OCCWAHONAL GPficfkTUHiTIES
IN AGRGCULTURAL AND RELATED FSELDS
AND THEIR EMPLGCATIONS FOR
MMCUL?UR&L EQ‘JCATEGH
OF NEGRO STQDENTS;

Thu-Es kt Ha DOW d Ph. D.
MECHiGAH STATE COLLEGE
Richard E}. Morrison
1954

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

OCCUPATIONAL OPPOHTUNITIES IN AGRICULTUHAL
AND RELATED FIELDS AND THEIH ILLBLICATICNS
FOR AGdICULT’JitAL EDUCATION OF NEGHO STUDEZ‘I'PS

presented by

Richard D. Morrison

has been accepted towards fulfillment

of the requirements for

Ph.D Education

degree in

W MW

Major pro s r

 

Date 1518‘] 17; lQSLL

0-169

 

_ ,..-A.__.-.—

OCCUPATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURAL AND RELATED
FIELDS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION
OF NEGRO STUDENTS

BY
Richard D. Morrison

A THESIS

Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan
State College of Agriculture and Applied Science
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

School of Education
1951+

THESIS

7’2 7’ e"

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his deep appreciation
and sincere thanks to Dr. Harold M. Byram, Professor and
Head of Department, Agricultural Education, under whose
guidance and invaluable suggestions this investigation was
planned and conducted.

He is also indebted to Drs.Clive R. Megee, Assistant
Dean of Agriculture; Clyde M. Campbell, Professor and Head
of Department, Educational Administration and Supervision;
H. Paul Sweany, Associate Professor, Vocational Education;
and John A. Fuzak, Associate Professor, Industrial Arts
Education for their encouragement and helpful criticisms.

Grateful appreciation is also extended to my wife
who so painstakingly checked the manuscript.

6"" ‘”"r)"
at 8 MLJE)

H

OCCUPATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURAL AND RELATED
FIELDS AND THEIR IMPLICATIONS FOR
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION
OF NEGRO STUDENTS

By
Richard D. Morrison

AN'ABSTRACT

Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan
State College of Agriculture and Applied Science
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

School of Education
Year lQSh

Approved by

 

 

vs
A

He:
:.e

l

Richard D. Morrison

Purpose. The purposes of this study were (1) to
reveal the prevalence of occupational opportunities for
Negroes in agricultural and related fields; (2) to determine
whether the pattern of occupational opportunities for Negroes
varied among the regions of a selected area; (3) to identify
agricultural and related occupations in which few or no
Negroes were employed; and (A) to determine the levels of
training required for occupational success in agricultural
and related fields.

Method. Data were collected from 299 Negro county
agents and Negro teachers of vocational agriculture in four
' contiguous states--Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Tennes-
see. Prepared questionnaire forms were filled in by respon-
dents in each state at scheduled group meetings during
arranged periods. These data were summarized and tabulated
to show the prevalence of employment in seventy occupations,
and to show to what extent Negroes were employed in these
occupations. In addition, decennial census data, 1920-1950,
were used from which tables were constructed to show trends
in population, land use, land tenure, mechanization, and
occupations.

Findings. An increase occurred in the total population
during the 1920-1950 period. There was a shift in population
away from the rural farm area. The non-white population

znovement away from the rural farm area reached a peak of h0.9

 

percent
(2.3, 0:
movement

crease i

Richard D. Morrison
2

percent in Arkansas; whereas, the minimum percentage shift,
22.3, occurred in Mississippi. Along with the off-the-farm
movement came a decrease in the number of farms, and an in-
crease in the size of farms. Contrary to this reaction,
the non-white farmers' farms were approximately the same
size in 1950 as they were in 1920. There was a decrease
in the number of all tenants in general, but the decrease
among non-white tenants was particularly pronounced.

Although farmers had decreased the number of acres
devoted to harvested crops, cotton was the leading cash crop

in all the selected states except Tennessee. Farmers had

greatly increased their ownership in tractors, trucks, grain
harvesters, pick-up hay balers, and corn pickers.

Among the major occupations, the highest percentage
of gainfully employed Negroes was engaged in agriculture,
followed in order by manufacturing and construction, personal
service, and trade, finance and insurance.

The questionnaire data showed that productive phases
of agriculture provided the largest number of employment
situations for Negroes. These employment situations were
in the category of farm.hmnds, general farmers, livestock
farmers, and tractor operators. Among related occupations,
a general pattern prevailed in that the major portion of
employment situations for Negroes was realized among the Negro
population in agricultural education, such as county agents,

and teachers of vocational agriculture.

Richard D. Morrison
3

Respondents reported twenty-eight occupations related
to farming in which few Negroes were employed, and eleven
in which no Negroes were employed.

There was no evidence found which indicated that the
pattern of occupational opportunities for Negroes varied
among the four states.

A college education in agriculture was recommended
for individuals who anticipated employment in agricultural
education, agricultural government work, and other profes-
sional agricultural work. There was no general agreement
upon the training requirements for agricultural productive
occupations; however, short-course training was recommended
'for individuals who anticipated employment in these occu-

pations but were not interested in a college degree.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The purpose of the study . . . . . . . .
The need for the study . . . . . . . . .
Background of the problem . . . . . . .

Definition of terms . . . . . . . . . .

II. PLANNING AND CONDUCTING THE STUDY . . . .
Methods of investigation . . . . . . . .
Sources of information . . . . . . . . .
Scope and limitations of the study . . .

III. REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . .
Studies of occupational interests and
opportunities as aids for curricular
revision . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Studies of employment opportunities in
agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . .
Studies of occupational opportunities
revealed through follow-up studies of
former students . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

PAGE

\n a) l4 F4 r4

12

15
16
18

19
22

21+

36

A2
S9

11
CHAPTER PAGE

IV. FACTORS AFFECTING JOB OPPORTUNITIES IN

AGRICULTURAL AND RELATED FIELDS . . . . . . . 61
Trends in the selected area . . . . . . . . . 62
Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

Land tenure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Occupational distribution . . . . . . . 71

Creps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7A
Livestock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Mechanization . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

Land tenure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Occupational distribution . . . . . . . 9O

Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Livestock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Mechanization . . . . . . . . . . . . lOO

Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Land tenure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Occupational distribution . . . . . . . llO
Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Livestock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Mechanization . . . . . .‘. . . . . . . 116

iii

CHAPTER PAGE
Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Land tenure . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Occupational distribution . . . . . . 12h
Crops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Livestock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Mechanization . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13A

V. OCCUPATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR NEGROES IN

AGRICULTURAL AND RELATED FIELDS . . . . . . 138
Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Related occupations . . . . . . . . . . . 1&1
Regional job opportunities . . . . . . . IRA
New job opportunities . . . . . . . . . 153
Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Related occupations . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Regional job opportunities . . . . . . . 163
New job opportunities . . . . . . . . . . 163
Mississippi } . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168

Related occupations . . . . . . . . . . . 169

CHAPTER
Regional job Opportunities . . . . .

New job opportunities . . . . . . . .

Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Farming O O O O O 0 O O O O 0 O O 0
Related occupations . . . . . . . .

Regional job opportunities . . . . .
New job opportunities . . .. . . . .
Similarities and differences in
occupational opportunities in the
selected area . . . . . . . . . . . .
Educational requirements of selected
jobs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Agricultural and related fields in which
few or no Negroes were employed . . .

sumar y 0 O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O 0

VI. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMNENDATIONS
smary O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . .

BIBLIOGRAPI-IY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0
APPENDIX A. QUESTIONNAIRE . . . . . . . . .
APPENDIX B. SOURCES OF QUESTIONNAIRE DATA .

PAGE

170
179
179
179
181
181
189

189

192

198
200

205
206
210
211

216
220
228

TABLE
I.

II.

III.

IV.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

IX.

LIST OF TABLES

Year of School in Which Non-white Students
Were Enrolled and the Percent Distribution
for the State and Rural Farm Area in Four

States: 1950 O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O 0

PAGE

Types of Graduate Employment, First and Present,

University of Tennessee . . . . . . . . . .
Trends and Percent Change in Population, Farm
Tenure and Farm Acreage: Alabama, 1920-1950
Trends and Percent Change in Non-white Rural
Farm Population and Farm Tenure: Alabama,
1920—1950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Occupational Distribution and Percent of
Persons Gainfully Employed: Alabama,
1930-1950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Non-white Employed Persons, by Major
Occupational Group: Alabama, 1950 . . . . .

Trends and Percent Change in Crop Production:
Alabama, 1920-1950 .. . . . . . . . . . . .

Trends and Percent Change in Livestock
Production: Alabama, 1920-1950 . . . . . .

Percent Increase in Farm Machinery: l9h0-1950

ll

56

66

68

73

75

77

81
85

TABLE

XXIX.

XXXI.

XXXII.

XXXIII.

.XXXIV.

Trends and Percent Change in Livestock
Production: Tennessee, 1920-1950 . . . .
Percent Increase in Farm Machinery:
1940-1950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prevalence of Occupational Opportunities
and Job Demands as Reported by Fiftyut
Negro Teachers of Vocational Agriculture
and Thirty-five Negro County Agents:
Alabama, 1952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prevalence of Occupational Opportunities and
Job Demands as Reported by Thirty-one
Negro Teachers of Vocational Agriculture
and Eleven Negro County Agents:
Arkansas, 1952 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prevalence of Occupational Opportunities and
Job Demands as Reported by Ninety—eight
Negro Teachers of Vocational Agriculture
and Thirty-nine Negro County Agents:
Mississippi, 1952 . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prevalence of Occupational Opportunities and
Job Demands as Reported by Twenty-nine
Negro Teachers of Vocational Agriculture
and Six County Agents: Tennessee, 1952 .

/,
A/

131

133

145

159

171

182

V

TABLE PAGE
XXXV. Prevalence of OCCUpational Opportunities and
JOb Demands as Reported by 205 Teachers of
Vocational Agriculture and Ninety-four
Negro County Agents: Alabama, Arkansas,

Mississippi, and Tennessee, 1952 . . . . . . 194

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE PAGE
1. The selected area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2. State economic areas: 1950 . . . . . . . . . 150

3. Distribution of non-white farm operators:
1950 C O C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 152

A. Distribution of non-white owners by counties
and economic areas: 1950 . . . . . . . . . 15A

5. State economic areas: 1950 . . . . . . . . . 164

6. Distribution of non—white fannoperators:
1950 O O O 0 O o o o o o e o o o o o o o o 166

7. Distribution of non-white owners by counties
and economic areas: 1950 . . . . . . . . . 167

8. State economic areas: 1950 . . . . . . . . . 176

9. Distribution of non-white farm operators:
1950 o o o e o o o o o e o o o o o o e o o 177

10. Distribution of non-white farm owners by
counties and economic areas: 1950 . . . . . 178

11. State economic areas: 1950 . . . . . . . . . 187

12. Distribution of non-white farm Operators:
1950 o o o o o o o o o o o o o e o o o o o 188

13. Distribution of non-white farm owners by

counties andeaconomic areas: 1950 . . . 191

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION
The Problem

This is a study of occupational opportunities in
agricultural and related fields, and of their implications
for education of Negro students. Considerable attention
has been directed in this study toward bringing into clear
view, not only the occupations in which Negroes are gainfully
employed, but also occUpations in which Negroes do not find

employment in appreciable numbers.

The Purpose of the Study

It was the purpose of this study (1) to reveal the
prevalence of occupational opportunities for Negroes in
agricultural and related fields; (2) to determine whether
the pattern of occupational opportunities for Negroes varied
among the regions of a selected area; (3) to identify agri-
cultural and related occupations in which few or no Negroes
were employed; and (h) to determine the levels of training
required for occupational success in agricultural and related

fields 0

The Need for the Study

Within the last decade rapid changes have taken place
in agriculture in the South. Tractors, and other specialized
farm.machines, as well as the increased use of fertilizers,
the use of more effective insecticides, the development of
hybrid seeds and new varieties of plants, antibiotics, ir-
rigation; and better methods of processing, preserving and
storing food all helped to motivate these changes. Further-
more, major changes have occurred in the systems of farming.
To give an example, livestock farming is moving South, oc-
cupying land that once was devoted to cotton production. All
these changes have had some effect upon occupational oppor-
tunities in agriculture. On the one hand, they have figured
prominently in creating new job opportunities. 0n the other
hand, they have been among the causative factors involved in
the displacement of workers. In addition, scientific and
technological developments have placed a demand upon employees
for a wider range of knowledge.

Continuing, this study had its setting in the Southeast,
a section of the United States that has had more prospective
workers than available jobs. This situation suggests un-
employment, especially among the untrained, in an area rapidly
becoming mechanized. .Less than seven percent of the Negroes
in the Southeast had completed a high—school education in

1950. Consequently, less than seven percent of the Negroes

in the Southeast were qualified educationally for occupa-
tions that required high-school graduation.1

The impact of these technological and sociological
changes upon Negroes in the South has made it imperative
that consideration should be given to the solution of
problems born of this situation. Consequently, the present
study is needed to help identify and give a sense of direc-
tion toward the solution of occupational problems met by
displaced agricultural workers, individuals who live and
work on farms, college agricultural students, and directors
of agricultural training programs.

In addition, two important statements which appear to
justify the need for the present study were set forth in a
special report under the title "The Improvement of Agri-
cultural Education in Negro Land-Grant Colleges," by Stewart2
and a group of selected consultants, who conducted a three-

year study of the seventeen land-grant colleges for Negroes

in the Southeastern states. The statements were as follows:

 

1 Stefan H. Robock, "The Negro in the Industrial Devel-
Opment of the South,"Phylon la: 325, Third Quarter, 1953.

2 R. M. Stewart, "The Improvement of Agricultural
JEdueation in Negro Land-Grant Colleges," A Progress Report
cui the S ecial Project (washington: Federal SecurIty Agency,
OfI‘Ice of Education, I9L18), p. 5.

The Negro farming situation in each of the
states, as it is represented currently in the social
and economic progress of the state, should be studied
to determine at what points in farming and in other
related activities, agricultural education must be
extended and eXpanded in order to provide Negro youth
opportunities for economic participation. This re-
quires an enlargement of both vision and function
based upon the full knowledge of conditions as they
now obtain within the respective states. This relates
to proportionate numbers of Negroes engaged in farm-
ing: farm owners, renters, share creppers, rate of
progress toward ownership of farms; the increase or
decrease of population-~migration and present distri-
bution, and distribution as to occupation; potential
opportunities in.farming and related occupations; and
technological and economic factors of change.

The educational opportunities for Negroes in
farming and related occupations in each respective
state should be listed to determine to what extent
such opportunities are available for the preparation
of Negroes for competence in these occupations and
in what direction there are prospects of new occupa-
tions for which schools and colleges must be concerned.
This relates to the demand for competence in skill and
practical knowledge for diversified jobs and positions,
for technical knowledge, and for the broader scientific
and other general knowledge for leadership and other
supervisory positions of our modern social economic
life. This relates also to new positions for Negroes,
created by putting well organized technical and
scientific education into performances that are classed
generally now as unskilled or semi-skilled, and how
the college can arrange to prepare men for these pro-
spective careers.

Again, another supporting statement which seems to indi-
cate the need for the present study was found in the words of
Robock3, an outstanding economist and a student of economic
trends and problems in the South. He is employed by the
Tennessee Valley Authority. Robock concluded that:

3 Op. Cit., p. 32h-

Probably the most important need for Negro
educational institutions, particularly in the South,
is for what the business people call a market survey
or market research. Market research is necessary to
find out where opportunities for Negroes are occurring,
to find out more about the requirements and standards
for employment, and to examine the experiences of
Negroes who have entered some of these new employment
fields.

Background of the Problem

The problem had its setting in four contiguous southern
states. Three of these states--Alabama, Mississippi, and
Tennessee-~are located in the East South Central Division
of the United States. The fourth state--Arkansas--is sep-
arated from Mississippi and Tennessee along their westward
boundary line by the Mississippi River, and is located in
the West South Central Division of the United States. A
further understanding of the geographic location of these
states may be obtained from an inspection of Figure 1.
These states are among that group of southern states com-
:monly designated as "The Cotton Belt.”

The majority of the Negroes in the United States are
concentrated in this Cotton Belt Area. In the four states
--Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Tennessee--comprising
the selected area for this study, there were 2,932,199 non-
white persons in 1950. This number represented 36.8 percent
of the total population in these states A Furthermore,

 

h "Employment and Economic Status of Ne rose in the
united States, Staff Report to the Sub-Commi tee on Labor

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1,235,172 or h2.l percent of the total non-white population
were classified as rural farm people. Stating these same
facts differently, in 1950 there were 1,235,172 Negroes
residing in rural farm areas of the selected states.

The 1950 United States Census of Agriculture revealed

 

that there were 2h5,285 non-white farm operators in the
selected area. Of this number 50,270, or 20.7 percent were
full owners and 178,192, or 72.6 percent were tenants. The
245,285 farm operators tended 10,985,69h acres of land;
whereas, the 50,270 full owners were in possession of
3,298,h38 acres. The predominant type of farming in which
a large proportion of these owners and tenants participated
was cotton farming. This evidence was substantiated, in
part, by the fact that each state of the selected area de-
rived more income from cotton than from any other enter-
prise. It follows that in each state, with the exception
of Tennessee, incomes from cotton and cottonseed were five
to six times as great as the income from the nearest com-
peting enterprise. In Tennessee, income from tobacco pro-
duction approximated the income from cotton and cottonseed.S
Cotton is still ”king" in the South. Nevertheless, "King

Cotton" is beginning to stagger under the impacts received

 

5 United States Department of Agriculture, ”The Farm
Income Situation," Bureau of Agricultural Economics, June-
July, 19h8, pp. 28-32.

from mechanization and industrialization. In the first
place, mechanization is not profitable in a one-crop
enterprise such as cotton farming. The limiting factor
is the inadequacy of productive work throughout the year.
Thus, profitable mechanization is contingent upon the re-
organization of the cotton farms to include other farm
enterprises that will provide additional productive work.
This process will probably reduce cotton acreage and also
displace farm.workers. Ultimately, both are inevitable
because mechanization is on the march in the South. Fur-
ther, a committee on industrialization in the South has
estimated that 1,598,266 farm laborers will have been dis-
placed by 1965.6 This estimation was on the basis of a net
farm labor displacement of 1.3 men per tractor. In the
second place, industries are moving south where labor is
abundant. It has been apparent that farm laborers have
no compunction about moving away from low paying farming
areas to enter industry where a higher wage may be obtained.
A comparative study of the farm population and its
lmovement will show that during the last three decades, this
:movement has been away from the farms. In the selected

area, during the period 1920 to 1950, the non-white? rural

 

6 John Leonard Fulmer Agricultural Pro see in the
Cotton Belt Since 1 20 (cnaper Hill: mew—Tip versi'E'y' 'T—o

NorEE Carolina Press, 950), pp. 70-71.

7 an-white as used in this study refers to the large
Negro population of the selected area. The ratio of Negroes
to other non-white elements of the rural farm population was

365 to one in 1950.

farm population decreased thirty-five percent. On a state
basis, this decrease amounted to h0.9 percent in Arkansas,
38.9 percent in Tennessee, 38.0 percent in Alabama, and 22.3
percent in Mississippi.8

Regardless of the kind of occupations in which farm-
reared persons who leave the rural areas are ultimately
employed, the trend is toward employing persons who have
completed a high-school education. It has already been
emphasized that individuals who remain in farming will need
a wider knowledge of technical skills and.management in order
to be successful. These deductions suggest that thorough
training precedes useful employment, either on the farm or

away from the farm. An examination of the 1950 United States

Census of Population on the educational status of non-white

 

rural farm persons enrolled in school revealed that the
majority of this group was not entering higheschool. Table I
shows that 1.6 percent of the 96,6k5 non-white rural farm
students were enrolled in the fourth year of high school in
Alabama. Furthermore, only 0.03 percent of these rural farm
students were enrolled in the fourth year of college as com-
pared with 0.h percent, for the state as a whole. Similarly,
in.Arkansas 1.4 percent of the rural farm student population

3 united States Bureau of the Census, United States
Census of Population 1950, (Washington: Government Printing

5??Ice,”1952).

10

were enrolled in the fourth year of high school. Whereas
only 0.03 percent of the 51,h75 rural farm students had
begun their fourth year of college work. Less than one
percent of the 162,u30 non-white rural farm students in
Mississippi was enrolled in the fourth year of high school.
Fbrty, or 0.02 percent of this number had entered upon a
fourth year of college work. Continuing, in Tennessee 1.6
percent of the 32,875 non—white rural farm students had
begun their fourth year in high school. In the four states
together only 1.2 percent of the 3h3,h25 rural farm students
were enrolled in the fourth year of high school. These
observations represent, to some extent, the level of train-
ing reached by rural-farm Negroes.

In addition to the problem of inadequate education,
Negro youth also have the added problem of being accepted
for certain employment situations when they have qualified
themselves. In the selected states, as in the other states
of the South, customs and conventions prevail which largely
restrict Negroes to unskilled and semi-skilled occupations.
Moreover, they are relegated to the lower-paying occupations.
However, among Negroes generally, there is a question as to
why they must accept limited occupational opportunities,
ltmited educational facilities, and second-rate citizenship
in a democratic form.of government. The frequent supreme
court cases pertaining to the rights of Negroes is proof of

their efforts to overcome undesirable patterns.

11

TABLE I
YEAR OF SCHOOL IN WHICH NONéWHITE STUDENTS WERE ENROLLED AND THE

PER CENT DISTRIBUTION FOR THE STATE AND RURAL FARM AREA
IN FOUR STATES: 1950

 

 

Year of School in Which Enrolled

 

 

 

 

 

 

*Persons First Fourth
Enrolled Year Ele- Per Year Per Fourth Per
ln.SchOOl mentary Cent High Cent Year Cent
School School College
Alabama 288,880 38,585 18.1 6,385 2.6 1,050 0.8
Rural Farm 96,685 18,950 15.5 1,580 1.6 30 0.03
Male 87,965 8,010 16.7 . 875 1.0 10 0.02
Female 88,680 6,980 18.2 1,085 2.2 20 0.08
Arkansas 99,265 15,610 15.7 2,220 2.2 80 0.08
Rural Farm 51,875 9,175 17.8 715 1.8 15 0.03
Male 26,100 8,780 18.3 295 1.1 10 0.08
Female 25,375 8,395 17.3 820 1.6 5 0.02
Mississippi 283,265 87,900 19.7 3,665 1.5 810 0.02
Rural Farm 162,830 38,880 21.2 1,850 0.9 80 0.02
Male 81,835 18,675 22.8 570 0.7 25 0.03
Female 80,595 15,765 19.6 880 1.1 15 0.02
Tennessee 109,520 13,190 12.0 3,870 3.2 860 0.8
Rural Farm 32,875 . 8,870 18.8 580 1.6 25 0.08
Male 16,895 2,580 15.8 220 1.3 15 0.09
Female 16,380 2,330 18.2 320 2.0 15 0.09
Trotal
:Rural Farm 383,825 63,835 18.8 8,285 1.2 110 0.03

 

United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census of
Population 1950. Vol. II Parts, 2, h, 211 and 112. .-

 

 

aAges five to twenty-nine years.

o-

12

Definition of Terms

The following definitions are provided for the purpose
of clarifying the meaning of words and phrases, used in this
study, which.may otherwise be interpreted differently from
their connotations.

Agricultural ladder. A theoretical postulation that
an individual may ascend from the status of farm laborer
to farm ownership by beginning his career as a farm worker,
thus, saving enough capital to move into the tenant status.
Then, if he is a successful tenant Operator, he acquires
enough capital to purchase his own farm.

Agricultural and related fields. /Throughout the re-
port of this investigation, the term."agricultural and re-
lated fields" shall refer to the productive phases of farming
and the allied services performed which are directly respon-
sible for meeting certain productive and marketing needs,
such as, seed, feed and fertilizer dealing, farm implement
salesman, repair and custom worker. Also included are pro-
fessional occupations closely allied to agriculture for which
specific training has been received, such as, teaching of
agriculture, government work in technical agriculture, and
research.work at eXperiment stations and other agricultural
laboratories. ’///

Cropper. This type of farmer is a crop-share tenant
who has only his and his family's labor to contribute toward

crop production. The landlord furnishes work power, 1. e.

13

tractor and/or work-animals. Usually, the landlord or his
agent also supervises the cropper's farming activities.

Eyll.gggg£, This term is used in the same way as it
is used in the United States census reports. Full owners
are farmers who own land but do not rent land from others.

E552 tenant. A farmer who either works on shares or
rents the land he operates.

Mechanization. This word as applied to agriculture
means the ad0ption of machinery-~usually motor driven--
to replace human labor or animal power.

Non-white. In general, this term is used to identify

 

all non-white races, such as Negroes, Indians, Chinese, and
Japanese. However, in the selected area there are only a
few non-white persons who are not members of the Negro
race. Therefore, the term, as used in this study, refers to
members of the Negro race.

Occupatipnal opportunity. This term should be inter-
,preted throughout the report to mean the freedom and right
to become employed in any group of similar available Jobs
.found in agricultural and related fields for which quali-
.fications are met.

§£gtg_economic agggg, These areas represent selected
groups of contiguous counties, within a state, that have
similar types of farming systems, soils, climatic conditions,
and topography. This arrangement was used in the 1950 Census

2}; Agriculture for the purpose of securing statistical

tabulations by size of farm, tenure of farm operator, eco-
ncmic class of farm, and type of farm. It was claimed
that such tabulations would not have been possible for

each county because of the cost involved.

r-)

nw

CHAPTER II

PLANNING AND CONDUCTING THE STUDY

In order to fulfill the purpose of this study the
idea was conceived that a direct approach should be made
to individuals who were engaged in agricultural work among
Negroes of the selected area. It was thought that such
persons should have knowledge of the existing occupational
opportunities for Negroes in their immediate areas, as well
as of the occupations in which few or no Negroes were em-
ployed. In addition, it was decided that census reports
had the possibility of furnishing basic information from
which trends could be determined and analyzed as factors
affecting job opportunities.

Moreover, in planning this study, it was decided that
its contents would probably be more useful to a greater
number of people if the study were to be written, not as
a unit including combined data of all thesstates in the
selected area, but rather to treat each state as a separate
‘unit. This plan had an advantage in that occupational in-
.formation was provided at the state level; rather than on
a larger unit basis. Furthermore, this present arrangement
jpermits the study to be read in sections according to the
state in.which a person might be interested.

.‘J

16

Methods of Investigation

Although each state in the selected area was treated
separately, the methods of investigation were the same for
all the states. It was decided that the questionnaire
approach would be used; therefore, considerable time was
spent in developing an appropriate instrument. After
many pre-tests, the questionnaire was Judged to be accept-
able.9 This instrument was used to collect information
on occupational opportunities in local areas of each state.

The questionnaires were not mailed to respondents,
except when it was impossible to make a direct person-to—
person approach. For the most part, respondents were met
by appointment in group meetings. Usually, these meetings
were arranged in connection with a scheduled annual meeting
during the summer. This method of using the questionnaire
was for the purpose of getting responses on all items in-
cluded in the instrument. Also, through the use of this
htmethod, a high percentage of the forms wage returned. It
‘was a postulation that an appeal in person would stimulate
more thorough participation among persons filling in
questionnaires.

The questionnaires for each state were summarized by
counties and state areas. In the first place, the names of

counties in a state were listed on a stiff piece of cardboard

 

9 See Appendix A.

17

according to areas. Following this, long strips of cross-
section paper, sixteen quarter-inch squares per square inch,
were cut and used for tabulating and summarizing data as
they were related to specific occupations. The title of
each occupation included under a general heading was listed
in a vertical position along the top of the cross-section
paper. This piece of paper was fitted beside the name of
each county on the stiff piece of cardboard. Finally, data
from each questionnaire were tabulated opposite the county
from.which the information originated. This procedure-
provided a basis for summarizing the data, not only accord-
ing to occupations and educational requirements, but also
according to county and regional occupational opportunities.
In addition, this procedure also provided a means of check-
ing a large number of the completed forms against each other,
because many of the counties had either a teacher of voca-
tional agriculture and a county agent or more than one teacher
of agriculture.

Continuing, use was made of decennial census data,
1920-1950, by constructing tables which showed trends for
cr0ps, livestock, mechanization, rural farm population,
and occupations. It was concluded that these trends would
have some affect upon the number of occupational opportunities

in agriculture.

Ii

w

..\

I...

18

Sources of Information

In order to secure basic information for this study
permission was secured from directors of vocational educa-
tion and directors of the extension service in each selected
state to approach program-planning committees. Arrangements
were made with these planning committees for time at their
scheduled meetings to explain the purpose of the study and
to solicit the full cooperation of each respondent in come
plying with requests--that is, filling in the questionnaire.

Approximately 3,000 miles were traveled in presenting
questionnaires to 318 Negro teachers of agriculture and
Negro county agents who were attending scheduled group
meetings.10 Of this number 299, or ninety-four percent of
this group completed and returned useable questionnaires.
The premise was that these agricultural leaders, by virtue
of their training and current contact with agricultural
problems at the community level, should have a superior
knowledge of the occupational situation among Negroes in
the local areas. It was realized that some responses to
items on the informational forms were derived from opinions
and thus, they were not scientific. However, it must be

renwmbered that these agricultural leaders were in close

 

10 The counties in which these teachers of agriculture
and.county agents were employed may be identified by examining
Appendix B.

19

contact with actual situations in which they could determine
occupational Opportunities existed, or whether they existed
and were not available to Negroes.

A second source of information was found in the United
States census reports. These data were valuable in that
they indicated trends in population, agricultural enter-
prises, mechanization, and occupations. They were also
used whenever possible as a check against occupational data
compiled as a result of opinions reported in the survey by

agricultural leaders.

Scope and Limitations of the Study

It was realized that the entire Cotton Belt-~where
the density of the Negro population is greatest-~could not
be included in this study. Consequently, a typical area
containing four contiguous states (Alabama, Arkansas, Mis-
sissippi, and Tennessee) was chosen as a representative
section of the whole area. Thus, from this area, informa-
'tion for the present study was collected from 205 Negro
teachers of vocational agriculture and ninety-four Negro
county agents. Each of these 299 agricultural leaders was
:required to have earned a bachelor's degree in agriculture
flmnn a recognized agricultural college in order to qualify
for-leis position. The type of information requested depended
quna the resourcefulness, integrity, and educational blok-

ground of respondents for its accuracy.

20

This study, then, has been limited in one aspect to
the composite thinking of 299 trained agricultural leaders.
These individuals were restricted to the consideration of
whether certain occupational opportunities were available
in agricultural and related fields in their local areas:
and if they were available, to what extent were Negroes
employed on these occupations.

Certain other limitations are also inherent in this
study. In the first place, the study of occupational
opportunities is limited to agricultural and related fields.
This excluded the consideration of other occupations. In
the second place, the study of occupational opportunities
is restricted to the Negro population, and by custom,
Negroes are barred from certain occupations in the South.
Finally, the selection of respondents was limited to the
Negro group because they (the respondents) were working
among Negroes. This fact apparently helped to qualify them
for answering questions posed in the questionnaire. For
example, these agricultural leaders, for the most part,
were reared in an agricultural enviornment which gave them
a rich background, embedded in the problems and triumphs
of rural life among Negroes. Again, the selection of re-

spondents was limited to Negro teachers of vocational

21

agriculture and Negro county agents because, as a rule,
other agricultural workers in these categories do not

work among Negroes in the selected area.

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Within this chapter research studies and special
reports will be reviewed which bear a relationship to the
investigation conducted in the present study. For the
most part, unpublished doctors' dissertations were selected
and reviewed; however, some masters' theses, non-thesis
studies, and special reports were included also.

Many studies have been conducted which were concerned
with ocOUpational opportunities and the employment status
of former graduates. Yet, no attempt was made in the present
study to review all the research in this category, but
rather studies were selected which could be classified as
bearing some direct relationship to the problem at hand.
Some studies were reviewed that dealt with occupational
opportunities in other fields as well as in agriculture.

In these cases, only the sections of studies bearing on
occupational Opportunities in agriculture were considered.

A review of the Summaries 92 Studies ig_Agricultural

 

Educatignl1 revealed that investigations related to

 

 

11 Summaries 9; Studies lg Agricultural Education,
U. S. OffIce o? EducatIon, Vocational Educational BulIetins,
(Washington; Government Printing Office, 1935-1952).

23

occupational Opportunities were almost exclusively centered
on the problem of discovering Job opportunities for students
and/or graduates of vocational agriculture in high school;
whereas, the problem in the present study was concerned
with opportunities for college students.

Nevertheless, it was concluded that certain studies
and special reports were comparable enough in purpose and
basic tenets with the objectives of the present investi-
gation to warrant their inclusion as related literature.
They are arranged under three major headings in order to
simplify the classification of related literature used in
this study. Under the first heading, studies are included
which focus attention upon occupational interests and op-
portunities for the purpose of ferreting out pertinent in-
formation for curricular revision and/or construction.
Under the Second heading, investigations are reported which
explore the potential possibilities of job opportunities
in which former students may find employment. Finally,
‘under the third heading, studies are considered which
reveal occupational opportunities through follow-up studies

10f fermer students and/or graduates.

ii.

a:

‘15

Ali

3*

plw

I. ‘
:\.c\

Studies of Occupational Interests and Opportunities

As Aids for Curricular Revision

Drake12 conducted a study in Alabama which had as
its major purposes: to discover occupational interests
of high school seniors and the relationship between these
interests and job Opportunities in the state; to clarify
educational demands of certain occupations; and to suggest
guiding principles for curricular construction in the light
of revealed interests, Job opportunities, and educational
demands.

