6P, ' ' «'. Aim". X‘__ ._.‘,; fr. __ LIBRAR Y Michigan State University THEE‘S This is to certify that the thesis entitled ”LabOrrRequirements and Supply for Cotton-Picking with a Special Reference to Tenant Family Labor in New Haifa Ag. Corporation - Sudan" presented by -. ‘ Abdelrazig Elbashir Muhammed has been accepted towards fulfillment _ of the requirements for Ph. D. Ag. Economics degree in Date November 2, 1979 0-7639 OVERDUE FINES: 25¢ per day per item RETURNIMS LIBRARY MATERIALS: Place in book return to move charge from circulation records Labor Requirements and Supply for Cotton Picking with Special Reference to Tenant Family Labor in New Halfa Agricultural Corporation - Sudan Abdelrazig Elbashir Muhammad A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Agricultural Economics 1979 ABSTRACT Contributing an average of 48% of the country's annual foreign exchange earnings and using 21% of the total irrigated land, cotton plays a major role in the Sudanese economy. Due to the expansion in cotton area which has been taking place during the last three decades, and the planned expansion in area and increase in yield during the 1977/78-1982/83 Plan for Social and Economic Development, the question of Labor Supply for cotton picking, which is estimated to require 14% of the country's labor force for a period of 2—3 months, assumes a special importance. This is particularly so in the face of a rapid rural-urban migration as well as immigration of labor of all calibers to the neighboring Arab oil countries at an increasing rate. This study was intended to ‘1) estimate the contribution of the tenant household in cotton picking and the labor supply functions for household labor in cotton picking in New Halfa Agricultural Corporation; (2) estimate labor requirements for cotton picking; (3) estimate the contribution of hired labor to cotton picking and their cost to the tenant; (4) draw conclusions and implications for policy and future research. The data were collected by means of a survey from a multi-stage random sample of 132 tenant households in New Halfa Agricultural Corporation for 1977/78 season. 84 of the households interviewed were from.the Nomadic tribes and 48 from.the Halfawi tribe. This study showed that a typical Halfawi tenant household had 13 man-equivalent days available for cotton picking of which only half were actually utilized. The corresponding average figure for a typical household from.the Nomadic tribes was 40 man-equivalent days of which 84% was utilized. Picking was performed only by men in the Halfawi sample. In the Nomadic households sample, however, cotton picking was undertaken by men, women and children. Regression analysis was made to estimate labor supply functions for household members. The objective was to identify those variables which influenced the labor supply behavior of tenant household members in cotton picking and to predict the likely impact of certain policies on the tenant household labor supply. For comparison, Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and Seemingly Unrelated Regressions (SUR) were used in estimating the household labor supply functions. - The results of the regression analysis showed that the labor supply of Halfawi tenant household men was posi- tively associated with income from cotton, and income from groundnuts, and negatively associated with average age. For the Nomadic households, labor supply of men for cotton picking increases with increase in implicit wage rate, income from.cotton and the average number of men per household, and decreases with an increase in income from groundnuts, income from.wheat, and number of children aged 6-9 years. The labor supply of Nomadic household women Was found to be positively associated with number of children aged 6-9 years, and 10-14 years, and average number of women per household. It was found to be negatively associated with family size, household income from ground- nuts and average age of household women. The labor supply of Nomadic household children (10-14 years) was found to be positively associated with implicit wage, household income from cotton, average number of years of schooling per child and number of children 10-14 years of age. It was found to be negatively associated with average child age (10-14 years). Labor supply elasticities were estimated with respect to certain important policy variables. The labor supply elasticities with respect to net income from cotton were relatively higher compared with elasticities for wage rate, income from wheat and income from groundnuts. The labor supply elasticity with respect to income from cotton was highest for Halfawi men (around .9). This study indicated that the labor requirements for cotton picking per feddan was not fixed. It varied with level of yields. Matching labor requirements for cotton picking all over the country with potential labor supply revealed that labor shortfalls in the cotton production areas may be overcome if the necessary measures were made to mobilize laborers from those areas characterized by seasonal under-employment during the cotton picking season. This study underscored the key role played by hired labor in cotton picking vis-a-vis family labor, especially among the Halfawis. To meet the increase in the demand for labor for cotton picking in the future, appropriate policies should be adopted to mobilize hired labor, inclu- ding providing information on availability of employment opportunities, subsidizing the transportation of migrant laborers between their villages and the cotton producing schemes and raising real wages. However, this study does not underestimate the role of family labor which is impor- tant especially in recruiting labor and managing the process of cotton picking. As an effective way to increase family labor participation in cotton picking, appropriate measures should be made to ensure increasing tenant household income from cotton. Future studies should deal with the total labor supply of the tenant household (including on- and off-farm labor allocations) all year round. Such an approach will improve our understanding of the decision-making process whereby the tenant household allocates its labor resources among different activities. Another area where research is needed pertains to.the determinants of labor supply of migrant hired labor. The determination of labor requirements of different crops and livestock in all major producing areas as well as the types and labor requirements of secondary occupations should also be pursued. Dedication Dedicated with gratitude and appreciation to my late father, my mother, my wife and our son, Muhammed. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I am indebted to Professor Garland WOod, my major professor and my thesis supervisor, for much assistance and encouragement. His critical comments and insights were very helpful in shaping up this dissertation. I am also indebted to Professors George Dike, Derek Byerlee and Warren Vincent who, successively, acted as my major professors earlier in my program" Their advice, assis- tance and encouragement were invaluable. I also greatly appreciate the help given to me throughout my program by members of my Guidance Committee: Professors Carl Liedholm, Allen A. Schmid, Allan Shapley and George E. Rossmiller. I am indebted to Professor Daniel Hammer- mesh whose expertise was very useful in the specification and analysis of the labor supply model. I also wish to express my thanks to the Department of Agricultural Economics, Michigan State University for providing tuition fees and a healthy academic environment; Professor Carl Eicher for his advice and help especially in the admission to this department; the African American Institute for Financial Support; the Government of the Sudan for granting me leave of absence and for continuing to pay my salary; the Office of the Cultural Counsellor, Embassy of the Democratic Republic of the Sudan, Washington, ii iii D.C. for their cooperation; members of the Muslim.Students' Association at Michigan State University for providing an atmosphere of brotherhood; Dr. Ahmed Abdalla Osman for his support and encouragement; my friend and colleague El Sayed A. A. Zaki for his insights and the very fruitful exchange of views we have had all along; Ahmed Warrag and El Fatih Ali Khalil for assistance in data collection; Officials of the Public Agricultural Corporation, especially Sayed/Abdalla Bayoumi and Sayed/Mohammed Kubbar, for their assistance; The Ministry of Planning, especially Dr. El Fateh El Tigani and Dr. Abdul Sattar, for providing trans- port; George Sionakides and Paul WOlburg, for helping in computer programming at Michigan State University; Patricia Neumann for ably typing the draft manuscript; Merrilyn Wenner for skillfully and patiently typing and assembling the final manuscript. The completion of this study would have been impossible without the encouragement, support and patience of my wife. Therefore my special thanks goes to my wife, Zainab, and our son, Muhammed. Above all, my special praise and thanks be to Allah "God", Cherisher and Sustainer of the WOrlds, Most Gracious, Mbst Merciful for his innumerable bounties. Chapter I. II. III. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . 1. Importance of Agriculture to the Sudanese Economy . 2. The Significance of Cotton in. the Sudanese Economy: Prospects and Problems . . . 3. Emphasis on Cotton Picking Labor Problems . . . . 4. Problem Definition . . 5. The New Halfa Agricultural Project (a) A Historical Background . (b) Size of Project and Crops Grown . . . . . . . (c) Tenants . . . (d) Tenancy Size . . (e) Rotation, Crop Intensity and. Competition Among Crops (f) Management-Tenants Relation- ship. . (g) The Distribution of Costs and Benefits Between the Tenants and the Corporation . 6. Objectives of the Study. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY . Analytical Procedure Sources of Data. The Population . Sampling Design. . . The Size of the Sample . . Interviewers and Method of Interviewing. SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING TENANT HOUSEHOLD LABOR FORCE POTENTIAL AND UTILIZATION IN COTTON PICKING IN NEW HALFA CORPORATION. Socio- Economic Characteristics of House- hold Heads . . . Definition of Household .Head . Age Distribution and Sex Composition of Household Heads . . . Marital Status and Relationship of Household Heads to Other Household Mbmbers. . . . . iv 34 34 34 35 35 V DistributiOn of Household Heads by Educational Attainment. .