random basis than a scientific move. Delegation The sound principles of administration tell that it is highly necessary to delegate power to the subordinate when- ever efficiency demands it. In the matter of delegation a few principles should be respected by the administrators. A 1. By delegating, full permission should be given to make commitments, use resources and take other actions to perform the duties. 2. Delegation creates an obligation on the part of the subordinate for a satisfactory performance of duties. 3. Delegation clearly defines the boundaries and limits of authority. h. One who receives authority through delegation should act in accordance with the policy, procedure and program. In the existing organization, the spirit of administra- tion is more of centralization and overcontrol. In such a policy the delegation has only a slim role to play. When 185 be speciaflzed functional managers. So far the administrator of education has not conquered the adverse conditions pre- vailing in the organization. The lack of coordination is visible in the recent reorganization of departments. Port- folio of departments is created on a random basis than a scientific move. Delegation The sound principles of administration tell that it is highly necessary to delegate power to the subordinate when- ever efficiency demands it. In the matter of delegation a few principles should be respected by the administrators. 1. By delegating, full permission should be given to make commitments, use resources and take other actions to perform the duties. 2. Delegation creates an obligation on the part of the subordinate for a satisfactory performance of duties. 3. Delegation clearly defines the boundaries and limits of authority. h. One who receives authority through delegation should act in accordance with the policy, procedure and program. In the existing organization, the spirit of administra- tion is more of centralization and overcontrol. In such a Policy the delegation has only a slim role to play. When 186 an organization expands and grows, for the sake of facility of control certain functions are decentralized under independent departments. Each department is then given over to functional heads. The functional authority is created when the growth is horizontal than vertical. In order to facilitate Operation more authorities could be shared with functional heads. In most school districts, the growth is more horizontal than vertical. .Administration of education in India has to assume a better perspective of the four principles of delegation enumerated above. The.Administrative Control The efficiency of any organization depends upon the type of control exercised in the organization. The authority and responsibility are vested in the line organization. The theoretical spread of authority and responsibility should be brought down to the level of everyday work. The force that brings the authority of the line to satisfactory execution of each Job is called control, and it lies in the guidance and supervision of the working team. Control in daily terminology looks like an odious word. In the running of an organizafion, control plays a most important part. By the power of control a person in authority guides those working under him in order to receive the quantitative performance expected from them. The control becomes hard 186 an organization expands and grows, for the sake of facility of control certain functions are decentralized under independent departments. Each department is then given over to functional heads. The functional authority is created when the growth is horizontal than vertical. In order to facilitate operation more authorities could be shared with functional heads. In most school districts, the growth is more horizontal than vertical. Administration of education in India has to assume a better perspective of the four principles of delegation enumerated above. The Administrative Control The efficiency of any organization depends upon the type of control exercised in the organization. The authority and responsibility are vested in the line organization. The theoretical spread of authority and responsibility should— be brought down to the level of everyday work. The force that brings the authority of the line to satisfactory execution of each job is called control, and it lies in the guidance and supervision of the working team. Control in ”daily terminology looks like an odious word. In the running of an organizafion, control plays a most important part. By the power of control a person in authority guides those working under him in order to receive the quantitative performance expected from them. The control becomes hard 187 to bear only when conditions necessary for scientific management are ignored. Those superiors who do not define the job and its dimensions to the co-workers will not get satisfactory work, will find fault constantly, and life will be unpleasant for all concerned. Control requires evalua- tion and appraisal of the Job expected from others. But if the primary data are missing as to the job analysis and boundaries, how can one expect any kind of satisfactory performance? By job analysis, one can know the dimensions of the expected or intended output from each person working in the organization. In the performance of a job, there can be measurable and non-measurable factors. From the studies done in evaluating jobs, we have come to the common acceptance that some conventional yardsticks can be used in intangible performances. This study has been well established by the research done in "Time Study" and "Motion Study." After calculating the steps and movements needed to complete a job, an average performance can be specified. Even the longest and hardest works are not made up of one simultaneous action but of a chain of continuous operations. Thus even the most minute Job can be subdivided into measurable divisions. The person who controls can measure and rate how much the worker has done. When the expected quantity of work is done, we concede the adminis- trative control to be good, and when undone, the control to 188 be bad. No project can turn into an accomplishment unless the control machinery functions up to expectations. in the matter of control, it is wise to listen to an adminis- trative scientist: It should indeed be an invariable practice to supply managers with clear and common measure- ments in all key areas of a business. These measurements need not be rigidly quantitative; nor need they be exact. But they have to be clear, simple and rational. They have to be relevant and direct agfention and efforts, where they should go. The knowledge of the goal on the part of the administrator is very conducive to effective control. When our bureaucra- cies are getting more complicated and specialized, skill is required for the operation of key functions. An adminis- trator finds it hard to demand any quantitative performance because of the complexity of operations. .One thing that will help to keep up with a satisfactory control is the opening of a bilateral flow of reports and meticulous adherence to procedures. Procedures are the milestones on the highways to the goals and objectives. If the procedures are scrupulously respected, the expected ‘ operation should be performed. If this result is not obtained, the procedures should be judged defective. One. 31Peter F. Drucker. The Practice of Management. New York: Harper & Bros., 1954: p. ISI. 189 can still err by substituting procedures for control or by placing excessive emphasis on procedures. Procedures are only marked lines between the mere street signs. Even wuth the help of these facilities, errors of excess or defect can still be made. Therefore, a good administrator should check the procedures and compare the performance. Reports and procedures are the best may of keeping informed of the developments of operation. The administrator cannot be ubiquitous, watching every move or step done by each one in the organization. Managing others will throw light on the self-management of one's duties. Autonomy is often a strong motive for ' good performance. When an organization has personnel motivated to the maximum productivity, the mediocre per- formers will have to leave that organization. There will be an internal pressure that will force the good worker to perform better and the bad one to leave. Control gives higher perfonnance and broader vision. The right-control is the right measurement. Measure- ment is intended for rating. By measuring the performance, one can rate the person who performs. Merit is based on the skill of the job concerned, the conditions under which the job is operated and type of the end product the operation means to bring forth. One is rewarded for the job after measuring the aforesaid qualifications of the job. Reward 190 and penalty are meted out according to the findings after the measurement. Span of control is another factor which influences the quality of control. No writer has ever come to the determination of the span of control by offering a specific numerical. The number may depend very much upon the type of the work concerned. If the work is skilled, semi-skilled or unskilled, span may change according to the nature of the job. .A single person can supervise only a limited number of people. The more difficult and more skilled the work is, the shorter will be the span. The span of control will work easily if the proper levels in'the hierarchy of organization are observed and the channels of communications are left Open. By proper reports and procedures, the sum and substance of each worker's performance can be channelled to the higher officer who can evaluate and guide the total organization. But if too many are reporting about heteroge- neous operations, the controlling functions become very taxing. Thus the efficiency of control can be blunted by overcrowding of varied functions: A.superior could theoretically have any number of subordinates reporting to him. There is indeed a limit set by the "span of managerial responsibility" (the term was coined, I believe, by Dr.H. H. Race of General Electric),_the number of people whom one superior can assist, teach and help to reach the objectives of their own jog2 This is a real limit; but it is not fixed. 32Peter F. Drucker. The Practice of Management. New York: Harper & Bros., l95h, p. 139. 190 and penalty are meted out according to the findings after the measurement. Span of control is another factor which influences the quality of control. No writer has ever come to the determination of the span of control by offering a specific numerical. The number may depend very much upon the type of the work concerned. If the work is skilled, semi-skilled or unskilled, span may change according to the nature of the job. A.single person can supervise only a limited number of people. The more difficult and more skilled the work is, the shorter will be the span. The span of control will work easily if the proper levels in the hierarchy of organization are observed and the channels of communications are left open. By proper reports and procedures, the sum and substance of each worker's performance can be channelled to the higher officer who can evaluate and guide the total organization. But if too many are reporting about heteroge- neous operations, the controlling functions become very taxing. Thus the efficiency of control can be blunted by overcrowding of varied functions: A.superior could theoretically have any number of subordinates reporting to him. There is indeed a limit set by the "span of managerial responsibility" (the term was coined, I believe, by Dr.H. H. Race of General Electric), the number of people whom one superior can assist, teach and help to reach the objectives of their own jog2 This is a real limit; but it is not fixed. 32Peter F. Drucker. The Practice of Management. New York: Harper & Bros., I9Sh, p. 139. 191 There are writers who disagree with Peter Drucker's opinion of the effectiveness of the reports and procedures as a means of control. People working in an organization are independent individuals, and without internal c00pera- tion, a good harmonious operation cannot be expected. Therefore, some writers stress the creation of good human relations and mutual understanding as the purpose of control. "The skill in the process of executive control ... lies more in the 'guidance and supervision of the working team' than in expert knowledge of systems and procedures."33 The team spirit has the virtue of focusing the attention of the individual workers on the total picture of the goals and objectives, and this is a psychological incentive. Yet no real progress can be made unless an unfaltering obedience is given to procedures and methodology. The procedures and methodology cannot be ignored, since they serve as a step by step blueprint of progress. The oft quoted author McFarland offers this compromise: Control is the process by which an executive gets the performance of his subordinates to correspond as closely as possible to chosen plans, orders, objectives or policies. Control thus involves the process of evaluating results, comparing them into established standards, and u taking steps to correct discrepancies which occur. __—"TETA F. L. Brech. Mana ement, Its Nature and Significance. London:-Pitman & Sons, 19 2, p. 18. suMcFarland. Mana ement Principles and Practices. New‘York:-Macmillan, , p. 299. 