This investigator visited fifty-five selected high
schools in which uhl senior young men and 860 senior young
women cooperated with him by filling in information forms.
The type of data collected was concerned with the informants'
age, sex, occupational interests, college plans, work ex-
periences, and the occupation of their grandparents and
parents. Too, questionnaires were mailed to sixty-one emr .
ployers from whom answers were requested relative to Negro
employees as skilled workers. This inquiry was mainly con-
cerned with whether Negroes were employed as skilled workers;
and if they were not, what were some of the basic reasons for

not employing them on Jobs classified as skilled work.

 

12 JOseph F. Drake, "Occupational Interests and Oppor-
tunities as Determinants in the Construction of Curricula for
-a Negro Land-Grand College in Alabama," (unpublished Doctor's
dissertation, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 1938),'

238 pp.

25

In addition to the two devices which were used for
collecting data for this study, Drake also made use of the
United States Census for the purpose of determining trends
in population and the distribution of occupations.

An analysis of the data secured from the high school
seniors revealed that of the 831 senior young men who ex-
pressed an occupational choice, seventy-eight desired to
become engaged in agriculture. Of this number, twenty
young men were interested in teaching vocational agricul-
ture; nine wanted to be farm demonstration agents; one
chose entomology; and forty-eight merely indicated that
they were interested in agriculture.

Generally, it would appear that the following state-
:ment should not be included in this review of literature;
yet, it was presented in order to point out prevailing
obstacles that do exist in the case of a minority group
in addition to other difficulties met in finding and se-
curing employment.

It therefore follows, according to the questionnaires
:returned by sixty-one selected emplbyers, Negroes were not
employed as skilled workers for the following reasons:

(1) lack of technical training; (2) public

0 inion; (3) attitude of other skilled employees;

( ) lack of standards of work on the part of Negro

iggloyees; (5) undesirable personality traits;

not customaig: and (7) not available in suffi-
cient numbers.

 

13 Ibid., p. 198.

26

NOtwithstanding the situation which prevailed con-
cerning Negroes as skilled workers, this inquirer found
that 51.3 percent of the total Negro population were
gainfully employed in agriculture. However, there was a
decrease in the number of agricultural workers during
the period 1910 to 1930. The percent decrease for this
period was from 66.7 to k843which represents an 18.7 per-
cent drop in the agricultural population.

Likewise, there was a downward trend in the total
number of Negro farm Operators from 93,829 in 1930 to
91,275 in 1935, a two percent decrease. On the other hand,
the Agricultural Census for the same period showed that
there was an increase of 2.1 percent in Negro farm owner-
ship. Within this same period tenancy among Negroes de-
creased three percent. Nevertheless, in 1935, tenants com-
posed 82.9 percent of the total farm tenant population in
Alabama.

In addition to giving consideration to opportunities
in agriculture on a state-wide basis, some attention was
devoted to opportunities in agriculture according to selected
regions of the State. In seven of the nine regions--Tennessee
Valley, Sand Mountain, Western, East Central, Black Belt,
Wiregrass, and the South Western-"forty to seventy-two percent
of the gainfully employed Negro pOpulation were engaged in
agricultural work. The remaining two regions-~The Mineral

and Limestone Valley, and the Gulf Region-~employed 12.5 and

27

10.2 percent respectively of the total gainfully employed
Negroes in agricultural pursuits.

In view of these facts, it was emphasized that re-
gardless of other industrial changes and developments,
Alabama had remained an agricultural state. Thereupon,
this observer recognized some implications for agricul-
tural education as a result of his study. They are contained

in the following statement:

Agriculture: Claiming 88.0 percent of the total
number of workers gainfully employed, and with
11,000,000 acres of tillable land at its disposal,
agriculture remains the basic industry in Alabama
from the standpoint of human resources employed as
well as natural resources utilized. The Negro
Land-Grand College, as a Federal-State institution,
has an obligation to provide such services as will
contribute to the ost efficient utilization of
these resources. 1%

Concluding, Drake held the point of view that in order
to facilitate the accomplishments of objectives of agricul-
tural education in a Land-Grant College for Negroes in Ala-
bama, an agricultural curriculum should be developed to
meet the needs of three groups:

(1) Individuals who plan to engage in some form
of agricultural pursuit. This curriculum should in—
clude experiences which will develop the ability of
the individual to manage successfully general farm
enterprises, as well as Specialized phases of the
industr .

(21 Special groups already engaged in farming
enterprises--the group to be admitted without classi-
fication or entrance requirements. This suggests
the problem of providing short intensive courses for

those who are interested in agricultural pursuits,
but for whom a four—year course is impossible or im-
practical.

 

11+ IbId., p. 220.

28

(3) Individuals who demonstrate the interest,

experience, aptitude, and ability to teach others

to engage successfully in agricultural pursuits. 15

This study was unique in that it represented the first
attempt made by a Negro land—grant college president to in-
vestigate occupational interests and opportunities as deter-
minants in the construction of curricula for a Negro land-
grant college. Indeed, this was a commendable study by any
process of measurement; nevertheless, the use of opinions
of high school seniors pertaining to occupational interest
as a basis for projecting an inquiry into possible job
opportunities in the state seems to be rather superficial
for an investigation of this caliber. This view was based
upon the generally accepted premise: most high school seniors
have not had the opportunity to explore the fields of occu-
pational opportunities nor have they had the guidance neces-
sary to prepare them for an intelligent occupational choice.
Another position taken is that the agricultural data from
which conclusions were drawn, seemingly, were not inclusive
enough to support the recommendations set forth in the
study.
16

Gunn surveyed occupational opportunities in agricul-

ture and allied fields in the state of North Carolina. This

 

+156 Ibid., pp. 220-222.

16 Lawrence J. Gunn, "A Survey of Occupational Oppor-
tunities in Agriculture and Related Fields in North Carolina,"
(unpublished Master's thesis, UniverSity of North Carolina,

Raleigh, 1950), 185 pp-

29

was the only study found which had considered occupational
opportunities in agriculture on a state-wide basis. 0n the
other hand, it was observed that a number of similar studies
was made for selected sections of different states, such as
counties and local communities.

In this connection, it was Gunn's opinion that his
study of occupations in agricultural and related fields
for the entire state would be more meaningful and useful
to students of vocational agriculture than one concerned
only with a small segment of the state. In the first place,
this reasoning was partially based upon the large percentage
(81.2) of inter-state migration of the farm population in
search of better opportunities. In the second place, his
reasoning was based upon the belief that students needed
to know, not only local occupational information, but also
the opportunities in adjacent areas.

Consequently, the purposes of Gunan study were:

1. To provide the student of vocational agri-
culture with information necessary for a wise voca-
tional choice.

2. To provide the agriculture teacher with occupa-
tional information about his farming area.

3. To show some of the trends and changes that
have occurred in occupations and enterprises related
to agriculture.

In order to fulfill the purpose of his study, Gunn re-
lied heavily upon data collected from 272 teachers of voca-
tional agriculture and ninety-two county agents in NOrth

Carolina. Questionnaires were submitted to the teachers of

vocational agriculture at the time of their annual teachers'

30

meeting, June 9, 1989. Likewise, similar information forms
were presented to county agents during their conference,
June 16, 1989. It was not made clear whether the question-
naires were filled in at these meetings or at some other
time and place, and returned to the investigator.

In addition to this procedure of collecting data, use
was made of the 1920, 1930, and 1982 United States Census
g£_Popu1ation and of the 1925, 1935, and 1985 United States
Census 2: Agriculture. This was done for the purpose of
determining trends in total population, farm population,
land tenure, and crop and livestock production.

According to the census report it was observed that
the proportions of gainfully employed persons in agricul-
ture in Nerth Carolina had declined from fifty-seven percent
in 1920 to 81.8 percent in 1980. In contrast to this, how-
ever, all other occupations increased in terms of the propor-
tion of people so employed. NOticeable, however, was the
fact that ownership increased 12.5 percent during the period
of 1935-1985, while tenancy decreased 18.5 percent.

Gunn realized fewer peOple were living on more and
larger farms on which production rates were maintained and
increased through the use of farm machinery. It was noticed,
nevertheless, that in areas of the state where crop produc-
tion was not wholly adaptable to mechanization, the percentage
of farm.population was higher than in areas where most of the

ferm.work was accomplished with machinery.

I7

31

In addition, evidence wasifound that fixed, mechanized
areas were becoming established which showed a definite
relationship between tractors and the choice of occupations
by farm people. Often, farm mechanization created new Job
opportunities, such as: repairing, selling, and distribu-
tion of fuel oils which absorbed part of the displacement
brought about as a result of technological deve10pments ap-
plicable to farm situations.

Turning from factors isolated as a result of an examina-
tion of census reports to the method used in analyzing the
data secured from teachers of vocational agriculture and
county agents, it was observed that this inquirer resorted
to a rating scale whereby the assigned weighted numbers
four, three, two, and one were given to classified headings
--excellent, good, fair, and poor, respectively-~by which
each Opportunity was evaluated. The maximum score for each
item included in the questionnaire was ascertained by multi-
plying all respondents by four. The "actual score" was the
sum of the evaluation multiplied by the appropriate weighted
numbers. Thereupon, the rating of the opportunity was de-
termined by dividing the "actual score" by the maximum.pos-
sible score.

Following this method of determining occupational op-
portunities in agriculture, Gunn proceeded further to analyze
Ins data as they were related to the farming areas of North

Carolina. Wherefore, he found wide variations in occupational

32

opportunities among the farming areas of the state. For
example, father-and-son partnership opportunities rated
highest in areas VB and VII where the farm population was
small in comparison to the total population; where the av-
erage size farm was large; where farm mechanization was
high; and where the percent of improved land was high.
Nevertheless, in areas I, II, V, and VIIIA veterinary op-
portunities were reported to be most favorable. Again,
farmrmachinery men were reported to have had the greatest
job opportunities in areas I, IV, V, VA, and VIIA. While
opportunities for the production of dairy cattle, swine,
and beef cattle were more satisfactory in areas VB, VIIA,
and VIIIA; II, III, V, and VIIIA; and II, III, V, VII, and
VIIA, reSpectively, than in any other area of the state.

In much the same way, data were revealed for all farming
sections of the state. It was concluded that these data
could be exceptionally significant to teachers of vocational
agriculture, but more especially, in providing valid occu-
pational information for students who need and seek guidance
in determining an occupational choice.

The relative recency (1950) of this study, as well as
its scope, sources of data, and the methods used in analyzing
and presenting facts were the major attributes which caused
the study to be chosen as an outstanding example of the type
of study needed in order to get at the basic problem of occu-

pational opportunities in agricultural and related fields.

33

Surely, in an investigation of this kind it would be
important to take into consideration the total area in which
the maximum population would be expected to seek job oppor-
tunities. In general, this would require the inclusion of
the local area--the community, the county, or a section of
the county--in any study seeking information for employment
opportunities. Nevertheless, opportunities for employment
are not available in all local communities, counties, or
states in sufficient numbers to accommodate potential em-
ployers. It follows that in local areas where occupational
opportunities are not available, individuals seek jobs in
adjacent areas and sometimes in more distant places. It
stands to reason that an adequate study of occupational op-
portunities in agricultural and related fields should be
broad enough in scope to allow for the assimilation of data
on occupations—~not only from the local area, but also,
from adjacent areas where people seek employment in agricul-
tural and/or related fields. This is necessary even if it
means the inclusion of the entire state, and contiguous
states.

Another impressive feature of this study was that Gunn
went directly to the teachers of vocational agriculture and
county agents because they were in position to furnish him
valid information by virtue of their agricultural training,
and first-hand contact with farm people Who were concerned

wiuithe problems about which he was seeking information.

I‘D

{ox

38

Moreover, his charts and tables were eXplicit, and the
value of his study was enhanced considerably because his
data were analyzed, not only for the state as a whole, but
also, according to the farming area of the state. This ar-
rangement of pertinent data made the study more useful to
teachers of vocational agriculture and other workers in the
field of agriculture than would have been possible if the
data had been analyzed only for thesatate as a whole.

Hudson's17 investigation was for the purpose of deter-
mining the proportion of former Negro students of vocational
agriculture in Alabama who were engaged in farming or a re-
lated occupation; their farming status; and other facts which
could be used advantageously in guidance programs and in our-
ricula construction.

Data for this study were gathered by mailing a prepared
questionnaire to 82 Negro teachers of vocational agriculture
in Alabama. Information from eleven completed forms was
used in analyzing the occupational distribution and status
in farming of 899 former Negro students of vocational agri-
culture.

According to Hudson's analysis, only 25.9 percent of
the former students were engaged in farming; 80.3 percent

were in farming and related occupations; while 89.7 percent

 

17 JOseph Hudson, "Occupational Distribution," The
Agricultural Education Magazine, 22:236-237, April, 1936.

35

were engaged in occupations other than those in agriculture.
There was a tendency for former students who finished three
years or more of school work to enter related occupations
rather than farming. In contrast to this, former students
who completed less than three years of school work entered
farming rather than related occupations.

It was concluded that former students of vocational
agriculture from eleven departments of vocational agricul-
ture included in this study were not entering farming in
justifiable proportions. This created a problem which
calls for further investigation and a planned course of
action which could well be taken by teachers of vocational
agriculture, administrators in local programs of vocational
education, and other persons interested in the problem.

It was readily recognized that this investigation was
too narrow in scope to be of value on a state-wide basis.
Furthermore, data were collected from different areas of
the state, none of which were similar enough in agricultural
pursuits to permit the investigator to combine them for the
purpose of determining factors applicable to curricula en-
richment, nor for the purpose of ascertaining valid occupa-
tional information for departments of vocational agriculture

in the state.

36

Studies of Employment Opportunities in Agriculture

Byram18 placed particular emphasis upon the problem

of acquainting farmrreared youth with occupational oppor-
tunities in related agricultural fields as a practical,
logical, and intelligent way of helping youth to realize
potential employment possibilities in related agricultural
occupations.

In defense of the claim for the need of additional
job opportunities for farm youth he pointed out the fact
that survey studies of former students of vocational agri-
culture show only about fifty percent of theSe boys enter
and remain in farming.

The author of this article explained a need for op-
portunities in related agriculture in the following quo-
tation:

Apparently, many farm boys who might like to
farm and who have a background of experience for

it will not be able to realize that ambition. Like-

wise, many boys interested in careers in farming

will be unable to capitalize on their experience to

a high degree unless the occupation into which they

go is related to agriculture.

He further thought that the number of agricultural col-
1ege graduates entering non-farming occupations serves as

an index to job possibilities in these related occupations.

To bear this point out, he revealed the result of a study

 

18 Harold M. Byram, "Opportunities for the Farmr
Reared Boy," Occupations, 17: 118-121, November, 1938.

37

furnished him by R. M. Vifquain. This study, showed the
occupational distribution of 1,763 graduates from the
Division of Agriculture at Iowa State College. The dis-
tribution was as follows: 321, or 18.2 percent were col-
lege teachers, research workers, and extension workers;
222 were high school teachers or administrators; 229, or
about seventeen percent were employed as specialists by
the United States Department of Agriculture; and 272, or
15.8 percent were farmers. Excluding the 155 in the mis-
cellaneous occupations and the 272 in the farming group,
75.7 percent were engaged in occupations related to agri-
culture.

Turning from the college man to the non-college man,
Byram calls attention to the two-year general agricultural
courses and short courses conducted at many of the land-
grant colleges and universities for the purpose of providing
instruction for rural boys who could not take a four-year
course; also, the many Special agricultural schools extending
across the country, coast to coast, from which boys are gradu-
ated and seek employment. Considering this, it was held that
many of these individuals would need intelligent guidance
based upon factual community data concerning occupations in
order to find employment in occupations related to agricul-
ture.

Lastly, in order to ameliorate this situation, Byram

recommends:

38

First, there is immediate need for considerable
research. There should be a nation-wide study and
several state and local studies for those employed
in agricultural occupations outside farming. Con-
cerning some of these jobs there is little or no in-
formation available to counselors and teachers; there-
fore, occupational surveys and studies should be made
to determine the characteristics and job qualifica-
tions of workers in these related jobs.

Secondly, much attention should be given to dis-
seminating information about such opportunities as
may exist for farm boys with interest in agriculture.

Although this article was written about fifteen years
ago, there is much in it to challenge present day thinkers.
This article explicitly focuses attention upon the need for
additional information on occupational opportunities in re-
lated agricultural fields as well as on the need for dis-
seminating more occupational information for guidance pur-
poses.

19 .

Nylund studied the OCCUpational opportunities in
farming and related service occupations in the Spencer-Van
Etten Community, located in Tioga and Chemung Counties,

New York. His major purposes were:

1. To discover what occupational opportunities
in farming and in related service occupations existed
within the Spencer-Van Etten Community for former
students of vocational agriculture.

2. To ascertain what factors influence and de-

termine the Opportunities available to these former
students in the farming and related service occupations.

 

19 Felix A. Nylund, "The Discovery and Analysis of
the Occupational Opportunities in Farming and Related Service
Occupations for Former Students of Vocational Agriculture,"
(umpublished Doctor's dissertation, Cornell University, Ithaca,
New York. 1986). 283 pp-

39

3. To determine how these young men take advan-
tage of the occupational opportunities which are avail-
able to them in this community.

8. To discover how the resources of this community
are being used to develop occupational opportunities
in farming and related or associated service occupa-
tions based on the needs of these former students and
on the needs of the people in this community.

5. To secure data which will be of value in de-
veloping a more effective program of instruction in
agriculture in the central rural school of this area.
This investigator's pOpulation was composed of 108 farm

and village boys who had studied agriculture in the Spencer-
Van Etten Community schools during the period July, 1938 to
July, 1988; and also, twenty merchants and business men who
furnished most of the information concerning opportunities
in related service occupations.

In regard to Opportunities in farming for former students
of vocational agriculture, Nylund was of the Opinion that
these opportunities must either exist or be created on the
home farm or other farms in or out of the community. It
was suggested that parental cooperation be extended to stu-
dents of vocational agriculture in the form of wages; part-
nership in the farm business; or a share of the farm income
or capital to invest in other farms; and experienced advice
regarding careers. This helpful cooperation extended to stu-
dents of vocational agriculture by their parents could be of
immeasurable value in providing opportunities for entering
farming.

He reported that, for the most part, former students

in the Spencer-Van Etten Community entered farming by way of

80

an agreement worked out with their parents. Some were part-
nership arrangements, but the majority were wage earners'
agreements. 0f the total of 121 former students, forty
percent were farm workers on their hams farms; 8.9 percent
were owner-operators; 26.7 percent had partnership agreements
with their parents; 17.8 percent were employed at home on

the farm with indefinite allowances; and 6.6 percent were
employed as farm laborers away from home.

This inquirer also explored the possibilities of em-
ployment Opportunities in related service occupations, and
found a number of businesses definitely related to the field
of agriculture, both in urban and rural centers. Essentially,
these businesses were concerned with:

1. Dairy industries, including manufacturing,
processing, and distributing.
2. Poultry industries, including manufacturing,

processing and distributing.

3. Fbod processing and preservation, other than
dairy and poultry.

8. Merchandizing of farm products and supplies.

5. Farm machinery, including equipment sales,
maintenance and repair.

6. Nursery products, including greenhouse, land-
scaping, and floriculture.

7. Financing and farm sales, including credit and
insurance.

It was observed that employment opportunities in these
businesses in the Spencer-Van Etten Community were influenced
by the size of farm businesses. An increase in the total,
volume of farm.business demanded an increase in related ser-

vices; whereupon, additional jobs were afforded.

81

Other factors exerting influence upon the number of
job opportunities in related service occupations were re-
ported to be the different types of farming which required
different kinds of related services-~human and physical re-
sources, topography, transportation facilities, the farming
population, farming eXperience, training, and finally, the
quality of personality possessed.

Commenting upon the employment status of former students
of vocational agriculture in related service occupations,
Nylund pointed out that only seven of the seventy-nine emr
ployees of local related service businesses were former stu-
dents of vocational agriculture.

This study is an example of a thorough investigation
of occupational opportunities in agricultural and related
fields for a community. It represents, no doubt, the best
method of determining local job opportunities, and discover-
ing occupational information devised up to the present time.
It is also true, that this type of investigation has a defi-
nite place in local situations, but if it is confined wholly
to such use, most of its usefulness will be lost. This view-
Inaint was held because the mobility of the population makes
it necessary to consider opportunities and other important
issues on.a.mmch.broader'basis than the community, county,

or even the state.

82

Studies of Occupational Opportunities Revealed
Through Follow-Up Studies of Former Students

Wright20 made what he called a dialectic analysis of
106 studies which were mainly composed of Masters' degree
theses concerned with follow-up studies of former high school
students who had studied vocational agriculture. His pur-
pose was to evaluate those studies and to discover factors
affecting occupational activities and employment.

In his analysis, Wright revealed that various sections
of the country possessed manifest differences in occupational
distribution among former students of vocational agriculture,
and these differences were apparent between different areas
within states.

This investigator showed that Morriss21 found from his
state-wide study in Alabama, during 1931 and 1932, that from
a total of 7,108 former students of vocational agriculture,
55.9 percent were engaged in.farming; 5.1 percent were em-
ployed in related occupations; 3.9 percent were in college;

and.35.1 percent were in non-agricultural occupations.

 

20 Carlton E. wright, "Occupational Distribution, En-
trance into Farming and Opportunities for Farming, of Former
Students of Vocational Agriculture," (unpublished Doctor's
dissertation, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 1983),

572 pp.

21 Some Effects of the Study of Vocational Agriculture
cul'the Occupation of’Farming and on Farm Practices, (unpub-
lished Master's thesis, Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn,
Alabama, 1938), Cited by Carlton E. Wright, 92. 313., p. 39.

.§

.. .s n as x. Q .. ..\

#3

On the other hand, Kline22 conducted a study in Vir-
ginia; he began it in 1933 and completed it in 1983. This
examinant's study included 1,260 Negro and 7,225 white out-
of-school former students of vocational agriculture. It
was revealed that 88.8 percent of the white students and
82.6 percent of the Negro students were engaged in farming.
However, studies on a regional basis show a higher percentage
ofyfprmer Negro students engaged in farming than former
white students. According to Lathrop23 these percentage
figures as of 1980-81 were 66.5 and 51.5 respectively for
Negro and white former students in the Southern Region.

In contrast to this, all studies indicated percentage-wise
that more former white students found employment in related
occupations than was true in the case of former Negro stu-
dents.

Essentially, however, no definite evidence was indi—
cated which could be construed as a trend in the proportion
of former students entering farming or related occupations.
The proportion entering agricultural and related occupa-

tions seemed to remain about constant from year to year,

 

 

22 A Stud of the Effectiveness of Vocational Agricul-
ture in Vir Inia A? Measured‘b' the OccupationaI‘Status of—
Former Students, IficIudingEhe valuation of Some of the—
Influences on Occupational S31ection,1918-32. (unpubT—shed
Master's thesis, Virginia, c Wte y CarltonE . Wright,
920 31-10, p. ’40:

23 Effectiveness of Vocational Education in Agriculture,
(Bulletin 82, ricultural‘Series'l3 Revised EdItIon, February,
1933. Federal card for Vocational Education Department of
Interior, Washington), cited by Carlton E. Wright, 0 l- cit., p.28.

 

 

&

 

88

except during times of depression when larger proportions
of former students found employment in farming, and smaller
proportions were able to become engaged in related occupa-
tions.

It was observed, however, that opportunities for entering
farming varied according to certain factors which were set
forth as follows:

Where the prOportion of all land in farms is
great; where farm tenancy is high or above a state
average; where farms are of medium size or larger;
where the value per farm is high, more former stu-
Sfiniiminifire£§$1?§c€§§22332338323?" m“ a“

In addition to these observations wright found that in
more recent years, the tendency was for a larger proportion
of former students of vocational agriculture to enter col-
1eges of agriculture than was true in former years. This
observation was further supported by the fact that the num-
ber of former students of vocational agriculture attending
colleges of agriculture in recent years was nearly as large
as the number of former students of vocational agriculture
enrolled in non- agricultural colleges.

It was noted also that agricultural college graduates
entered farming less readily than agricultural college drop-
outs. Whereas, on the other hand, graduates found employ-

ment in related occupations more readily than drop-outs.

Continuing, this inquirer made the observation that the

2“ Wright, 92. cit., p. 211.

85

percentage of Negro boys engaged in farming in the South was
much higher than the percentage of white boys. However, the
percentage of Negro boys entering related occupations was
somewhat lower, probably due to the lack of opportunities
for that group. Likewise, in sections where the percentage
entering farming was high, the percentage entering related
occupations was low. Quite the opposite, when the percentage
entering farming was low, the percentage entering related
occupations was high. Whereupon, more former students who
were graduated from high school entered related occupations
than did non-graduates.

The longer a group of former students was out of school,
the smaller was the proportion engaged in farming, and the
larger the proportion engaged in related occupations. It
was also found, according to most of the studies, less than
ten percent of the former students of vocational agriculture
entered related occupations. The general average entering
related occupations was approximately six percent. Thus,
the conclusion was that the more highly trained the boys
‘were, the greater was the proportion to enter related occu-
pations. Also, in times of prosperity, when the prices
‘were high or rising, a greater proportion of former students
entered related occupations. In times of depression, when
prices were low or falling, a smaller proportion entered

those occupations.

86

In view of these facts concerning occupational Oppor-
tunities for former students of vocational agriculture,
wright thought favorable results could be accomplished
through a process of selection and training which would
reasonably assure qualified leadership for the years ahead.
One way, he suggested to secure this type of leadership,
is through the quality and thoroughness of training offered
in departments of vocational agriculture. A second way
is to encourage outstanding students to continue their
education at a qualified agricultural college.

He was of the opinion that such a plan would neces-
sitate a program of guidance, developed jointly by the
principal of the high school and the teacher of vocational
agriculture, whereby, rural boys of outstanding ability
could be encouraged.to secure a college education.

In general, new technological and scientific devel-
opments applicable to agriculture have brought about new
job opportunities in agriculture during the last decade
'which.have made this study less valuable now than formerly.
.For example, information.on occupations in agriculture and
:related fields for the period 1930-1980 would not be as
*valuable in.present day agricultural situations as it was
during the period in which the information was gathered. It
follows that job opportunities would have changed along
wiifll demands brought about by new agricultural methods,

processes, and mechanical devices. On the other hand, this

1+7

study could be referred to for a review of methods, pro-
cedures, and other techniques which serve as guides by
which improved techniques could be developed for the pur-
pose of securing and analyzing data on occupations in
agriculture.

An extensive follow-up study of Michigan State College
graduates was conducted by Nyethz5 in search of information
which might help to indicate a course of direction for re-
adjusting training programs in agriculture at Michigan State
College to meet changing demands in agriculture.

The purposes of this research were stated as follows:

(1) To study all information furnished by

2,902 agricultural graduates, (2) to report what

agricultural graduates do and what they think about

all phases of the study conducted, (3) to analyze

in detail, the curriculum, counselin , and occu-

pational phases of the study, and (8 to suggest

suitable courses of action that the school of agri-
culture might initiate, based on opinions of graduates.

The present study was concerned, however, with only
one of the primary purposes of this investigation:

To furnish useful information to help the

school of agriculture carry on a more effective

program of counseling current and prospective

students on matters of courses of study, occupa-

tional information, employment opportunities and
requirements.

 

25 Irving R. Wyeth, "A Study of the Agriculture Gradu-
ate of Michigan State College," (unpublished Master's thesis,
Michigan State College, East Lansing, Michigan, 1953), 173 pp.

88

Data were collected for this study through the use of
questionnaires. A printed copy was mailed to each of the
8,500 agricultural graduates for whom addresses were ob-
tainable. A total of 2,923 former graduates responded by
filling in and returning the questionnaire mailed to each
of them.

Upon examining the data collected, wyeth found that
eleven percent of Michigan State College graduates in agri-
culture were farming. Surprisingly, only sixteen percent of
2,798 informants were engaged in non-agricultural occupa-
tions. This seemed to have indicated clearly that job op-
portunities were sought and found in agriculture by the
majority of these college graduates. Further, it was no-
ticed that 1,379 or forty-eight percent of 2,875 Michigan
State College agricultural graduates had secured employment
in public service occupations at the federal, state, or
city level; twenty-nine percent were employed by private
companies and corporations; twenty percent were self-employed
in business, such as farming; and three percent were classi-
fied as retired.

Turning to job descriptions that best apply to present
major occupations of graduates, wyeth observed, according to
replies based on answers to a multiple choice question, that
of the 9,996 replies, fourteen percent, or 1,839 listed
“supervision" as the best descriptive title of the job in

89

which they were employed. Likewise, fourteen percent, or
1,822 listed public relations; thirteen percent, or 1,315
listed administration; twelve percent, or 1,173 listed
organization; twelve percent, or 1,123 listed management;
ten percent, or 1,003 listed teaching; eight percent, or
773 listed sales; seven percent, or 717 listed farming; six
percent, or 662 listed research; and four percent, or 369
were classified as other occupations.

It was interesting to note that sixty-nine percent of
the employed former agricultural graduates of Michigan State
College were satisfied with their present work to the extent
they were not seeking a change in favor of another type of
position. However, sixteen percent, or 833 out of 2,788
former graduates did express a desire to change from their
present work to another type of position; whereas, fifteen
percent, or 811 were uncertain as to whether they desired
a change.

Considerable evidence was revealed in this study to
support the hypothesis that occupational opportunities in
agricultural and related occupations were available for
agricultural college graduates. Moreover, the percentage
distribution of workers among these occupations is an indi-
cation that the general scope of occupations was broad e-
nough to allow for wide range of choices, as well as employ-

ment situations. This point of emphasis was clearly

M

'I

50

demonstrated in the percentage distribution of former
graduates who were employed in approximately thirty-nine
rather generally defined agricultural occupations.

There was an outstanding point of agreement between
Wyeth's study and the present investigation: both studies
were vitally concerned with the presence or the absence of
occupational Opportunities in agricultural and related
fields as focal points in planning educational programs in

agriculture.

Rhea21L conducted a follow—up study of the graduates
of the school of Agriculture at Iowa State College primarily
for the purpose of assembling "in a more satisfactory and
detailed manner some evidences of evaluation generally found
by keeping an ear-to-the-ground." This inquisitive ear seemed
to have been interested in the vocational competency of gradu-
ates, their opinions concerning curricula and organizational
policies as reflectors of implications capable of suggesting
ways to project more effective programs of agriculture. To
secure this information, a questionnaire was mailed to each
of the 8,883 graduates who had received baccalaureate degrees
since 1932 in agriculture. Of this number 3,593 were returned

sufficiently completed for use in this study.

 

28 Mark B. Rhea, "Present Status and Opinions of Grad-
uates Granted Bachelor of Science Degrees Since 1932 in Agri-
culture Curricula at Iowa State College,” (unpublished Doc-
:gz's dissertation, Iowa State College, Ames, Iowa, 1953)

Pp.

51

Each of the graduates stated both his first and present
occupation after graduation. The present occupations in
which employment was secured were classified and summarized.
This classification showed the distribution of graduates
without consideration for curriculum affiliation. It was
noted that the largest proportion, 968, of the reporting
graduates were employed in commercial agricultural concerns,
such as: plant managers, 256; salesmen, 288; production,
206; and research workers, seventy-four. Productive agri-
culture in which 702 of the 3,593 reporting graduates were
employed ranked second; 582, or 15.1 percent of the reporting
graduates were farming. Education and government service
occupations ranked third in employing 870 graduates each.
Positions, such as teachers of vocational agriculture, veter-
ans' classes, and teachers in high school, ranked fourth in
offering employment opportunities to 810, or 11.8 percent
of the reporting graduates. The smallest number in the se-
lected categories was employed in farm service occupations;
there were only ten persons in this classification-«eight
of these were veterinarians.

Upon considering first and present occupations of re-
pmnrting graduates by curriculum, Rhea observed some changes
between beginning and present occupations. A strikingly

noticeable shift occurred in the number engaged in farming.
Figures showed that 883 of the 3,593 graduates became engaged

ixl:faaning directly after graduation from college; however,

52

by 1952 the number had increased to 702. Another noticeable
shift appeared in small businesses from initial to present
positions among graduates. Ninety-six were employed in small
businesses directly after receiving baccalaureate degrees;
but by 1952, 205 had positions in this enterprise. Quite
apart from this, certain initial occupations, such as edu-
cation, extension and government service, were used as step-
ping stones to other occupations.

This study has revealed for Iowa State College the oc-
cupations in which its agricultural graduates have found
employment. The present study similarly sought to identify
occupations in a selected area. Nevertheless, both studies
employed different approaches in determining occupational
opportunities. In the present study the problem was attacked
first, by determining if certain jobs were available in a
selected area; secondly, by finding out if Negroes were employed
on these jobs; and finally, by determining the kind and amount
of training demanded by these jobs. Whereas, in Rhea's study
his approach was through a follow-up of agricultural graduates
in order to find out in what occupations they became engaged
after leaving college.