“. . Socio- Economic Characteristics of Households. . Age, Sex Distribution of Sample of Households. . . Demographic Characteristics of the Samples Participation Rates by Age, Sex and Tribal Group. . . Distribution of the Labor Force by Occupation. . . . Participation of Household Members .in Cotton Picking. . Common Denominator for Converting Labor Units . . . Comparison of Potential with Actual Family Labor Inputs IV. ESTIMATING LABOR SUPPLY FUNCTIONS OF TENANT HOUSEHOLD MEMBERS IN COTTON PICKING . . . . . . Introduction. I. Review of Literature on Labor Supply Expected Market Earnings Rate Total Household Income. . Education . . . . Age . . Children . . The Number of Potential Earners in the Household. . . Family Resources Hypothesis. II. Analytical Procedures (1) Linear Ordinary Least Squares (OLS). . . . (2) Tobit Maximum Likelihood Method . . (3) Seemingly Unrelated Re- gression (SUR) . . III. The Model Adopted for Analysis of Household Labor Supply. . . . Characteristics of the Model. . Specification of a Labor Supply Model in the Form of a Regression Equation. . . . . Application of the .Model: Sta- tistical Results. Means and Standard Deviations of. Variables Significance Levels . . Estimating Labor Supply Functions for Household Men . . . 38 41 41 43 45 49 53 55 57 75 80 80 82 83 vi Estimating Labor Supply Functions of Household WOmen . . . 88 Estimating Labor Supply Functions of Household Children. . . . 94 Estimating Elasticities of Labor Supply for Cotton Picking with Respect to Implicit Wage Rates, Household Returns from Cotton, Groundnuts and Wheat . . . . . . 97 IV. Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . 102 V. THE ROLE OF HIRED LABOR IN COTTON PICKING. 107 Introduction . . . . . . . . . 107 Categories of Hired Labor. . . 107 Contribution of Hired Labor in Cotton Picking. . . 108 Estimation of Hired Labor Requirements for Cotton Picking in New Halfa Corporation. . . 110 The Procedure Used by the Corporation. . 114 An Alternative Approach for Predic- ting Labor Requirements. . . . . . . 117 Cost of Picking by Hired Labor . . . . . 120 Cotton Picking Campaigns . . . 122 Tenants Attitudes Towards Hired Labor. . 127 VI. LABOR REQUIREMENTS AND POTENTIAL LABOR SUPPLY FOR COTTON PICKING AND HARVESTING OF MAJOR COMPETING CROPS . . . . . 131 Introduction . . . 131 Labor Requirements for Cotton Picking in Major Schemes . . . . . . 133 Labor Requirements for Harvesting Sorghum. . . 138 Labor Requirements for Harvesting Wheat and Groundnuts Produced Under Irri- gation . . . . 140 Estimates of Potential Labor Supply for Picking Cotton and Harvesting of Major Competing Crops . . . . . . . 142 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . 147 VII. SUMMARY, POLICY IMPLICATIONS AND SUGGES- TIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH . . . . . . 150 Summary . . . 150 Policy Implications Specific to New Halfa Agricultural Corporation . . . . 160 Overall Policy Recommendations . . . . . 165 Suggestions for Further Research . . . . 166 vii APPENDICES IA IIA IIB IIC III IVA IVB IVC Major Agricultural Products in the Sudan . Classification of Halfawi Villages for Multi-Stage Sampling. . . . . Classification of Nomadic Villages for Multi-Stage Sampling . Villages Selected at Random (to repre- sent their respective strata) and the Number of Households Interviewed in Each Village . The 1977/78 New Halfa Agricultural Corporation Tenant Sample Survey on Labor Requirements and Supply for Cotton Picking . . . . Estimates of Average Cost of Production of Medium.Staple Cotton (Acala 4/42) Per Feddan Holding at an Average Yield of 5 Big Kantar Per Feddan . Estimates of Average Cost of Production of Wheat Per 5 Feddans at an Average Yield of .8 Ton Per Feddan . Estimates of Average Cost of Production of Groundnuts per 5 Feddans at an Average Yield of 1.5 Tons Per Feddan . BIBLIOGRAPHY. 169 . 170 . 171 . 172 .' 173 . 185 . 186 . 187 . 188 10. 11. 12. 13. LIST OF TABLES Land Utilization in the Sudan, 1975. Quantitative Targets for Cotton Production: 1977/78 - 1982/83 . . . . . . . Planned and Actual Area Under Crop in Feddans in New Halfa Agricultural Corporation in 1977/78 Season. . . . . . Planting and Harvesting Dates for Crops in New Halfa Corporation . . . . . . Distribution of Household Heads by Ethnic Group, Age and Sex. . . . . . Distribution of Households Heads in Halfawi and Nomadic Sub-Samples According to Marital Status. . . . . Distribution of Family Members in the Halfawi and Nomadic Sub-Samples According to Relationship to Household Head. Distribution of Household Heads in the Halfawi and Nomadic Sub-Samples by Formal Educational Attainment. . . . . Distribution of Households in the Halfawi and Nomadic Sub-Samples by Age and Sex. -Demographic Characteristics of the Households in the Nomadic Sub-Samples. Participation Rates in the Halfawi and Nomadic Sub- -Samp1es by Age and Sex (Per- centage). . . . Occupational Distribution of the Labor Force in the Halfawi and Nomadic Samples by Sex . Labor Input (in Hours) of, and Quantity Picked (in Big Kantars per Feddan) by Men, WOmen and Children in Cotton Picking per Household for Halfawi and Nomadic Sub-Samples viii . 13 . 17 . 36 . 37 . 39 . 40 . 42 . 44 . 47 50 . 54 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. ix Conversion of Labor Inputs by Men, WOmen and Children in Cotton Picking into a Common Denominator: Man-Equivalents . . Number of Household Members (Men, women and Children) Who Reported Agriculture As Main or Subsidiary Occupation in the Halfawi and Nomadic Sub-Samples . . . . Potential and Actual Family Labor Input in Hours in Cotton Picking per Household for Halfawi and Nomadic Sub-Samples Means and Standard Deviations of Variables. Results of Ordinary Least Square (OLS) Estimation of Labor Supply Functions of Household Men . . . . . . . . Results of Ordinary Least Square (OLS) and Seemingly Unrelated Regression (SUR) Estimation of Labor Supply Functions of Men Correlation Coefficients of a Labor Supply Equation for Nomadic Men. . . Results of Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and Seemingly Unrelated Regression (SUR) Esti- mation of Labor Supply Functions of House- hold Women. . . . . . Correlation Coefficients of a Labor Supply Equation for Nomadic women. . . . Results of Ordinary Least Squares and Seemingly Unrelated Regressions Estimation of Labor Supply Functions of Household Children . . . . . . Correlation Coefficients of the Labor Supply Equation for Nomadic Children . . Labor Supply Elasticities For Cotton Picking With Respect to Implicit Wage Rate, House- hold Returns from Cotton, Groundnuts and Wheat by Sex and Tribal Group 58 58 60 81 85 89 90 93 95 98 99 Contribution of Hired Labor in Cotton Picking 111 27. 28. 29. 3o. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. Contribution of Family and Hired Labor to Cotton Picking (measured in Man-equivalent Hours per Tenant Household) . . . Sources of Recruitment of Hired Labor for Cotton Picking for Halfawis and Nomads. Estimates of Labor Requirement for Cotton Picking in Man- -Equiva1ent Days at Different Yield Levels . Cost of Picking by Hired Labor per Household as Reported by Tenants (in BSD. ). . . Variation of Cost of Picking per Feddan with Quantity Picked per Feddan. . . Hired Labor Used by Households in Activities Competing with Cotton Picking (in Man-equi- valent Days per Tenant Household) . . Tenants' Opinions on Availability of Labor for Cotton Picking. Tenant Preferences Towards Hired Labor. Estimates of Cotton Area, Production, Yield per Feddan and Labor Requirements for Cotton Picking in the Blue Nile Province by Scheme and Type of Cotton. Estimates of Cotton Area, Production, Yield per Feddan and Labor Requirements for Cotton Picking in Kassala and Kordofan Provinces by Scheme and Type of Cotton 1977/78 . . . . . . . . . . . ‘Estimates of Sorghum Area, and Labor Require- ments for Harvesting Under Irrigation and Mechanized Dry Farming During January- March Period in 1977/78 Season. Estimates of Wheat and Irrigated Groundnuts Areas, Production and Labor Requirements for Harvesting During January- -March by Province. . Economically Active Population in Agricul- ture and Animal Husbandry in 1977/78 by Sex and Province. . . . 113 . 116 119 . 121 . 123 . 126 . 128 . 130 . 136 . 137 . 139 . 141 . 144 xi 40. Potential Labor Supply and Requirements for Cotton Picking and Harvesting of Sorghum, Groundnuts and Wheat by Province. . . . . . 146 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION 1. Im:ortance of Agriculture to tne Sudanese Economy The total area of Sudan is 2.5 million square kil- ometers (596,621,000 feddansl). About one third of this area is desert or semi-desert. The remainder is suitable with varying capacities for crop produc- tion, livestock grazing, and forestry. Table I shows land utilization in the Sudan as of 1975. It could be seen from this Table that agricultural area com- prises about 33.5% (200 million feddans). Pastures and forests occupy 46% of total land area. The rest consists of uncultivable land. Of the total 200 million feddans of potentially cultivable agricultural area, only 18.7 million feddans (3.3% of total area, i.e. 9.3% of cultivable land) are actually cultivated. The amount of land so far exploited is relatively small, mainly because intensive and continuous culti- vation of much of the land area is hampered at present by limited water supplies, poor communications, inaccessibility 1A feddan is equivalent to 1.038 acres. TABLE 1 Land Utilization in the Sudan, 1975 (A) Classification of Total Area Total Area 596,621 (1) Land Area 565,714 (2) Land Under Water 30,907 (B) Classification of Land Area (1) Agricultural Area ‘ 200,000 Cultivated Area 18,685 ' Uncultivable Area 181,315 (2) Pasture Land I 57,143 (3) Forests ' ' 217,857 (4) Other Uncultivable ' 90,714 i Source: The Statistics Division, Department of Agricultural Economics, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, Democratic Republic of the Sudan, Sudan Yearbook of Statistics, 1977. to markets, a relatively sparse population of 15 million (13),and lack of capital. The cultivated area (18,685,000 feddans) can be sub- divided further into cropped area which amounts to 89% of agricultural area, and fallow area comprising the remaining 11%. 0f the total cropped area, 3,725,000 (22%) is irrigated artificially while the remaining 12,960,000 (78%) is rain-fed. However, irrigated agriculture plays a much more important role than is suggested by relative area. Mest of the crops which earn or save foreign exchange are grown in the irriga- ted subsector. For instance, 100% of both wheat and sugar cane, 94% of cotton, and 51% of groundnuts are produced under irrigation (40). Overall, agriculture is the mainstay of the Sudanese economy, contributing 49% of G.D.P. at factor cost in 1974/75 (12),employing more than 80% of the labor force (20),and providing more than 95% of the country's foreign exchange earnings. 