192 Control, the third factor of administrative function, is very closely related to planning. The scientific structure of planning will lessen the burden of control. The plans become scientific as operations shape themselves into contiguous and spontaneous actions. .Although each operation has to be attended by separate individuals, the harmonious blending of one action with another will leave the least number of alternatives and thus tend to direct it automatically to the subsequent action which waits in the row, resulting in a smooth flow of action. Thus controlling one end automatically takes care of the total arch of the concatenated operations. Grouping Activities For efficiency, economy and control, the administrator can group a few activities into distinct categories. .Meanwhile some activities are to be separated from basic functions. In other cases, separated activities can be combined into a single group for effective operation. Some norms should be set up for effective grouping: 1. Activities which need similar skills'should be grouped together. 2. Activities which have intimate association should be grouped together. 8 3. Some activities may tend to be of interest to certain peoples, although the activities, as they are, have 193 no common relationship; such activities should be grouped together in view of the persons who may operate them. A. .Activities should be grouped according to sequence in the Composition or assembly line. These principles are effectively put into practice in all industrial organizations and should bear fruit invariably in the administration of education. By prudent grouping of activities, the administrator can inject a certain amount of flexibility into the total operations. The administrator's principal job is to coordinate all activities so that workers reach the goal as a team. The administrator is more concerned about end products than departmental success. According to the principle of balance, "each portion and function of an enterprise should Operate with equal effectiveness in making its allotted contribution to the total purpose."35 Some authors say that coordination is the basic prin- ciple of organization. Coordination is intimately bound hdth administrative leadership. It is the systematic linking of various activities according to their importance, and steps at the various levels. "It expresses the principles 35Urwick. The Soan of Control and Some Facts About the Fables. Advanced Management, November, 1956. - Urwick. The Clament of.Administration. New York: Harper & Bros., 1943: p. 121. 1911 of organization 'in toto' nothing less."36 The First Five Year Plan offers three reasons for financial control as much as it helps the administrative cadres. First, the Government plan is to study the exist- ing system and find out whether the administrators on the payroll remain as assets or liabilities. The Government found that the caliber of many administrators was not satisfactory, resulting in a waste of public money, mis- application of public funds, and inadequate results from the expenditures of public funds. The tradition of administration in India is to make the district the most important single unit of administra- 3? tion. Hence decentralized power is delegated to the district officers who are charged with the collection of taxes and other kinds of revenues and also the disbursement of expenditures sanctioned and budgeted from above. After independence, the district officer was given additional power to try to improve the standard of living of the people of that district. Hence, matters of health, education and welfare of the local district are the obligation of the district officers. The district administration is emphaazing the implementa- tion of the development plans and securing the active support 36Henry C. Metcalf and L. Urwick (editors). gynm mic Administration, The Collected Papers of Mary Parker Fo lett. New York: Harper 8 Bros., lquo, p. 71. 37The First Five Year Plan. New Delhi: Government of IndiafiPress, 195?, p. 125. 195 of the people. The district administration is directed to: 1. Strengthen and improve the machinery of general administration. 2.. Establish an appropriate agency for development departments in the district and at the village level, which will derive its authority from the village community. 3. Integrate activities of various development depart- ments in the district and provide for a common extension program. u. Link up, in relation to all development works, local self-governing institutions with the administrative agencies of the State Government. 5. Coordinate and supervise regional and district development programs.38 Administrators of the modern India need great integrity to be successful in tomorrow's administration. The people are getting restless. They have endured slavery and penury for centuries, but the awakening of Asia has shaken them out of their peaceful and slothful slumber. Education and communication with other parts of the world have created in them a craving for something better than their age old lot. Moreover, the torch bearers of the Russian Communists are fanning the hopes of the people with their seditious 36The Five Year Plan. New Delhi: Government of India Press, 1932, pp. 133-3E. 196 promises. Red China is challenging Indian democracy every moment. "Our ability through democracy to surpass, or at least equal China's development under a dictatorship will determine our ability to survive as a free nation; and if we fail,.Asia goes too."39 The impact of such challenging threats will be so decisive as to demand that the administrator put genuine principles of scientific administration above long practiced expediency. The impact of this change in attitude of the administration will be so far reaching that the society itself will come forward with willingness to cooperate and make the goals of administration the peoples' goals and the administration's failure the peoples! failure. In order to create such willingness and cooperation, the manager and administrator should base all fundamental decisions on the bedrock of scientific principles that he lead not only through knowledge, competence and skill, but also through vision, courage, responsibility and integrity. By the term integrity, many other attributes are covered like dedication to the job one is ordered to do, a love and spirit of service to the people for whom these functions are designed, and a national pride which will determine that every bit of the energy expended in the performance quhester Bowles. Ambassador's Report. New York: Harper a Bros., 1953, p. T95. 197 of duty is going to raise the standards of the nation now emerging from her dependent poverty to the stature of a leader nation, well respected and looked upon as a guide in the catastrophies of international conflicts. "No matter what a man's general education or his adult educa; tion for management, what will be decisive above all, in the future even more than in the past, is neither education nor skill; it is integrity of character.“IFO Right to Run Private Schools Since the operation of a private school is a legal question, it is necessary to examine the intent of the Indian Constitution insofar as it pertains to the establish- ment and management of private schools in India. The Preamble of the Constitution is similar to the Declaration of Independence in the united States where the general principle is concerned. Chapter III describes the funda- mental rights of individuals, and Chapter IV is concerned vdth the Directive Principles of the State POIicy. THE PREAMBLE We, the People of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Democratic Republic and to secure to all its citizens, justice, social, economic, and political liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith, and worship, equality of status and of opportunity, and promote among them all fraternity assuring the dignity of the individual b’OPeter F. Drucker. The Practice of Management. New York: Harper & Bros., 195%: P. 378? 198 and the unity of the Nations, in our Constituent Assembly this 26th day of November, 1949, do hereby adopt, enact, and give to ourselves this Constitution. Indian Constitution came into force on the 28th of January of 1950, and the Sovereign Republic of India came into existence. The Preamble, prefacing the country's Constitution, has a great significance. Acharya Kripalani, the leader of the present K. M. P. Party (Krishak Najzdur Praja Party) declared: ' What we have stated in this preamble are not legal and political principles only. There are also great moral and spiritual principles. It is a principle that says that life is one, that you cannot divide it, that it is the #2 same life that is pulsating through us all. He pleaded.then that all should recognize the moral, the spiritual, and the mystical meaning of democracy. The failure to understand democracy in its right perspective, according to Kripalani, would lead a nation to faschmnand autocracy. There is also a memorable speech delivered by Dr. Ambedker, the Chairman of the Drafting Committee,on the adoption of the Constitution: These principles ofliberty, equality, and fraternity, are not to be treated as separate HIConstitution of India. New Delhi: Government of India Press, 1950. uaThe Hindu. (Report, November 26, l9u9). 198 and the unity of the Nations, in our Constituent Assembly this 26th day of November, 1949, do hereby adopt, enact, and give to ourselves this Constitution. Indian Constitution came into force on the 26th of January of 1950, and the Sovereign Republic of India came I into existence. The Preamble, prefacing the country's 1 Constitution, has a great significance. Acharya Kripalani, . the leader of the present K. M. P. Party (Krishak Najzdur Praja Party) declared: What we have stated in this preamble are not legal and political principles only. There are also great moral and spiritual principles. It is a principle that says that life is one, that you cannot divide it, that it is the H2 same life that is pulsating through us all. He pleadedothen that all should recognize the moral, the spiritual, and the mystical meaning of democracy. The failure to understand democracy in its right perSpective, according to Kripalani, would lead a nation to faséhmnand autocracy. There is also a memorable speech delivered by Dr. Ambedker, the Chairman of the Drafting Committee,on the adoption of the Constitution: These principles ofliberty, equality, and fraternity, are not to be treated as separate E 111Constitution of India. New Delhi: Government of India Press, 1950. uaThe Hindu. (Report, November 26, l9u9). 199 items in a trinity. They form a union of trinity in the sense that to divorce one from another is to defeat the very purpose of democracy. giberty cannot be divorced from equality.LL The Indian leaders gave a Vedantic interpretation of the Constitutional Preamble. It can mean a pure democracy; it can mean a humanistic interpretation of equality, and it can also mean an atheistic humanism. These three levels of interpretation are already advocated by the champions who stand for complete nationaliza- tion of private primary schools. The philosophy behind private schools rests on liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith, and worship. Nationalization goes against the assurances given expressly by the Preamble of the Constitution. Fundamental Rights - Eighty-six per cent of the total p0pu1ation of India are Hindus. The British Government has refused to grant freedom on the grounds that a democracy could not work in India because of the deep-rooted religious differences and prejudices. The Congress responded that democracy, based on fundamental human rights, cannot fail. Communalism is, or ought to be, unrelated to politics. Fundamental rights _E3The Hindu. (Report November 26, 19h9). wan-“u. -7l_ 200 cannot be ignored by legislative, judicial and executive powers of the Government. The Constitution enacted twenty-four.Articles relating to fundamental rights. They can be classified under the 5 following seven categories: 1 1. Right to equality, ! 2. Right against exploitation, 3. Right to freedom, A. Right to freedom of religion, 5. Cultural and educational rights, 6. Rights to property, and 7. Right to constitutional remedies.uu The private schools are sharing the burden of education much more than any single agency in India. In fact, aided and unaided private schools assume hh.h per cent of the total expenditures for education. The Second Five Year Plan laid out a plan for educating MO per cent of the total number of children of school-going age, but because of extenuating circumstances the Central Ministry of Education made cuts in the proposed budget for education. Thus, the Government could not afford to plan for no per cent of her children's education. Since this is so, why should the p uHConstitition of India. New Delhi: Government of India Press, 1950. 