THE DEVELOPMENT AND RELATWE EFFECTE‘E’EhéESS CF ENFORMATWE AND BNVES‘E'QGATWE MODULES T0 TEACH PRE-SERVEE ELEMENTARY TEACHERS THE SKELLS PéEEDED ’50 MMNTAEN WEAK; QRGANESMS EN A CLASSROOM Bissertafiaa for the Degree at Ph. D. MiCHRGAN STATE WWERSETY ‘ * WANNA THOMAS WHAYLEY 1973 ‘ This is to certify that the thesis entitled The Devel0pment and Relative Effectiveness of Informative and Investigative Modules to Teach Pre-service Elementary Teachers the Skills Needed to Maintain Living Organisms in a Classroom presented by Juanita Thomas Whatley has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph. D. degree in Education yfi Mb Major professor Date July 19, I973 0-7 639 ABSTRACT THE DEVELOPMENT AND RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF INFORMATIVE AND INVESTIGATIVE MODULES TO TEACH PRE-SERVICE ELEMENTARY TEACHERS THE SKILLS NEEDED TO MAINTAIN LIVING .ORGANISMS IN A CLASSROOM By Juanita Thomas Whatley The purpose of the study was twofold: 1) to develop instructional modules for training pre-service elementary school teachers to maintain living organisms in the class; 2) to investigate the relative effective- ness of informative and investigative modules for train- ing pre-service elementary school teachers to maintain living organisms. As an integral part of the development of the instructional modules, a pilot study was conducted with S7 pre-service elementary teachers enrolled in science methods classes at Michigan State University. Five modules involving the use of seven organisms were tested. As a result of this study more modules involving fewer organisms and testing instructional procedures were developed. Students enrolled in Biological Science for Elementary Teachers at Michigan State University, Winter term 1973, were subjects for testing the final modules. Juanita Thomas Whatley These students all received a general skills test designed to determine their general knowledge concerning the germination of seeds, the growth requirements for plants and the environment suitable for survival of animals. The test results were the basis for assigning students to either a high or low skill group. Within each skill level, subjects were randomly assigned to a group that would determine which organism, plant or animal, they would study first. All students completed an informative module, either plant or animal, during the first week of the study. The next week all students received an investigative module for a different organism. The evaluation instrument to test the effective- ness of the modules contained one section on the plants used in the study (beans, rye grass, clover) and a second section on the animal used in the study, the Daphnia. Each part of the test was analyzed separately. Three equi- valent forms of the evaluation instrument were administered as: l) a pretest before the informative modules, 2) as an intermediate test, one week later, before the investigative modules, and 3) as a posttest, two weeks later, when the experimentation required for the investigative module was concluded. Juanita Thomas Whatley The hypotheses were tested at the 0.05 level of significance using a multivariate repeated-measure anal- ysis. The following conclusions were reached: 1) Instructional modules can be developed and used effectively to train pre-service elementary teachers to maintain living organisms in the classroom. 2) Significant differences Were found between the investigative and infermatiVe modules. The investi- gative modules were more effective than the informative modules. The animal modules, both informative and investi- gative, were more effective than the plant modules. 3) There was a relationship indicated between the skill levels and the type of modules. The informative modules were more effective for the high skill level. The low skill level was more successful with the investigative modules. 4) Students who received the plant modules first had significantly higher gain scores than those students who received the animal module first. This order was ‘particularly effective for the low skill level. V 5) There was no significant difference found be- tween those students who achieved the objectives of the modules and thoselwho did not. Since the classification was based on written responses it is possible that the classification was based on incomplete data, because many students chose not to answer the questions. However, it Juanita Thomas Whatley might be inferred from the large number of low skill students who were classed as non-achievers, that this group had more difficulty with keeping and interpreting data sheets. ‘ Three other hypotheses looking for interaction between the independent variables, skill level, order of module presentation and achiever status, were not rejected. An area for future research is the suggested relationship between the skill levels and the learning processes inherent in the instructional modules. There is a need to determine if college students do, in fact, operate at different intellectual levels of learning. If such an association is found, then, is it possible to de- crease the rate of failure and the amount of frustration some students suffer in a difficult learning situation, by providing experiences more compatible with the student's intellectual development. THE DEVELOPMENT AND RELATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF INFORMATIVE AND INVESTIGATIVE MODULES TO TEACH PRE-SERVICE ELEMENTARY TEACHERS THE SKILLS NEEDED TO MAINTAIN LIVING , ORGANISMS IN A CLASSROOM BY Juanita Thomas Whatley A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1973 Copyright by Juanita Thomas Whatley 1973 ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To those who have made this study possible through their counsel and moral support I offer my sincere thanks. Dr. Martin Hetherington as the chairman of my Doctoral Committee has given his guidance, his under- standing and most of all his friendship. Dr. Glenn Berkheimer, perhaps unknowingly, has been my professional mentor. As a model of professional- ism himself, he-has been myinspiration to get the job done. . I wish to thank the other members of my Committee, Dr. Bruce Cheney and Dr. Howard Hagerman, for their willingness to act as sounding boards for my ideas and to give me the benefit of their experience throughout the year. -My eternal gratitude goes to the staff and personnel of the Science and Mathematics Teaching Center under the most capable leadership of Dr. Julian Brandou. The genuine concern and esprit de corps of the staff have often made my.gray skies b1ue._ No words can express my feelings toward the members of my family for their prayers and faith in me. My dear husband, Paul, and my precious daughters, Pamela and Paulette, especially, deserve a medal for the personal sacrifice they have made to allow me the freedom to fulfill a dream. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vi LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix LIST or APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Current Trends in Elementary Teacher Preparation . . . , , . 1 Need.for the Study . . . . . . . . 6 Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . 10 Definition of terms . . . . . . . 10 Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . 15 Current Trends in Elementary School Science . . . . . . . . 16 Attitudes Toward Science Teaching . . . . . . 20 Identification of Teaching Skills . . . . . . 25 Skill Development Methods . . 30 The Use of Living Organisms in the Elementary Science Classroom . . 35 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 iv Chapter III. DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY . General Background Information Development of the Modules General Design of the Test MOdules. Description of the Sample . . Instrumentation . . . . Design of the Study . . . Treatment Procedure . . . . . . Hypotheses . . . . . Analysis Model . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . IV. ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA Inter-test Correlation . . . . . Results of Multivariate and Uni— variate Analyses for Combined .Data . . . . . . . . . . Multivariate and Univariate Analysis of Plant Data Multivariate and Univariate Analysis of Animal Data . Discussion and Interpretation . Summary . . . . . . . V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Development and Testing of Instructional Modules The Study . . Limitations of the Study Findings . . . - . . Conclusions . Implications for Education Implications for Research . BIBLIOGRAPHY. APPENDICES Table 10 11 12 13 LIST OF TABLES SUMMARY DATA AND RESULTING RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS . OBSERVED CELL MEANS, PERCENTAGE SCORES, AND CELL FREQUENCIES . . . . . INTER-CORRELATION MATRIX . MULTIVARIATE REPEATED-MEASURE ANOVA TABLE, COMBINED PLANT AND ANIMAL DATA . . . . . . . . . . . . . SUMMARY OF PROBABILITY VALUES FOR HYPOTHESES REJECTED IN MULTIVARIATE ANALYSES OF COMBINED SCORES, PLANT SCORES AND ANIMAL SCORES . MULTIVARIATE REPEATED- MEASURE ANOVA TABLE, PLANT DATA . MULTIVARIATE RBPBATEDrMEASURE ANOVA TABLE, ANIMAL DATA . . . . PERCENTAGE MEAN-DIFFERENCES FOR PLANT AND ANIMAL MODULES.. . . . . . . . PERCENTAGE MEAN DIFFERENCES FOR PLANT AND ANIMAL MODULES BY SKILL LEVELS . ... . . . . . . . PERCENTAGE MEAN DIFFERENCES.BY ORDER OF MODULE PRESENTATION . . . . . PERCENTAGE MEAN DIFFERENCES BY ORDER AND SKILL LEVELS FOR PLANT AND ANIMAL DATA . PRETEST RAW SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS . PRETEST SUMMARY DATA vi Page 53 66 68 68 70 '73 75 79 80 84 89 165 166 Table Page 14 INTERMEDIATE TEST RAW SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . 167 15 INTERMEDIATE TEST SUMMARY DATA . . . . . 168 16 POSTTEST RAw SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS . . . . 169 17 'POSTTEST SUMMARY DATA . . . . . . . . . . 17o MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS: COMBINED PLANT AND ANIMAL DATA 18 Hypothesis 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 19 Hypothesis 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 20 Hypothesis 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS: PLANT DATA Zl Hypothesis 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 22 Hypothesis 2 I. . . . . . . . . . . . 203 23 Hypothesis 3 .. . . . . . . . . . . . 204 MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS: ANIMAL DATA 24 Hypothesis 1 . . . . ... . . . . . . 205 25 Hypothesis 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 26 HypotheSis 3 , . . . . . . . . . . . ZOT MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATB ANALYSIS: PLANT DATA 27 Hypothesis 1 . . ... . . . . . .;. . 208 28 Hypothesis 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 29 Hypothesis 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 vii Table Page MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS: ANIMAL DATA 30 Hypothesis 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 31 Hypothesis 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 212 32 Hypothesis 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 213 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure l Page 1 GENERAL DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . . . . . 56 2 TOTAL EFFECT OF PLANT AND ANIMAL MODULES .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 3 COMPARISON OF HIGH AND LOW SKILL LEVELS FOR PLANT AND ANIMAL MODULES . . . . . . . . . 81 4 EFFECT OF THE ORDER IN WHICH MODULES ARE PRESENTED ON PLANT AND ANIMAL SCORES . . . . . . . 33 s * TREATMENT EFFECT, PLANT MODULE . . . . 86 6 TREATMENT EFFECT, ANIMAL MODULES . . . 88 ix Appendix A LIST OF APPENDICES RESULTS FROM SKILLS DEVELOPMENT QUESTIONNAIRE . . . . . . . USING LIVING ORGANISMS IN ELEMENTARY SCIENCE ARTICLES IN SCIENCE AND CHILDREN . ... . . . . . . . . PILOT STUDY: LIFE SCIENCE MODULES FOR ELEMENTARY PRE—SERVICE TEACHERS. . . ... . . . . INSTRUMENTATION: GENERAL SKILLS TEST, PRETEST, INTERMEDIATE TEST, POSTTEST . . . . . . . . . . . ITEM ANALYSIS: .PRETEST, INTERMEDIATE TEST, POSTTEST .. . . . . . . . . MODULAR RESEARCH MATERIALS FOR MAIN- .TAINING LIVING ORGANISMS IN THE CLASSROOM.. . ....... . . . . . MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS COMBINED PLANT AND ANIMAL DATA MULTIVARIATE.AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS PLANT-DATA . . . . . . . MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS ANIMAL DATA . ... . . . . . MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS PLANT DATA AND ANIMAL DATA PERFORMANCE SHEET FOR ORGANISM STUDY . . . . . . . . . Page 116 119 121 144 165 171 199 202 205 208 214 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION This study involves the pre-service training of elementary school teachers to maintain living organisms in the classroom but it should not be considered as an isolated entity. Learning.to maintain living organisms represents only a small portion in the total training program of elementary school teachers. The subject should be examined, therefore, in light of its contri- bution to the total training program. For this reason current trends in the education of elementary teachers will be explored as an introduction to teacher training in science and the learning of a specific skill i.e., maintaining living organisms for classroom use. Current Trends in Elementary Teacher Preparation Since the decade of the Sixties it would appear as though someone had opened a Pandora's box of teaching ills. All areas of the elementary curriculum are under scrutiny. A plethora of new mathematics, social studies and science programs has emerged.l‘ At the same time the old edict of "teach my child to read" flashes brightly in the background. As if this were not enough the new elementary science programs call for the teacher to step down from her role as the central character in the teaching-learning 2 She must become like a skilled puppeteer who situation. can manipulate a room full of.material, including living organisms, and her competencies as a learning facilitator to produce a learning environment*with the child as the central character. "1 But the tale doesn't end there.