2. The Significance of Cotton in the Sudanese Economy: *Prospects and Problems Contributing an average of 48% of the country's annual foreign exchange earnings, and using 992,890 feddans (which is 21% of the total irrigated land), cotton plays a major role in the Sudanese economy. Cotton also provides revenue for the two partners: the government and the tenants. It also provides seasonal employment and income for agricultural laborers, and raw materials for the growing textile industry. The 1977/78-1982/83 Plan for Social and Economic Development of the Sudan has projected the expansion in cotton production shown in Table 2. According to this plan the annual increase in cotton production projected over the plan period is 2.5 percent, 18.9 percent and 24.3 percent for long, medium and short staple cotton, respectively. The overall annual increase in all types of cotton is 7.5 percent. Most of the increase will occur in the medium and short maturing varieties. However, serious problems are now facing plans to increase cotton production, especially in irrigated cotton schemes where long and medium staple varieties are grown, undermining cotton's crucial role in the economy. These problems may be summarized as follows: ‘ (1) Water shortage problems resulting fromwone or more of the following: (a) reduction in storage capacity of reservoirs behind dams,(a problem particularly impor- tant in Khashm Elgirba Damz); (b) silting up of water canals and blockage by weeds; (c) defective farm and canal layouts and; (d) inefficient application of irri- gation water by tenants. 2KashmEl Girba Dam stores water for New Halfa Agricultural Corporation, the project where this study was conducted. mCOu fifimmSOSH CH GOHUUSUOHQ snowmw Hon mamuwoafix aw macaw msmvomm wcwmnonu CH mou< NM H NmM .mH .a .A_mnma_ mmmum wcwucwum chemo: mafia "abouumsxv .Aoanmu< adv mw\~m¢H amonm on» mo undemoao>ma owSoaoom new Hmwoom How swam Hmmwuxwm .amwnm mnu mo Uganamom afiumuooaon can .wcaacmam mo zuumwcwz "mousom on com omm ma «NH mma 0H cad couuoo magnum uuonm 5mm mew 0mm moa com cam Noa mmq acuuou 393m 5382 mmn man can mwe mmo con mmm nae couuou magnum wcoq soauozn tang» mou< cowuoso mama» wmu< cowuosv mama» m Iowa. N nonm noun N mumemH m>wumuwuamao mm\~mmH know mmmm nm\cnma Aamnuodv mm\¢maa coauoo mo mmza mm\NmmHumw\nm¢H N mAmaumuwuamno (2) Aggravating cotton pests and disease situation. (3) Energy related problems manifested by shortage of fuels and relatively high and increasing prices of fertilizer and insecticides. (4) Heavy infestation by obnoxious weeds. (35). (5) A possible labor shortage problem as indicated by: (a) Expanding area and increase in productivity per feddan of cotton. The 1977/78-1982/83 Plan of Social and Economic Development envisages a 22% increase in the area under cotton and 43% increase in cotton pro- duction. (b) A rapidly increasing urban population com: pared to a relatively slow growing rural population. According to the tentative findings of a 1973 census conducted by the Department of Statistics, the urban sector is growing at an annual rate of 7.5 percent compared to 1.5 percent for the rural sector and 2.2 percent for the whole population (13). Since the labor force (tenants and their families plus hired labor) involved in cotton picking belong to rural areas mainly from central'and western Sudan, and to the extent that cotton picking will continue to be made by hand, shortage of labor for cotton picking is a possibility. (c) Emigration to the neighboring oil-rich countries is increasing due to the wide and ever increasing income disparities between the Sudan and these countries. Emigrants are not only professionals and skilled, but also increasing numbers of unskilled rural laborers are involved. (d) Taking these factors into consideration, the Rahad Agricultural Corporation has already considered introducing mechanical picking as an alternative on a trial basis in the 1978/79 season. A technical committee has been formed the major objective of which is to evalu- ate studies on mechanical cotton picking worldwide and recommend the best machinery which will suit Sudanese conditions (9). 3. Emphasis on Cotton Picking Labor Problems Without underestimating the importance of the other issues affecting cotton production, and due to the limited time and resources, this study will only concen- trate on the labor aspects of cotton picking. The issue of cotton picking labor assumes increasing impor- tance at this time when suggestions for introducing capital-intensive cotton pickers are already under consideration. Before committing the country's limited resources (foreign exchange and skilled labor) to any degree of mechanization of cotton picking, there is a need to explore the availability and better ways of utilizing existing labor potentials. The emphasis in this study will be from.the tenant household perspective: labor availability and utilization, the role of men, women, and children in cotton picking, the role of family versus hired labor and the possibilities of increasing family labor input in cotton picking as an alternative to make up for the possible decline in seasonal labor. 4. Problem Definition The single most labor demanding cotton operation is picking. It has been estimated that 57% of the total cotton labor requirements are allocated to cotton picking (1). 0n the assumption of one picker per feddan (a rule of thumb followed by cotton scheme managers in the Sudan), cotton picking requires around one million pickers at the national level - namely farmers and seasonal agricul- tural laborers. This means that about 14 percent of the country's labor force is demanded at a critically short 3 The time factor is especially period of time of 2-3 months. more pressing for projects like New Halfa and Rahad Cor- porations which grow the middle staple cotton varieties with shorter picking seasons. Part of the cotton picking labor is supplied by tenants and their families. The major source of labor supply, however, is hired labor - mainly migrant laborers coming from other areas in the same province or from different 3This estimate is based on the broader definition of labor force which includes all persons producing goods and services for the market whether full time or part- time. On this basis the labor force is estimated at 7.32 million. (See ILO's Growth, Employment and Equity, Geneva, 1976 . provinces. An important segment of migrant labor are the nomadic tribes to whom cotton picking is a source of income and its debris provides grazing material for their livestock. Beside migrant hired labor, there are local hired landless laborers residing within these schemes who have originally migrated from other relatively more depressed regions. Although the labor requirements and supply for cotton picking are of crucial importance for the cotton produc- ' tion corporations and tenants alike, very limited empirical studies, if any, have been made in this regard to furnish information for policy makers. For instance, in New Halfa Corporation (to which this study is confined) no studies have been made so far to: (a) Estimate the labor requirements per feddan at different yield levels. (b) Estimate tenant household labor force available during the picking season, the relative contribution of men, women and children and the factors affecting the supply of these categories of labor. (c) Estimate the magnitude of the contribution of hired labor and the cost of picking by hired labor. Such information is crucial in order for policy makers to be able to: (i) predict the supply of and demand for picking labor in the face of government policy which aims at expanding the area under cotton and increasing yield per acre in 10 existing cotton area; (ii) predict the impact on New Halfa Agricultural Corporation of existing and future projects which might absorb some of the existing migrant hired labor; (iii) compare the cost of and the benefits from hand picking vis-a-vis mechanical picking which is con- sidered as an alternative at least in the long run. It is hoped that this study will provide insight into the nature and potential of the tenant household labor supply and its utilization and labor requirements for cotton picking. 5. The New Halfa Agricultural Project 4 (a) A Historical Background This study was conducted in New Halfa Agricultural Project, the largest project in Kassala Province and a major agricultural scheme in the Sudan, second in size only to the famous Gezira Scheme. The project was estab- lished between 1964 and 1969. Although the project idea was contemplated long before that, the final decision was prompted by the construction of Aswan High Dam in Egypt. The Aswan High Dam was a result of the 1959 Nile waters Agreement between Egypt and the Sudan which superceded the 1929 Nile Waters Agreement. The construc- tion of the Aswan High Dam meant that about 170 kilometers long of lands along the Nile inside the Sudan would be under water permanently. This includes Wadi Halfa area. 4See map in Appendix 1. 11 About 50,000 Halfawis had to be relocated elsewhere and Khashm El Girba area was chosen as the appropriate site for the resettlement. Other objectives which the project was designed to fulfill were: (1) Settlement of the Nomadic tribes who used to enjoy grazing and cultivation rights prior to the pro- ject. Through increasing the incomes and provision of improved social services, the project was expected to transform their social and economic conditions from those of pastoral communities to settled and more ad- vanced agricultural ones. (2) Increasing national income and foreign exchange earnings by growing cotton and groundnuts. (3) Promoting self-sufficiency in wheat and sugar cane. The latter is grown in a plantation separate from the New Halfa Agricultural Corporation. (4) Utilizing Atbara River water which, until 1964, was more or less wasted. (5) Proper utilization of the fertile project area which was part of the "Butana", a grazing land used by nomads for livestock grazing (23). (b) Size of Project and Crops Grown The total area which is supposed to be cultivated by the New Halfa Agricultural Corporation annually is 330,000 feddans equally divided between medium staple cotton (Accala 4/42), groundnuts and wheat. In addition, 25,000 12 feddans are designated as freehold land to Halfawi people as a compensation for their agricultural lands submerged by the Aswan High Dam.water (35). In practice, however, not all potential area is utilized. For any one season the actual area under any of the three crops is usually below the potential area. This can be seen in Table 3 for 1977/78 season. It can be seen from.the table that the highest per- centage area under crop is reached in the case of cotton. One important explanation for this is that cotton is a joint venture between the corporation and the tenants. For this reason, the corporation exerts great efforts to make sure that as much as possible of the cotton area is planted. This is in contrast to groundnuts and wheat which are the tenant's crop. The 1977/78 New Halfa Agricultural Corporation annual report mentioned several reasons for failure to have all the area under crop. In the case of cotton, reasons mentioned included failure to carry out tillage operations and planting in time due to shortage in petroleum needed for operating tractors, and the incidence of heavy and continuous rains. Also mentioned was the fact that some farmers refrained from planting their fields because they did not get the rest of their share from the 1975/76 cotton proceeds. The reasons behind the 44% fallow in groundnuts area were: Planned and Actual Area Under Crop 13 TABLE 3 in Feddans in New Halfa Agricultural Corporation in 1977/78 Season (1) (2) (2) Crop Alloted Area Under as percent Area Production: of (1) Cotton 110,000 98,000 90 Groundnuts 110,000 62,030 56 Wheat 110,000 71,720 65 TOTAL 330,000 232,550 70 Source: Public Agricultural Production Corporation, Annual Report for 1977/78 Season (in Arabic), (Khartoum.