201 state government encroach upon the private schools? Management Amount EXpended Percentage on Education 1955-56 . vii Government (state) h03,013,110 27.8 L District Boards 30h,093,29l 21.0 1 Municipal Board 98,651,446 6.8 i Private Bodies: ‘ a. Aided 569,910,193 39.4 b. Unaided 72,400,755 5.0 Total l,h48,068,785 100.0 This Opposition to the private schools is subject to criticism for these reasons: 1. There seems to be a violation of the fundamental rights stated in the Constitution. 2. Private schools are strengthening the Government effort, not weakening it. Moreover, if the private schools are closed, the burden of education will fall totally on the shoulders of the government. 3. Such action is against scientific principles of management. #. This action discriminates against the interest of the parents who have the right to choose the type of school in which their children should be educated. 5. Such procedure will eliminate Rs. 6h million now expended on education from the educational fields. 6. This action will effect more harm than good in the relationship between the peOple and the government. .__., r . . . , O I l . fl 5 . l , l n t I . . a D . Os . -. I; '\ 'i ‘ ( It I _ r\ p\ Q fx ... 0V 4 . ., _ _ h . . _ . . c a O o c v , _ . A _ 202 The following suggestions would appear more con- stitutional and practical in value: 1. Since cOOPeration from the public is important to win success in any pursuit, the government should act in such a way as to enlist popular support. 2. The private schools greatly aided in the achievement of the present rate of literacy and they should be given freedom and necessary aids to continue their services to the community. I 3. The private schools should be controlled in its curricuhnm appointment of teachers, methods Of promotion and seniority, as well as in the disciplinary measures against school personnel and the admission of students. h. The Constitution is eXplicit relative to the teaching Of religion in schools that should be followed to the letter. The Federal Government will not and should not inter- fere in the internal administration of a state. The Federal Government can interfere and must interfere into the internal administration of a state when there is gross violation of the fundamental rights assured by the Union Constitution, when there are insecurities for life and prOperty, and when there is activity against the Union Government. The Central Government should insist on the observance of the principles of the Constitution. Nationalization of o , . 203 private schools is a move against the Constitutional stipulations. The Central Ministry of Education is the watch dog for the primary education of the nation. The Central Government should Oppose any move of the state that would jeopardize the common goals of the Federal Government. The private schools are helping the Federal .. “In—mum. Government. The private schools are helping the Federal g Government in spreading literacy in the nation. SUMMARY The administrative weakness of the Ministry of Educa- tion of India as seen in the preceding analysis and investigation are: l. Weakness inzn administrative organization will stem from the weakness in: A. Planning Treating about the strength of the organization, mention was made of innumerable studies done through Parliamentary Committees and special experts in planning for the education of India. The weakness that is found in the plans is not through the incompetency of the members of the planning cOmmissions but through the default of the educational philosophies of the ruling governments. The planners were asked to fill in a construct offered by the Government and not an 203 private schools is a move against the Constitutional stipulations. The Central Ministry of Education is the watch dog for the primary education of the nation. The Central Government should Oppose any move of the E state that would jeopardize the common goals of the Federal Government. The private schools are helping the Federal W.FiJh-HIE‘§Z ’ .' . a -. s Government. The private schools are helping the Federal Government in spreading literacy in the nation. SUMMARY The administrative weakness of the Ministry of Educa- tion of India as seen in the preceding analysis and investigation are: l. Weakness inzn administrative organization will stem from the weakness in: A. Planning Treating about the strength of the organization, mention was made of innumerable studies done through Parliamentary Committees and special experts in planning for the education of India. The weakness that is found in the plans is not through the incompetency of the members of the planning cOmmissions but through the default of the educational philosophies of the ruling governments. The planners were asked to fill in a construct offered by the Government and not an 20h independent free investigation into the fields of educa- tional administration. The British system of education was at that time primarily for the upper and middle classes. The planning commissions framed a new system that could adequately take care of the education of the upper and middle classes. When Independent India offered franchise for all adults and constitutionally supported compulsory education for all, the earlier findings became meaningless to the new needs. Since Indian Constitution desired the education Of all, the earlier plans had to be retooled to fit into the new situation. This meant a complete change over from the past which created considerable slow down in the administration. 4 Some plans are imperative, and some are directive. The nature of importance makes some plans mandatory and some directive. The planning commission of administration of education did not pinpoint the importance according to priority, frequency and sequence. Thus unimportant became compulsory and important became directive. This situation should be counted as a weakness of existing system. B. Organizing. Organizing of administration of education is done through the parliamentary decisions, Departments of Education 205 of the Federal and State Governments and local autonomous institutions like cities, municipalities and panchayats. The main feature of organizing is raising the capital with which to work. Since the money needed for education is sanctioned by the managing institution, the administrators of education have little to do in it. The one weakness in the administration in the field of capitalization is this: They do what is said by the Government within the available funds and do not care to add anything on their own. The Chancellors, Vice Chancellors, Directors of Public Instruc- tion and others involved chiefly in administration never scout for financial support from private people and organiza- tions. It is not because there is no private person inter- ested in the education of the nation. These administrators keep aloof from fund raising. They have not recognized this factor as a part Of the administrative duty. Education is progressing on the main stay of govermental subsidy. This is a very poor policy and should be considered as a weakness of the organizing feature of administration. School buildings are usually built through Open con- tracts according to the specifications given by the manage- ment. Still in offering the contract, selecting the architect and assembling the materials and locating the building, many evil practices are prevalent, tangent to nepotism, favoritism and communalism. 206 .Maintenance of the school buildings is done by janitors or peons and unskilled laborers who have no formal training in up-keep and maintenance. Few schools carry an inventory Of accessories, equip- ment and furniture that belong to the institution. Very few schools have a strong fence around them. The maintenance crew infrequently live close to the school. Hence, cases Of break in and looting become common. In most modern schools fire is not a threat since the walls are built with brick and roof tiles. Administrators should show reasonable care in protecting the prOperties belonging to educational institutions which is not done satisfacbbrily. C. Controlling 1. A school building is used only five hours a day and one hundred and eighty days a year. The present administrators of education have not paid attention to the proper utilization space. Many are illiterate because the nation cannot afford to build new schools and furnish accessories to hold classes. Meanwhile the existing schools are not exploited to their maximum utility. Introducing shift system, or Offering classes on unit bases, teaching could be conducted possibly from 8:00 a.m. to 10 p.m. If the administrators of education can offer some night classes “95' users“ 207 for social education, they could have helped in expediting the literacy rate in India. The idea of making school the center of community is looked upon with fear by many administrators of education. a They fear that the community may misuse the public buflding designed for education. It can possibly happen that the group that enters school premises may dirty or spoil the fim'fi .1 1.... hr. schools but gradually they would learn how to live in cultured environments. Forbidding the community to enter school premises is a disservice to the community and closing the gates against many healthy socializing influences the schools could impart to the community. Since school is not a part of the community, the adults of the community keep away from taking part in the many school activities. Without community participation a school fails to be a light house shedding light into the community shrouded in ignorance. The community has the power to retaliate against the school by refusing coopera- tion needed for the morale of the school. 2. Landscaping: landscaping is one feature that is entirely ignored in the school premises. Land is scarce in India. Most schools have a convenient site and big playgrounds. Some of the land could be converted into gardens and orchards primarily to add to the asthetics of the school environment. 208 Secondly, this gardening could serve as a little laboratory for the students. The students have shown great interest in gardening wherever the school administrators evinced some leadership. The administrator of education should enlist cooperation of not only the community but also the talents of the student body: Planning is impossible, unless every component of the organization contributes its share to the total result... The executive may not consciously use the term, but all his work, E’Efiifiiiefiew‘fifiwihi13:15:31,:91Er‘ih2°?ia¥i’f‘fls 3. Assembling: The Ministry of Education is imposed with the burden of assembling, processing, combining and distributing men, material and resources to produce maximum benefit and optimum usefulness. Indian administrative system needed a complete revision because Of the various malpractices which had accumulated in it during the British period. The Indian administrator had to change his attitude of service. Formerly he served a foreign government, but by independence, the same executive has to serve his own nation. The required transformation was not possible in all cases. The planners of national education had to contend with this as one of the major obstacles against improvements. 1+5Dimock Marshall. Executive in Action. New York: Harper & Bros., l9h5, p. 12h. ‘W'm‘ zl- 1M FIT-737:3 ‘LH- ' ‘ I- v 209 Time is a basic element for planning and organizing. The plans are for change and changes take place only slowly. Plans start at an immediate present and go on into an inter- mediate future. h. Uniformity of Operation: another weakness of the system of administration originated from the unequal level of literacy in various parts of the same state. Educational administration concentrated its attention to some parts of the state, neglecting other parts. Education was not equally distributed to create uniformity of methods and procedures. Efficiency is the product of a well balanced organiza- tion. When an organization has a clear-cut picture of authority with explicit boundaries of performance, it should create efficiency. The administration of education in India needs a reorganization of levels Of authority and responsibility after a complete study of job analysis. 5. Line, staff and functional authority: the most significant weakness in the administration of education of the Federal Government of India are in these fields. The organization is not scientifically charted showing: (1) authority, responsibility and accountability; (b) a clear- cut channel of communication; (c) type of authority as line, staff or functional; (d) lack of proper delegaflon; (e) lack of scientific grouping; (f) too much centralization; .;Z? 1'! .a_ -x .— are?“ 209 Time is a basic element for planning and organizing. The plans are for change and changes take place only slowly. Plans start at an immediate present and go on into an inter- mediate future. h. Uniformity of Operation: another weakness of the system of administration originated from the unequal level of literacy in various parts of the same state. Educational administration concentrated its attention to some parts of the state, neglecting other parts. Education was not equally distributed to create uniformity of methods and procedures. Efficiency is the product of a well balanced organiza- tion. When an organization has a clear-cut picture Of authority with explicit boundaries Ofperformance, it should create efficiency. The administration of education in India needs a reorganization of levels of authority and responsibility after a complete study of job analysis. 