- Each decade must have a theme.' And the theme forIthe Seventies-must include: Accountability, Performance-Based Teacher Education, Scientific Literacy andrheip'stamp out pollution! In such a period of trends*and‘counter"trends colleges of education are faced with the overwhelming problem of designing a_ teacher training programrthat'will provide the confidence and competence an elementary school teacherneeds to cope with a rapidly changing social order. A 1Thomas D. Fontaine, "Federal Programs for the 1m- provement of Science and Mathematics," Science Education, 54 (3), 1970, pp- 209-212 2W. R.-Zeitler, "The Changing Role of the Elementary School Teacher," (Paper presented at sixteenth annual con- vention, National Science Teachers Association; Washington, D.C., March 1968) Recognizing the probiemsthat'face teacher education, the U.S. Office of Education sponsored the Model Teacher Education Project (USOE Model Projects) in the late sixties. In 1968 nine colleges began the development and testing of comprehensive programs for elementary school teacherepreparation:;:Andta challenge was accepted to design programs of teacherfeducation which could pre- pare persons to teach effectively in new environments. Florida State University went so far as to state that one of its goals was to prepare a program which would meetthe expectations of society in 1978.‘ Their‘predictions about society for 1978 included an accelerating trend toward urbanization, an increasing challenge to traditional wis- dom, the pervasiveness of multiple mass media, and the dom- inance of science and technology as forces in our lives.3 To accomplish"the C The fact that science educators are concerned about the limited use of living organisms in the class- room giVes credence to the belief that teachers need training in the use of live specimens to encourage their use in the classroom. Secondary school science teachers responding to a survey conducted by Orlans at the NSTA March 1970 national ConVention gave these reasons why they did not keep live organisms for use in their class- rooms:43 they did not know how to keep them, that caring for them is too much trouble; that plants and animals take up too much space; that physical conditions in the class- room are not suitable and that the school cannot afford them. I Orlans further explained that all too often, teachers receive no instruction or information on select- ing, caring for, and using particular species. ‘The teachers affirmed that they needed more information in order to diversify the species they kept and to improve their stan- dards of animal care and use. 43Ibid, p. 344 39 Reed44 in a more recent article held many of the same opinions: 1 Another factor (that prevents the use of living materials) is the attitude of the school personnel, which can act to dis- courage even the most knowledgeable teacher. The principal may object to the presence of animals in the classroom. The custodians com- plain about the "mess" of pots and cages. Money is usually available for athletic equip- ment but seldom can be found for soil and- - seeds.-. The textbook materials may have procedures that don't work. They may pre- sent dull and pedestrian topics for class- room use which the teacher, because of a lack of basic.information, cannot develop or revise. Reed's work with the Minnesota Mathematics Science Project, which sought to relate mathematics and science, gave much insight into why many of the new curricular pro- jects dealing with living organisms often fail. Her con- , . 45 clus1ons: The average elementary school education major, who has had little pra- tical experience and who may not be a biologist at heart, needs help.. The basic information this person needs is facts about whole organisms in their environments, with the addition of practical examples.as to how this information can be used-in-the classroom. Naturally the emphasis should be on the basic principles. 44Elizabeth w. Reed, "The Place to Begin," AIBS Education Review, 2, June 1973, p. 44 45Ibid, p. 45 40 Mayers also gave strong support to the need for teacher training. He remarks:46 Many of our teacher-preparation institutions gloss over this segment (proper handling of living organisms) of the curri- culum: they indicate that animal-keeping would be a nice thing to do, but they do Inot tell how it should be done.. We need, therefore, to incorporate in all our teacher-training processes information on the.care and maintenance of organisms in the laboratory and on ways in which . they become productive contributors to the _ academic program. Summary The survey of the literature was to find justi- fication for training elementary school teachers to main- tain living organisms in the classroom. - This is what was found: 1. Educational visionaries have developed pro- grams designed tOward teaching skills for coping with change through problem solving. Nevertheless, single science textbooks and the lecture-discussion format continues to dominate the science program in many ele- mentary schools. 2. The attitude of elementary school teachers toward science is generally one of reluctance toward teaching the subject. Inadequate preparation in science and science methods contribute to this reluctance. 46Mayers, "Study of Living or Dead," p. 29 41- Colleges of education seeking to alleviate the problem are developing competency-based programs setting per- formance criteria consistent with the new approaches to science being introduced in the modern elementary science curriculum. 3. The specific skills and competencies needed by an elementary school teacher to perform effectively in teaching science have not been validated. Many educators agree, however, that teaChers need to develop science pro- cess skills as well as the professional skills needed to manage a claSSroom. The skill of questioning deemed- essential in modern science has been investigated by many eduCators. I A I . .‘." 4., Methods being studied to train teaChers in the skills and competenCies needed to teach science inClude: 1) film-mediated model'versus written model, 2) active laboratory-oriented work versus passive reading-centered study, 3) science-project approach to laboratory work versus conventional replication-verification method and 4) audio-tutorial instruction using the direct group (passive participation) versus the indirect group (active investigation). 5. While the value of studying living organisms at the elementary schOol level cannot be substantiated with research studies the success experienced by science educators and classroom teachers seems to warrant their 42 use.. Living organisms can help develop an appreciation for life and an understanding of relationships between plants, animals and man in a total environment. Both teachers and those working with teachers agree that there is a need for more training in the basic principles of plant and animal growth, care and maintenance in the classroom. Much of the literature reported represented ‘ only the viewpoints of science educators. The impliCation is clear that much research is needed to validate these widely accepted viewpoints. CHAPTER'III DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY The twofold purpose of this study was todevelop and to investigate the relative effectiveness of infor- mative and investigative modules for training pre-service elementary teachers to maintain living organisms in the classroom. General Background Information To identify the general teaching skills needed by elementary school teachers for the life science portion of elementary science, a survey of several elementary science textbook series and science curriculum prOgrams was completed in the spring 1972. A questionnaire pre- pared from this survey was given spring term 1972 to 77 students enrolled in Biological Science 202, Biologfbal Science for Elementary Teachers, to determine which of these skills had been developed by these preLservice elementary school teachers. These students strongly in- dicated that more skill was needed in the maintenance of animals, particularly invertebrates. (See Appendix A for questionnaire results.) 43 44 Since all textbook series and curriculum programs examined advocated the use of living materials it seemed feasible to pursue the development of this skill.- Modules were decided on as the vehicle for training Since they. ”are easily adeSted to individual differences, they can be completed individually and they require a minimum amount of supervision. Development of the Modules The development of the modules was started in the summer 1972. One elementary science program, Science Curriculum Improvement Study (SCIS), which devotes half of each year grades 1-6 to the study of living organisms was used as a guide for choosing the organisms to study. Initially five modules were prepared for testing: The Aquarium, Daphnia and Chlamydomonas, Drosophila (Fruit Fly), Tenebrio beetles (Mealworms) and the Terrarium with the Chameleon. These modules were concerned with training pre- service teachers to establish and maintain environments suitable for survival of specific animals. The design was to give step by step directions for establishing the habitat without including excessive details on the organisms themselves. InformAtion was included that would help the student recognize and cOrrect conditions that threatened the existence of the organisms. 45 A pilot study using the five modules was con- ducted fall term 1972. Subjects were 57 students enrolled at Michigan State University in Education 325F, Teaching Science in Elementary School. The results indicated that the modules could be used successfully to train pre-service teachers to establish habitats for the survival of organisms for at least a two-week period. Several changes were made in‘ the overall experimental design to eliminate irregularities apparent during the pilot study. Being a firm believer in the adage that teachers tend to teach as they are taught the writer was dissatis- fied with the cook-book type instructions given in the modules. Even though stUdents did accomplish the objective of establishing a suitable environment for the organism to survive and there was a significant change in knowledge about the organism as measured by pre- and posttest com- parisons, the method of instruction was unquestionably out of date. A space and logistics problem developed from having so many different organisms established at the same time in the same room. 'Also, there was no control over student interaction between groups studying different organisms. For example, a student who did not establish a fruit fly culture could'show an increase in knowledge on the fruit fly simply by observing and discussing the 46 culture with his neighbor. While this practice would work well in the general classroom, it would tend to give misleading test data for the effectiveness of a particular module. The following decisions were made based on re- sults from the pilot study: 1) Develop and test modules more in line with accepted practices for ianiry or discovery type learning.‘ 2) Choose organisms that could be used in small containers to reduce space requirements. 3) Use only two organisms, one plant and one animal, at the same time to reduce the amount of inter- action. 4) Choose a classroom setting that would allow for more individualized work and reduce student-student interaction. These decisions meant that only one of the origi- nally developed modules would be a part of the final experimental design. The modules that were eliminated are included in Appendix C and will be discussed in Chapter V. General Design of the Test Modules Two types of modules were used in the study: in- formative and investigative. Basically, the infOrmative modules present facts while the investigative modules re- quire the student to discover the facts through 47 experimentation. The investigative and informative modules covering the same subject were developed from the same set of behaVorial objectives to insure that the only differences were in method of presentation rather than in material covered:' The modules were designed as self instructional units. Bach consists of taped information or directions for the experiment, printed matter to accompany the tape and any materials needed to carry out the experiment suggested in the investigative module. The organisms used for the plant modules were common plants used in elementary science such as grass, beans and clover. Daphnia was chosen for the animal modules since it is becoming a popular organism for classroom use. The Informative Plant Module contained infor- mation on the characteristics of seeds along with require- ments for germination of seeds and growth of plants. Pictures of common seeds and ways to establish germination studies accompanied the taped material. The Investigative Plant Module required students to study the characteristics of a sample set of seeds and to investigate factors that affect germination of seeds and growth of plants. In addition to the pictures of the seeds that were studied and of ways to study germination, each subject received a guide sheet for monitoring the plants over a two-week 48 period. Data sheets with questions designed to aid obser- vations and to help in interpretation of the data were also provided. For the Informative Animal Module, environmental conditions required fer Daphnia survival and the procedure for culturing green algae-as food for Daphnia were described. Other sources of food were also discussed. The Investigative Animal Module posed the problem of food sources for the Daphnia and led the student through a study of environmental conditions necessary for Daphnia survival and reproduction. Both modules contained apicture of the Daphnia along with a detailed description of the identifying features. A data sheet with questions to guide interpretation of data and a guide sheet for maintaining the Daphnia for two weeks accompanied the investigativemodule. Description of Sample The participants in the study were enrolled at Michigan State University in Biological Science 202, Bio- logical Sciente for Elementary Teachers, during winter term 1973. While the population of interest for this study was pre-service elehentary school teachers at Michigan State University, the students enrolled in Biologital Science 202 were chosen as subjects for two reasons: 49 First, the "student" could be used as the experimental unit since the laboratory work was done on an individual basis. Second, the students who are primarily eleMentary education majors were least likely to have taken ahy Other biology course during their college Career and few if any- would have completed a Science methods course. The assumption is that the learning ability of students enrolled in a course designed primarily for elementary education majors does not differ from that of students who are elementary education majors. Therefore, the non-education majors in the course would nOt signifi- cantly affect the outCome of the study. Biological Science 202 is a general biolOgy course that follows an audio-tutorial format. 