[l978l). 14 (1) High cost of production and the weak financial position of most tenants. Since it is a private tenant crop, the corporation does not extend any credit services. (2) Heavy infestation of weeds and shortage of hired labor. (3) Some farmers from the NOmadic tribes were not available at the time of planting of groundnuts. They were in a state of seasonal migration in search of grazing for their livestock. (4) Shortage of seeds. (5) Shortage of agricultural machinery needed for tillage operations. (6) Shortage of fuels. (7) Low productivity plus marketing problems created a disincentive effect among farmers. The most important problems behind failure to grow the entire wheat area were: (1) Shortage in fuels and agricultural machinery. (2) Heavy infestation of weeds which compete with the crop for nutrients and water and obstruct the flow of water in the canals. (3) Farmers in the Halfawi tribe pay special atten- tion to wheat since it is their staple crop. This is not the case for the Nomads who regard wheat as imposed upon them, their staple crop being sorghum” 15 (c) Tenants There are 22,367 tenants with more or less a corresponding number of land holdings (tenancies). Not all the tenancy holders reside in the project area. At the beginning of the project in 1967, absentee per- centage was 40%. By 1975, the percentage dropped to 25% due to off-farm employment opportunities created within the area (35). This is especially so in the case of Halfawi. As for the Nomadic tribes, both agriculture and pastoralism are maintained, each one reinforcing the other. For instance, the money received from selling animals is used in hiring labor in the fields, and the money received from the tenancy is reinvested in building up the herd (37). (d) The Size of the Tenancy The tenancy is 15 feddans in size. A tenancy of this size is considered adequate to provide income for and be managed by a typical tenant household. According to the laws governing the New Halfa Agricultural Corpora- tion, a tenancy is the agricultural unit upon which the crop rotation is based. A tenant is the person to whom a part or a whole of a tenancy is allocated in accordance with the Agricultural Agreement prevailing at the time of allocation (33). The tenancy is divided between the three crops as follows: 5 feddans cotton, 5 feddans wheat, and 5 feddans groundnuts. Plots of the same crop belonging 16 to different tenants are grouped into larger units to facilitate irrigation and other agricultural opera- tions such as the application of insecticides. (e) Rotation, Crop Intensity and Competition Among Crops On the same piece of land, the three crops are grown in the following succession: cotton-wheat-groundnuts at the rate of one crop per season. Unlike the Gezira system, no fallow was allowed and as such it was suppo- sed to result in a more efficient land use. However, after fifteen years of experience, the absence of fallow proved to have serious negative effects by encouraging obnoxious weeds. To reduce the conflict over labor, machinery, and irrigation requirements, and to satisfy the climatic requirements for each crop, ideally the three crops are supposed to be planted and harvested according to the schedule in Table 4. Since wheat is largely mechanized, no serious compe- tition exists with other crops over labor. Competition over labor exists between cotton and groundnuts. One important conflict occurs in October when both crops require labor for weeding. Another conflict may-Occur in January and February when delayed threshing of groundnuts coincide with cotton picking. This conflict is inten- sified the more groundnuts planting is delayed, increasing 17 its overlap with land preparation for cotton, and reducing the time between groundnuts planting and cotton planting. TABLE 4 Planting and Harvesting Dates for Crops in New Halfa Corporation Recommended Recommended Crop Date of Date of Planting Harvesting Cotton 8/1 - 8/25 1/15 - 3/31 Wheat 10/15 - ll/l 5/10 Groundnuts 6/15 - 7/15 11/15 - 1/15 Source: The New Halfa Agricultural Corpora- tion. (f) Management-Tenants Relationships The New Halfa project is a joint venture between the government and the tenants. The tenant is supposed to provide labor and supervision. The government provides the irrigation facilities, administration of the scheme, agricultural services, including mechanization of cer- tain agricultural operations, ginning, transportation and marketing of cotton. The management of the project is undertaken by the New Halfa Agricultural Corporation which was established with the following purposes in mind. l8 (1) To initiate agricultural reform in the project and the development and improvement of the natural re- source endowments within the project boundaries on commercial basis and following scientific methods to ensure such use of these resources as will maximize social and economic benefits. The scope of operation should not be confined to the production of raw materials alone but also include the industrialization of agricul- tural products. (2) Besides carrying on the general obligations, the Corporation should undertake the following respon- sibilities: (a) Planning and formulation of the policy on sound technical, and social grounds. (b) Investigating the possibility of expansion of production by adding more land to the project if such expansion proves to be in the national interest. (c) Undertaking any measures which will help accomplish the above mentioned responsibilities (33). The management of the corporation exercises super- vision over tenants to see to it that they fulfill their obligations. Those who repeatedly fail to do so can be evicted. In practice, however, this is not easy to do due to pressure from farmers' organizations. In the few cases where eviction was carried out, the tenancy was assigned to someone in the same family. 19 (g) The Distribution of Costs and Benefits Between the Tenants and the Corporation According to the agreement between the tenant and the Corporation, share cropping applies only to cotton. Wheat and groundnuts belong to the tenant who is supposed to pay the Corporation the cost of services it renders for the production of wheat and groundnuts. In the past, this provision of the agreement was not enforced, i.e. tenants were subsidized on the grounds that they needed some time to establish themselves. The management of the Corporation believes that as a result of this, farmers pay more attention to ground- nuts and wheat and less to cotton. The Corporation recently has decided to stop these subsidies in an attempt to correct price distortions. Such an action is believed to result in reallocation of labor and other resources in favor of cotton. The result, how- ever, will not only depend on how much tenants are going to be paid for cotton relative to wheat and groundnuts, but also when paid. At present, due to marketing policy, tenants get paid for their cotton crop over a period of at least two years whereas for wheat and groundnuts, they are paid immediately. 5The marketing of cotton is undertaken by the Agri- cultural Production Corporation (the parent corporation of New Halfa Agricultural Corporation) through the Cotton Trading Corporation. The latter sells cotton in the 20 The proceeds from cotton are distributed between the tenants and the Corporation according to a certain formula. After deducting from the gross proceeds cer— tain costs items which are agreed upon as "general joint cost” and "individual joint cost," 2% is to be deducted for the Tenants' Reserve Fund and 2% for financing Local People's Councils. The remainder would be divided equally between the Corporation and the tenants. The Corporation's share represents its returns to the ser- vices provided to the farmers and the administration of the Corporation. The tenants' share is divided between the tenants in accordance with the amount and quality of cotton produced by each tenant. Cost of operations particular to each tenant are then deducted from.his share and the remainder represents income to his family labor and/or capital (in case the farmer uses hired labor) (33). 6. Objectives of the Study 'In order to study labor requirements and supply for cotton picking in New Halfa Agricultural Corporation, the starting point should be to estimate the potential and actual tenant family labor supply for cotton picking and factors affecting it. Then an assessment of the international market. Groundnuts are sold by tenants to representation of companies in Wadi Halfa, wheat is sold by tenants to the flour mills in New Halfa. 21 contribution of hired labor is needed to find out to what extent hired labor supplements family labor in cotton picking and at what cost to the tenant. Due to the interdependence of cotton schemes in the Sudan with respect to cotton picking labor, an assessment of the supply of and the competition for labor for harves- ting cotton and other major crops at the sectoral level is in order. Such plan of study will allow a better understanding of the problem and hence, more relevant policy recommendations can be made. This study has been undertaken with the following objectives in mind: 1. Tenant Household Labor Supply: (a) To determine the socio-economic character- istics of tenant households. (b) To estimate the potential and actual utilization of tenant household labor in cotton picking in 1977/78 season. ' (c) To estimate the labor supply functions for households labor in cotton picking disaggregated into men, women and children. 