A basic philosOphy which seems to have stimulated the
'urge fer research in occupational Opportunities in agricul-
tural.and related fields has found outward expression in the

following words by Rhea:

53

The agricultural economy of this country would

soon be bankrupt if all farmereared boys were forced

to return to farming. The demands for personnel in

the agricultural industry, other than farming, have

been so acute that agricultural colleges have recog-

nized that maximum service to agriculture cannot be

attained without stressing the opportunities for

fammreared youth in occupations other than farming

in the total agricultural industry.

Early in 1950 a survey was conducted by Shepardson27
in order to assemble information seeking an answer to two
questions: (1) "Why go tolcollege to learn to farm?“ and
(2) "Why does the agricultural graduate not go back to the
farm?" A questionnaire was mailed to each of the 8,720
agricultural graduates of the Agricultural and Mechanical
College of Texas. Of this number, 1,927 graduates completed
forms and returned them in time to be included in the study.
Among other requests, was one asking graduates to list
their present occupations. A summary of these occupations
revealed that of the 1,927 reporting graduates, 18.6 percent
were farming, and forty-seven percent, or 905 were engaged
in professional agriculture. This group was composed of
311 teachers of vocational agriculture; 165 agricultural
extension workers; 203 college instructors and research work-
ers; 202 Soil Conservation Service workers and other govern-

mental agencies; and twenty-four commercial public relation

workers. Continuing, 12.9 percent were emplOyed in busine53~

 

27 Chas. N. Shepardson, "A Study of the Agricultural
Graduates of the Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas,"
Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College Station,
Texas, Fifth Series, Vol. 7, Number 7, 1951.

58

related to agriculture, and 21.5 percent were working in
fields unrelated to agriculture. Another meaningful analysis
was made which identified occupations of graduates by major
fields of study on the basis of an earned baccalaureate de-
gree. It was found that thirty-five percent of the 892

animal husbandry majors were engaged in farming. This repre-
sents the largest percentage of all majors entering farming.
Agronomy majors were second, with seventy-four, or twenty-two
percent from a total of 337 entering farming. Dairy and
poultry ranked third, with 19.7 percent of 182 majors in
farming. Floriculture and landscape, entomolgy, and agricul-
tural education had the smallest percentages engaged in
farming--8.3, 6.3, and 6.2, respectively. Nevertheless,
entomology and agricultural education had the highest per-
centage engaged in professional work, seventy-five percent

and 78.6, respectively. Majors in floriculture and land-
scape architecture, and agricultural engineering led the group
in entering related agricultural business, with 83.5 percent
and 29.3 percent, respectively. The highest percent of gradu-
ates, 87.1, engaged in work unrelated to agriculture were
majors in agricultural administration. Floriculture and land-
scape architecture majors were second in this classification,
with 81.3 percent. Although only 18.6 percent of the graduates
were farming, 33.3 percent, or 681 of the total were land

owners 0

55

The basic purposes of this study seem to have been close-
ly allied with those of the present study. Both studies
were seeking information on occupations as they were related
to college students, thus they had parallel purposes in this
reSpect. A point of dissimilarity was recognized in method-
ology when it came to identifying occupations. This study
surveyed and identified occupations on the basis of partici-
pation by college graduates; whereas, the present study sur-
veyed the field in search of posSible job opportunities on
the basis of availability.
28

Within recent years Peacock and others conducted a
study of the employment opportunities for agricultural grad-
uates of the University of Tennessee. The basic information
for the study was secured by mailing prepared questionnaires
to agricultural graduates who had received baccalaureate de-
grees during the thirty-year period, 1920-1950 inclusive.
The total number of respondents was 1,288, or sixty-three
percent of the graduates to whom questionnaires were mailed.
An analysis of the employment distribution of the re-
spondents is summarized in Table II. It will be seen that
eighty-five percent of the graduates secured their first jobs

in agricultural or related fields after graduation and that

 

28 N. D. Peacock, E. J. McSpadden, and G. H. Wingo,
A Study of the Employment Opportunities for Agricultural
Graduates of the University of Tennessee. College of Agri-
culture, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Bu11., n. d.

TABLE II

56>

TYPES OF GRADUATE EMPLOYMENT, FIRST AND

PRESENT UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE

 

 

esEmployment at
time of survey

 

M
Types * First employment
after graduation
(% of total)
Related to agriculture
Educational
High school
Vocational agriculture 28.3
Veterans' training 7.7

Total high school employment
College
Teaching 2.2
Research 3.8
Extension 8.7

Total college employment
Graduate Study

Total Educational

Federal and state agencies
Commercial

Farming

Total related to agriculture
Unrelated to agriculture
Commercial
Military service
Teaching
Miscellaneous

{total unrelated to agriculture

36.0

18.3
0.7

51.0
18.3
13.8

5.9

85.0

8.8
1.8
8.0
0.8

15.0

(% of total)
20.5
7.9
28.8
3.8
1.3
10.1
15.2
1.7
85.3
16.3
12.5
8.6
82.7
10.8
8.0
1.7
0.8
17.3

 

'39 N. D. Peacock, B. J. I‘icsnadden and G. H. it'ingo, "A Study of the
‘Exuihoyment Opportunities for Agricultural Graduates of the University
Tennessee," Knoxville, Tennessee: Bulletin, College of Agrimfltnre,

UniverSity of Tennessee, n. d.

57

5.9 percent of the first employment situation after gradu-
ation were in farming. Whereas, when the study was conducted
8.6 percent of the reporting graduates were so engaged. The
implication seems to be that young men who graduate in agri-
culture seek employment in agricultural occupations other

than farming for a few years until they can arrange to finance
farming operations. Peacock also called attention to the

fact that 30.1 percent of the 1,288 reporting graduates

owned or were operating farms.

An examination of the data presented in the study on
present employment by undergraduate major fields disclosed
the occupations in which the majority of the graduates were
working. Teaching high school vocational agriculture pro-
vided employment for more agricultural education graduates
than any other occupation. A total of 83.7 percent, or 165
out of 377 reporting agricultural education graduates, were
employed in teaching vocational agriculture. Approximately,
nineteen percent of the 165 agronomy majors were employed
by federal and state agencies. The extension service pro-
vided employment opportunities for 17.5 percent of the 160
animal husbandry majors. Twenty-seven, or 16.9 percent of
this group were farming. Of the 111 reporting dairy majors,
27.1 percent, or thirty were employed in commercial dairying.
Federal and state agencies employed the majority of the fifty

agricultural economics majors and the fifty horticulture

58

majors by providing jobs for about twenty-three percent of
each group. Twenty-seven, or 33,8 percent of the eighty
majors in agricultural engineering, found the preponderance
of their employment opportunities in commercial work related
'to agriculture.

Peacock's computations and explanations on employment
Opportunities for agricultural graduates particularized
occupational opportunities in a realistic setting. Eighty-
five percent of these graduates had been employed in agri-
culture or related fields. Furthermore, the distribution of
employment indicated that opportunities had been realized
in a number of different occupations in agriculture. Essen-
tially, the present study sought to identify work oppor-
tunities for Negro college graduates in agriculture for a
selected area which included Tennessee. The two studies
showed parallelism in that both were interested in occupa-
tional opportunities in agriculture from the standpoint of
what could be revealed that might be used in planning better
college programs in agriculture. A point of dissimilarity
occurred in that different groups were under consideration
in each study. In the present study it was thought'expedient
to search for job opportunities in the light of employment
situations which were available to Negroes and those which
were not yet available to them.but had a remote possibility
of becoming accessible. On the other hand, Peacock's group

was not circumscribed by discriminatory employment practices;

59

consequently, his study had no cause to consider whether jobs
were available or not, but rather, to<ietermine what selections

were being made in the open field of employment opportunities.

Summary

Studies and other written materials which were related
to the problem of occupational opportunities in agricultural
and related fields were reviewed in this chapter.

At this point, some similarities and some differences
of opinion will be discussed which prevailed between this
study and the investigations which were included in the
review of related literature.

Three similarities existed between Gunn's study and
the present study. The first of these similarities was in
the selection of the sources of materials. That is, both
inquirers secured information from county agents and teachers
of vocational agriculture. The second of these similarities
was that both investigators made use of the United States
Census 3; Agriculture, and the United States Census 2£.§EEE:.
lation. The third and final point of agreement was concern-
ing the scope of the study. That is, both studies were
conducted on a state-wide basis, rather than merely a com-
munity or county basis.

The following major differences between the present

study and Drake's, Hudson's, Nylund's, and Wright's studies

In

60

were: (1) these studies were concerned with former high-
school students of vocational agriculture, while the present
study concerned itself with former college students; and

(2) the data were gathered in these studies through mailed
questionnaires and personal interviews, while in the present
study the investigator gathered data through questionnaires
which were filled in during group meetings, at a time when
the enumerator could serve as an interpreter of the instru-
ment, if necessary.

The follow-up studies conducted by Wyeth, Rhea, Shep-
ardson, and Peacock centered attention upon identifying oc-
cupations in which agricultural graduates were able to
secure employment. Likewise, the present study sought to
identify job opportunities for Negro college graduates--
not, however, by a follow-up study, but rather, by determin-
ing the jobs on which Negroes were employed and those on
which they were not employed by conducting a survey in the
areas for which information was desired.

A general point of agreement seemed to have prevailed
among all studies reviewed that there was a felt need for
1mmre information on occupational opportunities in agricul-

ture, both at the high school level and at the college level.

CHAPTER IV

FACTORS AFFECTING JOB OPPORTUNITIES
IN AGRICULTURAL AND RELATED FIELDS

The people of the United States depend almost entirely
upon American agriculture for raw food materials and fiber
which are used to feed and clothe them. Moreover, approxi-
mately 12.2 percent of the total population in America de-
pend directly upon agriculture for gainful employment.29
It was held by Boss and Pond30 that the populace of the
United States have no other alternative to which they may
turn for their primary needs--food and clothing-~other
than to the industry of American agriculture. These im-
portant facts are two basic reasons why agriculture must
be classified as one of the paramount businesses of this
generation. It stands to reason, then, that the whole pop-
ulation of the United States should be vitally interested
in what has happened; what is happening; and also, what is
likely to happen to such an enormous enterprise which helps
to bring into existence the basic necessities of life and

prosperous living.

 

7297 United States Bureau of the Census, United States
Census of Population, Vol. I (Washington: Government Printing
(Sm—‘ce,1922), pp. I-286 -- 1—287.

 

30 Andrew Boss and George Pond, Modern Farm Mana ement,
(Minnesota: The Weber Publishing Company, I987), p. 35.

62

Trends in the Selected Area

This section of the study has been limited to a con-
sideration of what has happened to agriculture in the
selected area. For the most part, attention was given to
changes which took place during the period 1920-1950, as
they were related to identifiable trends. Furthermore,
rather than to consider trends for the selected area as a
unit, they are discussed in terms of each state comprising
the selected area.

Some of the apparent, justifiable reasons for analyzing
data as a unit for the selected area were: the four states
produced largely the same crops, with cotton as their main
cash crop; (2) generally, their livestock programs were
similar; (3) they were located in an area that has been
affected similarly by boll weevils and other insect pest;
(8) there was an excess farm population in each state; and
(5) wars and depressions had a similar effect on their agri-
cultural programs.31 Yet, in spite of these similarities
which would naturally favor an analysis of the area as a
whole, it seems a more logical step to analyze the data and
show trends for each separate state so that teachers of

agriculture, directors, deans of divisions of agriculture,

 

31 John L. Fulmer, 93. cit., p. 18.

and administrators of agricultural programs in each state
could view these relative data in the light of a local

situation.
Alabama

In Alabama agricultural trends have followed largely
the general trends and patterns which have prevailed through-
out the Cotton Belt States32 and the nation as a whole. Ad-
verse conditions, such as: the advent of the boll weevil in
1915, the depression years of the 1930's, and generally,
too many people depending on too few acres of land for a
living have affected agriculture in the state. On the
other hand, national emergencies which occurred during the
World Wars brought about high prices for farm commodities.
During these periods, in the meantime, the army draft and
migration of workers from rural areas to war plants and
other industries depleted the rural farm population to the
extent that there were fewer people on farms to share in
the increased farm income. Thus, these were periods of
relatively high per capita income for farmers.

Still another point of View was possible because of
adverse conditions during the 1930's and the speed-up

prouuction program in farming during national emergencies.

 

32 Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi,
Oklahoma, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee and
Texas.

68

Scientists and economists, in order to improve upon the
unfavorable situations, went to work on the problems at
hand. The former group developed newer and better in-
secticides, while the results of the planning of the lat-
ter group was the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1933, the
Soil Conservation and Domestic Allotment Act of 1936, and
the Agricultural Adjustment Act of 1938. Seemingly, in
order to solve the problems of increasing farm production
during national emergencies, scientists, economists, tech—
nicians, and the general "know-how" of all Americans were
brought into action.

During each WOrld War the challenges for increased
production in agricultural commodities were met. These
increases seemed to have been made possible, to a large
extent, through the use of scientific and technological
developments. To cite one case at hand: in 1939 only
ten percent of the cotton land in the Mid-South was pre-
pared with tractors; on the other hand, in 1986, cotton
land prepared with tractors had increased to forty-two
percent.33 Likewise, while sweeping advances were made
in the use of mechanical devices on the farm to increase
production, scientific developments, such as: the use of
hybrid seeds, improved insecticides, better breeding and

feeding methods, and many other developments were applied

 

33 JOhn Lo FUlmeI‘, QR. Ci 0, p. 630

r0-

0

I'll

( I
be,

65

to farming situations in the interest of larger and better
yields. These developments represent some of the more
noticeable factors which exerted some influence upon agri-
culture in Alabama, and were reflected, to some extent,

in the general trend of agriculture in the state.

Population. The people of Alabama in 1950 had access
to approximately 32,689,920 acres of land, of which 63.9
percent, or 20,888,788 acres were in farms.38 Stating the
same fact somewhat differently, it was found in 1950 that
3,061,783 persons were living in Alabama; this state had an
approximate land area of 32,689,920 acres. The population
was composed of 982,283 non-white inhabitants and 2,079,500
white inhabitants. Table III indicates, in general, that the
total pOpulation of Alabama increased 30.8 percent during
the period 1920-1950. However, for the decade 1980-1950 there
was only an 8.1 percent increase in the total pOpulation.
The white population increased 12.5 percent during this per-
iod; whereas, on the other hand, the number of non-white

persons decreased 0.2 percent.35 But it can readily be seen

 

3“ United States Bureau of the Census, United States
Census of A riculture, Vol. 1 (washington: Government Printing
OTTIce,_I9 , p. .

 

35 "Employment and Economic Status of Negroes in the
United States," Staff Report to the Sub-Committee on Labor
and Public Welfare, United States Senate, Eighty-Second Con-
gress, Second Session, (Washington: United States Govern-
ment Printing Office, 1952), Table 8, p. 6.

66

TABLE III

TRENDS AND PER CENT CHANGE IN POPULATION, FARM TENURE,
AND FARM.ACREAGE: ALABAMA 1920-1950

-~ -—— fi ‘— —_—
m;—

 

 

 

 

‘—
r ._-

 

 

 

1920 1930 1980 1950 Per cent change
1920-1950

Total

population 2,388,178 2,686,288 2,832,961 3,061,783 +3o.8
Rural farm

Population 1,338,513 1,336’h09 1,338,66h 96ogh93 “2803
Land in

farm

(acres) 19,576,856 17,55h,635 19,183,391 20,888,788 +6.7
Farm

operators 256 , 099 257, 395 231,786 211, 512 .17 .8
Average size

farm (acres) 76.8 68.2 82.6 98.8 +29.3
*Farm owners 107,089 90,372 95,107 123,863 +15.3
A11 farm

tenants 188,269 166,820 136,228 87,613 -ho.9

United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census o__f_
Agriculture: 1920-1950. Per cent change cal lcfifited.

 

*Part and full owners .

,‘3

67

in Table IV, that there was an increase of 9.1 percent in
the non-white population in 1950 over that of 1920.

The present study concerned itself with the rural farm
population rather than with all the people of the state;
thereupon, a closer examination of the rural element of
the populace was in order. The total number of rural farm
people in Alabama, for each year, 1920 to 1950, was re-
corded in Table III. It was noted that a decrease of 28.3
percent occurred in the rural farm population during the
thirty-year period, 1920-1950. Within this period, never-
theless, some fluctuations took place as indicated in Table
III. In the first place, according to authorities in the
field of economics, there was a distinct back-to-the-farm
movement during the 1930's which was attributed to the
nation-wide depression. In the second place, according to
experts in labor statistics, there was a sharp decline in
the rural farm population during the 19h0-1950 decade. This
shift in population was caused by migration of rural work-
ers to war plants and other industries.

It can be seen in Table IV that there was a 38.0
percent decline in the non-white rural farm population
for the thirty-year period, 1920-1950. However, the great-
est decrease, 33.3 percent, for a single decade occurred
during 19h0-1950. In contrast to the short, fluctuating
trends observed in the action of the total farm population

during the thirty-year period, 1920-1950, the non-white,

ll-

68

TABLE IV

TRENDS AND THE PER CENT CHANGE IN NONauRITE RURAL EARN
POPULATION AND FARM TENURE: ALABAMA 1920-1950

 

 

 

1920 1930 19h0 1950 Per cent change
1920-1950

Total
population 900,650 9hh,83h 983,86h 982,2h3 +9.1
Rural farm
population 515,351 h96,873 h77,977 318,7h5 ~38.0
Per cent
rural farm 57.0 52.6 h8.6 32.5 ~h3.0
Number of ‘
farms 95,200 93,829 73,36h 57,29h -39.8
[Average size
farm (acreS) h5.7 h3.3 h8.5 h2.h -7.0
,Full owners 13,663 ll,hl7 11,776 13,267 -2.9
Tenants, all 77,871. 77,875 57,651 38,026 -51.2
Share croppers * * 6,h62 8,927 +7.2
Croppers 27,18h 27,572 19,33h 11,900 -56.2

 

United.States Bureau Of the Census, United.States Census of
Population: 1950. Per cent change calculated.

 

 

United.3tates Bureau of the Census, United.States Census of
Augriculture: 1950. Per cent change calculaw 3.

*Not available.

:i

 

1‘ v
PII

69

rural farm population decreased each decade in rising pro-
portions from 18,h73 in 1920 to 159,232 in 1950. These
facts do not exclude the possibility that there was a back-
to-the-farm movement among non-white people during the 1930
depression years, but they do indicate that, if such were
the case, by the time the 19h0 decennial census was taken,
a larger number left the rural area than had returned in
the same census period. Table IV shows that in 1920 more
than one-half, fifty-seven percent, of the non-white pOpu-
lation were classified as rural farm; whereas, in 1950
only 32.5 percent of the total non-white population were
in this category. It was interesting to note,that, ac-
cording to Table IV, the proportion of the non-white popu-
lation which remained in rural areas decreased over a
period of thirty years, decade after decade, from fifty-
seven percent in 1920 to 32.5 percent in 1950, a forty-three

percent change.

Land tenure. Any consideration of land tenure auto-

 

;matically eliminates the element of the population gainfully
employed in agriculture as laborers. This is tantamount to
saying that employment as a farm laborer does not qualify a
person for tenure status. Consequently, land tenure is
concerned primarily with individuals who have entered farming
at some point along the agricultural ladder. In Alabama,

approximately [12,008 of the 253,520 gainfully employed

70

persons in agriculture were laborers in 1950. More notice-
able was the fact that about forty percent of the gainfully
employed Negro population in agriculture in 1950 were
labOrers.

General trends in land tenure from 1920 to 1950 are
reflected in Table III. From these data it is evident
that between 1920 and 1950 a l7.h percent decrease occurred
in the total number of farm operators; whereas, the average
size farm increased from 76.h acres to 98.8 acres, a 29.3
percent increase. In contrast to this, there was a 15.3
percent increase in farm ownership. While on the other hand,
there was a decrease of 40.9 percent in the number of all
farm tenants.

An examination of Table IV revealed that the number
of farms Operated by Negroes decreased from 95,200 in 1920
to 57,29h in 1950, a 39.8 percent decrease. It was noted
that this trend was in keeping with the general trend of
the state. Quite to the contrary, nevertheless, the average
size of these farms diminished from #5.? acres in 1920 to
h2.h.acres in 1950. Likewise, Negro farm ownership lagged
behind to the extent that in 1950 actually 2.9 percent
.fewer farmers owned farms than in 1920.

Significantly noticeable was the percent change in
the number of Negro tenants and croppers between 1920 and

1950. There was a 51.2 percent and 56.2 percent decrease

71

in each category, respectively. This seemed to have been a
clear indication of the unwillingness of Negroes to accept
the tenant:' status as it exists in the South. At the same
time, there was evidence to show that Negroes still had a
desire to own farms. In 1950, Negroes owned 1,391 more
farms than in l9h0. Evidently this increase in ownership
was stimulated, to a large extent, as a result of the in-
crease in the purchasing power among farmers which pre-

vailed between l9h0 and 1950.

Occupational distribution. When Negroes were brought
to America, they were concentrated in the South and were
assigned Jobs, for the most part, in the crop productive
phases of agriculture. As a result Of this type of place-
:ment, immediately after the Civil War, the majority of
,American Negroes resided in the rural South where they had
'been subservient to the agricultural economy. It was natur-
al that during the period between the Civil war and World
‘War’I, Negroes, in large numbers, sought to become estab-
Ilishod in farming. During this period a movement from the
Infral areas to the larger local cities was started by indi-
‘Viduals who were seeking new occupational Opportunities.
The momentum of this movement developed until it reached
its peak in what is known as the "Great Migration" which
started in 1915. Since its beginning, the evolution of mi-
gration of Negroes from the rural areas of the South has been

predicated upon better Job Opportunities in the larger cities

P:

a.
Na

..

72

of the South, the North--and in more recent years--some
cities of the West.36 Consequently, the Negro has shifted
from one area of the country to another, not merely to be-
come employed but rather to become engaged in better paying
jobs. It is common knowledge that Negroes are predominantly
employed in the low-paying occupations and those requiring
less skill.37 Equally recognizable is the fact that they
are endeavoring to break out of this unjust occupational
confinement and earn the right to full employment on any

job in America.

Evidences Of eliminated occUpational barriers can be
recognized in the percent change in the number of Negroes
who were employed in the occupations listed in Table V. As
late as 1940 only fourteen percent of the total gainfully
employed Negro population of Alabama were employed on.manu-
facturing and construction jobs. The proportion increased
to 22.3 percent by 1950. Whereas, during the same period,
there was a 1.2 percent decrease in one of the traditionally
lowwpaying typical occupations-~persona1 services. Notice-
able gains in.employment were made in trades, finance, and

insurance--from 2.9 percent in 1930 to 10.1 percent in 1950.

36 Arnold Rose, TheN rO in America (New York:
Harper and Brothers, 19118), 1:63.

37 "Employment and Economic Status of Negroes in the
United States," 03. cit., p. 11+.

73

 

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71+

The most significant trend pictured in Table V deals
with the percent change in the total number of Negroes em~
ployed in agriculture during the thirty-year period, 1930-
1950. The decrease has been from 51.5 percent of the total
employed Negro population in 1930 to 29.6 percent in 1950.

In addition, Table VI shows the numerical, as well as
the percentage, distribution of employment among the major
occupations and non-white workers. These figures indicate
that when farmers and farm managers, and farm.laborers, in-
cluding unpaid family workers, were considered as a group,
30.1 percent of the 32h,09h employed non-white workers were
engaged in farming. 0n the other hand, only 7.1 percent
were employed as managers, Officials and proprietors, cleri-
cal and kindred workers, sales workers, and craftsmen, fore-
men, and kindred workers. This table further shows that 82.9
percent of the rural farm non-white male population in 1950

were engaged in farming.

Qggpg. In spite of the reduction in cotton acreage
brought about at different times because of boll weevils
and depression years, cotton has remained the most important
cash crop in Alabama. During the period 19L6-l950 cotton
and cottonseed accounted for hh.h percent of the total sales

from various farm products in the state.38

 

38 Alabama Agriculture Its Resources and Their Use,
The Agricultural Experiment Station, Alabama Polytechnic
Institute, Auburn, Alabama, 1950, p. 9.

TABLE VI

NON-WHITE EMPLOYED PERSONS, BY MAJOR OCCUPATIONAL
GROUP: ALABAMA 1950

7S

 

1

 

 

Total Per Male Per Rural Male
cent cent farm

Employed 3 21; ,69h 100 2114 , 575 100 76 , 756 100
Pr0f., $011., and '
kindred workers 11,3140 3.5 3,7148 1.7 371 0.5
Farmers and farm
managers 149,711 1503 145,698 21.3 143,1450 5606
Managers, officials ,
and prof. except
farm 3,6149 1.1 2,369 1.1 170 0.1
Clerical and
kindred workers 3,368 1.0 2,036 0.9 85 0.1
Sales workers 2,762 0.9 1,571 0.7 85 0.1
Craftsmen, foreman,
and kindred workers 13,277 14.1 12,961 6.0 838 1.1
Operative and
kindred workers 57,109 17.6 149,321 23.0 14,903 6.14
Private household
workers 52,136 16.1 1,566 0.7 111 0.1
Service workers,
except private
household 31,1914 9.6 114,311? 6.7 1493 0.6
Farm laborers, unpaid
family workers 23,708 7.3 12 ,71114 5.9 12,073 15.7
Farm laborers, except
unpaid and farm
foreman 21,095 6.5 16 ,2145 7.6 8,166 10.6
Laborers, except
farm and mine 50,596 15.6 149,562 23.1 5,106 7.0
Occupations not
reported 14,7149 1.5 2, 1407 1.1 668 0.9

United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census of

Population: 1950.

 

76

Table VII gives the extent to which cotton acreage
has changed during the thirty-year period, 1920 to 1950.
It was noted that there was a 29.6 percent decrease in
the number of acres devoted to cotton production. These
acres diminished from 2,628,15h in 1920 to 1,850,8h6 in
1950. However, this situation was not indicative of the
total yields secured from year to year. Actually, there
has been an increase in the average yields of lint cotton
per acre from 196 pounds in 1930 to 212 pounds in 1950,
with the highest production for a single year 353 pounds
occurring in 19118.39 The general consensus among experts
at the Alabama Experiment Station supports the hypothesis
that Alabama farmers could produce the cotton they are now
producing on 500,000 fewer acres; or, if necessary, they
could grow 500,000 more bales of cotton on the same number
of acres they are now planting in cotton.“0

Table VII indicates also the trends in the number
of acres allotted to the production of other important crops
in the state. It follows that there has been a decrease

in the number of acres of corn, oats, and sweet potatoes

 

39 Alabama Agricultural Statistics, Alabama Depart-
:ment of AngcuIture and Industrles, Montgomery, Alabama,

19h80 Po 9., 1952. P- 11.

AD The Alabama Farm.Program, Alabama Extension Ser-
vice, The-ZIabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Alabama,
Circular, 337, 19h6, p. 18.

77

 

 

 

TABLE VII
TRENDS AND PER CENT CHANGE IN CROP PRODUCTION
IN ALABAMA: 1920-1950
1920 1930 l9h0 1950 Per cent
Acres Acres Acres Acres change ,
1920-1950
Corn for all
purposes * 3961483657 331111998214 2,14713589 .3203
Sorghum for
all purposes ,S,A3h 20,767 25,201 38,197 +602.9
Oats thrashed
or combined 85,398 12,299 111,11146 57,922 -32.2
Soybeans
for beans * * 6,910 145,922 +6614.6
Peanuts for
threshing 33h,239 * 297.31? 3hl,S89 +2.2
Hey crepe 312.757 178,27h 299.651 806.107 +72.8
Crimson
clover seed * w * 26,993 -..
Irish potatoes 13,397 21,256 57,888 22,023 +6h.h
Sweet potatoes 90,868 68,105 79,h88 28,651 d68.5
Cotton
harvested 2,628,1514 3,566,898 1,930,560 1,850,886 .29.!)
Vegetables
harvested 12,7h9 36,782 38,198 h6,268 +262.9
Tree fruits,
Inlts, and grapes * 82,71h 82,863 87,86h +5.5

 

United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census of
Agriculture: 1950. Per cent change calculated. '—

 

*Not available.

78

during the thirty-year period, 1920 to 1950; the crop decrease
has been 32.3, 32.2, and 68.5 percent respectively. The
reduction in acreage does not necessarily mean that total
production has been altered. Often, increased yields per

acre make up for that portion of land diverted from one

crop and devoted to some other use. An exception to this,
nevertheless, was observed in sweet potato production. The
enormous reduction seems to stem from the demands of the

crop for hand labor which is not available and cannot be met
adequately with machinery. Hence, the supply of sweet po-
tatoes is diminishing in proportion to the total acres planted
in this crop.

In contrast to the crops that had decreased in total
acreage, there were other crops which had increased. An
example of these crops is found in Table VII -- sorghum,
soybeans, hay crOps, irish potatoes, vegetables, and fruits.
The first and most striking addition in total acres was de-
voted to soybeans, a 66h.6 percent increase in a decade, an
addition of nearly 39,000 acres. Secondly, there was an in-
crease in the total acres of sorghum for all purposes from
5,h3h acres in 1920 to 38,197 in 1950, an increase of 602.9
percent. Thirdly, a continual increase was observed in the
total number of acres of vegetables; this increase began
with 12,7h9 acres in 1920, and reached a total of h6,268
acres in 1950, a 262.9 percent increase. Finally, hay crop

acreage and irish.potato acreage increased over the thirty-year

79

period, 72.8 and 6h.h percent, respectively. The total
number of acres of peanuts and tree fruits has remained
aLmost constant for the period 1920 to 1950. There were
3L1,589 acres of peanuts for threshing, and 87,26h acres

of tree fruits, nuts, and grapes for harvesting in 1950.

Livestock. Next in importance to cotton as a source
of cash income in Alabama was livestock and livestock prod-
ucts. In 1920 less than fifteen percent of the totalasales
for the state were realized from livestock; nevertheless,
by 1950 farmers of the state were deriving thirty-six per-
cent of their income from livestock and livestock products.1+1

It can readily be seen in Table VIII that the percent
change in cattle and calves, turkeys, and broilers reflects
an increase in the total number of each for the period 1920
to 1950. A decisive increase occurred in the total number
of cattle and calves from 1,0hh,008 to 1,269,389, a 21.6
percent increase. However, the most outstanding increase
occurred in broiler production, from 5,086,000 in 19h0 to
l3,11h,000 in 1950, a 175.5 percent increase. Turkey proe
duction rose from lh2,89h in 1930 to lh3,255 in 1950, a 2.5
percent upward trend. Equally noticeable in the same table
was the decrease in the total number of certain animals. As

might be expected, a considerable decrease has occurred in

#1 'Alabama Agriculture Its Resources and T§§i£,H§g,
0pc Cite, p. 90

80

the number of horses and mules. In 1920 there were 130,h62
of these animals on Alabama farms; by 1950 this number had
diminished to 67,765, a forty-eight percent lost. It seems
logical to attribute this change to the increased use of
tractors on farms as sources of power that were formerly
furnished by horses and mules.

The greatest change in the numbers of livestock occurred
in sheep production. In 1920 there were 81,868 sheep and
lambs on Alabama farms. This number had diminished to 25,082
by 1950, a 69.h percent decrease. This loss has been gener-
ally attributed to the lack of a Suitable method of control-
ling parasites and diseases of sheep.

There were not as many hogs and pigs on Alabama farms
in 1950 as there were in 1920. On the other hand, there
was an increase from 752,303 head in l9h0 to 1,06l,h98
head in 1950, which.seems to indicate an upward trend in
swine production.

The downward trend in the number of livestock was also
reflected in the total number of milk cows, which decreased
from.39h,112 in 1920 to 365,018 in 1950. This represents
a 7.h percent decline in the total number of milk cows for
the thirty-year period. It cannot be claimed that numbers
of livestock alone afford all the information that is necessary
to adequately analyze the livestock situation. It is possible

for fewer animals than are now found on Alabama farms to

TABLE VIII

PRODUCTION: ALABAMA 1920-1950

TRENDS.AND PER CENT CHANGE IN LIVESTOCK

81

 

 

 

1920 1930 19h0 1950 Per cent
Number Number Number Number change
1920.1950
Horses and/or
mules 130,h62 68,880 61,770 67,765 -h8.0
Cattle and
calves 1,0hh,008 799,523 889,983 1,269,389 +2l.6
Milk cows 39h.112 332.0h5 367.2hl 365.018 -7.h
Hogs and pigs l,h96,893 831,171 752,303 1,061,h98 -29.1
Sheep and
lambs 81,868 69,156 31,63h 25,082 -69.h
Chickens over
four months Old 5,918,829 5,h28,069 5,951,099 5.77h,621 -2h.3
Turkeys raised * 1h2,89h 7h,20h 1h3,255 +2.5
Broilers * * 5,086,000bl3,11h,000 +175.5
Bees-~hives 153,766 93,919 69,923 85,666 ' -A.h

 

United.States Bureau of the Census, United.States Census of

 

Agriculture: 1950. Per cent change calculatéd.
*Not available.

b19145.

[I

I.

82

produce more efficiently than they are producing at present.
Thereupon, the number of livestock on the farms is only one

Of the ways of indicating a general trend.

Mechanization. Over the centuries there has been a
continuous quest for better methods of accomplishing the
tasks which confront mankind. In agriculture this search
has extended from the time when soil was cultivated with a
crooked stick to the present use of powerful tractor plows.
At the beginning the evolutionary process of developing new
labor-saving devices was very slow. NO doubt, part of this
retardation was caused by a lack of scientific facts which
were essential for uninterrupted progress. Man's ability
to discover and record his findings pertaining to new pro-
cesses, techniques, and materials has made it possible for
him to develop, over a long period, a backlog of facts which
makes it possible for him to find solutions to his problems
more quickly than formerly.