5. Line, staff and functional authority: the most significant weakness in the administration Of education of the Federal Government of India are in these fields. The organization is not scientifically charted showing: (1) authority, responsibility and accountability; (b) a clear- cut channel of communication; (c) type of authority as line, staff or functional; (d) lack of proper delegafion; (e) lack of scientific grouping; (f) too much centralization; 209 Time is a basic element for planning and organizing. The plans are for change and changes take place only slowiy. Plans start at an immediate present and go on into an inter- mediate future. El 42 h. Uniformity of operation: another weakness of the arm—.05 L K 9 system Of administration originated from the unequal level of literacy in various parts of the same state. Educational am' administration concentrated its attention to some parts of the state, neglecting other parts. Education was not equally distributed to create uniformity of methods and procedures. Efficiency is the product of a well balanced organiza- tion. When an organization has a clear-cut picture of authority with explicit boundaries of performance, it should create efficiency. The administration of education in India needs a reorganization of levels of authority and responsibility after a complete study of job analysis. 5. Line, staff and functional authority: the most significant weakness in the administration of education of the Federal Government of India are in these fields. The organization is not scientifically charted showing: (1) authority, responsibility and accountability; (b) a clear- cut channel of communication; (c) type of authority as line, staff or functional; (d) lack of proper delegafion; (e) lack of scientific grouping; (f) too much centralization; 210 (g) little decentralization and departmentalization; and (h) poor span Of control. 6. Delegation: because of extreme centralization, the L3? sound principles of delegations are ignored. To much ‘1' centralization has created heavy mmrk loads and poor ”a- ”to - 4.. span of control. 7. Grouping activities in a scientific way can flfiflfiT eliminate dual control, repetition and clarity of organiza- tion. The administrative organization needs regrouping to correct the weakness. 8. The operation of private school: the administra- tion of education is not too favorably inclined to encourage private schools. When almost 86 per cent of the population are illiterate, it is unwise to discourage private COOpera- tion in the attempt to speed literacy efforts. Moreover an unfavorable policy against the private schools is against the constitutional assurance made to minorities. SUMMARY OF THE WEAKNESS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ,ADMINISTRATION OF INDIA, 1. Some aspects Of the present administration of education conflict with the values and traditions of India. a. The British Government did not take into accOunt the values Of India when they reorganized the educational systems Of India. The difference in values between East and West cannot be bridged through minor changes. tion 211 b. Introduction of foreign languages as compulsory medium of instruction in Indian schools forced Sanskrit out of the school premises. c. Only English education was considered the right :9? . can!“ form Of education. This insistence turned away many Indian educational systems to the point of extinction. glam 3“”va . 3' -. line. d. The present educational systems are catering to the upper classes only. The majority are in the lower income group, and hence majority cannot avail an education desigied for upper classes. e. The aloofness Of the "Educated Castes" creates major stratifications in the society reflecting adversely on the progress of the nation. 2. There are many aspects in the present administra- of education which are uneconomic practices: a. The India Government's new policy of building a "Socialistic State" has thrown cold water on the initiatives and investments of the domestic entre- preneurs. b. The growing socialistic tendencies in India have dampened the foreign investments, thus adding to the industrialization of India. c. The heavy drainage in the foreign reserves through trade balance has adversely affected the economy of tion 211 b. Introduction of foreign languages as compulsory medium of instruction in Indian schools forced Sanskrit out of the school premises. c. Only English education was considered the right -.-'.y'a _ A | ‘F A form of education. This insistence turned away m ”m met-... many Indian educational systems to the point of extinction. E d. The present educational systems are catering to : the upper classes only. The majority are in the lower income group, and hence majority cannot avail an education desigied for upper classes. e. The aloofness of the "Educated Castes" creates major stratifications in the society reflecting adversely on the progress of the nation. 2. There are many aspects in the present administra- of education which are uneconomic practices: a. The India Government's new policy of building a "Socialistic State" has thrown cold water on the initiatives and investments of the domestic entre- preneurs. b. The growing socialistic tendencies in India have dampened the foreign investments, thus adding to the industrialization of India. c. The heavy drainage in the foreign reserves through trade balance has adversely affected the economy Of 212 of India. The administrators of education do not have enough funds to proceed with the plans. d. The Government is going into governmental invest- ments into industry. This action has forced to cut the pie into thinner slices while budgeting the resources. Education suffers because of this attitude. e. The mounting prices due to inflation and scarcity have created black markets and lowered further the standard of life. The rescirces of the Ministry of Education are suffering through devaluation Of Ruppees. f. The economic failure affected the Second Five Year Plan adversely. The faith of the peOple in the democratic government was shattered. As a result 8 there are more people swinging to the left wing. Even schools and colleges are filled with students who are "card-carrying" members or at least sympathizers of the leftists. 3. There are many aspects in the present administration of education which have no reference to the social dilemmas Of'the nation. a. The rapid increase of population is the biggest social problem of India. This demands more schools, teachers and educational facilities to keep up the present rate of literacy. Administrators of education have not accepted this threat as their Obligation. 213 b. The caste system deeply rooted in the minds of peOple hinders the progress Of the nation. Education has closed its eyes against this social evil. c. The widening estrangement of education and the quality of the life of the people are the main reasons for the unusual unemployment among the educated. The administrators of education failed to remedy this situation. d. Many are waiting for foreign aid to improve the plight of the nation. The administrators failed to teach thrift and frugality to the people. Self-help ' is the best help. e. The communal bickerings and jealousies stand against self-improvement measures as COOperatives, credit unions and rural savings banks. Education is the only weapon that can be effective in creating better communal.amity. f. The techniques of soil conservation are not imparted satisfactorily in the schools. Agriculture is the main pursuit of the people. This is an unpardonable negligence on the part of the administra- tion of education. g. India has one cattle for two persons; yet most peOple have never tasted milk in their entire life. The administration of education failed to assume in with 21h taking leadership to eliminate unproductive cattle, to improve quality of livestock and to introduce better ways of conserving cattle. h. The present administration of education is affected many administrative weaknesses. a. The planning aspect Of administration seems to be attended by the administration through repeated studies. But the administration accepted a policy that planning is for planning sake. The administration failed to try out some of the plans drafted with considerable expense. b. The changing educational phiksophies stood against the introduction of the recommendations made through the plans. c. Administrators of education were inattentive to find the compulsory plans for directives. They lost sight of importance according to priority, sequence and frequency. This mix-up weakened the efficacy of the plans. d. Administration needs working capital. Because of the many unforeseen expenses encountered by the Government, the amount budgeted for education was cancelled abruptly dislocating the entire organization. e. The administrators of education depended entirely on Government to finance their projects. They failed 215 to solicit aid from private sector. f. Paternalism, communalism and nepotism were used in issuing business contracts, pertaining to the administration of education. Such corruptions slowed down the progress of education. g. Maintenance of schools and belongings was given over to untrained, irresponsible, non-certified employees by the administration. h. Very few schools carry inventory records. 1. The administration did not make use of the available space to produce the maximum utility. Hence inefficient utilization of space. j. The school failed to attract the community into its premises and thus public cooperation did not support school sistems . k. The administrators did not invite the students' talents to create gardens, orchards and landscaping to increase the child interests in farming. S. Assembling, processing, combining, distributing and transporting are some of the executive functions. The administration of education lost the sense of proportion in some of these activities. 6. Uniformity of operation creates better consistency and cohesiveness. But most administrative actions were 216 centered only to localities but not to the entire nation, leaving behind disproportionate achievements. Such state of affairs can only decrease the efficiency of operation. 7. The Federal Government of India controls the policy of the Government. Hence the various ministries have only functional authority. This is an important weakness in keeping up a steady operation. 8. Because of high centralization, the Ministry has failed to delegate authority in most cases. Thus the administration is wflhout the benefits of proper division of labor. 9. Centralized control is effective when similar activities are grouped together. But in the administration Of education of the Ministry Of Education too many activities Of dissimilar features are grouped which creates difficulty of control. 10. The Ministry of Education of Federal Government and Department of Public Instruction of the Indian states are staging a step-mother attitude toward private schools which has foiled the private initiatives in education. 216 centered only to localities but not to the entire nation, leaving behind disproportionate achievements. Such state of affairs can only decrease the efficiency of operation. 7. The Federal Government of India controls the policy of the Government. Hence the various ministries have only functional authority. This is an important weakness in keeping up a steady operation. 8. Because of high centralization, the Ministry has failed to delegate authority in most cases. Thus the administration is wfihout the benefits of proper division of labor. 9. Centralized control is effective when similar activities are grouped together. But in the administration of education of the Ministry of Education too many activities of dissimilar features are grouped which creates difficulty of control. 10. The Ministry of Education of Federal Government and Department of Public Instruction of the Indian states are Staging a step-mother attitude toward private schools which has foiled the private initiatives in education. CHAPTER FIVE Summary and Implications In the preceding chapters, an analysis of educational administration in India made possible the identification of numerous problems and issues which must be resolved if education is to assume an active role in Indian deve10pment. In this chpater these problems and issues are summarized and a series of recommended changes are set forth. The chapter is divided into four divisions; namely, 1. Resume of critical problems and issues requiring a broad program of public education for solution; 2. Description Of the type of educational programs and services which seem necessary and achievable at this time; 3. Recommended policies and activities which aim to pro‘ect the Federal Government of India into a as ership role with respect to public education. CHAPTER FIVE Summary and Implications In the preceding chapters, an analysis of educational administration in India made possible the identification of numerous problems and issues which must be resolved if education is to assume an active role in Indian deve10pment. In this chpater these problems and issues are summarized and a series of recommended changes are set forth. The chapter is divided into four divisions; namely, 1. Resume of critical problems and issues requiring a broad program of public education for solution; 2. Description of the type of educational programs and services which seem necessary and achievable at this time; 3. Recommended policies and activities which aim to pro‘ect the Federal Government of India into a ea ership role with respect to public education. 