2. Labor Requirements and Supply: (a) Estimating labor requirements for cotton picking at different yield levels. (b) Estimating potential labor supply and requirements for harvesting cotton and major competing crops. 22 3. Hired Labor Supply and Cost: (a) The contribution of hired labor to cotton picking. (b) Cost of picking by hired labor. 4. Implications for policy and future research. CHAPTER II RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This chapter reviews the analytical procedures, the sources of data and the survey design followed in exploring the objectives described in Chapter I (pp. 21-22). Through- out this analysis the population is divided into two subgroups: The Halfawis and the Nomads; and the analysis is made accordingly. Analytical Procedures In what follows, analytical procedures which will be used to pursue each objective, are described briefly. Objective 1: Tenant Household Labor Supply (a) Socio-economic characteristics of households. (b) Estimating the potential family labor and actual utilization by tenant households in cotton picking in 1977/78 season. Descriptive analysis (e.g. means, frequency, distributions, tables, etc.) will be used to analyze this objective. Features of that analysis are as follows: (1) Age and sex structure of the sample population. Family size, sex ratio and dependency ratio. (2) Participation of men, women, and children in the labor force. 23 24 (3) Occupational distribution of the labor force by age and sex with special reference to agricul- ture. (4) Educational attainment of men, women and children. (5) Number of hours of work spent on cotton picking by men, women, and children and quantity of cotton picked. Comparison of actual hours spent on cotton picking with potential hours available. (6) Aggregation of labor input using a common denominator. (c) Estimating labor supply functions of household men, women and children. A regression analysis is used to show the factors influencing the labor supply of tenant household labor. Because the labor supply decisions of household members are interrelated, labor supply functions are estimated for the household as a decision unit. Labor supply functions are estimated separately for men, women, and children because the level of participation, intensity of work and roles assigned to these categories differ greatly. Hours worked in cotton picking are used as dependent variables. Independent variables, include opportunity wages for men, women and children separately estimated, net income from cotton, groundnuts and wheat respectively, education, number of younger children, number of older children, number of men, women and 25 children in the labor force category. The detailed description of the model and presentation and discussion of the results is the subject of Chapter IV. Objective 2: Labor Requirements and Supply (a) Labor requirements for cotton picking per feddan at different yield levels. A common denominator will be developed to be able to add different categories of - labor (family and hired labor disaggregated by age and sex) used by the household. (b) Estimating potential labor supply and require- ments for harvesting of cotton and major competing crops. (1) Using estimates of labor requirements for cotton picking estimated in objective 3, and labor require- ments for harvesting other competing crops available from other studies, an estimate will be made of the amount of labor units required for picking cotton and other com- peting crops at the sectoral level assuming existing yield levels. (2) These estimates will be based on the six—year plan's assumptions of areas and yields. (3) Using the population census results of 1973, the agricultural labor force for each major agricultural region will be projected to estimate the potential agri- cultural 1abor supply. (4) Potential labor supply will be compared with labor requirements for cotton picking and harvesting of 26 other crops overlapping with cotton picking. This will be done for each region to see which regions are likely to be deficit or surplus in labor. Objective 3: Hired Labor Supply and Cost (a) Contribution of hired labor to cotton picking. (b) Cost of picking by hired labor. (1) Number of hours of hired labor used per household by age and sex. - (2) Hiring arrangements and wages. (3) Sources and ways of recruiting hired labor. (4) Degree of dependence on hired labor. (5) Hired labor used by households for activi- ties competing with cotton picking. (6) Tenants' opinions on the problem of shortage of hired labor. (7) Cost of picking by hired labor. Objective 4: Implications for Policy and Further Research a. Implications for Policy Knowing how much household labor is utilized in cotton picking compared to the potential will give an idea about the amount of under-utilized family labor which could be induced to participate in cotton picking, given the appropriate incentives. These appropriate incentives would be designed taking into consideration the factors which influence labor supply of household members. The elasticity of labor supply with respect to various policy 27 variables, as estimated from the labor supply functions of men, women, and children will be useful in this respect. For instance, it would be possible to predict the effect of an increase in income from.cotton on labor supply of men, women, and children other factors being equal. The same could be made for groundnuts and wheat. As the analy- sis of the supply function in Chapter IV may show, income is an important policy variable. It is a function of quantity produced and prices received by farmers - both are very much influenced by government policy. (2) This study would also show the extent of compe- tition for labor between cotton picking and other compe- ting activities related to wheat and groundnuts. It would also show how much labor could be made available for cotton picking by changing the timing of these opera- tions or by performing these operations mechanically. (3) The study would identify regions of deficit labor supply and regions of surplus labor supply as far as cotton picking is concerned. Policies concerning the mobilization of seasonal labor from surplus to deficit regions will be discussed and recommendations will be made. b. Implications for Further Research A discussion of some of the interesting aspects of labor supply for cotton picking not covered by this study will be made. A research agenda of the important tapics which need follow-up will be proposed. 28 Sources of Data (1) The Sample Survey A sample survey was carried out to obtain primary data by direct interviewing of a sample of tenant house- hold heads. The data collected in this survey included, among others, information on demographic characteristics of tenant households, family and hired labor input in cotton picking and other wheat and groundnut activities overlapping with cotton picking, estimate of net income from.cotton, groundnuts and wheat. (2) Annual reports of the New Halfa Agricultural Corporation. (3) Interviews with officials of the New Halfa Agri- cultural Corporation and other relevant bodies and groups in the area. (4) Some documents covering the development stage of the project, historical background and problems. (5) Regulations governing the sharing arrangements between the government and the tenants. (6) Sudan Second Population Census 1973. (7) Miscellaneous reports and papers. The Population The population of study consists of the 23,367 tenant households which comprises the tenant population of New Halfa Agricultural Corporation. For all practical pur- poses, this population could be divided into two subgroups: The Halfawi group which consists of 6,553 households 29 (29%), and the Nomadic group which consists of 15,814 households (71%).1 The Halfawi inhabit 25 planned villages. The Nomadic tribes inhabit 57 emergent villages, 15 traditional Nomadic villages and numerous seasonal Nomadic villages (1). The choice of the tribal variable as a stratification factor is justified by the fact that major differences exist between the two subgroups in their ethnic and cul- tural backgrounds, their attitude towards farming and their dependence on hired labor. Sampling Design The choice of any sampling design is influenced by two major considerations: (1) The desire to avoid bias in the selection proce- dure; (2) to achieve maximum precision for a given outlay of resources (8). Bearing these principles in mind, multi-stage sampling was chosen as the appropriate design for the following reasons: (1) As mentioned earlier, the population was scattered over a large number of villages within and outside the project. The roads were rough and telephone communications lThese households belong to the following subtribes: Shukria (7089), Beja (2201), Lahawyeen (2290), Ahamda (1089), Khawalda (443), Kawahla (1003), Northern Province tribes (1014) and Rashida (685). 30 were lacking. (2) There was a severe gasoline shortage and strict gasoline rationing was in effect throughout the survey period which.meant that movements had to be limited and therefore carefully planned. (3) The picking period was a short one, 2-3 months, and for logistic reasons, we could not visit a tenant more than once, which meant we had to restrict our visits to the period around the end of picking. Stratification of tenant villages was made after extensive discussion with the agricultural manager of the corporation and other informed officials. The stratifi- cation of villages, the villages chosen at random to represent each group of villages and the number of households interviewed in each representative village can 'be referred to in Appendix II. The Halfawi villages were divided into two major categories. One category consisted of those villages where the management of the tenancy is undertaken by a cooperative on behalf of the tenants. The second major category consisted of villages where management of tenancies was undertaken by individual tenants. The second category was further stratified into two strata. One stratum consisted of those villages with high per- centage of absenteeism among tenants and/or tenants having off-farm activities as main occupations. The second stratum consisted of villages with low percentage 31 of absentee tenants and/or low percentage of tenants with off-farm.activities as main occupations. This stratum was further subdivided into two sub-strata. One sub-strata consisted of villages characterized by low levels of participation by households in cotton picking. The second sub-strata consisted of villages characterized by high levels of participation by households in cotton picking. The Nomadic villages were divided into two