This point of view was well illustrated during the
world were when the challenge to agriculture was to produce
:more food and feed with.less man.power. These demanding
challenges were met, in a large prOportion, through.man's
ingenuity which.was predicated upon the sum total of his
knowledge.

Within recent years the rapidity in the development of

new and better farm.machinery has been.amazing. The

83

adaptability of machinery to specific farm Operations has
been exceedingly successful in the small-grain regions of
the United States. Approximately ninety percent of the
preparation of the soil, planting, and harvesting are ac-
complished through the use of tractor machinery. Like-
wise, in the Corn Belt, nearly seventy-five percent of the
Operations in corn production are performed by tractor
machinery. By comparison, the Cotton Belt is not as fully
mechanized as the Corn Belt nor the small-grain region.
Only about fifty percent of the land preparation, planting,
and cultivation are carried out with tractor equipment.h2
These figures indicate that mechanization in the Cotton
Belt has not kept pace with the Corn Belt and small-grain
regions. There seem to have been several reasons for

this difference: In the first place, the tOpography of the
land and the relatively small size farms were not conducive
to the use of the large type of equipment that seemingly
was designed to be used on rather level, large farms. Sec-
ondly, the cotton states have adhered largely to a one-crop
system of farming which does not offer the possibility of
:making adequate use of machinery so as to make its use econom-

ical. Finally, manufacturers have not been able to perfect

 

AZ A. P. Browdell, and T. A. Ewing. 'Egg 9; Tractor
Power, Animal Power and Hand Methods in Cro Production.
Ufiited States BeparthfiE'of IngcuIture, ureau of Kng-
cultural Economics, Washington, Bulletin, l9h9, pp. 9-28.

the cotton chopper and the cotton picker, thus this limit-
ing factor tends to eliminate from the list of equipment
two devices which would be purchased by cotton farmers.

Notwithstanding these discrepancies, farmers in Ala-
bama are mechanizing their farms at a rapid rate. An
indication of this trend is pictured in Table IX. The in-
crease in the number of tractors from 7,395 in 19h0 to
h3,h0h in 1950 is one proof of this fact. Besides, the
impressive numbers of combines, h,351; corn pickers, 660;
and pick-up hay balers, 2,209, which were in use in 1950
represent an upward trend. Here, it is important to note
that in 19h0 these implements were not significant enough
in numbers to be recorded in the census. The number of farm
trucks was increased from 1h,h75 in 19h0 to h8,157 in 1950,
a 232.7 percent increase.

The trend in farm.machanization among Negro farmers
has followed the general trend for the state. Tractor owner-
ship increased 865.8 percent from 19h0 to 1950. The total
number of tractors owned in 19h0 was 283; whereas, by 1950,
the number was 2,3h7. A similar increase was noted for
trucks,during this period; the increase was from 782 in
191.10 to 11,587 in 1950, a 1186.14 percent increase. In 1950
Negro farmers owned 181 combines, thirty-six corn pickers,

and 228 pick-up hay balers. Figures were not available for
1980.

85

TABLE IX

PER CENT INCREASE IN FARM MACHINERY: 19110-1950

 

 

 

 

 

AIABAMA

White Operators 19140 1950 Per cent increase

___ 1980—1950
Combines, grain * 14,351 .-
Corn pickers * 660 --
Hay balers, pick-up * 2,209 --
Tractors 7,395 h3,hOh 886.9
Trucks 18,875 88,157 232.7
Non-White Operators
Combines ,grain n 181 --
Corn pickers «- 36 ..
Hay balers, pick-up * 228 --
Tractors 2143 2 ,3117 865 .8
Trucks 782 11,587 1:86.14

 

United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census 92
Agriculture: 19140.

 

 

United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census of
Agriculture: 1950.

 

*Not available.

66

It is customary for cotton farmers to use their trac-
tors with attachments not only for breaking and harrowing
land, but also for planting and cultivating crOps. These
combined operations require about five months' use of the
machinery. Consequently, seven months remain in which the
tractor is either idle, or the farm is reorganized so as
to furnish additional tractor work. The recent trend is
toward the latter. Mechanization in the Cotton Belt usually
necessitates farm reorganization for more economical use

of farm machinery.
Arkansas

This state has a land area of nearly 33,712,000 acres,
of which fifty-six percent were in farms. In general,
agricultural trends followed the same pattern in Arkansas
as was the case in other southern states--more land had
been incorporated into the farming program with a shift in
land use. The trend was toward reduction in harvested farm
acres and an increase in pasture land acres. Too, there
was an increase in the average size of farms, from 66.2
acres in 1930 to 103.8 acres in 1950. Harvested crop land
was reduced from 6,581,8h3 acres in 19h0 to 5,930,093 in
1950. During this period land in pasture was increased from

3,792,419 acres t0 7,301,407 acres.u3

 

783 United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census

 

9: Agriculture, Vol. 1 (Washington: Government Printing Office,
19501. p. 3-

 

_ 87

Population. For the first time in thirty years a down-
ward trend appeared in the total pOpulation. Nevertheless,
between the years 1920 and 1950, according to Table X, a
nine percent ihcrease occurred; whereas, during the last
decade of this period, there was a two percent decrease in
the total population. Turning to the rural farm population,
it was noted that the total number of peeple remaining in
the rural areas had diminished each decade since 1920. There
has been a 29.9 percent decrease in the rural farm popula-
tion in the last thirty years.

The non-white total population and the rural farm
population have changed to a greater extent than the total
population. The extent to which these changes have been
developed can be seen in Table X. In 1920 there were
h72,220 non-white inhabitants in Arkansas; nevertheless,
by 1950, there were only h28,003. The difference in the
two figures represents a 10.3 percent decrease in the non-
white population. During the same period the non-white
rural farm population decreased from 333,681 to 197,339,

a h0.9 percent decrease. These figures seem to indicate

that the principal shift in the non-white pOpulation was a-
way from the rural area. This shift was also illustrated

by the fact that in 1920 slightly over seventy percent of

the total non-white population were classified as rural farms;
whereas, in 1950, only ue.1 percentof the total population

were classified as rural farm, a 3h.8 percent change.

88

Lend tenure. Although it has been pointed out that the
trend in farm.population has taken a downward direction, it
is important to emphasize that in spite of this action there
were 801,827 rural farm people in Arkansas in 1950. This
element of the population was largely responsible for the
operation of 182,h29 farms-~21.6 percent less than the
232,60h farms which were in operation in 1920. Table X
also shows that the number of farm Operators has decreased
steadily from decade to decade over the last thirty-year
period. In contrast to this trend, the average size of
farms had increased from.seventy-five acres to 103.L acres,
a 27.5 percent acreage increase in each farm Operated in
1950. The figures in this table, moreover, seem to indicate
that farm.ownership has recovered from the set back brought
about in the 1930's because of the depression. In 1950 the
number of farms owned by farmers had surpassed that of 1920
by 0.6 percent. Farm owners have increased in the last decade
from 100,636 to 113,283. An opposite, more drastic trend,
seems to have been in effect among all farm tenants; tenancy
decreased from 119,221 in 1920 to 65,602 in 1950, a 112.5
percent decrease.

Among the non-white farm group, figures in Table XI
seem to have reflected that the general trend was comparable
to that of the entire state. However, negatively, it was
more drastic in effect, while the positive reactions were

milder. It follows that in 1920 the number of farms operated

89

TABLE X

TRENDS AND PER CENT CHANGE IN POPULATION, FARM TENURE,
AND FARM.ACREAGE: ARKANSAS 1920-1930

 

 

 

1920 1930 19h0 1950 Per cent
change
1920-1950

Total

population 1,752,20h 1,85h,u82 1,9h9,387 1,909,511 +9.0
Rural farm

population 1,1hh,h82 1,117,330 1,111,007 801,827 -29.9
Land in farm

(acres) l7,h56,750 16,052,962 18,0hh,5h2 18,871,2hh +8.1
Farm

operators 232,60h 2h2,33h 216,67h 182,h29 -21.6
.Average size

farm (acres) 75.0 66.2 83.3 103.h +27.h
*Farm owners 112,6h7 89,009 100,636 113,283 +0.6
All farm

tenants 119,221 152,691 115,hh2 68,602 -h2.5

 

United.States Bureau of the Census, United.States Census gf
Agriculture: 1920-1950. Per cent change calculated.

 

 

*Part and full owners.

90

by non-white farmers was 72,275; whereas, by 1950, the number
had diminished to h0,8hl. This represents a h3.5 percent de-
crease. It was noted that the greatest decrease occurred

in the 1930-19L0 decade. Continuing with an examination of
this table, it was found that the movement of the non-white
farm population away from the farm has been mostly among
-tenants. Proof of this may be partially based upon the fact
that forty-nine percent fewer tenants were on farms in 1950
than in 1920. Stating the fact another way, in 1920 there
were 56,81h tenants farming; nevertheless, by 1950 the num-
ber had decreased to 28,988, which represents a forty-nine
percent decrease. This again seems to indicate that rural
areas tend to serve as depositories for the surplus popula-
tion in depression years. As stated before, the census
figures seem to indicate that during depression years the
trend is reversed toward a back-to-the-farm.movement, which
continues until occupational Opportunities become available

in some other locality.

Occupational distribution. To some extent, in a broad
sense, Table XII illustrates the proportions in which.workers
were employed in certain broadly defined occupations. In a
way, this table reveals the employment situation among the
Negro working population. It may be significant to note
that, regardless of the past and present trends in the em»
ployment of Negroes, hh.8 percent, or 129,728 Of those gain-
fully'employed were in agriculture in 1950. This statement

TABLE XI

91

TRENDS AND THE PER CENT CHANGE IN NONJWHITE POPULATION, RURAL FARM

POPULATION AND FARM TENURE: ARKANSAS 1920-1950

 

 

 

1920 1930l 19h0 1950 Per cent change
1920-1950

Total
population h72,220 N78,h63 u83,303 u28,003 -10.3
Rural farm
population 333,681 32u,728 297,601 197,339 -b0.9
Per cent
rural farm 70.7 67.8 61.1 h6.l -3h.8
Number of
Average
size farm 36.3 31.7 32.8 38.5 +6.1
Full owners 12,886 9,058 8,9h3 8,860 -31.l
Tenants, all 56,8111 68,101 116.1153 28,988 419.0
Share croppers 12,226 * 6,9h9 6,963 -h9.0
Croppers 32,688 b5,h65 33,122 17,698 -h5.9

 

 

United.States Bureau of the Census, United.States Census gf
Egpulation: 1920-1950.

 

Per cent change calculated.

United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census 3;:

Egriculture: 1950.

 

*Not available.

Per cent change calculated.

92

was not meant to minimize the existing downward trend in the
farm population, but rather, to call attention to the present
situation. The fact remains that almost fifty percent of
all gainfully employed Negroes were working in agriculture,
either by choice or because they could not find employment
in other occupations. The number of Negroes employed in
agriculture, forestry, and fisheries had diminished from
133,221 in 1930 to 58,086 in 1950, a decrease of Lu.8 per-
cent. Considerable increases were apparent in the employ-
ment of Negroes in manufacturing and construction; trades,
finance, and insurance; and professional service and recre-
ation. In 1950, of all the gainfully employed Negroes--
16.6 percent, 9.2 percent, and 5.3 percent reapectively,
were employed in these occupations.

A further classification of the employment situation
for non-white persons may be reviewed in Table XIII. In
1950 two types of occupations--farming and farm 1abor--provided
employment for h3.2 percent of the 130,38h non-white employees.
These occupations provided 89.h percent of the employment
situations for non-white rural farm males in 1950. On the
other hand, it was noted that only 6.2 percent or the
130,38h employed non-white persons secured jobs in the pro-
fessional and technical, managerial and sales, and clerical
fields. Upon grouping together service workers and laborers
(except unpaid family workers) it was observed that A5.A

percent of the non-white employees were in these two categories.

93

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.u I I o .

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a.H mme.~ smm.oa m.H mso.~ aes.s o.a Hem.m mam.oa econoooe no: sneoaeoH
6.9 Hmm mmmaoa m.o 4mm wowqwa In a a enmeshobom use
oofibhom OHanm
m.m mam.o pad.oe w.~ som.e mme.am ~.N «03.: oma.dm oonoeoaooe one
oow>pom .monm
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stomnom
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mucosa.“ . ovens
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one cowpmpnoamcwhe
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1:00 one .wmz
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m.ee omo.wm eam.sam d.am esm.om «mm.Hom m.mo Hmm.mmfl Neo.mam noneonoem one
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Sentence
psoo upoxsos whoxaoz pone mpoxsok maoxnos pace unexpos maoxuos
nomv onmmz HHd. nom* onwoz Ada. nom* oawoz HHd
omda osea ones
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4.4.4 gndfiu.

NONAWHITE EMPLOYED PERSONS, BY MAJOR

TABLE XIII

OCCUPATIONAL GROUP, ARKANSAS: 1950

9A

 

 

 

 

Total Per Hale Per Rural farm. Per
cent cent male cent
Employed 130,38h 100 96,579 100 h9,500 100
Prof.,tech, and
kindred workers h,153 3.2 1,767 1.8 202 O.h
Farmers and farm
managers 35,253 2700 33,“); 3h02 31,628 6309
Managers, Officials,
and prof. except farm 1,886 l.h 1,2h3 1.3 56 0.1
Sales workers 1,112 0.9 722 0.7 37 0.1
Clerical and
kindred workers 895 0.7 525 0.5 hl 0.1
Craftsmen, foremen,
and kindred workers h,257 3.3 h,1h2 h.3 328 0.7
Operative and
kindred workers 1h,662 11.2 12,351 12.8 1,730 3.5
Private household
workers 1h,315 11.0 A95 0.5 18 0.1
Service workers,
except private
household 11,7hl 9.0 5,6hh 5.8 11h 0.2
Farm laborers, unpaid
family workers 6,609 5.1 h,832 5.0 h,570 9.2
Farm laborers, except
unpaid and farm
foreman 1h,h61 11.1 12,150 12.6 8,065 16.3
Laborers, except
farm and mine 18,629 1h.3 18,365 19.0 2,00h h.0
Occupations not
reported 2,h11 1.8 1,358 1.h 677 1.b

 

Uhited.States Bureau of the Census, United.States Census gf

ngulation: 1950.

 

95

The figures in this table seem to indicate that 88.7 percent
of the employment situations procured in 1950 by non-white
persons were in three broad occupational groups: farmers
and farm laborers, Operatives and laborers, and private

household and other service workers.

9392;. A general overview of the total acres devoted
to crop production was somewhat indicative of the available
occupational Opportunities in agriculture. The intensiveness
and extensiveness of crops may also serve to indicate the
possibilities of work opportunities in farming. Usually,
the most intensive crop produced in the Cotton Belt on a
large scale was cotton. Figures in Table XIV depict the
major crops grown in Arkansas in terms of the number of acres
allotted to each as has been reported in the decennial census
since 1920.

Although cotton acreage has remained somewhat constant
in the state for the last thirty years, there is an indi-
cation of the development of a trend favoring crops which
were in demand and could be produced with a minimum amount
of hand labor. An example of this is illustrated by the de-
crease in acres planted in sweet potatoes-~a crop that ne-
cessitates a great deal of hand labor-~from 39,019 acres in
1920 to 8,377 acres in 1950, a 78.5 percent decrease; whereas,
soybeans for beans--a crop which can be produced with little
or no hand labor-~increased in acreage from 1,207 in 1920 to

27h,63h acres in 1950, an increase of 2,265.3 percent.

TABLE XIV

TRENDS AND PER CENT CHANGE IN CROP PRODUCTION
ARKANSAS 1920—1950

 

W

‘96

 

 

1920 1930 19h0 1950 Per cent
Acres Acres Acres .Acres change

1920—1950

Corn for all

purposes * 1,865,763 2,236,908 1,117,733 -h.0

Wheat combined 256,211 16,535 33,612 21,031 -917.9

Oats combined 173,317 32,39u 1b2,9So 161,811 -6.6

Rice threshed

or combined 1h3,211 1h6,588 153,095 hll,Oh0 +187.0

Soybeans for

beans 1,207 * 36,997 27h,63h +226h.3

Hay crops 683,065 52h,h19 895,327 999,150 +h6.3

Peanuts

harvested 21,962 * 17,615 6,316 -7l.2

Irish potatoes

harvested 2h,128 29,215 39,912 16,263 -32.6

Sweet.p0tatoes

harvested 39,019 22,235 26,13h 8,377 -78.5

Cotton

harvested 2,553,811 3,hh6,h85 2,056,775 2,572,610 +8.5

Vegetables

harvested 18,969 h0,6l9 38,295 h6,785 +lh6.6

Tree fruits, nuts

and grapes * 1h0,820 108,556 6h,060 ~5h.5

 

United.States Bureau of the Census, United.States Census 2f

Agriculture: 1950.

*Not available.

 

Per cent change calculated.

ox

,s
\ IQ1\

97

The general shifting of the number of available acres
among the major crOps of the state seemed to have indicated
that adjustments have been made to some extent in favor of
additional acres for crops which could be produced through
the use of machinery and with less hand labor. One of the
exceptions Of this hypothesis was observed in connection
with the cotton crop. The emphasis in this case appeared
to have been placed upon.maintaining cotton acreage, re-
gardless of its high demand for hand labor, until adequate
machinery could be perfected. In this connection, it must
be remembered that cotton was the most valuable crop pro-
duced in the state. The 1951 cotton crop was worth 273.A
million dollars; this amounted to slightly more than half
the total value, ASS million dollars, of the principal

crops produced in Arkansas in 1951.hh

Livestock. Previously, it had been pointed out that

 

there was an increase in the number of acres allotted to
pastures and hay crops. Naturally, an increase was expected
in the number of livestock that could make use of these crops.
It can readily be seen in Table XV that such an increase oc-

curred in cattle and calves. Cattle numbers advanced from

 

Ah 1951 Agricultural Statistics for Arkansas, Agricul-
tural Experiment Station, University of Arkansas College of
Agriculture, Fayetteville, Arkansas, Report Series NO. 35,
1952, p. 20

98

1,072,966 in 1920 to 1,153,027 in 1950; this was a 7.5 percent
increase. After looking at the decrease in the number of
milk cows from h15,507 in 1920 to 378,795 in 1950, it was
logical to assume that the number of beef cattle had in-
creased. According to statistical reports, the number of
beef cows on farms increased seventy-five percent between
January, 19h9 and January, 1952. This increase in the state
of Arkansas was higher than that of any other state in the
union.its In addition to the upward trend in beef cattle,

a rapid rate of increase occurred in broiler production.

Table XV shows that there was a 2,632.2 percent increase in
the number Of broilers produced in 1950 over the 1,800,000
produced in 1930. The 1951 Agricultural Statistics for Arkan-

 

§g£.reported that the number of broilers produced in 1951 was
69,83A,000, forty-two percent more than the 1950 number of
h9,179,000.’+6 It was noted also that turkey production had
increased quite rapidly from 55,635 in 1930 to 26h,hh5 in
1950, a 375.3 percent increase.

Quite apart from this upward trend in the number of
livestock, there has been a downward trend as well in the
number of certain livestock retained on farms. A re-examina-
tion of Table XV will reflect this opposite trend. Sheep

production shows a greater decline percentage-wise than any

 

#5 Loc. cit., p. 2.
96 Loc. cit., p. 2.

‘99

TABLE XV

TRENDS AND PER CENT CHANGE IN LIVESTOCK
PRODUCTION: ARKANSAS 1920-1950

--.—5 —.—--.-

 

 

 

1920 1930 19h0 1950 Per cent
Number Number Number Number change
1920-1950
Horses and/or
11111133 2519926 13797117 1669739 1503529 4002
Cattle and
calves 1,072,966 812,590 982,173 1,153,027 +7.5
‘lilk cow! A15.507 338,701 h55,851 378.795 -8.8
Hogs and pigs 1,378,091 776,208 8h6,962 753,075 -h5.3
Sheep and
lambs 100,159 85,800 89,500 50,15h -u9.9
Chickens over
four months
old 6,955,132 6,12h,h50 6,315,1h8 5,U63,692 -21.h
Turkeys raised * 55,635 68,376 26h,hh5 +375.3
Broilers A 1,800,000b 8,700,000 A9,179,000 +2632.2
Bees-hives 112,h75 82,1h9 h2,778 37,912 -66.3

 

United.States Bureau of the Census, United.States Census 2f
Agriculture: 1950. Per cent change calcukited.

 

 

.Agricultural Statistics, (washington: Government Printing Office,
1952). p. 520. Per cent change calculated.
*Not available.

b1935.

I“

100

type Of livestock maintained on farms in the state. This
reduction took place almost uninterruptedly from 100,15h
head. in 1920 to 50,15h in 1950, a h9.9 percent drop in
numbers. A similar situation had been experienced in swine
production; the decrease in hogs and pigs had been from~
1,378,081 in 1920 to 753,075 in 1950, representing a A5.3
percent negative change. In view of the fact that mechani-
cal power has replaced work-stock power, to a large extent,
it would seem natural for the number of horses and mules

to decrease on farms. The course of action has followed
an anticipated trend because the number of horses and mules
had decreased from 251,926 in 1920 to 150,529 in 1950.

This means that the number on farms in 1950 was A0.2 percent

less than those on farms in 1920.

Mechanization. Perfection in operation has not been

 

the only limiting factor which retarded wide-spread owner-
ship Of farm.machinery in the Cotton Belt. One of the main
causations, until about fifteen years ago, was the lack of
a small, durable, power unit within the economic reach of
average cotton farmers. This barrier was overcome largely
with the introduction of the small general-purpose tractor
with attachments in a price range that the average farmer
could afford to pay.

An inepection of Table XVI reveals the rapidity with

which farm.machanization took place in Arkansas in the ten-year

101

period, 1940 to 1950. The figures indicate that there were
12,067 tractors on farms in the state in 19A0; ten years
later the number had increased to 56,h96. This represents

a 368.2 percent increase. Likewise, the increase in farm
trucks was enormous; it was from 18,833 in 19h0 to 58,679 in
1950, an increase of 211.6 percent. Statistics were not
available on the number of grain combines, corn pickers, and
pick-up hay balers for 19h0. However, the 1950 census re-
port showed that there were 7,592 combines, 81A corn pickers,
and 2,905 balers on farms in the state.

The extent of farm mechanization among non-white farmers
is given also in Table XVI. The general trend followed
closely the state trend. Consequently, in l9h0, the number
of tractors on farms operated by non-white farmers was A95;
this number had increased to 3,812 by 1950, representing a
670.1 percent increase. There was also an increase in the
number of farm trucks. In 19h0, 8N1 trucks were reported
on farms; whereas, ten years later the number had advanced
to h,756; this was a h65.5 percent increase over the 19A0
figure. Furthermore, non-white farmers had in their posses-
sion in 1950, 3&5 grain combines, fifty corn pickers, and
377 pick-up hay balers.

The introduction of tractors and tractor-operated
farm equipment into the state has alleviated much of the
drudgery which was connected with farming. Simultaneously,
other problems arose as farmers sought to lighten their

burdens through the use Of farm machinery. Some of these

.102

TABLE XVI

PER CENT INCREASE IN FARM MACHINERY: 19uo-1950

 

--—__. -. - —- -, § ,r~
m-.-”.~_‘--‘~-—- —. - .- 4"‘~- w-:—--~-——- ~.A.——'_ - __.. --—--... a.—-—‘.—....—— p—— -— _ _ _

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ARKANSAS
‘IIII‘ - "““"""’-""’L‘”°" “‘rerfeeat“"*"
White operators 19h0 1950 increase
19h0-19SO

Combines, grEihf~ . m% 7,592 --
Corn pickers * 81h --
Hay balers, pick-up * 2,905 --
Tractors 12,067 56,b96 368.2
Trucks ' 18,833 58,679 211.6
NonAWhite Operators

Combines, grain * 3h; --
Corn pickers * 50 --
Hay balers, pick-up * 377 --
Tractors N95 3,812 670.1
Trucks 8N1 h,756 h65.5

 

—- .——- - - .0...—

United.States Bureau of the Census, Uhited.State§ Census 3f
Agrigulture: 19h0.

 

United.States Bureau of the Census,_United.State§ Census 2:
Agripulturg: 1950.

n-- - ‘

 

%Not available.

103

problems have been discussed by FulmerM7 as they were related
to the Cotton Belt. The first of these problems was con-
cerned with the displacement of work animals. Customarily,
where both tractors and work animals were used, a surplus

of power was present which tended to limit the effectiveness
of both units as economical sources of power. The second
problem evolved from the inadequacy in farm size which han-
dicapped the efficient use of tractor power in that its
volume of work was too limited. Finally, the problem of
labor displacement, and what would happen to displaced
persons who were not fortunate enough to find employment
locally nor in another locality. confronted, especially,

the Negro farm population. hechanization in many cases

has caused the removal of tenant farmers from farms com-
pletely, although a limited number has been retained as

hired hands.

This state has a land area of about 30,238,720 acres,
of which 20,710,700 acres, or 68.5 per cent were in farms in
1950. Each farm averaged 82.h acres in size. This was an

increase of twenty-seven acres above the average size farm

in 1930. 1his upward trend in farm size was in keeping with

 

N7 Fulmer, op. cit., p. 69.

10A

the general trend in the South which indicated that farms
had increased in size; whereas, in contrast to this, the
total number of farms had decreased. There was a decrease
of 61,280 in the number of farms from 1930 to 1950. Another
noticeable change was Observed in the acres of cropland
harvested. The decrease in this category was from 6,597,112
acres in 1930 to 6,136,206 in 1950, a negative change of
L60,906 acres. Yet, while harvested acres declined in num-

ber, land used for pastures increased for the same period

from 5, 31,17,127 to a, 366,813.148

Population. An inspection of Table XIII will show
that the general population in Mississippi increased from
1,790,618 in 1920 to 2,178,9lh in 1950. This represents
a 21.7 percent increase for the thirty-year period, 1920-
1950. Within the latter decade of this period, nevertheless,
there was a reversal in the upward trend. The population in

the state decreased 0.2 percent from 19A0 to 1950. Appar-

ently, migration of non-white persons accounted for this
change. Between 19h0 and 1950 the number of white persons
increased 7.h percent; on the other hand, the number of non-

white persons decreased 8.1 percentJ+9 Table XVII discloses

 

98 U. S. Bureau of the Census, United States Census of
Agriculture, Vol 1 Counties and State Economic AFeas, (Wasfi:
ington: United States Government Printing Office, 1952), p. 3.

 

99 "Employment and Economic Status of Negroes in the
United States," pp. cit., p. 6.

105

the fact that, although there was a downward trend in the
non-white population during the 19A0-1950 period, the
total non-white population of 990,h85 in 1950 was 5.9 per-
cent above the 1920 figure of 935,18h.

Admittedly, trends in rural population are more signi-
ficant than general population trends for this study. An
examination of Table XVIII will evince the changes in the
number of rural farm inhabitants from 1920-1950. For this
period, there was a 6.7 percent decrease. Within the inter-
vening decade, however, an appreciable increase occurred,
with the exception of the 19h0-1950 period, in which.a rather
noticeable 15.A percent decrease occurred in the number of
people in rural areas. The appreciation in numbers was
generally attributed to the back-to-the-farm movement during
the depression in the 1930's. Whereupon, the recession and
the improvement Of occupational opportunities in industry
in the 19L0's caused a reversal in the trend which resulted
in a movement away from rural farm areas.

Even more significant for this study was the trend in
the non-white rural farm population particularized in Table
XVIII. It may be noted that 22.3 percent fewer non-white
persons were residing in rural areas in 1950 than in 1920.
At the beginning of this thirty—year period, 721,56 non-
white inhabitants were living in rural areas, but by the end
Of the period the number had diminished to 595,003. The
most striking decrease, 23.3 percent, took place during the
decade 1940-1950.

106

222$ tenure. Quite in contrast to the decrease in rural
farm population between 1920-1950 there was an increase in
the total number of acres in farms. An inspection of Table
XVII, will show that this increase was 13.8 percent. Acres
in farms had been increased each decade since 1920 from
18,196,979 to 20,710,770 in 1950, with an exception in
1930 when 17,156,058 acres were in farms. A further
inapection of this table will also indicate that the aver-
age size farm.has been enlarged 23.2 percent since 1920.
This was made possible through the expansion which took
place in total farm acres, and also the 7.6 percent reduc-
tion in the number Of farms. Thus, it may be stated that
in 1950 fewer farmers were operating larger amounts Of land
than was true in 1920. Actually, the average-size farm in-
creased in acres from 66.9 in 1920 to 82.h in 1950. The
change in the number of farm Operators, for the same period,
was from 272,101 to 251,383.

Continuing the analysis of Table XVII, it will be ob-
served that farm ownership increased from 91,310 in 1920 to
120,729 in 1950; percentage-wise, this was a 32.3 percent
increase. These figures included both full-owners and part-
Owners. An Opposite action was taken by all tenants. The
number in this group declined from 179,802 in 1920 to
129,820 in 1950; this represents a 27.8 percent negative
change. That there was a 32.7 percent decrease in the number

of all tenants from.19uo to 1950 is significant. This is

107'

TABLE XVII

TRENDS AND PER CENT CHANGE IN POPULATION, FARM TENURE,
AND FARM.ACREAGE: MISSISSIPPI 1920-1950

 

 

 

1920 1930 19h0 1950 Per cent
Change
1920-1950
Total
population 1,790,618 2,009,821 2,183,796 2,178,91h +21.7
Rural farm
population 1,268,772 1,360,729 1,399,88h 1,183,796 -6.7
Land in
farm acres 18,196,979 17,332,195 19,156,058 20,710,770 +13.8
Farm
Operators 272,101 312,663 291,092 251,383 -7.6
Average size
farm acres 66.9 55.N 65.8 82.h +23.2
*Farm.owners 91,310 86,0h7 97,266 120,729 +32.3
A11 tenants 179,802 225,617 192,789 129,821 -27.8

' United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census of
Agriculture: 1920-1950. Per cent change calculated. -—'

 

 

 

*Part and full owners.

,‘I

108

indicative of the element of the rural population that
was making a change.

A portion of Table XVIII particularizes the land tenure
situation among non-white farmers. The number Of farms de-
creased 23.5 percent among these farmers for the period 1920-
1950. Numerically, the reduction for this period was from
161,001 farms to 123,089. Contrary to the general trend
toward larger size farms the average size Of farms among
non-white farmers have increased very little in size since
1920. The increase has been from 36.1 acres in 1920 to
37.3 acres in 1950. This was less than half the size Of the
average of all farms in 1950. On first thought, the one
bright spot in this picture seems to be in the increased
number of full and part owners. Nevertheless, on second
thought, an average-sized farm of 37.3 acres renders num-
bers of farms almost meaningless in-so-far as a standard
economic farming unit is concerned. Looking further into
the picture, it was found that tenants were leaving the
farm at a rapid pace; in 1950 there were 9h,1l3 non-white
tenants on farms in the state as compared with 136,069 ten
years earlier. A postulation of the situation may be
stated thusly: the tenant element of the non-white farming
group is leaving the farm or entering farm ownership. If
the latter is true, and if the farms which are attended are
not considerably larger, then the average chances for economic

success will be almost nil.

1109

TA BLE XVIII

TRENDS AND PER CENT CHANGE IN NON;URITE POPULATION, RURAL RARM
POPULATION, FARMS AND FARM TENURE: MISSISSIPPI 1920-1950

 

M W ~— ‘——~
I

 

1920 1930 l9hO 1950 Per cent

change
1920-1950

Total

population 935,18h 1,009,718 1,007,h69 99O,h85 +5.9

Rural farm

population 721.565 762.836 775,991 595,003 -22.3

Per cent

rural farm 77.1 75.5 72.0 60.1 -22.0

Number of

farms 161,001 161,219 159,5h0 123,089 -23.5

.Average

size farm 36.1 33.2 33.8 37.3 +3.3

Full owners 20,088 19,261 20,625 23,293 +16.0

Part owners 3,091 3,389 2,802 5,6h7 +82.7

Tenants, all 137,8h8 160,169 136,069 9h,113 -31.7

Share croppers 29,330 * 16,220 21,562 ~26.5

Croppers 7h,163 102,992 102,110 61,170 -17.5

 

United.States Bureau of the Census, Uhited.States Census of
Population: 1920-1950. Per cent change calculated. -'

 

 

United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census of
Agriculture: 1950. Per cent change calculated. -'

 

 

*Not available.

110

Occupational distribution. An analysis of Table XIX

 

will disclose the broad classification Of occupations

and the distribution Of gainfully employed persons among
these occupations. In 1950, agriculture, including fores-
try and fishing, provided employment for 30h,l96 of the
716,282 gainfully employed persons in the state. This was
tantamount to h2.5 percent of the total employed populace.
Even a larger percentage of the gainfully employed Negro
workers was engaged in agriculture. Approximately 53.5
percent of the 329,L82 Negro workers in 1950 were farming.
Noticeable, however, was the fact that for each decennial
census report, there was a decrease in the number of Negroes
employed in farming from 72.6 percent to 53.5 percent. These
figures denote that a large element of the Negro population
was still employed in farming in 1950. A further examina-
tion of this table will reveal other occupations in which
Negroes were employed in increasing numbers during the
decade 19h0-l950. Among all gainfully employed Negroes,
trade, finance and insurance occupations offered the great-
est increase in 1950, accounting for 36,078, or 10.9 percent
of the 329,h82 employed Negroes; whereas, in l9k0 only
16,687, or four percent of the 393,A7l employed Negroes

were working in these occupations. Manufacturing and con-
struction occupations also registered noticeable gains in
the employment of Negro workers; the increase was from 32,h72,
or 8.2 percent in l9h0 to Al,008, or 12.h percent in 1950 of

all gainfully employed Negroes in the state.