'N I \.(‘ 218 Section 11 Summary of Critical Problems and Issues From the analysis set forth in earlier chapters it seems reasonable to conclude that India is currently faced with a number of compelling and persistent problems requiring a unified educatiaial program of great dimensions. It is manifestly apparent that the contemporary educational organization, program, and resources are not adequate to the task. Six summary statements may reasonably be made in describing this situation: 1. The admhiistration of education in India has not been given due consideration as to the culture and heritage of India. Contemporary education is patterned after the British model and so detached from the mainstream of national development. 2. The existing system of education fosters the development of an "educated caste" of graduates from institutions of higher learning. These educated people are unwilling to return to their villages to help their fellow-men in resolving basic problems. Instead they move into the cities in pursuit of self-betterment. 3. The rapid increase of population is the number one reason for low standard of living for the majority of the people of India. The educational system has not dealt with this problem in any significant way, nor are students offered "Q -q.. 218 Section lL Summary of Critical Problems and Issues From the analysis set forth in earlier chapters it seems reasonable to conclude that India is currently faced with a number of compelling and persistent problems requiring a unified educatiaial program of great dimensions. It is manifestly apparent that the contemporary educational organization, program, and resources are not adequate to the task. Six summary statements may reasonably be made in describing this situation: 1. The administration of education in India has not been given due consideration as to the culture and heritage of India. Contemporary education is patterned after the British model and so detached from the mainstream of national development. 2. The existing system of education fosters the development of an "educated caste" of graduates from institutions of higher learning. These educated people are unwilling to return to their villages to help their fellow-men in resolving basic problems. Instead they move into the cities in pursuit of self-betterment. 3. The rapid increase of population is the number one reason for low standard of living for the majority of the people of India. The educational system has not dealt with this problem in any significant way, nor are students offered l' I - ‘...—.».e . c- . - - - .. - . . . i I . - \ . ‘ ‘. . . . n , _ -0 g ' . 'v , u . ‘ \ ; ‘ l. ' , u 1 I . K . ' \' I I ' ‘ ‘ . ‘ K ‘ I . a v \ , l A - . —. l I‘ i , ‘ I ‘ a A I ' I Q ‘ , . 4. ' I , l . . l' . . u r u ' O . f . | \ - - I I .| “I x . g ‘ . r \ -' . . a ‘ ‘ . ' v . F . . . - . . . . , . . .. v , . . . . f ' ‘ V I l O . v , . i . ’ ' - ' I , y I’.‘ V i . . ' l ‘V V n. . , H ‘ u; ‘ ' I \. -. O E 1' I, ’(— . ; i '1 ' * r .‘ 3 'i‘ ‘ -' -- I | o l . . . . I " * r r ‘ l . . .- 1 g A ‘.,_ . . .' . 219 basic ideas regarding planned birth or family planning. 4. At present, India is predominantly an agri— cultural nation. Industry has not made proportionate gains; rather the immense potentials for industrial life remain to be exploited. In a nation that has an approximate forty-five percentage of permanent unemployment with a sixty-five percentage of temporary unemployment, efforts for industrialization cannot be put off much longer. The present educational program is not deve10ping a skilled p0pu1ation upon which a needed industrialization can be based. 5. Independent India can progress only by the coopera- tion of everyone in national undertakings. The artificial barriers between man and man militates against social progress. Present education conforms to the time-old caste system. 6. Education at the lower level is a state function. 'The states are organized on linguistic bases in line with their traditions and customs. Yet the major problems of India supersede the ability of the individual state to offer a solution. At the present time, the federal govern- ment is not using its prestige, resources or leadership to develOp a unified educational program to attack and resolve the major problems of the nation. 220 If these summary statements adequately describe the current educational situation in India, it follows that a dramatic new program of public education must be deve10ped wflshin the framework of existing governmental Operations. Education must come directly to grips with problems of community and social deve10pment. Education for the sake of education alone must give way to more utilitarian con- eepts if India is to rid herself of the traditional deprivation, poverty, and ignorance. In the next several pages, an attempt is made to describe the essence of such a new public education, its caitent, essential method, and types of instructional and service personnel. In the final section of this chapter, tentative recommendations are made which describe a role or leadership for the federal government in providing a unified and vital public education program. Section 2, Kind of Educational Programs Needed Since many of India's basic problems are economic, it follows that public education must be concerned with the task of elevating the standard of living among India's people. Public education must therefore become increasingly voca- tional in nature. Programs should be built around effective means for controlling child marriages, for the promotion of 220 If these summary statements adequately describe the current educational situation in India, it follows that a dramatic new program of public education must be deve10ped wflzhin the framework of existing governmental operations. Education must come directly to grips with problems of community and social deve10pment. Education for the sake of education alone must give way to more utilitarian con- cepts if India is to rid herself of the traditional deprivation, poverty, and ignorance. In the next several pages, an attempt is made to describe the essence of such a new public education, its content, essential method, and types of instructional and service personnel. In the final section of this chapter, tentative recommendations are made which describe a role or leadership for the federal government in providing a unified and vital public education program. Section 21 Kind of Educational Programs Needed Since many of India's basic problems are economic, it follows that public education must be concerned with the task of elevating the standard of living among India's peOple. Public education must therefore become increasingly voca- tional in nature. Programs should be built around effective means for controlling child marriages, for the promotion of 221 ethical birth control, the practice of thrift and frugality, and the introduction of sensible animal husbandry. 1. Controlling child marriages. Although the govern- ment has banned child marriage by law, the practice is still in existence. Only education can stop this forbidden practice. No part of the curriculum in school touches the evils of child marriage. The educational system has not strived to instill parental obligations. If parents cannot give at least the minimum standard of life and education to their children, their right to beget children indiscriminately should be challenged. Parental obligations toward family and children should be taught. Adults should be taught concerning the biological aspects of fertility and its potentials. Gandhi inculcated tie idea of willful abstinence of marital act through mutual consent. They also should be taught how to avail themselves of the "safe period" and ”rhythm system" in using the marital acts. Birth control alone is not the only solution to this problem. Late marriages tend to have smaller families. Most people get married before they are eighteen. If marriages could be postponed voluntarily, the reproductive chances will becane slimmer. ...: 222 The controlling of population alone is not the right attitude, rather it is a negative approach. The nation can develop the natural potentials of the country and allow more peOple to share the munificence of the nature. 2. Softening attitude toward the caste systemL The caste system has been abrogated officially by the Indian Constitution. Yet in the minds of men the deep-rooted Spirit of separation between peOple is still a reality. At the present time one can find expressions of this spirit in the communal bickerings prevalent in every walk of life. It is only education that can bridge the gap between man and man. There is no evidence that the present system has dale enough to iron out these differences. The school system should offer opportunities for intercultural communications which will open the gates for wider under- standing. Only through the fusion of cultural, social, economic, political, and finally family life by means of intermarriage can the nation attain the spirit of oneness. 3. The teachingiof thrift and frugalit . When money is scarce and jobs few, wealth should be disbursed and expended with the greatest of care and calculation. Interest rates are very high, even to the point of extortion, and the morals of the money leaders are not commendable. In such circumstances, the peOple should be taught how to live within their means and refrain from wasteful feastings and celebrations. 222 The controlling of population alone is not the right attitude, rather it is a negative approach. The nation can develop the natural potentials of the country and allow more peOple to share the munificence of the nature. 2. Softening attitude toward the caste sygtemL The caste system has been abrogated officially by the Indian Constitution. Yet in the minds of men the deep-rooted spirit of separation between peOple is still a reality. At the present time one can find expressions of this spirit in the communal bickerings prevalent in every walk of life. It is only education that can bridge the gap between man and man. There is no evidence that the present system has dale enough to iron out these differences. The school system should offer opportunities for intercultural communications which will open the gates for wider under- standing. Only through the fusion of cultural, social, economic, political, and finally family life by means of intermarriage can the nation attain the spirit of oneness. 3. The teaching‘of thrift and frugality. When money is scarce and jobs few, wealth should be disbursed and expended with the greatest of care and calculation. Interest rates are very high, even to the point of extortion, and the morals of the money leaders are not commendable. In such circumstances, the peOple should be taught how to live within their means and.refrain from wasteful feastings and Celebrations, 222 The controlling of population alone is not the right attitude, rather it is a negative approach. The nation can develop the natural potentials of the country and allow more peOple to share the munificence of the nature. 2. Softening attitude toward the caste system. The caste system has been abrogated officially by the Indian Constitution. Yet in the minds of men the deep-rooted spirit of separation between people is still a reality. At the present time one can find expressions of this spirit in the communal bickerings prevalent in every walk of life. It is only education that can bridge the gap between man and man. There is no evidence that the present system has doie enough to iron out these differences. The school system should offer Opportunities for intercultural communications which will open the gates for wider under- standing. Only through the fusion of cultural, social, economic, political, and finally family life by means of intermarriage can the nation attain the spirit of oneness. 3. The teachinggof thrift and frugalit . When money is scarce and jobs few, wealth should be disbursed and expended with the greatest of care and calculation. Interest rates are very high, even to the point of extortion, and ‘the morals of the money leaders are not commendable. In such circumstances, the peOple should be taught how to live within their means and.refrain from wasteful feastings and celebrations. .w y u A r. .. l . v . i A . x n. . v .I a _ . I ‘ . I . , . , L a. . , . ' n . r. r I vl L T .~l. . y . . . ,. . . .... _ . . _ x . I, V .i . . y . r. - .f. l ‘ ~ I n‘ .. , . . l ~l \ L . r . ; r a . _ C . . . . , . - ‘ . . I . - . . _ . . - a c . a r 223 Students are not taught about c00perative life. In a country like India, where available capital is very limited, betterment of life can be achieved only through cooperative systems. Future economic improvement will depend on the role of cooperatives. To gain the confi- dence of the illiterate masses, a certain amount of spade work is necessary through social education. Agriculture, industry, and education should be based on cooperative principles. Wherever cooperatives have been started, they have resulted in visible improvements. Such education should extend the knowledge and actions of peOple in c00peratives, consumer c00peratives and producer cooperatives. h. Teaching_land gseggnd crop development. 