major categories. One category consisted of those villages where main emphasis was on crop production even though livestock were raised. The second category consisted of villages where the main emphasis was on livestock, crop production being mainly a subsidiary occupation. The first category was further divided into two groups. One group of villages consisted of those where picking was undertaken mainly by the household. The second group of villages consisted of those where picking was undertaken mainly by hired labor. Following stratification, 5 and 8 villages were chosen at random to represent the Halfawi and NOmadic populations, respectively. The number of tenants to be interviewed from.each village was more or less pro- portional to the relative weight of the particular group of villages represented by the respective village. For each village a list of tenants was obtained from the agricultural inspector in charge of that village. Then 32 a systematic random sample of tenants was chosen for interviewing. The Size of the Sample As a trade-off between cost-minimization and preci- sion, a sample of 150 tenant households was originally planned for 50 Halfawis and 100 Nomads. The actual number interviewed was 132 households (48 Halfawis and 84 Nomads). One problem which had to be faced during the survey was the problem of non-res- ponse due to absence, which was more common, or reluc- tance to cooperate (only one case). To overcome this problem, the systematic random sample in each village was increased to begin with. The increase was 50% in Halfawi villages and 100% in Nomadic villages since the latter are more mobile. Well-informed members of households are also interviewed on behalf of absent household heads. Interviewers and Method of Interviewing The interviewing was made by the writer assisted by two recent graduates of the faculty of Agriculture, University of Khartoum. The interviewers were selected and prepared in advance for the interview. Each respon- dent was interviewed once. Nevertheless, the method was relatively effective because the data collected per- tained to one activity only: cotton picking, which 33 happened to be the last activity undertaken or supervised by the tenant and therefore it was easy for the tenant to recall the events. A sample of the questionnaire can be referred to in Appendix III. CHAPTER III SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS AFFECTING TENANT HOUSEHOLD LABOR FORCE POTENTIAL AND UTILIZATION IN COTTON PICKING IN NEW HALFA CORPORATION This chapter deals with the socio-economic charac- teristics of the tenant households in the two distinct settlements in as far as these characteristics affect the labor force size and participation rates. An attempt will be made to estimate how much of the tenant house- hold labor force is available at the time of cotton picking and how much is actually used. Socio-Economic Characteristics of Household Heads Definition of HousehOld and Household Head For the purpose of this study, a tenant household applies to those members of a family who live and eat together and who are assigned a tenancy in New Halfa Agricultural Project. A household head is the decision- maker on all matters affecting the well-being of the family. Usually, the tenancy is registered under his name . 34 35 Age Distribution and Sex Composition of Household Heads Table 5 presents the distribution of household heads interviewed by age and sex. The Table shows that there is only one household head below 15 years of age and no household head above 65 years of age. The majority of household heads (79 percent for Halfawis and 77 percent for Nomads) are between 25 and 54 years of age. Further- more, the Table shows that males dominate females as heads of households and that the proportion of female to male household heads is greater for Halfawis than for Nomads. In either case, female household heads tend to be in or above middle age, which may suggest that they have assumed the responsibilities of taking care of their families after losing their husbands due to death or divorce. Marital Status and Relationship of Household Heads to Other Household Members Table 6 shows marital status of household heads. It can be seen that the overwhelming majority of heads of households are married, the highest percentage being among the Nomads (95 percent for Nomads compared to 82% for Halfawis). Another interesting point to be noticed is the low level of divorce among household heads which is one in the Halfawi sample and none in the Nomadic sample. An important characteristic of the family is the 36 TABLE 5 - * Distribution of Household Heads By Ethnic Group, Age and Sex Age Halfawis Nomads Category Males Females Males Females Less than 15 0 1 1 0 15 - 24 4 0 4 0 25 - 34 9 0 ll 0 35 - 44 ' 13 2 27 o 45 - 54 12 1 l8 0 55 - 64 3 2 ll 1 65 + 0 0 0 0 TOTAL 41 6 72 l Source: The 1977/78 New Halfa Agricultural Corporation Tenant Sample Survey on Labor Requirements and Supply for Cotton Picking. *12 heads of households are excluded due to missing data. 37 TABLE 6 Distribution of Households Heads in Halfawi and Nomadic Sub-Samples According to Marital Status Halfawis. Nomads Marital Status Number Percent Number: Percent Married 39 81.6 78 95.1 Single * 3 6.1 2 2.4 Divorced 1 2.0 -- ---- Widowed 5 10.2 f 2 2.4 TOTAL 48 100.0 82 100.0 Source: The 1977/78 New Halfa Agricultural Corporation Tenant Sample Survey on Labor Requirements and Supply for Cotton Picking. 38 type of relationship which existed between the house- hold head and the members of the household. Table 7 depicts these relationships. It could be noticed from this Table that although the population of the sample households is dominated by sons, daughters, and wives, the list includes 15 other relationships, which explains the existence of the extended family system. This is especially the case for the Nomadic sample which is also characterized by a relatively higher average family size. Distribution of Household Heads by Educational Attainment Education, being an important form of investment in human capital, is an important characteristic of house- hold heads. Education increases awareness of individuals with alternatives, facilitates learning and adoption of new ideas and increases productivity of human capital. As far as tenants were concerned, education is an impor- tant medium through which information can be obtained that will help the tenant improve his decision making process. Table 8 shows the distribution of household heads according to the level of education. It can be seen that 81 percent of the Halfawis and 90 percent of the Nomadic household heads are illiterate. It can also be seen that all female household heads in both tribal groups are illiterate. Most of the Halfawi heads of households interviewed who were educated received 39 TABLE 7 Distribution of Family Members in the Halfawi and Nomadic Sub-Samples According to Relationship to Household Head Relationship to Household Head Halfawis Nomads Wives 41 85 Sons 54 174 Daughters 54 202 Fathers 3 ll MOthers 12 26 Grandmothers 0 4 Grandsons l 7 Husbands 0 l Wives of Sons 0 3 Nephews 0 3 Sons' Daughters 0 l Uncles 0 3 Brothers' Wives 0 2 Brothers' Sons 0 3 Cousin 0 1 Source: The 1977/78 New Halfa Agricultural Corporation Tenant Sample Survey on Labor Requirements and Supply for Cotton Picking. 40 TABLE 8 _ Distribution.of Household Heads, in the Halfawi and Nomadic Sub-Samples by Formal Educational Attainment Years of Halfawis Nomads Schooling Attained Males Females Males *Females 0 34 6 72 1 1 -- -- 4 -- 2 -- -- -_ -- 3 1 -- 2 -- 4 4 -- 2 -- 5 l -- -- -- 6 - ll -- -- -- -- 12 2 -— -- -- 13 - 15 -- -- L -- -- 16+ 1 ' -- -- -- SOurce: The 1977/78 New Halfa Agricultural Corporation Tenant Sample Survey on Labor Requirements and Supply for Cotton Picking. 41 between three and eleven years of education, with one receiving more than 16 years of education. Of those Nomadic household heads who received education, the longest formal educational experience was four years. These facts more or less reflect the prevalence of illiteracy in the rural areas and point to the need to educate farmers so that they may improve their decision making pertaining to crop production as well as other matters affecting the well being of their households. Socio-Economic Characteristics of Households Age and Sex Distribution of Sample of Households An attempt was made to estimate the size and charac- teristics of the population of the New Halfa Agricul- tural Corporation, using the data obtained from the sample survey. Table 9 presents the age and sex distribution of the households in the two subsamples. The total popu- lation of the Halfawi sample is 237 persons. The sample from the Nomadic tribes consists of 647 persons. A common characteristic of the two subsamples is the fact that, overall, females are slightly in excess of males. This is particularly clear in the 20-29 age categories in the Halfawi group and 20-34 age categories in the Nomadic group. In case of Halfawis, this could be 42 TABLE 9 Distribution of Households in the Halfawi and Nomadic Sub-Samples by Age and Sex Halfawis Nomads Age Group Males Females Number % Males Females Number 7%- 0 - 4 5 11 16 7 40 67 107 17 5 - 9 19 20 39 16 70 71 141 22 10 - l4 14 '14 28 12 57 50 107 17 15 - l9 l7 14 31 13 30 25 55 8 20 - 24 5 8 13 5 12 26 38 6 25 - 29 4 10 14 6 ll 16 27 4 30 - 34 7 6 l3 5 9 19 28 4 35 - 39 9 7 l6 7 14 15 29 4 40 - 44 4 7 ll 5 12 12 24 4 45 - 49 7 8 15 6 8 ‘ 3 ll 2 so - 54 7 3 10 4 12 ' 7 19 3 55 - 59 4 2 6 4 3 6 5 ll 2 60 - 64 0 5 5 2 8 9 l7 3 65 - 69 3 3 6 3 6 2 8 l 70 - 74 2 5 7 3 7 3 10 l 75 + 4 3 7 3 6 9 15 2 Total 111 126 237 100 308 339 647 100 Source: The 1977/78 New Halfa Agricultural Corporation Tenant Sample Survey on Labor Requirements and Supply for Cotton Picking. 43 attributed to the migration of young men to urban areas for education (since no schools above high school level are available in the area) or work. As for the Nemads, the raising of livestock requires that some members of the household stay with livestock off the scheme most of the time in search for grazing and water. As part of the division of labor in the household, looking after the herds is usually the responsibility of young men within the household. Demographic Characteristics of the Samples Table 10 shows some demographic characteristics of the two samples. The sex ratios for the two groups and the proportion of males in both is a further illus- tration of the excess of women over men. An interes- ting statistic is the high proportion of children (0-14) in the population which is a typical characteristic of populations in developing economies. However, the Nomadic p0pulation is characterized by a markedly higher proportion of children compared to the Halfawi population. The proportion was 55% for the Nomads and 35% for the Halfawis. According to the 1973 provisional population census figures, the proportion of children in the rural settled and rural Nomadic population of Northern Sudan is 47% (13). Table 10 also shows a comparison between the proportion of the economically active members of the two groups. 