111

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112

Table XX shows the employment situation for non-white
workers in 1950 by types of occupations. It was noted that
among these occupations, 5A.5 percent of the 316,263 non-
white employees were engaged in farming either as farmers,
farm.managers or farm laborers. Moreover, 80.5 percent
of the lh6,633 non-white rural male population were engaged
in these occupations. Whereas, only h.6 percent of the
316,263 employed non-white persons had procured employment
in the professional and technical, managerial and sales,
and clerical fields. Approximately ninety percent of the
non-white employment situations were in the categories of
farm laborers and farmers, operatives and laborers, private

household and other service workers.

QEQBEf An inSpection of Table XXI will disclose the
number of acres in the major crops of the state. It will
be noted that cotton ranked first in 1950 among all crops
in total acres, with 2,767,507. WOrk opportunities in agri-
culture vary to some extent in proportion totbe kind and
scope of major crops produced in an area. Where cotton is
the major cash crop, such as is true in this state, the de-
mand for labor is acute for about one-half Of the year.
This situation often forces tenant, cotton farmers to look
elsewhere other than to the farm for employment for nearly
one-half of each year. Pressing the point further, 9A,113

of the 123,089 farms Operated by non-white farmers were

TABLE XX

113

NONAWHITE EMPLOYED PERSONS, BY MAJOR OCCUPATIONAL

GROUP: MISSISSIPPI 1950

 

 

Total Per Male Per Rural Male
cent cent farm

Employed 316,263 100 228,282 100 lh6,633 100
Prof., tech., and
kindred workers 7,775 2.5 2,877 1.3 A68 0.3
Farmers and farm
managers 111,1hh 35.1 100,009 t3.8 96,983 66.1
Managers, Officials,
and prof. except
farm 3,316 1.0 1,997 0.9 1113 0.1
Clerical and
kindred workers 1,723 0.5 988 O.h 90 0.1
Sales workers 1,960 0.6 1,099 0.5 11h 0.1
Craftsmen, foremen,
and kindred workers 9,938 3.1 9,753 h.3 1,108 0.8
Operative and
kindred workers 31,531 10.0 26,633 11.7 5,258 3.6
Private household
'workers 32,093 10.1 990 O.h 116 0.1
Service workers,
except private
household 20,135 6.h 8,316 3.6 h03 0.3
Farm laborers, unpaid
family workers 3h,0h5 10.8 21,823 9.6 21,0u0 1A.3
Farm laborers, except
unpaid and farm
foreman 27,2h6 8.6 20,80h 9.1 1h,820 10.1
Laborers, except
farm and.mine 31,329 9.9 30,626 13.h b.870 3.3
Occupations not
reported h,028 1.3 2,367 1.0 1,220 0.8

 

United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census 3}:

Population: 1950.

 

 

1"". 1“

.r\

TABLE XXI

TRENDS.AND PER CENT CHANGE IN CROP PRODUCTION
NUSSISSIPPI 1920-1950

a

1

11A.

 

1920 1930 l9h0 1950 Per cent
Acres Acres Acres Acres change
1920-1950
Corn for all
purposes * 1,998,796 2,957,h93 1,999,807 +5.0
Sorghum for I
all purposes 10,865 21,210 31,2h2 20,85h +9l.9
Oats thrashed
and/or combined 53,088 9,96h 102,612 103,296 +9h.6
Soybeans harvested
for beans 3,h20 * 21,56h 168,830 +h83.h
Ray crops 365,A08 233,716 h5h,012 623,56A +7O.6
Lespedeza
harvested * * 5,621 13,581 +1h1.6
Sweet potatoes
harvested 69,39h 53,h12 60,998 27,370 -60.6
Cotton harvested 2,9h8,387 h,009,53h 2,hh9,285 2,767,507 -6.1
Sugar cane or
sorghum.harvest-
ed for sirup 38,752 33,676 h6,158 12,898 ~66.7
Vegetables
harvested 1h,012 38,h03 38,63h 32,921 +l3h.9
Tree fruits,
nuts, and grapes * 55,065 15h,198 130,180 +136.h

 

Uhited.States Bureau of the Census

Agriculture: 1950. Per cent change calculated.

*Not available.

 

, United.States Census 2f

/‘

,1

115

tenants in 1950. Moreover, 61,170 of that number were crop-
pers. In view of the foregoing points discussed it seems
that cotton farming is not capable of providing year-round
work. Further, a large number of Negroes are cotton farmers;
consequently, they are idle half the year or must seek em-
ployment off the farm. Neither of these conditions is desir-
able. At least for the last half century experts in agri-
culture have discussed the ill affects of the one-crop
system in the Cotton Belt on natural and human resources.
Trends in the production Of crops reported in Table XXI
other than sweet potatoes, sugar cane, and sorghum harvested
for sirup, and cotton, indicate that less attention had

been focused upon these crOps in 1950 than was true in 1920.
An examination of the percent change in acres allocated to
these crOps between 1920 and 1950 seems to indicate some
effort on the part of farmers to diversify their farming
enterprises in order to secure a better distribution of

labor than would be possible under the one-crOp cotton sys-
tem of farming. It should not be overlooked at this point
that increased farm mechanization in the Cotton Belt helped
to encourage diversification so that more economical use could
be made of the available machinery. In all probability, if
the presently discussed, cotton-acreage, control program is
put into effect, further diversification will take place

among cotton farmers.

116

Livestock. The livestock industry offers a possible
way out of the one-crop cotton system. Yet, according to
the trends exemplified in Table XXII farmers have not
chosen this way out too enthusiastically. It may be noted
that an upward trend appeared in the number of cattle and
calves raised, as well as in the number of broilers and tur-
.keys. Percentage-wise, the largest increase occurred in
broiler production. This increase was from 5,086,000 in
l9h5 to l3,llh,000 in 1950, a 175.5 percent increase. In
1950 cattle and calves had increased 21.6 percent over the
1,00h,008 production number for 1920. Turkey production
increased 2.5 percent in 1950 over the 1930 figures of
lh2,89h. Table XXII also indicates the downward trend in
the production of horses and/or mules, milk cows, hogs and
pigs, sheep and lamb, and chickens over four months old.
These trends tend to reflect the unfavorable attitudes of

farmers toward livestock enterprises.

Mechanization. Table XXIII particularizes the fact

 

that mechanization was on the march in the l9h0-1950 decade.
The number of tractors was increased from 12,067 in 19h0

to 56,h96 in 1950; this was a 368.2 percent increase. Like-
wise, the number of farm trucks was increased 211.6 percent
above the 18,833 mark in l9h0 to 58,679 in 1950. Further-
more, there were 7,592 combines, 81A corn pickers, and 2,905

pick-up hay balers on farms in 1950.

TABLE XXII

TRENDS AND PER CENT CHANGE IN LIVESTOCK
PRODUCTION: MISSISSIPPI 1920-1950

117'

 

 

 

-: i
1920 1930 19h0 1950 Per cent
Number Number Number Number change

1920—1950

Horses and/0r

mules 21h,852 102,677 108,0hh 118,390 -hh.9

Cattle and

calves 1,250,h79 1,008,672 1,239,660 1,569,327 +25.5

Milk cows h27,h06 h18,192 522,7h2 502,068 +17.5

Hogs and.pigs 1,373,311 732,781 825,909 875,hbh -36.3

Sheep and

lambs 16h,ubo 110,056 60,397 66,660 ~59.5

Chickens over

four months Old 6,3h2,20h 5,381,195 6,055,h68 5,827,851 -8.1

Turkeys raised * 85,010 67,538 78,950 -7.1

Broilers * 50,000b 816,000 17,010,000 +33,920.0

Bees-hives 82,770 A6,391 26,895 h6,256 -AA.1

 

United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census 2;:

Agriculture: 1950.

 

wNot available.

b1935.

 

Per cent change calculated.

f\

118

TABLE XXIII

PER CENT INCREASE IN FARM MACHINERY: l9h0-1950

fl..- -- _-m----.—n-' qr .. ..- ._.... - -.-.—_—-..-- -. _ —._-—-.-—.- .. . .— . n — -afi— ' --——.—_——.—.-.——-M '7-v~~-.—.¢.- ’—

 

__“ .. -_-__-‘._—_._‘_ —_—— .-—.— - ~-— --_ mfl--——u --.... .- —

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

MISSISSIPPI
White Operators ........ l9h0 1950 Per cent
increase
19b0-l950
Combines, grain * 9,913 --
Corn pickers * 1,79h --
Hay balers, pick-up .* h,6h0 ~—
Tractors 11,615 57,930 398.7
Trucks 18,506 58,3h1 209.8
Non4White Operators
Combines, grain * 6AA -
Corn pickers * 15 ..
Hay balers, pick-up * 605 -
Tractors 87h 6,311 622.1
Trucks 2,235 10,993 391.9

 

 

Uhited.States Bureau of the Census, United.States Census 22
Agriculture: 19h0.

 

United.States Bureau of the Census, United.§j§£§§ Census of
Agriculture: 1950. ‘-'

 

*Not available.

110

The ertent and trend of farm mechanization among non-
white farmers can also be seen in Table XXIII. The number
of tractors for the group was increased 622.1 percent be-
tween 19h0-1950. There were 87h tractors on non-white
operators' farms in lane, but bv 1950 the number was increased
to 6,311. Similarlv, the number of trucks was increased
from 2,235 to 10,903 in the same period, This represents a
391.9 percent increase. There were no statistics available
in IQMO on the number of Combines, Corn pickers, and pick-up
hay balers; however, in 1050 there were bah, 15, and 605
respectivelv on non-white operators' farms. It is the Opin-
ion of some experts in adricultural economics that the suc-
cess of mechanization on a cotton farm is contingent upon
the kind of farm reorcanization that can be perfected for
making economical use of farm machinery.

Tennessee

In 1950 the approximate land area of Tennessee was
26,750,080 acres, of which 18,53h,350 acres were in farms.
This was 69.3 percent of the total land area. The average
size farm for the state was eidhtv acres. Similar to the
previous reports for other states the size of farms had
been increased: whereas, the total number of farms had de-
creased, but the number of acres allotted to pasture had

been increased.50

 

50 United States Bureau of the Census, United Stated

Census of Adriculture, 1950, Vol 1, Bart 20 hashfnétbn?“

fiiTe'd statesuo‘vamaent‘fiint1m Office, 1952'), po 3-

120

Population. During the period 1920-1950 there was an
increase of 36.h percent in the total pOpulation as summar-
ized in Table XXIv; In contrast to this, however, the rural
farm population decreased 19.9 percent. Inwgeneral, the non-
white population followed this pattern of action. It can
readily be seen from Table XXV that the non-white population
increased 17.h percent in the thirty-year period, 1920-1950.
Nevertheless, for this same period the number of rural farm
inhabitants decreased 38.9 percent. Percentage-wise, only
about one-half as many people were residing on farms in 1950

as in 1920.

Land tenure. It has already been established that there
was a decrease in the rural farm population in the state be-
tween 1920 and 1950. Table XXIV shows that this decrease
has been partially reflected in the 8.6 percent negative
change which occurred in the number of farm Operators for
the same period. Furthermore, it was apparent that the
majority of the operators leaving farms were in the tenant
class. This assumption was substantiated to some extent
by the fact that 31.8 percent of all tenants discontinued
farming or changed their employment status during the period
1920-1950; whereas, for the same period the number of farm
owners increased only 10.h percent. Presenting the same
picture somewhat differently-~within the period 1920-1950

almost 36,152 tenants changed their occupational status.

121

TABLE XXIV

TRENDS AND PER CENT CHANGE IN POPULATION, FARM TENURE,
AND FARM ACREAGE: TENNESSEE 1920-1950

 

 

 

1920 1930 19h0 1950 Per cent
change
1920—1950
Total
population 2,337,885 2,616,556 2,915,8u1 3,291,718 +361;
Rural farm
population 1,269,179 1,213,065 1,271,9hh 1,016,2oh -19.9
Land in farm
(acres) 19,510,856 18,003,2h1 18,h92,897 18,53h,380 -5.0
Farm
operators 252,77h 2h5,657 2h7,617 231,631 -8.6
Average size
farm (acres) 77.2 73.3 7ho7 80.0 +3.5
*Farm owners 1h8,082 132,526 lh7,hh3 163,152 +10.h
All tenants 103,995 113.520 99,735 67,733 ~31o8

 

United.States Bureau of the Census, United.States Census of
agriculture: 1920-1950. Per cent change calculated.

 

 

*Part and full owners.

122

This change was not wholly reflected in the 15,150 farmers
who became owners; consequently, the trend appears to indi-
cate that tenant farmers were changing their occupational
status more rapidly than farm owners.

Land tenure among non-white farmers was comparable to
the changes which took place among all farmers in that the
negative and positive changes were identical. It can be
seen in Table XXV that the number of farms--which is com-
parable to the number of farm operators--decreased thirty-
seven percent, from.38,180 in 1920 to 2h,061 in 1950. In
like manner, the number of all tenants decreased from 28,289
to 17,065; this was a 39.7 percent decrease. This table
also points out that croppers were the ones who changed oc-
cupational status among the tenant class. There was a
thirty-six percent decline in the number of crOppers during
the period 1920-1950. It is comparatively easy to under-
stand why croppers would be inclined to discontinue farming.
One reason might be that they are at the bottom of the
agricultural ladder and are finding it too difficult to climb
to the ownership level. On the other hand, it is somewhat
difficult to understand why there should have been a 38.h
percent decrease in full ownership in the state. It is true
that only an exceedingly small number of farmers, h,850 in
Tennessee, own their farms in comparison with 13,267 in Ala-

bama; 8,860 in Arkansas, and 23,293 in Mississippi. An

TABLE XXV

3123

TRENDS AND THE PER CENT CHANCE IN NON-NRITE POPULATION, RURAL
TENNESSEE 1920-1950

FARM POPULATION AND FARM TENURE:

 

 

Per cent change

 

1920 1930 19h0 1950 1920-1950
Total
Population h513785 h7736h6 508,935 5313h68 +l7oh
Rural farm
population 203,801 17h,599 162,23h 12b,085 -38.9
Per cent rural
farm b13709 36.5 31.9 23.3 “2.1801
Number of farms 38,180 35,123 27,972 2h,06l ~37.0
Average size
farm 39.9 38.6 38.3 h2.h +6.3
Full owners 7,871 5,687 5,393 h,850 -38.h
Part owners 1, 969 2’ 1115 1,2493 2, 1.110 *808
Tenants, all 28,289 27,272 21,079 17,065 ~39.7
Share crOppers 5,762 * 3,879 5,7h7 -0.3
Creppers 1h,619 16,559 13,870 9,27h -39.6

 

United States Bureau of the Census,
1920-1950.

POpulation:

 

United States Bureau of t
1950.

Agriculture:

*Not available.

Per cent change calculated?

Per cant change calculated.

United States Census of

 

he Census, United_§tates Census of

 

12h

observation was made in connection with farm ownership
which seems to indicate that in the states where owner-
ship was proportionately high, the trend was upward; where-
as, in the state where ownership was relatively low among
non-white farmers, the trend was downward, and had been de-

clining year after year from 1920 to 1950.

Occupational distribution. An overview of the Negro
workers' participation in the general occupation of the
state may be obtained through an inspection of the relevant
data in Table XXVI. This table also shows the percent change
in the occupational status of Negroes for each of the last
three decennial census years. In agriculture, including
forestry and fishing, it was noted that the number of gain-
fully employed Negro workers has decreased each decade from
31.5 percent in 1930 to l9.h percent in 1950. These figures
serve to substantiate a trend which was previously mentioned
as indicating that Negroes were leaving the farms. The in-
crease to 20.2 percent in 1950 from 16.0 in 1930 in manu-
facturing and construction jobs implies that a portion of
the individuals leaving agriculture are finding employment
in manufacturing and construction. Trade, finance, and in-
surance also provided work opportunities for a larger number
of Negroes in 1950. By comparison, there were 16.2 percent
in 1950; 5.h percent in 1930. Other small gains were realized

by Negroes in transportation and other utilities and the

125;

 

 

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126

professional services, as indicated in Table XXVI. It is
common knowledge by this time that the Negroes' opportunities
for becoming gainfully employed are subject to many and
varied discrepancies, all of which tend to eliminate them
(Negroes) from the competitive ranks. In Spite of this
general custom of only hiring Negroes on the more menial
jobs, progress has been made toward employing them in small
proportions on the better, well-paying jobs.

An examination of Table XXVII will show the distribution
of non-white employed persons by major occupations. In 1950
only 18.9 percent of the 196,000 non-white employees were
engaged in farming. However, 90.1 percent of the 32,58L
non-white rural farm males were farming in 1950. On the
other hand, only 7.8 percent of the 196,000 employees had
procured jobs in the professional and technical, managerial
and sales and clerical fields. But 85.5 percent were employed
as farm laborers and farmers, operatives and laborers and

private household and other service workers.

Crops. Two of the most important crops in the state,
from the standpoint of providing work opportunities for farm
people, were cotton and tobacco. These crops were also the

leading cash crops. Table XXVIII gives the extent to which

CPOP acres were distributed among the major crops for each
decade from 1920 to 1950. Moreover, the percent change is

given for each crop. Cotton acreage showed an upward trend

127’

TABLE XXVII

NONAWHITE EMPLOYED PERSONS, BY MAJOR
OCCUPATIONAL GROUP TENNESSEE: 1950

 

 

 

 

Total Per Male Per Rural farm. Per
cent cent male cent

Employed 196,060 100 128.373 100 32,5hh 100
Prof.,tech, and
kindred workers 6,875 3.5 2,962 2.3 186 0.6
Farmers and farm
managers 23,120 11.8 22,h59 17.5 20,995 6h.5
Managers, officials,
and prof. except farm 2,929 1.5 2,089 1.6 N9 0.2
Sales workers 3,hh5 1.8 2,133 1.7 Zh 0.1
Clerical and
kindred workers 1,927 1.0 1,216 0.9 29 0.1
Craftsmen, foremen,
and kindred workers 10,h92 5.8 10,085 7.9 363 1.1
Operative and
kindred workers 33,3h9 17.0 25,889 20.2 722 2.2
Private household
workers 3h,623 17.7 1,890 1.5 8h 0.3
Service workers,
except private
household 3h,652 17.7 18,80h 1h.6 272 0.8
Farm laborers, unpaid
family workers h,911 2.5 3,962 3.1 3,710 ll.h
Farm laborers, except
unpaid and farm
foreman 9,062 h.6 8,082 6.3 h,6l6 1b.2
Laborers, except
farm and mine 27,773 1h.2 26,915 21.0 1,077 3.3
Occupations not
reported 2,902 1.5 1,887 1.5 hl7 1.3

 

United.States Bureau of the Census, United.States Census g£

ngulation: 1950.

 

 

f)

/I

128

of 9.9 percent from the 807,770 acres reported in 1920.
Tobacco, the other major cash crop, showed a downward
trend of twenty-five percent from the 138,561 acres allo-
cat ed to the crop in 1920. The largest increase occurring
among the crops was the 1,702.5 percent increase above the
7, 61.19 acres of soybeans harvested for beans in 1920. A
sub stantial gain was also registered in the case of the
937 -9 percent advancement in the acreage of barley from
5.8911 to 61,151; acres. Hay crops utilized 116.8 percent more
acres in 1950 than the 1,102,896 acres in 1950. Although
the total number of acres of harvested vegetables was 27.3
Percent greater than the 20,83h-aére figure in 1920, the
26>,517-acre figure for 1950 was considerably less than the
19110 figure of 37,986 acres. CrOp acres can serve as an
index to the amount of labor required; therefore, some signi-

f1 canoe can be attached to crop acres in planning for job

opportunities on farms.

Livestock. The number, types, and breeds of livestock
that can be maintained on farms depend largely upon the kind
and amount of feed crops and pastures that farmers are able
to produce. Naturally, there must also be an available
market. The number and percent change in livestock pro-
duction is indicated in Table XXIX. Judging from the posi-
tiVe change of 2511.0 percent in broiler production for the

fifteen-year period, 1935-1950, this increase from 1,100,000

.“ -

129

to 3,898,000 marks this enterprise not only as one providing
new job opportunities but also as one gaining in pOpularity.
Turkey production, unlike broiler production, decreased
within this same period. This decrease was 11.8 percent
below the 1930 figure of 156,870. A decrease of 2.3 per-
cent was noted for cattle and calves.

This table also summarized the negative change in the
number of livestock maintained on farms. It was significant
to note that in 1950 there were fewer hogs and pigs on farms
in the state than in 1920. In fact, the 1950 figure of
1,365,757 was 25.5 percent less than the 1920 figure of
1,832,307. There were 368,196 sheep and lambs on farms in
1950; this number was a 10.8 percent increase above the
1920 number of 368,196. In addition, during the 1920-1950
period, there was a 53.7 percent increase in the number of
milk cows. This increase was from h15,128 in 1920 to
638,101 in 1950. The decrease in the number of horses and/
or mules on farms comes as a natural phenomenon in the course
of events which have brought about tractors and other machine

tools on the farm.

Mechanization. Perhaps the best explanatory statement

 

that can be made concerning this subject is to the effect
that farm mechanization has increased rapidly, not only in

Tennessee but also in the other states of the selected area.

TABLE XXVIII

TRENDS AND PER GET-IT CEmCE
TENNESSEE 1920-1950

130

IN CROP PRODUCTION:

 

 

 

Per cent
CrOps 1920 1930 19h0 1950 change
harvested Acres Acres Acres Acres 1920-1950
Corn for all
purposes * 2,816,275 2,583,607 2,076,273 ~26.3
Sorghum for
all purposes h3,b03 3h,650 31,753 23,3h1 -h6.2
'Wheat combined 68h,h97 279,885 338,722 238,528 -65.2
Oats combined 162,h17 30,660 55,196 170,831 +5.2
Barley combined 5,89h 11,215 53,h5h 61,15L +937.5
Soybeans harvested
for beans 7,6h9 * 11,729 137,869 +1702.5
Hay crops l,1C2,h96 1,085,296 1,671,707 1,618,329 +h6.8
Irish Potatoes
harvested 29,873 38,651 h2,190 18,1h8 -39.2
Sweet potatoes
harvested 39,6h5 53,8h2 37,589 1b,282 -6h.1
Cotton harvested 807.770 1,0h5,051 676,818 887,923 +9.9
Tobacco harvested 138,561 129,973 118,206 103,888 -25.0
Vegetables
harvested 20,83h h5,397 37,986 26,517 +27.3
Tree fruits, nuts
and grapes * 107,363 88,11h 39,278 -63.h

 

United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census of

Agriculture: 1950.

*Not available

Per cent change calculated.

TABLE XXIX

TRENDS AND PER CENT CHANGE IN LIVBSTCCK PRODUCTION:

131

 

 

 

TENNESSEE 1920-1950
Per cent
1920 1930 19h0 1950 change

Number Number Number Number 1920-1950
Horses and/or
mules 317,921 175,375 17h,7L9 lhh,h18 -55.1
Cattle and
calves 1,158,883 1,073,898 1,108,869 1,156,136 -2.3
Milk cows b15,128 828,hh0 h59,397 638,101 +53.7
Hogs and pigs 1,832,307 1,002,283 1,061,857 1,365,757 -25.5
Sheep and
lambs 36h,l96 625,888 358,006 368,127 +10.8
Chickens over four
months old 11,353,687 8,888,105 8,013,h60 8,0hl,237 -29.2
Turkeys raised a 156,h70 135,969 137,970 -11.8
Broilers a 1,100,000b 1,650,000 3,89h,000 +25N.O
Bees--hives 191,898 123,329 95,23h 103,368 -h6.l

United States Bureau of the Census,

Agriculture: 1950.
*Not available.

b1935.

United States Census
Per cent change calculated.

132

Table XXX seems to endorse this statement in particularizing
the fact that the number of tractors in Tennessee was in-
creased 367.8 percent in the decade 1980-1950, or from

9,703 to h5,387. A similar increase was noted for farm
trucks. This increase was 178.6 percent, or numeriéally,

it was from.16,232 to 85,217. There were 5,330 combines;
733 corn pickers; and 2,689 pick-up hay balers on farms

in the state in 1950.

Farm mechanization among non-white farmers followed,
in general, the trend of the state. An example of this can
be seen in Table XXX. In 19h0 only 202 non-white farmers
owned tractors; ten years later, 1,861 in this group were
tractor owners. This was an 821.3 percent increase in the
ten years. Similarly, farm truck ownership increased for
the same period from.h02 to 1,931. This represented a
380.3 percent increase. In 1950 this group of farmers also
owned 2&5 combines; 3O corn pickers; and 160 pick-up hay
balers. Figures were not available for these items in the
19h0 census report. No attempt was made to include all the
tractor attachments used in farming; to do this would have

been beyond the scope of the present study.

A133

 

 

 

 

 

 

TABLE XXX
PER CENT INCREASE IN EARN MACHINERY: 19110-1950
TTNNESSEE
Per cent
Increase
White Operators 19h0 1950 19h0-1950
Combines, grain * 5,330 _--
Corn pickers * 733 ---
Hay balers, pick-up * 2,689 ---
Tractors 9,703 h5,387 367-8
Trucks 16,232 h5,2l7 178.6
Non-White Operators
Cambines, grain * 2&5 ---
Corn pickers * 3O ---
Hay balers, pick-up * 160 -..
Tractors 202 1,861 821.3
Trucks b02 1,931 380.3

 

United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census of

Agriculture: 19h0.

 

 

United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census 33

Agriculture: 1950.

*Not available.

 

13A

Summagy

Population. The total population increased in each
Of the selected states--Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, and
Tennessee--during the thirty-year period, 1920-1950. These
increases were 30.8, 9.0, 21.7, and 38.6 percent, respectively.
In contrast to the increase in population which occurred
during the 1920-1950 period among the four selected states,
there was a decrease in the rural farm population. This de-
crease amounted to 28.3, 29.9, 6.7, and 19.9 percent in the
order in which the four states are named above. It was
noted that the greatest decrease in the rural farm popula-
tion occurred among the non—white elements of the population.
Following the preceding order, these decreases amounted to

38.0, 80.9, 22.3, and 38.9 percent for each state.

Land tenure. As the total population in the selected

 

area was increasing, simultaneously the total number of

farm Operators was decreasing. For each selected state,
taken in alphabetical order, the number of farm operators
decreased 17.8, 21.6, 7.6, and 8.6 percent. In the same
order, the number of all tenants, decreased 80.9, 82.5, 27.8,
and 31.8 percent. On the other hand, there was an increase
of 15.3, 0.6, 32.3, and 10.8 percent in the number of farm
owners in each state. In like manner, the average size farm
for each state increased in size 29.3, 27.5, 23.2, and 3.5

percent.

135

Following in the previous order, the number of non-
white farm Operators decreased 39.8, 83.5, 23.5, and 37.0
percent during the 1920-1950 period. Also, there was a de-
crease among all tenants of this group. The largest de-
crease occurred in Alabama, 51.2 percent; Arkansas was
second with a 89.0 percent decrease; there was a 39.7 per-
cent decrease in Tennessee, and a 31.7 percent in Missis-
sippi. Farm ownership decreased 38.8 percent in Tennessee;
whereas, in the other states, there was an increase. The
average farm in Alabama, among non-white farmers in 1950,
was a 7.0 percent smaller than in 1920. The average farm
in the other three states was only 5.2 percent larger in
1950 than in 1920.

Occupational distribution. During the 1930-1950 period

 

there was a downward trend among gainfully employed Negro
workers in agriculture. The range of employment in 1920

was from 31.5 percent in Tennessee to 12.6 percent in Mis-
sissippi. It was apparent that many of the Negroes who

were leaving agriculture were procuring jobs in manufacturing
and construction, and in trade, finance, and insurance. In
1920 the range of job opportunities in these occupations was
from.17g3percent in Mississippi to 16.0 percent in Tennessee.
However, by 1950 this range of employment had increased; its
spread was from 9.2 percent in Arkansas to 22.3 percent in

Alabama.

136

Q2222) Cotton was the leading cash crop for each state
except Tennessee, where tobacco ranked along with cotton as
a cash crop. The number of acres devoted to each one of
these crops showed a downward trend during the 1920-1950
period, except cotton acreage harvested in Arkansas and Ten-
nessee, which was increased 8.5 and 9.9 percent, respectively.
The most noticeable increases in acres devoted to a single
crop occurred in the number of acres of soybeans harvested.
The range of increase in 1950 over that of 1920 was from
883.8 percent in Mississippi to 2268.3 percent in Arkansas.

Livestock. Each state showed an increase in the number
of cattle and calves during the 1920-1950 period, except
Tennessee, which had a 2.3 percent decrease. However, Ten-
nessee had a 53.7 percent increase in the number of milk
cows; whereas, Mississippi had only a 17.5 percent increase,
and Alabama and Arkansas experienced a decrease of 7.8 per-
cent and 8.8 percent, respectively. An outstanding increase
in the number of broilers produced occurred in each state;
the range was 175.5 percent in Alabama to 33920.0 percent
in Mississippi. There was a decrease in the number of hogs

and pigs raised in each state of the selected area.

Mechanization. Farm mechanization was increased rapidly
during the 1980-1950 decade in the selected states. Most

noticeable was the increase in the number of tractors among

137

non-white operators. In Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi,
and Tennessee this increase was 865.8, 670.1, 622.1, and
821.3 percent respectively. The total tractor increase

for each state amounted to approximately one-half of the

increase which occurred in each state among non-white farmers.

CHAPTER V

OCCUPATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR NEGROES
IN AGRICULTURAL AND RELATED FIELDS

In the preceding chapter relevant data were presented
which had possibilities of affecting occupational oppor-
tunities in agricultural and related fields in the selected
area. Moreover, the assumption was that trends in employ-
ment were closely related to trends in agricultural produc-
tion, land tenure, population, and farm mechanization.
Generally, upward trends in these areas meant upward trends
in agricultural employment.

This chapter shall be concerned with identifying
occupations in agricultural and related fields which pro-
vide employment for Negroes. In addition, occupations for
which Negroes may qualify through college and/or short-
course training will be discussed. Consideration is to be
given also to regional job opportunities and to the new

employment situations that have been develOped since 1988.

Alabama

A large segment of the gainfully employed Negro popu-
lation in 1950 was engaged in agriculture, in manufacturing

and construction jobs, in personal service, and in the trades.

139

The distribution of the 328,098 Negro workers among these
occupations was 29.6 percent, 22.3 percent, 21.5 percent,
and 10.1 percent, respectively. There has been a consider-
able decrease--15.8 percent--since 1980 in the total number
of Negroes engaged in agriculture; whereas, on the other
hand, there was an increase of 7.9 percent in employment

among the trades, manufacturing and construction jobs.

Farming. Today, the sections of the selected states
that were heavily populated with Negroes before emancipa-
tion are the areas in which the majority of the Negro popu-
1ation has remained. There has been some migration from
these areas but it has not been to the extent that the
general pattern of population concentration has changed.

In Alabama the counties that were noted for cotton pro-
duction before the turn of the century are still the ones
that have a preponderant Negro population. This situation
has prevailed although the advent of boll weevils has caused
the type of farming to be changed from cotton to cattle in
Economic Area Six, ' the Black Belt Area; and from cotton
to peanuts and swine production in Economic Area Seven b

and the Wire Grass Area.

Authorities on the subject of population change have
released figures showing that a substantial number of Negroes
have migrated from these areas each year to other states

in search of employment opportunities. Census reports cited

previously indicated that the majority of these people were
employed in agricultural work. Moreover, a numerical
classification of the distribution of non-white farm opera-
tors and full owners, according to each county, may be seen
in Figure 3. It was noted that twenty-four of the central
and south-central counties contained the majority of the
non-white farm Operators. The range in the number of oper-
ators was from 1,082 in Elmore County to 3,693 in Dallas
County. Seven counties had more than 2,000 non-white farm
operators, whereas seventeen counties had from 1,000 to
2,000 operators. Only one county--Madison--in north Alabama
had more than 1,000 non-white operators. These twenty-five
counties, with the largest number of nonewhite operators,
also had the largest number of full OWners on a per-county
basis. The range was from 630 owners in Clark County to
eighty—three in Pike County. These figures seem to indicate
that the prevalence of opportunities for non-white farmers
lie, to some extent, within the localities where they are
farming, and especially where they own farms. It was signi-
ficant to note that, in addition to the concentration of
farm ownership in the centrally-located counties, eighteen
counties in south Alabama and one county in north Alabama
had non-white owners, ranging from 100 to 330 on a per-county
basis. These counties showed a higher percentage of owner-

ship in comparison with the total number of farm Operators

11,1

than counties where the concentration of operators and
owners was more pronounced.