'The heart of the program is the Independent Learning SessiOn, often referred to as thelaboratory session, which is arranged by the student to fit his time schedule. The Learning Center or laboratory is open three days a week usually from 8 A.M. to 9 P.M. The amoudt of time a student spends at the Learning Center listening to tapes, viewing films, filmstrips or demonstrations and performing experiments depends in his background and his individual rate of progress in reaching the objectives set for each week.. . Other phases of the course include: 1) a weekly one hour General Assembly Session for lectures or long 50 movies, 2) the Small Assembly Session for weekly dis- cussion of biological topics and aCtivities related specifically to elementary school science and 3) the one hour weekly Evaluation Session for oral and written examinations. A Although the experimental modules used in this study were included as a part of the required activities to be completed at the Learning Center, many students were under the impression that the work was optional and did not participate. Then too, because the nature of the course allows a student to control his own learning activities, it was difficult to maintain a firm control on participation. Perhaps for these reasons only 137 of the 163 students enrolled for winter term actually began the ex- perimental study by taking the pretest and the first treat- ment module. Other students were subsequently eliminated if they omitted one required treatment or test. A total of 98 Students received all treatments and completed all required assessments. Of this sample, sixty-three percent were elementary education majors, 20 percent were from the College of Human Ecology with majors in Child Development, 8 percent were majoring in Social 1 Work, while the others were from varied curricula suCh as social science and mathematics. There were equal 51 distributions of juniors and sophomores who constituted 87% of the sample. Over 85% of the participants were fe- male. It should be kept in mind that the main emphasis for this study was to investigate the effectiveness of modules for teaching a biological skill using living organisms. The effect of this skill development on the teaching ability of elementary school teachers was not of primary interest. Therefore, the use of subjects who were not prospective teachers would not invalidate the results obtained. Instrumentation Four measuring instruments developed by the in- vestigator were used in the study. A skills test designed to measure general knoWledge concerning the growth and maintenance of plants and animals was administered. The general skills test was used only as an instrument for dividing the students into high and low skill levels. The data from this test is not used in any other part of the analysis. Three equivalent forms of a specific skills test, Maintaining Living Organisms in the Classroom (MLOC), were used for criterion measures. One part of the test covered the germination of seeds and the growth requirements for plants used in the study while the other section sought 52 specific requirements for survival of the Daphnia. The tests were given before the first treatment (informative modules) as a pretest, as an intermediate test one week later before the second treatment (investigative modules) and as a posttest two weeks later at the conclusion of the experimental study required for the investigative modules. (Copies of all tests used are included in Appendix D.) C A ‘Thé'FEIIAbiliiy or coeffiCient of internal con- sistency for the test inStruments was computed using the Kuder-Richardson fOTmula #20. Using this formula as the sample becomes more homogeneous, the reliability is lowered. As the index of difficulty increases the reli- ability decreases. Since the length of the test also influences the size of the reliability coefficient the 1 was applied to the Spearman-Brown prophecy formula calculated reliability to predict the reliability if the tests were tripled in length. Summary data and resulting reliability coefficients are found in Table 1. Detailed data for the measuring instruments are in Appendix E. Design of the Study The design used was an incomplete repeated measures design. It was like a factorial design in that 1N. M. Downie, Basic Statistical Methods, (New York: Harper 8 Row PubliShers, 1959), pp. 2187221 TABLE 1.--SUMMARY DATA AND RESULTING RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS 53 Intermediate Pretest Test Posttest Mean Item Difficulty 57 47 44 Mean Item Discrimination 29 32 28 Variance 8.08 6.86 5.93 Kuder-Richardson Reliability #20 .4803 .4490 .2857 Spearman-Brown Predicted Reliability .7349 .7096 .5397 several independent variables were superimposed’in order to study their independent and interactive effect on a dependent variable.2 There were four factors with two levels each used in the study. possible treatment combinations. This means there were 24 or sixteen Since it was not prac- tical to use this many combinations, an incomplete design was used. A decided disadvantage of this design obviously. is the loss of partial or‘total information on one or more treatment comparisons that might be linked together (mixed' up) and are thus said to be confounded.3 2 However, such a B. J. Winer, Statistical Principles in Experi- mengal Design, (New York: McGraw-Hill Book COmpany, 1962), p. 325 3 neers, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: p. 480 R. Lowell Wine, Statistics for Scientists and En - Prentice-Hall, Inc., 196 , 54 design does allow a reduction in experimental effort, it gives a somewhat broader scope for inferences and the results of one sequence will indicate if the next sequence is feasible. The design (A) notation below, modeled after Stanley and Campbell,5 represents the block from the complete design that was investigated in this study. Model B, C, D with notation for testing not indicated are the other possible blocks that could be investigated if the results from A indicate that such is warranted. Model A} - B Q D H 01 XP 02 YA O3 XP’XA YP YA XP Y H 01 XA Oz YP O3 XA XP YA YP XA YA L 01 XP 02 YA 03 XP XA YP YA X Y L 01 XA O2 YP O3 XA XP YA YP XA YA Legend: 1 XP - Plant module, Informative YP - Plant Module, Investi- O - Pretest; O2 - Intermediate Test; 03 - Posttest gative XA- Animal module, Informative YA - Animal module, Investi- gative H - High skill level L - Low skill level ,4Winer, Statistical Principles,.p. 676 5Donald T. Campbell and Julian C. Stanley, Experi- mental Desggns for Research, (Chicago: Rand McNally 6 Company, 1 ‘3) 55 Figure 1 further clarifies the experimental de- sign. The subjects were divided into a high and a low skill level group based on scores from the general skills test. Subjects who scored sixteen points or higher on the twenty-two point test were assigned to the high skill level group while the remaining ones were placed in the low skill group. The scores for the high skill level group ranged from 21-16 points with a mean of 17.5. The mean for the low Skill level group was 12.7 with a range from 15-6 points. There were forty-nine students assigned to each skill level. 1 Within each skill level the subjects were ran- domly assigned to one of the two subgroups. Subgroup one, Order A, received the informative plant module first, followed the next week by the investigative animal module. Those in subgroup two, Order B, received the informative animal module first, followed the next week by the investi- gative plant module. ‘1 A Each subgroup was further divided at the end of the study as achievers and non-achievers.' Students whose answers to questions on the data sheets indicated that they had completed the experiment and had accomplished the objectives set for the modules were classed as achievers.' 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Since the gain was so slight it is highly possible that this increase was due to chance or to maturation rather than some cross treatment effect. A similar relationship occurred with the high skill level. After the completion of the informative animal module there was a mean gain for plant scores and animal scores. Compare the control portion of Figure 5 (2), line H, with the treatment portion of Figure 6 (1), line H. The magnitude of the difference suggests that there could be a causal relationship other than maturation. The same strange relationship can also be observed for the animal data presented in Figure 6. From this graph, it is clear that the informative animal module was more effective for the high skill level. The investigative animal module resulted in significant changes for both skill levels but was more effective for the low skill level. Again, as with the plant modules, the low skill level that took the informative animal module first showed a greater gain in animal scores after receiving the investigative plant module. (See Figure 5 (2), line L, treatment portion, for plant test results and Figure 6 (1), line L, control portion, for animal results:) Table 11 shows the numerical differences for the treatment-no treatment groups for plant and animal data. 88 mmqbnoz AAuwmwpmo>nH mug .eazwoz HmEAn< e>AumapomcH Aav mom 52H mAA mom 92H mAA 5 A j q _ — 0 Ah“ “u . ...... . 1 1AA AA. A238 J. 1] eeeeeeefi £3 SEA 33 .AeaEA A. I 2258:. ..E SEA AAAA .352 \W 1 \\\. 1oe T ... \\3 AN .. L .A \ 13. \I \ no. NW. A n. A T \ i : 0...... l 00 SQIOOS‘SBBlUGDle 89 TABLE 11.--PERCENTAGE MEAN DIFFERENCES BY ORDER AND SKILL LEVELS FOR PLANT AND ANIMAL DATA Modules High Skill Level Low Skill Level Treat- Con- Treat- Con- ment trol ment tro1 Informative Plant Module 20°1 "1'5 ’1-0 4.7 Investigative Plant Module 3'5 11°C 10-5 3.0 Informative Animal Module 17°C ‘5'4 10-3 13.0 Investigative 15.5 8.4 27.9 0.1 Animal Module Since the control group for both plant and animal modules showed similar responses, the temptation is to conclude that the investigative module itself was effective in helping the low skill level to assimilate information that had been presented in an earlier treatment with the informative modules. With the high skill level the "carry-over" treatment effect appears to be associated with the informative modules. Obviously, more evidence is needed before a definite conclusion can be reached. Summary Since the hypotheses were investigated using the data in three different ways, the results can best be sum- marized by grouping the hypotheses according to the results from the three sets of data. 90 The following hypotheses were rejected using: 1) combined plant and animal data, 2) separate data from the plant tests: H01: Ho tests, and 3) separate data from the animal There is no difference between the three repeated measures for the MLOC tests. There is no difference between the high skill level and the low skill level as measured by the MLOC tests. The following hypothesis was rejected using: 1) combined plant and animal data, and 2) separate data from the animal tests; but it was not rejected using the plant tests data: H03: either of H04: Ho There is no difference between Order A and Order B as measured by the MLOC tests. The following hypotheses were not rejected by the three data pools used: There is no difference between achievers and non-achievers as measured by the MLOC tests. There is no interaction between skill levels and order of module presentation for the MLOC tests. 91 H06: There is no interaction between skill levels and achiever status for the MLOC tests. H07: There is no interaction between order of module presentation and achiever status for the MLOC tests. H08: There is no interaction between skill levels, order of module presentation and achiever status for the MLOC tests. The hypothesis of main interest was tested by comparing gain scores for plant and animal data. This hypothesis was not rejected for the plant data but was rejected for the animal data: Ho There is no difference between the informative 9: and investigative modules as measured by the MLOC tests. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Elementary school science programs have been developed during the past decade to prepare students to live in a rapidly changing age dominated by science and technology. Many of the activity-centered programs emphasize the process approach and seek to develop "scientifically literate and personally concerned in- dividuals with a high competence for rational thought and action."1 ~To meet the challenge of the "new science", colleges of education are re-structuring traditional science education courses.2 Process skills, individualization, performance/competency-based programs and student involve- ment are key items for development. An area of increasing concern, therefore, is the identification and validation of skills a teacher needs to perform effectively in a modern elementary science classroom. An objective of this study was to investigate one of those skills, the maintenance of living organisms in the classroom. 