44 TABLE 10 Demographic Characteristics of the Households in the Halfawi and Nomadic Sub-Samples Characteristic Halfawis Nomads (1) Sex Ratio: # of Males X 100 .88 .91 # of Females (2) Proportion of Males 47% 48% (3) Dependent Children (0-14) 83 335 % of total population 35% 55% (4) Active Population (15-64) 134 259 % of total population 56.5% 40% (5) Dependent Aged (65+) 20 33 (6) Dependency Ratio: (3l~+ (5) x 100 .77 1.5 (4) (7) Average Family Size 4.9 7.7 Source: The 1977/78 New Halfa Agricultural Corporation Tenant Sample Survey on Labor Requirements and Supply for Cotton Picking. 45 Economically active members are those in the 15-64 age categories (excluding disabled) who represent the poten- tial labor force. It is clear from the Table that the Halfawi have a higher potentially economically active population than the Nomads mainly due to the relatively lower proportion of children compared to the Nomadic population. This fact is also reflected in the lower dependency ratio for Halfawis which is half that for the Nomads. The average family size for the Halfawis is in line with the average household in the rural population of Kassala Province (the province to which the New Halfa Agricultural project belongs) as revealed by the 1973 Second Population Census. According to the census, the average rural household size in Kassala Province was 4.82 (compared to 4.9 for Halfawis obtained in the sur- vey). The family size for the Nomads is relatively high compared to that for the Halfawis. But again, that is typical of populations with relatively high ratio of children. Participation Rates by Age, Sex, and Tribal Group An important measure of the degree of involvement by individuals or groups in economic activities is the participation rate. This is calculated as the percentage of people in a specific labor force category who are 46 involved in activities oriented towards the market. There are problems concerning the definition of economically active persons. First, there is the ques- tion of the lower age limit. Although the age of 15 is universally considered to be the age of entry in the labor force, it is common for children in developing countries, in the absence of laws prohibiting child labor and lack of educational facilities, to enter the labor force well below 15. Secondly, whether (1) to include in the labor force only those with economic activity as their main occupation or also (2) to include, in addition, those who participate in economic activity as a subsidiary occupation. The first definition is more restrictive than the latter and will result in a lower participation rate. This definition was followed in both the 1955/56 Population Census of the Sudan and the 1973 Population Census. The danger from using that definition is that it excludes from.the labor force such important categories as women and students whose main activities are not classified as economic ones but who nevertheless participate in economic activities part-time. The second definition seems to be more reasonable. How- ever, unless a minimum level of participation in the labor market is specified, there is a danger of inflating the participation rates by including persons whose contri- bution to the labor force is marginal. Table 11 presents participation rates estimated from 47 TABLE 11 Participation Rates in the Halfawi and Nemadic Sub-Samples by Age and Sex (Percentage) Age Male Participation Rates Female Participation Rates Group Halfawis Nomads Halfawis Nemads 10-14 0 63.2 0 40.0 15-24 27.3 81.0 25.0 51.0 25-34 81.8 95.0 37.5 60.0 35-44 92.3 100.0 35.7 63.0 45-54 100.0 100.0 36.3 50.0 55-64 100.0 57.0 28.5 21.0 AveragT 79.7 80.0 32.8 50.3 Source: The 1977/78 New Halfa Agricultural Corporation Tenant Sample Survey on Labor Requirements and Supply for Cotton Picking. 48 the survey of the sample of farmers in New Halfa Agri- cultural Corporation by age and sex. The definition of the labor force adopted here is the broader one, which includes all individuals engaged in economic activity whether as a main or subsidiary occupation. It is clear from this table that men have much higher participation rates than women. It is also clear that while average participation rates for males in the two tribes are comparable, the participation rates for females differ substantially between the two ethnic groups, the Nomadic group being higher than the Halfawi group. Comparing these figures with the participation rates for rural Kassala Province obtained from 1973 Population Census reveals marked differences. The 1973 Population Census figures reported a participation rate of 91.1 percent for males in rural areas of Kassala Provinces compared with averages of 79.7 and 80 percent for Halfawis and Nomads, respectively, as can be seen from Table 11. The difference is even greater in case of females, with the census reporting 8 percent for women in rural Kassala compared to 33 and 50 percent for Halfawis and Nomads, respectively. However, apart from the general trends of participa- tion rates, the two sets of data are hardly comparable. The census figures refer to all the rural population of Kassala while the tenant household sample survey, at best, represents the tenants of New Halfa Project which 49 is only a fraction of the rural population of Kassala Province. Mbreover, the 1973 census adopted the restric- ted definition of participation rate while this study followed the broader definition of the labor force. Distribution of the Labor Force by Occupation To examine the occupational distribution of the labor force in the household sample survey, reference is made to Table 12. The table shows the number of persons engaged in economic activities either as primary or subsidiary occupation. Double counting should be expected since some people may have more than one economic activity. The table shows that there are 21 economic activities represented in this sample either as primary, secondary or both. It could be seen that farming is the single most important activity. This is no surprise in this farming area. Another interesting observation is the fact that apart from crop production, 17 other occupations are reported in the Halfawi sample compared to only 4 in the Nomadic sample. In fact, 56% of those who repor- ted primary economic activities had non-agricultural pur- suits as their main occupations compared to only 10% in the Nomadic group. One important explanation for this difference in range of economic activities between the two groups is the level of educational attainment. The survey revealed that the number of Halfawi males who 50 TABLE 12 Occupational Distribution of the Labor Force in the Halfawi and Nomadic Samples by Sex Halfawis Nomads Occupation Males Females Males Females Pri- Subsi- Pri- ubsi- Pril Subsi- Pri- Subsi- mary diary mary diary mary diary mary diary j Farmer l9 l6 2 19 93 13 3 67 Herdman -- -- -- -- 9 1 -- -- Teacher 3 -- -- -- -- -- -- -_ Clerk 3 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- Guard 1 1 -- -- -- -- -- -- Flour Mill WOrker Contractor Merchant Mason "Samad"1 -- l ' -- -- -- -- -' '- Coffee Shop Owner 1 -- -— -- -- -- -- -- Water Supply . WOrker -- -- -- -- 1 -- -- -- hlr- bird I I I I I u I I H I n I I Insurance Employee Secretary Professor Administrator Other non- agricultural white-collar' workers 2 -- -- -- -- -- -- _- Other blue- collar workers 3 -- —- -- -- -- -- _- P‘I‘ r4 P‘ I I I I I I I I I I n a I I Agricultural Laborers l -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Drivers 2 -- -- -- -- -- -- -_ 51 Table 12 - Continued Halfawis Nomads Occupation Males Females Males Females Pri- Subsi- Pri- Subsi-lPri- Subsi# Pri- Subsi- mary diary *mary diary mary diary mary diary Midwives -- -- -- -- -- -- -- 1 Total 43 19 2 19 103 15 3 68 Source: The 1977/78 New Halfa Agricultural Corporation Tenant Sample Survey on Labor Requirements and Supply for Cotton Picking. 1 part-time basis as a liaison between management and farmers. bution of water among tenants. Samad is a tenant appointed by the management on a His main concern is to supervise the distri- 52 attained any level of education is 48%. The corres- ponding figure for the Nomads is 16%. It is clear that education is a necessity for most of these occupations and therefore the Halfawis have more employment options than the Nomads. Many Halfawis engaged in off-farm activities still keep tenancies as a part-time business. Some are members in village agricultural cooperatives. These cooperatives are run by management hired by tenants to supervise on their behalf all the operations using hired labor and machinery. The range and types of economic activities differ as between men and women. Men are involved in a wider range of economic activities than women. This can largely be attributed to the lack of education among women in both groups. The survey revealed that for those house- holds included in the survey, the degree of illiteracy among Halfawi and Nomadic adult women is 100%. Another characteristic of female employment which is dissimilar to that of males is that the majority of women who par- ticipate in the labor force are engaged in economic activity as a subsidiary activity. In the absence of institutions for child care (which are present in some urban areas but on a limited basis) and the large pro- portion of dependents in the household, domestic activi- ties represents the main occupation for the majority of women . 