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ABSTRACT

SELF-CONCEPT AND MENTAL HEALTH
AS A FUNCTION OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

By

Charles W. Townsel

PROBLEM: This study was designed to test the hypothesis
that the self-concept and mental health of a fourth grade class
in a public school could be measureably improved by means of an
organized program. The study took approximately sixth months.
Five fourth grade classes in two schools acted as controls. The
groups were tested before and after the experiment.

PROCEDURES. A two-fold approach was used with the experi-
mental group. First, a series of twenty-four stories were
written for class discussion. The discussion pattern follows:
(1) the story characters, their behavior, and the causes of their
behavior were analyzed, (2) others who behaved in similar ways
were discussed, (3) finally, the children's own behavior was
discussed. Discussions were approximately twenty-four weeks.

The second part of the two-fold approach consisted of three indi-
vidusl interviews with each child. These were held before the
first group discussions, around the twelfth, and after the last
story discussion. These interviews were not intended to be thera-
peutic; rather, they were planned to be largely informational,

supportive, and evaluative.

Two evaluative procedures were used. First, the groups were

tested initially and finally with four measures, the California

 

Test of Personality, essays on "What I Like About myself" and
"What I Dislike About Myself," a modified social distance scale,
and a series of three sociograms with friends, play, and work
criteria. The results were presented quantitatively in terms of
group means which were analyzed for comparative changes. Where
appropriate, means were tested for significance of differences
with the.£ test. All groups were given an academic achievement
test. Results were similarly treated. This constituted the
quantitative part of the evaluation. Secondly, qualitative
analyses were made of various data from the experimental group
alone. These data were compiled from tape recordings of the
story-discussion, students' written responses to each discussion,
a record of discussion participation, an analysis of students'
written problems and wishes, the three individual interviews,
interests and activities questionnaires, and final evaluative
questionnaires of students, parents, and teacher.

RESULTS: (1) Quantitatively, the experimental group made
small but consistent gains on the personal measures of personality
and self-likes and dislikes, as compared with the controls. These
gains were generally statistically insignificant.

(2) A slightly significant gain was made on the social dis-
tance scale, but the other social measure, the sociogram, showed

a lack of positive gain.

(3) The achievement data indicated that the experimental
group did not suffer academically despite the time devoted to
the study.

(4) Qualitatively, most of the children in the experimental
group indicated that they understood themselves and others better
in their oral and written comments.

(5) The student, parent, and teacher questionnaires indi-
cated increased positive self-concept which was reflected in the
behavior and attitudes of most of the children.

(6) As measured, the experimental class became interested in
more things and engaged in a wider variety of activities.

(7) A few children made little progress and communicated
some resistance to continued self-concept.

RECOMMENDATIONS: The conclusions and implications appear to
indicate that further research of the following types is needed.

(1) A longitudinal study of self-concept and mental health
and their relationships to academic achievement.

(2) FUrther development, evaluation, and refinement of
methods and materials for self-concept and mental health.

(3) The teacher's role in the development of self-concept
and mental health.

(4) The relationships between self-concept, mental health,

and human relations.

SELF-CONCEPT AND MENTAL HEALTH
AS A FUNCTION OF
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

Charles W} Townsel

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Education

1970

DEDICATION

To my wife, Ophelia; my son, Carlos; my daughters,
Ava and Iva, whose love and understanding made this
realization possible.

To my father and mother, Rev. and Mrs. General T.
Townsel whose early sacrifices and love paved the way

for this moment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

'Many people are responsible for the successful completion
of this dissertation.

The writer is deeply grateful to Dr. Louis Romano, chairman
of my doctoral guidance committee, whose guidance, scholarly
assistance, encouragement and genuine interest gave me impetus
to complete this study.

The writer further wishes to thank the members of the
guidance committee. Dr. Wilbur Brookover, whose work in the
field developed my interest and at the same time provided the
inspiration needed for this study. Dr. Joseph MeMillan, whose
support and assistance was invaluable during the development and
completion of this study.

Dr. Donald Nickerson, whose scholarly assistance, patience,
and devotion to this study enabled its completion.

To name all persons who have assisted in this project would
be impractical if not impossible. However, special thanks is
offered to:

Dr. Calvin Moore, whose statistical advice,suggestions, and
competence are reflected in an important part of the study.

Mrs. Equilla Bradford, principal of the school where the
study took place.

Miss Ruth M. Hawkins and Mrs. Thomas J. Robinson, who spent

hours typing and editing the manuscript.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter
I. THE PROBLEM, DESIGN, AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ..... 1
Need for Self-Concept and Mental Health ........ 4
Statement of the Problem ............... 2
Design of the Study ..... . . . . ........ 5
Plan of Presentation ................. 11
II. RESEARCH RELATED TO THE SELF AND SELF-CONCEPT
AS FACTORS IN MENTAL HEALTH ................ 12
The Self-Concept Defined . . . . . .......... 13
Differentiation of the Self .............. 20
Development of the Self ................ 23
Review of Definitions, Differentiations,
and Development of the Self ............. 24
Research Related to the Self-Concept ......... 26
Conclusions Based Upon Research About Self ...... 31
Self-Understanding and Mental Health .......... 32_
Mental Hygiene Programs ................. 36
Bullis Human Relations Classes ............. 37
Ojemann Causative Approach . . ............. 43
Rye Project for Education in Human Relations
and Mental Health .................. 49
Rosenthal Mental Health Experiment .......... 52
Conclusions Derived from the Mental Health
Programs ....................... 56 -
Chapter Summary ............. . ....... 57
III. DESCRIPTION. SELECTION AND PLAN OF EVALUATION OF THE
EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL GROUPS .............. 59
The Community ..................... S9
The School System ................... 60
The Grade Selected .................. 60

Process of Selection of the Experimental Group . . . . 61
Initial Comparisons of Experimental and

Control Groups ........ . ........... 63
The Plan of Evaluation ................ 68

Chapter

IV.

VI.

Procedures and Materials Used for Making
Quantitative Comparisons .............

Procedures and Materials Used for Making
~ Qualitative Analyses ...............
Chapter Summary ........... . ........

METHODS AND PROCEDURES USED WITH THE
EXPERIMENTAL GROUP . . .................

The Group Discussion Method Employed

in the Study ...................
Formulation and Outline of the Stories .......
Resume of Each of the Stories for

Group Discussion .................
The Individual Interviews .............
Chapter Summary ...................

QUANTITATIVE COMPARISONS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL
AND CONTROL GROUPS ...................

Comparisons on the California Test of Personality

Comparisons on the Open-Ended Essay Questions .....
Conparisons on the Sociograms .............
Comparisons on the California Achievement Test .....
Comparisons on the Social Distance Scale ........
Chapter Summary .....................

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS OF THE STUDY . . . .

Students' Oral and Written Responses to the
Story-Discussions ....................
Record of Student Participation in the
Discussions ......................
Students' Desired Self-Improvements ...........
Students' Three Wishes ..................
Initial Individual Interviews ..............

Second Individual Interviews ............... 5

Third Individual Interviews ...............
Students' Interests and Activities ............
Student Questionnaires ..................
Parent Questionnaires ..................
Teacher Questionnaires .................
Chapter Summary .....................

68

79
83

85
89

92
101
104

105

121
128

131

132

152
154
156
159
163
166
168
170
178
185
187

Chapter

VII. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY ........ 189
General Conclusions .................. 190
Implications and Recommendations ........... 198

APPENDIXES .......................... 208

BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................... 202

TABLES

Table Page
1 Sex Distribution and Total Number of Students
In Each Group . . . . . . . . . . .7. . . . 64
2 Mean Chronological Ages, Mental Ages, And
Intelligence Quotients of Each Group . . . . 65
3 Significance of Differences Between Mean
Intelligence Quotients . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4 Means, Differences Between.Meane, and Total
Point Gain or Loss In Raw Scores On The
California Test Of Personality . . . . . . . . 107
5 Significance of Differences Between Means Of
The B Group and Bach C Group on The
California Test of Personality . . . . . . . . 108
6 Means and Differences Between Means of the
Number of Responses To Open-Ended Essay
mastic” O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 111
7 Number of Isolates, Percentage of Isolates,
Group Integration, and Differences in
Integration On The Sociograms . . . . . . . . , 116
8 Number of Leaders, Percentage of Leaders, And
Differences in Number and Percentage of
Leaders on the Sociograms . . . . . . . . . . . 119
9 Total Scores on the Social Distance Scales . . . 122
10 Significance of Differences Between Means on

the Social Distance Scale . . . . . . . . . . . 124

11 Means and Gains in Means on the California
AChie‘vment Test Battery 0 O O O O O O O O O O 126

12 ' Significance of Difference Between.Means on
Achievement Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

13 Classification of Boys' and Girls' Reasons For
Sociometric Choices on the Middle Sociograms
Within the E Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

Table Page

14 Parents' Ratings of Changes in Their
Children's Behavior And Attitudes . . . . . . 179

15 Parents' Ratings of the Total Value of
the Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Chapter I
THE PROBLEM, DESIGN, AND LIMITATIONS
OF THE STUDY
The stresses of life in our complex society are apparent
everywhere. These vicissitudes have caused many professional
people to begin to take a long hard look at the morbidity rates
of mental illness. There are not enough trained psychologists
and psychiatrists to treat the many who are already mentally
ill. Thus, realistically and logically, the emphasis on sound
mental well-being has shifted increasingly from curative
methods to those hopefully viewed as preventive.1’ 2
This places the educator in an advantageous, albeit
sometimes distressing position. Most children are required to
attend school by law. What better place to institute programs
designed to guide healthy growth and development? The teacher
is one of the most vital factors in the educative process. Thus,
he, as Jersild has indicated,
"He is the central figure in countless situations

which can help the learner to realize and accept him-
self or which may bring humiliation, shame, rejections,

 

1
Louis Kaplan and Denis Baron, Mental Hygiene and Life
(New York: Harper and Brothers, 1952), pp. 8-231

 

Committee on Preventive Psychiatry, Promotion of Mental
Health in the Primary_and Secondary Schools: An Evaluation
of Four Projects (Report No. 18. Topeka: Group for the
Advancement of Psychiatry, 1951), 15 pp.

 

 

3Arthur T. Jersild, In Seardh of Self (New York: Teachers
College, Columbia University, 1952), 1. 125

 

1

Teachers must, in some way, cope positively with the

_many feelings children express in the classroom. Teachers

must understand children, and themselves, in order to effec—
tively promote healthy development. Various attempts and
emphases have been explored which try to aid teachers to pro—
mote children's understanding of their own and others' behavior.
These attempts will be examined in Chapter II.

There is also an apparent need for greater understanding
of the ways in which children develop the warm, accepting,
friendly feelings and behavior so necessary to a satisfying life
with others.

If an organized program could produce better understanding
of oneself then, in the light of present research, it could
logically lead to better mental health and positive self-concepts.
This is vital in present day society and need not be belabored.
The impact upon schools concerned with the relations between the
human beings in the school and the corresponding effect upon
their mental and emotional well-being and that of the community
could be great. These are some of the reasons this study was

undertaken.
Statement of the Problem

There exists a close relationship between one's image of
himself, his desires and ability to achieve a specific goal, and
the achievement of the goal in question. Research reports such
as Bledsoe (1962), Brookover (1962), Raph (1966) and many others
have demonstrated a positive correlation between self-concept,

2

the desire for attainment and the achievement level of students in
school. The need for self-concept and healthy mental attitudes in
'boys and girls resulted in the research undertaken. The problem is
therefore stated here as an hypothesis along with related questions.
The basic assumptions, definitions of terms, and over-all purpose of
the study follow.

Hypothesis. This study was designed to test the major hypothesis

 

that through a series of class discussions and individual interviews,
self-concept and self-understanding of fourth grade students in a
selected public school could be measurably improved.

However, the most vital single point in question in this study
was, to what extent and in what direction, if any, did the children
in the experimental group change as a result of the program?

Related to this point are the following questions:

(1) Were there any attitudinal changes?

(2) Did these changes affect their behavior at school and
at home?

Assumptions. As the chapter on related research will indicate,

 

we assume that the self-concept and self-understanding are closely
related. We also assume that these two constructs are vital to

one's mental health. In this connection Jersild and Helfant have
indicated that, "Self-acceptance, acceptance by others, and accep-

tance of others are intimately interwoven from early infancy onward."4

 

l'Arthur T. Jersild, Kenneth Helfant and Associates, Education
for Self-Understanding (New York: Teachers College, Columbia
University, 1963), p. 14

 

Another assumption of note is that we can measure the above
constructs, at least on their periphery, with the selected tests
and other devices employed in this study.

Definition 2: terms. The terms self, self-concept, self—

 

~ understanding, and mental health are used so frequently in this
study as to require their explicit definition.

Self, The self is defined here as the centralized inner core
of a human being. It is complex, tends to remain stable, being re-
sistant to rapid change. It is an inner frame of reference around
which a being clusters his ideas and feelings about himself, others,
and the roles he plays in life. It is quite subjective in nature
and is the product of experience with one's own abilities, disabili-
ties, likes, dislikes, and many other factors. It is usually colored
considerably by the subjectively perceived impressions of other's
‘actions towards and reactions to self.

Self-concept. Self-concept is "those perceptions, beliefs,
feelings, attitudes, and values which the individual views as describ-
ing himself: according to Perkins (1958). For this study, it is
defined operationally as how the student sees himself as relates to
the questions in the instrument "How I Feel About Myself?"

Self-understanding. Self-understanding denotes the degree to
which a person can blend his subjective interpretation of his self-
concept, and his attitude toward others with the more objective.
data he perceives about himself. Realistic self-understanding is
taken to be basic to mental health.

4

In this connection Jersild and Helfant have stated:

In order to help a student understand himself, it is
necessary to give attention both to objective facts and to the
subjective implications of these facts. The more a child knows
terms of objective facts (height, weight, mental ability, how well
he is liked by others, etc.), the better it will be for his
mental health. But whatever the objective fact may be, the
subjective reality of it - the way the person perceives it and
feels about it - is, to him, the most important thing.5

Mental health. Mental health is defined here as one's
ability to cope successfully with the persistent problems and
stresses of daily life in such a way as to avoid psychological
demoralization. It also connotes one's ability to retain enough
energy and flexibility to continue to grow, change, and develop

toward maturity.

Purpose gf_this study. The research undertaken was intended

 

to aid children in developing self-concepts conducive to self-
understanding and their ability to get along with others in a
group of normal children.

It was then our purpose to examine the efficiency of such an
approach, its methods and techniques, and its evaluation. In order
to accomplish this we attempted to share and clarify with the
children some of the reasons why they and others behave as they do.

Design of the Study

Initial selection and comparisons. The initial comparisons of
the groups were made as to age, sex, number in each group, and in-
telligence. In the light of all available information the experi-

mental group was selected. Following this selection all groups,

 

51bid., 7 f.

experimental and control, took the same or equated forms of
the following tests on a pre-post testing basis:

(1) California Achievement Test Battery. Elementary

(2) California Test of Personality, Intermediate Series.

(3) Classroom Social Distance Scale.

(4) Sociograms.

(5) Open-ended essays.

Experimental conditions. The experimental conditions were
comprised of individual interviews and class discussions.
The individual interviews were held before, during, and after
the twenty-four class story-discussions which were written ex-
pressly for this study by the experimenter. The story-
discussions and interviews were guided by the researcher in such a
way as to promote learning about oneself and one's relations to
others. 1

Final comparisons. Following the final testing the results

 

of the experiment were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively.
The quantitative analysis was based on the results of the
above tests in all groups. Three distinct steps were followed.
First, comparative analysis of the groups' test results was under-
taken. Second, changes between the groups were examined for
direction and significance. Third, the changes within the ex-
perimental group were intensively scrutinized.
Additional evaluation was employed on a qualitative basis
within the experimental group. This type of analysis was based
on information and excerpts from the following sources:

6

(1) Discussion content.

(2) Discussion participation.

(3) Interviews.

(4) Projective devices.

(5) Student's writings.

(6) Student, teacher, and parent questionnaires.

These findings were treated qualitatively as they did not lend
themselves to the methods of statistical analysis employed for the
quantitative comparisons. They presented a different picture that
was confined to the experimental group.

Limitations of the Study.

Theoretical limitations. Certain theoretical limitations are

 

imposed upon this study. In dealing with a construct or concept as
difficult to define and describe as that of the self we become aware
of the many drawbacks in the treatment of the abstract. The re-
searcher is limited by the fact that he cannot more than begin to deal
with the many ramifications of the self and mental health.

Doubtless many of the facets of mental health and self-concept
were not touched upon, much less dealt with intensively. This study
is limited to those aspects of self-concept that are apparently im-
portant in relation to the student's present level of social and
emotional adjustment. No specific attention was drawn to many of
the other factors in influencing adjustment in the school and com-
munity environment such as religious affiliations, recreational
organizations, and the like. Psychosexual development and the
understanding of this area of growth were not touched upon. When

7

aspects of psychosexual development arose in group discussion or
interview, they were not avoided.

Some of these aspects of mental health and self-concept
were dealt with rather indirectly at the studentls behest in the
individual interviews but did not arise much in the class dis-
cussions. In this respect the authors of Education for Self-
understanding, state, "The amount of objective information a young
person should be given about himself depends on how much he can
tolerate, accept, and integrate into a realistic self-picture."6

Shane and MtSwain have dealt briefly with this kind of
theoretical limitation when they discuss evaluation within the
child. They comment that the teacher

...can only hope that the "private world" of each
child's inner being is becoming the kind of world that will
bring ... goals ... closer to reality through the lives the
children are leading and will lead as mature adults.

They add a remark in regards to the "inability of anyone
actually to reach the inner being of the child."8 Yet, they also
advise that this does not proscribe shrewd judgments on the part
of the teacher in her attempts to evaluate the school's success

in effecting this inner being. This would tend to clarify our

theoretical limitations but, at the same time, it poses a

 

61bid., p. 3

7Harold G. Shane and E. T. McSwain, Evaluation and the
Elementary Curriculum (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1961), p. 118.

 

8

challenge to make planned efforts to "take into account, and if
possible give direction to, the child's psychologically 'private
world' in which he lives."9

Practical limitations. The study was made with a limited
sample drawn from a selected public school system described in
Chapter III. This constitutes a decided limitation as to the
conclusions which might be drawn. We are further limited in this
respect by the fact that the sample was comprised of only fourth
grade students. Further, some of the students were absent
several times and might have affected the results although
probably not to a significant extent.

The brief length of time, five months over-all, that the study
took place constitutes a limitation. On the other hand, Rosenthal10
found significant changes in a similar program in much less time.

The experiment, using the subjects in an ordinary public school
situation, is limited in the sense that a tightly designed matched-
pairs type of comparison was virtually impossible. Group comparison
was made instead.

The measures employed to assess changes subject the study to
certain limitations. Since we are dealing with a theoretical con-
struct with which little research has been reported on a group basis

at this grade level there are no particular instruments or tests

 

91bid., p. 54

10Sheldon Rosenthal, "A Fifth Grade Classroom Experiment in
Fostering Mbntal Health," The Journal of Child Psychiatry, 2:302-29,
1952.

which are specifically designed to measure self—concept. Hence,
the tests used are in part, assumed to measure broad aSpects of
self-concept. In this sense the measurement employed might most
aptly be called_peripheral. An attempt has been made to select the
best available devices for this measurement.

The limitations stated above are common to many types of re-
search and research instruments that attempt to deal with human
personality. There is no need to avoid this type of research
because of these limitations. Rather, there is a definite need to
further apply and refine the research methods and tests of this
nature in order to better understand and obviate their limitations

and to increase our knowledge of human behavior.

10

Plan of Presentation

The body of this paper has been organized in such a way as
to describe the study and present its results.

Chapter II cites the research that is related to the self
concept and self-understanding, and discusses the mental health
and human relations programs that have contributed most to this
study.

In the third chapter the process of selection of the experi-
mental and control group is explained following a description of
the community and the school system in which the study took place.
The chapter also gives attention to the tests and other measuring
devices that were used in the study and examines their respective
reliabilities and validities.

Chapter IV details the steps that were followed in the experi-
mental group. An outline of the stories that were written for class
discussion is included. Specific purposes of each of the three
individual interviews are given.

The next two chapters detail the results of the study. Chapter
V presents the comparative analysis of the results of the pre-and
post-testing in a quantitative manner. Chapter VI deals exclusively
with the additional qualitative analysis of the results within the
experimental group.

The final chapter cites the conclusions that are supported by
this research and suggests future areas of needed research.

11

CHAPTER II
RESEARCH RELATED TO THE SELF AND
SELF-UNDERSTANDING AS FACTORS
IN MENTAL HEALTH

As the literature was examined an effort was made to consider
the following main topics for inclusion in the foregoing review of
research:

(1) Definition, development, and differentiation of the self.

(2) Research related to the self-concept.

'(3) The role of self-understanding in mental hygiene.

(4) Studies of group approaches designed to aid the

development of self-understanding and mental health.

The literature of education, psychology, and psychiatry is
liberally sprinkled with references to the self. Self adjustment,
self-appraisal, self—defense, self-involvement, self-enhancement,
self-discipline, self-understanding, self-direction; these and many
others with the word self as a prefix indicate the wide usage of this
term. A word of such use certainly must enjoy a wide understanding.
Yet, upon searching an authoritative source, despite the definitions
of self-activity, self-consciousness, self-confidence, self-control,

and self-correlation that we find in the Dictionary ngducation1 we

 

cannot, strangely, find a definition of the self. Just what

 

1C. V. Good, editor, Dictionary of Education (New York:

McGraw Hill Book Co., 1945), pp. 495

 

12

is the self? Is there any generally agreed upon definition? What
does the literature hold for the understanding of the concept of
self? Further, what is the self like? How does it develop? What
research has been done regarding this concept? Answers to these
questions were sought.
The Self-Concept Defined

Since Socrates said, "Know thyself," the self has been a subject
of conjecture for centuries. Debates concerning the self have interes-
ted philosophers and others for some time. William James recognized two
concepts regarding the self, the "I" and the "Me."2 Mead founded his
philosophical—scientific social psychology upon the same distinction
while greatly elaborating and adding to the social origins of the self.
Mead stated, "We cannot realize ourselves except in so far as we can
recognize the other in his relationship to us. It is as he takes the
attitude of the other that the individual is able to realize himself.
as a self."3

Jersild. Recently we have seen a reiteration of the self—concept
in the literature dealing with the dynamics of human behavior. Jersild
has called attention to this construct in a speech to the American
Psychological Association and, more recently, in his work dealing with

the categorization of three thousand subjects' answers to the questions

 

.-,..__ -—-.- -————-—__-.- .--..-

 

2William James, Psychology (New York: Henry Holt and Co.,l907),
478 pp. _

3George H. Mead, Mind, Self, and Society (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1934), p. 194.

 

13

I 4 5

"What I Like About Myself," and "What I Dislike About Myself." ’
Jersild has defined the self in a number of ways but the most in-
clusive definition he has advanced follows:

When we speak of the self we mean, among other things,

a system of ideas, attitudes, appraisals, and commit-

ments pertaining to one's own person. The person ex-

periences these as distinctly belonging to him and all

of them together constitute the person's awareness of

his individual existence and his conception of who and

what he is. These attitudes and ideas are, of cogrse,

influenced by learning. This is an obvious fact.
Jersild further related this definition to the definitions posed by a
number of psychiatrically and psychologically oriented writers. We
see here a confirmation of the social (through learning) origins of the
self. The majority of the definitions found are drawn from wide experi-

ence with human beings, largely in clinical settings. Thus, we might

term them clinical intuitive as there is little evidence that the con-

 

clusions arrived at have been the result of rigorous research of a
scientific nature.

Sgllizgg. Notable among these clinical intuitive definitions is
the one expressed by Sullivan, "the self dynamism is built up out of

(the) experience of approbation and disapproval."7 Bronfenbrenner added

 

bArthur T. Jersild, "Self Understanding in Childhood and Adolescence,"
American Psychologist, 6:122-26, April, 1951.

5Arthur T. Jersild, In Search of Self (New York: Teachers College,
Columbia University, 1952), 146 pp.

61bid., p. 125.

 

 

7Harry S. Wullivan, Conceptions of Modern Psychiatry (Washington, D. C.:
The William Alanson White Foundation, 1948), p. 9.

14

 

to this definition of Sullivan's by saying, "to put it more
succinctly, the self is the organization of perceived empa-
thetic experience."8 We begin to see that the self is a
rather broad concept in terms of understanding people.

£5312. Lewin treated the self in some detail but left
a final definition somewhat ambiguous. A series of comments
Lewin made regarding the self that aid in the construction
of this concept follow:

It would be natural from Gestalt theoretical considerations

to understand the self in terms of the psychical totality
perhaps as its structural individuality. As a matter of

fact, some such notion is basic to the concept of charac-

ter, for the adequate conception of which one must start,

not from the presence of certain isolated prOperties

(traits), but from the whole of the person. If from this
beginning one comes to the problem of the psychical dyna-
mic systems, the attempt will in all probability be made

to identify the self with the whole of the psychical totality.

A number of facts, however, drive one in the opposite
direction to the view that a special region, within the
psychical totality, must be defined as the self in the
narrower sense. Not every psychically existent system
would belong to this central self.

The self-system would also have in functional respects -
this is most important - a unique position. Not every
tense psycBical system would stand in communication with
this self.

For Lewin then, the self was a somewhat limited aspect of

the person's "psychical totality." In relation to the child

Lewin stated:

Pb: the dhiLd,the boundary between the self and the

 

-.—.~ -—-———.——.—

8Urie Bronfenbrenner, "Toward an Integrated Theory of Personality,"
(R. Blanke and G. Ramsey, editors, Perception: An Approach to
Personality, New York: Ronald Press Co., 1951), p. 250.

9Kurt Lewin, A Dypamic Theory of Personality (New York:
McGraw Hill Book Co., 1935). PP. 61-2. ‘

 

 

15

environment is less defined than for the adult ...
In other words, the child, to a greater extent than
the adult, is a dynamic unity.

This comment shows the unity of the self and tends to counter-act

the comment above that the self should be defined in a narrower
sense. Lewin's concept then is not too far from other, apparently
broader in scope, definitions. We must consider the fact that
Lewin's structure of personality was a broad one in itself. Building
upon Gestalt theoretical foundations the self deals, even if it is

a "special region,‘ with a total background of the person. There-

fore, it has relations of vital kind with all other aspects of the

field.

Hopkins. Hopkins has also contributed a field theoretical
definition of the self. He stressed the unitary nature of the self.

He defined the self as follows:

...the self concept, ... is what the individual considers
himself to be or what he thinks he really is. It is
composed of those parts of the phenomenal field which he
has selected and differentiated as a definite, relatively
stable, consistent characteristic of himself. His self-
concept is his inner core or real, true, genuine, and
intimate self ... This unique self is the center of the
individual's phenomenal field, which is always organized
by him around hi .

We find that the field theorists hold that the self appears to be

the real or true center of all behavior. As such, we might assume
that to understand another's self-concept and the ways in which it
developed would lead us to better understand, and possibly predict,

his behavior.

 

1°1b1d., p. 106
11L. Thomas Hopkins, The Emerging Self in School and Home
(New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954), p. 320..

16

Rogers. In recent years much attention has been given to the
self and the aid this concept gives in understanding and interpre-
ting behavior. Rogers has defined the well-adjusted individual
as one able to accept all perceptions, including those about the
self, into his personality organization.

'It would appear that when all of the ways in whdlhhthe

individual perceives himself - all perceptions of the

qualities, abilities, impulses, and attitudes of the

person, and all perceptions of himself in relation to

others - are accepted into the organized conscious con—

.cept of the self, then this achievement is accompanied

by feelings of comfort and freedom from isnsion which are

experienced as psychological adjustment.

Rogers also pointed out that his relationship between self—
concept and self-adjustment of the client in counseling

is frequently observed in client-centered therapy and added
that this relationship seems to increase in the client as

the therapy progresses and the subject improves in his adjust-

ment s

Combs and others. Combs, Taylor and Combs, and Snygg

 

and Combs discussed Roger's definition and adapted it to
their phenomenological interpretation.13’ 14’ 15 They dis-
cussed the adequate self in some detail and defined it by saying:

12Carl Rogers, "Some Observations on the Organization of
Personality," American Psychologist, 2:364, September, 1947.

13Arthur W. Combs, "Phenomenological Concepts in Non-
Directive Therapy," Journal of Consultingngycholpgy, 12:
197-208, July, 1948

14Charles Taylor and Arthur Combs, "Self-Acceptance and Adiustmen:,'
Journal of Consulting Psychology, 16:89-91, April, 1952.

 

15Donald Snygg and Arthur Combs, Individual Behavior
(New York: Harper and Brothers, 1949), 386 pp.

17

 

"A phenomenal self is adequate in the degree to which
it is capable of accepting into its organization any and all
aspects of reality."16 This is a similar approach to that
of Lecky when he discussed the adequacy of the consistent
self.17
Snygg and Combs earlier defined the self in this way:
"The self-concept includes those parts of the phenomenal
field which the individual has differentiated as definite
and fairly stable characteristics of himself."18 They also
said, "The phenomenal self includes all those parts of the
phenomenal field which the individual experiences as part
or characteristic of himself."19 There is apparently a

considerable closeness of this description to the theoretical

constructs developed by Lewin.

 

16Ibid., p. 136.

17Prescott Lecky, Self Consistency: A Theory of Personality

 

(New York: Island Press, 1945), 154 pp.
18Snygg and Combs, op. cit., p. 112.

191b1d., p. 38

18

Snygg and Combs further elaborated upon the self-concept by
explaining the maintenance of the frame of reference of the staff:

. . . phenomenal self is the only frame of reference
which the individual possesses. It is the only self he
knows. Whether other persons would agree to his self-
definitions or not, the phenomenal self has the feeling of
complete reality, to the individual. Wherever he is, what-
ever he does, the maintenance and enhancement of this self
is the prime objective of his existence.20
The complexity and organization of the self is treated by saying,
"Although the phenomenal self is complex it is by no means dis—
organized. Rather it is a highly organized function which Operates
in consistent and predictable fashion."21 This statement supports
the approach of Lewin and aids in clarifying his concepts. .
Raimy. Raimy has presented a theory of self-concept that well
represents the field theorist's approach and strongly supports the
position taken by Snygg and Combs. Raimy posits the following three
principles:
1. The self-concept is a learned perceptual system
which functions as an objective in the perceptual field.
2. The self-concept not only influences behavior but is
itself altered and restructured by behavior and un-
satisfied needs.
3. It may have little or no relation to external reality.22
Raimy's statement that the self may show little or no relation to
external reality poses one of the problems in dealing scientifically

with such a construct. It would be advisable

 

2°1bid., p. 79.

211bid., p. 79.

22Victor C. Raimy, "Self Reference in Counseling Interviews",

Journal of Consulting ngcholggy, 12:154, May, June, 1948.

19

to note here that the consistency and predictability of the
self causes such a problem. We encounter all the disabili—
ties of personality measurement when we deal with the fact -
or theory - that the self is such a vital core of the human
being that it is sometimes difficult to assess it since
people frequently prefer not to confide their innermost feel—
ings to counselors. This has been frequently recognized

and noted specifically by Snygg and Combs and Hopkins.
Differentiation of the Self

As we review the above definitions it becomes apparent
that there is some separation of various aspects of the self.
These distinctions are presented as differentiations of the
self.

Jung. Some differentiation of the self has been
attempted. Jung has distinguished between the self and
the ego:

The really fundamental subject, the Self, is far

more comprehensive than the ego, because the former
essentially the focal point of consciousness.

The individual Self is a portion, or excerpt or
representative of something universally present in all
living creatures, and therefore, a correspondingly

graduated kind of psychggogical process, which is born
anew in every creature.