1Merrill, "NST.A Position Statement," p. 21 2Systems Development Corporation, Summarieslfor Model Teacher Education Program, pp. l-77 92 93 Development and Testing of Instructional Modules A major portion of the study was the development of instructional modules to train pre-service elementary teachers to maintain organisms. A pilot study was conducted with fifty-seven students enrolled at Michigan State University in Education 325F, Teaching Science in Elementary School. Five modules, concerned with training pre-service teachers to establish and maintain environments suitable for the survival of seven organisms, were tested. Problems of logistics and space dictated that the final test modules be limited to fewer organisms. Objections to the traditional "cookbook" method of instruction warranted the experimental study of more modern procedures. The final modules, therefore, were limited to the study of the common plants, grass, rye and clover and one animal, the Daphnia sp. Behavioral objectives for the study of the growth and maintenance of the plants and the animal were used as the basis for the development of an infor- mative and an investigative module for each organism studied. The informative modules involved passive student participation, while the inVestigative modules required active involvement. ‘In Other words, the same objectives to be reached through experimentation in the investigative modules were carefully unfolded through dialogue and pictures in the informative modules. For the investigative modules 94 students were to establish and maintain different environ- ments for a particular organism, to record observed changes, and to interpret data in order to reach the desired ob- jectives. The Study. Students from Michigan State University enrolled in Biological Science for Elementary Teachers, winter term 1973, were subjects for testing the final modules. To begin the study, all subjects received a general skills test designed to determine general knowledge concerning the germination of seeds, the growth requirements for plants and the establishment of an environment suitable for the survival of animals. Students were assigned to high or low skill groups based on the general skills test results. Within each skill level the students were randomly assigned to one of two groups for order of module presentation. Order A was to complete the informative plant module the first week, followed by the investigative animal module the next week. Order B was to start with the informative animal module the first week, followed by the investigative plant module the next week. All students, therefore, completed an informative module, either plant or animal, during the first week of the study, followed by an investigative module with a different organism the next week. .95.. The effectiveness of the modules was evaluated using a specific skills test. One part of the test covered the germination of seeds and the growth require- tments for the plants used in the study. The other section sought information on specific requirements for survival of the Daphnia.; Each section of the test was treated separately as a different test in analyzing the data. Equivalent forms of the test were given as a pretest, intermediate test and posttest. The pretest was administered immediately before the informative modules. One week later the intermediate test was given just before the investigative modules. The posttest was given two weeks later when the experimentation required for the investigative modules was completed. Limitations of the Study A major limitation of the study was the test in- strument. Although equivalent forms of the test were used, the reliability decreased with each testing. The group became more homogeneous with each treatment. As the vari- ance decreased by two-thirds from 8.08 for the pretest, to 5.93 for the posttest, the reliability also decreased by two-thirds. Perhaps the reliability of the three forms of the test should have been established using different groups of students. 96 Another major limitation was the setting in which the study was conducted. Students were told that the study’was a required part of the biological science course work. But because there were no additional objectives added for the weeks' work, meaning this would not be an experience required for testing, many students did not take the study seriously. There was no way to evaluate how much a mild flu epidemic and another study conducted with some of the students earlier in the term, affected the results or the number of students who failed to com- plete the study. Natural maturation was another factor not controlled. Although the organisms used were purposely chosen to avoid conflict with the material being covered in the biology class, it was not possible to judge just how much the in- creased knowledge in biology affected the results of the study. Potential sources of bias, difficult to eliminate by experimental control, could possibly have affected test results. This would include such things as attitudes toward living organisms and laboratory work, previous ex- perience with laboratory equipment and problem-solving situations, and efficiency in recording and interpreting data. Differences in laboratory skills were observed as being a major factor in the amount of time required to 97 complete an investigative module. For example, students who did not know how to properly use the pipette wasted much time in trying to capture five Daphnia. There was no way to measure the effect of this frustration on test outcomes . Findings The following hypotheses were tested using a multivariate repeated-measure analysis: H01: There is no difference between the three repeated measures as determined by the MLOC tests. This hypothesis was rejected using the combined plant and animal data, the animal data alone, and the plant data alone.‘ The difference between the three measures is related to interaction between pretest and posttest for combined data, the grand mean for the plant data and the differences between intermediate-posttest and pretest- posttest for the animal data. This hypothesis indicates that there aredifferences between the three repeated measures without regard to any group related differences. H02: There is no difference between the high skill level and the low skill level as measuredby the MLOC tests. The rejection of this hypothesis, using Combined data, was primarily related to the difference between the ' plant and animal scores. While there was no overall 93 difference between plant and animal scores there was a difference by skill level. For the plant data, the high skill group gained more than the low skill group. The low skill group showed a greater gain for the animal modules. A most interesting kind of relationship is noted, however, when the difference in pretest scores is taken into account: Pretest Plant Scores Pretest Animal Scores High Skill 46.1 High Skill 44.9 Low Skill 52.4 Low Skill 35.0 Difference 6.3 Difference 9.9 Total Gain, High 16.3 Total Gain, Low 29.9 Difference 6.3 Difference 9.9 I000 16.6 Total Gain, Low 8.2 Total Gain, High 17.8 1.3 - 0 Although not enough evidence is available to make a conclusion about the ”1.8" factor difference, it can be stated that any pretest differences between the two skill levels were all but eliminated by the end of the study. The posttest plant scores are: High Skill 62.4, Low Skill 60.9. The posttestanimal.scores are: High Skill 62.7, Low (Skill 60.9. Note that there is a factor difference of 1.8 points between each set of scores. This similarity in posttest scores suggests that there might be a ceiling effect for the class, influenced either by the test instru- ment or the modules being used in the study. 99 H03: There is no difference between Order A and Order B as measured by the MLOC tests. Interaction between intermediate and posttests appears to be the basis for rejection of this hypothesis using combined data. A look at Table 10, Plant Data, shows that the gain scores for Order A (11.6) and Order B (13.2) are not significantly different. Therefore, the hypothesis was not rejected for the plant data. For the animal data, the overall gain for Order A, plant module first, is higher. This gain is directly related to the differences in gain scores after the animal was studied for each order; ‘When the animal module was studied first (Order B), the gain score was 13.9. When the plant module was studied first (Order A), followed by the animal module, the gainscore was 21.7. This could be an indication that the informative animal module was not as effective as the investigative animal module or that exposure to the plant module first had a positive influence for the animal module. H04: There is no difference between Achievers and Non-Achievers as determined by the MLOC tests. This hypothesis was not rejected for combined data, plant data or animal data.‘ To relegate the failure to reject this hypothesis to a minor position might lead, however, to the false conClusion that it is not necessary: for students to achieve the objectives set for a study. 100 An important factor is the criteria used for separating the achievers and non-achievers. The data sheet for each investigative module contained questions that re- quired an interpretation of the data collected. The ans- wers to these questions were used to help the investigator decide if the objectives for the modules had been achieved by the students. Those who answered these questions in- correctly or who omitted the answers were classed as non- achievers. It is highly poSSible, therefore, that many students were incorrectly classified if they chose not to 'answer the questions. A look at the cell frequencies in Table 2 shows that 60% of the non-aChievers are in the low skill group. Although this group's sCores were not significantly differ- ent from other scores (achievers vs non-achievers) one might infer that this group kept poor records, had diffi- culty interpreting data or, because of difficulties with communication skills, failed to record responses to the questions and were erroneously classed as non-achievers. Hogzl There is no difference between the infor- mative modules and the investigative modules as measured bythe MLOC tests. 4 The informative plant module was effective for the high skill level but not for the low skill level. This module also seemed to cause a significant change in animal scores for the high skill level. The investigative 101 plant module was more effective for the low skill level and seemed to have an affect on the animal test performance also. .Since the difference between the two modules for the plant data, based on gain scores from the treatment effect, was not significant, the hypothesis was not re- jected for the plant data. The informative animal module, which was slightly effective for the low skill level, was more effective for the high skill level. An unexpected increase in the plant scores was noticed for the high skill level after the com- pletion of the informative animal module. The investigative animal module, effective for both skill levels, was even more effective for the low skill group. There was also an unexplained increase in the plant scores for the low skill level after completion of the investigative animal module. This hypothesis was rejected, based on the gain scores from the animal data. A difference in order of module presentation was not associated with the plant data. However, the students in the low skill level, who had the animal module first, gained less than those who had the plant module first. Based on the evidence presented the following conclusions were reached concerning the investigative and informative modules: 1) informative modules were not as effective as the investigative modules, 2) investigative modules were more effective for the low skill level, 1762 3) informative modules were more effective for the high skill level, and 4) the investigative animal module was more effective than the investigative plant module. The other hypotheses tested (Hos-H08) stated that there was no interaction between the three independent variables. The interactions can be summarized as, inter- actions between: skill levels and order of module pre- sentation; skill levels and achiever status; order of module presentation and achiever status; skill levels and order of module presentation and achiever status. The interaction hypotheses were not rejected at the 0.05 level of significance. Conclusions One purpose of the study was to develop modules for teaching pre-service elementary teachers the skills needed for maintaining living organisms in the classroom. Eight different modules involving seven organisms were developed. Modules used in the pilot study were: The Aquarium, Daphnia and Chlamydomonas, Drosophila (Fruit Fly), Tenebrio Beetles (Mealworms), and the Terrarium with the Chameleon. Modules used for the experimental study were: Informative and Investigative Plant modules - con- cerned with the germination, growth and maintenance of grass, rye and clover; Informative and Investigative Animal modules - concerned with the establishment and 103 maintenance of environmental conditions suitable for the survival of Danhnia_§p. cultures. (Copies of modules developed are in Appendix C and Appendix F. A The success of the modules was determined by pre- test, posttest examinations, on-site inspections of the experimental setups and student questionnaire responses. The significant gain scores from pretest to posttest attested to the effectiveness of the modules. Inspections of the experimental setUps and the data sheets indicated that over fifty percent of the students were succesSful in maintaining the organisms they started. At the end of the posttest, questions were added to get the opinion of students concerning science in the elementary school and their opinion of the modules. They were asked which tapes they thought should be eliminated and what they disliked most about the tapes. Sixty-four percent of the students felt that both tapes (informative and investigative modules) should be retained. The length of time required to complete the tapes was the unfavorable factor about the modules chosen by forty-four percent of A the students. Other choices were: extra work involved in checking setups, keeping data sheets and "other". The second purpose of the study was to determine the relative effectiveness of informative- and investigative modules in training pre-service elementary teachers to main- tain organisms in the classroom. Tests resultswindicated 104 that the investigative modules were more effective than the informative modules. The informative modules were more effective for the high skill level and the investi- gative modules were more effective for the low skill level. The animal modules, both informative and investi- gative, were more effective than the plant modules. Implications for Education Many of the unanswered questions and speculations