53 Participation of Household Members in Cotton Picking One of the important objectives of this survey was to estimate the amount of family labor allocated by the tenant household to cotton picking in their own holdings. Table 13 summarizes household labor input in cotton picking. Although ideally cotton should be picked three times, it could be seen from Table 13 that the amounts of labor inputs and cotton picked in the third picking are neg- ligible. It could also be seen from the table that overall, a typical household in the Nomadic sample con- tributed much more labor and picked more cotton than a typical Halfawi household. The table also reveals that men contribute to cotton picking in both sub-groups, but the average contribution of men per household in the Nomadic sample is more than three times that of men in the Halfawi sample. The difference between the con- tribution of women in the two samples is even more striking with the Nomadic households' contribution ex- ceeding the Halfawis twenty five times. As for children, no contribution was reported for Halfawi families, in contrast to the Nomadic families in which the average hours contributed by children exceeded even that of men. The lack of participation of children in cotton picking in the Halfawi sample could be explained in terms of the better educational opportunities in the Halfawi villages 54 .haoumaaxoumam .mnH mam mswfim3 unucmM mam 95m mHnENm unmask coaumuonuoo HummuH50auw< mmamm 302 mm\mnma o:H "wounom ~.oa m.HnH w.om~ m.oeH A. -- ~.e es Hence m. H.o w.e m.m -- -- -- m. wauxuam snare m.m ~.Hm wqom m.mm mm. -- m. s.oH weasoam vacuum s.o H.3HH h.mm m.eOH mm. -- m.m am waaxoam omens corona nonsense cases. sax sesame ceasefire amass ca: auaufimso ha xuoz_mo muse: hufiucwso an xuoz mo mhsom sua>auo< mumEoz mH3memm mm mswmnnnm afiowaoz use Hzmmamm you uaocomnom non :onam couuou ca cmuoawno use :0503 .cm2 an Aamonoh Hon kmumunmm mam :Hv umxowm huaucmac mam .mo Amunoz :Hv unacH HODMA ma mnm omuooaom owoaaw> Ou mouooaom omeHa> ou wouooaom owmaaw> nee 6w6HHe> «He 6w6HHA> Noe 6mmHHH> Bonanzaa one 6w6HHe> «Seaman on he 6mmmon> «manages we 6w6HHH> nae 6w6HHH> 3* 6w6HHH> Hoe 6w6HHH> awe 6meHo> me mwmooo> me mwmooo> mme mwmooe> MN umwmm Hm eu< Ne owmomo> we 6m6HHe> aoe mwamoe> l SNA mwmooo> He 6wmooo> we ammooe> woe 6m6HHH> Sundae: aouuoo nu €363 i- a.“ oaosomsom .3 aouuou a.“ oaonomoom 3v maowuoaoooo can: an AC mot/Huonooooo cowumawowuuom he soauoaeoau mowuw>wuo< Summummo an coxMuHoocD mo Ho>oq swam numm mo Ho>oq BOA waw>mm mucmooe Ho\oco moaooocoa mo mama mucoaoH wcoE< Emwooucomc< nowmcoz muons mommHHH> ommucoouom swam sues mmmeHH> mcoauomnooo can: no mowua>fiuo< summummo nuHB monocoh mo owmusOo nuom 30A Ho\oco monocoa oouaomo< mo owmucoouom 304 cage momeHH> mammoH>HoGH ho coxmunooaa mowocmnoe mo uaoamwmcoz muonz momeHH> wcHHgEom owmumnauasz Mom momeHH> Hsmmamm mo dofiumoamwmmmao <2 5282.4 171 finesse H< meuxnnm H< umeeu< women H< owummem H< unamnmumz nouwu< 5: wmuuox 362 zoom: oumu< H< magnum no< mooumm mamaom doom H< oomomm pfin< H< magma Boz umHE< H< :HOU 362 owsaom 302 among H< ammumm we 6m6HHH> Re 6mmHHe> anaemem H< ammo peeve Homuou a: «name a: sonom a: Home: Enema emoo< amen: ummcmm H6a0< H< cease Madonna mwmnom 362 meesmmm eusom «Sesame nuuoz mwmumm ummm ammuom umoz xooumo>HA no me mammsasm can: mums3 momeHw> gonna amen: an Aeneas coxmuuoocs wcaxowm oaonomaom no macaw: soxmuuooca wcaxowm mmoHo so we mammnmam cadm.ouo£3 momeHH> wcaaaamm owoumnwuasz How mmmeHw> oaomEoz mo.:oaumoamwmmoao mHnyoecmaa< 172 «ma oouooaom moaonomso: mo nocaoz Houoh m unamnmuoz Ha wounox 362 m 5 among H¢nmwouom NH he 6m6HHH> an annex no sense a: N AH Home: m seesaw m «Samoan H memaoz a name: H< eu< So he 6meHo> e a mosmmmm mm m NH we owmaoe> N w one 6wmmoo> H anemone: omeoe>uoucH soccer um muowoumu anono owotum meooemmnoe mo 4 umuummmm Amvawaomo> 6w6HHH> omoHHH> comm Ga ooSow>HoucH moHonOmoom mo Hooaoz Ono one Amumuum o>auooamou uwonu mammounou Ouv Soosmm.uo oouooaom mommaaw> UHH.xHocwaa< 173 Appendix III The 1977/78 New Halfa Agricultural Corporation Tenant Sample Survey on Labor Requirements and Supply for Cotton Picking Tenants' Questionnaire A) Identification of Tenant 1 Name of tenant 2 Tribe 3 Section 4. Block 5 Village 6 Distance between Village and Hawahsa (kms) B) Socio-Economic Characteristics of Tenant 1. Age 2. Sex 3. Marital status: Married: No. of wives: Single: Divorced: Widow : 4. Occupations: a) Main: b) Subsidiary: 1) ii) iii) 174 Number of holdings held: a) In New Halfa Scheme: b) Elsewhere: Management of crops in tenants'holding : Arrangements by Cotton C. Nuts Wheat Tenant Village Coop Subletting Others Crops grown during 1977/78 season: a) Cotton b) Groundnuts c) Wheat d) Vegetables & Fruits e) Others Livestock owned: a) Cattle b) Sheep c) Goats d) Camels 175 C) Socio-economic Characteristics of Tenant Household Members S . Relationship to Educational Occupations No . tenant level Main Subsidiary l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 176 D) Labor Input in Operations Competing with Cotton Picking F.L. H.L *Local .Migrant Operation M 'W C M W C M W C Putting_Cotton in Sacks Transportation of Cotton to Collection Centers Collection of Groundnuts into Heaps Threshing of Groundnuts Washing of Groundnuts Transportation of Groundnuts from Field to Market weeding of Wheat Harvesting of Wheat Transportation of Wheat Key: F.L. Family Labor H.L. Hired Labor W. WOmen M. 'Men C. Children E) Sources of Labor for Cotton Picking 1) On what sources of labor did you depend to pick your cotton? a) Family labor only b) Hired labor only c) Family plus hired labor d) Others (mention, e.g. labor sharing with neighbors 177 2) Which of the economically active members of your family were engaged in cotton picking during this season (December 1977 through April 1978). Member Cotton picking Other competing activities 178 .mnH a“ woxofic xoflpcmso n ma a oH.m mason Hobos n «a a o .q muson mo .02 n ma a m .m mmmp mo .oz n NH w m .N moan a HH a o .H H.moz am. :21 ameHHLU m N H £0803 ma «a ma NH waoxoam usage AH OH w m wcwxofim pcooom m m N a am: e m e m N H muon5mz madame waoxofim “mugs wcwxowm cwluoamq maaawm mo cowummaofiuumm Am 179 G) Participation of Hired Labor in Cotton Picking 1) Which category of hired labor did you hire. a) Local b) Migrant c) Both 180 oumu wwa u NH 0 unuamx wan cw poxowm Augusmso u HH .m muson HmuoH u oH .q how Hon voxuo3 musom u m .m whom mo .02 n m .N mHMxHOB mo .oz n n .H “NQVH amppaflso , CoEoB ‘ sz waaxoom euwze . coppawzo coEoz no: wcflxowm pcooom coupaflno 50503 no: mcfixoom sagas NH HH 0H m m q m N Hoan ucmuwfiz Honmq HmoOA. mwcfixoflm mo .02 wcfixowm SH Momma papa: mo usacH HonmA mo sowumafiumm AN 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 181 How many laborers did you employ for cotton picking altogether this season? Do you hire the same laborers every year? Yes No From.what tribe do you prefer to hire laborers for cotton picking? Tenant's own tribe ) Why: Other tribes (mention) ) No preference How did you get cotton pickers? a) Tenant's own arrangements b) Through New Halfa Agricultural Corporation c) Through laborers' own initiative d) Other means (specify) What is the overall average yield of your holding (in big kantars per feddan)? With this level of yield obtained in your holding this season, how much cotton (in lbs) do you expect a man to pick during what you consider to be a day or work? Pickingg Family labor Hired labor First Picking Second Picking Third Picking 182 9) How do you rate the productivity of men, women and children in cotton picking? Family Hired Labor Labor Man 100* WOmen Child H) Estimate of Cotton Losses 1) Have you picked all the cotton you should? Yes No 2) If No a) Why: i) could not find enough laborers at the fixed wage rate ii) Grazing of the cotton crop by livestock iii) Others (specify) b) What is your estimate of the losses (in Big Kantars per feddan) I) Cost of Picking by Hired Labor '1) What system do you use in recruiting hired labor? a) Recruit laborers individually b) Recruit laborers as families c) Both (a) and (b) *The productivity of a man from the family is given an index of 100. The productivity of women and children from the tenant family as well as men, women and children from hired labor are measured in relation to this index. 183 ofionom «mama .52 cu cawwuo mo woman Eoum ~33 mco pawn 5:35: ohm umoo uuoamcmuak waoxofim abuse wcflxoom ccooom maaxofim umuom HouHoSm pwmm poXowm pm>ao>cH .w.m boom umoo owm3 oumm mumuamx madfip Emummm mwsfixowm mHmSuo kuuoamamuH Hooch mme mam IH>HpaH mo “@9652 ,mo .02 mo .02 “can; owns: an wcaxoom.mmmm mo smoo.mnu mo momeHumm Am 184 Tenants' Opinion on Shortage of Labor for Cotton’Picking (1) (2) Do you have problem getting hired labor: (a) Yes (b) No In case the answer is yes, what suggestions do you offer to solve the problem of shortage of cotton picking labor? (a) Increase wage rate (b) Introduce mechanical picking (c) A combination of (a) and (b) (d) Other suggestions (Specify) (Give reasons for your suggestions) 185 Appendix IVA Estimates of Average Cost of Production of Medium Staple Cotton (Acala 4/42) Per 5 Feddan Holding at an Average Yield of 5 Big Kantar Per Feddan 1977/78 Season Sequence Number - Operation Cost in BS 1 Clearance of weeds and bushes 6.00 2 Deep plowing 12.50 3 Disc harrowing 5.00 4 Ridging 5.00 5 Maintenance of water channels 3.55 6 Pre-watering 1.00 7 Disc harrowing 5.00 8 Ridging 4.00 9 Fertilizer (Urea) 55.46 10 Fertilizer transport .800 ll Fertilizer application .800 12 Sowing 5.00 13 Dividing cotton area into 20 irrigation basins 2.25 14 Maintenance of water channels 1.00 15 First watering 1.00 16 Subsequent waterings (9) 4.50 17 First weeding 12.00 18 Green ridging 4.00 19 Redividing cotton area into 16 irrigation basins 1.50 20 Thinning 7.50 21 Second weeding 12.00 22 Third weeding 12.00 23 Fourth weeding 8.00 24 Cotton storage 10.00 25 Picking cotton and transportation to collection centers 50.00 26 Cost of 25 sacks 10.10 27 Cost of spraying (7 sprays) 100.00 28 Burning cotton stalks 13.00 29 Sweeping to remove small branches 5.00 30 Total 357.96 186 Appendix IVB Estimates of Average Cost of Production of Wheat Per 5 Feddans at an Average Yield of .8 Ton Per Feddan (1977/78 Season) Sequence . Number Operation Cost in BS 1 Clearance of weeds and bushes 5.00 2 Ridging 3.50 3 Maintenance of water channels 4.00 4 Pre—watering 1.00 5 Disc harrowing 2.50 6 Seeds (250 Kgs) 22.50 7 Transportation of seeds .50 8 Sowing 4.50 9 Raising seed bed 3.00 10 Dividing wheat area into 16 basins 3.00 11 Fertilizer 55.47 12 Transportation of fertilizer .80 13 Application of fertilizer .80 14 Maintenance of water channels 1.00 15 First Watering 1.00 16 Subsequent waterings (7) 3.50 17 Weeding 9.00 18 Spraying insecticides 5.00 19 Harvesting 20.00 20 Cost of sacks 12.40 21 Transportation of crop 8.00 22 Taxes 16.20 23 Total 182.67 187 Appendix IVC Estimates of Average Cost of Production of Groundnuts per 5 Feddans at an Average Yield of 1.5 Tons Per Feddan Sequence Number Operation Cost in ES 1 Cleaning of weeds and bushes 5.00 2 Ridging 3.50 3 Maintenance of water channels 1.25 4 Pre-watering 1.00 5 Disc harrowing 5.00 6 Ridging 4.00 7 Dividing groundnut area into irrigation basins 2.25 8 Seeds 24.00 9 Sowing 5.00 10 First watering 1.00 11 Subsequent waterings (6) 6.00 12 First weeding 12.00 13 Green ridging 4.00 14 Redividing groundnut area into irrigation basins 1.50 15 Second weeding 15.00 16 Third weeding 8.00 17 Harvesting 85.00 18 Washing of crop 15.00 19 Sacks 32.10 20 Taxes 27.00 21 Total 257.6 Source: New Halfa Agricultural Corporation BIBLIOGRAPHY AGRAR-UND. 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