 

23C. G. Jung, Psycholpgical Typgs or The Psychology
of Individuation (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Co., 1923),
p. 475.

 

20

Jung later equated the "something universally present" to
instinct (an inborn manner of acting) or archetype. Jung
therefore stands in partial opposition to the previously
named writers as regards the social nature of the develop-
ment of self. Jung goes on to say, "the ego is only the
subject of my consciousness, while the Self is the subject

of my totality: Hence it also includes the unconscious

"24

psyche. Thus Jung embraces the ego within the self.

Symonds. Symonds took issue with an all-inclusive-
ness of either the self or the ego. He stated this dif-

ferentiation by saying:

. . . there are two concepts with regard to the self
which correspond to the self as subject and as object
which need to be kept distinct and which therefore
require two different terms. Egp_henceforth will be
used to refer to that phase of personality which
determines adjustments to the outside world in.the
interest of satisfying inner needs in those situations
where choice and decision are involved. Or, to
define 3gp_differently, it is an active process for
developing and executing a plan of action for attain-
ing satisfaction in response to inner drives. The
self, on the other hand, refers to the body and mind
and to bodily and mental processes as theyzgre
observed and reacted to by the individual.

Symonds later elaborated upon this differentiation when he
remarked about the reality of the self and separated the
inner core, which he equated to the self-concept of Snygg

and Combs, and the outer fringes of the self.

 

*~*~--w----—.—o - .

2“161d., p. 540

25Percival M. Symonds, The Egg and the Self (New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1951), p. 4.

21

 

The self is the most real thing in our experience, and
is the frame of reference with which a person perceives,
conceives, and evaluates the world around him and to-
ward which he reacgg . . . the self has a periphery
as well as a core.
Murphy. This differentiation is consistent with the
one offered by Murphy, "the inner world becomes important
. . a conceptual unity is deduced. The self is a thing
perceived and it is also a thing conceived; in both senses

27 ‘Murphy related this

it is constantly responded to."
dual self to the large part of behavior that constitutes

personality and added that this behavior is self-oriented.
This would relate closely to the self-enhancement tendency

of the self that Snynfi and Combs have mentioned.

991a and Bruce. The self is thus differentiated by

 

some authors although, theoretically at least, the self is
the core of unity and relative consistency. Cole and Bruce
postulated four selves which they say are involved in every
personality.

First: The real action, the "true behavior of the

individual.

Second: The self'e own, expressed description of
behavior.

Third: "As others see us," evaluations of our behavior
by others.

Fourth: The super-ego, the ideal self, which egfih
of us carries with him from childhood.

 

 

26Ibid., p.70.

27Gardner Murphy, Personality: A Biosocial Approach
to Oréggns and Structure (New York: Harpers and Brothers, 1947).p.479.

28L. H. Cole and W. P. Bruce, "Educational Psycholpgy
(New York: World Book Co., 1950), p. 326.

22

 

We might then conclude on the basis of the evidence
presented that there is no essential discrepancy between
the self as a unified core and the finer differentiations
within the core and its periphery. The differentiations
noted are taken as evidence of the complexity in nature of
the self.

Hopkins. Hopkins put this rather succinctly when he
distinguished between the inner self-concept and the outer
sheath of the self. He held that the inner self is the only
real, true, self, while the sheath is a kind of protective
outer covering which has as its main function the mainten-
ance and protection of the inner self. He went on to de-
scribe three levels of differentiation in each unique self,
"the fully accepted, the partially accepted, and the rejected."29
Yet, despite these three levels and the distinction between

the inner and outer self, Hopkins still stressed the unity

and consistency of the self.
Development of the Self

Implicit in any discussion of the differentiation of
self is the fact that this differentiation occurs as the
self develops. Some authorities give attention to this
development.

'Mppphy, Murphy explained the development of the self

in some detail. His discussion of the origins and develop-

—--“ .-«um-

29Hopkins, op. cit., p. 325.

23

ment of the self was similar to that of Symonds. Jersild also
discussed the development of the self and noted that:

The self is acquired. It is not readydmade. It develops

as a person, with his inborn abilities and tendencies and

all that is inherent in his make-up, meets up with the

experiences of life . . . influegfied strongly . . . by his

relationships with other people.

Symonds. Symonds took a similar direction in describing the
development of the self and added to our understanding of the im-
portance of the role of perception in this process. He stated:

Like the ego, the self as a percept is not present at

birth but begins to develop gradually as perceptive

powers develop . . . . The self deve10ps as we feel

ourselves separate and distinct from others, but the

. . . Perception is in important factor in this process

of differentiation.3

Tryon and Henry. Others have briefly discussed the develop-
ment and organization of the self. Tryon and Henry related the self
development of the child to his methods and techniques of dealing
with his problems and stated that the self concept is important to
consider in working with children.32

Review of Definitions, Differentiations,
and DevelOpment of the Self

The self is a vital complex unity of the human being. This

idea runs through most of the literature reviewed.

 

3oJersild, In Search of Self, op. cit., p. 16.

31Symonds, op. cit., pp. 62-63.

32Caroline Tryon and William E. Henry, "How Children Learn
Personal and Social Adjustment," Learnipg and Instruction, Forty-
ninth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education,
Part I (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950), pp. 169-171.

24

Apparently, the self is that part of a person which deter-
mines much of his behavior. It is the hard inner core of
being which includes all a person conceives and perceives

of himself and his relations to others and their relations
to him. The self is relatively stable and consistent, tends
to resist rapid change, and is rather pervasive in terms of
the total personality.

Differentiations have been noted between the self and
the ago. The self is generally considered to evolve later
than the ego and is a more inclusive construct than the ego.
We have reviewed some of the differentiations within the
self—system as relates to the ways in which one conceives
and perceives of himself and the ways in which one conceives
and perceives that others think of himself. These differences
make interesting hypothetical constructs but do not apparently
indicate that the real self is anything other than a unity,
a whole, an inner core of being.

The slight mention of the self in children apparently
indicates that this is an area of study which is somewhat
lacking even in theoretical considerations. The self in a
child develops as a dynamic unity but is not apparently
differentiated to the degree that it is in adolescents or
adults. As such, it would perhaps be more easily observable

in children.

25

Research Related to the Self-Concept

With the self defined and differentiated, attention
was directed to the research related to this concept. Each
of these studies illustrated the close relationship of self—
concept and understanding of others.

Brookover, pt, £152 summarized among other things in a
study of the relation of self-concept to achievement in junior
high school subjects that:

1. Self-concept of ability is positively related

to school achievement in seventh grade when
measured intelligence is controlled.

2. A student's self-concept of ability in a
specific school subject may differ from his
general self-concept of ability.

3. A student's self-concept of ability is positively
related to the image he perceives that signifi-
cant others hold of him . . . when parents,
teachers, and peers are identified as significant

others.

4. The family socio-economic status is positively related
to seventh grade students' self-concept of ability....

Shearer. Shearer and Stock have demonstrated a correlation
between the attitudes of acceptance and respect for self and the
attitudes of acceptance and respect for others in analyzing units
of self-reference taken during recorded interviews of clients in
a client-centered counseling situation. Both researches tend to confirm

Mead's analysis of the social nature of the self.

 

- —. -.-——-—-—

32Brookover, Wilbur a. , at. al. ppm-Cones” of Abilipy and
Achievement. Final Report on Cooperative Research Project No. 1636
entitled Improvingyécademic Achievement thropgh Students' Self-Conpgpt
Enhancement. Bureau of Educational Research Services, Michigan
State University, East Lansing, 1965.

 

26

Shearer analyzed ten counseling cases who had a total
of fifty-nine interviews. From these interviews 1,366 units
of response relating to the self were derived. These units
of response led Shearer to conclude the following:

1. It was found that acceptance of and respect for
self and acceptance of and respect for others can be
operationally defined and objectively rated with a
satisfactory degree of reliability.

2. In roughly three-fourths of the units of client
response in the ten cases the clients are occupied
with self evaluation while less than one-fifth of
the units deal with evaluation of others.

3. In general, there is a marked and fairly regular
increase in the measured acceptance of and respect for
self from the beginning to the end of the cases. There
is also a marked but more uneven rise in the acceptance
of others from the beginning to the end.

4. There is a definite and substantial correlation between
attitudes of acceptance of and respect for self and
acceptance of and respect for others.

5. Acceptance of self and acceptance of others is on
the average, higher in the second half of the counseling
interviews than in the first.

6. There is a closer correlation between the "Self" and "Others'
ratings.in 358 second half of the cases than occurs in the
first half.

In relation to Sheerer's conclusions Symonds remarked that,
"one can be fairly sure that the person who is critical of
others sets a low valuation on himself . . . and . . . the

person who esteems his fellows really thinks well of him-

self."34

.. ---.--~ a.-. - e- . v - -- -~--.——- .------.-.-—-- -- -...“ u--~--~--v.-- - u --'_~I—-"w- -- Q o - .. 'Q-W.

33E. T. Shearer, "An Analysis of the Relationship Between
Acceptance of and Respect for Self and Acceptance of and Respect
for Others in Ten Counseling Cases," Jpppppl.pf_99nsultipg
nggpplpgy, 13:175. June, 1949.

aasymonds, op. cit., p. 113.

27

Stock. Stock, after a similar, though somewhat less compre-
hendsive study then Sheerer's confirmed the previous findings when
she stated:

The total results of this study indicate that a definite

relationship exists between the way an individual feels

about himself and the way he feels about other persons.

An individual who holds negative feelings toward other

people in general. As his feelings about himself change

objective or positgge, feelings about others change in

similar direction.

In relation to the two studies mentioned above, it is interes-
ting to conjecture upon the possibility of reversing the procedure
in the light of the social nature of the self. If one were to work
within a group or class framework to deliberately build up the self-
concept of a selected child or children might we not then expect that
the relations with others, being then of a more positive nature,
might result in better acceptance of self. It appears that this is
the direction many of the mental hygienists are indicating without
formulating their purpose in the same words.

Phillips. Phillips carried the clinical investigations
mentioned above one step further when he evolved a personality
questionnaire out of the description of self-other attitudes as
reported by Sheerer. Upon testing various small papulations and

analyzing the data Phillips made the following tentative conclu-

sions:

 

35Dorothy Stock, "An Investigation into the Interrelations
Between the Self Concept and Feelings Directed Towards Other
Persons and Groups," Journal of ConsultinggPsycholpgy, 13:180,
June, 1949.

 

28

It is apparent from these results that the self-others
attitudes as measured in terms of an objective, multiple-
choice questionnaire show substantial relationships far
above that expected by chance. The results show also
that.the observation of clinicians in regard to self-others
attitudes hold for normal or non-clinical population; these
attitudes are not, therefore, a function of clinical status,
maladjustment, or the like. There appears to be no con-
sistent relat§pnship with age insofar as this study explores
that problem.

'Rpimy, Raimy, on a slightly different tact, analyzed the
recorded interviews of fourteen counseling cases. There were 111
interviews in all. The cases were classified as to success. Seven
were designated as successful, four as unsuccessful, and three
doubtful. Self-reference remarks of each of the cases were analyzed.
He found that consistent differences were apparent in the change of
self-reference remarks of the clients in successful, as Opposed to
un-successful, cases. Raimy concluded by saying, "Changes in self-
approval are indicative of changes taking place in personality
although the observed changes may not be direct measures of the fun-

n37

damental changes themselves. He added that, "The results are

interpreted as being in accord with the hypothesis that successful
counseling involves essentially a change in the client's Self-Concept."38
McQuitty. McQuitty has compared the results of a questionnaire

designed to relate personality integration with self-concept after

testing one hundred thirty mental hospital

 

36E. Lakin Phillips, "Attitudes Towards Self and Others: A Brief
Questionnaire Report", Journal of Consulting Psycholpgy, 15:81,
Feb., 1951.
37
Raimy, op. cit., p. 161.

381b1de’ Ppe 152-3s

29

patients and eighty-four community persons. He concluded
that evidence concerning the relative homogeneity of the
self derived from his research. He stated the following

implications:

We suggest that the adequate personality is one in
whom the self is well-integrated, in the sense that
his successive subjective descriptions of self are
characteristic of similar categories of people, and
as a result of this he can readily accept into the
organized conscious concept of self all his inter-
: , pretation of real§§y, including, of course, percep-
tions of himself.
McQuitty related his findings to those of Snygg and Combs,
Rogers, and Aidmsn when he said, "Maximum psychological ad-
justment exists when all of an individual's subjective
'
opinions of himself are entirely acceptable to him. 40
Aidman. All of these authors emphasized the finding
that a reorganization of self resulted in behavioral
changes, and that behavioral changes were necessarily out-
comes of changes, in onefs concept of self. Aidman has illus-
trated these changes and relationships in his paper dealing
41
with the analysis of one counseled case.
Brownfain. Brownfsin defined the self-concept as a

system of central meanings which an individual has about

himself and his relation to the social environment about him.

 

39Louis L. McQuitty, "A Measure of Personality Integration
in Relation to the Concept of Self," Journal of Personality, 18:472,
July, 1950.

40Ibid., p. 473.

AlTed Aidman. "Changes in Self Perception as Related to Changes

in Perception of One's Environment," Anerican Psychologist, 3:286, July, 194

 

30

He analyzed the stability of the self-concept of sixty-two
college men and found that those with s more stable self-
concept, as measured, were the better adjusted."2 Here
again confinmation of the concept of self as being very
closely related to the psychological and social adjustment

of the individual was found.
Conclusions Based Upon Research About Self

It was found that the self is closely related to the
total adjustment of an individual. Experimental evidence
appeared to indicate that as one changes his concept of self
his rplations with others show a positive behavioral change
in successful counseling cases. These changes are not gen-
erally apparent in unsuccessful counseling cases. The same
analyses indicated that as one accepts himself more positively
and understands himself better he is more positively accept-
ing and respecting others. Evidence has indicated that this
is not only true of a clinical population, but onra limited
scale, true of a general population. The exception was made
when dealing with a mental hospital population.

These research findings tend to indicate that self—
theory, centered around the self-concept, is a useful con-
struct which lends itself to scientific experimentation but

the means and methods of such exploration are in their infancy.

 

azJohn J. Brownfsin, "Stability of the Self-Concept as
a Dimension of Personality," (Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Ann Arbor, University of Michigan, 1951), 143 pp;

31

The following statements indicate the general con-

clusions derived from the research presented thus far:

(1) The self is apparently the inner core of being.

(2) The self-concept is a determining factor in human
behavior.

(3) The self-concept is apparently expressed through
a child's self-understanding as shown in his
behavior.

(4) The social and emotional aspects of the self and
of one's understanding of one's self appear to be
observable and measureable through a variety of
devices.

(5) Self-understanding and social adjustment appear to
be closely related.

The foregoing research also seems to support the

contention that a group approach to self-understanding, if
effective, might result in positive dynamic changes in

social adjustment.

Self-Concept and Mental Health

Understanding one's self is a learning process. As

I
o b " Oh ‘

the child grows and develops he gains a wide variety of ex-

.1
I I.‘.e

perisnce. This experience side him in the development of

his self-concept and his relationships with others. As he
lives with others and learns from them he clarifies and de-
fines his inner self. Much of his activity is directed to- '
ward self-development and self-enchancement, the maintenance,

protection, and expansion of his inner self.

32

Without this growth ~through experience he could not
come to know and understand himself. With it, he comes to
a deeper and wider understanding of his own needs and clari-
fies his values. One suthority has remarked, while discussing mental
health and emotional maturity, that the old adage, "Know thyself"
was a luxury to the Greeks but is an absolute necessity to maturity
and stability is our society.

Rosenthal has summarized the need for mental health
in supporting his approach to a human relations program."3
Many mental hygienists have stressed the importance of self-
concept as one of the basic needs in order to achieve
mental well-being. The eminent psychiatrist, William Menninger,

in an address entitled Understandipg_0urselves delivered at

 

the 38th Annual Convention of the National Association of
Secondary School Principals, on February 20-24, 1954 in

‘Milwaukee, Wisconsin, stated that "the only conceivable primary
anm of education should be to prepare the individual for social
living." He added that only a small percentage of our school
systems have crystallized their thinking about mental health as

a primary objective. In his thinking, the school's main object is
to help each individual develop a healthy personality. This would
be accomplished by helping the student understand himself, his

capabilities, abilities, and limitations.

 

hasheldon Rosenthal, "A Fifth Grade Classroom Experiment in
Fostering Mental Health," The Journal of Child Psychiatry, 2:302-
329, 1952.

 

33

At the same convention, Dr. John A. Schindler com-
mented upon the need for educating the emotions. He stated
that the average physician in this country sees twenty-three
patients a day, of whom twelve are emotionally disturbed.
Schindler felt that this fact must lead us to the concept
that emotional stress and emotional stasis are learned.

Thus it is, he argued, that the schools should put into

their curricula the things that would, "teach people maturity
of which the emotional stasis is the direct manifestation."
These comments and many others lead us to the realization
that the self, self-understanding, and mental health are so
closely related as to be almost interdependent.

The development of a healthy self-concept appears to
be dependent, to a considerable degree, upon a realistic and
meaningful understanding of one's self. . . self-understanding.
Self-understanding derives from one's experiences at work, love,
play, study; literally, in all situations within which and
upon which the individual organism operates. It is colored
constantly by one's own interpretation of who and what he is
and by one's subjective interpretation of what others think
of him.

The efficacy of learning about one's self, at least in
part, by the study of others and their reactions to us has
been indicated by Rogers. Changes in self-concept are demon-
strably related and inextricably interwoven to one's percep-
tion of and actions towards others as well as one's percep-

tions of and reactions to others' behavior toward us. Rogers,

34

Snygg and Combs, Shearer, and Stock have illustrated this

relationship.

Kelley also pointed out the implications of this
relationship when he said,

The crucial problem of each human organism is to find
a way by which it can enhance and defend its entity
without too much exclusion of others. The discovery
of sufficient defense for entity with a maximum of
human intercourse is a problem of balance. It is 44
probably what is meant by adjustment in its best sense.

Kelley goes on to describe this relationship when he makes

the following statement:

The only way to modify and improve one's attitude toward
other people is to give him a chance to have rewarding
and enhancing experiences with other people. In this
way he can see that other people are not dangerous, and
his whole concept of his own self can be changed. As
he helps others and is helped by them, he can not only
open up to others, but can gain much-needed self-confi-
dence. One can grow as long as he lives, but he cannot
grow unless he izsopen enough to take in the perceptive

stuff of growth.

The research relating to the self-concept has been
briefly traced. The interrelationships of self and self-
understanding have been explained. Experimental programs,

multi-purposed, which are intended to contribute to mental

or self-health are presented on the following pages.

 

44Earl C. Kelley, "Communication and the Open Self,"
£29., 11398, Winter, 1954.

6511,”. , p. 99.

35

Mbntal Hygiene Programs

Some of the major contributions of researchers in
the area of mental health bear upon this study. Bullis,
Ojemann, Helfant, and Rosenthal have each evolved a dis-
tinctive program of work with children which has the ultimate
purpose of positively modifying behavior which, it is hy-
pothesised, will result in mental well-being. This major
purpose or common goal has been cited by the Group for the
Advancement of Psychiatry as, "The improvement in emotional
f maturation of the children so that more effective personality
function is possible, thereby, reducing psychiatric and
social morbidity. ""6

Each of the above-named programs has differences in
immediate objectives, methods, materials, and techniques,
but the basic intent and values are similar. We shall review
and discuss these similarities and differences with respect
to the following points:

(1) Identification and purposes of the program.

(2) Formulation of the program, including methods and

materials. 7

(3) Evaluative methods and results.

(4) Conclusions.

 

46Committee on Preventive Psychiatry, "Promotion of
Mental Health in the Primary and Secondary Schools: An
Evaluation of Four Projects," Report No. 18 (Topeka: Group
for the Advancement of Psychiatry, January, 1951), p. 12.

36

The Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry has
critically analyzed four projects of this type including
the Bullis and Ojemann projects. Their conclusions are

cited. Additional contributing research is briefly mentioned.
Bullis Human Relations Classes

Since 1941 Bullis has, under the auspices of the
Delaware State Society for Mental Hygiene, developed and used
the lesson plans described in the three volumes entitled
Human Relations in the Classroom.47 The program is broad in
perspective and is used in the fifty states of our country
and in foreign countries as well.

22522233. The following quotation expresses the basic
purpose and underlying theory of the human relations lessons:

The theory on which these Human Relations Classes are
operating is that little can be learned about personal
problems except through personal experience, and that
ordinary teaching or lecturing or giving advice fall
far short in providing the kind of insights that come
out of life encounters with emotional;problems. While
it is impossible to furnish children in the classrooms
with real life situations to discuss and to learn to
understand, our efforts and techniques are to endeavor
to create as nearly as possible these "actual life
situations."

 

.—

 

47H. Edmun d Bullis and Emily E. O'Malley, (co-authors
VolumeI), H. Edmund Bullis, (author Volumes II and III)
Human Relations in the Classroom,_Courses I-III, (Wilmington:
Delaware State Society for Mental Hygiene, 1947-1953).

“31b1d., Course I, P. 12.

37

Although the statement is broad in scope we notice the comment
above the lack of real life situations in the classroom. The
author takes issue with this and feels that the understanding
teacher can capitalize upon the issues in the behavior of chil-
dren that do occur within the confines of the classroom. The
statement does indicate Bullis' intent to structure the experi-
ences instead of letting them arise incidentally or not at all.

In another source Bullis called attention to the twofold
purpose of the human relations class program:

First, it is hoped that all ... may come to know more

about their individual emotional strengths and weak-

nesses and come to realize the very dynamic part

emotions play in their lives, to the end that they may

become more emotionally mature. The second purpose ...

is to give special consideration to the boys and girls

who are socially unacceptable to their classmates.

Methods and materials. The three courses of lesson plans have
been written and recommended for use in grades six through nine. The
authors feel that the material can be adapted to grades four through
twelve. Each course consists of thirty lesson plans and six teacher
aids which comprise varied suggestions for conducting the discussions.

The method employed by Bullis is to read the prepared story in
the course. Following the reading, the discussion is led by the

teacher. The problems in the story are designed to express are

brought out and analyzed by the class. A transition is then attempted.

 

49H. Edmund Bullis, "Brief Communications, One Out of Seven,"
Psychiatry: Journal for the Study of Interpersonal Relations, 16:94,
February, 1953.

 

38

The children's own experiences are sought and related to the material
and conclusions drawn from the story. It is here that the real value
of the story lies. Bullis has remarked:

Our weekly class starts with the teacher reading

a stimulus story which features emotional problems.

The students then are encouraged to discuss freely the

emotional problems presented in the stimulus story, to

give their appraisal of the solutions effected in the

story, to speculate on the motivations lying back of

the behavior, and then - most important of all - to

indicate, from their own personal experiences, parallel

situations to those presented in the stimulus story.

In this retelling of emotional experiences, often bring-

ing out into the Open problems they have never discussed

before, a better understanding of their actions often

results. The students also gain insights by listening

to their classmates 5811 freely of how they met certain

emotional problems.5

The Bullis lessons are oriented towards a broad human rela-
tions approach with special emphasis upon the emotional aspects
of life. The introductory course develops the concept of four basic
inner drives: self-preservation, adventure, interest in the opposite ‘
sex, and recognition. Many of the stories are written by Bullis and
are based upon his own experiences and those of his personal friends
and acquaintances. Some of the stories deal with famous people and
some of the lessons are a series of incidents or anecdotes, each
related to a major point. The stories or lessons are sequential in

nature and are organized to build progressively upon previously

presented material.

 

50Bullis, Course I, op. cit., p. 12.

 

39

Evaluation._ Little specific information has been located
concerning evaluation of the human relations classes. It is
generally assumed that progress is made. This assumption is
based upon teacher opinion, observations of children's behavior
and some brief case studies.

Bullis, in a letter to the writer of the study stated:

A teacher in Madison used California Tests in checking
several classes. One class had 30 Human Relations les-
sons one week apart. A second class had 30 lessons

daily for 30 consecutive days. A third class did not
have the lessons at all. I felt her study was based

on too few pupils over too short a time. It seemed to
indicate, however, that those who had the Human Relations
Classes throughout the year develOped a friendlier atti-
tude towards new pupils than the other two classes.

A Principal in another school took five classes in
his school, using weekly Human Relations Class plans
for a year and five similar classes in another school
not using the lessons.

I have always stated that we cannot prove statistically
the benefit of our Human Relations Classes. We do,
however, hear from both parents and teachers - and
sometimes from boys and girls later on in life - that
they feel they have gained worthwhile insights as a re-
sult of our program. Again.we find many instances in
which school administrators tell us that certain teach-
ers utilizing our work seem to gain additional insights
into their own problems and also the problems of the boys
and girls.51

Bullis made similar general conclusions in other sources.52’ S3

 

51Letter from Col. H. Edmund Bullis, February, 1970

52H. Edmund Bullis, "Are We Losing Our Fight for Improved
Mental Health?" Progressive Education, 30:113, February, 1953.

53H. Edmund Bullis, "An Educational Program for DevelOpment
of the 'Normal' Personality," The American Journal of Psychiatry,
109:376, November, 1952.

 

 

40

Although Bullis cited the use of the class accepta-
bility record in finding that approximately fifteen per cent,
or one out of seven, of the children in each classroom of
students in grades kindergarten through twelve are socially
unacceptable to their classmates or are rejected by their
classmates, he did not state any proof as to whether or not
these children were better accepted following the use of the
human relations lessons.“ He did content that:

It has been found decidedly worth while to take
advantage of this information so that the overlooked
child can be reseated among those children he admires.
By teaming up the rejected child in class protects
with those he admires, we find that the other boys

and girls in this small group come to know the over-
looked child better and freggently show more tolerance
of him and try to help him.

In regards to total evaluation Bullis has said:

After twelve years experience with the Delaware

Human Relations Class program, we cannot prove statis-
tically that the mental health of the people of our
state has improved. Unfortunately, we cannot boast
that the boys and girls exposed to our classes have
become more emotionally mature then boys and girls in
other stateg6 But we do know . . . that progress is
being made.

On the basis of the above information we see that im-
provement in adjustment and skill in human relations and self

concept is judged from a variety of sources of informa-

 

-- .—..—_—_._. ....-.

54H. Edmund Bullis, "A Positive Mental Health Program,"
Amggigananurnal of Public Health, 60:115, September, 1960.

55
p. 96.

56Bullis, "Are We Losing Our Fight for Mental Health?"
op. cit., p. 113.

 

 

Bullis, "Brief Communications . . ., op. cit.,

41

tion, but said information has not been, in these sources,
subjected to rigorous scientific analysis.

Conclusions. In commenting upon and evaluating

 

these mental hygiene classes, some of which were observed
by the committee, the Group for the Advancement of Pay-
chiatry remarked:

There was much interest shown by the pupils who
appeared to be attentive and enthusiastic....

The fifteen per cent or so of the class ordinarily
excluded. . . and who are charactgrized as shy chil-
dren become more socially active.

The group further commented on some of the weaknesses
of the classes when it stated:

They competed for the teacher's attention so that

they would be called upon to give answers. Some of the
questions were regarded by the teacher as right or
wrong, and the student got to know whether he had done
well or not . . . . Sometimes answers to questions were
not regarded as right or wrong. . . . The moralistic
attitude is quite obvious. This is generally considered
contrary to an accepted principle that such educations;8
methods should be as free as possible from moralizing.

Contrarily, Bullis has remarked, while citing a comment
of a shy boy who was telling how he avoided spanking by lying,
that "Again there was no moralizing. The catharsis alone was

enough."59

A discrepancy is noted. Nevertheless, it is one
that might be expected when it is understood that manv dif-

ferent teachers are using these lessons with varying degrees
of skill and understanding. It does point up the extreme

57Committee on Preventive Psychiatry, op. cit., p. 5.
581bid., p. 5.

59Bu1113, Course 1, OP. c1r., P. z.

42

difficulty of any evaluation onaa comparative basis when the
personality of the teacher functions so vitally in the les—
sons and the accompanying discussions.

In summary, it appears that the Bullis project is
very broad in scope but lacks much scientific evidence as
to its results. Some evidence was found that behavioral
and attitudinal changes are made and these changes are in a

positive direction.
Ojemann Causative Approach

Working within an experimental framework since 1941
at the State University of Iowa, Ojemann and his associates
have developed materials for use with children wherein the
causative approach to behavior is utilized. This approach
leads to an understanding of the behavior of others and of
oneself. Stiles has explained this approach by saying:

Human behavior may be approached in two ways. On the

one hand, it may be viewed in its overt form and the

form described as it appears. On the other hand, the
behavior may be discussed in terms of the factors
that produced it - - the motives and other fagbors
that were its immediate and remote ancestors.

Ojemann said, "Adjusting to behavior . . . involves an

appreciation of the factors that lie behind that behavior."61

The causative approach is defined as one which leads to en

 

 

—_ .- - -..—......—

6OFrances S. Stiles, "Developing an Understanding of
Behavior at the Elementary School Level, " Journal of Educational
Research, 43: 516, March, 1950.

61Ralph H. Ojemann, "An Integrated Plan for Education
in Human Relations and Mental Health," Journal of the National
Association of Deans of Women, 16:102, March, 1963

 

 

43

analytic dynamic understanding of the causes of human behavior.
This is opposed to the more frequent, and less successful,
surface approach to behavior. In essence, the causal approach
deal a with learning experiences relative to the WHY of people's
behavior rather than an isolated consideration of the results
of their actions.

Purpose. In describing the purpose of this approach
Ojemann stated:

A . . . fundamentally preventive approach would appear

to be to help each child as he develops toward adult-

hood to acquire a foundation in an understanding and

appreciation of the dynamics of his social environment.62

Mgtbods and Materials. Ojemann based his methods

 

upon the assumption that children can appreciate, learn, and
act according to the basic dynamic concepts of motivation,
multiple causation, and a distribution of values.

Rather than construct a special course, segmented
from the ordinary curriculum and behavior of children, Ojemann
determined to revise all the materials in the areas of study
that deal with peOple such as the social studies, guidance,
home economics, and the like. This is a decidedly more com-
prehensive approach than that of Bullis. Materials for

grades kindergarten through twelve were prepared.63

 

621bid., p. 101.

63Ralph Ojemann, "How the Integrated Plan for Education

in Human Relations and Mental Health Developed," (Unpublished
manuscript, State University of Iowa, 1963), pp. 6-7.

44

The basic method is that of story discussion, similar
to that of Bullis. Each story is introduced bv the teacher
and then read under the usual classroom conditions. Dis-
cussion follows.

The purpose of the discussion was not only to recall the

incidents in the story but also to bring out the dif-

ferences in the procedure that arise when one thinks

of causes as contrasted with predominant attention to

the overt aspects of the behavior. The discussion was

also designed to consider whagésome of the probable effects

of the two approaches may be.

The materials include stories that have been written
together with suggestions for the teacher as to their use.
Ojemann described these materials as follows:

Each narrative or dramatic incident describes some

behavior situation. After the situation has been set

forth someone begins to make a surface approach to it.

Then the character rethinks his proposed reaction and

makes a causal approach. In other words, in various

ways some of the paths by which the behavior developeg5

come out and someone acts in the light of these data.
Additional materials are employed at the varying school
levels. These include dramatic skits, discussion analyses
of room councils, discussion analyses of school councils
and their actions, and social studies units.

Evaluation. In evaluating the studies made by Ojemann

and his associates frequent use of the Hp" test in analyz-

ing differences in behavior and attitudes of the children was

 

 

6“Ojemann, "An Integrated Plan . . .," op. cites
p. 105.
65Loc. cit.