'Indian school systems offer an extended course in nature study. This course could be used in teaching soil conservation and primary lessons in farming. The productivity of the land has been depleted through continuous cultivation without adding to the soil. There are many inexpensive ways of building composite fertilizers which can improve the soil content. Education has to look into these immediate problems of the people and help them solve their problems. Much could be learned about the selection of seeds and preparation of‘grounds, as well as rotation of crops to effect a higher , u 223 Students are not taught about c00perative life. In a country like India, where available capital is very limited, betterment of life can be achieved only through cooperative systems. Future economic improvement will depend on the role of cooperatives. To gain the confi- dence of the illiterate masses, a certain amount of spade work is necessary through social education. Agriculture, industry, and education should be based on c00perative principles. Wherever cooperatives have been started, they have resulted in visible improvements. Such education should extend the knowledge and actions of people in c00peratives, consumer cooperatives and producer cooperatives. a. Teaching land gseggnd crop development. Indian school systems offer an extended coirse in nature study. This course could be used in teaching soil conservation and primary lessons in farming. The productivity of the land has been depleted through continuous cultivation without adding to the soil. There are many inexpensive ways of building composite fertilizers which can improve the soil content. Education has to look into these immediate problems of the peOple and help them solve their problems. Much could be learned about the selection of seeds and preparation of’grounds, as well as rotation of crops to effect a higher 215 to solicit aid from private sector. f. Paternalism, communalism and nepotism were used in issuing business contracts, pertaining to the administration of education. Such corruptions slowed down the progress of education. g. Maintenance of schools and belongings was given over to untrained, irresponsible, non-certified employees by the administration. h. Very few schools carry inventory records. i. The administration did not make use of the available space to produce the maximum utility. Hence inefficient utilization of space. j. The school failed to attract the community into its premises and thus public cooperation did not support school grstems . k. The administrators did not invite the students' talents to create gardens, orchards and landscaping to increase the child interests in farming. S. Assembling, processing, combining, distributing and transporting are some of the executive functions. The administration of education lost the sense of proportion in some of these activities. 6. uniformity of operation creates better consistency and cohesiveness. But most administrative actions were 216 centered only to localities but not to the entire nation, leaving behind disproportionate achievements. Such state of affairs can only decrease the efficiency of operation. 7. The Federal Government of India controls the policy of the Government. Hence the various ministries have only functional authority. This is an important weakness in keeping up a steady operation. 8. Because of high centralization, the Ministry has failed to delegate authority in most cases. Thus the administration is wfihout the benefits of proper division of labor. 9. Centralized control is effective when similar activities are grouped together. But in the administration of education of the Ministry of Education too many activities of dissimilar features are grouped which creates difficulty of control. 10. The Ministry of Education of Federal Government and Department of Public instruction of the Indian states are staging a step-mother attitude toward private schools which has foiled the private initiatives in education. CHAPTER FIVE Summary and Implications In the preceding chapters, an analysis of educational administration in India made possible the identification of numerous problems and issues which must be resolved if education is to assume an active role in Indian development. In this chpater these problems and issues are summarized and a series of recommended changes are set forth. The chapter is divided into four divisions; namely, 1. Resume of critical problems and issues requiring a broad program of public education for solution; 2. Description of the type of educational programs and services which seem necessary and achievable at this time; 3. Recommended policies and activities which aim to pro ect the Federal Government of India into a ea ership role with respect to public education. .‘,. ‘218 Section ll, Summary of Critical Problems and Issues From the analysis set forth in earlier chapters it seems reasonable to conclude that India is currently faced with a number of compelling and persistent problems requiring a unified educational program of great dimensions. It is manifestly apparent that the contemporary educational organization, program, and resources are not adequate to the task. Six summary statements may reasonably be made in describing this situation: 1. The admniistration of education in India has not been given due consideration as to the culture and heritage of India. Contemporary education is patterned after the British model and so detached from the mainstream of national development. 2. The existing system of education fosters the development of an "educated caste" of graduates from institutions of higher learning. These educated peOple are unwilling to return to their villages to help their fellow-men in resolving basic problems. Instead they move into the cities in pursuit of self-betterment. 3. The rapid increase of population is the number one reason fer low standard of living for the majority of the people of India. The educational system has not dealt with this problem in any significant way, nor are students offered - ”-7: ...- , l t . ‘, I . d "l E ~ I l ‘ . n . ‘ ‘ \. l l . ‘ ... a ' > . ‘ « x F l ' .. 1 ll ' I l v ' t V ‘ d I V . t C a r .. u‘ . ._I l . . l ’ I I , r l .. , (_ i . . ‘ 0- a I 0" , ~ '~ ’ i . n l r a > 1 ‘ , r l "I .‘ll. .. ' ‘ - ' I" . . vv . h. .. , v 4‘ . . ? ,,.- . . . I ;_,. r_' “ . l ' 1 1' ( - . , i l . -; - ‘ i ’ i o 2 1 -- \' "~ ' l O I I In. 219 basic ideas regarding planned birth or family planning. h. At present, India is predominantly an agri— cultural nation. Industry has not made proportionate gains; rather the immense potentials for industrial life remain to be exploited. In a nation that has an approximate forty-five percentage of permanent unemployment with a sixty-five percentage of temporary unemployment, efforts for industrialization cannot be put off much longer. The_present educational program is not developing a skilled p0pu1ation upon which a needed industrialization can be based. 5. Independent India can progress only by the coopera- tion of everyone in national undertakings. The artificial barriers between man and man militates against social progress. Present education conforms to the time-old caste system. 6. Education at the lower level is a state function. 'The states are organized on linguistic bases in line with their traditions and customs. Yet the major problems of India supersede the ability of the individual state to offer a solution. At the present time, the federal govern- ment is not using its prestige, resources or leadership to develop a unified educational program to attack and resolve the major problems of the nation. 220 If these summary statements adequately describe the current educational situation in India, it follows that a dramatic new program of public education must be deveIOped wflzhin the framework of existing governmental operations. Education must come directly to grips with problems of community and social deve10pment. Education for the sake of education alone must give way to more utilitarian con- cepts if India is to rid herself of the traditional deprivation, poverty, and ignorance. In the next several pages, an attempt is made to describe the essence of such a new public education, its caitent, essential method, and types of instructional and service personnel. In the final section of this chapter, tentative recommendations are made which describe a role or leadership for the federal government in providing a unified and vital public education program. Section 2L Kind of Educational Programs Needed Since many of India's basic problems are economic, it follows that public education must be concerned with the task of elevating the standard of living among India's peOple. Public education must therefore become increasingly voca- tional in nature. Programs should be built around effective means for controlling child marriages, for the promotion of 221 ethical birth control, the practice of thrift and frugality, and the introduction of sensible animal husbandry. l. Controlling child marriages. Although the govern- ment has banned child marriage by law, the practice is still in existence. Only education can stop this forbidden practice. No part of the curriculum in school touches the evils of child marriage. The educational system has not strived to instill parental obligations. If parents cannot give at least the minimum standard of life and education to their children, their right to beget children indiscriminately should be challenged. Parental obligations toward family and children should be taught. Adults should be taught concerning the biological aSpects of fertility and its potentials. Gandhi inculcated tfie idea of willful abstinence of marital act through mutual consent. They also should be taught how to avail themselves of the "safe period" and ”rhythm system" in using the marital acts. Birth control alone is not the only solution to this problem. Late marriages tend to have smaller families. Most people get married before they are eighteen. If marriages could be postponed voluntarily, the reproductive chances will become slimmer. 222 The ccntrolling of population alone is not the right attitude, rather it is a negative approach. The nation can develop the natural potentials Of the country and allow more peOple to share the munificence of the nature. 2. Softening attitude toward the caste system. The caste system has been abrogated officially by the Indian Constitution. Yet in the minds of men the deep-rooted spirit Of separation between people is still a reality. At the present time one can find expressions of this spirit in the communal bickerings prevalent in every walk Of life. It is only education that can bridge the gap between man and man. There is no evidence that the present system has daie enough to iron out these differences. The school system should offer Opportunities for irtercultural communications which will open the gates for wider under- standing. Only through the fusion of cultural, social, economic, political, and finally family life by means of intermarriage can the nation attain the spirit Of oneness. 3. The teaching of thrift and frugality. When money is scarce and jobs few, wealth should be disbursed and expended with the greatest of care and calculation. Interest rates are very high, even to the point of extortion, and the morals of the money leaders are not commendable. In such circumstances, the people should be taught how to live within their means and.refrain from wasteful feastings and celebrations. (‘I’ 223 Students are not taught about COOperative life. In a country like India, where available capital is very limited, betterment of life can be achieved only through cooperative systems. Future economic improvement will depend on the role of cooperatives. TO gain the confi- dence Of the illiterate masses, a certain amount Of spade work is necessary through social education. Agriculture, industry, and education should be based on cOOperative principles. Wherever cooperatives have been started, they have resulted in visible improvements. Such education should extend the knowledge and actions Of peOple in COOperatives, consumer COOperatives and producer COOperatives. t. Teaching‘land use;gnd crop deve10pment. 'Indian school systems Offer an extended cairse in nature study. This course could be used in teaching soil conservation and primary lessons in farming. The productivity of the land has been depleted through continuous cultivation without adding to the soil. There are many inexpensive ways Of building composite fertilizers which can improve the soil content. Education has to look into these immediate problems of the people and help them solve their problems. Much could be learned about the selection of seeds and preparation Of'grounds, as well as rotation of crops to effect a higher . . r . It 4 ct. vi 0 l ’ Ix v . O u. v , l T. _ .)t r. l, .. p r, 1 .l t ..J 224 productivity. SO also some knowledge could be imparted about pesticide and insecticide. 