about results obtained in this study were associated with the skill level divisions. In this Study the high skill‘ group showed the most improVement in test scores after completing the informative modules and the low skill group gained more from the investigative modules. Since there was no significant difference between the posttest scores of the high and low skill groups, it can be concluded that both groups learned from the modules, but the process of learning was different. The low skill group that started cultures of Daphnia, watched their progress and observed environmental conditions showed a much greater gain score for treatment effect than their matched low skill group that listened to information about the Daphnia, its growth and required. environmental conditions. Although the high skill group’s treatment gain scores were better for theinformative H modules than for the investigative modules, the relationShip 105 was not equal for all modules. The treatment effect for the informative plant module was almost six times greater than the treatment effect for the investigative plant. module. At the same time, the treatment effect for the informative animal module was only slightly higher than for the investigative animal module. The implication here is that when studying familiar material the high skill level can get the information just as well without the activity. However, when an unfamiliar subject, such as the Daphnia, is presented, then some of the high skill level students learn better through the activity. A different analysis should be made to determine if in fact there is an intellectual difference between the high and low skill levels, other than general knowledge of plant and animal growth.' If such a difference holds, a rationale can be established for using teaching tech- niques compatible with a student's intellectual develop- ment, even at the college level. The implication from this study is that the high skill group, particularly when working with an unfamiliar subject, can work at what Bruner describes as the ikonic level or at the symbolic level.3 The student working at the ikonic level is able to deal with mental images of objects without_direct manipulation.‘ At the symbolic 3Lee‘s. Shulman, "Psychological Controversies in the Teaching of Science and Mathematics", The Science Teacher, 35, September 1968, p. 35 106 level he is able to manipulate symbols and no longer re- quires the mental images. On the other hand, the low skill group performs better at Bruner's enactive level. For these students, direct manipulation of materials is important to their success. Implications for Future Researgh Questions raised concerning differences in high and low skill groups in this study can best be answered by designing and testing an instrument to determine the intellectual level of operation for pre-service elementary teachers. Once the groups are better defined, then the study could be repeated to see if the same results are obtained. A better knowledge of the operational level of the students would help to sharpen the focus for future research. A replication of this study is also needed to investigate other factors from the incomplete design that was used. One advantage of an incomplete design is that is allows one to explore certain areas of concern using a few subjects, and to look for trends that might need further investigating. The results of this study indicate' that the investigative module might be more effective than the informative module. Therefore, two of the other design models from Chapter III could be used as models for the replication 107- of this study. Both designs require the division by skill level. In Design B Subjects use only informative modules. In Design C all subjects use investigative modules. By carefully matching the students in Design B with those in Design C, it would be possible to better determine which module is more effective, since the confounding variables would be removed. As stated in Chapter I, evaluation is one part of modular design that is often not well developed. In this study the evaluation instrument was a weak link. A ' performance instrument is needed that will accurately assess the ability of a student to maintain a life support system. A student might respond on a written exam that the soil around a plant should be damp to the touch. Yet his plant may be found always dry and its growth stunted. False conclusions then may result from an interpretation of his data. A performance check could be maintained by the student also, and when a system failed a comparison of instruments by the instructorland student could quickly clear up the trouble. Once a rated performance instrument had been developed and validated it could be correlated with a pen and pencil process-type test. A process test, using pictures and posing problem situations for the organisms being studied, would serve as a double check on the understanding of relationships between environmental .108 conditions needed for the survival of organisms, i.e., a higher temperature requires more water. A first step at designing such an instrument is included in Appendix K. These performance sheets were used during the pilot study but, because of the time required to validate the instruments, the use was dis? continued. Another limitation of this study was differences in experience for the subjects. Entry level skills need to be established and a method designed to assess these skills. For example, in this study some students, already familiar with seeds and how they looked inside, were bored with the activity and should have been able to proceed to the next step without fear of losing information. A junior high school science program, Exploring Your Environment, published by the American Book Company, uses the skill card approach to introduce a research pro- blem. If the student is already familiar with this com- ponent he continues with the problem at hand. Similar skill cards should be developed for the maintenance of living organisms. In an effort to design modules to better meet individual needs, it should be determined if some students learn better and are better able to follow instructions from a written script than from a tape recording. For this study, the time spent in completing an investigative module _109 was a primary concern of many students. The time varied from twenty minutes to one hOur. Much time was lost turn- ing off the tape, pulling off earphones, relistening to an operation described on the tape; then repeating the tape manipulating procedure. IWhat was to be a few grains (6-10) of yeast turned out to be a spoonful in translation from tape to operation and the Daphnia subsequently died from lack of oxygen in the small baby food jars. One way to eliminate this loss of time and infor- mation could be to use written instructions with triple spacings between each step. This procedure was success- fully tested with a few students during the pilot study. Leonard Simons from Susquehana University presented a paper at the 1973 NARST convention in which he described the results from a study that Compared the relative effect- iveness of written scripts with an audio tape in teaching college biology. ‘His results indicated that more research was needed to determine if thetype of instruction was student-specific or if a combination of written script and audio tapes could be effective.4 A final question that should be answered is: If pre-service teachers are trained to maintain organisms will 4Leonard Simons, "A Comparison of the Relative Effectiveness of Written SCripts and Audio Tapes in Teach- ing College Biology," (paper presented at the National Association for Research in Science Teaching, Detroit, Michigan, March 1973) 110 this make them more effective in teaching the life science portion of elementary school science? Indications as to the value of the training could be obtained from a micro- teaching situation. However, the true value of training teachers to maintain organisms can only be assessed through a longitudinal study in which the pre-service teacher is. studied as an in-service teacher. After other modules using more organisms have been tested (see Appendix C) it would be possible to determine: 1) if the experience of handling organisms during pre-training, changes attitudes toward tolerating or using "crawly bugs" in the classroomtfi ' 2) if teacher confidence in using living organ- isms is related to pupil achievement. 3) if learning to manipulate the life support system for plants and animals better equips a teacher to handle environmental relation- ships necessary to create a desirable learn- ing environment in the classroom. BI BL I OGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY American Association for the Advancement of Science. Pre- Service Science Education of Elementary Schoo Teachers: Guidelines, Standards, andIRecommenda- tions for Research and’Development. IWashington, D.C.,.1970 Beisenherz, Paul C. "The Need for a Special Course in Biologic Skills and Techniques." The American Biology Teacher. 32 (1970), 219- 221 Beisenherz, Paul C., and Probst; C. J. "Mastery of Bio- logical Techniques; A Model for Teacher Education." Paper presented at the let meeting of the National Convention of the National Science Teachers Associ- ation, Detroit, Michigan, April 1973 Bixler, James Edward, Jr. "The Effect of Teacher Attitude on Elementary Children's Science Information and Science Attitudes.". Dissertation Abstract, 19 (1959),-2531-2532 Boulos, Sami I. “Proposal for an Experiment in Training Elementary Teachers." Science Education, 54 (1970),:203—207 ' Campbell, DonaldLT., and Stanley, Julian C. Experimental andpguasi- Experimental Designs for Research, Chicago:. Rand MCNallyECompany,‘l96 Creager, Joan G., and Murray, Darrel L. , ed. The Use of ' Modules in College Biolo ogy Teachin.—Wash1ngton, D. C. . Comm1551on on’Undergraduate ducation in the Biological Sciences, 1971 Curtis, William C.1 "The Improvement of Instruction in Elementary Science.0 Science Educatidn, 34 (1950), 2347247. . Dutton, Wilbur H., and Stephens, Lois. "Measuring Attitudes Toward Scien e." School Science 8 Mathematics, 63 (1963), 4 -49 I 111 112 Elam, Stanley, ed. for American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education Committee on Performance- Based Teacher Education, "Performance-Based Teacher Education: What is the State of the Art?" Association for the Education of Teachers in Science. Newsletter, October, 1972, 1-27 Fawcett, Claude W.. "The Skills of Teaching." A Study for the Ford Foundation Teacher Education Pro- ject.- University of California, May 1965‘ Fontaine, Thomas D. "Federal Programs for the Improve- ment of School Science and Mathematics." Science Education, 54 (3), 1970, 2092212 Henderson, Judith B., and—Lanier, Perry E. "Teaching Competence: Needed Knowledge and Performance Skills." Unpublished manuscript, Michigan State University, March 1972 Hoffman, Frederic B., and Druger, Marvin. "Relative Effectiveness of Twp Methods of Audio-Tutorial Instruction in.Biology." Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 8 (1971), 1499156 Hurd, Paul DeHart. "Toward a Theory of Science Education 1 Consistent with Modern Science." Theory into Action: Sciepce Curriculum Development. Washington, D.Ci, National Science Teachers Association, 1964, 7-8.; . - . , and Gallagher, James J. New Directions in Elementapy Science Teaching. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Pfiblishing Co., Inc.,-1968 Karplus, Robert, and Thier, Herbert D. A New Look at ElementarySchool.Science. .Chicago: .Rand McNally. 1967 . . 1 Koran, John J.- 0A Study of.the.Effects of Written and Film- Mediated Models on The Acquisition of a Science Teaching Skill by Preservice Elementary Teachers." -Journal of Research-in Science Teaching,.8 (1971), 45-49 "Two Paradigms for Training of Science Teachers Using Videotape Technology and Simulated Conditions." Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 6 (1969), 22?27 113 Perkes, Victor A. 1"Preparing Prospective Teachers of Elementary Science: An Appraisal Between Prescriptive Involvement-and Teaching Behavior." Science Education, 55 (1971), 295-299 Piltz, Albert.. "An Investigation of Teacher-Recognized Difficulties Encountered in the Teaching of . Science in the Elementary Schools of Florida." - ‘ Dissertation AbstraCts, 20 (1962), 3937-3938 Pratt, Grace K. How to: Care For Livin Thin s in the Classroom. Washington, D.C.: ationa SCience Teachers Association,.1965 Raun, Chester EI, McGlathery, Glenn E. "Elementary School Science Methods: One View and One Approach." Science Education, 54 (1970), 213-216 Reed, Elizabeth W. "The Place to Begin-" .AIBS Education . Review, 2 (June 1923), 44- 46 Richer, Kenneth S., and Hawkins, Michael L. "Testing a Science Education Proficiency Module with College Students.", GEM Bulletin.69-12. University of Georgia, Athens,.1969 . - Sharefkin, Bell Drucker. "A Study of The Possession of the Science Abilities by Student Teachers in a Liberal Arts College Preparing to Teach in Grades Four Through Six.0_.Dissertation Abstract, 21 (1961),.3008-3009-.