45

66’67 Other evaluative devices were employed including

found.
the citing of case studies of students and their responses

and behavior. The basic criterion for evaluation was whether
or not a student could improve in his ability to demonstrate

an analytical approach to the behavior problems which con-
fronted him for solution.

Stiles designed, presented, and measured a learning
program for 172 children in the intermediate grades. The
measure of change was an analysis and classification of
the reasons for voting in certain ways in school councils. The
analysis was preceded by one-hour discussion periods intro—
duced by three stories. The discussion periods were held
for six consecutive days. The voting was compared by "aver-
aging the ballot scores from four council meetings prior to
and the scores from the four meetings following the learning
program."68 For all groups the data showed significant gains.
In all these cases, the differences in mean scores, as measured
by the p_test, were statistically significant beyond the one
per cent level of confidence. Stiles stated the following

conclusion:

 

-..-0.-.”... .— .———-.—-—-—-- ----fin”... C‘-

66Mildred 1. Morgan and Ralph Ojemann, "The Effect of a Learning
Program Designed to Assist Youth in an Understanding of Behavior
and its Development," Child Develgpment, 13:181-94, September, 1942.

67Frances S. Stiles, "A Study of Materials and Programs for
Developing an Understanding of Behavior at the Elementary School Level,"
(Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, State University of Iowa, 1947), 210 pp.

68Stiles, "Developing an Understanding of Human Behavior . . .,

op. cit., p. 521.

46

Changes in the child's approach to the behavior and

in his understanding of that behavior can be made on

the elementary school level provided appropriate influences
are brought to bear. If it is desirable to develop in
children an understanding of the behavior of others and

the ability to approach behavior in an analytical way,

a contributigp can be made through elementary school
experiences.

Ojemann, using a somewhat different approach, analyzed
the amount of time devoted to non-coOperative or distractive
activity during twenty presentations made in each of six first
grade classes. He concluded that "the amount of non-coopera-
tive activity while the material was being presented was
very small."70 In some cases the distractive scores amounted
to less than one per cent of the time of presentation of the
story and discussion. Similar results were obtained in the
second and third grades.

In evaluating the work of Ojemann and his associates
the Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry concluded:

To date, the studies that have been made indicate that

there has been improvement in the understanding of

human behavior. The application of this knowledge has

resulted in7definite changes in attitudes towards self

and others.
Additional comment was made in regards to "contagion of the

interest of the students and teachers. . . . The teachers.

were affected by the students' interests to the point of

...—.--..- ——-.——.—-..————— —.-— -_ -- — --. ——.—.

691219., p. 523.

70Ojemann, "An Integrated Plan . . .," op. cit.,
p. 106.

71

Committee on Preventive Psychiatry, op. cit.,
p. 10.

.47

noticeable changes in their attitudes and modification of
their behavior."72 This conclusion was supported by the
research reported by Wilkinson and Ojemann.73
Conclusions. Ojemann's work differs from that of
Bullis in the absence of moralizing. A distribution of
values is discussed in all contexts rather than the usual
surface dichotomous value—judging of behavior as "good or
bad." Ojemann's work also comprises a more inclusive content
in regards to the curriculum in a given school than that of
Bullis.
The causal approach has thus led to materials and
methods of presentation and evaluation that have gradually
evolved within an experimental framework for a period of years.
The following conclusions appear to be supported:
(1) Moralizing appears to be absent in the causal approach.
(2) Materials and methods coverza large curricular area.
(3) Some evidence indicates that children can learn and
use the causative approach to human behavior.
(4) Some evidence tends to support the tentative con-
clusion that as children change and begin to approach
behavior dynamically they help themselves in getting

along with adults and with other children.

-——. -..... --..-. -..-..A . -~._.-_—-—-

 

—-_.-..—._—————. .- ...-..- .... .—_

72Loc. cit.

73Frances R. Wilkinson and Ralph Ojemann, "The Effect on Pupil
Growth of an Increase in Teacher's Understanding of Pupil Behavior,"
Journal of Experimental Education, 8:143-47, December, 1949.,

 

48

(5) Some evidence indicates tentatively that as the chil-
dren begin to appreciate the differences between the
surface and dynamic approaches to behavior their
relationships to others and to themselves are affected.

(6) Evidence seems to indicate that these relationships
that are affected are in the nature of positive

changes.

Rye Project for Education in Human

Relations and Mental Health

Helfant, consultant to the Rye, New York, Project for
Education in Human Relations and Mental Health, and Hoover,
Superintendent of Schools in Rye, New York, have reported
certain aspects of this program.

Purpose.v Since 1952 the Rye schools have experimented
with a human relations and mental hygiene program which has
as its purpose the improvement of self understanding and hence,
of understanding others. Helfant stated the over-all aim of
the program was to "introduce:from kindergarten through the
twelfth grade a series of experiences designed to lead to in-

creased understanding of self and others."74

The general pur-
pose was to develop a preventive mental hygiene program.
Iflgghodsmppd_ma£g§ipl§. The Rye Project borrowed heavily

from Ojemann's work. It differed from the previously cited

 

—— n-ou "_ ~o- ...._..-— .- ‘——-.—--—.—

7“Kenneth Helfant, "The Rye Project for Education in
Human Relations and Mental Health," (Unpublished manuscript,
Rye, New York: Rye Public Schools, n.d.),p.5.

49

programs to the extent that it involved the consultant in a
closer relationship with the school system and involved more
community participation. The Rye project consisted of the

following areas:

1. Bi-monthly seminars held with teachers and administrative
personnel of the high school and the two elementary schools.
Weekly conferences with the guidance staff of the high school.
An experimental series of human relations classes in the
high school.

A parent education program.

A consultation service for parents and teachers who

wish to discuss problems of individual children.

U5 UN

Attention is directed to point three above. A unit in human
relations was taught to approximately one half of the junior
class which met twice a week for two months. The methods
used included films, panel discussions, and class discussions.
Materials on family life, heterosexual relations, and problems
of teen-age driving and drinking were covered.

Guidance classes were also held with eighth graders
once a week for the entire school year. The method was en-
tirely that of group discussion with some student panel dis-
cussion employed. The material deal! with planning one's
social, emotional, and intellectual development as well as
the accompanying problems of the eighth graders.

No evaluation of the high school and eighth grade
classes has been published. Some worth has been assumed as
the program was extended the second year to include human re-

lations units in the fifth, eighth, and twelfth grades.

——-~ --.

 

 

-....— -—- - ---—-—..- N.

 

7SIbid., pp. 3-4.

50

These units were taught by the consultant. They con-
sisted of twenty hours of work spread over varying periods
of time. One half of each class received the instruction
which was comprised of story-discussions, readings, drama-
tizations of problems, films and film-strips, and certain
self-evaluative tests. These methods and materials borrowed
heavily from Ojemann and Shaftel and Shaftel.76

Evaluation. Evaluation of these classes consisted of

 

analysis of pre- and post-tests of instruction. A test of
causal thinking devised by Ojemann indicated an increase in
causal thinking. Helfant said, "the differences in scores
in causal thinking were significant for one pair of classes
but not for the other pair."77
Sociometric analysis was made resulting in indications
that "there was a decrease in the number of isolates in the
class exposed to the lessons, and a decrease in social dis-
tance as measured by the classroom social distance scale."78
Analysis of the differences between the experimental
and control groups on the social distance scale were shown to

be not quite statistically significant, being at the eight

per cent level.

 

~~.~_—.-M . --co. - ..--.- -- ‘._-.— -..... --- -——..- - ..

76George Shaftel and Fannie Shaftel, Role Playing thg
Problem Story (New York: National Conference of Christians and
Jews, 1952), 78 pp.

 

 

77
Letter from Dr. Kenneth Helfant, March 14, 1970, 2 pp.

78Epg,“cit.

51

Conclusions. In conclusion, it appears that there was

 

little information as to extensive evaluation of the Rye
project. The program continues and the full time services
of a school psychologist have been added. Some additional
evaluation can be gleaned from another source wherein Hoover
and Helfant have summarized a series of brief illustrative
case studies representing 'changes in children's behavior
towards themselves and others which have resulted in more
positive adjustments.79

It is therefore concluded that some support of a group
approach to the problem of upgrading the level of self-understanding
of children is derived from the evidence presented in the Rye Pro-
ject. The Rye project also used a greater variety of techniques

and materials than those used by Bullis.
Rosenthal Mental Health Experiment

Rosenthal has reported a brief five week study intended
to foster mental health in a fifth grade classroom using the
dictum "know thyself, accept thyself, be thyself," as a guide
to the development of his experiment.80 An experimental
group of twenty-six children in Harlem, New York was used.

A control group of twenty-four children from the same school
was equated as to age, socio-economic status, I. 0., and

academic achievement.

 

79W. Wendell Hoover and Kenneth Helfant, "The Rye
Project Works for Better Understanding," (Unpublished manu-
script, Rye, New York, Rye Public Schools, n.d.), 6 pp.
80Rosenthal, op. cit., p. 302.

52

Methods and materials. Rosenthal employed a variety

 

of methods and materials, adapting a number of his stories
and discussion materials from Bullis. Thirteen lessons were
employed, averaging about one-half hour each. The lessons
were offered three times a week over a five week period.
Four of the lessons were patterned after the psychodrama as
defined by Moreno. The inclusive term "educational therapy"
was offered to describe the types of activities used. .In
addition to the above, an attempt was made to develop a
"cooperative, democratic attitude in the setting of a per-

"81 This included the following aspects:

missive atmosphere.

(1) Encouraging pupils to help each other in their
activities.

(2) Encouraging group projects.

(3) Teacher-pupil planning of the day's work.

(4) Organizing the group democratically, with special
jobs and functions to perform.

(5) Major class decisions were submitted to discussion
and vote.

(6) Classroom movement was largely unrestricted.

(7) Outings and field trips were utilized.

(8) Dramatizations, games, creative art, music, and

square dancing were mutually planned and executed.

Evaluation. Evaluation was based largely upon before

 

and after tests of both groups with three main criteria,
namely:

‘w—m m — —.------ ...

311bid., p. 309.

53

(1) California Test of Personality, Elementary Form A

(2) A sociogram

(3) A modified social distance scale listing the ten

children liked best and the ten liked least.

By analysis of the results of the before and after
testing, Rosenthal made some specific conclusions which
follow:

The experimental and control group both started

with the same number of mutual choices in April, but

the experimental group gained 3 mutual choices in May,

and the control group lost 2 mutual choices in May.

These facts are consistent in that the experimental

group manifested positive changes toward friendships,

and the control group manifested changes toward friend-
ships. It is also seen that there was more movement

or changes in the experimental group than in the con-
trol group . . . and that this was of a positive nature.

82
Positive growth was observed in the experimental group as
measured by the sociograms.
The modified social distance scale used revealed data that
led Rosenthal to the following conclusions:

. children in the experimental class were more liked
in May than they were in April, whereas in the control
class only 3 children improved. One child retrogressed
in both groups.

. . . in general those disliked originally in the ex-
perimental group improved their status, but that very
little change occurred with those childre33who were
originally disliked in the control group.
The results of the California Test of Personality

showed that the experimental group changed in a positive direc-

tion on most of the areas covered by the test. Further

analysis indicated that the control group did not improve in

 

821bid., p. 320.

83Ibid., p. 322.

54

most of the areas and actually retrogressed in three of the
twelve areas as measured by the test.

Using the 5 test it was found that although the experimental
group gained 5.4 points in total mean raw score and the control
groups showed no total gain or loss in mean score there was no
statistically significant difference between the means.

Conclusions. Rosenthal concluded that the general hypothesis
of the paper was supported. The general mental health of the
subjects improved as measured by the criteria. Also, the improve-
ment was in all probability due to the experiences that went on in
the classroom. Rosenthal added the following conclusions:

(1) There was a dynamic movement about the area of friend-

ships and this movement was of a positive nature.

(2) Children who were originally disliked by the group

on the whole improved their status, and there was a
general coalescence of liking for each other.

(3) Major improvements were manifest in the areas of

Sense of Personal Freedom, Social Standards, Social
Skills, and School or Occupational Relations. There
was improvement in Self-adjustment as measured by the
California Test of Personality.

(4) Disturbed children did not improve as much as other

children and a few of them retrogressed.

(5) All three of the instruments employed seem to be

affected by the same phenomena and were consistent
with each other.

In this study support is found for the hypothesis that
positive results can be obtained through a planned program designed
to foster mental health, understanding of one's self, and under-
standing of others. Further, some of the changes were measureable

and the three measures seemed to be consistent in what they were

measuring. Each of these conclusions must remain tenative due to

 

841bid., p. 326

55

the small number of classes, the extreme brevity of the
experiment, and the type of pOpulation from which the subjects
were drawn.

Nevertheless, the study sets a pattern for further investi-
gation that is needed.

Conclusions Derived from the
Mental Hygiene Programs

The foregoing studies aid in establishing some tentative
conclusions which can be used in considering the design and methods
of the research of this study.

Other approaches can be found in the literature, each with some
merit, and deserving recognition. They have not been used here as
the studies selected bear more directly upon the problem at hand.

The studies examined in the latter part of this chapter tend
to establish the development of this study and tend to support the
following general conclusions:

(1) Each study defines goals which are associated with under-

standing of one's self and of others.

(2) Each of these goals is a part of a broad mental health
point of view.

(3) Each study uses techniques based upon mental health
principles that may be applied to large groups of children,
especially within the school framework.

(4) Each study has actually taken place in a school setting.

56

(5) Some evidence tends to indicate that children can
improve their level of self-understanding and
understanding of others through a group program,

(6) Same evidence seems to indicate that certain.
behavioral and attitudinal changes are observable
and measureable.

(7) Some evidence tends to show that certain of these
measures seem to be consistent in what they are

measuring.
Chapter Summary

This chapter has been devoted to the exploration of
the theoretical formulations of the self that a variety of
authorities have presented. Most appeared to hold that the
self is a dynamic, but consistent, unity, the inner core of
being of a person. 4

The development and differentiation of the self was
then described. It was seen that the self has social roots
and develops as the person lives with others. The self
apparently develops its strength as it becomes differentiated
through social life. 2

The evidence presented in the earlier part of the
chapter supports the contention that understanding, acceptance
of, and respect for one's self is closely related to one's
acceptance of and respect for others.

The degree to which a person can have knowledge and

understanding of his self indicates what is meant by self-

57

concept and self-understanding. A positive self-concept apparently
must be realistic in order to be healthy. It is the way in which the
self is comprehended and realized that apparently makes a real differ-
ence in one's behavior. ‘
The logic of a mental health approach to education
becomes apparent if we view the process of self-development
and self-understanding as the core of growth towards maturity.
Therefore, in the latter part of this chapter, attention
was directed to various mental health programs in schools.
These programs were analyzed in some detail. The purposes, methods
and materials used, and results of evaluation were presented. The
conclusions derived from the foregoing research tend to clarify and

support this study.”

58.

CHAPTER III

DESCRIPTION, SELECTION, AND PLAN
OF EVALUATION OF THE EXPERIMENTAE
AND CONTROL GROUPS

In this chapter the experimental and control groups
are described. The process of initial selection of the ex-
perimental group is explained. The initial comparisons of
the groups are presented. A detailed explanation of the

plan and procedures for evaluating the study is made.
The Community

The study was conducted in the fourth grades at the
McNair School, Westwood Community Schools, Dearborn-Heights -
Inkster, Michigan.

Dearborn—Hsights - Inkster, Michigan are suburban communities
of approximately thirty thousand people. They are completely resi-
dential, barring local services. There are relatively few apart-
ments and other rental units in these cities. The majority of the
residents own their own homes. The community has been called
a middle class area by those who have lived and worked there for a

prolonged period.

59

The School System

The Westwood Community Schools have been a relatively
unstable system for some time. The instability of the system
can be attributed to many causes. Major among these causes,
as reported to the writer, looms the racial problems peculiar
to the social institutions of this country. This issue is
reflexed in the make-up of the school board and consequently,
issues that should be resolved in the interest of boys and
girls in the school district are politically motivated. - The
District has had seven superintendents in the last eleven years.

In spite of these problems, the system has made an attempt
to remain educationally in the 20th century, - thanks to Federal
and State programs. Peculiar to their efforts have been the
constant striving toward the child-develOpment approach to educa-
tion, flexible grouping, self-contained classrooms, the varied
use of educational materials, a counselor program, an active
parent-teacher association,and required parent-teacher conference.

The system has five elementary schools. McNair School
housed the student pOpulation for this study along with the Mokersky
School. The fourth graders at McNair School and Mokersky School
are drawn from adjacent school boundaries.

The Grade Selected

The fourth grades were selected as the subjects for this study

for the following reasons:

60

(1) All the students were located in the same attendance area.

(2) Control groups were readily available.

(3) The fourth grades had a narrower range of ages.

(4) The self-contained fourth grade classes involved fewer
problems of scheduling activities and tests than in the

seventh or eighth grades which are semi-departmentalized.

(5) There was similarity of schedule school calendar,
and curricular program among the fourth grade classes.

(6) Research of the nature of this study, is apparently
needed at this age and grade level.

(7) The researcher's interest in this age level.

Upon consideration of the above factors with the writer's
committee, and with the school administration, the fourth grades
were selected. Considering the above, a broad homogeneity of the
groups was apparent.

Process of Selection of the Experimental Group

No specific criterion relating to the data for this study was
used as an absolute in selecting the experimental group. Each group,
as the forthcoming data indicates, was much like the others.

Upon receipt of the approval of the building principals, the
researcher was directed to selected the experimental group under the
advisement of the school principals and the guidance director.

All six groups were considered. It was assumed that each teach-
er would be willing to participate. Test data on intelligence and
achievement of each group were consulted and the size of the groups,

61

of the groups, number of male and female students, and other
data were collected and considered.

For a number of reasons some of the groups were eliminated
from consideration for the experimental group. For example, two
of the fourth grade teachers were beginning teachers and, although
interested, it was felt that the additional burdens of the study
might be better avoided.

The experimental group was finally selected with the approval
of all staff concerned. The teacher signified her willingness to.
cooperate and was found to be extremely interested in the study.

No discussion of the specifics of the experiment was under-
taken with the teachers of the control groups. This was avoided
in order to negate the possibility that the results might be un-
consciously contaged by unusual energies of another teacher in the
same direction. A letter was prepared to acquaint the teachers
with the study in quite general terms. The teacher of the experi-
mental group was informed in some detail as to the purposes, design,
and procedures of the study.

Approval of the parents was a vital consideration. After
consultation with the school principal, the school administration,
and the teacher of the experimental group, an explanatory letter

1

was mailed to each child's parents for signed approval. These

letters were also couched in general terms. All parents responded

 

18cc Appendix A.

62

with the requested signed approval. Additional letters were mailed
to each of the control groups' parents to acquaint them with the
fact that the study was about to ensue.2 No specific details were
contained in the letters. This correspondence was considered
necessary because of the parents' active interest in their schools.
A few parents called the school administration for further informa-

tion which was accorded them in generalities.

Initial Comparisons of Experimental and Control Groups

The following statements show some of the similarities and
dissimilarities between the experimental and control groups on a
comparative basis.

For this study, one group was selected as the experimental, or
E group.3 The remaining five fourth grade classes were controls.
They were designated as the C1, C2, C3, C4, and C5 groups.

Prior to the initiation of the study certain comparisons were
made to assit in the selection of the E group. Table I indicated
the sex distribution and total number of students in each of the

groups.

 

2For example, it is not at all unusual to expect and receive
a ninety per cent attendance of both parents at room functions.

3Herein, and throughout the body of this study, the experi-

mental and control groups will be designated by the numbers and letters
assigned above.

63

TABLE I

SEX DISTRIBUTION AND TOTAL NUMBER OF STUDENTS IN EACH GROUP

 

 

Group No. of Boys No of Girls Total
E l4 13 27
C l 16 11 27
C 2 15 11 26
C 3 15 12 27
C 4 15 10 a 25
C 5 13 12 25
Totals 88 69 157

 

 

A close similarity in number and sex distribution can be observed
from this table. There were decidedly more boys than girls.

In some of the groups children entered or left the school during
the course of the study. This factor is a common one in any public
school and could not be controlled. In no instance did this amount to
more than two transfers or new enrollees in any group. The data of
the children who were not essentially present, barring normal absences,
were not used in this study and are not included in the listings of the
tables.

Table II shows the comparisons of the groups with respect to their
chronological ages at the time the study commenced. It also indicates
the mean mental ages and derived intelligence quotients as established

by the school's regular testing program.

64

TABLE II

MEAN CHRONOLOGICAL AGES, MENTAL AGES, AND INTELLIGENCE

QUOTIENTS OF EACH GROUP

 

 

Group Mean C. A. Mean M. A. Mean 1.0.
E 9 Yrs. 6.9 Mo. 11 Yrs. 3.4 Mo. 106.89
C l 9 7.3 11 2.3 104.37
C 2 9 4.0 11 5.0 99.12
C 3 9 3.4 11 1.2 104.05
C 4 9 4.2 11 1.2 103.80
C 5 9 2.4 11 1.2 105.38

 

65

The California Test of Mental Maturity, Elementary was

administered in October of the school year.

The figures in

Table II have been calculated as of January of the same school

year, just prior to the study's commencement.
presented illustrate the basic similarity of the groups in
respect to the qualities of academic aptitude that the test
measures. The E group was the highest of the fourth grades.
In order to ascertain the significance of these figures
an analysis of the significance of the differences between
means of the E and C groups was undertaken.
significance was used. The results of this statistical

analysis are presented in Table III.

TABLE III

SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEAN

INTELLIGENCE QUOTIENTS

The figures

The _t_ test of

 

Groups C1' C2
_t_ .69 2.18
Significance
Level --* 32

C3

 

The above figures indicate that there was no significant dif-
ference between the E group and the C groups in respect to

the measure of academic aptitude with the exception of the

difference noted between the E group and C2 group.

ference is significant at the 3 per cent level of confidence.

Essential similarity was therefore readily apparent.

This dif-

Generally,

 

*Here, and throughout the tables of significance pre-
sented, the -- indicates no significance.

it was then assumed that the majority of the groups were as
academically apt as the E group. That is to say, they were
equally as liable to profit from instructional experiences

as far as the measure of academic aptitude indicated.

In another sense, it was assumed that, if significant
changes between the groups occurred that were associated with
the experimental conditions or factors, they would not be due
to a significantly higher academic aptitude on the part of
the experimental group.

In the case of the C2 group where the measured intel-
ligence was significantly lower than that of the E group, the
evidence would appear to refute the assumption stated above;
namely, that the E group was not more academically apt. The
difference here is at the three per cent level of confidence.
This does not indicate whether the difference that exists is
a true difference. It merely indicates that the difference
was not too likely to have been due to chance, (P - .03).
Although this is not highly significant, it does deserve note
and constitutes a limitation of which the reader must remain
aware when analyzing the results of the data more closely
related to the study. Because of the closeness of association
between academic aptitude and academic achievement we might
logically expect the apparent difference to most closely in-
fluence the results of the achievement testing as opposed to
the results of the more personal and social measures employed.

The foregoing statements and figures give a description
of the E and C groups. In the latter part of this chapter

67

attention is directed to the plan and procedures for evaluation

of the experiment.
The Plan of Evaluation

The major purpose of the evaluation used was to assess
any changeslhetween the groups, as well as changes within the
experimental group. The evaluation was divided into two
parts.

The first part was the measurement of each of the groups
before and after the story-discussions and interviews were
held with the Egroup. This part of the evaluation resulted
in the data for quantitative comparisons between the groups.
The quantitative comparisons are presented in Chapter V.

The second part of the evaluative procedures was an
analysis of the changes within the E group alone. The data
for this evaluation were somewhat more subjective in nature.
Therefore, the findings are presented in Chapter VI designated

as qualitative results.

Procedures and Materials Used for

Making Quantitative Comparisons

Each group was tested before and after the experiment
with measures of achievement, personality, social relationships,
social distance, and personal likes and dislikes of oneself.
Equated or identical forms of each test were used.

Each of the tests used for comparisons of the groups

has certain limitations. An attempt to reduce the effect of

68

these limitations to a degree was made in the following
manner:

(1) Each test was carefully selected and related research
analyzed.

(2) Each test wag rigorously administered and seared
according to standardized directions where available.

(3) Each result was carefully assessed and cautiously
appraised in relation to the experiment and its
hypothesis.

Test selection. The tests which were used to make the
quantitative analyses of changes within the groups were se-
lected on the following bases:

(1) Tests of established usage.

(2) Tests of reasonable reliability, objectivity, and
validity.

(3) Tests which, with the exception of the achievement
battery, appeared to measure aspects of self-under-
standing.

(4) Tests which, when scored, obtained results that lent
themselves to the statistical procedures selected for
this study.

The tests used on a pre- and post-testing basis were
the California Test of Personality, the California Achievement
Test, the Social Distance Scale, Sociograms. and two open-ended
essay questions, "What I Like About Myself" and "What I Dislike
About Myself."

69

A search of the literature revealed no specific test for
self-understanding which satisfied the aforementioned criteria.
The above-named tests were chosen with the realization that they
probably were essentially peripheral measurements rather than
measures of the real self as defined in Chapter II. Yet, the
research already conducted with these tests seemed to support
the contention that the variety and totality of them might en-
able one to assess dynamic changes within groups which would be
related to self-understanding of intermediate grade children,
and afford an adequate assessment of this self-understanding.
Thus the tests were selected. -

The California Test g£_Personality. Form AA of the Cali-

 

 

fornia Test of Personality, 1963 Revision, Elementary Series was
used for pre-testing and Form BB of the same test was used for
post-testing.

The California Test of Personality is "designed to provide
teachers . . .with significant evidences of the personal and

social status of individuals and groups."6

It gives evidence of
the ways in which students think, feel and act in regards to a
variety of situations which are liable to affect them closely as
group members or individuals. The test is divided into two parts
which result in scores on personal adjustment and social adjustment

respectively. All one hundred eighty items were used in arriving

at a total adjustment score. Raw scores were utilized when working

 

6California Test Bureau Catalog, 1964 (Los Angeles: California
Test Bureau, 1964), p. 34.

 

70

with the California Test of Personality as the norms given in the
manual were percentile norms and the range of raw scores within
each percentile given was considered inadequate for use in this
experiment.

The manual for the test gives reliability coefficients for
both forms as .97. The authors also commented that the means and
standard deviations of both forms were identical and that relia-
bility data apply equally.

The validity of any paper and pencil personality inventory
has long been a question for debate. The manual for this test
cited the many purposes anduses for the test, thus giving rise to
the statement that there may be several validities depending on each
purpose. Since self-understanding is apparently associated with
total personality adjustment, and since the test purports to measure
total personality adjustment, it was therefore assumed to be valid
for this study.

Research by Rosenthal, Taylor and Combs and Cunningham tend to

Support this assumption of reasonable validity.7’8’9

 

7Sheldon Rosental, "A Fifth Grade Classroom Experiment in

Fostering Mental Health," The Journal of Child Psychiatry, 2:30-29,
1962.

g .
Charles Taylor and Arthur Combs, "Self-Acceptance and Adjust-
ment," Journal of Consulting:Psycholggy, 16:89-91, April, 1962.

9Ruth Cunningham and Associates, Understanding Group Behavior

of Boys and Girls (New York: Teachers College, Columbia University,
1961), 462 pp.

71

Each of these investigators has used the test with positive

results which, combined with other data, aided in assessing

group adjustment and individual adjustment. The publisher of

the test cited some ninety studies interpreted as supporting

the assumption of validity.10
The social distance scale. The scale used in this study

was an adaptation of the one cited by cunningham.11 The social

distance scale is an attempt to measure the standing of a child

in a group of his peers. It is also used to achieve a group

measure of social relationships. Cunningham has defined the scale

"12 The scale

as an attempt to "measure inter-group attitudes.
allows each child to react to each other child in the group on a
five-point scale ranging from a description of the other child as

a "best friend" to one characterizing him as a person we'd "rather
not have to work with at all."

The social distance scale was scored on a cumulative point

basis, five points for the "highest" rating, and one point for the
"lowest." Comparisons were then made on these raw scores. The re-

sulting group social distance scores indicated the degree of accep-

tance or rejection of the children by their peers.

 

O
1 California Test of Personality Summary of Investigations,

Number One (Los Angeles: California Test Bureau, 1958), 24 pp.
11
Cunningham, op. cit., 462 pp.

12
Ibid., p. 171.

72

As to the reliability and validity, there is little specific
information in the literature. Cunningham found that the group
social distance scores correlated with sociograms to a little
significant degree, rho being plus .48. She added: "We found
little significant correlation of acceptance with factors such
as chronological age, intelligence quotient, or socio-economic
status. However, correlations of acceptance with factors stated
as important by boys and girls were statistically significant."13
Some of these factors are descriptive of a child with whom we can
have fun, who has other friends, who is easily liked, and seems
to come from a good home.

It would then appear that the qualities that are tapped by
such a test have at least a degree of surface reliability and
validity since they are positively related to the kinds of behavior
that are frequently deemed desirable by children.

Since the social distance scale offered a wider range of re-
sponses and shadings than the more "black-and'white" picture of
social relationships obtained from the sociograms, and since it
has had value in similar types of research it was deemed of

sufficient worth to be used in this study.

The sociograms. Sociograms have been used as descriptive

 

measures of social relationships within groups for some time.
Jennings described sociometry as a "means of presenting

1

_1_

13Ibid., p. 203.

73

simply and graphically the entire structure of relations exist-

"14

ing at a given time among members of a given group. She

added that the chief significance of a sociogram resided in its

 

comprehensive revelation of the4g£9up structure. Olson has de-

fined sociometry as "the measurement of social forces."15
In this study the sociograms were administered by ask-

ing each child to respond to three criteria with three choices

each. The criteria used were friendships, play preferences,

and work preferences. Thus an additional measure besides

 

the group social distance scale was employed to appraise the

 

standings of the individuals within their respective groups.

 

In quantitatively assessing the results of the socio-
grams, the number of isolates and number of leaders were the
only criteria used.

The number of choices necessary to qualify as a leader
was taken as fifteen, while one or no choices were taken to
indicate an isolate. Taba has pointed out what constitutes

reasonableness of a sociometric distribution.16 In assessing

 

the proportion of unchosen and highly chosen people on one

 

14Helen H. Jennings, Sociometry in Group Relations
(Washington, D. D.: American Council on Education, 1961,
p. 11.

15Willard C. Olson, "Human Relations in the Classroom,"
Journal of the National Education Association, 36:
641, December, 1957.

 

 

16Hilda Taba, et. a1., Diagnosinggfluman Relations
Needs (Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education,
1961), 155 pp.

74

criterion in a class of twenty-five, she remarked, "When
more than one fifth of the class has five or more choices
and a few have more than eight, then there is an unreason-
able focusing on a few people and correspondingly more
students with only one or no choices."l7 Previously Taba
indicated that if twelve per cent of a class received no
choices and twenty per cent received five or more choices,
that, "This is a reasonable distribution."l8

For this experiment no choices or one choice denoted
an isolate and this should then comprise approximately fif-
teen per cent of the total choices in order to be a reason-
able distribution. Pifteen or more choices denoted a leader.
Therefore a reasonable distribution of leaders should com-
prise approximately twenty per cent of the total.

A further consideration, or rather a limitation, en-
tered into the evaluative use of the scores on the sociograms.
Jahoda demonstrated the used of statistics peculiar to socio-
metric measurement. He utilized various mathematical con-
cepts but drew a sharp line between the value of sociometric
measurement within a group as opposed to its small value in
comparing groups statistically. In this respect Jahoda stated
that changes within or between groups, "must be represented by
a sufficiently large number of measurements," so that signifi-

cance or variance tests can be used . . . and, "as yet no

 

17Ibid., p. 83.