The prevalence of opportunities in agricultural pro-
duction occupations was particularized in Table XXXI. Among
teachers of agriculture and county agents the consensus was
that: Negroes find employment more readily in the productive
Phas es of farming--such as, general farmers, farm hands,
farm~znachine operators, and truck farmers--than in other
Phases of agricultural employment. Nevertheless, it was
apparent that for eachof the productive occupations listed,
at least three or more Negroes had become engaged in these
Occupations. This was tantamount to declaring that these
Jobs had been available and now have possibilities of be-
coming available again at some future date, depending, of
co"-i'élr‘se, upon the need and rate of replacements. The 192
W States Census _o_f_ Agriculture shows that there were
57:. 298 non-white farm operators in Alabama in 1950, and that
13,267 of these farmers were full owners. It is beyond the
scOpe of this study to determine the number of employment
opportunities that may become available each year in farming.
Ho“Never, census data seem to indicate that these job oppor-
tunities have diminished each year in an increasing ratio
81nee 1980.

Related occupgtions. Educators, especially those
serving at land-grant colleges, have recognized the impossi-

bility as well as the improbability of attempting to place

1A2

all agricultural graduates in farming occupations. As a
result of this thinking, these educators have focused at-
tent ion upon the importance of employment opportunities in

related agricultural fields for farm-reared, agriculturally

trained students. Recent studies, some of which were sum-

mariz ed in the review of literature, classified the related
occupations in which agricultural college graduates were
finding Opportunities. Generally, these jobs included
situations in which farm-reared youth, by virtue of their '
farm background and training, had the attributes which

were commensurate with successful employment. Rarely were

there more than ten percent of the agricultural college
graduates, among the colleges which had completed occupa-
ti-<>Ilal studies of their graduates, engaged in farming. In
contrast to this however, from fifty to sixty-six percent
of the graduates werec engaged in occupations related to
5181‘ iculture .

This situation has not prevailed among Negro aspirants
for jobs in the related fields. An examination of Table
WI will show that some difficulties have been confronted
by Negroes in attempting to secure employment in certain
related agricultural occupations. This fact is emphasized
by an observation of the very limited number of related oc-

cupations in which Negroes have found employment. The most

PreValent jobs for Negroes in related occupations were

1&3

reported to be teachers of agriculture in schools for Negroes
and county agricultural agents who serve only Negro farmers.
A limited number of graduates had secured jobs as teachers

0f general agriculture in secondary schools and as college
teachers of agriculture. The eighty-five teachers of agri-
cul ture and county agents reported that they knew of only
twent y-one teachers of general agriculture and eight college

\

teaC:Il:1ers of agriculture in the counties in which they were
WOI‘king. It was found also that jobs were available for
Negroes as teachers of Negro veterans' classes. These

011$ ses were organized on a time-limited basis under the
auspices of the State Division of Vocational Education

for World War II Veterans. The time has expired for most

or these classes, thus bringing to a close thise source

or employment. A general lack of participation among Ne—
groes in jobs related to agriculture was in evidence through-
out Table XXXI. It was noted that in 26h instances, Negroes
were employed either as teachers of agriculture or county
agents. Whereas among the fifty-five jobs related to
aSZbiculture, only 263 instances were reported in which Ne-
groes were employed on these jobs. Of this number, 168
were employed in service occupations, such as, custom workers,
metitl'ianics, and landscape caretakers. This is practically

the same kind of situation that prevailed in 1935 when at-
tention was called by Caliver51 to the limited range of

 

51 Ambrose Caliver, Vocational Education and Guidance

° Eeéfgea. United States De artment of terdor Office of
E51103 on, Washington, Bull. 8, 1937, p.1fl0.’ ’

an

occupational opportunities for Negro agricultural college
graduates. He found that these graduates were employed,
for the most part, as vocational teachers, county agents,
and college teachers. These revelations are but testi-
Inonial announcements of the lack of advancement among
Negroes in broad areas of job procurement. Another signi-
ficant observation appeared in Table XXXI. Although only
a few Negroes were employed on the majority of the jobs
related to agriculture, such jobs were prevalent when the
present study was conducted.

This seems to substantiate the fact that jobs do exist
in related fields of agriculture in localities where Negro
farmers reside; it also indicated inaccessibility. This
"inaccessibility" seems to apply to Negro employment, es-

pecially in the related agricultural fields.

Regional job oppprtunities. Pertinent data have al-

 

ready indicated that the majority of the occupational op-
portunities for Negroes in agriculture have been in crop
production. In view of this fact, it is logical to eXpect
to find Job opportunities for Negroes in localities where
non-white farmers reside. Figure 2 has been constructed for
the purpose of identifying the economic areas of the state
as defined in the l2§9_United States Census ngAgriculture.

 

 

By comparing Figures 3 and h, which show the distribution

of non-white Operators and full owners by counties, with

1145

TABLE XXX]:

PREVALENCE OF OCCUPATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES AND JOB DEMANDS As
REPORTED BY FIFTY NEGRO TEACHERS OF VOCATIONAL AGRICULTURE
AND THIRTY-FIVE NEGRO COUNTY AGENTS: ALABAMA 1952

 

 

 

.p
0
H .1: be
3.533 3.5.3 g g
o m +2 m
Inn-H "651123 3 £1043
a on: _ O 'u Or;
a)“: Si >305 43:21:!
0.. $4 oo :2 o
0.3‘3.8 '3.O-p .3 0:3'2
use; Ego cm: w
Snag m 4‘3 “3%
ADAM 05m ‘3 of}
opp: 393$ ”fie
0050 DOC 3-0 350-8
G>.OH owtuo - ooqs
02°§ 2.a3 Rate
egg, 2223 .222
4 dBdH Hmmo
Yes No Yes No Yes No
Agri. Education
County Agri. agent 85 O 71 1h 85 0
County héH agent 85 O &: 85 85 0
*District supv., ext. ser. 85 O # I 85 0
*District supv., agri. ed. 85 O O 85 85 O
*Specialists, ext. ser. 85 O 0 85 85 0
Teacher, college agri. 10 75 8 77 85 0
Teacher, voc. agri. 85 O 79 6 85 0
Teacher, general agri. 26 59 21 6h 85 0
Teacher, vet. classes 85 0 85 0 85 O
Agri. Publicity
ZEditor, agri. 72 13 3 82 85 0
Radio program director 58 27 0 85 85 0
Reporter, agri. 59 26 O 85 75 O
Agri. Research
Director, dist. agri. exp. eta. 85 0 0 85 85 0
Research worker, agri. exp. sta. 85 O 2 83 85 0
Research worker, agri. college 5 80 2 83 85 0
Research worker, U. S. Gov. h5 NO 0 85 85 O
Agri. Job U. S. Gov.
Grading and classing spec. 62 23 O 85 80 5
Inspector agri. proc. est. 61 2h 0 85 85 O
Inspector, crops, livestock 67 18 0 85 80 5

TABLE XXXI (Continued)

 

 

lll6

College Degree?

 

 

a
O
9 ea ' “
'5 : §:§ .i’o '3 ..:{g o 8'5
853 °re 25.: eafisg
339-. 85$ 3mg; 3chm
as s b° °=ao R=°2a
a. H 0:3.G -H 2 g ,‘
3°: “.3 “.8: “.e33
2.2:313 8%i5 :3:: no '3:: 5 .5
OIH : 55 In a«4 to - .3
3:83 «55 n3m5 £353:
3332 §.. 3:: P3£R=
saéa R33 353% aa.aa
Pave 2,: sate sages
eggfi Res .822 .3328
4 deg Hmmo Haubm
Yes NO Yes NO Yes No Yes No
Other Prof. Occupations
Agri. bacteriologist 31 5h 2 83 85 O
Agri. chemist h2 In 0 85 85 o
Agri. economist h5 NO 0 85 85 O
Agri. engineer 57 28 5 8O 85 O
Agri. statistician h? 38 O 85 85 O
Agrononist h8 37 h 81 85 O
Botanist 35 50 2 83 85 o
Forester 76 9 h 81 85 0
Floriculturist 16 to 5 8o 85 o
Horticulturist 1:9 36 5 80 85 o
Pomologist 3h 51 O 85 85 O
Veterinarian 80 5 3 82 85 O
Agri. Production
Occupations
Animal husbandry AS ho 8 77 8O 5 85 o
Apicultnrist 28 57 3 32 28 57 81 h
Crop spec. farmer hl hh 7 78 63 22 85 0
Dairy farmer 71 1h hh Al 66 19 85 O
Farm.hand 85 O 85 O O 85 68 17
Farm machine Operator 85 O 83 2 O 85 82 3
Farm.nanager 7O 15 h2 h3 75 10 80 5
Fruit and/or veg. packer 36 h9 15 70 O 85 62 23
General farmer 80 5 75 10 N7 38 85 O
Livestock farmer 76 9 62 23 57 28 85 0
Nursery worker 53 32 36 h9 O 85 51 3h
Nurseryman 37 h8 13 72 63 22 85 0
Poultry farmer 61 2h 3h 51 5h 31 85 O
Poultrynan h5 to 17 68 82 5 85 0
Truck farmer SA 31 us to 73 12 85 o

TABLE XXXI (Continued)

18?

 

 

College Degree?

 

 

:4
O
\ ' a
8 "2% _ .s 5
H d0 I330 ‘3; 3808
355 853 p: g vague
o 49:: 1:98) Goa-P
”£3, ego e we 0 «3
non _ >4 Hvoroqwdnam
0": S E10 0 :15 03000
8 8;. H08 850:: as.”
03%0 ma goon gemss
an 3 Egg n m n5 5
£95; m d4 m 3
a 0 egg 93mg ngfimp
non» m o o o 850
o +9 o *a-P '14-’3-4'6:
u pp» Hm as
ogg’fi £100.13 55mg 3‘; kg
5003 guy £333 £3330
H :3" “2:23 “8882
ragga 21:3 0.1-1034 nun-Iona:
«4 48:: Hch: HDoDn-c
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Agri. Ser. Occupations
wammflna
Combining 72 13 21 68 o 85 85 0
Feed grinding 71 1h 23 62 O 85 85 O
Haybaling 76 9 38 h? o 85 85 0
Peanut picking 33 52 1h 71 O 85 60 25
Farn.nechanic 7h 11 22 63 65 20 85 0
'Landscape caretaker bl hh 2h 61 1 8h 85 O
Milktester 39 86 7 78 1 8h 85 o
Sprayer, barns, etc. h? 38 12 73 O 85 85 O
'Welder (traveling) 32 53 7 78 O 85 85 0
Purchasing, Mfg. and
Distb. Farm Products
Livestock and livestock
produce buyer 63 22 10 75 25 50 85 O
mer
Canning plant at 81 8 67 38 87 85 0
Processing plant
andmilk 6h 21 3 82 ho 85 85 o
Freezing plant 38 h? 2 83 hl hh 85 O
Staple crop buyer 75 10 O 85 h7 38 85 0
Veg. and/or fruit buyer 26 59 6 79 2h 61 85 O

188

TABLE XXXI (Continued)

 

 

 

 

'U

.c 8 3.3.3

~53 9.34 2488

mé .8 En °58

£2 .L‘ S 04 3:54)

751 9:48 >3” hath—‘3

m5 :0: Han-5 r-IOI

c-p 0B. 49:. 9gp»

o o :‘5 £2433 £10300
top-H “UGO (D 0 Tide-
n o p o w:» od'd w -H'd a o
0*t-P >3 0 c d o :3 m
a. m o >»: .a 2's -a g 8 a)

m’f'l H-Po CH <8 54 mo
moan: g-H C; m a cg 0.2 m m
$4.: g g cm mam

OE-cS-c O a) m o
21‘331 :nL) '3 o .3 :cn o
5 .o an .o o no
802 82:" £42.94) as.“
'd ef§ are.» .grqc» ' r«beau—q
00 $4 0 3 00 323-5 0
33>:sz 05~H (Jog . 0 no

<3 o-P:z :z n .fl-H .c.a Era
r4 5 -P EHQH m-P 5494- m w

m g. s 0,0 m 54 r3 c: w >

a o o a o-a unmemq m- n
<:EJL)>4 <d*=£3 rec: o o +4C354r3~5
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Mfg. and.Selling Pro-
ducts to Farmers

Com. feed dealer 85 O O 85 38 D7 75 10
Farm machinery dealer 85 O O 85 33 52 85 0
Farm machinery salesman 85 O 1 8h 33 52 85 O
Fertilizer dealer 85 O 3 82 36 h9 85 O
Hatchery operator _ 66 19 2 83 h5 80 85 0
Nursery salesman h9 36 3 82 31 5h 55 30
Purebred stock grower 57 28 10 75 53 32 85 0
Seed grower 61 2h 9 76 ,35 50 85 0
Seed salesman 69 16 1 8h 26 59 65 20

 

*This item was answered yes or no on the basis of whether one or
more persons from the State Department of Education and/or the Coopera-
tive Extension Service were assigned to serve the district which includ-
ed the county in which the teacher of vocational agriculture and/or
county agent were at work.

#Three Negro district county agents.
&One Negro State h-H leader (boys).

%Editor of an agricultural journal and/or a weekly farm section
in the local newspaper.

1149

Figure 2, which identifies the economic areas of the state,
it was possible to determine the regions or areas in which
non-white farm operators were farming. The number of oper-
ators and owners was constantly higher in Area Six than in
the other areas. It was noted, however, that ownership in
Area Six was not as high in prOportion to the number of
Operators as it was, for example, in Area 7b. Percentage-
wise, ownership was considerably higher in the areas and
counties where the total number of Operators was low, in
comparison with that of the Black Belt Area, where the total
number of operators was high.

Another determinant worthy of consideration in seeking
to identify regional job Opportunities is the volume of
land controlled by hon-white farmers. Computations were
made in order to ascertain the number of acres operated by
non-White farmers. Again, it was noted that Economic Area
Six, as a whole, contributed more total acres toward agri-
cultural production than the other areas of the state. This,
at least, gives rise to the proposition that this area was
a potential area of job opportunities by the fact that it
had more farm operators, and more full owners, than any of
the other areas in the state. Within several counties
farmers owned more land than was Operated by tenant farmers.
Two counties, Clark and Choctaw, serve as examples for illus-

trating this point. The former county had 37,635 acres

5

,:¥\\\\

150

 

9 Area 5

fl Area 6
{.5 Area
4m”; Area

my!!!“ rut 0] 61mm"

 

CRAM'S
88x 1 1 Outline Map

ALABAMA

ICALI

covvmonv
THI 050.6! I CRAM COHPANV
woman-ou-

 

 

 

151

controlled by owners, in comparison to 9,260 acres for
tenants, whereas, the latter county had 29,367 acres under
the Jurisdiction of owners and 19,836 acres operated by
tenants. The majority of non-white operators were in
Areas Six and Seven b. This concentration of operators
does not exclude the fact that many of the counties had an
appreciable number of Operators, among which were from 100
to 200 full owners per county. An examination of Figure A
will reveal this fact.

A summary of the respondents' completed questionnaires
indicates that a general pattern of employment prevailed
throughout the state in that occupational opportunities
for Negroes were limited largely to the productive phases
of farming. Uniformity existed among all the regions con-
cerning work opportunities or the lack of work opportunities
for Negroes. As a rule, Negro tractor mechanics were not
hired in the tractor repair shops in any of the areas, but
Negroes were hired as tractor operators in all the areas.
Citing another similar situation, Negroes work as extension
agents among Negroes in many of the areas, but nonswas em-
ployed as an extension Specialist in any of the areas.

Such jobs as county agents and teachers of vocational
agriculture were more prevalent in the areas in which the
Negro farm population was the highest. These included Areas

Five, Six, and Seven b. The observation was made that even

152

 

“,0. >

1 ,r u \0 O CRAM'S
2 ’0‘], _| 7 \ 85x11 Outline Map

2' r ‘r
‘vO‘)
LOPVIIde
VHE GEORUE 7 ("AM COMPANY
'NUIA’IAFULI‘
U‘H)

. 3 Distrihufi'm Non-.z‘hite Farm ‘
nun.“ mu {735.720 , , , 7 , ’

 

 

 

 

153

some of the counties in these areas did not have a county

agent and/or a teacher of vocational agriculture.

New job opportunities. Perhaps, there is no situ-

 

ation watched more closely in the South-east than the es-
tablishment of concerns capable of providing job oppor-
tunities for the surplus farm population of this area.
Stefan Robock52 observed that the most promising fields

for new jobs appeared to have been in meat packing, poultry
dressing, canning and preserving, frozen foods, and natural
cheese industries. He cautioned, however, against expecting
these new rural industries to furnish more than a small
percentage of the jobs needed to absorb the displaced farm
population.

According to the questionnaires filled in by the
eighty-five responding agents and teachers of agriculture,
the most prevalent new job opportunity reported gbr Negroes
was "teacher of veterans' classes." This job was temporary
in that it was to be discontinued at the end of the stipu-
lated training period for Veterans of World War II. On
the other hand, new job situations were reported for Negroes
among such new occupations as welding and Spraying, freezing
and canntgyplant Operators. The information compiled seems

to indicate clearly that the surplus or diSplaced Negro

 

52 Stefan Robock, 22. cit., p. 357.

151+

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

AL

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

3|

 

   

 

 

 

 

.. hm .. mo CR 5
9 200 - 100
1 88x ll Outline Map
100 , 200 ALABAMA
.CALI
Luff" than 1m WW%
4"?

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. )4 Dis. ibution of Non-‘rfhi

 

 

 

 

7H! GEORGE F CHAN CONPANY
l~O|ANAPOLII
Owners by Counties andW
a

warm mu 0] an...» '5
J

U

 

 

  

 

 

 

TU PIG

155

population is not finding employment in many of the new
agricultural occupations of the South-east. It also

serves to emphasize the absence of new enterprises among
Negroes that would help provide new job opportunities.

More explicitly, Negro farmers use thousands of tons of
fertilizer each year; yet, it is hard to find a fertilizer
agency, or cooperative among them. Usually, purchases are
made from concerns that do not employ Negroes, except in a
very menial capacity. Thus, neither volume of business

nor the money spent has any bargaining power in the pro-
curement of better jobs for them. An examination of the
1959_United States Census g_i_‘__Agriculture53 will reveal

that the purchasing power of Negro owners alone has been
developed to a point where it is capable of aiding in the
develOpment of new opportunities among the group if properly
managed. The pooling of purchasing power and the use of
techniques of good business appear to be alternatives which
may be used further in the development of situations capable

of providing additional job opportunities.

 

53 United States Bureau of the Census, United States
Census of A ribulture, Counties and State Economic ’
Areas, 731. I, (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1952),
p. 30

 

156

Arkansas

The concentration of non-white farm operators, in a
somewhat crescent-shaped area extending from the north-east
section of the state southward and thus across the southern
third of the state, is disclosed in Figure 6. The majority
of the h0,8hl non-white operators resided in the thirty-five
counties comprising this area. Of this number, in 1950,
seventy-one percent, or 28,988 were tenants, and only 8,860
were full owners. The high proportion of tenancy became
more significant when it was realized that sixty-one percent,
or 17,698 were crOppers. It is generally agreed that in
the system of farming conducted in the Cotton Belt, croppers
were at the bottom of the agricultural ladder, and usually

they were in a precarious economic condition.

Farming. The counties included in the section of the
statevflnme non-white farm operators were concentrated were
indicative of the area where occupational Opportunities in
farming prevailed. These counties are identified in Figure
6. It may be noted that three counties--Crittenden, Jeffer-
son, and Saint Francis--had more operators per county than
any of the other counties. It was also observed that there
was no relationship between the total number of Operators in
a given county and the total number of owners. To give an

example, Crittenden County had h,5h9 farm operators; of this

157

number, only 280 were owners; whereas, Ouachita County has
only 858 operators, of which 571 were owners.

The information compiled in Table XXXII seems to
indicate that occupational Opportunities were prevalent in
agricultural production and some of the service occupations.
Tabulations here show that Negroes were employed on specific
jobs listed under these occupations. These facts are simi-
lar to those previously cited for Alabama which indicated
that the prevalence of job Opportunities in agriculture for
Negroes remains in the productive phases of farming. This
has been especially true in areas where cotton production
predominated on a share-tenant basis. It has been recog-
nized that the addition of machinery in farming programs
has gradually brought about a change in the pattern of ten—
ant farming. As more machinery was added, more hired help
was used, which reduced or eliminated the need for share
tenants. One man with a tractor and attachments Often re-
placed the services of a dozen or more men. This situation
has had some effect upon occupational Opportunities in farm-
ing, in that mechanization tends to displace more Negro farm-
ers than other farmers and created fewer jobs for them. More
and more, evidence appears to justify the need for renewed
attempts which would embrace the idea of encouraging more
farm ownership among Negro farmers so that they will be able

to remain in the business of farming. It is not unreasonable

158

to believe that Opportunities in farming can diminish to
the point where they will be governed by and made avail-

able to whomever the owner of the land recommends.

Related occupations. There has been no new evidence

 

found in the present study which indicates the slightest
change in the general pattern of employment in occupations
related to agriculture. An examination of Table XXXII will
provide classified information which directsattention Upon
many of the related fields in agriculture. Negroes found
employment in the agricultural education area as county
agents, teachers of vocational agriculture, teachers of
general agriculture, and teachers of veterans' classes.
Other than these occupations, it was noted that anong the
fifty-five remaining related occupations, there were only
181 instances reported in which Negroes were working on
jobs which could be defined as related occupations. Eighty-
four of these job situations occurred among service occupa-
tions.

The tabulations which appear in the column indicating
the prevalence of employment in related occupations were
reported also for Jefferson County, in which the Negro
land-grant college is located. In eight instances college
Staff members were employed in the particular related occu-

pations reported. This practice in reporting the prevalence

TABLE XXXII

159

PREVALENCE OF OCCUPATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES AND JOB DEMANDS.MS
REPORTED BY THIRTYfiONE NEGRO TEACHERS OF VOCATIONAL.AGRI-

CULTURE AND ELEVEN NEGRO COUNTY AGENTS: ARKANSAS 1952

l

p

 

 

4.:
-3 .n b: eo‘
"c’ 5 5 3 hi 3% g
o on +9 :3 CD
a) .9 H ' 'd 5 a) w-P
a o c: y a w-l 'v m g
a) F: S o 5 o :2 :1
c. t. 0:) -H a o
8.3‘2.g '3.o-9 :3 0:3.2
gag: sag .e.a
955° ”59 33mg
>4 0 .3 O O
O +3 o S “a «P
'5 §.c H.O¢2 r; m-S
0 O 0 no 0 $4 0) 0
838;! £”8§ 2.393
.4 n73. EH‘H g'u
sew 22.8 .232
..;§:5.5 «sea w:~ t4£2c0c5
Yes NO Yes No Yes No
.Agri. Education
County agri. agent h2 0 3h 8 h2 0
County h-H agent hz o o h2 ha 0
*District supv. ext. ser. h2 O # h2 h2 0
*District supv. agri. ed. h2 O &: h2 h2 O
*Specialists, ext. ser. h2 O O h2 h2 0
Teacher, college agri. 10 30 h 38 h2 0
Teacher, voc. agri. h2 O 39 3 h2 0
Teacher, general agri. 22 20 18 2h h2 0
Teacher, vet. classes h2 O h2 O h2 O
Agri. Publicity
$Editor, agri. 23 19 2 ho h2 0
.Radio program director 2h 18 S 37 h2 0
Reporter, agri. 26 16 8 3h h2 O
Agri. Research
Director, dist. agri. exp. sta. 22 20 O h2 h2 0
Research worker, agri. exp. sta. 2h 18 3 39 h2 0
Research worker, agri. college 22 20 h 38 h2 0
Research worker, U. S. Gov. 23 19 l hl h2 O
Agri. Job U. S. Gov.
Grading and classing spec. 25 17 O h2 h2 O
Inspector agri. proc. est. 21 21 O h2 h2 O
Inspector, crops, livestock 27 15 O 142 ’42 O

TABLE XXIII (Continued)

 

 

 

 

.160

 

Interested in a College Degree?

 

 

a: +2
o I I o
:3 ”5' T1 8 a
o a m: 'd
55 ah% as gag
: o:§ .5’m.5 .5’0 6 a
259 O\ 95 vnfim
o o 'U a c _3 sea a.
m .0 0"! “U c: o a) a)
“93 gm» pr Hfldh
m -a tax: .3 s: g 3 c: o 8
°‘ :3 "'5" - it a ‘H g; 2’. ‘H E; a .
339$ 55; gas fined
0E4 a h an o a: cm -a m
z 5:: O :3: m 0 ,o 3 go .0 3 -5 >
h 073‘ m o~fi o o o w.3
o g 2:! o .C: *3 P o: \ "3 +3 $4
'o o 9.9.» r3 e~ rifiug
a) a) >4 to o m o a a :3
a >.>. 0 god .H oz) p . o o a
O o 49 ,.c: z #4 J: w-l :3 J: H m a
H g o +3 E4 94 a) +> 5.. e... x.
a) o. H o .0 m :1 H “J :3 «d
a E °g§ a God m cu a m- o a
«mo 4am HQOO Hnow
Yes NO Yes No Yes No Yes NO
Other Prof. Occupations
Agri. bacteriologist 2h 18 3 39 h2 O
Agri. chemist 19 23 O h2 h2 O
Agri. economist 20 22 O h2 h2 O
Agri. engineer 2O 12 O h2 h2 0
Agri. statistician 19 23 O h2 h2 O
Agronomist 2O 22 O h2 h2 O
Botanist 19 23 O h2 h2 0
Forester 29 13 O h2 h2 O
Floriculturist 28 1h 5 37 1:2 0
Horticulturist 23 19 h 38 hz o
Pomologist 19 23 2 ho h2 O
Veterinarian hO 2 6 36 h2 0
Agri. Production
Occupations
Animal husbandry 25 17 15 27 28 1h h2 O
Apiculturist 2h 18 7 35 1h 28 h2 0
Crop spec. farmer 30 12 13 29 1h 28 h2 0
Dairy farmer 33 9 21 21 23 19 h2 0
Farm hand h2 o 31 n o h2 16 26
Farm machine Operator h2 O 28 1h 0 h2 3O 12
Farm manager 3 39 19 23 2h 18 h2 0
Fruit and/or veg. packer 26 16 13 29 O h2 18 2h
General farmer hO 2 28 1h 1h 28 3h 0
Livestock farmer 38 h 31 ll 21 21 36 6
Nursery worker 32 10 2h 18 O h2 19 23
Nurseryman 3h 8 29 13 25 17 h2 0
Poultry farmer 36 6 20 22 2h 18 h2 O
Poultryman 29 13 27 15 23 19 1.2 0
Truck farmer 37 5 1h 28 2h 18 h2 0

TABLE XXXII (Continued)

161.

 

 

 

 

a
0 Poo
, gt m
o . '
55 5 E $3 $§§§
3..
85» 8°Lg §°5 Efimfia
3.0.3 vote ” “15.3 “‘nzs‘“ °
:30 Q) a)
3,3.3 g.dtH -H'o m oH'd : pi:
0‘33 0 OOO
e.a are 228 28 so
ooan§~ 95H ‘39“ .35..“
82.. 5.2 no gefifi
2:00 0 ”so mgsflfi
h 073*; 8 0-5 '8 g) '0 .3
o c a o tn-p.4 o m '5
“Unto $455+, H U19," .8
o- E4
00 H w o @300 3 3a
are. .5. “”02 fl°939
"' ° :2 .3 #3::d-P ”3" “
28%?“ at: :4 H “$933
450g 4am £983 £9855
Yes NO Yes NO Yes No Yes NO
Agri. Ser. Occupations
Customrworkers
Combining 2h 18 1h 28 5 37 £2 0
Feed grinding 30 12 9 33 1 hl h2 O
Hay baling 29 13 16 26 2 ho h2 0
Peanut picking 29 13 3 39 o hz 28 1h
Farm mechanic 33 9 15 27 23 19 h2 0
Landscape caretaker 32 10 11 31 O h2 h2 0
Milk tester 26 16 h 38 6 36 t2 0
Sprayer, barns, etc. 31 11 6 36 2 ho h2 O
‘Welder (traveling) 20 22 6 36 2 ho h2 0
Purchasing, Mfg. and
Distb. Farm Products
'Livestock and livestock _
produce buyer 21 21 7 35 9 33 h2 0
Manager
Canning plant 2h 18 2 to 8 3h h2 0
Processing plant poultry
and milk 32 10 3 39 10 32 h2 0
Freezing plant 28 1h 3 39 11 31 h2 0
Staple crop buyer 38 h 5 37 12 30 142 0
Veg. and/or fruit buyer 27 15 6 36 S 27 h2 o

2162

TABLE XXXII (Continued)

 

 

 

 

+32“
0 I o m
m *3 8‘38
0) ofi . :3 "d (10
a. a 3.5 a 8588

..-I $40 >3 S-I. his a:
25.: 8&3 5323‘” 21:2”82’0
o 0 15:3 {3490 51:01:50.6
[11.0-H "Ugo a) co a) H
pop 6 H Hflm apnea
6.7+) h 05H 093000
9., (11 Osz‘. H H Hui cHO
.23 rape) “‘88a‘338o3au

3.: f§ 5 Egg CQI: o as: :«4
Qty 9 3 {3‘3 CD a g to 0-3 3.5

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$4011 030' O OH O (U "U
o a d 0.: re-p s *e-P a .3

13:80 5.44949 I—Imo HE—Qo
om >4 no 0 mama 38 «Pro
: >.>. o fi-H -H o o a) . o m 0
<3 o-P.: :z a .C-H-g .C-H m s a
H o +9 e-Ico-I a: [-46.434130
98%“ sea .88 .5222:
«:Eflcafg carat: rathcn'fi racacg Mus
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No

‘Mfg. and.Selling Pro-
ducts to Farmers

Com. feed dealer 36 6 O h2 8 3h h2 O
Farm.machinery dealer 38 h 3 39 5 37 h2 0
Farm machinery salesman 36 6 5 37 7 35 h2 O
Fertilizer dealer 38 h l 37 10 32 h2 O
Hatchery operator 29 13 5 37 25 17 h2 0
Nursery stock salesman 26 16 l hl O h2 h2 O
Purebred livestock grower 32 10 h 38 15 27 h2 0
Seed grower 32 10 6 36 11 33 h2 0
Seed salesman 36 6 3 39 2 to h2 O

 

*This item was answered yes or no on the basis of whether one or
more persons from the State Department of Education and/or the Cooperative
Extension Service were assigned to serve the district which included the
county in which the teacher of vocational agriculture and/or the county
agent were at work.

#

One Negro district county agent.
8cOne Negro assistant supervisor agricultural education.

%Editor of an agricultural journal and/cu'a weekly farm section in
the local newspaper.

163

of Negroes employed in the professional jobs tended to show
the presence of employment situations which ordinarily would

not exist if it were not for college employment.

Regional jpb opportunities. The economic areas of the

 

 

state, as outlined in the 1959 United States Census 2£'§g£_-
culture, are used synonymously with the word regional.

Figure 5 represents a reppoduction of the economic areas
according to counties. It was noted that occupational oppor-
tunities for Negroes apparently were contingent upon the
density of the Negro farm operators in each area. In the
economic areas in which there were large numbers of farm
Operators, customary jobs such as those connected with crop
production and agricultural education were prevalent. The
general distribution of non—white farm operators and owners
may be seen in Figures 6 and 7. A comparative examination
of these figures and Figure 5 will provide relevant informa-
tion on farm operators and owners according to state economic
areas. It was found that Area 8a and Jefferson County in
Area 8b were the heaviest populated areas with both operators
and owners. Area 8a in 1950 had 15,515 non-white farm oper-
ators, of which 1,687 were full owners. Jefferson County,
located in Area 8b, had 3.3h5 operators in 1950, of which

591 were full owners.

New Job opportunities. The paucity of new job oppor-

 

 

tunities among Negroes was significant in view of the fact

164

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

 

          

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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165

that employment situations were increased because of newly
developed industries such as freezer lockers, broiler plants,
and canning plants. The county agents and/or teachers of
agriculture who completed and returned questionnaires re-
ported that the new job opportunities among Negroes of
which they were aware were teachers of veterans' classes
in the program of on-the-farm training, initiated for vet-
erans who had served in World War II, welders, Sprayers of
barns and orchards, and freezing and processing plant oper-
ators.

In agriculture, since the turn of the century, Negro
farmers have been relegated by design, in many instances,
to the productive phases of cash crops--mostly cotton.
Under this sytem, seemingly, the Negro has not had the temer-
ity to venture into the related occupations, except those that
'were provided for him. These have been, for the most part,
in the field of education as teachers of vocational agri-
culture and county farm agents. New job opportunities in
related fields to agriculture have meant little toward pro-
viding employment opportunities for the excess or displaced
Negro farm pOpulation. Equally as noticeable as the lack of
new job opportunities was the lack of enterprises among Ne-
groes themselves that would create new jobs. To give an
example, not one of the forty-two respondents listed any

kind of cooperatives nor enterprises that had been developed

166

Ou.H m Qanaman

Ears deficvucoz do :wm.r:w;.mv

 

 

 

 

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167

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168

among Negroes since l9hh which provided new job opportunities

for them.
Mississippi

The largest contingent--S3.5 percent, or l76,h2S--
of the 329,u82 gainfully employed Negroes in 1950 was en-
gaged in agriculture. Non-white farm operators were farming
in each of the eighty—two counties of the state. The range
among the counties was from twenty-five Operators in Han—
cock County in the southern part of the state, to 7,232
operators in Bolivar, one of the Delta Counties. Non-white,
full owners ranked from a minimum of twenty-three in Hancock
County to a maximum of 808 in Holmes County. The total
number of non-white operators in 1950 was 123,089, of which

23,293 were full owners.