-. ... Shulman, Lee S. ."Psychological Controversies in the Teaching of Science and Mathematics." The Science Teacher, 35-(1968), 34-38, 89r90. , and Tamir, Pinchas.. "Research On Teaching in the Natural Sciences." Preliminary manuscript prepared for the Second Handbook of Research on Teaching, R.M.W. Travers, ed... Simons, Leonard.. "A Comparison of the.Relative Effective- ness of-Written.Scripts and Audio Tapes in Teaching College Biology. " Paper presented at the National Association for Research in Science Teaching Con- vention, DetrOit, Michigan, March 1973 Soy, Eloise M." "Attitudes of Prospective Elementary Teachers Toward Science." School Science and Mathematics, 67 (1967), 507-517 114‘ Lammers, Theresa J. "One Hundred Interviews with Ele- mentary School Teachers Concerning Science Education." Science Education, 36 (1949), 292- 295 __, . .... .. . Maben, Jerrold. ."A Survey of Science Teaching in the Public Schools of the.Far West.and Great Lakes Regions of the United States During the 1970- 1971 School Year." Unpublished manuscript. Herbert H. Lemman College, The City UniverSity of New York, 1973. McDonald, Frederick J., and Koran, Mary Lou. "The Effect of Individual Differences on Observational Learn- ing in The Acquisition of a Teaching Skill. " Final Report Project No. 81073, United States Office of Education, March 1969 Maddux, Grace C. R'"Helping the Elementary Science Teachers." School Science and Mathematics, 69 (1949), 534- 537 A A Mattheis, Floyd E. "A Study of the Effects of Different Approaches to Laboratory Experiences in College Science Courses for Prospective Elementary School Teachers.". University Microfilms, Ann Arbor 1962 Mayer, William V. "Biology: Study of theLiving or the Dead?" -The American-Biology Teacher, 35 (1973) 27 w Menzel, Ervin W. "A Study of Preservice Elementary Teacher Education in Two Processes of Science. " Doctoral Dissertation,.Temple University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 1968 - Merrill, Richard J., and Berkheimer, Glenn D. "NSTA . Position Statement on School Science Education." The Science Teacher, 38_(1971),.21-24 Michals, Bernard E. "The Preparation of Teachers to Teach Elementary School Science.". Science Education, -47 (1963),.122:l311.. Orlans, F. Barbara. "Live Organisms in High School Biology." The American Biology Teacher, 34 (1972), 343-345+ Pereira, Peter, and Guelcher, William. "The Skills of Teaching: A Dynamic Approach." Graduate School of Education, Chicago University, June 1970 115 Systems Development Corporation. Analytic Summaries of Specification for Model TeaCher Education PrOt grams. .Falls Church, va- October 1969‘ Victor, Edward.tp "Why are our Elementary School Teachers Reluctant to Teach Science?9 Science Education. 46 (1962), 185-1921 Wine, Lowell R. -Statistics for Scientists and En ineers, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: -PrenticeeHall, Inc., 1964.. - . . ,. Winer, B. J. Statistical Principles in Experimental De- sign.. New Y0?k:.FMcGraw-Hill Book Company, 1962 Wytiaz, Patricia L. ”A Study of the Attitudes of Fifth . Grade Teachers of Cumberland County New Jersey Toward Science and their Preparation for Teach? ing in the Elementary School." Science Education, 46 (1962), 151-152-. Zeitler, W. R. UThe Changing Role of the Elementary School Teacher.” Paper presented at sixteenth annual convention, National Science Teachers Association, Washington, D.C., March 31, 1968 APPENDICES APPENDIX A RESULTS FROM SKILLS DEVELOPMENT QUESTIONNAIRE 116 RESULTS FROM SKILLS DEVELOPMENT QUESTIONNAIRE Experiences and Skills inTeacthg Juanita T. Whatley The following check list includes experiences and skills that an elementary teacher will find useful in teaching life sciences. Some of the skills might also be applicable to other subject areas. If you are quite competent in the skill listed, check the column headed skilled. If your experience is limited and you feel you could use more training, check the column headed familiar. If you have had no gngggnggr with the skill check the column headed unfamiliar. (A - Skilled; B- Familiar; C - Unfamiliar) Results are percentages; average number of responses 77. A. .13. . s. 1. Design and conduct a controlled experiment. 43 54 3 2. Identify variables in an experiment. 43 50 7 3. Construct a histogram. l3 17 70 4. Average raw data from an experiment. 42 50 8 5. Make a line graph. 73 26 l 6. Read and interpret data from a graph. 70 27 3 7. Determine optimum range from a data chart. 44 44 12 8. Conduct inquiry type discussions. 36 54 1 10 9. Use divergent and convergent questions. 16 6'1 23 10.. Recognize and interpret non-verbal responses. 23 67 10 11. Design a scientific model to explain a common occurrence. 1? 62 21 117 Experiences in Teaching 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. Distinguish between an inference and an observation. Operate a compound microscope. Determine the magnification of object viewed with a compound microscope. Operate a dissecting microscope. Prepare a wet mount of liquid or solid materials to view with a microsc0pe. Use identification keys such as Master Tree Finder. Use indicators for the following tests: a. Presence of acid/base b. Acid/base concentration 0. Carbon dioxide d. Oxygen Build a simple incubator Collect soil animals using a Berlese funnel. Use a triple beam balance. Use a metric ruler. Use a manometer to measure gas exchange. Plan and conduct a twenty minute ecological field trip. Collect and preserve water or soil specimen. Determine the number of organisms in a large population without counting each one. Prepare damp chamber for growing fungi. 49 77 71 31 24 20 22 10 12 19 39 39 31 10 15 IOU 48 26 19 36 23 26 60 63 68 .64 45 18 47 31 47 43 52 38 r 15’ 13 12‘ 1'4 45 80 63 14 66 14 26 38 47 118 Experiences in Teaching 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. Incubate eggs. Germinate seeds. Maintain plants indoors. Establish and maintain a balanced aquarium. Distinguish between male and female guppies. Hatch frog eggs. Maintain crayfish. Care for warm blooded animals such as gerbils. Establish and maintain a terrarium. Prepare a hay infusion. Use a hay infusion to illustrate succession. Establish and maintain cultures of the following: a. Daphnia. 'b.. Drosphil'a; (fruit flies). c. Frogs d. Mealworms (beetles) e. Crickets f. Land snails g. Isopods h. Chameleons 71 43 13 49 42 10 34 24 32 23 17 19 26 30 38 3’4 45' 10 14 36 49 '46 51 44 35 20 43 61 61 57 .13’ 87 83 54 17 30 17 33 48 79 38 APPENDIX B USING LIVING ORGANISMS 1N ELEMENTARY SCIENCE ARTICLES IN SCIENCE 8: CHILDREN 119 USING LIVING ORGAN ISMSIN ELEMENTARY SCIENCE ARTICLES IN SCIENCE & CHILDREN 1967 Merrick, Paul D., "Fly Culturing, " 4(3), May 1967, 8-10 Woolever, John D. and Quida Verizzo, "' Fiddling' with Fiddlers, " 5(1), Sept. 1967, 12-14 Goodwin, Lilla, "The Wonder of Ponds and Streams, " 5(1), Sept. 1967, 16—18 Mayberry, Ann, "Studying Root Structure Through Hydroponics, " 5(1), Sept. 1967, 27-28 Gray, Joan, Helen E. Gross and Joseph Strutchers, "From Egg to Egg in Nine Weeks, " 5(3), Nov. 1967, 9-13 Ashley, James P. , "Among the Living, " 5(3), Nov. 1967, 34-35 , 1968 Tulloch, George S. , "The Saw —tooth Grain Beetle and Thanotosis, " 5(7), April 1968, 28-29 Sanls, Charles and Stan Shaw, "Observation Bee Hive, " 5(7), April 1968, 17-18 Lundstrum, Donald F. and A. Donald Swanson, "Bee in the Class- room, " 5(7), April 1968, 15-17 Lowery, Lawrence and Rita W. Peterson, "Soil Gardening, " 5(8), May 1968, 7-10 Nickelson, Alden, ”Mushrooms," 6(1), Sept. 1968, 10-13 Lowery, Lawrence and Rita W. Peterson, "Soilless Gardening, " 6(1), Sept. 1968, 18-19 Hazelcorn, Doris, "We Gained Most from the Flowers We Lost, " 6(2), Oct. 1968, 33-34 120 Perkes, V. A. , ”An Inquiry into Plant Responses, " 6(3), Nov. 1968, 29-31 Persky, Barry S. , "Minature Aquariums, " 6(4), Dec. 1968, 22 1969 Spears, Irwin, "How Does Your Garden Grow?" 7(1), Sept- 1969, 27-31 Lowery, Lawrence F. , "The Vivarium, " 7(2), Oct. 1969, 22-25 Stauss, Nyles G. , "Embryonic Development in View, " 7(3), Nov. 1969, 17-18 1970 Johnsten, Thomas D. , "Mold Culture, " 7(5), Jan. /Feb. 1970, 25-26 Moreton, Ann, "Spiders," 8(1), Sept. 1970, 7-10 Mastellar, E. C. , "When to Call a Bug a Bug, " 8(3), Nov. 1970, 11—13 1971 Schatz, Albert and Vivian Schatz, "Gardens in the Classroom, " 8(5), Jan. /Feb. 1971, 16 Bidlack, Harvey D. "A Novel Flowerpot" 9(2), Oct. 1971, 6 1972 Van Deusen, Roswell D. , "Swans for Your School Pond, " 9(5), Jan. /Feb. 72, 13-16 Healer, Cynthis Powell, "Rent-a-Rat, " 9(7), April 1972, 6 Dawson, Paul Dow, "Reptiles in Your Classroom - Why Not, " 9(7), April 1972, 16-17 Long, Paul F. , "Sink Full of Salamanders" 9(2), Oct. 1972, 14-15 APPENDIX C PILOT STUDY: LIFE SCIENCE MODULES FOR ELEMENTARY PRE -SERVICE TEACHERS 121 PILOT STUDY: LIFE SCIENCE MODULES FOR ELEMENTARY PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS The life science modules are designed to teach the skills needed to create a suitable environment for a living organism. Each module is in four parts. You will complete parts one and two today. 1. A pretest. The pretest is to determine your present skill level. An answer sheet is attached to the test. Be sure to put your name and the name of the module you are doing on the answer sheet. Do not guess on the test. If you do not know an answer leave it blank. If you do not know anything about the organism you have chosen to study leave the answer sheet blank but make sure your name is one the sheet. Return the answer sheet and test when you have finished the test to your instructor. Complete the pretest first. 2. Setting up a culture. The instructions for starting each culture are provided. Follow the step by step instructions care- fully. The materials for each culture have been placed together in a package arrangement. The living organisms have been placed in common stocks in the room for you to get as you need them. The animals for the terrarium will not be needed immediately. They will be in class at your next meeting. If you wish to use a chameleon you must purchase your own at a local pet store. You are to keep all the materials in your package until you return your culture in two or three weeks. 3. Observations. You are required to observe your cultures every 2-3 days and record your observations for a two-three week period depending on the progress of the organisms. 4. A posttest. A posttest will be given when you return the culture you prepared, all the materials used, and your observation sheet to this room at the end of the two-three weeks. This test is to determine if the module helped to improve your skills in main- taining a living organism. You will also be asked to comment on the effectiveness of the module as a training device. 122 The Fresh Water Aquarium Objectives: Upon completion of the module the student should be able to: 1. 01pr assemble the correct materials to establish an aquarium. ‘ prepare this material for use in an aquarium. distinguish between a male and female guppy. complete the assemblage of an aquarium. recognize and be able to correct atypical con- ditions in the aquarium. Materials needed: (for each student) 1 1 -gallon aquarium Picture of water 2 cups white sand (bagged) plants 2 plastic tumblers Picture of male and paper towel female guppy guppy food Summary Sheet label Data Sheet Materials needed: (for the class) Stock cultures: Anacharis Eel grass pond snails guppies 3 dip nets 123 Establishing; an Aquarium A small freshwater aquarium is one of the simplest habitats to establish. For that reason the aquarium is one of the earliest activities in many elementary science classes. Check your kit to make sure you have all the materials you need before you begin. .Y our kit should include a. l-gallon aquarium, 2 cups of sand, 2 plastic tumblers, and paper towels. You will be directed to get the other materials you need from the stock table as you need them. Aged water has been prepared by allowing tap water to set for 48 hour‘s. The chlorine, which is harmful to fish, escaped. A supply should be kept on hand in your classroom and used to re- fill the aquarium as water evaporates. First, you will clean the aquarium. Rinse it well in warm water.. Do not use soap as it is most difficult to wash out and a soap residue may be; fatal to fish. Complete this step now. Put two cups of sand in the clean aquarium. Rinse the sand well in tap water to remove loose dust. Stir the sand under a stream of running water until.‘the water is clear after it has set for a few minutes. Complete this step now at the sink. Place a paper towel over the surface of the sand. This will keep the sand from being disturbed as you pour in the water. Fill the tank about three quarters full with aged water then remove the towel. Complete this step at the stock table. Look at the pictures of the plants on the attachedsheet. Study them so that you can-recognize the plants. These are not the only kind of plants you can have in an aquarium but they are rather hardy and will help provide a natural environment for the fish. The Anacharis, commonly called Elodea is the tall plant with small leaves that appear to be wrapped around the stem. The eel grass looks much like grass while the small floating plant which propogates well and is sometimes eaten by snails is duckweed. You are now ready to add your organisms to the aquarium. You will need from the stock table asnail, two sprigs each of Elodea and eel grass and 5-10 duckweed plants. Use the tumbler to get the organisms. Complete this step now. 124 Anchor the eel grass in the sand. The Anacharis can be anchored or allowed to float with the duckweed on the surface of the water. Drop in the snail. The snail will serve as a scavenger and help keep the bottom clean. Study the pictures of the male and female guppies. The attached pictures are common guppies, not the fancy type. The female is usually a rather plain silver, greenish gray color. She will be larger than the male and the fin on the bottom near the tail, called the anal fin, will be fan shaped. The male is usually more colorful with orange or blue spots. The tail is rather-large and sometimes has a long pointedend; the anal fin is thickened and more pointed than the female' 3. Young males may lack color so examine the anal fin carefully. Even the fancy male and female guppies can be distinguished by the differences in color, the male being the more colorful, and the thickened, pointed anal fin of the male. At the stock table you will use the dip net to transfer the fish to a tumbler. You should get at least one male and female. Go and get the fish now in your tumbler. Transfer the guppies to the aquarium by gently lowering the tumbler into the water, then, turn‘it to let the fishst out. Get a label from the stock table to put on the tank. Record the data and your name. Plan to keep the aquarium where it can receive enoughlight for the plants to grow. Do not place it in direct sunlight or near a heat source where the temperature will vary greatly. A cover will prevent loss of water by evaporation. Give the fish a small amount of food at least every other day. Feed them only what they can consume in five minutes. How you maintain the aquarium will depend on how you plan to use it in the classroom. Refer to your Teacher' 8 Guide if you are using SCIS materials. Assume, however, that this aquarium is to illustrate a balanced situation representing the optimum conditions for growth. Then, let us examine some atypical con- ditions you want to avoid. If the tank becomes cloudy or foul with excessive waste on the bottom you should clean the tank. Remove the fish, snail and plants to a container of aged water. Wash the sand again and set up the tank as you did before. The cloudiness can be caused by giving the fish too much food. What they do not eat settles to the bottom, begins to decay and clouds the water. Dead and decaying fish or plants not consumed by the snail can also foul the water. Use a baster to remove excess waste from the surface of the sand before the water gets cloudy. 