1
8Loc. cit.
75

methods of securing such masses of data are available."19

As to the reliability of the sociogram, the literature
seemed to indicate that there is a reasonable degree of re-
liability if a variety of choices are made and a series of
sociograms are taken.20’ 21 The usage in this study would
appear to assure a degree of reliability.

Validity of the sociogram poses a different question.
Perhaps the most representative statement regarding the valid-
ity problem has been made by Jahoda when he said, "the most
typical conclusion is that the amount of rapport or nearness
to a true life situation achieved by a sociometric questionnaire
is directly associated with the questionnaire's validity."22
In this sense, the validity of the sociograms used in this study
might logically be questioned since the researcher was not in a
position to establish a high degree of rapport with any of the
C groups and, despite the true life situations used as criteria
for choices, the groups taking the questionnaires probably
realized that there would be no follow-through in applying the
results of the test. Nevertheless, despite these limitations,

the data were used. There appears to be

 

19M. Jahoda, M. Deutsch, and S. W. Cook, Research Methods
in Social Relations, Part Two; Selected Techniques (New York:
Dryden Press, 1951), p. 581.

2°1b1d.

 

21Taba, op. cit.

22Jahoda, op. cit., p. 570.

76

no objection to the gathering of scientific information even
if the instruments used are in their infancy. We must there-
fore assume sufficient validity for this experiment.

The essays. The essay questions chosen were patterned

 

after those employed by Jersild and reported in his volume
'In_Search‘2£“§glf,23 The responses were purely subjective
and were treated with this limitation in mind.

The number of responses to both questions were separately
totaled and averaged for each group. The quantitative
analysis was confined to a comparison of the changes in the
number of responses and the direction of said changes.

Reliability and validity here, as with the sociogram,
appeared to depend upon the truth and honesty of the student
responding. This, in turn, appeared to be somewhat dependent
upon the rapport between the examiner and the class. No
guarantee of such a rapport can be made, it can only be as-
sumed. As in Jersild's exploratory study, the results obtained
by use of these open-ended questions can, at best, be used in
combination with other data and treated with the caution such

subjective data required.

 

The California Achievement Test. In order to assess
the academic achievement of the groups the California Achieve-
ment Test Elementary Battery was used. Form AA was utilized

for pre-testing and Form BB for post-testing.

 

23Arthur T. Jersild, In Search of Self (New York:
Teachers College, Columbia University, 1952), 146 pp.

 

77

The purpose including a basic skills battery was to see
whether or not the E group would make comparable gains in
achievement despite the loss of time from curricular instruc-
tion which the study engendered. It was not used to measure
aspect of self-understanding as the above tests were. Its
inclusion was felt desirable because, if the study bore fruit-
ful results, the inclusion of similar programs in public
schools today must answer the question of whether or not such
an addition would cause children to advance more slowly in
that important area of elementary education, the basic skills.

The manual for this test cited a total test reliability of
.97.24 The same source stated that all forms of the test battery
possess a high degree of validity. The norms are based on test-
ing over one hundred thousand pupils and the raw scores can be
converted to grade placement figures. Grade placement scores

were used in the presentation of results.

Test scoring. Each of the tests used were scored by the

 

researcher and re-scored by a trained teacher. All statistical
computations were double-checked.

Statistical treatment 2: test data. The £_test for the

 

significance of differences between means was considered the mmst

plausible type of statistical treatment for much of the data.25

 

2“Ernest W. Tiegs and Willis W. Clark, California
Achievement Test Manual (Los Angeles: California Test Bureau).

25Quinn McNemar, Psychological Statistics (New York: John
Wiley and Sons, 1949), p. 224.

 

78

Means were computed for each of the following tests
before and after the study: the California Test of Personality,
the social distance scale, and the California Achievement
Test. These means were subjected to the t.test on both the
pre- and post-test data. Levels of significance were obtained.
Additional comparisons were made of the amount and direction
of change in means. This method of statistical analysis was
assumed to be adequate for this study since the major concern
was comparing groups, rather than individuals.

The sociometric and essay data did not permit such
quantitative treatment due to the lack of standardization of
scoring and norms for these tests. Therefore, comparisons
were made numerically as described above.

The procedure and materials for making quantitative
comparisons of the E and C groups have been presented. In-
formation regarding the second part of the evaluation plan,

the qualitative analyses, follows.

Procedures and Materials Used

for Qualitative Analyses

Many additional data were gathered during the course
of the experiment. Most of these findings were obtained
solely from the E group. These data were perhaps more sub-
jective in nature and, in many instances, were not permitting
of quantitative treatment. Thus they were included as quali-

tative, or subjective, results.

79

The pattern or method followed was to take the material that
illustrated the point in hand and excerpt it in order to include
it in the text of Chapter VI. The remainder of this section de-
tails the kinds of material or data used.

Participation analysis. The teacher of the E group or, in
her absence, one of the students in the E group, kept a running
account of the people who participated in each day's discussion.
Results of this participation record are included in the quali-
tative analysis. They are confined to the E group.

DiscussiOn analysis.. Each discussion was tape-recorded.

 

The actual verbatim accounts of the student's comments furnished
materials for inclusion in Chapter VI.

Student's writings. At the end of each lesson the student

 

was given a piece of theme paper and asked to write what he thought
he had learned in that day's discussion. These papers contained
information which aided the researcher to direct the study and the
discussions more intelligently. Occasionally, the class wrote addi-
tional comments upon these papers, and some are included in the
presentation of the student's writings.

Student's interests and activities. An analysis of the
interests and activities of the students was made on the basis of
their responses to the Interests and Activities supplement to the
California Test of Personality.

80

Problems the children wanted 52 work upon. During the

 

course of the lessons the E group was asked to write on the
topic, "The Problems I Need to Work on Most and What I Think
I Should Do About Them." Many of these comments revealed the
ways in which the children conceived of themselves. Some of
the statements are used as qualitative materials.

Three Wishes. Each of the E group students wrote his

 

three wishes. A summary of these wishes, which reflected a
degree of self-understanding, appears in Chapter VI.

Interviews. No attempt was made to quantify the re-

 

sults of the interviews. Since they were largely of the
information-seeking type there was no attempt to achieve or
record any therapeutic effects of the interviews. Information
derived from the interviews, which was pertinent to the
problems of each child, and contributed to a knowledge of the
students' level of self-understanding, is cited in the chapter
ion qualitative analysis.

Evaluative questionnaires. Three types of evaluative

 

questionnaires were utilized to appraise the results of the
program with the E group.26 Parents, students, and the E
group teacher respectively filled out these questionnaires.
The results are presented in Chapter VI.

Student questionnaires. After the final lesson, which was
largely a review of what had been covered in previous lessons,
the students were asked to respond to a series of questions

which were designed to elicit their reactions to the

 

26See Appendix c.

81

lessons as a whole and to some of the specific experiences which
they had undergone. An attempt was made to have the child
analyze whatever behavioral or attitudinal changes that might
have occurred.

Parent Questionnaire. The parents were mailed a question-

 

naire which was to be filled out separately or together by one
or both parents. This was deemed necessary since some of the
parents, particularly those fathers who traveled much, did not
feel that they could intelligently assess any behavioral or
attitudinal changes on the part of their children because of lack
of frequent or sustained contact with them over the experimental
period.

Incidental to this questionnaire and the role of the
parents in this study, two Opportunities for contact with the re—
searcher were afforded each parent of children in the E group.
This was effected for purposes of school-home relations and was
planned and carried out in such a way as to avoid affecting the
results of the study. These contacts were, first, the parent-go
to—school night where the reseacher briefly explained and describ-
ed the broad general purposes of the study, and second, the parents
were invited to confer with the researcher about their own children
after the study was completed and all the testing was done. The
fact that at least one of every child's parents attended the go-to-
school night and better than two-thirds of the parents availed
themselves of the opportunity to confer with the researcher after
the study ceased is indicative of the parents' interest in their
children and the schools in the community where this study took

place.

82

Teacher qgestionnaire. Finally, the evaluative plan

 

was completed with the inclusion of the E group teacher's
personal evaluation of the effects of the study. Her com-
ments are also included in the section of this study dealing
with the qualitative results since her responses were of a
subjective nature with no effort made to compare her reactions

with those of the teachers of the C groups.
Summary

This chapter explained in some detail the population
selected for this experhment. The community and the school
system were described. The process of selection of the grade
level and of the experimental group was indicated.

Initial data were analyzed prior to the beginning of
the study. Number and sex of students, chronological ages,
mental ages, and intelligence quotients of the E and C groups
were presented. These initial comparisons seemed to indicate
a close similarity of the groups. The only exception was in
the case Of one C group's measured academic aptitude which)
was below that of the E group to a significant degree.

The latter part of this chapter dealt with the twofold
plan of evaluation. The procedures and materials used in
making the quantitative comparisons were described. The
selection, use, scoring, reliability, and validity of each
test were presented in detail. A description of the statis-
tical procedures used followed.

83

The second part of the plan of evaluation was qualitative.
The procedures and materials for making the qualitative analyses
were presented.

The following chapter presents the story-discussions and

interviews which took place within the E group.

84

CHAPTER IV

METHODS AND PROCEDURES USED WITH THE

EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

A two-fold approach was used in this experiment in the
attempt to aid children to understand themselves better. First,
the group discussion method was utilized for a series of class
story-discussions. Second, individual interviews were conducted
with each child in the E group. Most studies of this kind have
utilized the group discussion method primarily with little
opportunity for individual consultation.

This chapter details the two-fold approach mentioned above.
An outline of the stories and a summary of each story is inclu-

ded. Each of the three interviews is described.

The Group Discussion Method Employed
in the Experiment
Part of the experimental conditions employed was the group
discussions. Twenty-four lessons were held with the E group.
These lessons were largely patterned after the stories written to
stimulate learning through discussion. The lessons took an average
of forty minutes each. They were conducted approximately three

times a week for a period of sixteen weeks.

85

Purpose pf_g£9up discussion. The purpose of the group
discussion procedure was to offer the opportunity for communi-
cating experiences. It was hoped that the contributions of
one child might then assist the learning of the others. IThe
’sharing of ideas, reactions to stimuli, experiences has long
been known to be an efficient method of learning in school
situations. Therefore, it was necessary for group discussion
in order to have any effect upon the total group.

Group discussion technique. During the discussion which
the researcher led, a definite attempt was made to practice the
following discussion techniques:

(1) All of the children participated in the discussion.

(2) 'Each child's contribution was accepted and valued in

every way possible.

(3) A moralistic value-judging tone was avoided as much as

possible.

(4) Special praise was accorded to children who were

generally hesitant to participate.

(5) Humor was cultivated in the group interaction.

(6) The children were especially encouraged to contribute

experiences of their own.

The researcher made definite efforts to keep in mind the above
techniques. He also made a decided attempt to avoid reacting
negatively, critically, or unacceptingly to the children's contri-

butions.

86

Although the above deals with rather abstract techniques,
it was felt that they were quite vital in the procedure and
(were of primary concern in setting an atmosphere of acceptance,
warmth, and friendliness. It was felt that this was the kind
of atmosphere which might be most cathartic. A permissive en-
vironment was deliberately cultivated in the desire for relaxed,
non-threatening participating of the students.

Pattern pf each discussion. While a permissive environment

 

was sought in every way possible, it was felt by the researcher,
the principal, and the E group teacher that a planned organiza-
tion of discussion should be established with the children.
Therefore, the following aspects of this organization were evolved
and actively carried out:

(1) Children remained in their normal seating arrange-v

ment for the discussions.

(2) The classroom teacher was in the room the majority

of the time the discussions took place.

(3) Children were asked to indicate their desire to partici-

pate by raising their hand.

(4) Upon being recognized, the children were asked to stand

while making their comments.

There were some specific reasons for this pattern for dis-
cussion. It was felt that general attention to another's contri-
butions would be enhanced if the student stood while he spoke.
Furthermore, a greater degree of order was accomplished which
enable the researcher to record all of the discussions.

87

The formal recognition of each discussant by naming him served the
purpose of identifying the child and his response on the tape re-
cording.

During the discussions there were times when the children
became excited over the discussion and did not follow the fore-
going procedures. Nevertheless, the tape recordings captured
this excitement and it constituted a valued part of the proceed—
ings.

The introductouy session. Prior to the inception of the

 

actual testing, the researcher was introduced to the children and
the following points were briefly explained:

(I) The letter to the E group parents was read to the class.

(2) A brief explanation of the work with the class followed.

(3) The point was made that the lessons and discussions
would be mainly concerned with the students themselves,
their relations with others, and why people do things the
way they do.

(4) An explanation was given of the stories, the procedure
for discussions, the time involved, and the tape record-
ings.

(5) The individual interviews and the testing program were
mentioned.

Questions from the students were briefly answered. Following

this session the pre-testing and then the initial interviews were
begun.

88

Formulation and Outline of the Stories

The needs formulation. The stories were written to cover

 

many of the basic needs of people and to explain some of the
behavior of human beings. The needs formulation in the mental
.hygiene and psychology literature were appraised. With this in-
formation as'a background, a simple statement of the needs of man
was formulated. The needs formulation statements follow:

(1) Preserve yourself.

(2) Learn and know about yourself.

(3) Accept, like, and be yourself.

(4) Like others and help them to like you.

This statement of needs was detailed and expanded with the
class during the discussions. It also served the researcher as a
basic frame of reference throughout the discussions and the story
writing.

Outline pf the Stories. The stories were written by the re-

 

searcher with the assistance of material developed by Bullis, Bullis
and O'Malley, Rosenthal, Ojemann, Shacter, and others. The ideas for
the stories came from many sources but the ones mentioned above and
documented in Chapter II were particularly helpful. As the discus-
sion progressed, an increasing effort was made to write the stories
particularly for the individuals in the E. group.

89

The first three stories were intended to illustrate
the likenesses and differences between individuals. The next
six stories dealt with the emotions and needs of human beings.
The needs formulation was introduced in this set of stories.
They also dealt with the arousal of emotions and the varied
effects of emotions on the child upon the body.

The following four stories were written to draw the
students' attention to the problems of the relationships between
people, the satisfaction of the fourth need, to like others
and help them to like us.

The final ten stories were designed to stimulate the
students' awareness of their own and others' behavior and
its many causes. These stories illustrate three ways of
handling problems, the direct, the indirect, and the avoidance;
of a problem. The last six stories illustrated some of the ways
people behave in order to solve their problems and satisfy their
needs. Actually, they were written to acquaint the students
with some of the basic mental or defense mechanisms but the
terminology used was simplified and brought to the level of
understanding of the class.

The final lesson did not have a story to introduce the
discussion. It was in the nature of a review and an overview
of the other stories. Written evaluations occupied much of
the last period.

90

The preceding outline covers the broader aspects and
intent of the story material. The next section summarizes
each of the stories in order to acquaint the reader with
their content and the actual titles used with the class when

the stories were presented.

91

Resume of Each of the Stories for
Group Discussion

Lesson one. The story was introduced by a discussion of some

 

of the ways in.which people differ physically. The title of the
story for the day was "People Are.All Different." The story told

' of an event on a skating rink where a boy was injured and various
peOple did different things in order to assist the boy. The dis-
cussion centered around these different ways of behaving. Each
child was asked to write and then give orally the reactions he
would have had in the same situation. The following generalizations
were drawn out: (1) People are all different; (2) each person
might behave differently even when the same thing occurs; and (3)
each person might feel differently about what had occurred or about
what he had done. I

Lesson two. Story two was entitled "Should We Be the Same

 

or Different?" The story was about a young girl who moved from
Canada to a new home in the United States. It detailed some of her
problems in gaining status in her new school. The discussion was
planned to center around the problems of being different from others
and how a person can become a part of the group. Slang, clothing,
and fads were part of the discussion. The generalization made was
that there are times when we like to be different and there are other
times when it is important to us to be like others.

Lesson three. This story concerned three college students who
had a misunderstanding over the status of some of the

92

other students on campus. The story was designed to illustrate
some of the conflicting reactions people have when faced with a
situation that each viewed differently due to their own personal
motives. The class was asked to identify some of the personality
characteristics of the three central characters. The same
characters were used separately for the ensuing three stories.
Two of the characters in the story became upset over a news story
that the third had written. The class was asked to tell of times
when they became upset over something someone else had done. The
generalization was drawn that all of us have different feelings.
This generalization led to a point which was brought out in order
to establish continuity for the next three stories, namely, that
the ways in which we behave now might have an effect upon us later.

Lesson four. This story was called "The Story of Bob and How

 

He Grew Up." The story was planned to give the early life history
of this well-liked college student who had been a very sickly child.
It was designed to illustrate the basic needs that we all have.

Lesson five. "The Story of Jim" was the title of this story.

 

Jim was a favorite of his mothers and was over-protected much of
his early life. The story was used to stimulate discussion of how
Jim satisfied his needs and how other people satisfy their needs.
The generalization drawn was that our early behavior has an in- '

fluence upon our behavior in later life.

93

Lesson six. "The Story of Russell" was the last of the

 

series on our basic needs. Russ was perhaps the best-adjusted

of the three characters in lesson three. He was a member of a
family where he had a great deal of responsibility. He developed
the ability to look at himself critically but with humor. He
learned to get along with others fairly well as a child and this
led him to a better adjustment in early adulthood. This story

was planned to aid each child to assess how well he was satisfying
his basic needs. The students were asked to write on this topic at
the end of the discussion.

Lesson seven. There was no specific story written for lesson

 

seven. Each of the previous stories was reviewed and generaliza-
tions drawn from them that helped to explain how "Different Feelings
Come From Our Basic Needs." As the characters in the previous
stories were reviewed, a child's feelings about his efforts to
satisfy his needs were drawn out. It was planned that lesson seven
would afford the opportunity to introduce the ideas of normalcy of
many different feelings, some pleasant and some unpleasant. The
class was asked to list pleasant and unpleasant feelings they had

in response to their attempts to satisfy their needs.

Near the end of the discussion the concepts of goal-seeking,
blocks to satisfaction, and resulting conflicts were introduced.
Illustrations of these concepts were drawn from previous stories
and from the experiences of the students.

94

Lesson gigp_. "How Our Emotions Are Aroused" was the title
of the story for lesson eight. Dolores, the main character, had
been in a car accident as a child. Because of this experience,
she was very disturbed whenever she rode in a car. Despite her
fears, she courageously pulled an elderly lady from the path of
a speeding car. The story was used to illustrate how our emotions
can lead to different types of behavior. The ways in which our
emotions are aroused were discussed and listed on the board. The
role of the various physical senses was discussed and a differen-
tiation between a sensation and an emotion was made. Some of the
stronger emotions that might be aroused were illustrated.

Lesson nine. This lesson was comprised of a series of three

 

short stories, each of which was designed to illustrate some of the
effects of emotions upon us. The lesson was entitled "How Our
Emotions Affect Our Bodies." The stories dealt with minor conflicts
of three girls, one in a ball game, one at home disagreeing with a
parental decision about clothes, and one at school where an emotion
and its corresponding effect upon the body were shown. The behavior
of the three girls was analyzed and the effects of their strong emo-
tions upon their bodies were drawn from the class and listed on the
board. The discussion was then channeled into a consideration of
times when the effects of strong emotions were very helpful, as in
stress situations, and times when these effects "get in our way" in
varying degrees.

95

Lesson ten. This story was entitled "A Way We Fool Ourselves."

 

It was the story of a boy who didn't want to go to a party for
fear of doing something embarrassing and therefore became ill in
order to avoid the situation. It was used to illustrate the
effects of emotion upon both our bodies and minds and the corre-
sponding resultant behavior that might, as in this case, become a
habit. The students were led to discuss the various ways of esca-
ping unpleasant or feared events that they had experienced. The
factor of multiple causation was stressed and a variety of effects
of escaping by feeling ill were elicited.

Lesson eleven. Lesson eleven story entitled "Friends" con-

 

cerned two girls, Marie and Rose. They were fast friends, but
Rose was quite popular, while Marie's only friend was Rose. Rose
moved and Marie_was left without a friend. The story was written
to enable the class to discuss the various ways of making and
keeping friends and to consider the feelings that are aroused when
someone loses a close friend.

Lesson twelve. Lesson twelve was centered around a discussion

 

of the story of Marie and was called "Liking Others." It pictured

an event in Marie's life. She rejected the assistance of another
girl and a teacher when they attempted to help her become a part

of the group after the loss of Rose. Thus, the story was related

to the previous lesson. The class was led to identify some of the
efforts they might make in helping others to like themselves. Various
personal experiences were asked for which had to do with events when

96

when others helped us. The generalization arrived at wat that
opportunities to help others feel liked and wanted might be sought.
Lesson thirteen. Lesson thirteen carried further the dis-
cussion of the girl Rose mentioned in story eleven. Rose moved to
a new community and did a number of things to help herself become
a part of the group. She was not too well received at first and
sat down and planned with her mother specific things that she
might do to help others to like her. This led the class to con—
sider various ways in which they overcame feelings similar to Rose's
shyness in a new group. Other areas suggestive of improvement were
mentioned and the class ended by writing a list of "Things I'd Like
To Improve About Myself" accompanied by suggestions for accomplish-
ing these ends.

Lesson fourteen. This story was called, "ways of Handling Our

 

Problems." It was planned to follow up the preceding three stories.
It dealt with a basketball team that lost a close game and showed
the various players' reactions to the loss. One blamed thereferee,
the indirect attack. One threatened to quit the team, the avoidance
method. One suggested that the fellows had better practice and im-
prove more and then maybe they'd win the close games, the direct
facing of the problem. The class then discussed the various general
ways of handling this and similar problems in their own experience.

97

Lesson fifteen. This story was titled "How Others Have

 

Improved Themselves." It acquainted the children with the lives

of some famous peOple and the way they handled their problems by

a rather direct attack. The problems were confined to the physical
disability type and the famous peOple used to illustrate the over-
coming of personal handicaps were Wilma Rudolph, Mary McLeod Bethune,
and Alex Templeton. The class mentioned several more people who

had overcome severe physical handicaps. The generalization was made
that the problems listed in the previous lessons might not be so
insurmountable if we worked at them.

Lesson sixteen. "John Makes the Baseball Team" was the story

 

for this lesson. It illustrated the efforts of a young boy to make
the fourth grade baseball team. He finally made the substitute team
and got to play in one game. This was the biggest day of his life.
The class was led to discuss the efforts he made in attacking his
problem directly. Different kinds of similar efforts were
solicited.

Lesson seventeen. "Bessie's Temper" was the title of the story
for lesson seventeen. Bessie had difficulty doing a long diVision
problem and had a slight temper tantrum. Later she exhibited the
same behavior when her sister changed the television channel she was
watching. The class discussed the methods Bessie employed for hand-
ling her problems. Other general kinds of indirect ways of handling
problems were mentioned by the students.

98

Lesson eighteen. This story entitled "Copying Others" was

 

concerned with depicting the psychological defense mechanism of
identification. A series of events in the life of a boy from
infancy through childhood were portrayed. These events showed
the various people he liked and respected to the point of emula-
ting them in many ways.

Lesson nineteen. "Making Excuses" was the title of the

 

story designed to show the mechanisms of rationalization and pro-
jection at work. Janet failed a test and proceeded. to blame a
number of factors for her failure. She then expanded her reasons
and began to blame her brother for interrupting her study prior

to the test. After class, Janet explained to her friends that the
teacher really had it in for her and that was why she failed. The
class was asked to analyze Janet's behavior. Similar incidents
utilizing the same mechanisms were brought out.

Lesson twenty. Ronny and Bobby were identical twins. The

 

story, "The Twins Grow Up." showed how both tried to excell at play-
ing the violin but went into dramatics for his real success. The
different indirect ways these two boys coped with the same problem
were discussed. The mechanisms of substitution and compensation
were the real subject for this lesson. The class discussed many
ways of substituting one goal for another. A continuum of values

surrounding the use of these mechanisms was developed.

99

Lesson twenty-one. "Dreams" was the title of these two brief

 

stories. Jane was unable to go to the party so she spent her time
at home dreaming about how wonderful it would be to be a princess
and have all kinds of big parties. John was doing his science
-when he noticed a flock of ducks flying north. He forgot his
science and began to daydream of going up north during the coming
summer vacation. The lesson was confined to the topic of day-
dreams. The facts that most people daydream to varying degrees
and that daydreams may serve a definite purpose were brought out.
The children were led to discuss their own daydreams.

Lesson twentyrtwo. The story of LeRoy who had a poor report

 

card to take home and delayed going home or telling his parents
about the card comprised the story for lesson twenty-two. It was
entitled, "Being Anxious." The class was stimulated to discuss
many aspects of fear and anxiety. Real and imagined fears and
anxieties were brought out.The fact that LeRoy's parents were
angry when he came home late for supper interested the class. The
discussion led to the relating of many events when parents became
fearful or anxious for their children. The generalization was
made that parents might become angry when they are anxious or
fearful for their children's safety.

Lesson twenty-three. Lesson twenty-three was begun with a

 

story entitled, "Going Backwards." The story was a series of
two events. A boy failed to become elected to a school job he

100

wanted. He went home crying to his mother. A girl was chosen
on the weakest baseball team during the gym period and proceed—
ed to sulk, complain, and only half-tried when it was her turn
to field a ball or bat. The mechanism of regression was in-
herent in these incidents. The class was asked to point out
times when they had handled a problem of theirs by "going back-
wards."

Lesson twentyjfour. Lesson twenty-four was a discussion
review period. After the discussion, the students were asked
to respond to the final student questionnaire.

The group discussion lessons occupied the majority of the
time the author spent with the experimental group. A descrip-
tion of the second part of the experimental approach follows
in the presentation of the individual interviews.

The Individual Interviews

The second experimental conditions in this study was indivi-
dual interviewing. The students in the E group were privately
interviewed on three occasions. The interviews took place with
each child before, during and after the series of class story—
discussions.

These conferences took place in the favorable surroundings
of the private office of the music counselor. The interviews
averaged one-half hour in length. Comfortable chairs, a desk,
good light and ventilation, and an almost total lack of inter-
ruption characterized the surroundings.

lOl

General purpose p£_the interviews. The interview situa-

 

 

tion was primarily designed to offer the opportunity to consult
with the researcher in regards to any questions of a general or
private nature springing from the stories. Thus, it was the in-
tent of the researcher to give each child the chance to relate
personal reactions to the discussions as well as any problems
which the discussions might have pin-pointed.

It was also hoped that further information in regards to
each child's self-understanding might be elicited in the inter-
views. The degree of and reality of self-understanding might
then be better understood.

Secondary purposes entered into the planning of the three
interviews. These are detailed in the discussion that follows.

The counseling philosophy underlying the conduct of these
interviews might best be characterized or described as eclectic.2’3

Many of the aspects of directive information-seeking interviews

were present.

 

2Shirley A. Hamrin, "An Eclectic Approach to Counseling,"
S. Hamrin and F. Endicott, editors, Counselors at Work a Prac-
tical Consideration of Counseliugzgroblems (Evanston: School of
Education, Northwestern University, 1967), pp. 127-142.

 

 

3Arthur H. Ryden, "An Appraisal of Student-Parent-Counselor
Participation in Counseling in a Secondary School Guidance Pro-
gram," (Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Northwestern University,
1961), p. 122.

102

The first interview. The first interview followed the intro-

 

ductory session with the class. _It was designed to help the student
express any questions he had about the study and to answer these
questions wherever possible. It was the purpose of the interview to
offer a permissive situation wherein the student could communicate
any misgivings or misunderstandings in regard to the study, thereby
alleviating any tension that might have pre-existed or been induced.
Much of this initial interview was designed to be ego-supporting so
that the child would not be threatened and thereby restricted in his
approach to the story-discussions. It further aided the researcher
and each child to establish a degree of rapport and to understand
and know each other better.

The second interview. This interview took place during the

 

middle of the series of story-discussions. It followed the second
sociogram and was designed in part to elicit from each child the
reasons for his sociometric choices.

Like the initial interview, each child was encouraged to
question what had taken place so far. An attempt was made to dis-
cuss and, where possible, to answer these questions.

Problems of a personal nature had been listed by each student
under the title, "What I'd Like to Improve About Myself." These
problems were discussed and the accOmpanying suggestions of each
child as to steps he might take to solve the problem in question
were mutually analyzed.

103

This interview might be described as a sociometric interview
in part, and secondarily, a personal problem informational and
planning interview.

The final interview. The third interview took place after

 

the story-discussions were completed. It was designed to again
afford the child the privacy of the counseling situation to ex-
press himself in any way he saw fit regarding the story-discussions.
Questions were encouraged and clarified through discussion.

This interview was also planned to aid the student to evaluate
any growth and change as a result of the study. The student's final
written evaluation was discussed with him. The whole experiment
and the student's experiences and reactions were analyzed.

Chapter Summary

This chapter presented a description of the experimental con-
ditions which took place within the E group. The general method of
story-discussion was explained . The researcher's group discussion
techniques were listed and interpreted. The outline of the lessons
written for this study and the needs formulation evolved were dis-
cussed. The stories used in the study were summarized.

The general purpose of the three interviews and the Specific

procedures used in the interviews were presented.

104

CHAPTER V
QUANTITATIVE COMPARISONS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL

AND CONTROL GROUPS

This chapter compares the groups quantitatively on the
basis of the results of group testing. The E and C groups
were tested with a variety of tests each of which, with the
exception of the achievement battery, were selected on the
assumption that it measured some aspect of self-understanding.
All the tests were administered both before and after the ex-
periment took place with the B group. The same or equated
forms of each test were utilized.

Two of the tests were personal in nature. That is,
each child responded only for himself. These were the Califor-
nia Test of Personality and the essay questions. The other two
tests were primarily social. On the social distance scale and
sociograms each child responded to others in his class.

The remaining test was not used to reflect any aspect of
self-understanding. The achievement battery was administered to
assess academic growth during the experimental period.

I The data are grouped according to the tests used for clarity
in reading. The results in each case are presented in tables.
Each table is introduced, described, analyzed and the conclusions
drawn are cited with the supportant evidence.

105

Following these presentations, the conclusions are

synthesized and summarized.

Comparisons on the California
Test of Personality

The California Test of Personality was administered in
order to obtain an average adjustment score for each group.

The raw score data were used since the percentile rankings in
the publisher's manual were thought to be inadequate for the
method of statistical analysis employed.

Presentation pf the personality test data. The data
represented in two tables. The first of these, Table IV, indi-
cates the means of each group on the pre— and post-testing with
the California Test of Personality. These means were compared
and the resulting gains or losses in each group's mean raw scores
are given. In addition, the total raw score point gains or
-1osses are shown for each group.

Table IV shows that the E group made the highest average
point gain over the experimental period. This gain was found to
be 2.70. Four of the C groups dropped in average score. These
losses ranged from .05 to 5.89. One C group, C3, gained .50 in
mean score. The table indicates that the E group made the great-

est positive gain in average raw score.

106

TABLE IV

MEANS, DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEANS, AND TOTAL POINT
GAIN OR LOSS IN RAW SCORES ON THE
CALIFORNIA TEST OF PERSONALITY

 

 

 

flit #fiost-Tesf Difference

Group N Means Means

E 27 119.50 122.20 +2.70
Cl 25 119.50 118.52 —l.08
CZ 26 121.09 115.30 -5.89
C3 26 116.61 117.11 +0.50
C4 24 124.13 124.08 -0.05
C5 25 118.80 117.44 -l.36

 

Stated differently, the E group gain 73 points in total raw
score while four of the five C groups lost points. The only C
group that gained, group C3, showed an increase of only 13 points
while the E group's gain was considerably greater.

In still another comparison, the mean raw score of the E
group was lower than that of three of the C groups on the first
test, and below only one of these on the second test.