5. Animal Hggbandry. India has one dairy animal for every two people, but India is undernourished despite the abundance Of cattle. The main reason for starvation in the face of plenty stems from the Hindus belief in the trans- migration Of souls after death; hence, many of the cattle, it is believed, are the reincarnation Of ancestors. The killing Of cattle, therefore, is believed to be sinful. Because Of this belief, cattle compete for the existing fodder. Old and dried out cattle are allowed to live until they die Of natural diseases. These Old and sickly herds of cattle deprive the good cues of their fodder and Often impart disease to the healthy cattle. As a result, the quality of cattle has deteriorated. Nor are dairy products exploited to their possibility. Techniques for improving the quality Of cattle can be demonstrated and taught to the villagers. Artificial insemination and selective breeding can improve the quality. Secondly, the Old, unproductive and lower class cattle should be eliminated for the sake of the good ones. Meat packing should be introduced so that the cattle can be taken into secluded slaughter houses, butchered and distributed without Offence tO the public conscience. 225 Measures should be taken to improve the production Of fodder by scientific ways. At present cattle live on nature's growth rather than on cultivated fodder. Milk is being wasted by spoilage just because there is no way to preserve it. If methods of transportation were available, the dairy industry could be a helpful adjunct to the progress of the nation. The educational administrators stand handcuffed for their lack of imagination and creativity. Literacy, according to the existing pattern of education is merely understanding through reading, writing and arithmetic, but the time has come to add requisites such as manual labor, field trips, picnics and model farms. Section 3L Role of the Federal Government The kind of public mass education in India will not develop spontaneously. Customs, conflicts, inertia, must be overcome. Only the federal government presently enjoys the prestige and influence to act as a "change- agent" for the improvement of community and social life. Several factors make this Observation appear to be valid. 1. The disparity in the economy of various states demands a certain amount of pooling of resources in the center so as to disburse equitably for the common good. 226 2. The differences based on religion and clan obstruct any concerted effort from all contending communal and caste groups. The federal government alone will be competent to bring these groups under one tent. 3. The States are divided on language bases. The languages carry with them a certain amount of antagonism and deatructive competition between themselves. The federal government represents all languages and will be better equipped to be fair and equitable in their dealings with all language groups. A. Innumerable political parties in India are a stumbling block to progress. Leadership at the level of the federal government therefore is a prime requisity to the initiation and operation of an effective public education program. How such leadership might be developed and conducted is described in the following pages. The Relationship between the Federal Government and State Governments. According to the reorganization of the States Act Of 1957, India has been divided into eighteen states. Each state is given a certain amount of autonomy in the internal administration of the State Governments. The federal government cannot interfere in the internal admini— stration. Thus in the fields of education, health and 227 welfare, the state governments are entirely independent. The federal government can exercise two kinds of powers in the administration of the states. One is called coercive or mandatory, by virtue of which, every direction given by the federal government should be considered as an order. The state governments are bound to abide with such directives. The second is called advisory power, considered as the mind but not the commaniof the federal government. I The state governments are free to accept or reject such issues originating from advisory power. The Constitution terms this as "directive power." In the matters of health education and welfare the federal government exercises only advisory power. Even though it is only advisory power, most state governments honor the directions given by the Federal Government as if it came from the mandatory power. The federal government and state governments should combine their resources to improve the quality of living in India. The federal governments role in public education should be enlarged. The state alone cannot look adequately to the interests of all India. This writer strongly believes that the federal government should resume the obligation of education as a federal issue; The exercise of this obligation can be shared with the state government through appropriate delegation of power. To this end, it 228 is recommended that an advisory commission be established to formulate a national policy for education; that federal funds be allocated for the support of the basic schools, high schools, and rural universities on a shared cost basis by state governments; and that participation of states in the support of public education be contingent upon their willingness to operate consistently with this national policy. The Nature of the Educational Advisory Commission The federal government may change according to the change of the political party that comes into power.' But the change of political parQrshould not create a break- down in the total educational endeavor of the nation. This writer strongly believes that there should be a non-partisan commission to advise the federal government on matters of education. a. Selection of the Education Commission: The standing commission of experts should be selected from the educators of India. The Vice Chancellors of the various universities, rectors of many indigenous educa- tional systems, and scholars who return from overseas universities should be members of this standing commission for education. They should be above political affinity and stay that way as long as they are members of the commission. 229 b. The Nature of the Standing Commission: The standing commission of educators should be a permanent body, whose function would be to advise the department of education of the federal government of India in matters of education of national importance. The number of members should be left to the discretion of the Indian parliament. Representation should be given to the various states, universities, linguistic groups, and religious organizations in the election or selection of members. Its primary purpose should be to study and to anticipate the educational needs of the nation and to formulate and recommend broad educational policies to legislative and executive for their enactment and implemen» tation. c. Remuneration of the Education Commission: Members of the commission should be paid a base salary, with fringes of traveling, hotel and other benefits. d. The standing commission can be made into a permanent board of research and their findings and recommendations could be made into law by a parliament enaction if necessary. This board should be directly responsible to the parliament of India. Duration of the Standing Commission: 8. Members are to be elected or nominated to the standing commission for a term of four years. k) .‘ .4-‘ 230 b. In order to facilitate the flow of ideas, one-fourth of the commission members are to be retired each year and a new group added to the commission. c. Members may be re-elected or re-nominated. Size of the Standing Commission: a. The standing commission should consist of approximately forty members. b. All states should be represented in the standing commission. A c. The fourteen major languages should be represented by at least one member. d. Educational experts from major universities and other educational institutions should have at least ten members in the commission. Remuneration of the Commission: a. All members of the commission will serve on "itinerary" teams. b. Members of the commission will be remunerated for travel, board and lodging on the basis of mileage and per diem services. Resources of the Standing Commission: a. The standing commission will have a salaried office secretary who will supervise the records of the commission. 231 b. The office secretary will notify periodically the date and place of commission meetings and will indicate the agenda of the meetings. A c. The office secretary will administer the income and expenses of the commission. d. The office secretary will prepare a budget for the fiscal year, and, with the approbation of the chairman of the standing commission, will present it to the minister of’education. e. The minister of education will present the budget of the standing committee to Parliament, and the Parliament will apprOpriate the necessary funds for the operation of the standing commission. f. The accounts of the standing commission's income and expenses will be audited by the federal comptroller. Consulting Experts: a. The standing commission has the right to retain the services of experts necessary for the proper operation of the commission. b. The standing commission can employ the services of historians, anthropologists, sociologists, sanitary engi- neers, medical scientists, religious leaders, communal and caste leaders to enhance their study. c. The specialists who contribute their services for the 232 standing committee or commission may be rewarded on a per diem basis. Organization and Method of the Program Sheer academic instruction, although appropriate for a small number of India's students, must give way to the development of vocational as well as literate schools. People must learn not only how to communicate, but must be challenged with ideas and become equipped with vocational skills which will assist them in the development of village life, of regional cooperatives and an increasing sophis— tication in conducting state and federal affairs. If such ends are to be achieved, a system of education must be instituted which builds upon a basic educational program in each village, strengthened through regional centers, and stimulated and supported at state and federal levels. At the center of this organization is a basic education school, to be operated in each village. The Basic School In every basic school the curricula is to be developed out of the problems and resources indigenous to the community. The type of experiences offered in these schools should be determined after a study into the raw materials, markets and type of industries in and around this school system. 233 The basic school should be open to all age groups. The idea of schools for children alone should be ignored. The family should be the basic instructional group. The basic education can impart a skill to the adult for a new way of livelihood. The main emphasis should rest on the improvement of manual dexterity, literacy, and cultural and economic understanding. Although the teacher in the basic School would have to be competent in at least one area of specialization, a primary competency would be required in the field of vocational counseling and guidance. As an increasing number of families became involved in the development and Operation of the basic school program, the need for making vocational choices would increase. Accordingly basic school teachers would be expected to assist the basic school families in the identification and choice of appropriate vocational areas. The future education of India must start with the uneducated adults. They are the ones who should be ignited to change their home conditions, even their community and their people at large. Adult education should be general. The uneducated have to be educated; the educated have to be re—educated to the realities of the times. Broad adult education, in fact, should be at the very center of the efforts of the basic school. Basic school education should be capable ' ‘ . ‘ ' I ,l -, 5 l - , . > , * ' _. i \ ) i ' . t l . . . . ' , ’ \ ‘ e ( . ‘ ' I . v ‘ i ' t \I g . ~ ’ - ' 1‘ ’ 1 ' 1‘ \J J a ‘ . r . I ... . , .' i . « | 7‘ ‘ u l ’} ‘ " ‘~ L I ‘ I ", . . L; I (“ ' I , t . ' J, , . , I m. ‘ i 1 I ' 1' 23A of awakening the ignorant to see in true perspective life's goals -- the pursuit of happiness. The Regional High School In order to provide for increasing specialization in handicrafts and vocations, the basic school must be supported by a system of regional high schools. The programs of these schools should be comprehensive in nature with emphasis upon vocational independence, literacy, and social service. Direct instruction should be supported by laboratory work in school operated experimental farms, dairies, home and village industries, and regional cooperatives. Faculty for these schools should be comprised of specialists in all pertinent fields of economic and community improvement. The policies under which these schools are to be operated would be deveIOped by a representative and resident board of education, selected by the state education agency. Change in the high school education