125 If the tank becomes green when you want it to remain clear your light source is too strong. (The green color is a microscopic green alga, Chlamydomonas, which is used in some studies with the aquarium.) For the small one gallon tank it is probably best to change the water, wash the sand well and find another spot with less light. It might be possible to simply cover one side of the aquarium with an opaque sheet of paper to block the light. If you use a larger aquarium, you may wishjto purchase an algae -eater from the pet store. Students will be interested in seeing it feed. A fine, hair -1ike, filamentous green‘algae growth may also develop. This can be a nuisance and should be removed if the growth becomes too thick. It can sometimes be controlled by re- ducing the amount of light. It is usually not harmful but it might cause an odor in a small aquarium. ' If the sides of your tank become brown with some kindof growth, the light source might be too weak. It is best to clean the tank as recommended previously and find a better light source. The fish should be inspected periodically for fungus growth. If a white cotton -like patch of growth appears on the tail or trunk of a fish remove it immediately to another container of aged water. Go to a local pet store and buy a fungicide for freshwater fish. Put it in with the infected fish and also in the main tank. Follow the directions on the box. Do not put the infected fish back in with the others until all signs of infection have disappeared. Observe your aquarium for the next two weeks. Correct any conditions you think threaten the survival of your organisms, both plant and animal. If a fish, plant or snail should die see if you account for the cause of death. Keep a careful record of all your observations and corrective actions done to maintain a bal- anced condition. Date each observation. Return the aquarium and your observation sheet to this room at the end of two weeks. If you wish to keep the aquarium longer check with your instructor. 126 Summary The small aquarium can be maintained for a long period of time without any difficulty if these simple rules are followed: a. b. Keep the water level constant by adding aged water. Feed the fish only what can be consumed in 5 minutes. Keep the tank from direct. sunlight and excess heat. Keep the temperature between 70° - 80° F. Remove dead plants and animals not consumed by the snail in one or two days. Change the water and clean the aquarium if the water becomes cloudy. Correct atypical conditions when they are first noticed. 127 Observation Guide For Aquarium Date of Observation Water Plants Animals Other Comments 5 . Termination Directions for chart: condition of water: clear, cloudy, green, other. condition of plants: good, fair, dead or dying. condition of animals: healthy, number dead. other comments: list any other changes or observations. Questions: Have you ever maintained a small aquarium before? How often did you feed the fish? Account for the environmental conditions (light, temp. , etc.) that contributed to the success or failure of your aquarium. Ana charis 128 Aquarium Organisms F emale guppy 129 Establishing a Terrarium Objectives: Upon completion of this module the student should be able to: Choose the correct container for a terrarium. 2. Select the proper materials, biotic and abiotic, to include in a woodland type terrarium. 3. Establish an environment suitable for the maintenance of terrarium organisms. 4. Recognize and be able to correct atypical conditions. H 0 Materials for each student: 1 2 -gallon terrarium/ cover 5 cups soil seeds: ‘ 5-10 peas 5-10 beans 20-40 clover 20-40 grass 20-40 mustard water sprinkler thermometer lables 3 snails 3 crickets 6 isopods 6 beetles l chameleon l petri dish top or bottom (for dry spots) 130 Establishing a Terrarium In this module you will establish a woodland type terrarium. This type is suitable for maintaining animals normally found in grassy or forest areas. The terrarium will be set up in two stages. First, the seeds will be planted and the plants allowedto grow. Then the animals will be added when the plants are large enough to support the animal population. Keep in mind that this is not the only way to start a terrarium but this particular type is best if you are going to do population studies with your class. Check the materials in your kit to make sure you have everything you need. You should have: a 2 -gallon terrarium, _ about 5 cups of soil, packages of pea, bean, clover, mustard and grass seeds, a water sprinkler, a thermometer, and labels. The animals you will need later will be on the stock table. Put about 1" - 1, l/ 2" soil in the terrarium. Put the soil in loosely, do not pack it in place. A gallon jar or a clear plastic shoe box would make good containers for terraria. We will use the standard terrarium used by many schools for turtles. Make 5-10 holes about one -half inch deep for the peas and beans. Drop one seed in each hole and cover them with soil. Sprinkle about 20-40 each of clover, mustard and grass seeds throughout the terrarium. Cover them lightly with a thin layer of soil. Sprinkle the soil with water using the water sprinkler. Do not oversoak the soil as mold might result. Put the terrarium cover in place. The terrarium should be put in a warm preferably dark place for two or three days until the plants start to sprout. Be sure to keep the soil damp to the touch. Check about every two days. When the plants in the terrarium begin to sprout, the terrarium should be moved to a, source of‘light. Use an artificial source of light if the natural light is poor. Fluorescent lights are 131 best to use but a loo-watt incandescent bulb can be used if it is turned off at night. The regular light bulb gives off heat that often dries out the terrarium. At this point you should decide whether you want to add a chameleon or the other smaller organisms. If you choose to study the chameleon. refer to the in- struction sheets for the chameleon when your plants in the terrarium are about an inch high. If you choose to study the small animals on the stock ' table follow the instructions below after theplants are an inch high. You should add 2 -3 crickets, 2 -3 snails, 4-6 beetles and 4-6 isopods. You may wish to look for other organisms in the woods to see if they can survive in your terrarium. Look under stones, old logs, tree limbs and in the forest litter for other animals such as salamanders or frogs. The crickets in the terrarium need a dry spot to perch. Find a rock to add or make a platform from an old jar‘top or a petri dish cover or bottom. Elevate the jar top or petri 'dish cover above the plants. Observe the terrarium with the animals for 7-10 days. If you wish to maintain it for more than two weeks you might need to add new plants. You may gather moss, fern or small seedlings from the forest or plant more seeds. I have not mentioned food for the animals. See if you can determine why from the observations you make. Keep a careful record of changes that occurin the terrarium in both the plant and animal population. Record any additions you make. Date eachobservation. Be sure to keep the soil damp to the touch and that the plants receive enough light. Return the terrarium set up along with your observation sheet in two or three weeks to this room. 1.32 The Chameleon Now that the plants are growing well in your terrarium you are ready to add the chameleon. On the stock table you will find a petri dish bottom. Place the petri dish in the ‘terrarium pressing a few plants aside to make it level. Food for the chameleon-will be put in this dish. Add a twig or a potted plant so the chameleon will have a place to perch. If you decide to keep the terrarium for an ex- tended length of time you should add moss, fern or other wood- land plants more suitable than the peas and beans. Bark and rocks may be added to give‘the chameleon a hiding place. Make sure everything is in place, then gently place the chameleon in your terrarium. Secure the cover in place with the tape or you might find your pet missing. A chameleon will eat insects such as houseflies, fruit flies, small grasshoppers, crickets, and mealworms. He may even be enticed to eat a piece of raw meat if it is ,jiggled in front of him. Mealworms are available in the classroom for you to use. You may try some of the other foods if they are in season! Put two or three mealworms in the petri dish. They may stay there long enough to attract the chameleon. As time goes on you may be able to get your chameleon to take the meal- worm from your hand. The chameleon should be fed about every two or three days. He might go as long as two weeks without food. Do not be concerned if he is still active and seems content. If, however, he appears sluggish and will not respond to attention then you should force feed him a mealworm. To do this hold the chameleon at the neck where the hinge of the mouth is located. Force the mouth open with an instrument like a blunt case knife. Put in the mealworm using a pair of tweezers to hold it in place. Get a friend to help you the first time. Water is much more critical to the survival of the chameleon than food. Sprinkle the plants with water to simulate 133 dew each day. You may also sprinkle the chameleon but he will rarely drink from a dish. You might "try putting water in the petri dish to see how he responds. He might just splash around in it. Chameleons are subtropical animals and prefer warm temperatures. Maintain temperature of 75° - 80°F. Use a, light on the terrarium and leave it on all the time if the room tempera- ture is not high enough or if it is likely to get below 65° F at night. At low temperatures the chameleon will be very sluggish and will refuse to eat. You should keep a record of all observations made of your terrarium. Record feeding habits and any unusual or in- teresting behavior of your organisms. Date each observation. Return the terrarium and observation sheet to this room in 2-3 weeks. Let us review the factors critical to the survival of the chameleon: Keep the environment warm, 75°— 80‘J F. Give a generous supplyof water. Vary the diet of insects. Supply foliage or twigs for climbing comfort. QOU‘W 134 Cultnzing Drgs ophila (F ruit F lie 3) Objectives: Upon completion of this module a student will be able to: 1. choose the correct media for fruit flies. 2. maintain the correct environment for the growth of fruit flies. 3. perform a simple transfer of fruit flies from one culture to another. 4. distinguish between male and female fruit flies. 5. recognize the stages in the development of fruit flies. Materials: (F or each student) ngsgphila media 14 dram vial/ cap and fruit fly media squirt bottle with water tape, absorbent dry baker' s yeast 2 magnifiers fruit fly culture 1 label 1 wood stirrer 13S culturing Drosophila (Fruit Fly) Drosophila or fruit fly cultures can be started by putting a piece of banana in a jar and leaving it eXposed for a few days during spring or summer. Fruit flies will be attractedeand will lay eggs in the soft decaying fruit. However, since the fruit has a tendency to mold and get too mushy it is best to use another media that makes it easier to control moisture and spoilage. Instant Drosophila Mediacan be purchased from a biological supply house or you may use anin- stant mashed potato mix. Both will have a mold inhibitor. Since most elementary teachers will purchase fruit flies and use them to study life cycles or populations we will go through the simplest procedures for handling fruit flies. Your assignment is to start a new culture and observe each stage of the life cycle. You have in your kit a vial withfruit fly media. Remove the cap and sprinkle a few (10-20) grains of dry yeast on the sur- face of the media. Use the squirt bottle to add water to the media. Add the water slowly, allowing time in between squirts for the water to soak into the media. Continue adding water until the media is about the consistency of thick mashed potatoes. If necessary use the stirrer to mix the media. Place the cap on the vial. To test the mediaturn the vial upside down and tap gently. If part of the media falls it is too dry, if it starts to flow en masse down the sides of the vial the media is too wet. Add more water if too dry or a few flakes of media if too wet. Stop and test your media now. Remove the tape from the cap of the vial you are preparing. Lightly press the tape on the side of the vial somewhere near the top. This leaves the hole in the cap open and the tape in a position to be put over the opening quickly when the transfer of flies is com- pleted, We will refer to this as the transfer vial and the vial with the flies as the culture vial. 136 The next steps involve the transfer of flies from one vial to the other and must be done quickly to avoid the escape of flies. Read the complete instructions for the transfer then go back and do each step. Take the culture vial of fruit flies in your left hand. Tap-the top of the vial with a finger of your right hand to force the flies toward the bottom of the vial. Remove the tape from the cap of the culture vial and place it on the side of the vial near the top. Place your thumb over the opening. Hold the transfer vial upside down with your right hand. Now quickly remove your thumb from the culture vial and replace it with the transfer vial being sure to match the holes in the caps. Hold the vials together with the thumb and forefinger of your left hand. Wrap the other fingers and the other hand around the culture vial to put the flies in the dark. They will be attracted to the light in the transfer vial. It may be necessary to tap the bottom of the culture vial on the