Interpretation pf the personality test data. These data seem

 

 

to indicate that the total adjustment of the E group as measured by
the California Test of Personality increased over the experimental

period.

107

Therefore, the data presented seem to support the con-
tention that within the E group some change or changes occurred.
These changes are apparently of a positive nature.

Significance up the pgrsonality test data. In order to
ascertain the significance of the changes that are represented
by the data, they were subject to statistical analysis.

Table V presents the 2 scores which resulted from statis-
tical analysis of the significance of the difference between
the means of the E and C groups respectively on the pre-test
(£1) and post-test (52) scores.

TABLE V
SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEANS OF

THE E GROUP AND EACH C GROUP ON THE
CALIFORNIA TEST OF PERSONALITY

 

 

 

 

Group C1 02 C3 C4 C5

t 0.03 0.43 0.72 1.27 0.17
significance -- -- -— -- --
t 0.84 1.25 0.00 0.49 1.98
significance -- -- —— -_ --

 

The results of the 5 tests show that none of the mean scores
of the C groups were significantly different from the means of the
E group on either the pre— or post-test. This does not prove that

no difference existed.

108

Further analysis of the data in Table V indicates that some
change occurred as represented by the change inIE scores. Groups
C1 and C2 were above the E group on the first test and below on
othe second. C3 and C5 scores were below the E group on both tests
and the £_score for CS reflects the degree of this change. Change
in C3 is not as apparent as this group gained positively, though
not to the degree that the E group did.

Group C4, which scored the highest on both tests, was not
as far above the E group on the second test, as it was on the first,
the £_score changing from 1.27 to 0.49.

These data appear to support the generalization arrived at
perviously, namely that the greatest positive changes occurred in
the group E.

Conclusions based pp pgrsonality test results. The figures in

 

 

the above tables appear to support the following conclusions:

(1) The change in means was greatest in the E group.

(2) This change was of a positive nature.

(3) This change was apparent whether the comparison was made
with a C group which scored above or below the E group on
either test.

(4) In no case were there any statistically significant
differences between the means of the E and C groups.

These results would appear to corroborate the findings of

Rosenthal in the study described in detail in Chapter II of this

109

text.1 Further, the research of Taylor and Combs, if valid, would
support the contention that the California Test of Personality

does measure the total adjustment of a group of children in rela-

tion to their degree of self-acceptance.2 Taylor and Combs found

that those children who were best adjusted, as measured by the test,
could accept a greater number of damaging statements about themselves.
Assuming that this is so for the groups at hand, we might then con-
clude that the children in the E group began to understand themselves
better since self-understanding is, in part, comprised of the con-
scious acknowledgment of one's own weaknesses as well as his strengths
and this acknowledgment appears to be implicit in the responses to the

California Test of Personality Test items.

Comparisons on the Open-ended Essay Questions
The open-ended essay questions "What I like about myself is . .
.?" and "What I dislike about myself is . . .?" were administered
to all the groups in order to assess the student's negative and

positive personal feelings toward and about themselves.

 

1Sheldon Rosenthal, "A Fifth Grade Classroom Experiment in
Fostering Mental Health," The Journal of Child Psychiatry, 2:302-29,
1962.

2Charles Taylor and Arthur Combs, "Self-Acceptance and Adjust-
ment," Journal of Consulting Psychology, 16:89-91, April, 1962.

110

The responses to these questions were totaled and averaged
for each group resulting in a mean number of responses to each
question.

Presentation pf the essay data. The mean number of re-

 

sponses to each of these questions on the before (M1) and after
(M2) administrations are presented in Table VI. The resulting
gains or losses in mean scores are calculated and are presented
in the same table.

TABLE VI

MEANS AND DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEANS OF THE NUMBER OF
RESPONSES TO OPEN-ENDED ESSAY QUESTIONS

 

 

 

 

 

Like Dislike

Group M1 M2 Gain M1 M2 Gain

E 4.2 4.9 +0.7 3.4 2.7 -0.7
Cl 3.9 1.8 -2.1 2.4 2.5 +0.1
C2 7.8 8.5 +0.7 4.3 6.0 +1.7
C3 3.4 4.0 +0.6 2.1 2.2 +0.1
C4 5.7 4.3 -l.4 3.0 4.3 +1.3
CS 4.5 4.8 +0.3 3.7 3.4 -0.3

 

 

Table VI shows that the E group was one of four groups that gained
in the number of responses to the "Like" question. It was one of

two groups that lowered their number of responses to the "Dislike"
question.

111

The E group made a gain of 0.7 responses per pupil on
the "Like" criterion. This was the highest gain, along with
that of C2. C3 closely followed with a gain of 0.6 in mean
number of responses. Two of the groups, C1 and C4 lost 2.1 and
1.4 in their mean scores respectively.

On the "Dislike" question, four groups made greater re—
sponse to the criterion on the final test, C2 showing an in-
crease of 1.7, C4 of 1.3 and Cl and C3 of 0.1. Group CS was
the only group besides the E group that reduced its mean number
of responses to the "Dislike" criterion showing a loss of 0.3 as
compared to the E group reduction of 0.7.

Interpretation pf the essay data. These data show that the

 

 

E group with the exception of C2 made the highest gain in positive
responses to the "Like" question and the greatest reduction of
responses to the "Dislike" question. This would seem to corrobo-
rate the findings of the California Test of Personality in that
the E group students apparently came to like more things about
themselves and dislike less things about themselves during the
course of the study. The California Test of Personality indicated
slightly better adjustment within the E group after the study.

The veracity of this statement depends upon acceptance of the
assumption that a reduction in the number of things disliked about
oneself reflects greater acceptance of oneself and hence, better
positive adjustment.

112

Significance p§_the essay data. It can be noted from the

 

table that the respective gains and losses on each of the ques-
tions are of consistently small quantity. This leads us to
caution in the interpretation of these data. Apparently changes
occurred. However, the pattern of small consistent changes found
in the analysis of the California Test of Personality data is
again noticeable in analyzing the essay responses. No test of
significance of these changes was made due to the lack of large
differences in the mean number of responses.

Conclusions based upon the essuy data. The figures presen-

 

ted in foregoing table tend to suggest the following conclusions:

(1) Most of the groups gained slightly in the mean

responses to both questions.

(2) The E group showed a greater gain in liking for

one C group.

(3) The E group showed the greatest reduction in disliking

things about themselves of all the groups.

(4) The E group responses to both questions were consistent.

(5) The significance of the changes in means is questionable

due to the size of the differences.

These conclusions appear to verify the California Test of
Personality findings presented previously. Apparently the slightly
better adjustment of the individuals in the E group after the ex-
periment was reflected on both the California Test of Personality
and the open-ended essay questions. The E group pupils appeared
to like more things about themselves and dislike less about them-

113

selves after the story-discussions and interviews than before.

Specifically, the E group students increased their liking
for the following aspects of themselves:

(1) Social attitudes and relations with others increased

by eleven positive responses.

(2) Recreation and hobbies were mentioned seven times more.

(3) Personality and character traits were mentioned five

times more.

(4) Clothing and grooming increased five responses.

(5) Better home and family relationships were mentioned

three times.

On the other hand, the E group pupils reduced their dislike
of themselves on the following aspects:

(1) Fourteen less responses mentioned physical character-

istics.

(2) The category entitled "Just me, myself" went down five

responses.

(3) Dislike of some aspect of school went down two re-

sponses.

These specific gains and reductions tended to reflect a
growing awareness of and respect for themselves among the students
in the B group. It was interesting to note that the greatest in-
crease on the "Like" question was in response to the individual's
liking for and relationships with other. The greatest reduction
on the "Dislike" question was on physical characteristics.

114

Apparently more children came to appreciate and enjoy their
relations with others, and at the same time, became more
understanding and accepting of their own physical character—

istics.
Comparisons on the Sociograms

Both the California Test of Personality and the essays
reflected changes in self-understanding. These changes were
derived from measures to which each child responded in a way
which tended to be exclusive of others. In Order to measure
more closely the other aspects of self—understanding, namely,
the child's relations to others and their acceptance of him,
a modified social distance scale and three sociograms were
utilized on the pre- and post-test basis.

Three sociograms were administered to each child in each
group. Three responses were requested to each of three cri-
teria: friends, play, and work at school. Due to the diffi—
culties of statistically comparing groups with sociometric
measurements which were pointed out in Chapter II, a method:
of numerical analysis was employed. This method has certain
limitations but appeared to be the most applicable, and use-
ful method of sociometric analysis for purposes of this study.

Presentation of the sociometric data. The sociometric

 

data are presented in two tables, Table VII and Table VIII.
The first of these indicates the number and percentage of
isolates in each group on the before and after sociograms. An

isolate was taken as one who received one or no choices on the

115

two sociograms. In addition, a Group Integration figure is

 

presented in Table VII. This figure was calculated from the

formula presented by Jahoda.3 I, Group Integration, equals

 

one divided by the number of isolates in the group. Thus, the
higher the I the better the group's integration. Table VII
also includes the differences between the I_scores on both sets
of sociograms.
TABLE VII
NUMBER OF ISOLATES, PERCENTAGE OF ISOLATES,

GROUP INTEGRATION, AND DIFFERENCES IN
INTEGRATION ON THE SOCIOGRAMS

 

 

 

 

 

 

First Sociograms Final Sociograms
ISOLATES ISOLATES Differences

Group N No. Z .1 No. 2 _1 in.1
E 27 4 14.0 .25 5 18.5 .20 -0.05
Cl 27 5 18.5 .20 4 14.0 .25 +0.05
CZ Z6 4 15.0 .25 l 4.0 1.00 +0.75
C3 27 3 11.0 .33 3 11.0 .33 0.00
C4 25 3 12.0 .33 3 12.0 .33 0.00
cs 25 1 4.0 1.00 1 4.0 1.00 0.00

 

 

This table indicates that no group had less than one or more
than five isolates at either time of measurement. The E group was
the only group that increased its number of isolates over the

experimental period.

 

3M. Jahoda, M. Deutsch, and S. W. Cook, Research Methods
in Social Relations, Part Two: Selected Techniques (New York:
Dryden Press, 1961), p. 573.

 

 

116

The E group had the lowest I_score and the highest per-
centage of isolates at the conclusion of the study. Group CS
had only one isolate on both sets of tests with a resulting
low percentage of isolates and the highest I_scores. C2 showed
a loss of three isolates with a final I score equal to that of
C5. This constituted the most significant gain of all the groups.

Interpretation pf_the sociometric data up isolates.

 

 

These data generally satisfy the criteria for a reasonable distri-
bution of approximately fifteen per cent of isolates in both sets
of sociograms and C2 on the final set, has a percentage of iso-
lates which varies from eleven per cent to eighteen per cent,

all near the fifteen per cent figure.

The data seem to suggest that no great changes took place in
the number of isolates during the course of the study with the
exception being CZ. The E group did not show any positive change
in group integration but rather, it was the only group that
decreased in integration.

Significance pf_£hg dupe pp isolates. If reliability and
validity of the data are assumed, then the conclusions based on the
data must be of some significance. The only group that made
significant progress in integration was C2. The remaining groups
showed little or no change, three of them remaining identical on
both sets of tests. The negative change of .05 in I_within the E
group and the positive .05 within the Cl group are such small changes
as to be of questionable significance. No statistical treatment of

117

the data's significance was attempted.

Presentation of the sociometric data pu_leaders. Because

 

 

of the one-sided view derived from a sociometric analysis con-
fined to a study of isolates only, Table VIII was prepared to
indicate the number, percentage, and changes in number and per-
centage of leaders in each group. The criterion for a leader
was taken as fifteen or more choices on the three sociograms.
Table VIII shows that the number of leaders in each group varied
from one to seven. This resulted in varying percentages of
stars which ranged from four to twenty-six percent. The E group
gained one leader with a resulting final percentage of sixteen
on the final set of sociograms. Of the remaining four groups,
three lost two leaders each and one, group C2, remained the

same with four leaders on each set of tests.

118

TABLE VIII

NUMBER OF LEADERS, PERCENTAGE OF LEADERS, AND DIFFERENCES
IN NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF LEADERS ON THE SOCIOGRAMS

V:
-:

 

 

 

 

First Sociograms Final Sociograms
LEADERS LEADERS Gain Differences

Group N No. Z No. Z or in

Loss Z
E 27 6 22 7 26 +1 +4.0
C1 27 7 26 5 18.5 -2 -7.5
C2 26 4 15 4 15 0 0
C3 27 7 26 5 18.5 -2 -7.5

C4 25 1 4 4 16 +3 +12
C5 25 6 25 4 16 -2 -9.0

 

 

Integpretation pf the sociometric data up leaders. These data

 

 

seem to indicate that there was no great change in the number of
leaders in the group. The E group gained on leader and C4 gained
three. The remaining groups remained the same or lost leaders.
Nevertheless, the number of leaders in each group on the final three
sociograms is close to the criterion of twenty per cent leaders de—
scribed in Chapter IV. All groups were within six percentage points
of this criterion.

Conclusions based upon sociometric measurement.

 

Quantitative comparison of the sociometric data described and
presented above appears to lead to the following conclusions:
(1) No group showed a consistent decrease in isolates coupled
with an increase in leaders.

119

(Z) All groups with the exception of the C5 isolates showed
reasonable sociometric distribution. 05 had an un-
usually low number of isolates.

(3) No consistent pattern of change within the E group was

discernible with the method of analysis employed.

(4) The E group gained one isolate and one leader resulting

in the highest percentage of both isolates and leaders.

(5) This change within the E group was of such slight quan—

tity as to be of questionable significance.

The above conclusions are apparently of questionable signifi-
cance. The difficulties of utilizing sociometric data for com-
parative analysis between groups has been pointed out in Chapter 111.
Any conclusions which might be drawn would necessarily be contingent
upon the assumption that the methods of analysis employed were adequate.

The sociometric analysis of the E group in comparison with the
C groups might lead to two lines of thought. First, if there was a
dynamic change in self-understanding within the E group, but it was not
reflected in the self-other type of sociometric choice employed. In
other words, if change occurred, the sociograms did not measure such
change.

Second, it is possible that there was little or no change in the
groups and hence no great alteration in the sociometric choices and
the resulting numbers of isolates and leaders.

Consequently, if we accept the sociogram as an instrument that

measures aspects of self-understanding, then the hypothesis

120

that change occurred to a significant degree must be rejected
on the basis of the results. Conversely, the hypothesis need
not be rejected if either the sociograms were invalid for the
purpose of measuring self—understanding, or the methods of

analysis were inadequate.
Comparisons on the Social Distance Scale

Because of the difficulties of comparative sociometric
analysis a modified social distance scale was also employed
to afford a different and more variable picture of the students'
relations with and acceptance of others.

The social distance scale was administered with the in-
struction that each child should check each of the other chil-
dren in the class in the appropriate column which was felt to
be most descriptive of that person. The responses were scored
from a highest rating of five to the lowest rating of one.
Each response to a given student was then added. An average
of all students' total scores was computed resulting in the
mean social distance for the group. The higher the score the.
better the rating of the student or the group.

Presentation p£_the social distance data. The social

 

distance data are presented in two tables. The first of these,
Table IX, indicates the mean social distance scores on the pre-

and post-tests along with the differences between these means.

121

TABLE IX

TOTAL SCORES ON THE
SOCIAL DISTANCE SCALES

 

 

 

Group N M1 M2 Gain or Loss
E 27 67.37 75.37 + 8.00
C1 27 82.74 80.93 - 1.81
CZ 26 70.35 77.77 + 7.42
C3 27 80.37 89.74 + 9.37
C4 25 77.64 78.00 + 0.36
C5 25 55.80 74.44 +18.64

 

Five of the six groups made gains during the duration of this
study. Of these gains, the E group was greater than those of
two groups and smaller than those of the other two. The remaining
group, Cl, reduced its score from 82.74 to 80.93 for a loss of
1.81 points.

The gain of group 05 is questionably. A clarification of
the administration of the social distance scale to this group is
in order. A majority of the children in all groups did not respond
on the test to 311 the other children in the room despite the
instruction to do so. This was true of C5 on the first test.
During the administration of the second test the teacher reminded
the class of this instruction. It was felt that this non-
standardized reinforcement of the directions to the class tended
to alter the normal responses of the students. A number of the
children were observed going back and checking each child which

122

they had not originally checked. For this reason, the author
cautions the use of the final results for C5. They may well be
of questionable validity. The great mean gain on social distance
of this group then became more understandable. The results are
presented in their entirety but their use for comparison with the
E group should be disregarded.

Interpretation pf the social distance data. The E group

 

 

showed a gain of 8.00 points in mean social distance. Groups C2
and CS made greater gains. The remaining three groups made les-
ser gains or lost points. The E group did not change its relative
position as a group. It was ranked fifth in average score on the
first test, and, despite its gain, it remained fifth in rank on the
second test. Because of the size of the gain the E group came
closer to three of the four groups above it on the second test than
it had been on the first. V

Sigpificance pf_the social distance data. Since the B group

 

came closer to three groups that had higher scores initially the
data were analyzed for the significance of differences between the
means on both the before and after tests. The £_test of signifi-
cance was used. These 5 scores and the appropriate levels of
significance are presented in Table X in order to clarify the data
in Table IX.

The results of the E tests show that the E group was behind
the Cl, C3, and C4 groups on the initial test to a significant de-
gree. 0n the final test the E group was significantly behind only

123

the C3 group. Since all of these four groups had higher mean scores

on both tests the decrease in significance of differences between

the means would seem to indicate that the E group improved in its

mean score in a significant manner.

TABLE X

SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEANS ON

THE SOCIAL DISTANCE SCALE

 

 

 

Group E Cl CZ C3 C4 C5
51 3.46 0.70 3.06 2.40 2.23
Significance 12 —- 1% 2% 52
1.26 0.53 3.09 0.61 0.20

E
Significance -- -- 12 --

 

Specific comparisons which lead to this apparently significant

change follow:

(1) E gained much on C1, decreasing the significance of

differences between the mean scores of the two groups

from the 12 level of confidence to no significance.

(2) E gained slightly on C2, the 5 score change from 0.70 to

0.53 indicating even less difference on the final test.

(3) E and C3 showed little change in relative position, E

gained 8.00 points in mean score and C3 gaining 9.37 points.

Thus C3 made a slightly higher gain than E which is barely

124

(4)

reflected by the £_score change from 3.06 to 3.09.
C3 remained significantly above E on both tests.

E gained on 04 which was significantly higher at the
22 level of confidence on the first test, and not
significantly higher on the second. The £_score

changed from 2.40 to 0.61

Conclusions based upon social distance date. The preceding

 

quantitative comparisons of the social distance test results suggest

the following conclusions:

(1)
(2)
(3)

(4)

Small changes apparently occurred in all groups.

The change in the E group was of a positive nature.

The E group gain brought the group closer to the other
groups during the course of the study. This decrease in
the gap between the respective means appear to be
significant.

The E group gain may indicate that the pupils tended to
respond more positively to more of their classmates after

the study than before.

The social distance data give a more detailed picture of the

relationships between students than do the sociometric data. The

slight positive change in the E group noticeable in the California

Test of Personality and essay data and lacking in the sociometric

figures was repeated in the social distance results. The hypothesis

of positive change appears to be supported by the results of all the

tests with the exception of the sociogram.

125

Comparisons on the California Achievement Test

The only purpose in administering the achievement test
battery was to see whether or not the E group might suffer
academically during the period of this research. Since the
time necessary for the study was taken from the regular in-
structional periods of the E group alone, a comparison of the
achievement of all groups was made.

Presentation pf the achievement test data. In order to pre-

 

 

sent the achievement test data Table XI was prepared. This table
gives the mean grade placement achievement scores for each group
before and after the research. The resulting gains in achievement
were also presented.

TABLE XI

MEANS AND GAINS IN MEANS ON THE CALIFORNIA
ACHIEVEMENT TEST BATTERY

 

 

Group N M1 M2 Gain
E 26 4.75 5.38 +.63
C1 27 4.70 5.08 +.38
C2 25 4.71 5.36 +.65
C3 27 4.58 6.06 +.48
C4 25 5.08 6.57 +.49
CS 25 4.53 5.96 +.43

 

126

Interpretation of the achievement test data. The above
figures indicate that all groups made small gains in achieve-
ment during the period of this study. The E group gain of .63
in grade placement score was greater than the gains of all
other groups with the exception of C2 which made a gain of
.65.

Siguificance ofpguins in achievement. In order to clarify
the grade placement gains presented in Table XI and test them
for significance of differences between means the £_tests for
statistical significance were used. The resulting E scores and

their significance are presented in Table XII.

TABLE XII

SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
MEANS ON ACHIEVEMENT TESTS

 

 

 

Group C1 ' CZ C3 C4 CS
.5 0.02 0.18 0.69 1.39 1.00

Significance -- -- -- -- --
£_ 1.05 0.08 1.25 0.31 1.76

Significance -- -- -- -- 10%

 

Analysis of these £_scores indicates that there were no
significant differences between the mean achievement grade place-
ment scores of the E group as compared with the C groups either
before or after the experiment. E was higher than CS on the
final test but the £_score was only significant at the

127

102 level of confidence which is not discriminating enough for
our purposes.

Conclusions based upon the achievement test data. The
following conclusions appear to be supported by the analysis
of the achievement test results: '

(1) All groups gained in achievement.

(2) The E and C2 groups gained slightly more than the

other groups.

(3) These gains were not significantly greater than the

gains in the other groups.

(4) There were no significant differences between the

mean achievement grade placement scores of the E
group and the respective C groups before or after
the experiment.

The above data would lead to the rejection of any hy-
pothesis that the E group suffered academically as a result
of spending the time necessary for the experiment. Rather,
the E group apparently made good academic gains despite the

loss of time from the instructional program.
Chapter Summary

The quantitative results of the before and after testing
have been presented, interpreted, and their significance
stated in this chapter. The conclusions which the results of
each test appear to support were specified.

128

In summarizing and synthesizing the data and the conclu-
sions drawn from the data, the following generalizations are made:

(1) The E group made small but consistent gains on the

personal measures of personality and self-likes and
dislikes. These gains were, in most cases, statis-
tically insignificant.

(Z) The E group made a similar type of small gain on one

of the social measures, the social distance scale. This
gain was not noticeable in the sociometric data. This
may be due to the inadequacy of the sociograms as a
test of self-understanding, inadequacy of the methods
of analysis, or lack of change within the group. The
evidence of the other measures appears to support the
conclusion that positive change did occur despite the
inconclusivemenss of the sociometric results.
With these two generalizations in mind attention is directed to the
basic hypotheses of the study.

Did the study result in the improvement of self-understanding?
Apparently those aspects of self-understanding which are measured by
the tests used demonstrated small consistent positive growth over the
period of this study. To a slight degree the evidence substantiates
the basic hypothesis. A caution is interjected to avoid misinter-
pretation; these positive gains were generally lacking in statistis—
tical significance. A positive pattern was discernible within the
E group as compared with the C groups but this positive growth was

129

very slight.

In regards to the question of academic improvement over the
period of this study, the hypothesis that the E group would
suffer due to loss of instructional time is refuted by the grade
placement data.

The quantitative analysis being completed, the qualitative

analysis of the study and its results follows in Chapter VI.

130

CHAPTER VI

QUALITATIVE ANALYSES OF THE STUDY

Many of the nuances of behavior and the results of any
educative experience are difficult to quantify in a valid
manner. Some of the experiences which took place within the
E group are of this kind. Therefore, they are treated quali-
tatively in the presentation of the results of this study.

In a sense, they constitute what might be termed sub—
jective data, as opposed to the more objective data presented
quantitatively in the previous chapter.

This chapter is divided into twelve sections. In a number
of these sections many of the direct remarks of students and
parents are quoted. The sections are arranged in the following
order:

(1) The students' oral and written responses to the

story-discussions.

(2) The record of student participation is presented,

and conclusions are drawn from the results.

(3) An analysis of the students' desired self-improvement.

(4) The students' three wishes are analyzed.

(5) The initial individual interviews.

(6) The second individual interviews presented in the six—

th section were primarily sociometric interviews. The
results of these are given.

131

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

(11)

The third individual interviews were primarily evalu-
ative.

The changes in the students' interests and activities.
The students' final questionnaires.

The results of theparent questionnaires and analyzes of
these results.

The E group's teacher was asked to answer certain
questions about her reactions to the study and her
observations of the students. Her responses are in-

eluded.

Students' Oral and Written Responses

to the Story-Discussions

Following the reading of each story, the class was led to

discuss the story, the characters in each story, and why they

might have behaved as they did. Gradually, the discussion was

led into a considertion of other peOple the students knew

132

who behaved in a similar way. Finally, the discussion center-
ed around an analysis of times when the students themselves
behaved in a like manner. This was the pattern of each dis-
cussion.

Excerpts of these discussions are presented in this
section in order to illustrate the insight and understanding
of the students in the E group as the study progressed. Some
of the excerpts presented were drawn from the tape-recordings
of each discussion. Some of the excerpts were taken from the
students' written reactions to each story-discussion. These
reactions were written at the end of each lesson under the
title, "What I think I have learned today."

Criteria for selection p£_the excerpts. There were

 

criteria for the selection of the following excerpts.
Well over two thousand oral and written remarks were con-
sidered and evaluated. The few presented were selected on
the following bases:

(1) The excerpt was interpreted to be illustrative of
self-understanding on the part of the student.

(2) The excerpt was interpreted to be illustrative of
understanding of others.

(3) The comments used were representative of the whole
class rather than just a few of the more articulate
children.

With these criteria in mind the excerpts were chosen.
Excerpts pf students' oral and written regponses. The

following excerpts from each of the lessons are presented in

133

chronological order. Lesson twenty-four is not included as it was
not a discussion lesson.

1. Lesson one. Most of the comments in response to this story

 

centered around the treatment of the boy who fell on the ice. The
feelings of the other people around him were mentioned. The respon-
ses of the class did not reflect too much in the way of self-
understanding. Since it was the first story, the pattern of pro-
cedure for the discussions needed occasional clarification. The
following comments were made:

Tl- One of the things we talked about was the feel§ngs . . . the
emotions that everyone had about the accident.

T - I think his father would be awfully worried because I read
the book of Highpockets and his father was worried when he
was hit by a pitch.

W3- I think I've learned the different ways, different peOple
think about the same thing. I also learned different ways
of using first aid. I think I learned a lot.

Some of the additional written comments raised points of concern

which had not been discussed following the story. Some of these

follow:

PeOple are different in race, color of their skin, and creed.
What would the guy who pushed John feel like?

That you should not disobey rules, it might hurt you but

it might hurt your friend.

I think that John and his friends shouldn't have broken the
rule by playing "ice tag" or other games.

S SS}:
ll

 

1A_'I_‘__is used throughout this section prior to each quotation

taken from a tape-recording.

2All excerpts are quoted directly. Thus they include certain
grammatical and spelling errors. Direct responses of the class are
set in parentheses where they clarify the students' reactions, e.g.
(laughter). Ellipses are used to indicate pauses.

3Allis used throughout this section prior to each quotation taken
from a student's written statement.

134

The last comment was made by a child who frequently commented upon
whether some behavior under the discussion was "right or wrong".
She appeared to be quite concerned with dichotomous values through-

out the study.

 

2. Lesson two. Unfortunately, the tape recorder broke down
during this lesson and the discussion was not recorded. An inci-
dent was recalled and set down in the following manner since it
illustrates the response of the class to one girl who was projec-
ting a type of behavior which she herself frequently utilized:
was talking about how she'd like to be different from others.
She said she wouldn't like to like people who were poor Sports and

gossipy behind others' backs. At this the class chorused, "Ohhhh:"
All turned to look at her. She grinned and blushed.‘

 

The remainder of the comments from lesson two were drawn from the
writings.

W - I have learned that people like to be the same in some ways and
different in others. Sometimes there are fads and everyone
wants to have one of whatever the fad is about. You should be
nice to new children in the room or other rooms and help them
to make friends. And don't tease them if they wear different

clothes.

W - Inside of my self I know what I learned but I can't put it down
on paper.

W - I think it's fun to be like others sometimes and sometimes not
so fun.

W - To like other people and to not be scared at all things. To be
liked by other children. To not were the same thing all the
time. To not were the same thing as others.

The last comments were made by a child who, according to the socio-

grams and social distance scales, was perhaps the most regected child

in the room. The comments mirror the child's

 

4In order to avoid the use of names of the children, their siblings,
etc., the is used to indicate the omission of a name.

135

needs for approval and recognition by others. At the same

time they indicate a degree of self-awareness.

3.

Lesson three. This story evoked a great deal of

 

response, particularly to the question about times when people

get angry and take it out on others.

T-

4.

well . . . one of the characters was pretty nervous
and one was pretty jumpy and jumpiness doesn't make
people like you. (laughter)

Nell, several times . . . my older brother

doesn't like me so much and, uh, we fight, and, uh,
(laughter) and not that I like him but, uh, when he
fights he beats me so many times I just go blow off
at my oldest brother or at my mom, not at my dad.
Then lots of times I go out and try to do something
to 's bike but it doesn't work. (laughter)
well, sometimes I drop my pencil and I could just
kill myself every time that I drOp my pencil . . .
and everytime I do just anything I always drop my
pencil, and oh, I could just kill myself. (Much
laughter as the class turned to look at the teacher.)
well, lots of times I fight with my little brother
and well, he's well, oh, he's pretty little and so
you have to watch out so everytime I beat up on him
well, I have to let him beat up on me only he gets
real mad and he's just a wild tiget and so I get mad
at the maid and she doesn't say a word and I get so
mad and say "Shut Up!" but she doesn't way a word
and I sure get mad.

Like said her maid didn't mind when she takes
things out on her and said that his maid would
stay quiet and would keep telling her to shut
up. I think that people like that are good to have
around because they know that you didn't mean any-
thing when you take things out on them.

I've learned that some people don't think before
they act. Some people get mad very easily over
things that other people don't seem to mind at all.
If they do, they keep it inside. I'v learned that
many people get mad and do something wrong, they
take it out on others.

I learned that a lot of other people besides me get
so mad at things and then they jump somebody else
for it.

Lesson four. Our basic needs. This discussion

 

centered around the basic needs of people and how well these

needs are satisfied.

136

Well, I know a guy that could have been, could have
liked himself better. He didn't have to hide him-

self away like a hermit. He could make friends if

he wanted to . . . if he wasn't alone all the time.

If you don't complain of aches and pains all the

time people like you better.

Well, I have learned to try and NOT fight back cause
then the other person may stop fighting and, uh (laugh-
ter) . . . well, it really works sometimes. '
I learned about our needs, about other people and

even a little about myself.

I think you have to be nice and not try to be boss.

To make friends I have seen people join clubs and

agree to things they really don't believe in.

I just forget about your bad health and make friends,
and you will make more friends. Not to feel so sorry
for yourself.

The last remark was written by a child who had a number of phys-

ical and emotional difficulties and was being studied by the

school psychologist during the experiment. The child was

largely socially isolated in the class and in the community.

5.

Lesson five. The discussion dealt with how Jim

 

and others satisfy their basic needs.

T

6.

Well, I knew this guy at school that wasn't very

sure of himself and he used to plan out every move

at school so he wouldn't make any mistakes. . .

and, uh, so he could be good in the teacher's eyes.
Yeh, some boys sorta need friends . . . but what

they do keeps them from making friends.

I think maybe you could like yourself but not really
know all about yourself or understand yourself . . .
I don't always understand myself! (much laughter)
People need to depend on someone but if they do too
much then they can't depend on themselfs.

Kids our own age don't seem to realize that the kinds
who are very (too) popular for there own good won't
be so popular later.

Some people may be grown up but they may still be ba-
bies at heart. Others, when they get older act like
themselves and do not try to hide there own faults.