Farming. The prevalence of work opportunities in farming
in shown in Table XXXIII. It was noted that the most preva-
lent job situation prevailed among the agricultural produc-
tive occupations under the classification of farm hands,
farm.machine operators, and general farmers.. This table also
indicated flexibility in the accessibility of the productive
occupations. More pointed, it was apparent that employment
was possible for Negroes in all the areas of productive
phases of farming. In Mississippi, as in the other states

of the selected area, the prevalence of employment opportunities

169

in agriculture has rested in the productive phases of this
industry. A possible explanation of the causation of this
fact may be found in the pattern that has existed through
the years by which the Negro farmer has had to work his

way onto and thus up the agricultural ladder. The system

of farming under which he has received his training was pre-
dominantly a one-crop system in which his role was that of

a producer. The training received under this system ap-
peared to have conditioned many of these farmers for the
acceptance of only the conventional role of a cotton farmer
in a one-crop system. In contrast to the one-crop system of
farming, some of the farmers on the highest rounds of the
agricultural ladder, nevertheless, were flexible enough to
change and become engaged in diversified farming. Further-
more, some of these farmers have been versatile enough to

make the transition from one type of farming to another.

Related occupations. The most striking revelation of

 

Table XXXIII was the paucity of occupational opportunities
in related occupations for Negroes. It was noted that the
most prevalent job situations prevailed in the educational
occupations in the form of teachers of vocational agricul-
ture, teachers of veterans' classes, teachers of college
agriculture, teachers of general agriculture, and county
agricultural agents. These were the related occupations for

which a college degree in agriculture was necessary in order

170

to qualify for employment. Thus, these occupations represent
the kind of employment situations in which the Negro agri-
cultural college graduate finds employment. An inspection
of the related occupations classified under the tital "Other
Professional Occupations," Table XXXIII, will show that
Negroes were employed in thirty-three instances among six

of these occupations. On the other hand, among the re-
maining forty-three related occupations classified under
other titles, 373 instances occurred in which Negroes were
known to be employed; 2A9 of these instances appeared among
the "Agricultural Service Occupations." It was noted that
only one employment situation for Negroes was reported under
the title "Agricultural Research." Moreover, there were no
Negroes employed on government jobs, such as grading and
classing specialists, inspections of agricultural products,

and inepectors of crop and livestock.

Regional 19b opportunities. The scarcity of related
occupations among Negro agricultural workers almost eliminated
the possibility of a classification according to state areas.
Nevertheless, it was observed that the counties which main-
tain large segments of farm Operators were the ones that also
provided employment for teachers of agriculturetand county
agents. An outline of the economic areas of the state,
which is comparable to state regions, is shown in Figure 8.

The distribution of farm operators and full owners is pictured

TABLE XXXIII

PREVALENCE OF OCCUPATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES AND JOB DEMANDS AS

REPORTED BY NINETY—EIGHT NEGRO TEACHERS OF VOCATIONAL
AGRICULTURE AND THIRTY-NINE NEGRO COUNTY

AGENTS:

MISSISSIPPI 1952

171

 

M

 

 

0
.n
.p
..5 a e s. .
8 ”" *3 ° 5"” *5: 5 53
o
as: egg was“
Wan hog can?
e.a so sacs
aasa‘ as: save
eta h h é§+>.+ (n I.¢
2: O O a .3
ages :5“ e as
o c s o .3 ~ *:+3
vs a o :4xzc333 .3 “.3
8 13. >3” 33.3 :4 ’6‘ 33 o °
0 4
<3 0 9.: :z 0:; .c.a s
Hgo 3\ HMEU
c O. .H o 'd s w. a
a a o,§ n.z c 0 Mod O a
«mo «sow HQMU
Yes No Yes No Yes No
Agri. Education
County agri. agent 137 0 92 NS 137 0
County h—H agent 137 0 8: do 137 O
wDistrict supv. ext. ser. 137 0 # # 137 0
*District suPV. agri. ed. 137 O O 137 137 0
fiSpecialists, ext. ser. 137 0 0 137 137 0
Teacher, college agri. 25 112 1h 123 137 0
Teacher, voc. agri. 137 0 129 8 137 0
Teacher, general agri. 32 105 17 120 137 0
Teacher, vet. classes 35 102 35 102 137 O
. Agri. Publicity
%Ed1tor, agri. 99 38 0 137 137 0
Radio program director 55 82 O 137 137 0
Reporter, agri. 77 60 0 137 137 0
Agri. Research
Director, dist. agri. exp. eta. 137 0 0 137 137 0
Research worker, agri. exp. sta. 137 0 0 137 137 0
Research worker, agri. college 15 122 1 136 137 0
Research worker, U. S. Gov. 58 79 0 137 137 0
Agri. Job U. S. Gov.
Grading and classing spec. 7h 63 0 137 137 O
Inspector agri. proc. est. 85 52 O 137 137 0
Inspector, crops, livestock 98 39 0 137 137 O

 

{1

fl

TABLE XXXIII (Continued)

1172

 

 

8 +3 (-
o I l o o
. :2 an:
m 2 n‘ 3“ see
55 a £4 H m d: 4! D o C)
' a 3:3 £?q>:i .5'3 0 2 o
8.5.» «3:; +>;: .p.::5 w my
8 .o .53 'd c: 3 5 P 3 5 m p‘ a
no new H6 HUGH
0'1-5 b. .3 .§ 0 o o 0
s33 . ssg mgg uééto
339$ Egg 33w 33:3“
£983 3 mg. w 325
tees 2.5 e s 33.3.
°eas as» ”gun-73:33
:3th 2905.3 308% floodg
ofigfi z 3 58,9 §fl§§§
ago; see .nug .s.2.
4 u «an HQOO HnowH
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Other Prof. Occupations
Agri. bacteriologist 82 55 O 137 137 0
Agri. chemist S7 80 O 137 137 O
Agri. economist 93 hh O 137 137 0
Agri. engineer 99 38 O 137 137 O
Agri. statistician 93 hh o 137 137 o
Agronomist 107 30 1 136 137 O
Botanist 109 28 h 133 137 O
Forester 112 25 O 137 137 O
Floriculturist 117 20 6 131 132 5
Horticulturist 80 S7 12 125 137 o
Pomologist 77 60 h 133 137 0
Veterinarian 129 8 6 131 137 O
Agri. Production
Occupations
Animal husbandry' 87 50 9 128 131 6 137 O
Apiculturist 56 81 7 130 214 113 120 17
Crop spec. farmer 68 69 11 126 91 86 137 0
Dairy farmer 98 39 36 101 103 3b 128 9
Farm hand 127 10 96 hi 0 137 39 98
Farm machine operator 108 29 89 88 O 137 13h 3
Farm manager 9h h3 60 77 111 26 137 0
Fruit and/or veg. packer 66 71 26 111 o 137 80 57
General farmer 10h 33 73 6h 70 67 137 O
Livestock farmer 108 33 63 7h 92 85 137 0
Nursery worker 78 S9 31 106 O 137 27 110
Nurseryman 67 70 17 120 97 ho 137 0
Poultry farmer 85 52 hl 96 90 h? 137 0
Poultryman 72 65 2h 113 10h 33 137 0
Truck farmer 37 5h us 91 122 15 137 o

TABLE XXXIII (Continued)

173

 

 

 

 

1‘ ep-
°A 43 A 8 3
e g §~ E8 88 8
£5 egg 24 hssés
fi do: hog Homgo
g +3 O +3 g +3 :5 fl 0 DD
893 egg 5 3 5 “a
as: 22“ use 82880
e 8 see sis 22.80
efias‘ 35* use aswgw
£988 3‘; m3. wogas
tees 2.5 e s apnea
o s o no papa
'd 5 0 $4 5 43 H :1 o» r; 54 3 3
00 H m o 3500 a m
ch» 05H (”“4 some
cow: 2 u :H a games
0.453 +2 5.4mm: ran-+3153
ago; 3'33 ”2100-15 «mafia
4 u «an quo HQUM
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Agri. Ser. Occupations
Custom'workers
Combining 97 to 32 105 o 137 137 0
Feed grinding 100 37 37 100 0 137 137 0
Hay baling 106 31 Ni 93 o 137 137 0
Peanut picking 52 85 lb 123 O 137 78 59
Farm mechanic 9h h3 hh 93 9h h3 137 0
Landscape caretaker 7O 67 22 115 O 137 137 0
Milk tester 87 50 13 127 30 107 137 O
Sprayer, barns, etc. 90 117 22 115 0 137 137 0
welder (traveling) 75 62 21 116 o 137 137 0
Purchasing, Mfg. and
Distb. Farm Products
Livestock and livestock
product buyer 82 55 27 110 1h 123 137 0
Mmgr
Canning plant 88 149 12 125 30 107 137 0
Processing plant poultry
and milk 91 86 2 135 56 81 137 o
Freezing plant 9h h3 6 131 18 119 137 0
Staple crop buyer 106 31 15 122 39 98 137 O
Veg. and/or fruit buyer 83 Sb 5 132 12 125 137 O

Nu

TABLE XXXIII (Continued)

 

 

 

 

-p .9
H - a .3
.c '8-5 3 ‘3 o -P-P
0 re -a a .a m m
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mfg .3.3 f: are :3 m o
.c .c h (2 d c: o are
.p a 94+) kit) w c
a a S°a satH
25+) 8;: 490180 4900343
0 o c o.¢ c 'd o .
m,o-H 'e u o o of: c are
h o p m o '7'; : od :3 0
(Dd-P >~.\ 0 or! oS-o an)
a. m ore .a a -H o o a
P“ 35 - “$3 “$883
2,2‘3 ‘5 f§ ‘3 S (3 an:
c>e«$+ >.h co o co m c m
E: o -P o .Q'U :5 0th m
a“? 853 872 8 ea?
c 0 “fig 0 o s '1'dc5 *3'6 m>0ra
'c e MC) 0 c 59Hr4
0 o A no >4 m g o g g- 0
Q>>3>>O 0CD n-i no . fino
cage 28% as; gate.
0 c 0 ea c >
2588 see 838 33938
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Mfg. and.Selling Pro-
ducts to Farmers
Com. feed dealer 13h 3 O 137 65 72 137 O
Farm.machinery dealer 138 3 l 136 h5 92 128 9
Farm machinery salesman 133 h 0 137 38 99 123 lb
Fertilizer dealer 137 O 7 130 Us 92 137 O
Hatchery operator 118 19 h 133 70 67 137 0
Nursery stock salesman 112 25 8 129 20 117 108 29
Purebred livestock grower 120 17 lb 123 92 h5 137 0
Seed grower 112 25 12 125 71 66 137 O
Seed.sa1esman 122 lb 11 126 30 107 108 20

 

'This item was answered yes or no on the basis of whether one or
more persons from the State Department of Education and/or the Coopera-
tive Extension Service were assigned to serve the district which
included the county in which the teacher of vocational agriculture and/or
the county agent were at work.

&Two Negro boys' club agents.
#One Negro county agent leader.

%Editor of an agricultural journal and/or a weekly farm section
in the local newspaper.

175

in Figures 9 and 10. A comparative study of these two
figures and Figure 8, reveals that four counties-~Coahoma,
Bolivar, Sunflower, and Lefore--in Area One had the highest
number of Negro farm operators. The range was from 7,232
in Bolivar County to 5,162 in Lefore County. It was signi-
ficant to note that these four counties also had the highest
number of tenants in the state on a per-county basis. Thus,
it was assumed that since the predominant portion of occu-
pational opportunities in agriculture was in farming, the
job opportunities coincide with the areas that provided
farm employment. Continuing, Areas Three, Five, 6a and 6b,
showed considerable concentration of operators in the group,
ranging from 1,000 to 3,000 in number. The sparsely inhab-
ited areas, as far as Negro operators were concerned, were
Areas Four, Seven, and Eight; the total was less than 100
Operators each in seven of the seventeen counties in these
areas. The range in the ten remaining counties was from 100
to 500 operators per county,

The highest concentration of full owners was located
in the mid-southwestern counties, mostly in Areas Two, Three,
and be. There were full owners among Negroes in each county
of the state. Noticeable, however, was the disproportionate
number of full owners in Area One, in comparison with full
ownership in the other areas of the state. Collectively,
the possibilities of farm ownership were greatest in Areas
Three, 6a, and 6b.

 

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MISSISSIPPI

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MISSISSIPPI

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F190 10 Distribution 01‘ Non-'n'hi *8 “‘arm Owners bv Counties and Economic Areas l-‘W

179

New job opportunities. The occupations for which re-
supendents had observed new job opportunities in which Negroes
;participated were teachers of veterans' classes, sprayers
<of barns and orchards, welders, and canning plant, freezing
jplant, and processing plant operators. The largest number--
‘thirty-five--of employment situations for a single occupation
occurred in the "teacher of veterans" category. Whereas,
among the other six occupations, fifty-three instances were

observed in which Negroes had secured employment on these

occupations.

Tennessee

The most prevalent employment opportunities realized
by the 195,6h3 gainfully employed Negroes during 1950 were
in personal service, manufacturing and construction, agri-
culture, and the trades. Percentage-wise, employment in
these occupations was 25.9 percent, 20.2 percent, 19.h per-
cent, and 16.2 percent, respectively. The four above occu-
pational groups provided work situations for 81.9 percent

of all gainfully employed Negroes.

Farming. The agricultural productive occupations par-
ticularized in Table XXXIV are comparable to farming. The
general prevalence of participation in these farming occupa-

tions denotes tendency toward diversification in farming

180

Opportunities. In addition to the usual pattern of crop
production (cotton as the cash crop) it was noted that
farming opportunities were somewhat prevalent in dairying,
livestock, and poultry. It is highly probable that a num-
ber of cotton farmers was classified as livestock or dairy
farmers by the respondents.

A classification of non-white farm operators which
was made through the use of census data is shown in Figure
12. There were 2h,061 non-white farm operators in the
state in 1950, of which h,850 were full owners. The total
number of tenants was 17,065, of which 9,27h were creppers.
It was noted that, for the most part, the concentration of
non-white farm operators was in the cotton-producing areas.
Add to this the fact that the majority of the operators were
tenants, the situation seems to revert to the proverbial
premise that Negro farmers were predominately engaged in
cotton production.

Occupational opportunities in farming for agricultural
college graduates seem to be contingent Upon two main factors:
on the one hand, whether there is a home farm capable of
supporting another farmer-~the returning graduate-~and on
the other hand, whether the graduate will be able to secure
a job from which enough money may be accumulated in order
to enter farming. Currently, in both of these situations

the Negro graduates face great odds-~usually the home farm

181

is too small to accommodate an additional farmer, and the
remuneration which is likely to be received from a job will,
in all probability, be too meager to allow them to enter
farming. The alternative of entering farming by way of
ascending the agricultural ladder is almost completely out
of the picture because of the high capital requirement

necessary for successful farming.

Related occupations. Freedom to enter the related
occupations does not prevail among Negroes. Partly for this
reason the prevalence of employment in related fields as
reported in Table XXXIV was almost nil, with the exception
of the jobs which occurred under the heading "agricultural
education occupations." In this group the majority of the
jobs were reported under the title "teachers of vocational
agriculture and county agents. " Although employment had
been secured in these occupations, the number of Job possi-
bilities was relatively small because of the scarcity of
total positions. To give an.examp1e, there were only thir-
teen Negro county agents and forty-two teachers of vocational

agriculture employed in the state.

Regional job opportunities. In order to make possible

 

a comparative study of the regions, the Economic Areas as

outlined in the 1350 United States Census p£_Agriculture were

 

chosen. These areas are portrayed in Figure 11. Likewise,

‘182

TABLE XXXIV

PREVALENCE OF OCCUPATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES AND JOB DEMANDS AS
REPORTED BY TWENTY-NINE NEGRO TEACHERS OF VOCATIONAL
AGRICULTURE AND SIX NEGRO COUNTY AGENES:
TENNESSEE 1952

 

 

 

 

...:
O
H 2 >5 0- ‘
8 51 f3 8 :53 If»; g
o (0 +3 é: c: o
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0*: >30 0 C fi
e 3% 203 eggs
o-3‘\.o 0.0-9 :3 or: a
use: ago cz'm
area a a w 3<
c: o m g +3 .0 3 (H g
‘4 O NH 0 U) 0 O
o .9 o .a ~34:
vs 5.: $413CISI .4,3_3
0 G) 0 DD 0 $4 In 33
533; £33; 23°:
233 2538 “SEE
Yes No Yes No Yes No
Agri. Education
County agri. agent 35 O 21 1h 35 0
County hAH agent 35 0 0 35 35 0
*District supv. ext. ser. 35 O # 35 35 0
*District supv. agri. ed. 35 O O 35 35 O
*Specialists, ext. ser. 35 o o 35 3s 0
Teacher, college agri. 15 20 5 30 35 0
Teacher, voc. agri. 35 O 35 O 35 0
Teacher, general agri. 10 25 6 29 35 0
Teacher, vet. classes 31 h 31 h 35 O
Agri. Publicity -
zEditor, agri. 30 5 0 35 35 0
Radio program director 2h 19 3 32 35 0
Reporter, agri. 29 6 0 35 35 0
Agri. Research
Director, dist. agri. exp. sta. 35 O O 35 35 0
Research worker, agri. exp. sta. 35 0 0 35 35 0
Research worker, agri. college 5 3O 2 33 35 0
Research worker, U. S. Gov. 20 15 O 35 35 O
.Agri. Job U. S. Gov.
Grading and classing spec. 35 o o 35 35 o
Inspector agri. proc. est. 35 0 0 35 35 O
0 0 35 3S 0

Inspector, crops, livestock 35

183

TABLE XXXIV (Continued)

 

 

 

 

a .
0 +30-
0. .0 0
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5 53 9 331° .93 ('32?
3 “"3 ems 23.2.
Egg 5&3 3% pnfimm
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(11.0214 '6 o o a) :1
you ow an HUSH
0%? g o 3 ocooo
p. m 0 >353 -I go H 2 (Ho
3H ‘ H93 “02 “can“
2BQ§ g5; Ema gmfifi
Oahu 0 m m '05
z: o o o o a) 3's: >
g\3 m 5 new 9 as”
you mo 0 o o a
o a 5 0:5 ra+’:1 .‘1-9 H .3
poo n 9 H a H93
Q g. H on O m :3 0% .23 :3 0 d m
g b, 05H '1'" 00 O 0
009% z 5 53d 53”€“
09%“ 22:3 end"; .2132‘3
2505 «an HQOO HQUMH
YES» No Yes No Yes No IIYes Lia
Other Prof. Occupations
.Agri. bacteriologist 22 13 1 3h 35 O
.Agri. chemist 16 19 1 3h 35 O
Agri. economist 15 20 1 3h 35 0
Agri. engineer 16 19 1 3h 35 0
Agri. statistician 17 18 1 3h 35 O
Agronomist 18 17 1 3h 35 O
Botanist 13 22 0 35 35 O
Forester 2O 15 1 3h 35 O
Floriculturist 16 19 5 30 35 0
Horticulturist 1h. 21 1 3h 35 O
Pomologist 9 26 1 3h 35 0
Veterinarian 29 6 2 33 35 0
Agri. Production
Omwflmm
Animal husbandry 23 12 12 23 18 17 35 o
Apiculturis t 18 17 5 3O 3 3 2 35 0
Crop spec. farmer 20 15 6 29 13 22 35 0
Dairy farmer 27 8 16 19 17 18 35 0
Farm hand 35 o 35 0 o 35 15 20
Farm.nechine operator 35 0 32 3 0 35 30 5
Farm manager 28 7 12 23 19 16 35 0
Fruit and/or veg. packer 23 12 17 18 0 35 5 30
General farmer 35 O 26 9 15 20 35 O
Livestock farmer 29 6 26 9 11 2h 35 0
Nursery worker 20 15 11 2h 0 35 6 29
Nurseryman 17 18 7 28 12 23 35 0
Poultry farmer 25 10 1h 21 1h 21 35 0
Poultryman 18 17 9 26 16 19 35 0
Truck farmer 28 7 20 15 2h 11 35 0

TABLE XXXIV (Continued)

181

 

1

 

Interested in a College Degree?

 

 

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8 o E d c: 5 0 5 c: m 35 0..
a) .0 H "d c: o 0 MP 0
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4 o a: '7 C: H Q m o H G o no
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Agri. Ser. Occupations
Custom workers
Combining 26 9 20 15 O 35 2O 15
Feed grinding 29 6 23 12 O 35 10 25
Hay baling 31 h 25 10 o 35 6 29
Peanut picking 5 3O 0 35 O 35 O 31
Farm mechanic 28 7 15 20 17 18 35 0
Landscape caretaker 19 16 8 27 O 35 35 0
Milk tester 20 15 3 32 6 29 35 o
Sprayer, barns, etc. 28 7 17 18 O 35 35 O
welder (traveling) 23 12 7 28 o 35 35 0
Purchasing, Mfg. and
Distb. Farm Products
Livestock and livestock
product buyer 31 b, 13 22 8 27 35 0
Manager
Canning plant 23 12 9 26 6 29 35 0
Processing plant poultry
and milk 28 7 6 29 12 23 35 O
Freezing plant 21 13 6 29 7 28 35 O
Staple crop buyer 33 2 10 25 15 20 35 O
Veg. and/or fruit buyer 2h 11 3 32 5 30 35 O

185

TABLE XXXIV (Continued)

 

 

 

 

@ -u
23%
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1% :2 SE $14 :3 g-E
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(0‘: =03 H0 HO.
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Inn-H 'UGO m a) no.
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a 0's 0 o. o 0 o 2.6
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rd 0 EDP-P r3 (- r;
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H50 +9 Ede—Id: 994.3%)“
6 Q‘ 'H 2'3.3 mince : min a o
258§ «mm #4900 HQE—H—l-fi
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Mfg. and.Selling Pro-
ducts to Farmers
Com. feed dealer 35 O O 35 8 27 35 0
Farm machinery dealer 35 O 1 3h 7 28 35 0
Farm machinery salesman 35 O O 35 6 29 35 O
Fertilizer dealer 35 O O 35 5 3O 35 O
Hatchery Operator 20 15 1 33h 17 18 35 0
Nursery stock salesman 23 12 2 33 5 30 20 15
Purebred livestock grower 26 9 3 32 21 1h 35 0
Seed grower 25 10 2 33 5 3O 35 ‘ 0
Seed salesman 35 O O 35 5 30 15 20

 

*This item was answered yes or no on the basis of whether one or
more persons from the State Department of Education and/or the Cooperative
Extension Service were assigned to serve the district which included the
county in which the teacher of vocational agriculture and/or the county
agent were at work.

#One Negro assistant state agent, extension service.

%Editor of an agricultural journal and/or a weekly section in the
local newspaper.

186

the distribution of non-white farm operators and owners

is shown in Figures 12 and 13, reapectively. A comparison
of these figures provides the basis for determining the
economic areas in which non-white farmers were employed.

It is observed that in Economic Area One, seven of the
southwest counties had from 1,000 to 3,615 non-white oper-
ators. Five of these seven counties also had the highest
number of full owners in an area. The range was from u3h
in Shelby County to 205 in Tipton County. Continuing,
Areas Fbur and Five showed the second highest concentration
of non-white Operators; the range was from 100 to 600 oper-
ators. Only one county-~Rutherford--in Areas Four and Five
had as many as 200 non-white owners. It was noted that
five contiguous counties to Area One in Area Two had from
100 to 3h0 operators. A total of fifty-seven counties had
less than 100 non-white farm 0 erators, and eight counties
did not have any.

These facts apparently point out the areas in which
non-white farmers were employed in farming. Consequently,
these were the areas where the majority of the job Oppor-
tunities were found in the types of farming peculiar to
the particular locality. This type of farming was pre-
dominately one in which cotton was the major crop. It is
recognized that Area Four was a tobacco-producing area;
whereas, in Area Five cotton, tobacco, corn, and small grains

were produced.

 

 

 

 

 

 

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189

The related occupations, such as, teacher of vocational
agriculture, teacher of veterans' classes, teacher of gen-
eral agriculture, college teacher of agriculture and county
agricultural agent were restricted to the areas in which

the non-white farm operators were employed.

New job opportunities. In Tennessee, as in the other

 

states in the selected area the respondents reported that
they knew of only six new job opportunities in agriculture
on which Negroes had been employed since lth. These jobs
were identified as teacher of veterans' classes, welder of
farm implements, sprayer of barns and orchards, canning
plant, processing plant, and freezing plant managers. Among
these occupations seventy-six employment situations for

Negroes were observed by the respondents.

Similarities and Differences in Occupational
Opportunities in the Selected Area

The striking similarity which existed in patterns of
occupational opportunities in agriculture for Negroes from
region to region and from state to state within the selected
area is significant to observe. A comparative inspection of
Tables XXXI, XXXII, XXXIII, and XXXIV will focus attention
upon this point. Uniformity existed, on the one hand, in
that the same types of Jobs were available throughout the

190

area; whereas, on the other hand, certain types Of jobs

were categorically unavailable to Negro workers. In general,
occupational opportunities in education, at the teaching
level, were available so long as they were restricted to

the Negro population. Quite apart from this however, Ne-
groes were not generally employed on jobs that would place
them in a supervisory capacity. Nor were they generally
employed on jobs that tended to place them on equal standing
with employees Of the white race, when it was necessary for
both races to work together.

Again, occupational opportunities seemed to have been
uniformly categorized in the selected area among Negro
farmers; they were, for the most part, cotton farmers who
worked as hired hands, tractor operators, and croppers.

Of course, the 50,250 Negro farm owners had the privilege
Of determining their farming operations and thus affecting
their occupational Opportunities in farming.

Although similarities existed in patterns Of occupation—
al Opportunities, major differences were apparent in the
number Of potential job Opportunities within these patterns.
Again, a comparative inspection of Tables XXXI, XXXII,
XXXIII, and XXXIV will provide information on this point.

It was Observed that Mississippi had possibilities of Offer-
ing more potential occupational Opportunities in farming '

than the other states in the selected area, because it

191

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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192

excelled the others in farm Operators and owners more than
two to one. Tables XXXIII and XXXIV show the same kind of
relationship on a comparative basis concerning the number
Of probable jobs as teachers of vocational agriculture.

A composite picture of occupational Opportunities in
the selected area is presented in Table XXXV. This table
shows employment situations for Negroes within certain
occupational categories for the four states as an area, as
well as the lack of employment in Specific occupations. It
was noted that under the title "Agricultural Education“ five
occupations provided 790 employment situations for Negroes.
Whereas, twenty-two occupations listed under the titles
"Agricultural Publicity, Research, United States Government
Jobs, and other Professional Occupations" were reported to
have provided only 133 jobs for Negroes. In contrast to
this, the occupations listed under the titles "Agricultural
Production, and Agricultural Service" were reported to have
provided 2,522 job situations for Negroes. These data seem
to indicate that the majority of the Opportunities for em-
ployment in agriculture for Negroes have been in the educa-

tional, productive, and service phases of the industry.

Educational Requirements Of Selected Jobs

In order to secure the reactions of trained agricul-

tural workers on the job, two questions were included on

193

the questionnaire which requested information concerning

the type of training needed for job preparation and success.
These questions and a summary of the respondents' answers
are given in Table XXXV. It was noted that the majority

of the Occupations listed under agricultural education,
agricultural jobs with the United States Government, and
other professional occupations were thought to be diffi-
cult enough to demand the services of college graduates in
agriculture.

Quite to the contrary, there was considerable difference
of Opinion concerning the educational needs for agricultural
productive Occupations, agricultural service occupations,
and the occupations listed under the heading purchasing,
manufacturing and distributing farm products, and manufac-
turing and selling products to farmers. However, the major-
ity of the teachers of agriculture and county agents were
in agreement on the need for short-course training for indi-
viduals who were not interested in a college degree in agri-
culture. Stating this point differently, it was apparent
that the respondents recommended short-course training for
individuals who were anticipating employment in these occupa-
tions rather than the four‘year college program leading to
a degree. Nevertheless, there were some noticeable exceptions
pertaining to such occupations as: animal husbandry, farm

managers, poultrymen, truck farmers, farm mechanics, and

194

TABLE XXXV

PREVALENCE OF OCCUPATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES AND JOB DEMANDS AS REPORTED
BY 205 NEGRO TEACHERS OF VOCATIONAL.AGRICULTURE AND NINETY-FOUR
COUNTY AGENTS: ALABAMA, ARKANSAS, MISSISSIPPI, AND TENNESSEE

 

 

 

1952
-‘ .C‘. (so
3.5 17% 8 >VS 352% S
o mo 43,: t: 0
wow; 65 o we
soc: g H'UODH
0': a 0.5 O ”:1 s
a. n 0 cc; -H a o
m 0:» r1 .4 God
0'H\ DMD-P Bamqh
p.2'd.n Ԥ:5.3 c: an
sass t w as
a c E: M 5-9 .D-S<H fl
ob. o In ‘ o o
o 43 o Hg; '14)
(35551 was. 3‘33
=ao. ass; £392
0.400 .3\ e—MHE'U
8 p‘°°H 8.: U 8 at: O 2
4555 495» Heme
Yes NO Yes NO Yes NO
Agri. Education
County agri. agent 299 O 218 81 299 0
County hnH agent 299 O &: 299 299 0
*District supv. ext. ser. 299 O # 299 299 0
*District supv. agri. ed. 299 0 0 299 299 O
*Specialists, ext. ser. 299 0 O 299 299 0
Teacher, college agri. 71 228 3b 265 299 0
Teacher, voc. agri. 299 0 283 16 299 0
Teacher, general agri. 90 209 62 237 299 0
Teacher, vet. classes 193 106 193 106 299 O
Agri. Publicity
%Editor, agri. 22h 75 5 29h 299 0
Radio program director 161 138 8 299 299 0
Reporter, agri. 191 108 8 291 289 10
Agri. Research
Director, dist. agri. exp. sta. 279 20 O 299 299 0
Research worker, agri. exp. sta. 281 18 5 29h 299 0
Research worker, agri. college 35 26b 7 292 299 0
Research worker, U. S. Gov. 1&6 153 1 298 299 0
Agri. Job U. S. Gov.
Grading and classing spec. 196 103 O 299 299 O
Inspector agri. proc. est. 202 97 O 299 299 O
Inspector, crops, livestock 228 71 O 299 29h 5

TABLE XXXV (Continued)

195

 

 

 

 

'0 .
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25» 8°3 3% ” Pfigav
° 2 623 5 25 swpaa
8'8 n g.mcw ~H'U 0r; ~H'U c 8 m
ow» ocfl 0:0 0
a. a) 0 tax: -.—I o «a $4
m.a ‘r4+’<) mag O-H cH S -u3_3
0 H C: Q: "'1 0 U H (D no 0‘
an 3 5 Ba M 395320
£1) E-0 ‘04 36 (s 0 g 0) ‘3 <2 (0 ' «3 H g
n :‘\J: m‘D.fi .Q-S‘H.fi .6-3.5 s-pzm
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‘<:fllt> «2*:¢2 hiCIUJCD rqcacatbcuc:
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Other Prof. Occupations
Agri. bacteriologist 159 MO 6 293 299 o
Agri. chemist 131; 165 1 298 299 o
Agri. economist 173 126 1 298 299 O
Agri. engineer 202 97 6 293 299 O
Agri. statistician 176 115 1 298 299 O
Agronomist 193 106 6 293 299 ' O
Botanist 176 123 6 293 299 O
Forester 237 62 5 29h 299 O
Floriculturist 206 93 21 268 291: 5
Horticulturist 166 133 22 277 299 0
Pomologist 139 160 7 292 299 O
Veterinarian 278 21 17 282 299 0
Agri. Production
Occupations
Animal husbandry 180 119 M. 255 257 M 299 o
Apiculturist 226 173 122 277 69 230 278 21
Crop spec. farmer 159 1ho 37 262 181 118 299 0
Dairy farmer 229 70 117 182 209 90 290 9
Farm.hand 289 10 2h? 52 O 299 138 161
Farm machine operator 270 29 232 67 O 299 276 23
Farm manager 195 10h 133 166 229 70 29h 5
Fruit and/or veg. packer 1h5 15h 71 228 0 299 165 13h
General farmer 259 hO 202 97 1&6 153 299 0
Livestock farmer 2h? 52 182 117 181 118 293 6
Nursery worker 183 116 102 197 0 299 103 196
Nurseryman 163 136 73 226 199 100 299 0
Poultry farmer 207 92 109 190 182 117 299 0
Poultryman 16h 135 77 222 223 76 299 0
Truck farmer 202 97 125 27k 243 S6 299 O

 

TABLE XXXV (Continued)

1196

 

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«dflfltj .4vwc2 rfltncacfl F4CQLJ=304LJ
Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No
Agri. Ser. Occupations
Custom,workers
Combining 219 80 87 212 5 29h 28h 15
Feed grinding 239 69 92 207 l 298 27h 25
Hay baling 282 57 123 176 2 297 270 29
Peanut picking 119 180 61 268 O 299 166 133
Farm mechanic 229 70 96 203 199 100 299 0
Landscape caretaker 162 137 65 23h 10 289 299 0
Milk tester 172 127 27 272 h3 256 299 0
Sprayer, barns etc. 196 103 57 2&2 2 297 299 0
welder (traveling) 150 1h9 hl 258 2 297 299 0
Purchasing, Mfg. and
Distb. Farm Products
Livestock and livestock
product buyer 197 102 57 2h2 56 2h3 299 0
Manager
Canning plant 179 120 hl 258 82 217 299 0
Processing plant poultry
and milk 215 8h 1h 285 118 181 299 O
Freezing plant 182 117 17 282 77 222 299 O
Staple crop buyer 252 h7 30 269 113 186 299 O
Veg. and/or fruit buyer 160 139 20 279 h6 253 297 2

197

TABLE XXXV (Continued)

 

 

 

 

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Yes No Yes No Yes No Yes No

Mfg. and Selling Pro-
ducts to Farmers

Com. feed dealer 290 9 O 299 119 180 289 10
Farm machinery dealer 292 7 5 29h 90 209 290 9
Farm machinery salesman 289 10 6 293 8h 215 285 _ 1h
Fertilizer dealer 295 h 11 28h 96 203 299 o
Hatchery Operator 233 66 12 287 157 lh2 299 0
Nursery stock salesman 210 89 lb 285 56 2h3 225 7h
Purebred livestock grower 235 6h 31 268 181 118 299 0
Seed grower 230 69 29 270 122 179 299 0
Seed salesman 262 36 15 28h 63 236 230 69

 

*This item was answered yes or no on the basis of whether one or
more persons from the State Department of Education and/or the Coopera-
tive Extension Service were assigned to serve the district which includ-
ed the county in which the teacher of vocational agriculture and/or the
county agent were at work.