should begin with the determining the duration of school attendance, the language of instruction, the school board and its boundaries of authority, the agency of promotion control, and the community's share in the school Operation. The Rural University To support the efforts of the basic schools and regional high schools, a system of rural universities is 235 prOposed. These institutions would carry out diverse programs of instruction, prepare teachers for the high schools and basic schools, conduct research and experi- mentation in agriculture and applied arts, and render consultation and assistance to village groups, regional cooperatives, and local governmental operations. Programs must provide for the vocational as well as general education needs of the people, while a balance of emphasis between the two programs is to be maintained. Graduates must become competent in the area of specialization and expert in working with people of all economic levels. Normal Colleges and Rural Universities This writer believes that it is important to Open a number of normal colleges for instructing future teachers for vocational education in the basic schools. The basic school should not expect a single teacher to be carpenter, plumber, sculptor, weaver, painter, etc. It is however out of point for an individual teacher to offer skills in more than one craft. Normal schools should give both theory and practice of the crafts to their students. Only the federal govern- ment can subsidize such a vast project of teacher training. In his earlier analysis of community colleges and community centers, this writer stressed the idea of deve10ping a community center into a normal college for 236 basic school teachers. The community center can benefit the whole community while imparting the skills for the training by apprentice-ship, learning on the job, or inservice training in factories. Indian students are under the fog of a false phiIOSOphy, based on distorted concepts of dignity of labor. This idea originates from the class stratification based on occupation. This attitude has stood against the material progress of the nation. Political leaders and society heroes should come down from their ivy tower to be object lessons to the unlettered rustics. The Ambit of the Rural Universities: The rural universities are primarily intended to deveIOp normal colleges for the teacher training of basic schools and to establish community colleges and community centers. In the early part of their operation, rural universities should not overlap with the existing urban universities. In India there are more than 700,000 villages, so that rural universities should focus attention upon the develop- ment of these rural centers. The rural universities in the long run can develop the rural villages into towns or cities. Once the standard of life and the rural activities of the villages rise up to the urban standards, the rural universities can leave 237 the destinies of such develOped areas into the ambit of the urban universities. The rural universities are designed to improve the villages through education, based on craft and vocational skills. The state government should establish the boundaries, scope and syllabi of the rural universities so that there may not be any conflict between urban and rural universities. The rural universities should be subsidized by the state and federal governments in proportion to the number of the student body in each university. Needed Teachers and Their Preparation The success of an educational system depends upon the quality of the teachers who offer that education. India is noted for its educational castes. Education so far has been considered as a luxery. It never was considered to be a tool for social and community improvement. It has been the experience in India that a college student upon graduation does not return to his village but migrates to the city, where his education can really be put to work. He does not even think of returning to his community to raise the standard of living among his own peOple. This is the crux of the educated caste system. Under this influence education is good only for the higher brackets. The educated person, and especially the future teacher, must develop a sense of responsibility 238 toward his fellow creatures. Without this goal, the writer believes that the basic school system or the high school system cannot attain its ends. In American universities a similar situation developed in the beginning of the 20th Century. College professors in soil conservation, agriculture, animal husbandry, fishery, were satisfied with classroom lectures and demonstrations. The ordinary farmer or fisherman wanted these professors to leave classrooms to make their demonstrations right in the fields or sea waters. The earlier philOSOphies finally broke down and within a few years the professors went around with veteran farmers in the what and corn fields -- not lecturing, but teaching. A similar change can be effected in India if certain conditions are taken care of: 1. Teachers should be given attractive salaries. India has many educated persons who are unemployed. These people will do any job if they are paid. With re- training in the social-work aspects of teaching required in the basic and high schools, there can be garnered competent teachers for these schools. 2. A certain amount of glorification of teaching as a vocation or apostolate is also necessary to make the educated and gifted leaders move back into villages to raise the standards at home. This may be achieved in part through 239 public initiation, uniforms, banners, processions, marching, songs, and public citations on national holidays. , 3. The most important problem that faces the nation is the deterioration of villages with their teeming millions of peOple. Whether one be minister, priest, or Hindu Swami, it is important for him to work for the upliftment of his community, then he may try to philosophize on higher things. This writer believes that all who are set up as religious leaders should first "take the spade and broom," proViding an example for the educated castes. A. When people have no opportunity to prove themselves on the basis of economic blessings, they may be willing to accept other opportunities for a role as hero or leaders. The re-tooling of the old school graduates into new school phiIOSOphies can be worked on. 5. The teacher of the revamped educational system should be product of learning rather than masked in a hero's costume. The immediate development of a rural university system seems likely to provide teachers of high standards. The Procedure for Enforcement of the Standing Commission's Reports The standing commission will present their unanimous reports to the minister of education of the federal govern- ment, who, in turn, will present them to the federal parliament If the parliament ratifies the report, it becomes the linedJ 2&0 educational policy of the federal government. The state governments are advised to incorporate the national policies into the educational operations of the states. Thus the services of the standing committee is filtered down to the school systems of the states. Section 4, Unanswered Questions that Need Further Research The problems of public education cannot be divorced from the broad problems of economic and social development. Many questions remain unanswered by this study. Among these may be included the following: What economic resources can be made available for public education in India? Planning for education should be fundamentally based on a knowledge of the available capital. A study is necessary to establish the dimensions of available capital. How will the political parties in India affect the deve10pment of an enlightened citizenry in India? There are many powerful political parties vying for power in India. Communists and Socialists will be the most potent among them. The question arises: Will the future of education in India swing to the political power that has control of the government? What language will become the medium of instruction and be best suited for public education? 241 A local language called Hindi, rather than English, is developing into common educational usage. Will Hindi be adequate to serve the needs of the nation in the field of technical education? Will over-nationalistic feelings lead the nation into impractical utopias? These are among the problems to be left for further study. Can the "educated caste" be enticed from the "ivory tower" to work for the betterment of 700,000 villages doomed to ignorance and penury? It would be worthwhile to study the change of attitude among the "educated caste" that has occurred within the ten years of independence. To what extent have the "educated caste" given up their fuedalistic phiIOSOphies and gone back to the villages in which they were born to take over the problems of their fellow creatures? The future education envisioned in this dissertation will be practicable only to the extent that the educated will change their attitudes. Since each area mentioned above is vast and complex, future investigation in educational lines should pass through some of these areas. The present study can help future students in providing a background picture of economic social, political, religious, and linguistic preferences and prejudices of this people at large. 242 This writer understands the complexities of the problems envisioned within this study. He has no pretension that the findings and recommendations are infallible and unalter- able. This study can arrest the interests of many other students in Indian education and help them to rebuild on the findings arrived at. They should be preambles to further study. The interest in India has gained a world-wide attention because of the new role India has assumed in the international affairs. The writer fervently hopes that the contents of this dissertation will impart a clear and unbiased des- cription of the state of things in his dear Motherland. India needs COOperation and help from outside nations. Out- side nations will be willing to help India to the degree they know of the real state of affairs there. The writer believes that his efforts will help to create further interests in India's struggles in providing the basic needs for over four hundred million people Of India. "Bharata Mata Ki Jai." 'l , I '9 1 l A . v ' f . . -. .1: s l ‘ ‘v I l - .1 .... ( ( -.. 242 This writer understands the complexities of the problems envisioned within this study. He has no pretension that the findings and recommendations are infallible and unalter- able. This study can arrest the interests of many other students in Indian education and help them to rebuild on the findings arrived at. They should be preambles to further study. The interest in India has gained a world-wide attention because of the new role India has assumed in the international affairs. The writer fervently hopes that the contents of this dissertation will impart a clear and unbiased des- cription of the state of things in his dear Motherland. India needs COOperation and help from outside nations. Out- side nations will be willing to help India to the degree they know of the real state of affairs there. The writer believes that his efforts will help to create further interests in India's struggles in providing the basic needs for over four hundred million people Of India. "Bharata Mata Ki Jai." 242 This writer understands the complexities of the problems envisioned within this study. He has no pretension that the findings and recommendations are infallible and unalter— able. This study can arrest the interests of many other students in Indian education and help them to rebuild on the findings arrived at. They should be preambles to further study. The interest in India has gained a world-wide attention because of the new role India has assumed in the international affairs. The writer fervently hopes that the contents of this dissertation will impart a clear and unbiased des- cription of the state of things in his dear Motherland. India needs COOperation and help from outside nations. Out- side nations will be willing to help India to the degree they know of the real state of affairs there. ,The writer believes that his efforts will help to create further interests in India's struggles in providing the basic needs for over four hundred million peOple Of India. "Bharata Mata Ki Jai." 242 This writer understands the complexities of the problems envisioned within this study. He has no pretension that .the findings and recommendations are infallible and unalter- able. This study can arrest the interests of many other students in Indian education and help them to rebuild on the findings arrived at. They should be preambles to further study. The interest in India has gained a world-wide attention because of the new role India has assumed in the international affairs. The writer fervently hopes that the contents of this dissertation will impart a clear and unbiased des- cription of the state of things in his dear Motherland. India needs cooperation and help from outside nations. Out- side nations will be willing to help India to the degree they know of the real state of affairs there. 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