Lesson six. The discussion for this lesson center-

 

ed around how well the characters in the previous stories were

satisfying their basic needs. The written responses were in

137

answer to the question of how well the students were satisfy-
ing their needs. Since many of these statements were in-
sightful the majority of them have been included here.

T - I learned that I think it's OK to dislike yourself
sometimes like if you mess around or, uh, if you,
uh, hurt somebody you, uh, sure don't like yourself
then.
Sometimes I feel like killing myself . . . like if
you ride your bike into a person you feel like
killing yourself.
Well, it seems to me that it's wrong . . . that
people shouldn't like themselves all the time be-
cause then . . . it helps if you realize that no
one is perfect and that some things are wrong and
then you can help to improve the things you don't
like about yourself.

I know a boy and he's uh, uh, well, he, uh, doesn't

get along with anybody, and, uh, and, I know he's

always starting fights and everything, and, uh,
he's, he thinks he's so tough. Yet he isn't tough

at all and, uh, and he's, uh, he's one guy that I

don't like to play around with and, uh, he's not

going to have many friends in life. I know! And,
uh, well HE thinks he's satisfying his needs OK
but nobody else does . . . he's conceited like we
said . . . and he really feels inferior inside.

W - What I learned today is how Russ had pretty good
self-control and about me, some things I never
new about me.

W - I seem to want to make friends but some how I do
not. I need to work on it the most.

W - I don't like myself and I don't do a very good job
of making others like me. Those are the worst but
I stink at the others too.

*3
I

H
I

P!
I

This child had a consistently low evaluation of herself through-
out the study but, at the same time, was one of the most popu-
lar children in the room on all the social measures of relation-
ships.

7. Lesson seven. Different feelings coming from our
basic needs. No story was written for this lesson. The dis-
cussion centered around different emotions and feelings that

are healthy and unhealthy.
138

8.

Bob grew a strong emotion of prejudice or hatred . . .
even of himself and his sickness.

(Another girl added the following remark immediately
after the one above.) He probably felt self con-
scious . . . like me . . . (laughter).

I think that sympathy is a very healthy emotion . . .
in some cases I think it might be the ideal emotion.
I never knew there were so many different emotions,
in good or bad ways. I never thought that you could
have a hateful emotion, like being angry, and have
it still be good. I really find the talks very
interesting.

Some emotions can be healthy, or unhealthy, or both

. . . like pride.

Lesson eigh . How our emotions are aroused. The

discussion brought out the role of the various senses in

stimulating emotional responses and feelings. In the written

responses, the students were asked to tell of a time when

they had strong emotions aroused. Some of their reactions

are excerpted.

T...

W -

9.

If you see a person and decide if you like him or if
you don't like him and if you decide that you don't
like him then you have a feeling about him when you
see him again.

well, lots of times when my brother hits me that
gets me into an emotion (laughter).

I learned how and what arouses our emotions and how
one person with a certain emotion may react in two
or three different ways depending upon the situation.
An emotion of anger I have practically every Thursday
because I can't play around after school because of
my piano lesson and I know it's for my own good. I
have a sadness whenever I move away. When I moved
from to I was especially sad.

I don't know why this aroused me but it did a lot.
In grade we were in the shop and the teacher
told everyone to line up and when we lined up some-
one started to talk to me and thought I was
talking and came over and pulled my hair and I got
scared stiff. And I learned that you can't tell
what a thing is until you see it.

Lesson nine. How our emotions affect our bodies.

 

The discussion brought out a number of times when the children

139

had been emotional about things and the emotions had accompanying

effects which they described.

T - Well, uh, lots of times, uh, when you are running away from

a person . . . let's say, well, my brother. Sometimes when

he gets mad at me I have to, a, a, run, and he's faster than
me when he wants to be and, uh, all the time I can usually
outrun him when he's not mad at me, and just wants something
or something like that. If he is mad at me then he can catch
me . . . . I get scared.

Well we were playing football and so, uh, everytime ___;was
getting through and one time he kicked me in the face and I,
uh, uh, got so mad that the next time I ran him on his can.

I'm not inclined to play good baseball (laughter) but one

time I got excited and a little mad and hit the ball over the
right fielder's head.

I went to the dentist when I was about six and I was screaming,
and ever since then I have been terribly afraid of dentists.

I was scared until about 6 months ago. The feeling I had
inside of me when my cavadee and willed was so scared and tense
I nearly busted.

When my latest sister came home I rushed over to the bed and
mother picked her up and gave to me. I tinkgled! My knees
almost clacked together.

10. Lesson ten. A way we fool ourselves. This discussion

seemed

 

to be very exciting to the class. Many of the comments were

about times they fooled themselves and some of the students began to

tell of many times they attempted to fool their parents or their

teachers.

'1‘—

T-

T-

I don't know how to explain it but, uh, it's hard to do
things when something happens like it sometimes does . . .
you kind of make it happen to yourself.

You can only make yourself get certain things, I mean you
uh, can only get special kinds of sickness when you want to.
I mean you can't get chicken pox or something like that you
know, I mean stuff that's not a real sickness.

Well, this is just plain old ordinary psychomatics, that's
all we're talking about here. Like you think you're sick and
you're uh, you just imagine all of it . . . let's say you
don't want to do something and, uh, you want to be sick in-
stead and so the next day you ups sick . . . you imagine
yourself in to it. (laughter)

140

I got real scared once cause my reports were due on
Friday and I stayed up late and oh, the next day I
got real scared and woke up with a stomach ache . . .
and when the stomach ache was gone I got a headache
and after that I didn't have to go to school and had
until Monday to finish the report.

This is not just fooling yourself . . . it's, uh,
hurting yourself too because your best friend isn't
missing the work and the teacher isn't missing the
work but only you are jurting yourself and missing
the work.

Well, maybe a month from now if there's a test or
something coming up and this person might not feel
well about it but he refers to, back to this discus-
sion and figures maybe he's just fooling himself so
he comes.

Well, last year I went to school one day and I didn't
feel well and I couldn't move my neck around and
there was a report due that afternoon and I had to go
home because I couldn't give it . . . I mean I had
to go home and that's why I couldn't give it.

I learned that we can fool ourselves, and I never
knew it was passable. I guess I'v fooled myself
before.

I have learned today different ways to get sick and
fool ourselves. (This was the same lad who made the
comment about "plain old ordinary spychosomatics"
above).

Today I think I learned how to better understand my
feelings (sickness the way we talked about it today)
and what to do when if finally I understand myself
(if I ever do).

11. Lesson eleven. Friends. The discussion was about

how to

'1'...

make friends and what to do if a friend moves away.

It was the same case when moved. I sorta had
all my eggs in one basket with and I sorta
sulked around the house, and, I mean not knowing
which way to turn at first.

It seems like you try to make friends subconsciously
. . . I .V. . I . . . I think . . . not to make
friends so unconsciously but when you try and make
them you don't think though what you're trying to

do but if you . . . you . . . uh . . . can't seem to
sort of remember about it and . . . uh . . . it seems
funny the way you did it.

A pal is, well, uh, they like you and they go around
with you and they don't try to run you. They . . .
they'd rather like to be with you.

141

T...

Everybody's talking about when other people moved
away but I'm inclined to agree with , that it
might be much more lonely when you move away your-
self because then you don't know anybody.

One of my best friends died in the third grade and
I was so shocked when I heared about it. When Mom
asked me what was wrong I said I'll never make
friends again. After a while I did, and got over
it, but it still makes me'sad.

I learned that if a person moves into the neighbor-
hood it helps if you are friendly. I know from
experience that people can make you feel wanted.

12. Lesson twelve. Liking others. The children dis-

cussed
A

helping others who weren't too well liked and times

when they were helped by others.

'1‘...

T-

I know, I suppose that most people just have one best
friend and after awhile they just snap out of it if
the friend moves away. I did.

A couple of years ago we had a boy and, uh, he wasn't
very well liked by anybody and we had fights and
things like that (laughter, the boy was referring to
another child in the room and all apparently knew

it) and I'd go over and, uh, we'd play together after

- dinner sometimes and sometimes we'd play in the after-

'1'-

noon too.
I think I'm talking about the same kind of thing
that is and, uh, well, uh, this guy was kinda

well, squirrley . . . and, uh, he'd play soccer and
kick everybody and uh, hurt them and you know some
of us tried to stop him and he wasn't liked by
others and now he's well, he's changed . . c the
kicking isn't going on anymore. (While these two
comments were being made the boy in point blushed,
fidgeted, bit his nails, and grinned at the other
boys while they grinned at him.)

Well, one time, not so long ago either, a friend of
mine and me, I, uh, got good-hearted and decided we'd
be nice to a girl and so she got . . . and so, uh,
we even made dates with her whether we wanted to or
not, and so, uh, we got, then she got pretty nice.
(This comment was made by the boy described in the
comments above.) When we first moved here, I was
only in kindergarten then but it seemed that just
about the whole room detested me . . . I think they
do it to just about every new kid and one kid, he,
I forgot his name, he moved out of town and, well,
he was the only one, the only one who the first
couple of weeks who really made me feel good and all
and I remember I was just miserable those first
couple of weeks.

142

T - Well, uh, last year I wasn't popular at all. It was

because I was twice as fat as I am now and, I'm still
pretty fat (laughter) and, well, uh, this year I lost
some weight and I started to get more popular and
some of the kids want me now because I lost some
weight and when you feel the kids are with you you
feel that you're not gone and that you really belong.
Today I think I learned how to better understand
people's feelings and how to better help them under-
stand themselves. One instant when I helped someone
was there was this one kid who was a real simp, and
myself and some other kids tried to help him get
into the group. It worked.
P.S. I also learned today that I really could get
up and speak up more in the class. It's not so hard
when you try it.

13. Lesson thirteen. Helping others to like us.

Being shy with other people was the point in the discussion

that most of the students dwelt upon.

'1'.—

I remember when I was in a different grade and the
teacher wasn't very nice anyway, and I was shy and
my brother gave me something nice and it made me
feel good.

When I came into this room I wasn't sure I'd know
anybody and I did and I hung around with for
a few days and, uh, to get to know my way around
and I just felt sorta scared and I didn't know my
way around or anything . . . but she helped me.

I think i've learned what to do if i"m new in a
school. When I first came here last year I was

put in '8 room and if he even looked at me I
was awful lucky. I felt as if I was a piece of
dirt under a mountain of lava. Now it's different
here.

I think the idea of making a list of things to do to
overcome being shy like the girl in the story is a
good one. I may use it myself some time. I thought
it was very interesting and I learned a lot from it.
I learned ways to improve myself because I am shy

. . . just like Rose.

14. Lesson fourteen. How others have improved them-

selves.

In this lesson the three general ways of handling

a problem were brought out.

143

T - In a ball game if you quit because you are losing that's a
chicken attack on the problem.

T- I remember last year we had high-jumping or broad-jumping
and every time somebody missed I remember they would say
they had a sore leg or they tripped or something, (laughter),
me too!

T - Well, uh, when I don't do my work, or if other kids don't,
they do some of the things we have pointed out . . . they, uh,
stay out of school, or make excuses (laughter) and they say
they forgot it.

W - When I was in fourth, and this boy was in fifth, the room would
be snowballing and he was a sissy and would start crying and 4
run away if we ganged up on him. (which we did) I guess it
wasn't so nice and I think I see now where it would of been
better to help him.

15. Lesson fifteen. How others have improved themselves and over-

 

come handicaps. Famous people with disabilities were subjects for this
lesson and the class added comments about others that had disabilities
and overcame them.

T - Even if you try real hard to overcome a handicap you have to
be dependent on someone else too.

T - I think it is so wonderful when some people overcome their
handicaps. It makes me feel kind of good when I see or hear
about someone with a great handicap overcomes it . . . like the
ones we've talked about.

W - Today I think I learned plenty but don't know exactly how to put
it down on paper.

16. Lesson sixteen. A direct attack on a problem. The children

 

discussed facing problems directly.

T - We used to have a track meet at camp and the first year I was
there I really goofed up, but good, you know, I was real lousy,
and this year I really stuck at it and I came in pretty good .
.maybe third sometimes and it still wasn't real good but it
sure was a lot better than the first year, and, uh, I felt good.

T — Another thing here . . . when you keep at something . . . . time!
. . . and you get better . . . because you're bigger . . . better
. . .because you grow.

W - The small things you can take care of and that seem to be the
most important at the time are taken care of by nature. But as
you grow, the things that seem important might change their place
in life and aren't so important anymore.

144

1?. Lesson seventeen. In this discussion the various

things

that set off temper tantrums were discussed.

Sometimes I just turn around and slap my sister when
she does things and, uh, I do it without thinking
about it . . . I guess I should . . . think about

it I mean . . . I'm afraid that's not a very good
way of handling the problem . . . I just don't
think.

I think that sometimes people have that certain
feeling, like underneath crying, and, uh, they

don't feel real good about it except that they

get tough and take it out on other people . . .

I feel that way sometimes.

Lately I'm getting so when my brother tries to

slap me sometimes I simply turn my back and go on
with what I've been doing and, uh, he gets so mad
and disgusted after calling me a couple of names
that he goes on to complain to mother that i'm
ignoring him and I am!

About my brother and I, I think now we should share
things more and then maybe we wouldn't scrap so much.
I learned that Bessie (and me) get made and lose our
tempers. One difference is that she does things by
force and I don't. Talking things over to settle
problems is the best way.

 

l8. Lesson eighteen. An indirect method of attacking

a problem. The tape recorder was faulty during this lesson,

hence all of the discussion comments were lost. The excerpts

were

W

taken from the writings.

I've learned that hero worship can be bad. I used
to copy someone and imatated her and she wasn't so
nice.

If you copy someone you shouldn't copy him for too
long because then you're not really yourself. But
if you mimic somebody else that's pretty good then
it might be good.

I think you can copy big wheels in good ways and bad
ways, and sometimes in between.

Some peOple aren't themselves really directly but
copy someone with a personality theyed like to have
and in that way they still are in some way being
themselves.

145

l9. Lesson nineteen. Making excuses. The discussion

centered around the ways in which people avoid problems by

making excuses about them. The students added many remarks

about the times they made excuses about things.

T - It's easier to feel a pin in your own arm than to

T-

T-

blame the failure on someone else . . . so it works
better . . . to fool yourself I mean.

Well, uh, uh, uh, I, uh, sometimes Mommy makes me
do the dishes and I don't like to do them and uh,
uh, so I makeup with the excuse that I'm sick and

I used to get away with it but now she knows that
excuse and, uh, so I never get to do it and I
really make myself sick . . . like I get a headache,
which I always do! Then I don't have to do it.
Well, I get nervous before a big test and maybe the
girl in the story got nervous before the geography
test and maybe that's why she didn't do well . . .
she'd get nervous from wondering if she'd do well
on the test . . . like I do.

It was fun to see ways that people can or do make
excuses. I know that almost everyone tries to
make excuses.

I think sometimes we make to many excuses or go to
far. P.S. I didn't talk to much today because
yesterday my cat died. P.P.S. This is not a made
up excuse. I'm just sad.

20. Lesson twenty. The twins grow up. The mechanisms

of substitution and replacement were illustrated in the

stories and the discussion centered around substitutions the

children made when they couldn't get what they wanted.

'1'-

I don't think it makes you feel too important when
you're the best in something because then you feel
that you've mastered it sort of . . . and get sort
of a, sort of a, you feel sort of superior.

Well, uh, this one's about myself. About three
years ago I wanted to take drum lessons and my pa-
rents wanted me to take the trumpet and I had to
but they didn't have a trumpet so I took trombone
and then later I took the trumpet and played them
both. I wasn't very good, and then I started to
fool around with the drums and I play them now and
I'm not 522 good but still I'm pretty good.

146

W — I am not to good at sports. I used to try very hard

and still do. But I'm not quite good enough for my
own needs. I always was good at art and I take art
class. My teacher said I was best in the class and
that kind of made up for my sports.

21. Lesson twenty-one. Daydreaming. In this lesson

 

the children discussed some daydreams they had, and talked

about the values or lack of values of daydreaming. In their

written statements they included their favorite daydream.

T

I think that sometimes when you daydream you have a
problem and, uh, daydreaming is a way of working the
problem out, and, uh, it's just another way of
figuring out what to do . . . so most of the time
or some of the time it's a direct approach.

I got in the middle of my dream and boinggg . . . I
dreamt I was in a canoe and, uh, we didn't know
there was a leak and, uh, we went out in the lake
and then I stopped it and I couldn't think about
what happened after that. And I also dreamt that

I took an airplane trip and as we flew we, uh, the
wings fell off the plane and, uh, (much laughter,
another child made the following statement)

All she has is destructive dreams!

I think, uh, it could be, uh, daydreaming could be
healthy when you are looking forward to something
like I was looking forward to camp in my daydreams.
You see, there's two things, it could be healthy
upd_unhealth . . . like if you do it all the time.
My favorite daydream is to dream my cat is still
alive she's been dead three weeks and I have not
gotten over it.

Seven of the children in the class wrote that they daydream

most while they are in school.

22. Lesson twenty-two. Being anxious. The discussion

 

centered around a consideration of the various people and

events that created anxiety in the children.

T — A couple of years ago, uh, I used to, uh, whatever

I did I never did, uh, I never'd get it right, and
I'd get scared when my dad would come home because
I wouldn't know what to expect and uh, oh, well, uh,
sometimes I'd be supposed to rake the leaves out of
the bushes and I'd forget . . . and, uh, I guess I

147

didn't really forget, and, uh, you don't have to be
anxious about a lot of things you think you should
be.

Well, uh, parents usually worry terribly and, uh, uh,
and it seems to me that the older people get the more
worried they become, like worried all the time.

I find that if you are anxious about something un-
pleasent it usually turns out to be not as bad as
you thought it would be.

I learned some of the ways other people (and I) be
anxious.

It seems like I have learned more about adults in
this one and maybe there are some things we could

do not to make them blow their tops'

23. Lesson twenty-three. Going backwards. The dis—

cussion centered around the behavior of people when they are

unable to satisfy their needs in one way so they regress in-

to infantile behavior.

T

I knew this little girl and, uh, sort of a spoiled
girl, and she wanted the rest of the girls to play
a game with her, and, uh, she was happy and then we
all decided to play this other game and she didn't
want to, and, uh, so she started crying and, uh,
finally she just went home. Kind of a temper tan-
trum and crying, I guess she was really going
backwards.
I remember earlier, any little thing that I didn't
like, I got real mad at, and I took it out on every-
body. But I think now I can control myself better.
I learned that many people (me!) act childish and
occasionally people have tantrums.
This morning I had kind of like a tantrum about my
new dress. The plete wouldn't fold over the way I
thought it should. I got mad at mom. She said if
I acted like that now, I'd never be able to face a
big problem when I grow up. I think she's right.
It's like we talked about in some of the other
stories.
Before I used to be captain in baseball and when I
thought somebody was doing something wrong I would
ball them out and put somebody else in there position.
I'd yell at them and now I don't to it so much any-
more.
Like in the story, I remember yesterday is baseball,
was on the other team and he was called safe

and I got real mad. I really went backwards. Most

of the time when you want something bad you'll do
almost anything to get what you want.

148

The foregoing excerpts of the children's responses to the
stories are, of necessity, brief. They are representative_of
many other remarks on the part of the students that were
pertinent to the study at hand. Every child in the experimental
group is represented in the excerpts.

Many comments made during the discussions and in the
writings were not, in the writer's judgment, closely associated
with the project at hand. That is to say, there were not
apparently closely associated with self-understanding and under-
standing of others. It may be argued that any comment made might
well be associated with the stimulus to that response. Thus, a
query as to some topic that was threatening to the self of a given
child might have evoked a response that overtly had little or no
connection with the topic. Yet, the very fact of avoidance may
have indicated much about the child's self and his understanding
of himself. Almost any, if not all responses of the students would,
on this basis, bear upon the problem. One would not deny the value
of an intensive analysis of a child's responses for an individual
case study. Yet, due to the necessities of brevity and conciseness,
and the group approach utilized in the story-discussions, such an
analysis of each child's total responses was not made. The over-all
group analyses were assumed to suffice for purposes of this study.

(Conclusions related 33 the students' oral and written regpon-

 

 

ses. Some very tentative conclusions were drawn. These conclusions
appeared to be supported by the responses of the children, some of
which are presented above.

149

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

Some children made comments which appeared to mirror in-
sight and understanding of themselves.

Some comments apparently indicated the youngsters' growing
awareness and understanding of the causes of their own
behavior.

Some comments apparently reflected a growing understanding
of and respect for others.

Some comments were made which seemed to indicate a develop-
ing concern for and comprehension of the multiple causes of
others' behavior.

The stories used appeared to evoke responses that were quite
personal for some children and overtly less personal for
others.

The discussions that stimulated the most active and interes-
ting responses were those which touched upon home and family
relationships in general, and sibling relationships in
particular.

There was no apparent gppup pattern of increasing self-
understanding as the study progressed.

There was an apparent pattern of increasing self-
understanding and understanding of others on the part of

a few of the children.

A few children established a pattern of rote repetition of
the story-discussions in their writings, but the same chil-
dren were decidedly more spontaneous in their oral
contributions. While talking, they did not appear to be
quite as concerned with what they felt to be the

150

"rightness" of their response as they were on their
writings.

(10) About six of the children made consistent written
and oral contributions which might be termed'gelgz
diegugstic. That is, in a number of different in-
stances, a child who felt inferior would describe
the behavior of a character in a story as that of
a person who felt inferior. A shy child would re-
peatedly tell and write of someone else who was shy.
These patterns were consistent even when the remain—
der of the class made entirely different interpre-
tations of the behavior of the character or person
discussed.

The foregoing excerpts and the conclusions drawn are
admittedly quite subjective. Yet, considered in their entirety,
they appear to support the basic hypothesis for this study. The
children's responses to the story-discussions are therefore
interpreted as evidence that many of the children became more
understanding of themselves and others during the period of the
study.

Another aspect of the story-discussions may serve to clarify
the evaluation of the study. Attention is therefore directed to
the following analysis of the number of responses the children
made during the group discussions.

151

Record of Student Participation

in the Discussions

In order to further evaluate the participation of each
child in the-group discussions, a record of discussion con-
tributions was kept. Each comment by each child was noted.
The tabulation was generally done by the E.group teacher. The
results of this record are not entirely accurate since the
teacher was called out of the room on occasion. Despite this
inaccuracy, the results are presented as a general index of
the amount of student participation.

There was an average number of twenty-three students
present for each discussion. There was an average of 34.30
student responses to each discussion.

According to the record kept, an average of eighteen
pupils participated in each discussion. Percentage-wise,
this was 78.3 per cent of the average number of students
present. A decided majority participated in each discussion.

Some children participated more than others. The aver-
age number of responses per child in the total discussions
was 34.3. Two children participated infrequently. Three
children participated quite frequently. The range of total
responses per child ran from four to fifty-three on the record
kept. Actually these figures were higher but not all responses

were recorded.
152

These figures seem to show that the efforts directed
towards wide participation were reasonably successful. Some
conclusions are drawn:

(1) A majority of the children participated frequently in

the discussions.

(2) The efforts made to encourage wide participation were
apparently generally successful.

(3) The few children who participated most did not dominate
the discussions.

(4) The few who participated least at the beginning did not,
despite encouragement, increase their amount of partici-
pation to any significant degree..

(5) Some stories stimulated more discussion than others but
no pattern of increasing response was established as the
study progressed.

(6) In the researcher's judgment, all but two of the children
demonstrated much interest in the story-discussion by
frequently participating. The two mentioned showed interest
but did not make frequent contributions.

The responses of the children presented in the previous sections,
and the interpretation and number of these responses do not, of course,
communicate all the experiences the class had. Nevertheless, they are
representative of these experiences and of the children's reactions to
the various story-discussions.

153

Students' Desired Self-Improvements
Additional insight on the part of the pupils was re-
flected by their listing of the "The Things I Would Like To Im-
prove about Myself." These statements were placed in a number of
different categories. The statements of the children assisted
the writer in writing some of the stories in such a way as to
stimulate response to story characters who had similar concerns.
These responses were listed at the end of the thirteenth lesson
which was entitled, "Helping Others to Like Us."
This attempt at classification is presented in outline form.
The number of responses in each category is noted. Some of the
exact written statements of the children are included in each
classification.
I. Temper, self-control. Fifteen listings fell in
this category. Some of the responses follow:
"I've got a big temper," "I always get mad over
lots of things," "I want to keep myself from getting
into messes."
11. Social needs, shyness, show—off. Ten comments were
made that fell in this category. Some of them were:
"Getting more friends," "Shyness," "Stop making wise

remarks," "Making friends," "Wiseing off."

154

III. Nervous symptoms. Five students wrote of a desire to
eliminate what were classified as nervous symptoms.
"Stop biting my nails," "StOp wrinkling my nose," "I
get anxious and can't wait for things," "My mind runs
away with my words, I guess you'd call it stuttering or

' etc.

something,‘
IV. Physical appearance and characteristics. Four remarks
were placed in this category. "self-conscious (about my
height)," "Too small," "My bad eye sight," "Lose weight,"
V. Social behavior. Four children mentioned excessive talk-
ing. "I talk too much," "Not talk in school so much,"

' etc.

"Talking out of turn,‘
VI. School work. Four mentioned aspects of their work at
school. "Improve the appearance of my papers," "Avoid

' etc.

careless mistakes,‘
VII. Neatness. Two statements. "Keep my room neat," "Neat-
ness."
VIII. Speed. Two mentions. "Speed up," "I'm tarty too much."
IX. No idea of things to improve. Two children could state
nothing they could improve about themselves. "No idea,"
"I know there's a million things but I can't think of any
right now."
Two additional remarks were unclassified. Altogether there were fifty
responses to this question making an average of two responses per child.

(Two children were absent.) The number of responses ranged from one

155

to five for each child. Ten children wrote one comment each,
thirteen made two or three statements, and the remaining two made

four and five written remarks respectively.

 

Conclusions related £2 the students' desired self-
improvements. Some conclusions may be made on the basis of the
foregoing classification of students' desired self-improvements.
These conclusions follow:

(1) A preponderance of the responses were concerned with

relationships with others.

(2) A number of children were concerned with aspects of

their physical appearance and personal characteristics.

(3) There was a wide variety of specific things children

wished to improve about themselves.

(4) Only two children listed no problems for improvement.

This would seem to indicate a lack of self-understanding.
The other students apparently had a degree of awareness

of their problems. Thus a majority appeared to understand
themselves well enough to be aware of and write about

their concerns.

Students' Three Wishes
Another type of information was gathered from the E group. The
responses to the question, "What would you wish for if you had three
wishes?" were classified in a manner similar to the above desired
self-improvement responses.

156

The class was asked to list their wishes just after the

commencement of the study. This was done to assist the

writer in learning more about each child in the E group. The

children's responses were classified according to a variety

of headings and are presented in outline form. Since there

was some difference between the responses of the boys and

girls they were separately tabulated. The number of responses

and some samples are given in the following outline:

I.

II.

III.

Iv.

Material possessions. Boys named twelve posses-
sions desired and girls named thirteen. Some
follow: "A drum," "Get a new TV set," "I wish I
had a new bike," "To have a horse," "Z watch."
Broad societal values. Boys listed ten while
girls listed three. Examples are: "Wish for peace
in the world," "No Communist," "No diseases,"
"That there would never be another war," "I would
wish that everybody had enough to eat, etc. in the
whole world."

Immediate social values. Boys listed two and the
girls three. Samples are "That Grandma was well,"
"Long life for my family."

Travel. Boys four, girls three. Listed were the
following: "Go to California," "To go to the moon
and that's the truth!" "I'd like to live out west
on a ranch."

157

V. School. Boys two, girls four. "I wisher to stad
home from school," "That I wouldn't talk so much
in school," "I would do better work."

VI. Personal attributes and deficiencies. Boys one,
girls eight. "Don't suck my thumb," "To be very
popular," "To be a quick thinker."

VII. Acquisitive desires. Boys one, girls four. "More
wishes, more wishes, more wishes," "Two wishes
eye£y_day," "Any time I want to make a wish I
can make the wish and have it come true."

One child made onlyone wish. The remaining children made
three. Two wishes were unclassified.

Conclusions based upon responses £p_the three wishes.

 

The responses outlined above helped the writer learn a little
more about the children in the E group. In general, their
wishes appeared to be rather typical of the normal responses
of pre- and early adolescents. Taken collectively, the re-
sponses lead to some conclusions which were not particularly
significant for purposes of this study.
(1) There was an apparent difference in the pattern of
boys' responses when compared to the girls' responses.
(2) The boys were apparently more concerned with broad
societal values and the mechanical material posses-
sions.
(3) The girls were apparently more concerned with personal
attributes and deficiencies, school work, having more

wishes, and material possessions such as animals.

158

(4) Some of the responses by both sexes were quite indicative
of the concerns of the children that would reflect their
awareness of themselves personally and socially. Such
comments as the one on thumb-sucking, the desire to be
popular, the wish to be not so fat, to be nice to everyone,
etc., would indicate a degree of self-awareness, and per—
haps self~understanding.

The next three sections are devoted to the second part of the
two-fold approach employed in this experiment, namely, the in-
dividual interviews.

Intial Individual Interviews

In the previous chapters the purpose of the individual inter-
views were presented. A description of the physical surroundings
has been made earlier. Each child was interviewed three times, once
before the class discussions commenced, once during the middle of the
discussions, and finally following the last lesson.

The interviews were not planned to be therapeutic in nature.
Primarily, they were utilized to establish rapport, gather informa-
tion, and afford each child the opportunity for private consultation.
The three interviews are analyzed in this section and the conclusions
derived are presented.

The major concern in the first interview was to establish rapport
and to release any tension or anxiety regarding the study. The re-
searcher used the first "Like" and"Dislike"

159

essay responses to stimulate conversation. Immediately fol-
lowing each interview the pertinent responses of the children
were recorded and a brief summary of the problems each student
mentioned was written.

These problems, coupled with pertinent observations by the
writer, were classified under seven headings; relations with
siblings, relations with others, nervous symptoms, personal
habits and characteristics, negative self-concept, unclassified,
and no problems apparent or verbalized.

A total of forty-four problems were noted by the writer.
Thirty-five of these were mentioned by the children and nine
were observed by the writer. The nine observed were classified
under the heading nervous symptoms. They included extreme nail-
biting, thumb-sucking, excessive fidgeting, and the like. These
nervous symptoms, both verbalized and observed, were present in
eleven of the children. This was a total of forty-one per cent
of the E group.

Both the classifications of relationships with siblings, and
relationships with others, contained verbalized concerns on the
part of the students. Thirty per cent of the E group mentioned
problems in their relationships with siblings and fifteen per cent
mentioned concern over their relationships with others. Totally,
forty-five per cent of the class evidenced concern about their
relationships with brothers, sisters, friends, parents, and others.

160

Personal habits and characteristics such as messy
habits, size, weight, height, and tomboyishness were brought
out by thirty per cent of the students.

Twenty-six per cent of the class indicated that they
had no particular problems at the time.

Five children stressed the many things they disliked
about themselves. This was nineteen per cent of the group.
These things were classified under the heading of negative
self-concept.

The classification of verbalized and observed prob—
lems on the part of the E group leads to some tentative
conclusions.

Conclusions based upon the findings pf the initial

 

 

interviews. These conclusions are presented with a note of
caution. They are based, in part, upon subjective judgment
of the writer and should be considered as such.
(1) Some of the children had more than one problem which
they discussed.
(2) Rapport was not too difficult to establish except
in three cases.
(3) There was decided concern over sibling relationships.
(4) Generally, there was an apparent inability or resis-
tance to communicate the thinking on the part of the
students in regards to the possible causes for the
behavior which concerned them.
(5) There was a preponderance of observed and discussed

nervous symptoms.