8cThree Negro State h-H leaders.
#Six Negro district county agents or leaders.

%Editor of an agricultural journal and/or a weekly farm section
in the local newspaper.

198

dairy farmers. The respondents thought that these occupa-
tions were difficult enough to demand the services of college

graduates.

Agricultural and Related Fields in Which

Few or No Negroes Were Employed

It has been emphasized that Negroes were employed in
the crop production phases of agriculture more readily
than in other phases of the industry. Further, this em-
ployment has been concentrated on the bottom rounds of the
agricultural ladder. During the past two decades, two fac-
tors have greatly affected the employment status of Negro
farm tenants. On the one hand, the Negroes' occupational
status, as tenant farmers, suffered under the agricultural
Adjustment Program (AAA) during the depression of the thir-
ties.5h It follows that under this program payments for
reducing acreage were the apparent causation for landlords
to displace tenants. On large farms, enormous reductions
in acreage were made in order to comply with the AAA Law.
These farms were operated, for the most part, by Negro ten-
ants. The reduction in acreage, plus the unwillingness of

landlords to share government payments resulting from the AAA

 

58 Arnold Rose, 2p, cit., pp. 90-91.

199

Program, caused numerous tenants to be diSplaced out-right
or to be reduced to the status of hired hands. In effect,
tenants were displaced in proportion to acreage reduction,
and many of the tenants who were retained to work the allot-
ted acreage were hired as farm hands in order to avoid
sharing government payments with the tenants. On the other
hand, within the foregone decade, the increased use of farm
machinery made it possible for more and more farm operators
to be displaced as each new farm machine was perfected. In
addition, other profound changes have taken place in which
capital has been substituted for labor on the farm. Examples
of this were found in the addition and/or substitution of
livestock on farms, the use of more fertilizer, and the use
of improved varieties and hybrid seeds.55 The implications
have been that before these new developments in farming were
perfected, a large number of Negroes was employed in the pro-
ductive phases of agriculture. However, at present, under
the impact of scientific and technological changes in agri-
culture, diaplacements in farming are taking place rather
rapidly among Negro tenants, because machinery is used to
perform a portion of the farm work which was, at one time,

performed by Negroes.

 

55 Harry Case, "Opportunities and Requirements for Pro-
fessional Service to Southern Agriculture." Notes from an
Address, Tuskegee Institute, Alabama, January 2, 1952.

200

Unlike most farm tenants, farm owners usually plan
their system of farming; thus, they have the opportunity
to engage in any type of productive agriculture which they
choose. This appeared to have been a propitious situation
because owners were not as vulnerable as tenants to many of
the factors of displacement. Furthermore, they had the
opportunity to reorganize their farming operations in order
to meet changing demands, such as, acreage reduction, changes

in the system of farming, and mechanization.

Summary

Farming. The agricultural productive occupations, in
each of the selected states, provided more employment situa-
tions for Negroes than any of the other occupations included
in the present study. It was noted that the heaviest con-
centration of employment in this area was centered in farm
hands, 247; farm machine operators, 233; general farmers,
202; and livestock farmers, 182. In addition, there were
eleven other occupations listed in this category which pro-
vided employment situations, ranging in number from thirty-
seven to 133.

Percentage-wise, gainfully employed Negroes in agri-
culture among the selected states--Alabama, Arkansas, Missis-
sippi, and Tennessee--were 29.6, 54-8, 53.5, and 19.8 percent

respectively.

201

521F399 occupations. A general pattern prevailed
throughout the selected area in regards to Negroes se-
curing emplovment in the related occupations. For the
most part, the job situation for Negroes was restricted
to agricultural education-~teacner of vocational agricul-
ture, county agents, teachers of veterans' classes, teacher
of general agriculture, and teacher of college agriculture
among Negroes.

Occupational opportunities for Negroes under the title
"Agricultural Publicity, Agricultural Research, Agricultural
Job United States Government, Other Professional Occupations,
and Kanufacturina and Selling Products to Farmers" were
limited to a spread extending form zero, in the case of
Agricultural Jobs United States Government to thirty-one
employment situations as producers of purebred livestock

for sale under the heading: Manufacturing and Selling Pro-

ducts to Farmers.

Regignal igb'gpportunitiest The majority of the oc-

 

cupational ooportunities for Negroes were localized in areas
where this group resided. In Alabama, Economic Area Six had
more farm operators and full owners than any other area of
the state. Thus, it was a potential area of more job op-
portunities than other areas in the state. In Arkansas,

Area 8a and Jefferson County in Area 8b, are potential

areas of occupational opportunities in agriculture because

202

they have approximately 18,860 non-white operators, of
which 2,278 are full owners. The highest concentration of
Negro farm operators in Mississippi was located in Area One.
On the other hand, the highest concentration of full owners
was located in Areas Two, Three and 6a. In Tennessee, Areas
One, Four, and Five, in which the major portion of Negro
farm Operators and full owners resides, are potential areas
of job opportunities in agriculture.

Regional opportunities in related occupations, such
as, teacher of vocational agriculture, teacher of veterans'
classes, teacher of general agriculture, teacher of college
agriculture, and county agent were restricted to the areas

in which Negro farm operators resided.

New jpb Opportunities. The most prevalent new job
Opportunity reported was teacher of veterans' classes. Ap-
proximately 193 job situations were Observed in this cate-
gory. On the other hand, only 170 job situations were ob-
served in the remaining five new occupations considered;
sprayer, barns and orchards; welder, farm implements; can-
ning plant manager, processing plant manager, and.freezer

locker manager.

Similarities and differences ig_occupational opportuni-

ties in the selected area. Uniformity existed among the

states in that the patterns of occupational Opportunities for

203

Negroes were similar in each state. To cite an example:
employment was possible at the "teaching level" so long as
it was restricted to the Negro pOpulation. Again, in the
occupation of farming, for the most part, Negroes worked as
hired hands, tractor Operators, and croppers.

A point Of difference between Mississippi and the other
states in the selected area arose as a numerical factor.
By comparison, Mississippi had more potential job Opportuni-
ties because it had more farm Operators and owners. Like-
wise, in agricultural education employment opportunities
varied from state to state partially because of pOpulation

differences.

 

Educational requirements 2E selected jpbs. JObs listed

 

under the titles "Agricultural Education, Agricultural Jobs
United States Government, and Other Professional OOOUpationS"
were thought to be difficult enough to demand the services

of college graduates in agriculture. However, there was no
general agreement concerning the educational needs for agri-
cultural productive occupations, agnicultural service occu-
pations in the categories of purchasing, manufacturing and
distributing farm products; and manufacturing and selling
farm products to farmers. Nevertheless, county agents and
teachers of vocational agriculture recommended short-course
training for individuals who were not interested in a college

degree, but were anticipating employment in these occupations.

2017

Agricultural and related fields in which few 23.33

Negroes were employed. A total of thirty—nine occupations

 

were reported by respondents in which few or no Negroes
were employed. There were no Negroes employed in eleven
of these occupations. Among the thirty-nine occupations,
six new job opportunities were reported. Negroes were em-
ployed in five of these occupations. The only new job op-
portunity in which no Negroes were employed was listed as

artificial inseminator.

CHAPTER VI

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This has been a study of occupational Opportunities
for Negroes in agricultural and related fields. It was
the dual purpose of this study to reveal occupations in
which Negroes were employed, and also, occupations in
which they were not employed. The need for the study was
embedded in the idea that a knowledge of occupational Op-
portunities in agricultural and related fields would help
provide a sense of direction for directors Of agricultural
educational programs, agricultural students, and displaced
agricultural workers. Consequently, a typical area com-
prised of Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, and Tennessee
was chosen from which data were secured. These data were
collected from 299 Negro teachers of vocational agriculture
and Negro county agents through the use of questionnaire
forms which were filled in during regional meetings at a
scheduled time. In addition, the United States census re-
ports were used in identifying changes and trends in popu-

lation, agriculture, and occupations.

206

Summary

Factors affecting occupational gpportunities lg agri-

 

cultural_§nd {elated fields. Similar patterns of changes
and trends existed in each selected state. The population,
in general, increased during the 1920-1950 period. The
highest percentage, 36.8, occurred in Tennessee, and the
lowest, 9.0, in Arkansas. There was a shift in population
away from the rural farm area. This shift reached a 29.9
percent peak in Arkansas during the same period. On the
other hand, the non-white population movement away from the
rural farm area reached a peak of hO.9 percent in Arkansas;
whereas, the minimum percentage, 22.3 occurred in Mississippi.
The shift away from the rural farm area was accelerated,
during the 19u0-1950 decade, in each of the four selected
states.

Jith this off-the-farm movement came a decrease in the
total number of farms, and an increase in the average size
of farms. Nevertheless, among non-white farmers the average
size farm in 1950 had increased only 2.2 percent above the
average size farm of nun-white farmers in 1920. Intaddition
to the fact that non-white Operators' farms remained about
constant in size, the number of farms owned by thisgroup was
fewer in number in 1950 than in 1920. Mississippi, with a
16.0 percent increase, was the only state in the group of

selected states that had more non-white owners in 1950 than

207

in 1920. The rural farm population decrease was reflected
in the general decrease which occurred among all farm
tenants. This decrease was particularly pronounced among
non-white tenants; it ranged from 31.7'percent in Missis-
sippi to 51.2 percent in Alabama.

Although farmers had decreased the number of acres
devoted to harvested crops, cotton was the leading cash crop
in all the selected states, except Tennessee where tobacco
ranked first. An increase occurred in each of the selected
states in the number of acres devoted to soybeans, vege-
tables harvested, and hay crops. In addition, the number
of cattle and calves, and broilers was increased; whereas,
the number of hogs and pigs showed a downward trend in each
state.

Farm mechanization increased rapidly during the lQhO-
1950 decade. The greatest increase occurred in the number
of tractors, followed by trucks, grain harvesters, pick-up
hay balers, and corn pickers. The percentage-wise increase
of tractor ownership in the selected states among non-white
farmers ranged from 622.1 in Mississippi to 865.8 in Alabama.

Among the major occupations, the highest percent Of
gainfully employed Negroes were engaged in agriculture, fol-
lowed in order by manufacturing and construction, personal
service, and trade, finance and insurance. From decade to

decade, during the 1930-1950 period, decreases occurred in

208

the number of Negroes engaged in agricultural work; whereas,
in the other major occupations, increases occurred, except

in mining.

Occupational opportunities for Negroes in agricultural

 

 

and related fields. Farming provided a larger number of

 

employment situations for Negroes in the selected area

than any other occupation. For the most part, this em-
ployment was obtained in the category of farm hands, general
farmers, livestock farmers, and tractor operators.

Among related occupations, a general pattern prevailed
in that the major portion of employment situations for Na-
groes was realized in agricultural education-—as county
agents and teachers of agriculture at the high school and
college levels among the Negro population.

Occupational Opportunities were localized in areas
Where the Negro population was concentrated. These areas
were identified as Economic Area Six in Alabama; Economic
Area Eight in Arkansas; Economic Areas One, Two, and Three
in Mississippi; and Economic Areas One, Four, and Five in
Tennessee.

There were six new occupations which afforded job op-
portunities for Negroes. They were teachers of veterans'
classes, sprayers of barns and orchards, welders of farm

machinery, managers of canning, processing and freezing
plants. The 299 responding teachers of vocational agri-

culture and county agents reported that they observed 193

209

employment situations in the category "teacher of veterans'
classes" as compared with 170 job situations in the reman-
ing five categories. There was no evidence revealed which
indicated that different patterns of employment Opportunities
prevailed from state to state. Negroes were employed on the

same types and kinds of jobs throughout the selected area.

 

 

Educational requirement§_g£ selected jobs. The 299
responding teachers of vocational agriculture and county
agents thought that occupations in agricultural education,
agricultural government work, and other professional agri-
cultural work were difficult enough to demand the services
of college graduates in agriculture. There was no general
agreement concerning the training requirements for the agri-
cultural productive occupations. Nevertheless, short-course
training was recommended for individuals who were antici-
pating employment in these occupations but were not inter-

ested in a college degree.

Agricultural and related fields in which few or no

 

 

 

Negroes were employed. Respondents reported thirty-nine

 

occupations in which few or no Negroes were employed.

There were no Negroes employed in eleven of these occupations.

210

Conclusions

Data presented in the foregoing chapters provided
basic information from which the following conclusions
were derived:

1. Although Negroes left farms in large numbers
during the 1930-1950 period, the proportion of gainfully
employed Negroes in agriculture exceeded that of any of
the other major occupations.

2. More Negroes were employed in the productive phases
of agriculture than in all the other agricultural and re-
lated fields combined.

3. The pattern of occupational opportunities for
Negroes did not vary from state to state. They were em-
ployed, for the most part, on the same kinds and types of
jobs throughout the selected area.

h. In general, few Negroes were employed in the re-
lated occupations. However, employment in this category
was procured quite extensively in agricultural education.
Negroes were not employed in some of the technical phases
of agriculture.

5. Occupations in agricultural education and other
professional phases of agriculture are difficult enough to
demand the services of college graduates in agriculture.
Jbb demands may be met in the productive phases and service

phases of agriculture through short-course training.

211

6. Farm ownership decreased among all farmers during
the depression years in the thirties. However, during the
prOSperous period, 19h0-19SO, farm ownership increased
among all farmers. The average size farm owned by white
farmers was increased in size; whereas, the average size
farm owned by non-white farmers remained about constant.
This seems to indicate that white farmers now own addi-
tional acres that were once owned by non-white farmers.

7. There has been a downward trend in the Negro rural
farm population for the last thirty years. In spite of this
fact, a large element Of this group has remained in agri-
culture. There appear to be potential employment situations
in agricultural and related fields for individuals who have
the ability and are willing to prepare to master these oc-
cupations. There also appearsto be a squeeze here; the
number of those who are entering farming is greatly re-
duced. Opportunities are being;absorbed by increased size

Of businesses Operated by white farmers.

Recommendations

The educational objectives stipulated in many of the

bulletins Of agricultural colleges for Negroes56 make it

Sb Objectives for divisions of agriculture in the
several land-grant colleges for Negroes were given special
consideration by consultants in conferences with college
Officials and staff members at each of these colleges, as
partial fulfillment of a study on the improvement of agri-

cultural education in Ne ro land-grant colleges. The stud
was conducted by R. M. S ewart during the three-year perio ,

 

212

imperative that school administrators, agricultural leaders,
and teachers know the direction in which programs of educa--
tion should be guided in order to fulfill educational re-
quirements in a dynamic society. It is proposed that valu-
able information which will help to indicate a sense of
direction for agricultural education can be obtained from a
study of the Negroes' farming situations and occupational
opportunities in agricultural and related fields.

The present study has been a step in this direction;
thus, the following recommendations are predicated upon the
revelations of this study:

1. Programs of agricultural education designed for
farmers should be made available to more farmers by agri-
cultural colleges, either through extending training cen-
ters into local communities, through special training pro-
grams for farmers at the agricultural college for Negroes,
or through the utilization of both methods of reaching far-
mers with training programs. Agricultural colleges should
be vitally interested in the problem of farmers, not only
from the standpoint of scientific and technological devel-
Opments, but also in the development of’abilities to under-
stand and make use of new discoveries, techniques, and
practices.

2. Negro farmers and agricultural students should be

awakened to the possibilities of creating job Opportunities

213

in agricultural and related fields among the ranks of Negro
farm operators. To give an example, tractors and other
pieces of farm machinery, such as, combines, hay balers,
and land preparations and planting equipment--owned by Ne-
groes-—appear to be sufficiently numerous to provide jobs
for repair men, fuel dealers, tire dealers, and salesmen.
It seems possible that this may be accomplished by securing
jobs with establishments already active, or through 000per-
atives which may call for the establishment of new concerns
in which Negroes will have the opportunity to work to their
full capacities and capabilities.

3. A training program which will provide additional
managerial, as well as technical, training is necessary
for individuals who have and are demonstrating their wil-
lingness to continue in the business of farming. This
should help them make farming a more profitable occupation.
Too, there is a need for more successfully operated farms
among Negroes to prove to the on-coming generation that
farming is a business which can be made to afford standards
of living comparable to those standards afforded by other
occupations.

h. More emphasis should be placed upon training
individuals for related occupations. Then, when they qualify
for employment, the institution should make efforts to help

them become placed in their chosen fields.

211;

5. There should be a relentless quest by officials
of the agricultural colleges for methods of improving edu—
cational programs in agriculture. This quest should in-
clude the local community, the state, and the nation.

6. Finally, the need for additional studies consti-
tutes a problem of focal significance to all who are in-V
terested in education. The present study suggests the
apparent need for further research in the following areas:

1) A study to determine the cash expenditures of
Negro farmers for the purpose of ascertaining whether their
purchasing power is strong enough to suppprt a proposed
demand for qualified Negroes to participate in related oc-
cupations.

2) A study is also needed which will help deter-
mine whether Negro farmers' purchasing power is centrally
located and strong enough within Specific areas to afford
opportunities for related occupations among Negroes.

3) Studies are needed which will reveal local job
Opportunities in agriculture for Negroes by communities,
counties, and states.

A) There is also a need for information on how
Negroes secure employment on certain jobs that are generally
closed tO them, and what the demand Of these jobs are.

5) In addition, it is important to know why Negroes

quit farming, where they go when they leave the farm, what

215

they do, and if they return. When these facts are known,
educational programs may be instituted which will help
solve occupational and social adjustment problems.

6) The present high cost Of becoming established
in farming on a profitable basis requires more financial
assistance than the average young man can secure. There-
fore, in order to assist individuals who have the desire,
ability, and training to become established in farming,
there should be private, state, and/or government agencies
which provide workable plans whereby these individuals may
become established to a degree comparable to economic
success.

Finally, Negro agricultural colleges should.become
better acquainted with what their graduates and former
students do after leaving college. Seemingly, this could
be accomplished, in part, through a scientific follow-up

study of graduates and former students.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

216

A. BOOKS

Boss, Andrew, and George Pond. Modern Farm Management.
Minnesota: The Weber Publishing Company, 1947. MQA pp.

 

 

 

Fulmer, John Leonard. Agricultural Progress 3g the Cotton
Belt Since l920. ChapEI Hill: The n versity of North
Caniina Press, 1950. 236 pp.

Rose, Arnold. The ro in America. New York: Harper and
Brothers, 35— PP.

B. PERIODICAL ARTICLES

Byram, Harold M. "Opportunities for the Farm-Reared Boy, "
Occupations, 17:11u-121, November, 1938.

 

Hudson, Joseph. "Occupational Distribution, " The A ricul-|
tural Education Magazine, 22: 236-237, AprII, ISEO

 

Robock, Stefan H. "The Negro in the Industrial Development
Of the South, " Phylon, 1h: 325, Third Quarter, 1953.

. "Rural Industries and Agricultural Devel-
Opment," Journal 22 Farm Economics, 3A: BRO-360, August,
1952.

 

 

C. PARTS OF SERIES

Agricultural Statistics for Arkansas, 1 1. Report Series
NO. 35: AgriculturalIExperiment tation. Arkansas:
University of Arkansas, 1952. -pp.

 

 

Shepardson, Chas. N. A Study Of the Agricultural Graduates
of the Agricultural and Mechanical College Of Texas.
‘_IftEISeries, Vol.7. Texas: Agricultural— an
Mechanical College of Texas, 1951. A2 pp.

 

 

217

D. BULLETINS

Alabama Agriculture, Its Resources and Their Use. The Agri-
cultural Experiment Station Bulletin. Auburn: Alabama
Polytechnic Institute, 1950. 26 pp.

Alabama Agricultural Statistics. Alabama Department Of —
AngEulture and Industries. Montgomery: l9u8. 91 pp.

Browdell, A. P. and T. A. Ewing. Use 2§_Tractor Power, and
Hand Methods in Crpp Production. Washington, D. C.:
Bureau Of AngEulturaIEconomIEs, l9u9.

 

 

Caliver, Ambrose. Vocational Education and Guidance for
Negroes. Bulletin NO. 38. Washington,_D. C.: Office
Of Education, 1937. 137 pp.

Peacock, N. D., B. J. McSpadden, and G. H. Wingo. 5 Study
33 Employment Opportunities for Agricultural Gra ua es
Of the University Of Tennessee. BulIEtIn, n. d.
Knoxville: UniverEIty OfITennessee. 29 pp.

 

 

Stewart, R. M. The Improvement pf Agricultural Education
in Ne rO Land-Grant COlIe es. A Progress Report on the
Spec a Project, Federa ecurity Agency. Washington,
D. C.: Government Printing Office, l9h8. 35 pp.

 

 

 

Summaries g£_Studies lg Agricultural Education. Vocational
Education Bulletins. Washington, D. C.: Government
Printing Office, 1935-1952.

 

 

The Alabama Farm Program. Alabama Extension Service. Cir-
cular NO. 337. Auburn: Alabama Polytechnic Institute,

l9u6. 132 pp.

The Farm Income Situation. Bureau of Agricultural Economics.
Washington, I» C.: Government Printing Office, l9h8.
132 pp.

U. S. Congress, Senate. Employment and Economic Status Of
Negroes la the United States. Staff Report to the Sub-
Committee on Labor and Public Welfare, U. S. Senate,
82nd Cong., 2nd Sess. Washington: Government Printing
Office, 1952. 20 pp.

 

 

 

218

E. PUBLIC DOCUMENT

United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census 9f
Agriculture, 1950. Washington, D. C.: Government
Printing Office, 1952.

 

 

United States Bureau of the Census, United States Census Of
Population, lggo. Washington, D. C.: Government PrInt-
Ing Office,

 

 

F. UNPUBLISHED MATERIAL

Case, Harry. "Opportunities and Requirements for Professional
Service to Southern Agriculture." Notes from an un-
published address delivered at Tuskegee Institute,
Alabama, 1952.

Drake, Joseph F. "Occupational Interests and Opportunities
as Determinants in the Construction of Curricula for a
Negro Land-Grant College in Alabama." Unpublished
Doctor's dissertation, Cornell University, Ithaca,

New York, 1938. 234 pp.

Gunn, Lawrence J. "A Survey Of Occupational Opportunities
in Agriculture and Related Fields in North Carolina."
Unpublished Master's thesis, University of North Caro-
lina, Raleigh, 1950. 150 pp.

Nylund, Felix A. "The Discovery and Analysis of the Occupa-
tional Opportunities in Farming and Related Service
Occupations for Former Students of Vocational Agricul-
ture." Unpublished Doctor's dissertation, Cornell
University, Ithaca, New York, l9h6. 235 pp.

Rhea, Mark B. "Present Status and Opinions Of Graduates
Granted Bachelor of Science Degrees Since 1932 in
Agricultural Curricula at,Iowa State College." Un-
published Doctor's dissertation, Iowa State College,
Ames, Iowa, 1953. 126 pp.

Wright, Carlton E. "Occupational Distribution, Entrance
into Farming and Opportunities for Farming, of Former
Students Of Vocational Agriculture." Unpublished
Doctor's dissertation, Cornell UniverSity, Ithaca,

New York, l9h3. 572 pp.

219

Wyeth, Irving R. "A Study of the Agriculture Graduate Of
Michigan State College." Unpublished Master's thesis,
Michigan State College, East Lansing, 1953. 173 pp.

APPENDICES

I.

II.

III.

V.

22C)

APPENDIX A

A SURVEY OF OCCUPATIONAL OPPORTUNITIES IN AGRICULTURAL:
AND RELATED FIELDS FOR NEGROES IN ALABAMA,
ARKANSAS, MISSISSIPPI, AND TENNESSEE

Date ___
Please make a check mark ( ) in column "A" under "Job Status"
opposite each occupational title listed that identifies a job
engaged in by one or more persons either white or Negro in the
county where you work. .Add such occupations as you feel should be
included on the list but have been omitted.

In column "B" under "Job Status“ make a check mark in the "Yes"
column Opposite each occupation listed in which Negroes are employ-
ed in this Occupation in the county in which you work. If Negroes
are not employed in the occupation make a check mark in the "NO"
column.

In column "C" under "Training Required" make a check mark in
the "Yes" column Opposite each occupation you think is suitable
for agricultural college graduates by virtue of the training
demanded by the job. Make a check mark in the "NO" column Opposite
each occupation that you think may be performed adequately by in-
dividuals who are not college graduates.

In column "D" under "Training Required" make a check mark in
the "Yes" column Opposite each occupation that you think requires
short course training in agriculture for job proficiency. Make a
check mark in the "NO" column Opposite each occupation that you
think does not require short-course training in agriculture for
job proficiency.

Under the heading "New Job Title" list the titles Of any new
jobs occurring since l9hh in the county where you work. For
example, under Agricultural Education, a new job title would be,
"Teacher, veterans' classes in agriculture." Check the new jobs
listed by the same procedure used in checking the other Occupation
listed on the form.

221

 

VS tate County

Location, Agri. Region

Job Status

L2:

Training Required

 

CO

C

D

 

 

 

Please read-«on page one--

items I, II, III, IV and V before
you start filling in this form

OCCUPATIONAL TITLES

PROFESSIONAL OCCUPAT IODB

on This Job in the County and/or

District in Which You Work?

the County and/or District in Which

You Work?

Is This Job Sufficiently Difficult
to Demand the Services of a College

Graduate in Agriculture?

.18 This Job Sufficiently Difficult

to Demand Short-Course Training, on

the Undergraduate Level, for Persons
not Interested in a College Degree?

'—

 

$ Are One or More Persons Employed

('3‘ Are Negroes Employed on This Job in

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I No s NO Yes No, Yes NO
Agri. Education X X X X X X X X
1. County Agri. Agent
2. County h—H Agent
3. Regional Supervisor Ext. Ser.
A. Spec. Agri. Ext. Ser.
5. State Supervisor Agri. Ed.
6. State Supervisor Ext. Ser.
7. Teacher, College Agri.
8. Teacher, General Agri.
9. Teacher Trainer in Agri.
10. Teacher, Vocational Agri.
New Job Opportunity
Since 19141:, X X X X X X X X
1.
2.
3.
h.
5.
6.

 

 

 

 

 

 

222

 

 

88

NO

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

NO

 

1.
2.

1.
2.
3.

h.
S.
6.

l.
2.
3.
h.
S.

Agri. Publicity

 

Editor, Agri.

 

Radio Program Dir. Agri.

 

Reporter, Agri.

 

 

 

New Job Opportunity
Since 19%

 

 

 

Agri. Research

 

Director, State Exp. Sta

 

 

Research Worker, Agri. Exp. 8
Research Worker, Agri. Colleg

 

 

Research Worker, U. S. Gov.

 

 

 

New Job Opportunity
Since 19M;

 

 

 

Agri. Jobs, U. 8.
Government

 

Grading and Classing Spec.

 

Inspector, Agri. Proc. Estab.

 

Inspector, Crops, Livestock,Pro

 

 

 

New Job Opportunity
Since 19M;

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

£223

 

 

 

A B C D
Yes NO Yes No Yes NO Yes NO
Other Prof. Agri.
Occupations X X X X X X X X
1. Agri. Bacteriologist
2. Agri. Chemist
3. Agri. Economist
h. Agri. Engineer
5. Agri. Statistician
6. Agronomist
7. Botanist
8. Forester
9. Floriculturist
lO. Horticulturist
ll. Pomologist
12. Veterinarian
l3.
1’4.
New Job Opportunity
Sincel9hh x x x x x x x x
l.
2.
Agri. Production
Occupations ‘X X X X X X X X
l. .Animal.Husbandry
2. Apiculturist
3. Crop Speciality'Earmer
h. Dairy Farmer
S. Farm.Hand
6. Farm Machine Operator
7. Farm.Manager
8. Fruit or Vegetable Packer
9. General Farmer
10. Livestock Farmer
11. Nursery Laborer
12. Nurseryman
13. Poultry Farmer
1h. Poultry Husbandman
15. Tree Surgeon
16. Truck Farmer
17.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

221;

 

 

65

No

Yes

No

Yes

NO

Yes

No

 

New Job Opportunity
Since 1914).;

 

 

 

Agri . S ervice
Occupations

 

Custom Combining Worker

 

Custom Feed Grinding Worker

 

Custom Hay Baler

 

Custom Peanut Picker

 

Farm Mechanic

 

Lands cape Caretaker

 

Milk Tester, DHIA

 

Sprayer, OrchardsiBarns , etc .

 

Welder, (Travel from farm to farm)

 

 

 

New Job Opportunity
Since 19M;

 

 

 

Purchasing, Manufacturing
and Distributing Farm
o Products

 

Livestock and Livestock
Product Buyer

 

. Manager, CanningT’lant

 

Manager, Freezer Locker

 

Manager, Processing Plant
Poultry and Dairy '

 

Staple Crop Buyer, Cotton,
Corn, etc.

 

Vegetable and Fruit Buyer

 

 

 

New Job Opportunity
Since 19m:

LA
7‘

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

225

 

 

 

A B C D
es NO Yes NO Yes No Yes NO
Manufacturing and
Selling Products [X X X X X X X X
to Farmers
1. Commercial Feed Dealer
2. Farm Machinery Dealer
3. Farm Machinery Salesman
h. Fertilizer Dealer
5. Hatchery Operator
6. Nursery Stock Salesman
7. Pure Bred Livestock Grower,
Foundation Stock
8. Seed Grower
9. Seed Salesman
10. u
11.
New Job Opportunity
Since 19141; X X X X X X X X
l.
2.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

226

MarCh 29, 1951

Mr. . _ .' , Director
Negro Extension Wbrk

 

v— r“---_.-— v ‘1

Dear Mr.__wflwn___m‘-:

There is a growing need for additional information per-
taining to existing and potential occupational Opportunities
in agriculture for Negro students. This information is needed
to facilitate the projection of agricultural education curricula
in Negro land-grant colleges. It seems reasonable to believe
that some of the needed information may be revealed through a
thorough study Of the existing and potential occupational
Opportunities in agriculture for Negroes.

To this end, I have chosen as a problem."A Study of the
Occupational Opportunities in Agriculture and Their Implica-
tions for.Agricultural Education of Negro Students." Much Of
the data for this study are to be collected from individuals
working in positions and localities where the data are avail-
able.

The Negro county agents of Alabama are in position to
reveal valuable information concerning occupational Opportuni-
ties in agriculture for Negro college graduates and former
students of agriculture. I should like to secure your endorse—
ment of this study, and the cooperation of all the Negro county
agents in.A1abama in filling in a short information blank--
designed for the purpose of revealing the agricultural occupa-
tions common in their areas, but, in which Negroes do not
participate, and, also, the new occupational Opportunities in
which agricultural graduates and former college students may
find employment.

A copy of the information form to be presented, with
your endorsement, to each county agent in the State is enclosed.

Sincerely'yours,

R. D. Morrison

Enclosure: one

2327

March 29, 1951

Mr. , Director
Vocational Education

’

.l.--‘ "r— m...— ‘n-s-. “-4 - —* "-O- - .- -~ ‘fiu'fl -

Dear Mr.__ :

O - ..--- .——.-_—_

I am of the Opinion that a valuable service may be ren-
dered to the Negro land-grant colleges and thus to society by
revealing pertinent data pertaining to occupational Opportuni-
ties in agriculture for Negroes.

Looking forward toward being able to reveal some of this
data bearing upon occupational Opportunities in agriculture for
Negroes, I am undertaking a study Of the occupational Opportuni-
ties in agriculture and related fields for Negroes.

In order to ascertain some Of the data needed for this
study it will be necessary for me to secure the cooperation of
all the Negro teachers Of vocational agriculture in

-- .. -~--J

data pertaining to the agricultural occupations in each county
“where they work.

I should like to secure your endorsement Of this study.
.A copy of the information form which I should like to request
each teacher of vocational agriculture in the State to fill in
is enclosed.

Respectfully yours,

R. D. Morrison

Enclosure: one

228

APPENDIX B

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

   
       
       
   

 

 

  

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