161

(6) About a third of the class demonstrated concern over
their physical characteristics and personal habits.
This would appear to denote a definite degree of self-
awareness.
In addition to the above conclusions, a few other reactions
of the writer to the initial interviews deserve mention.
Perhaps the high percentage of nervous symptoms denoted a
definite anxiety over the study. Many of children wanted to
discuss what might happen to them during the course of the
study. Many wanted to know why the study was being conducted.
After appropriate information was given, the students, in
general, seemed more relaxed. The purpose of the interview was,
in part, to establish rapport and alleviate anxiety. The objec-
tive was apparently achieved in a number of instances. The
number of nervous symptoms observed in the later interviews was
not as great.

The initial interview did provide an excellent opportunity
to get to know each child and to gather information about him.
Some of this information was put to use in the writing of the
stories for class discussion. At the time of the initial inter-
views, a number of the children appeared to feel free to confide
personal concerns. Others stated that they had no concerns but,
at the same time, some of these children were the same ones who
indicated a great deal of dislike of themselves. The conclusion
that these children were resistant to communicating much about
their personal lives appeared to be indicated.

162

The second interview had a somewhat different purpose
from the initial interview. The findings of the second in-

terview are presented next.

Second Individual Interviews

The second interviews were intended to again offer
the opportunity for individual consultation wherein the
child might bring up any personal concern which he did not
care to present during the class discussions. Each child
was encouraged to raise any questions he liked about the‘
discussions that had already taken place. Some of the chil-
dren raised questions about the story-discussions.

The second interview was also intended to gather in-
formation about the reasons the children had for their se-
lection of classmates on the middle sociograms. As such,
the middle interviews might best be described as sociometric
interviews. Each child was presented with his sociometric
choices and asked what there was about the children he chose
that he liked. Thus a list of the qualities the children
in the E group felt were desirable in others was made. This
list was then diiided into seven general categories. In
order to show the number of responses of boys and girls

which fell in each category, Table XIII was prepared.

163

TABLE XIII

CLASSIFICATION OF BOYS' AND GIRLS' REASONS FOR
SOCIOMETRIC CHOICES ON THE MIDDLE
SOCIOGRAMS WITHIN THE E GROUP

 

 

No. of boys No. of girls
Reasons for listing listing Diff-
sociometric choices these reasons these reasons erence
I. PrOpinquity 4 O 4
II. Cooperative
friendly, helpful 11 27 16
III. Nice, courteous
pleasant 24 23 1
IV. Similar interests 19 12 7
V. Humor, fun, cute 4 12 8
VI. Excellence at
something 13 3 10
VII. Other qualities 4 3 1

 

The listing of the qualities the children found desirable in others,
and the classification of this listing presented in the table above,
point out some of the differences in the respective choices of the
boys and girls.

It is apparent that the boys were more interested in other
boys who could do things and engage in activities such as sports.
The girls tended to choose other girls who had outstanding social
abilities. The girls also were apparently more impressed with the
looks, cuteness, clothing, and humor of others. Both boys and girls

liked others for their courtesy, pleasantness, and like qualities.

164

It is interesting to note that both sexes made approximately the
same number of responses to the request for the reasons for their
sociometric choices. The boys made seventy-nine responses and the
girls eighty.

Some conclusions may be drawn from these sociometric inter-
views.

Conclusions based upon the second interviews. The conclusions

 

derived from the findings in the sociometric interviews were not of
great significance for the study. There is a question as to how much
may be inferred about self-understanding from such findings. Never-
theless, some conclusions were made.
(1) The total responses tend to reflect an awareness
of the desirable qualities of others.
(2) The reasons for the sociometric choices are similar
to those reported by other researchers.5
(3) There were some differences between the reasons for the
choices made by the boys and girls. These differences
are of little apparent significance for this study.
Attention is now directed to the final interview which was the

third individual interview held with each child in the E group.

 

5Ruth Cunningham and Associates, Understandinngroup
Behavior of Boys and Girls (New York: Teachers College,
Columbia University, 1961), 462 pp.

 

165

Third Individual Interviews

The third interviews were largely evaluative in nature.
The opportunity to discuss anything that the child desired
in connection with the study was afforded. Few of the chil-
dren felt that there were any specific points brought up in
the previous interviews or the story-discussions that they
were puzzled about.

The final "Like" and "Dislike" responses of each child
were discussed. Most of the children explained their respon—
ses in some detail. Some asked questions and some added com-
ments which clarified what they had written.

The final student questionnaires were discussed in a
similar manner, a number of the students explaining their
responses further. None of these explanations made during the
interviews were used in the presentation of the final student
questionnaire results later in this chapter.

At the close of the third interview each student was given
the writer's thanks for their assistance. Almost all of the
students expressed regret that the study was culminating.‘ Some
asked if they might not have the opportunity to study things about
themselves again.

There were no apparently significant conclusions derived from
the final interviews. The writer did feel, however, that the
children were more relaxed and expressive about themselves than
in the first interview. The few children.with whom rapport was
established with some difficulty in the first interviews, did not

166

hesitate to discuss themselves, what they had written, and
what they felt about the study. This ease of communication
might well have been closely associated with the fact that
many hours had been spent in class having the mutual experi-
ences of the discussions.

The children seemed to feel quite free in telling addit-
ional experiences of their own and of others. For example,
two girls had a rather lengthy history of rivalry which had
come out a little in a number of the group discussions and
in the writings of each girl. Both girls, at no suggestion
on the writer's part, independently expressed satisfaction
that they had changed and the relationship was better than
it had been. This was also noted by one of the girle parents
on the parent questionnaire.

This reaction was, in a general way, typical of the re-
sponses of almost all of the students during the final inter-
view. Generally, it appeared that the interviews served the
purposes intended to an adequate degree. Considering all three
interviews, many of the students utilized the opportunities for
private consultation to bring up points of discussion which they
had, for a variety of reasons, chosen not to discuss in class.

The remaining sections of this chapter are concerned with
some of the various attempts to evaluate some of the changes that
had apparently occurred within the E group.

167

Students' Interests and Activities

The Interests and Activities questionnaires published by the

 

California Test Bureau were administered to the E group before and
after the twenty-four lessons.6 It was hypothesized that any
changes in self-understanding that might occur within the E group
might be reflected by a change in their interests and activities.

The students checked those of the seventy-four interests
that they liked, and also checked those activities that they
actually did. The responses were tabulated and the interests and
activities that were indicated six or more times more frequently
or less frequently were noted and considered to be significant.

It was found that the students liked six of the interests
significantly more at the end of the study. These were driving
an auto, working in a laboratory, belonging to a gang, raising
animals, collecting coins, and using a camera. It was also found
that three interests were liked significantly less. These were
studying history, going to parks, and playing tennis.

Concerning the activities the children actually undertook,
there were nine listings named significantly more often on the
final questionnaire. These were studying literature, raising

animals, having a garden, playing cards, playing the

 

6Louis Thorpe, Willie Clark, and Ernest Tiegs, Interests
and Activities, California Test of Personality,_Elementary Form
(Los Angeles: California Test Bureau, 1963), 1 p..

168

radio, making a scrapbook, playing chess, riding a bicycle,
and going camping. Only three activities were engaged in
significantly less. They were singing in a chorus, going
riding with others, and repairing things.

Thus the E group liked and did twenty-eight per cent
of the seventy-four interests and activities listed signifi-
cantly more, and only eight per cent significantly less at
the end of the study than at the beginning.

Conclusions based upon the results pf the interests

 

and activities questionnaires. The results described above
lead to one major conclusion. The E group generally became
more active in the activities listed and their interests
broadened. The findings would tend to give support to the
hypothesis that the changes within the E group were reflected
by an increase in their interests and activities. This would,
in turn, appear to support the basic hypothesis for this study.
Apparently, as the children came to understand themselves and
others better, they changed in their behavior and attitudes.
They engaged in more activities and became interested in

more things.

Other ways of assessing behavioral and attitudinal
changes were used. The students, parents, and the teacher
were asked questions pertinent to the changes that apparently
occurred. The findings of these questionnaires, and the cor-

responding conclusions follow in the next three sections.

169

Student Questionnaires

Following the discussion for the last lesson, the
students in the E group were asked five questions in order
to find their reactions to aspects of the study and the re-
sults of their experiences. In this section the results of
these questions are given. Each question, and the conclusions
based upon the answers, are treated separately.

The lessons liked best. In order to find which lessons

 

the students responded to best the following question was
asked. "Which lesson did you like best and why did you like
it?" Nineteen lessons were mentioned as the best liked.
Some students mentioned more than one lesson. A breakdown
of their likes showed nine students voting for lessons two
through five, the stories that dealt with Bob, Jim, and Russ.
Four children liked the lesson on overcoming handicaps the
best. Three felt the lesson on daydreaming was best. Two
students each mentioned the lesson about Marie and Rose and
the lesson about making excuses. Ten other lessons were
mentioned once each. Thus a total of twenty-two of the
lessons were liked best by at least one child in the class.
Most of the reasons given for liking a certain story
were based upon the child's interest. Some of the comments
made by the children follow: "It was interesting," "It held
my interest," "The same things happen to me a lot," "I had

a lot to offer on it."

170

The responses to this first question lead to some
specific conclusions.

(1) The lessons liked best were those that had continuity
of story and character. Continuing the same charac-
ters in different stories seemed to establish and
held the students' interests.

(2) Almost all of the lessons were liked best by at least
one child. Evidently someone found something in each
of these lessons to which they personally responded
in a positive way.

Since the first question was worded in a positive man-
ner which tended to assure a positive response, it was felt
that the negative response to the lessons should also be re-
quested. Accordingly, the second question was designed to
do so.

The lessons liked least. The second question was
"Which lesson did you like least and why did you dislike it?"
Twenty-one of the students answered that there was no lesson
' that they disliked at all. The remaining six children named
five of the lessons they disliked or liked least. Some of
the reasons for liking a lesson least are given: "Because I
too fully inderstood the point from self-experience," "It was
boring and taught me nothing." "The lesson without the story
wasn't interesting to me" "It was the least interesting to

me. It can be seen that the main reason for dislike of a
story centered around the lack of interest of the student in

that story.

171

The students' responses to this question seem to indi~
cate that most of the lessons were liked well. A decided
majority of the students did not dislike any of the lessons.
Since only six children mentioned liking a lesson least; it
may be concluded that interest ran high throughout the story-
discussions. The conclusions regarding the students' positive
responses to the first question appear to be supported by their
responses to this question.

What the children felt they had learned about themselves.
Liking or disliking a lesson did not, in itself, indicate what
the children felt they had learned. Therefore, the following
question was asked: "What do you feel you have learned about
yourself?" Twenty-one of the children responded positively
to this question. In order to show some of the things they
felt they had learned about themselves the following direct
quotations are presented:

I have learned that I'm like some of the people you
have read about and that has helped me understand myself
better. For example, the story about Bessie and her tem-
per. I may not be as bad as her but when we discussed
that lesson it helped me inderstand why myself and others
do what they do, and that with a lot of lessons too.

I have learned that when I really try I can come up
with a fairly logical answer to a problem.

That I have many faults, and on almost every lesson
I found I had another one (falut).

I learned about my habits. I got better acquainted
with my habits. Mother says I'm more considerate and
I think so too.

I have-learned to understand myself more and also to
realize my mistakes. Also what I can do to better myself.
My brother is a real goof, real crazy, and I fight with
him. So I decided I shouldn't call him crazy. It works
sometimes and then we don't fight so much.

I can see people through different eyes in the sense
that I know what their feelings are.

172

I've learned how I can act with my friends and some
ways not to act, like not to show off or boss people.
One time a friend said something a friend did to her and
I was going to say she did it to me too but I stopped
and didn't say it. She might have got mad and liked me
less.

Sometimes I try to get out of doing things and if I
have to do them I might get real mad and I try to make
excuses when I do something but I think that I try to
help peOple that are new in Glencoe or just visiting.
These are some of the things I've learned.

I've learned to think before I do something, like I
ask myself why I'm doing this? could I do this in a better
way? is it necessary to do this at all? etc. Like when I
get mad at my sister.

I know what I'm doing now. I don't do such fool
things. I don't get a temper so much. I learned what it
is to get a temper.

0n the other hand, six of the class wrote that they
felt they had learned nothing about themselves. Two of these
added something they felt they had learned about themselves
after first stating they had learned nothing. Representative
of these responses are the following:

Nothing. I used to be in a hurry all the time and

I guess I'm not so much anymore. ,

I don't know. I guess I've got more will power than

I did. I really didn't want to get any fatter. That

part on goals was interesting.

A decided majority of the class responded very positively
to this question. Most felt they had learned a number of things
about themselves. As the students' responses indicate, it be—
came apparent that a number of the things they felt they had
learned aoout themselves were quite indicative of increased
self-understanding.

In order to assess the learnings about others, a fourth

question was posed.

173

What the children felt they had learned about others.
Since self-understanding appears to be closely related to
understanding of others it was apparent that an effort should
be made to assess the children's learnings about others.
Accordingly, the following question was asked: "What do you
feel you have learned about others?" Twenty students felt
they had learned something about other people. Some of the
written statements are presented:

I'm better able to understand their feelings. Like
in Girl Scouts, if everyone wants to play a game and one
doesn't, I can understand it.

I learned a lot from hearing them tell there exper-
ences with others and by them selfs.

I found out that since the last lesson the boys and
girls tried to stop acting babyish like groaning about
something about baseball.

I have learned that other people are nicer than I

thought they were. One day when I was broke a person
gave me ten cents to buy a coke. I didn't think they
would.

I learned about others just about the same things
I learned about myself.

If your nice to them they'll be nice to you and
sometimes much more.

That most people when they do something wrong try
to think of excuses to get out of them and that they
make friends in different ways and they also help you
when you need help with your homework or something.

How others feel when something happens what they
do. Others feel bad when they don't get to play be-
cause they're too late and it happened to me a couple
of times. Some just take the breaks of the game and
don't get mad or anything.

I learned what they think a little more and I just
feel I know more about them than I did before. (I don't
know why) I put myself in their position sometimes.' I
used to think that everyone would hate me just because
I fought with . I find now that it isn't true and
then I don't get so mad at her either. The others don't
care that much. Sometimes when we fought somebody else
got in between and got hurt and I'm sorry for that now.

The above quotations are representative of the positive

responses to the fourth question. Seven of the students re-

174

sponded negatively to the same queStion. Some of these
statements follow:

I'm not quite sure what I have learned about others.

Not as far as I know.

Nothing.

The majority of the responses to the questions tend to
support the contention that understanding of others was im-
proved as self-understanding improved. In order to examine
this contention further, the fifth and last question was
raised.

Students' behavioral and attitudinal changes. In

 

order to evaluate the students' possible behavioral and
attitudinal changes the following question was asked" "Have
you found yourself doing something differently or thinking

in some way differently since our lessons started?" Sixteen
of the E group answered the question positively. Most of the
students included examples of these changes. Some of the
positive responses are presented:

I now do some things differently. I'll take two
of the lessons for example. First of all you talked
about being ourselves and it wasn't so good to go to
extremes in being like others. I thought was the
greatist thing and we are the best of friends she's to
nice. Well I began to kind of like copy her. Then it
kind of went to a little extreme. Then after the lee-
son I didn't do it as much. I still really like her
but I make up my own mind sometimes. Second: The les-
son about Marie and Rose brought to my mind after think-
ing about it that I should have a wider variety of
friends, so I'm trying to.

Yes! Lots of things, but mostly I don't try to
act like I am king of the world anymore.

175

Yes I think that I have a better idea of other
People's feelings. When and I were asked to give
our report two days early I got mad at Miss and
it showed with the others. I was irritable at the idea
of it. I thought then that that's why they were irri-
table and not so nice to me.

When I do things that we have talked about some-
times I notice it. Like making excuses I notice it and
stop and wonder if my excuses are really true and good
ones. If not, I stop making those excuses. Like when
I'm supposed to train the dog and I make excuses like
homework, had to read, and time just flew, etc. These
aren't true ones.

I no what people's feelings are now so I don't
want to put them on the spot where they will be embar-
redded. I want to oomfort then like if a questions is
abked about a person's family and they're emotional
about it and answering it.

Yes I do. I think because of our lessons a friend
understood my problem and helped me out. Miss
bawled me out. Then, I didn't understand and a few days
later I talked to about it and he helped me under-
stand I was always shooting off my mouth and commenting
all the time. Then I helped him with some things too.

I think about a problem as people in different
positions view it.

Yes. I think before I do things and I don't get
so mad at people I used to get mad at like and
my sister. You can not like something and still not
be so mad.

Seven of the children indicated in their answers that
they didn't think they did or thought anything too differently
than before the study. At the same time they were not sure
of this negative response. Some of these indirect responses
follow:

I'm not quite sure.

I cannot recall anything that I do differently.

I don't think I have done anything very different. It's
not noticeable. ~

Four of the class gave a definite negative response to the

question.

176

The responses of the children to the last question
were slightly less positive than to the previous questions.
More of the children appeared to be undecided in their re-
sponse. It is possible that they had not experienced much
behavioral or attitudinal change, or were unaware of change.
On the other hand, it is possible that some felt they did
things differently, or thought a little differently, but not
enough to write about. This last possibility seemed most
likely since, in the final interviews, four of the children
who have these uncertain responses explained that they felt
a little differently about some things but couldn't put this
feeling into words.

Reviewing the responses to all the questions asked of
the students in this evaluative questionnaire, it became
apparent that there was a decided positive response on the
part of a majority of the class. It would then appear that
the class felt that they enjoyed the story—discussions, they
learned about themselves, they learned about others, and
many felt they had changed their thoughts and actions. Gener-
ally, the hypothesis that self-understanding could be improved
through the program used appears to be supported by the stu-
dents' responses to the questionnaire.

Another way to evaluate the students' behavior and
attitudes that might have 'changed as a result of the lessons
and interviews was to question the parents about any changes
they might have observed. Accordingly the parent question—

naire was constructed and sent to each child's parents.

177

Parent Questionnaires

After the research period with the E group was concluded,
the parent questionnaire was sent to each child's parents with
a cover letter requesting their c00peration.7 The following
questions were asked:

(1) Have you observed any change in your child's be-
havior over the last three months which might be
attributed to our work at school?

(2) Has there been any noticeable change in your
youngster's attitude towards himself or towards
others which you feel might be attributed to our
work at school?

(3) In relation to the child, his family, and others,
have you observed any evidences of the value of
this study.

The questions were phrased in such a way as to assist in the eval-
uation of the students' behavioral and attitudinal changes. A
five point check list of descriptive ratings followed each of the
three questions.8 Space was also provided for the parent to in-
dicate any specific incidents upon which he based his conclusion.

Two questionnaires were sent to each child's home with the

exception of two whose fathers were not with the families. Thus,

in most cases, both parents could answer the questions

 

7See Appendix A.

8See Appendix C.
178

if they so desired. One hundred per cent of the mothers

and sixty per cent of the fathers responded with completed
questionnaires. Most of the parents who responded included
comments about their children's behavior and attitudes. Of
these, approximately forty per cent made frequent and exten-
sive remarks after each question.

Parents' ratingu_pp_the questionnaire. The first two

 

questions were directly concerned with the parents' observa-
tions of any behavioral or attitudinal changes in their
children. The responses were tabulated separately from the
twenty-seven mothers' and fifteen fathers' ratings. These
ratings were then added in order to show the total ratings
of the respondents on each question. The results of these

ratings are presented in Table XIV.

TABLE XIV

PARENTS' RATINGS OF CHANGES IN THEIR
CHILDREN'S BEHAVIOR AND ATTITUDES

 

 

 

 

 

 

:fireaf ' Some LitEIE some Mficfi
Positive Positive or No Negative , Negative
Chaqge_ Change Change Change Change
Behavior
Mothers l 14 11 1 0
Fathers 0 7 7 l 0
Totals l 21 18 2 0
Art ltudea
Mothers 1 14 12 0 0
Fathers 0 9 6 O 0
Totals 1 23 18 0 O

 

179

The results indicated that a few parents felt there was some
negative change in their child's behavior. One parent felt her
child had made a great positive change in behavior. The vast
majority of the parents felt their children had made little or
no change, or some positive change in behavior.-

The results of the second question showed that none of the
parents felt they had observed any negative change in attitudes.
One parent observed great positive change and the majority felt
they had observed some positive change or little or no change.

Averaging the above ratings results in the following cone
clusions:

(l) The average parent observed a little positive change in
the child's behavior.

(2) The average parent observed some positive change in the
child's attitudes-

In order to further assess the parents' reactions they were
asked whether they had seen any evidence of the total study hav-
ing value. The results of the ratings on this question are
presented in Table XV.

TABLE XV

PARENTS' RATINGS OF THE TOTAL VALUE
OF THE EXPERIMENT

 

 

 

 

.117 HIgHIy Worth- No VaIue

Valuable while Value Value Observable
Mothers 2 7 5 1 12
Fathers 0 4 Z 2 7
Totals 2 11 7 3 l9

 

180

An average of the results presented in Table XV in-
dicated that the average parent felt there was a little
value to the total study in terms of his observation
of his child. These ratings tended to agree with those in
the previous table.

Parents' written statements. The parents' written

 

comments on the questionnaire shed additional light upon
their observations of their children and their reactions to
the study. Some of these written remarks are presented in
order to clarify the above data. The quotations following
were taken from'both fathers' and mothers' questionnaires:

has always been sensitive to the feelings of
others, and lately she seems to have not only sensi-
tivity, but a better understanding. For example: I
became, or rather showed anger one day to for
not coming home at an appointed time, in fact, she
was much later than she was supposed to be, and had
gone off to play without notifying anyone at home of
her whereabouts. After I cooled down -- I realized
that '8 reaction wasn't the same as it would have
been in the past, but one that was more thoughtful --
in fact -- she discussed the fact that she had done
wrong, and then proceeded to explain that she even
knew why I was angry with her. She explained that
she was sure that I must have been anxious about her,
and that my show of anger was my way of expressing
this anxiety. 's reaction and explanation
amazed and pleased me.

has improved her healthy attitude even more
this past three months, and the proof is her own
admission of this. She told me one day that she
feels that she understands herself as much better
after hearing the stories discussed at school, and
knowing especially that others had the same feelings
as she has had about the same things.

181

I don't recall specific instances of this change but
recall that on occasion when small family misunder-
standings came up she took the initiative in trying
to straighten them out. I noted that her comments
showed an insight into the principles of human re-
lations which children of this age usually cannot
verbalize. She herself has not gotten into trouble
with her sisters as often as she used to. She seems
to have much more of the "wisest one gives in" atti-
tude lately and tends to act more as peacemaker when
a storm arises.

In one instance, had maintained a relationship
based on competition and hostility with a child her
own age in the room. This relationship has seemingly
become unimportant to her and she shows some self-
control when in contact with the child. She has
formed new friendships and maintained older friends
on a friendly, relaxed basis. This growth has cer-
tainly been accelerated by your work.

She has more willingly admitted both her successes
and her failures to herself. She has said that she
feels a little better liked by the children in gen-
eral, whereas she was formerly vepy dubious about
her position in the class. She has expressed this
new feeling of security when she explained the
knowledge gained through the discussions that other
people have the same emotions as herself.

has quieted down to some extent. He's not
grandstanding as much, more cooperative. He acts
as if he can understand more easily various re-
actions of those around him.

There have been a number of minor incidents which
would show reason for hope of improvement as
against the previous periods when there was less
reason to feel too much hope.

There has been a definite change in '8 work at
home and school. The work is in on or before time
and done well. She takes pride in comparing her
work now with that of some months ago. She also
gained a great deal of confidence in herself and
became quite a bit more mature. She still lacks
patience and whines very easily.

182

He told me many times that you were "helping him learn
how to live." Also he seemed more concerned with un-
derstanding the reasons for emotional situations and
was better able to handle and recognize strong emotions
in himself and his family -- anger, etc. He seemed
better able to reason and be reasoned with and many
times (always in negative situations like quarrels,
etc.) would equate one of your stories to a reality
situation and make a mature judgment either in thought
or in behavior. And I am quite sure that he under—
stands and rates himself more surely and maturely

than he did before.

seems to want to join in more activities than
she formerly did. She also seems to be more at ease,
and not as self-conscious of her weight and height
as she used to be. seems to enjoy other girls'
company so much more than formerly. Her sudden de-
sire to go to camp was a pleasant surprise to me.
She seems to have developed a wonderful sense of
humor, and is fun to be with and is considerate of
others.

His appreciation of fair play has shown an increase
as well as a better control of his temper.

I have noted some change. An analysis of why people
(himself included) should be understanding of the
behavior of a child from a broken home. In this
case, he had up tolerance heretofore, of this child's
behavior. acts more mature and seems to have
developed in his attitude toward himself. Now he
knocks before entering a bedroom or a bathroom and is
more aware of himself.

His only reference to the discussions was when he was
so impressed with the fact that "people actually de—
velOp illnesses in order to avoid doing something
they don't want to do" and now that he is aware of
this possibility he would be very careful to try and
analyze such a situation in his own life.

The foregoing quotations aid in clarifying the

parents' ratings. They are representative of those parents'

comments that indicated some positive change on the ratings.

Where no positive change was checked the parents sometimes

commented to that effect, or made no statement at all. Some

of these follow:

183

While I feel certain that the work which was done must

have made an impression upon '8 thinking, still
I must concede that his behavior in general has not
altered.

I feel that your study has been a good thing although
it has not seemed to affect one way or another.
He said there were no ideas new to him.

 

has habitually gotten along well with others
and has had unusual understanding and a sympathetic
attitude, from our observations. Therefore, from

my limited knowledge of your work at school, it

would not he very likely to have any observable ef-

fect on her. However, says that she learned

a lot.

The responses of the fifteen fathers were checked
against those of the mothers to see if both parents rated
their child's behavior and attitudes similarly. By a ratio
of about four to one both parents agreed on the ratings.

Conclusions based upon the results obtained from the
parent questionnaires. The following conclusions appeared
to be supported by the evidence cited above:

(1) A majority of parents felt that they observed some
slight positive changes in the behavior of their
children.

(2) A majority of the parents felt that they observed
some slight positive changes in the attitudes of
their children.

(3) Where both parents answered the questionnaires,
essential agreement on the ratings was present.

(4) It is likely that the children's understanding
of themselves and others improved to the degree

' °that it resulted in noticeable changes in behavior

and attitudes.

184

In connection with the last conclusion, the question
was raised as to whether or not these changes were observable
to another adult. Accordingly, the teacher of the E group

was asked to answer some pertinent questions.
Teacher Questionnaire

The E group's teacher had, of course, observed most
of the story-discussions in their entirety. Since she worked
and lived with the class during the entire school day, it
was deemed advisable to seek her response as to the nature
and degree of any changes she felt had occurred. This ques-
tion was therefore asked of her, "What is your opinion as
to the value of the work we have done in relation to each
of the following points: (1) general methods, (2) specific
evidences of value, if any, (3) group atmosphere as a whole,
(4) individual changes in behavior and attitudes, if any,
and (5) parental reactions?"

In order to comprehensively present the teacher's
responses, the following direct quotations from her letter
are stated:

1. I thought that the work was very well planned. The
stories were very well told and had attention hold-
ing details. You were very thorough in the inter-
views and the amount of testing. You held the
children's interest all the time and did a good
job of getting everyone into discussion. I believe
that you kept the whole work on a very high level
from beginning to end. I enjoyed being a part of

it and could not refrain from getting into it my-
self once in awhile.

185

2.

I believe that the work has helped the children to
understand more clearly, even though perhaps not
consciously, their own and other's behavior. It
has helped them become a better adjusted group

and should help them in making their adjustment

to Upper School easier next year. I think this

is particularly true in their not getting mad at
each other and having "fights" or tiffs.

As I said before, I think the whole rapport of the
group has been helped. The children work and play
together very well with a minimum of fussing, are
more tolerant of each other's actions and more
understanding of each other's weaknesses.

I believe that it has brought out some children
in discussion, especially , , ,
and . It also helped and to
allow others to be a greater part of the discus-
sions. It gave the first four much more confi-
dence.

 

Any of the parents who have spoken to me about it
have thought it was a most interesting study.
Several have said that they thought their children
were more conscious of how to avoid family situa-
tions through understanding what has made mother
or father "bloe their tops." Some of them have
questioned the amount of class time that this
work took, but have agreed that it was worth the
time.

These quotations from the E group's teacher indicate that at

least one other adult noticed a general slight positive change

within the group and some specific positive changes within

a number of the children. The teacher's responses to the

questionnaire would tend to offer support to those conclus-

ions based upon the previous parent and student question-

naires.

186

Chapter Summary

In this chapter the results of the study which were more
or less subjective have been presented as qualitative findings.
These results have been analyzed and detailed conclusions drawn
from them.

An attempt has been made to include some of the verbatim
oral and written comments of the children in the E group. This

has been done in order to assist the reader to more clearly

 

understand the children's experiences. In addition, a number of
student, parent, and teacher reactions to aspects of the experi-
ment were quoted. This was also done to facilitate comprehension.

In summary, some generalizations about the study came out of

the foregoing qualitative analyses. These generalizations are
listed below:

(1) Most of the children indicated in their oral and
written comments that they understood themselves and
others better during and after the experiment than they
had before.

(2) This increased self-understanding and understanding of
others was reflected in the behavior and attitudes of
a majority of the children. The students, parents, and
teacher were aware of this and cited many instances of
specific behavioral and attitudinal changes of a positive
nature.

187

(3) These changes were also reflected by the students'
choices of interests and activities. Generally,
they became interested in more things and engaged
in a wider variety of activities.

(4) The story-discussions and interviews assisted the
children in develOping improved self-understanding and
understanding of others. Both approaches had value.
The privacy of the interview enabled some to express

thoughts about themselves and others they did not

 

apparently feel free to express in class. The spontaneity
and excitement of the group discussions enabled many to
express themselves in front of others in a way that helped
them learn about others' feelings and problems as well as
their own.

(5) A few of the children made little progress. At times one
or two communicated some resistance to increasing self-
awareness. There were apparently some aspects of their
own behavior and their relationships with others that
were too threatening to be accepted and integrated into
their own self-concepts at the time.

In conclusion, the qualitative findings appear to support the
basic hypothesis for this study. The research program apparently
assisted many of the children in the development of self-understanding.
The evidence generally indicated that this was so for a majority of

the class to at least some positive degree.

188

CHAPTER VII
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS OF

THE STUDY

This study grew out of the writer's idea that a
planned and organized program of experiences might be de-
signed to assist the development of self-understanding in
children. Accordingly the basic hypothesis was formulated
as follows: through a series of class discussions and in-
dividual interviews, self-understanding of fourth grade
students in a selected public school could be measurably
improved.

In order to test this hypothesis the study was
designed and carried out. It consisted of a series of twenty-
four story-discussions with afotfl'th grade class in a public
school; and a total of three interviews with each child in
the class. The interviews were held before the first group
discussion began, during the middle of the discussion les—
sons, and at the conclusion of the last story—discussion.

A plan of evaluation was evolved which consisted of
two parts. The experimental group and the remaining five
fourthgrade classes, which acted as controls, were tested
on a before and after basis. Four tests were used. Two

*were personal in nature and two social in nature. The

189

groups were then compared on the basis of the quantitative results
of the pre-experimental and post-experimental testing. The second
part of the plan to evaluate the study consisted of some qualita-
tive analyses of the experiences of the experimental group. These
analyses were based upon the children's discussions, writings,
interests and activities, an analysis of their three wishes, and
interviews. In addition, the results of student, parent, and
teacher questionnaires were analyzed. The two types of evaluation
were compared.

The previous chapters have been devoted to detailed explana-
tions and descriptions of the study and its results. Specific
conclusions based upon the detailed findings have been made. It
is the writer's purpose in this final chapter to present only the
broad conclusions derived from the study. These broad conclusions,
lead to a brief number of implications and recommendations for
further application and research. Accordingly, the remainder of
this chapter is divided into two sections. These are first, general
conclusions, and second, implications and recommendations for fur—
ther research.

General Conclusions

The detailed conclusions for this study have been made in the
previous two chapters and summarized at the ends of those chapters.
Therefore, attention is concentrated here upon only the broadest
salient conclusions. They are stated and explained in the follow-
ing paragraphs. All conclusions in this section are numbered

consecutively in order to facilitate reading.

190

 

Conclusions relating E2 self-understanding. Did the children

 

improve in their understanding of themselves? The evidence appears
to indicate that most of them did to some positive degree. The
following conclusions express this belief:

(l) The children apparently developed increasingly

positive attitudes towards themselves as shown

‘ 'I’VVL‘ '-
‘m I ‘Ifi"
l

by their increased awareness, acceptance, and

understanding of themselves.

 

The students' comments in discussions and interviews, as well
as by their responses to the essay questions showed evidence of this
conclusion. They liked more things about themselves and disliked
less than at the beginning of the story. A number of the children,
became intelligently accepting of their physical limitations of size,
height, weight, and the like. The parents generally noticed these
changes in attitudes, as did the teacher. The quantitative results of
the personal measures of the groups before and after the study also
support the above conclusion, although the results were generally not
statistically significant.

Did this improved self-understanding result in any behavioral

change? Shane and McSwain have stated:

191

A desirable improvement in the inner curriculum of the child
can be obtained only through the changes made by children in
personal and iocial behavior as they accept the need for
such changes.
This leads to a consideration of the children's behavioral changes.
(2) As the children developed more self-understanding, they in-
dicated this improvement by changing their behavior in a
positive way.
This conclusion is amply supported by the evidence. The students
mentioned these changes, the parents noticed them, and the teacher
commented upon her observations of them. Frequent reference was made
to improved family relationships, particularly with siblings. Be-
havioral change was also noted in an increase in the number of
activities in which the students engaged and in the broadening of
students' interests. This conclusion is perhaps most aptly illu—
strated by the statement of one child during a final interview.
I don't show off so much anymore. It's funny, you really
don't have to . . . show off I mean. The other boys like
me just the way I am, I guess . . . and so do I. You know
what I mean!
It was interesting to note that this increased self-awareness
and self-understanding was reflected in another way.
(3) Some children, as they began to understand themselves

better, noticed behavior patterns in others which were

shmilar to their own.

 

1Harold Shane and E. T. McSwain, Evaluation and the Elementary

Curriculum (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1951), p. 135.

 

192

 

A number of the students made comments about story-characters
and about other children who did the same things and felt the
same way they did. This appeared to denote increased self-
understanding. The conclusion was illustrated by the chil-
dren who made remarks about others who were "tough outside
and scared inside," or about children who had bad tempers
"like me." In this connection, it was observed that chil-
dren responded most to those stories, characters, ideas in

discussion, etc. which most nearly described themselves

 

and their concerns. The problems of others which they did
not have themselves, failed to evoke much of a response.
In a sense, as understanding of oneself increased, some of
the students developed more understanding of their own be-
havior being similar to and reflected by others' behavior.
The increased self-understanding could not, therefore
be actually separated from understanding of others. This
was very noticeable. Accordingly, some conclusions relating
to understanding of others are made next.

Conclusions relatingwup_understandinghp£_others. .The

 

research related in Chapter II indicated a close relation-
ship between increased acceptance of, understanding of, and
respect for self with acceptance of, understanding of, and
respect for others among counseled clients. This relation-
ship was corroborated by the results of this study. The
children became more understanding of others as they increased
their own self-understanding. Therefore, the following con-

clusions are made:

193 1 l

(4) As the children became more self-understanding,
they also developed more positive attitudes in
their understanding of others.

This conclusion was supported by a multitude of discussion
comments. It was also observed repeatedly in the children's
writings. This positive change in attitudes towards and
understanding of others was supported by the social distance
data, but not by the sociometric data. Parents felt a more
positive attitude on the part of their children, and the
teacher likewise observed these changes. Sibling relation-
ships and relationships between classmates were slightly
improved. This was illustrated by the two girls who were
initially quite hostile towards each other, but became more
understanding and accepting of each other by the end of the
study.

It rapidly becomes apparent that any discussion of
attitudinal change hinges upon the accompanying behavioral
change. The increasingly positive attitudes and better
understanding of others were reflected by the behavior of
the children. This leads to the next conclusion.

(5) As the children developed more positive attitudes
towards others, they reflected their increased
understanding of others in their behavior.

This was most noticeable to the parents and the teacher.
‘The children played together with less friction. They com-
mented on this themselves. A number of the quotations in

an earlier chapter indicated this change in behavior. Many

194

--J!‘

 

children became more helpful to others and more sympathetic to
what troubled their friends. Some of the children showed in-
creased understanding of and insight into their parents' be-
havior. As one father remarked to the writer when the study
was about half completed:

Well, I still don't understand what you're doing up there,

but whatever it is, let's have more of it. Our boy is

treating us as human beings for the first time in years.

A girl also remarked to the effect that it was nice to know
that other persons had feelings about the same as hers. She said
it helped her to see things the way they did.

The preceding conclusions related to the students' self-
understanding and understanding of others as shown by their changes
in behavior and attitudes. Some other conclusions relate broadly

to the study as a whole.

Conclusions relatiug'tp the total study. The following con-

 

 

clusions are generally supported by the results of the study.

(6) A planned program can assist in the development of

children's self understanding..

The evidence cited in the previous chapter indicated that both
the story-discussions and the individual interviews had value in
assisting the development of self-understanding. The writer became
convinced that there was a place in the program for both the privacy
of the interview and the sharing of thoughts and feelings in the group

discussion.

195

 

(7) A planned program designed to assist the develop-
ment of positive self-concept does not negatively
affect the children's work.

The results of the academic achievement testing presented

in the fifth chapter indicated rather conclusively that

the experimental group did not suffer academically despite
the time taken from academic work to conduct the study. On
the contrary, the experimental group gained more academically
than all but one of the control groups. It may be added

here that the total cost in time and energy for such a pro-
gram it not so great as to be prohibitive. The values of

the program certainly appear to overbalance any possible
losses.

(8) Children, given the opportunity to do so, com-
municate their understanding of themselves in
a variety of ways.

A wealth of information about the children in the experi-
mental group was gathered through observation of their be-
havior and of the things that stimulated them to respond.

It became apparent that tests do not always indicate the

inner concerns of a child in his search for self-understand-
ing and maturity. Yet, in some way, the child communicates
these concerns. A.boy who, within himself, was a rather
anxious child, responded to the story entitled "Being Anxious"
with considerable nervous laughter but no verbal contributions.
After the lesson he wrote what he thought he had learned.

It was largely a repetition of the points others brought out.

196

 

On his paper he had drawn a snake with dripping fangs. This
caught the writer's attention. An examination of all the papers
he had written showed that most of them included drawings of
punitive objects such as guns, swords, maces, and the like.

He was apparently communicating part of his conception of his
environment and of himself within that environment.

Another child, while telling a story to illustrate a
point in a discussion, unconsciously slipped and used the name
of a child in the class with whom she was having some difficulty.
She was communicating her concern over the demands the second
child was making upon her. The second child's seat was changed
resulting in a better adjustment for both children.

The above example are only samples of the many methods of
communication which children use. It is most important to
realize that these attempts at communication are facilitated by
setting up situations whereby they can be made with ease. This
constituted one of the more intangible, but still highly valuable
aspects of the study. What seemed to be vital was not the handling
of each little aspect of behavior as it arose, but rather an iso-
lation of the pattern of the child's perceptions of and responses
to his environment. Only then could he be helped to realistically
comprehend himself and his place in his social milieu. It can be
stated that a number of the children were assisted in this regard

as evidenced by the results given previously.

19?

 

The claim that all the children were helped in this respect
cannot be made on the basis of the evidence gathered. Yet, the
final results will, in all probability, show themselves in the
children's handling of their problems during adolescence and on
into adulthood. This leads to a consideration of the implications
and recommendations for further research growing out of this

study. .7

Implications and Recommendations

The results and conclusions of this experiment appear to have r~1

 

three pertinent implications. Each of these is suggestive of
certain recommendations for further research. Therefore, these
implications are presented in this section with the associated
recommendations listed under each.

Education for self-concept. If positive changes in behavior

 

and attitudes can occur from a project involving a relatively brief
time, then an inclusive program, designed to improve as many aspects
of the development of positive self-concepts as possible, ought to
Inake a real cumulative difference in youngsters' behavior. The
further implications of this statement for the community, society,
and human-kind everywhere are tremendous. These implications about a
long-range program of education for self-concept suggest the follow-
ing recommendations:

(1) A longitudinal study of self-concepts and its relation-

ships to understanding of others needs to be undertaken.

198

Aspects of such a study might include a scientific appraisal

of what constitutes normal development of positive self-concepts
and an isolation of the persistent problems of gaining self—
understanding at different develOpmental levels. Another

aspect might be a comparison of sex differences in relation

to the development of self-concept. A total considera- F1
tion of the respective contributions of home, school, and J?

community to this development appears to be needed. Any or

 

all of these aspects, as well as others, might be thoroughly yHfi
investigated with immeasureable profit to children and to' -
society.
(2) The methods and materials employed in a program of

self-concept and understanding of others need to

be further developed, evaluated, and refined.
If a program of education for self-concept is undertaken, a
variety of methods and materials might be used. Evaluation
of these methods and materials would be indicated. Tests and
other measuring devices need to be developed as our knowledge
about self-development and self-concept increases. As
the respective roles of home, school, and community are
better defined and understood, the methods and materials
used in all the experiences of the child might undergo scru-
tiny and possible revision.

The above recommendations grow out of some of the im-

plications of a program of education for self-concept.

Another broad implication of this study is stated next.

199

Relationships between self-concept, mental hygiene,gpd
human relations. This study suggests a very close relation-
ship between self-concept, mental hygiene, and human relations.
These relationships imply that human relations and total
mental health might be positively improved to a great degree
by means of improving the self-concept of many children. This 7%
implication leads to two related recommendations.

(1) It is recommended that the attention of specialists

 

in human relations and mental hygiene be increasingly r'i

directed towards aiding teachers and others who are

in a position to foster positive self-concept in

children.

(2) A program for developing better self-concepts should

include opportunity for education and re-education

of parents.
These recommendations are placed together because they are so
closely related. This becomes obvious when examination is made
of such things as parent-teacher or parent-teacher-child
conferences. Following the recommendations would involve addit—
ional aspects of such a program. Some might be the production of
educative materials for parents by the aforementioned specialists,
provision for a variety of active parent—teacher contacts, and an
in-service training program for the teachers. In other words, what
the specialists learn, and can therefore advise, needs to be come
municated to those who directly contact and affect children.

200

A final implication centers around the teacher.

Teacher's role 1p developing positive self—concepts $p_
children. Next to the parent, the teacher has the greatest
responsibility and opportunity for developing positive self-

concepts and understanding of others within children. There-

fore, this recommendation is made. 5?
(l) The role of the teacher in a program of education 1‘1
for enhancing positive self-concepts needs particular
study. L“;

 

What kind of a teacher personality operates most effectively
in promoting positive self—concepts? What effects do the back-
ground, training, and experience of the teacher have upon
his personality? How well must the teacher understand him-
self in order to assist the children to do likewise? In
what effective ways can teachers be assisted to develop this
”positive self—concept within themselves? The answers to these,
and many other related questions, depend upon thoughtful inquiry.
The task of truly understanding oneself appears to
be lifelong. Its importance is apparently beyond question.
Some time ago Shakespeare put it rather insightfully.
This above all: to thine own self be true,

And it must follow, as the night the day2
Thou canst not then be false to any man.

 

2William Shakespeare, "Hamlet Prince of Denmark,"
Act I, Scene iii. Charles Jasper Sisson, editor, William
Shakeepeare The Complete Works (New York: Harper and
Brothers, 1953), I, 376 pp.

201

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. BOOKS AND PAMPHLETS

Bronfenbrenner, Urie. "Toward an Integrated Theory of Per-
sonality," (R. Blake and G. Ramsey, editors, Percep-
tion: An Approach to Personality. New York: Ronald
Press Co., 1951). 442 pp.

Bullis, H. Edmund and O'Malley, Emily E., (co-authors Vol. I),
Bullis, H. Edmund, (author Vols. II and III). Human
Relations in the Classroom, Courses I - III. Wilming-
ton: Delaware State Society for Mental Hygiene, 1947-
1953.

California Test of Personality Summary of Investigstions,
Number One. Los Angeles: California Test Bureau,
1948. 24 pp.

Cole, L. E. and Bruce, W. F. Educational Psychology,
New York: World Book Co., 1950. 768 pp.

Committee on Preventive Psychiatry. Promotion of Mental
Health in the Primary and Secondary Schools: An
Evaluation of Four Projects, Report Number 18.
Topeka: Group for the Advancement of Psychiatry,
January, 1951. 15 pp.

Cunningham, Ruth, and Associates. Understandiug Group
Behavior of Boys and Girls. New York: Teachers
College, Columbia University, 1951. 462 pp.

Good, C. V., editor. Dictionary of Education. New York:
McGraw Hill Book Co., 1945. 495 pp.

Hamrin, Shirley A. "An Eclectic Approach to Counseling,"
(S. Hamrin and F. Endicott, editors, Counselors at
Work A Practical Consideration of Counseliug:§rob—
lems. Evanston: School of Education, Northwestern
University, 1947). 142 pp.

Hopkins, L. Thomas. The Emerging Self in School and Home.
New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954. 366 pp.

202

 

Jahoda, M., Deutsch, M., and Cook, 8. W. Research Methods
in Social Relations, Part Two: Selected Techniques.
New York: Dryden Press, 1951. Pp. x + 423-759.

James, William. Psychology. New York: Henry Holt and Co.,
1907. 478 pp.

Jennings, Helen H. Sociometry in Group Relations. Washington,
D. C.,: American Council on Education, 1948. 86 pp.

Jersild, Arthur T. In Search of Self. New York: Teachers
College, Columbia University, 1952. 146 pp.

Jersild, Arthur T., Helfant, Kenneth, and Associates.
Education for Self-Understanding. New York:
Teachers College, Columbia University, 1953. 54 pp.

Jung, C. G. Peychological Types or The Psycholegy of In-
dividuation. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Co.,
1923. 654 pp.

 

Xaplan, Louis and Baron, Denis. Mental Hygiene and Life.
New York: Harper and Brothers, 1952. 422 pp.

Lecky, Prescott. Self Consistency: A Theory of Personality.
New York: Island Press, 1945. 154 pp.

Lewin, Kurt. A Dynamic Theoryyof Personality. New York:
McGraw Hill Book Co., 1985. 286 pp.

McNemar, Quinn. Psychological Statistics. New York: John
Wiley and Sons, 1949. 364 pp.

Mead, George H. Mind, Self, and Society. Chicago: Univer-
sity of Chicago Press, 1934. 401 pp.

 

Murphy, Gardner. Personality: A Biosocial Approach to
Origins and Structure. New York: Harpers and
Brothers, 1947. 999 pp.

Shaftel, George and Shaftel, Fannie. Role Playiugythe
Problem Story. New York: National Conference of
Christians and Jews, 1952. 78 pp.

 

Shane, Harold C. and McSwain, E. T. Evaluation and the
Elementary Curriculum. New York: Henry Holt and
Co., 1951. 477 pp.

 

Snygg, Donald and Combs, Arthur. Individual Behavior. New
York: Harper and Brothers, 1949. 386 pp.

 

203

 

Sullivan, Harry S. Conceptions of Modern Psychiatry. Wash-
ington, D. C.: The William Alanson White Foundation.
1948. 147 pp.

 

Symonds, Percival M. The Ego and the Self. New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1951. 229 pp.

Taba, Hilda, et. a1. Diagnosing:Human Relations Needs.
Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education,
1951. 155 PP-

 

Tryon, Caroline and Henry, William E. "How Children Learn
Personal and social Adjustment," Learning and In-
struction, Forty-Ninth Yearbook of the National
Society for the Study of Education, Part 1.

Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950. 352 pp.

 

B. PERIODICAL ARTICLES

Aidman, Red. "Changes in Self Perception as Related to
Changes in Perception of One's Environment, "Ameri-
can Psycholegist, 3: 286, July, 1948.

Bedoian, Vagharsh Hagop. "Mental Health Analysis of Socially
Over-Accepted, Socially Under-Accepted, Overage and
Underage Pupils in the Sixth Grade," Journal of Edu-
cational Psycholqu, 14: 366-71, October, 1953.

 

Bonney, Merl E. "The Constancy of Sociometric Scores and
Their Relationship to Teacher Judgments of Social
Success, and to Personality Self-Ratings," Sociometry,
6: 409-24, November, 1948.

Bussis, H. Edmund. "A Positive Mental Health Program,"
American Journal of Public Health, 40: 1113-17,
September, 1950.

Bullis, H. Edmund. "An Educational Program for Development
of the 'Normal' Personality," The American Journal
of Psychiatry, 109: 375-77, November, 1952.

Bullis, H. Edmund. "Are we Losing Our Fight for Improved
Mental Health? " Progressive Education, 30: 110-14,
February, 1953.

 

Bullis, H. Edmund. "Bried Communications, One Out of Seven,
Psychiatry: Journal for the Study of Interpersonal
Relations, 16: 93-96, February, 1953.

204

 

Combs, Arthur W. "Phenomenological Concepts in Non-Directive
Therapy," Journal of Consulting_gsycholqu, 12: 197-
208, July, 1948.

Helfant, Kenneth. "A Project in Human Relations and Mental
Health," Educational Leadership, 11: 434-439, Aprio,
1954.

Jersild, Arthur T. "Self Understanding in Childhood and
Adolescence," American Psychologist, 6: 122-26,
April, 1951.

 

Kelley, Earl C. "Communication and the Open Self," §I§.,
11: 96-100, Winter, 1954.

 

McQuitty, Louis L. "A Measure of Personality Integration
in Relation to the Concept of Self," Journal of ”3
Personality, 18: 461-82, July, 1950.

Morgan, Mildred I. and Ojemann, Ralph. "The Effect of a
Learning Program Designed to Assist Youth in an
Understanding of Behavior and its Development,"
Child Development, 13: 181-94, September, 1942.

Ojemann, Ralph H. "An Integrated Plan for Education in
Human Relations and Mental Health," Journal of the
National Association of Deans of Women, 16: 101-
108, March, 1953.

Olson, Willard C. "Human Relations in the Classroom,"
Journal of the National Education Association, 36:
640-41, December, 1947.

Phillips, E. Lakin. "Attitudes Towards Self and Others:
A Brief Questionnaire Report," Journal of Consult-
ing Psychology, 15: 79-81, February, 1951.

Raimy, Victor C. "Self Reference in Counseling Interviews,"
Journal of ConsultipgrPsycholqu, 12: 153-63, May,
June, 1948.

Rogers, Carl. "Some Observations on the Organization of
Personality," American Psychologist, 2: 358-68,
September, 1947. .

Rosenthal, Sheldon. "A Fifth Grade Classroom Experiment

in Fostering Mental Health," The Journal of Child
Psychiatry, 2: 302-29, 1952.

205

Sheerer, E. T. "An Analysis of the Relationship Between
Acceptance of and Respect for Self and Acceptance
of and Respect for Others in Ten Counseling Cases,"
Journal of Consulting Psycholqu, 13: 169-75, June,
1949.

Stiles, Frances 8. "Developing an Understanding of Behavior
at the Elementary School Level," Journal of Educa-
tional Research, 43: 516-24, March, 1950.

 

Stock, Dorothy. "An Investigation into the Interrelations
Between the Self Concept and Feelings Directed To-
wards Other Persons and Groups," Journal of Consuls-
ing Psychology, 13: 176-180, June, 1949.

Taylor, Charles and Combs, Arthur. "Self-Acceptance and
Adjustment," Journal of Consulting Psyehology, 16:
89-91, April, 1952.

Wilkinson, Frances R. and Ojemann, Ralph. "The Effect on
Pupil Growth of an Increase in Teacher's Understand-
ing of Pupil Behavior," Journal of Experimental
Education, 8: 143-47, December, 1939.

C. UNPUBLISHED MANUSCRIPTS

Helfant, Kenneth. "The Rye Project for Education in Human
Relations and Mental Health." Unpublished manu-
script, Rye, New York: Rye Public Schools, n.d.

7 pp. (mimeographed).

Hoover, W. Wendell and Helfant, Kenneth. "The Rye Project
works for Better Understanding." Unpublished manu-
script, Rye, New York: Rye Public Schools, n.d.

6 pp. (mimeographed).

Ojemann, Ralph. "How the Integrated Plan for Education in
Human Relations and Mental Health Developed." Un-
published manuscript, State University of Iowa,
1953. 8 pp. (mimeographed).

D. DISSERTATIONS

Brownfsin, John J. "Stability of the Self-Concept as a Di-
mension of Personality." Unpublished doctoral dis-
sertation, University of Michigan, 1951. 143 pp.

206

 

Nelson, Alice Doll. "The Effect of Group Study on Socio-

Raimy,

Ryden,

Stiles, Frances S. "A Study of Materials and Programs for

metric Ratings." Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
Michigan State College, 1952. 257 pp.

Victor C. "The Self-Concept as a Factor in Counsel-
ing and Personality Organization." Unpublished
doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University, 1963.

Arthur H. "An Appraisal of Student-Parent-Counselor
Participation in Counseling in a Secondary School
Guidance Program." Unpublished doctoral disserta-
tion, Northwestern University, 1951. 250 pp.

 

Developing an Understanding of Behavior at the
Elementary School Level." Unpublished doctoral
dissertation, State University of Iowa, 1947. 210 pp. ‘43

207

APPENDI XES

208

 

APPENDIX A

LETTERS TO PARENTS OF
EXPERIMENTAL AND
CONTROL GROUPS

209

 

INTRODUCTORY LETTER TO PARENTS OF
CHILDREN IN CONTROL GROUPS

Office of the Superintendent
Hestwood Community Schools
Dearborn Heights. Michigan
Dear Parents:
As you know. the Hestwood Conmunity Schools are constantly seeking r]

to improve the quality of instruction for your children. One

of the ways in which this is done is by means of scientific

 

investigation. Mr. Charles N. Townsel. whom many of you know ’41
from our staff in the Central Office, is presently engaged in a A
study with Mrs. Kathryn Anderson's Intermediate Group at the
McNair School.
The study is directed by the School of Education at Michigan
State University.
In order to assess the results of the study it is necessary
to test the remainder of the fourth grades with comparable
measures before and after the study. This is a common method of
control of scientific studies. The measures to be used are
tests that are regular routine in "any school systems.
Because of the excellent parent-school relationships which
exist in Nestwood. we are taking this means of informing parents
of all fourth grade students of Mr. Townsel's study and what it
involves.
Cordially.

Robert E. Anderson,
Superintendent of Schools

210

 

INTRODUCTORY LETTER AND REQUEST FOR APPROVAL OF
PARENTS OF CHILDREN IN THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

Office of the Superintendent
Nestwood Community Schools
Dearborn Heights, Michigan

Dear Parents:

As you know. the Hestwood Community Schools have consistently tried
to improve the quality of education for your children. One way

in which this is accomplished is to keep abreast of recent develop-
ments in education.

 

Mr. Charles N. Townsel. whom many of you know from our Central Office .
staff. is planning to conduct an investigation into the abject of '_.-.
Improving Self-Concept of Intermediate Grade Children. His study

is being directed by the School of Education at Michigan State Univer-

sity. It is an attempt to develop programs designed to assist child-

ren in developing positive self-concepts and healthy attitudes.

The study will involve a series of discussion lessons. interviews.
and tests with each member of Mrs. Kathryn Anderson's class.

Because of the close parent-school relationships which we enjoy

in the Hestwood conlnunity, we are taking this opportunity to inform
you of the study and request your approval. Please sign and detach
the accompanying notice and return to McNair School with your child.

Mr. Townsel will be available at McNair School for the next few
months in case you should like to review the progress or results
of the study with him.

Cordially.

Robert E. Bnderson.
Superintendent of Schools

 

we approve the study. Signed:

 

211

LETTER ACCOMPANYING PARENT QUESTIONNAIRE

Dear Parents:

Our classroom work with your children has been largely completed.
In order to assess the relative value of our procedure. we would
appreciate your considered reactions to the enclosed questions
and ratings. Two copies of the questionnaire are enclosed so
each parent may react separately.

The additional remarks you make will be deeply appreciated.

My sincere thanks for your aid and assistance.
Cordially.

Charles N. Townsel

McNair Elementary School
Hesuvood Conmunity Schools
Dearborn Heigits. Michigan

212

 

LETTER OF THANKS TO PARENTS OF CHILDREN
IN THE EXPERIMENTAL GROUP

Dear Parents:

The school year is drawing to a close so I'd like to

 

take this opportunity to again thank you for the privilege
of'working with your children.

If any of you wish to visit with me regarding your
youngster I shall be in the conference office at McNair
School all day Monday. Tuesday. and Wednesday, June 8th.
9th, and 10th. Time can be arranged by calling Mrs.
Richardson at the McNair School office.

My very best wishes to each of you and to your children.

Cordially.

Charles N. Townsel

McNair Elementary School
Nestwood Community Schools
Dearborn Heights, Michigan

213

 

. DOW-bl I! ‘I
. r I’
I

 

APPENDIX B

TESTS AND INSTRUCTIONS FOR TESTS
USED IN THE EXPERIMENT

 

214 ;

 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING
THE ESSAY QUESTIONS

Pass out two sheets of theme paper to each child. 7?

Have each child write his name at the top of each paper.

 

Say: Today I'd like to have you write the answers to .
two statements about yourselves. Each of you is a very *uhi
important person. Each of you probably likes himself
for certain things. Take the first sheet of paper and
write this statement upon it . . .(write on board)
. . "What I like about myself is . . ." and now
finish the statement as completely as you can.
Say: Of course. some of us also have some things that
we don't like about ourselves. Take the second paper
and finish this statement as completely as you can:
"What I dislike about myself is . . ."
Check to see if each student has written his name on

both papers .

215 i

 

INSTRUCTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING
A SOCIOGRAM

Pass out sociograms.

Say: On the sheet you have before you. you will find
some questions about your friends and classmates. Will
you please answer the questions with the names of
people in the class. Please write both the last name
and the first name. Your first choice will be after
the nunber one. your second choice after nunber two.
and your third choice after number three on each
question. Your choices will be private.

Read each question to the class allowing time to fill
in the three choices asked for.

Collect the papers making sure each child has put his

own name in the appropriate blank.

216

THE SOCIOGRAMS USED
IN THE STUDY

Your Name: Boy Girl

Your Teacher's Name:

 

1. My three best friends in the room are:
(l)
(2)
(3)

 

 

 

2. The three people I's like to invite to my house to play are:

(l)
(2)
(3)

 

 

 

3. The three people I's like to work with at school are:

(l)
(2)
(3)

 

 

 

217

INSTRUCTIONS FOR ADMINISTERING THE
SOCIAL DISTANCE SCALES

The check list you have before you will give you a
way of telling how close an acquaintance you might
like to have with the various boys and girls in your

room .

Look for your own name on the list. When you come to
your name you are to check the space opposite the
statement that best describes the way you think most

of the others feel about you.

NW look at all the names. Under each name listed
across the top of your paper. put a check in the
space opposite the statement which you feel most

accurately describes that person.

No one in this room will see your paper but me.

218

 

THE SOCIAL DISTANCE SCALES

USED IN THIS STUDY

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219

 

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INTERESTS AND ACTIVITIES
I. p . ‘ I. D L, D
1.33 Play the radio 21:: :E-Collect coins 51,2: Go to church
I. D L D L D
Read stories '28. Collect autographs 52. Go to Sunday School
I. u I. o I. p

a
c

g Go to movies - 29. , Collect pictures 53. Belong to a club
L D L D L D

‘ Read comic strips 30, Use a camera 54,-2: Belong to YMCA
I. D L D or YWCA
Work problems 31. Sew or knit

a
I
e
n
u
as
I-
as

L D . L D . L D
'- Study history Repair things - 55, Co to parks
1. D g I. D I. D

. Make boats ' 56.32 Engage 3“ sports
L D L D

32.
33
Study literature 34.23 Make airplanes 57. Go tos circus
35
36

Study science
L D

s
a
u
e
a
u
s
.

 

I. D I. D I. D ,
5 , Make radio 55, Sing in a chorus
L D L D
- " Work with tools 59, Sing in a glee club
L D ' L D L D
10.2: Study trees -37. Have a garden 60. Belona to: same
L D L D L D
11.2: Study birds 38. Drive automobile . 6L Play pins Dona
L D L ,D L D
12.22 Study animals 39.22 Play with pets 62. Play croquet
L D L D L D
13.33 Study butterflies 40.2: Raise animals 53, Play ball '
I. D , I. D 1. D ,
14, Draw or paint 4], Go fishing 54; Play tennis
L D L D L D

2
3.
4.
s.
6. 3
7.
a.

9.

Do cross-word
puzzles

15.22 Work in laboratory
I. D ,

l6.33 Model or design
I. D

42. Climb or hike 55, Go hunting

43.
”,:: Do housework 44,

45.

46.

i. D - I. D

Skate 55,:: Co riding with

I. D others

Ride a bicycle ‘

L D L D

Rideahorse 57, :: Play inaband

L D L D 2 L D '

19,”: Play piano Practice first aid 55, Play in a orchestra
L D L D

20,:: Makeascrapbook 59, Go to church socials
L D ' .L 9 ~

2L3: Keenadiary . 70.22 Gotoparties
L D L D

22.2: 52 Write poems 71.2: Goto dances
L D L D L D

23.3: Speak pieces 47. Play cards . 72. Be officer ofa club
.9 9 l- 9 2: I?

24.33 Play instrument - 48.:: Play dominoes 73.:3 Beaclass officer
3.- P L 9 21".?

25,2: Visit museums 49.22 Play checkers 74.2: Go camping
:7 9 1.: D.

26.33 Collect stamp: 50. Play chess

220

I. D
18.32 Sins

 

 

 

APPENDIX C
STUDENT AND PARENT QUESTIONNAIRES

222

 

 

STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRES

Which lesson did you like best and why did you like it?

Which lesson did you like least and why did you dislike it?

hhat do you feel you have learned about yourself?

that do you feel you have learned about others?

Have you found yourself doing something or thinking in some way

differently since our lessons started?

223

 

 

PARENT QUESTIONNAIRES

Child's Name:

Your Name:
Relationship to Child:
Date:

1.

Have you observed any change in your child's behavior towards himself
and others over the past five months which might be attributed to our
work at school?

Great Some Little Some Much
Positive Positive orvNo Negative Negative
Change Change Change Change Change

 

TPTease check’the above rating scale in the appropriate place)

Has there been any noticeable change in your youngster's attitude
towards himself or towards others which you feel might be attributed
to our work at school?

Great Some Little Some Much
Positive Positive or No Negative Negative
Change Change Change Change Change

 

(Please check the above rating scale in the appropriate place)
In relation to the child, his faany, and others, have you observed
any evidences of the total experiment have value?

Highly Some- Little No Value
Valuable Worthwhile Value Value Observable

 

TFlease check the above rating scale in the appropriate placeT'

Any additional comments you wish to make:

224