table to force out flies. After 5- 10 flies have entered the transfer vial put the two vials on the table still in piggy back position. Remove the tape from the side of the vials. Tap the vials to force flies near the bottoms toward the media. Quickly separate the vials leaving the transfer vial upside down while you put the tape over the open- ings in each cap. The transfer is now complete. In order to study the life cycle of the fruit flies you must be sure that you have at least one male in the new culture. Use the magnifying glass to help you examine the culture. Study the pictures of the male and female W. Some of the more obvious characteristics you can pick out using the magnifier. For a more detailed study you will have to etherize the flies and study them using a steroscopic disecting microscope. We will not go into that procedure in this lesson. Compare the size of the flies. The female is larger over- all and will have a larger abdomen. The male has only two dark bands ontits abdomen while there may be as many as four on the female. The abdomen of the male is blunt and has a large, dark, pigmented area on the end. The female has a pointed abdomen 137 and does not have as much black on the end. Examine your culture carefully. If you find a male in the vial, your culture is satis- factory. If no male is present make another transfer. Put the data and your initials or identifying mark on the tape and place the vial away from bright light. The culture will develop at room temperature, 70° to 77°F . Use the culture vial to complete your study of the life cycle. If you combine two hand lenses you may be able to see the eggs. They appear as specks on the side of the vial. Two filaments are on one end. Use the pictures to help you identify the stages. The larvae can be seen crawling around on the surface of the media or down in the media. The black mouth-parts can be seen moving in the media. Larvae should be found in your culture in 2-4 days after the transfer. The mature larvae will climb up on the sides of the vials to pupate. The larval covering forms the case of the pups. The pupal case is a hard shiny light brown color. It becomes darker and harder as the larvae changes shape. Empty pupal cases can be seen after adults emerge. Examine each of these stages. The complete cycle takes from 10- 15 days depending primarily on the temperature. Observe your culture every 2-3 days. Keep a careful record of your observations. Be sure to date each observation. At the end of two weeks return the cultures and your observation sheet to this room. Can you answer these questions ? What is suitable media for Drosophila? What conditions are necessary for growth? What condition do you want to avoid in the media? What are the obvious differences between a male and female fruit fly? e. Can you recognize the stages in’the development of fruit flies ? f. Can you start a new culture of Drosophila from an old culture? O-OC‘ED 138 Life Cycle of the Fruit Fly egg Ann—.... {EDD}? Pupa Larva ’ Adult F emale Fly 139 Sex Characteristics of the Fruit Fly Adult Male V/ c?‘ E 9"} Enlargement of sex comb female 140 Culturing Tenebrio Beetles (Mealworms) Objectives: Upon completion of this module students will be able to: 1. recognize the stages in the development of Tenebrio. 2. to choose the correct media for the beetle culture. 3. maintain the proper environment for the growth of Tenebrio. Material: (for each student) Plastic shoe box and cover Bran - 1 bag - labeled Carrot Packing material or grade B cotton Mealworm culture, 25 for each student Magnifier Petri dish bottom 1 label .141 Culturing Tenebrio Beetles (Mealworms) —(Tap€ Script) Tenebrio is a-rather common beetle raised primarily. for its larvae which are used as food for many classroom animals. They are also used inlife cycle studies. The larval stage, called a mealworm, is encased in a yellow to brown shiny shell -like covering and it resembles a twireworm. The time spent inthe larval stage ranges from 2 -4 months depending on the temperature. When the larva is about an inch long it will pupate. The adult will emerge from the pupa some 2 -3 weeks later. The female will begin to lay eggs in 7 ~10 days. These eggs will hatch about 14 days later. The complete life cycle may take from 4-6 months depending on the temperature of the culture. Study the pictures showing the stages in the life cycle 'of the mealworm. You will use a class culture to study the stages in the life cycle. Sift throughthe bran in your kit and find each- stage. Sto'p the tape and find each stage, then place these in a petri dish bottom. Examine each stagewith a magnifier. Note the movement in the pupa' s tail end if you tickle the abdomen. When you finish put the organisms back in the culture. Stop-the tape and complete your examination. A variety of containers can be used to house a mealworm culture if it is at least 5 inches deep. You may choose a quart or gallon. jar, a gallon aquarium, an old 3 lb coffee can or a plastic shoe box. Either of these will support a culture. large‘enough for normal classroom use. Mealworms can be grown in uncooked wheat bran, bran flakes, oatmeal or cornmeal. Cornmeal is messy as the meal sticks to the larval stage. To begin your culture put about 3 inches of bran in the contained in your kit. Add 20-25 larvae taken from the stock culture. You may also add afew adults to see if there is aechange in the rate of reproduction. Turn off the tape and find the larvae you need. 142. Place a piece of carrot on the surface of the bran to pro- vide moisture and additional food. Half an apple or potato, stale peanuts or bread may also be used. When foods are added check often for mold since the mold can be poisonous to the larvae. Cover the culture with a layer of packing material at least 1/4 inch thick. The mealworms will find this a good "nesting" place and you will find this a good spot to collect larvae and pupae. You may also use crushed or shredded paper toweling, Grade B cotton batting, sheets of newspaper with bran between, or heavy muslin instead of packing material on top of the culture. Sprinkle the top lightly with water about once a week. You need enough water to raise the humidity slightly but not enough to cause mold. It is best to cover the container with a perforated cover to keep out intruders and to keep the adults from escaping. For our study rather than perforate the tops simply put the covers on lightly to allow air to get inside. Your culture is now complete. Label and place it in a warm, dark place. Room temperature is satisfactory but optimum temperature for development is 85°F. Lower temperatures increase the time required for the beetle to complete its life cycle. Stop the tape and find a suitable spot for your cultures. Be sure to put your name on the label. Add about one inch of bran each month. When the bran be - comes fine and flour —like it has no more food value. However, it is best not to destroy this used bran as it will contain many eggs and small larvae. You may either sift it through a fine screen to ' catch the eggs or just add new bran on top of the old. A completely new culture should be started every three months. The culture requires little care. Remember the important conditions: a. Warm temperature - optimum 85° F. b. Moisture supplied by carrot or other foods. Sprinkle surface once a week with water. c Bran as main source of food. d. Avoid mold conditions - excess moisture and temperature. e. Leave one culture undisturbed for breeding. Check your culture every three days. Record any changes you observe. Date each observation and give an estimate of the tem— perature. Return the culture and your observation sheet to this room in four -five weeks. Life Cycle of Tenebrio Beetle (Mealworm) APPENDIX D INSTRUMENTATION: GENERAL SKILLS TEST, PRETEST, INTERMEDIATE TEST, POSTTEST 144 General Skills Test Maintaining Living Organisms in the Classroom There are certain skills required in order to maintain living organisms in a classroom. These skills range from keep- ing the proper environment to designing experiments to correct threatening conditions in the environment. This exercise is de- signed to establish a skill. level for you and to isolate those skills you already possess. .. The results will in no way affect your grade. Directions: Mark the answer of your choice on the answer sheet. Read the questions carefully and do not guess. Leave the question unanswered if you are uncertain of the answer. Be sure to put your name and your SAS section on the answer sheet. You may begin now. Give your test and answer sheet to the instructor when you have completed the test. 145 Maintaining Living Orgnisms in the Classroom The time required for a seed to germinate is determined by: 1) the size of the seed. 2) the amount of moisture in the soil. 3) the temperature of the soil and air. 4) all of the above. Which factor about a seed usually determines the depth at which it is planted? 1) The amount of moisture required for growth. 2) The size of the seed. 3) The number of cotyledons. 4) None of the above. Plants maintained indoors will tend to be tall and spindly if: 1) there is too much water added. 2) the temperature is too high. 3) they are kept under a fluorescent light. 4) they do not receive enough light. A seed will germinate on a wet paper towel since the main requirement for seed germination is: 1) moisture. 2) correct temperature. 3) stored food. 4) a soft seed coat. A teacher keeps her plants on a window sill that receives the morning light and even though she keeps them well watered the leaves still show signs of drying. What could be the cause of the trouble? 1) too much water. 2) not enough light. 3) too much light. 4) too much heat. 146 6. A pet chameleon escaped from its chamber in the class. Which factor will be most critical for his survival for the first week ? 1) food 2) water 3) shelter 4) all of the above Questions 7 - 10 are based on the following situation: A cricket and alland snail are put in a grassy, woodland terrarium. The cricket dies in a few days and 'mold grows on his body. A small. lizard is added after the cricket died and it lives happily darting in and out from beneath a small twig. 7. What is the probable cause of the cricket' 3 death? 1) not enough food 2) too much moisture 3) the land snail 4) the mold 8. What evidence helped you determine your answer? 1) the presence of the snail 2) the grass in the terrarium 3) the time it took for the cricket to die 4) the growth of moldon the dead cricket 9. What does this situation described suggest to you about the survival of animals in a terrarium? 1) Not all animals can live in harmony. 2) Survival of animals in a terrarium is largely a matter of chance. 3) This terrarium environment is not suited for all animals. 4) All of the above. 10. What is the purpose of the plants in the terrarium? 1) provide food 2) provide oxygen 3) provide a natural habitat '4) all of the above 11. 12. Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit 13. 14. 147 What would you consider the optimum survival range for most organisms maintained in a classroom? 1) 2) 3) 4) 70°F 50°F 50°- 60 F 60°- 75°F 0 A plant that usually does well with a half cup of water added every two days requires more water when the heat is turned on in the room. What does this infer about the requirements for plant growth ? 1) 2) 3) 4) Plants need water to grow. , Heat makes it harder for a plant to survive. The amount of water needed is closely related to temper- ature. The plant requires more water as it grows taller. This graph represents 80O » a growth curve for an unknown plant. Refer 60°»- to the graph to answer 0 questions 14-16. 40 r I l l 10 20 30 Ounces of water/day Are you skilled in reading and interpreting graphs? 1) yes 2) no At 40° F how many ounces of water were used by the plant? 1) 7 2) 10 3) 13 4) 30 148 15. The optimum survival factor for this plant as indicated on the graph is: ' i l) a temperature of 80°F 2) 15 ounces of water/day 3) both 1 and 2 4) not enough evidence 16. What information about the growth of this mystery plant does this graph convey? 1) The plant will not grow at 20° F. 2) The plant will not grow with 30 oz. of water/day. 3) Maximum growth of the plant is obtained at 80° F. 4) Growth of the plant depends on temperature and water. Questions 17-22 are based on the following experiment, results and conclusions. A class is given several geranium‘ plants. After a few days the leaves start to turn brown around the edges. The teacher suspects the amount of water being put on the plants might be causing the change. The following experiment is designed by the class to find the cause of the change: soil, EL sand, fi Eoil o'l fi water water 3) 31%ér/ gg‘iér/ These results were obtained: 1) plants 1 and 2 died. 2) plant 3 developed brown around the edge of the leaves. 3) plant 4 was the same as plant 3. These conclusions were reached by the class: 1) The 4 ounces of water is better than the 2 ounces. 2) The plants need water to survive. 3) More than 4 oz. of water is probably needed by the plant. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 149 Which pot represents the control? Which pot is not a necessary part of the experiment? What is (are) the variable(s) in the experiment? 1) sand 2) soil 3) water 4) all of the above Which conclusion is not correct based on the evidence given? Which conclusion is based on result number 1? Which conclusion is based on result number 3? 150 PRE TEST Maintaining Living Organisms in the Classroom Directions: This pretest is designed to determine your command 1. of information concerning the raising of plants, Daphnia, and a green algae. Choose the answer that best completes each statement or answers the question asked. Mark your answer on the answer sheet with a scoring pencil or a soft lead pencil. Be sure to put your name and SAS section number on the answer sheet. Before you start the tape return the test and answer sheet to the desk attendant. Which of the following methods is feasible to use in preparing a seed for germination? 1) Soak the seed overnight in water. 2) Remove the seed coat. . 3) Heat the seed slowly in a warm oven. 4) All of the above. If you were directed to plant pea or bean seeds, how deep would you plant them? 1) Place them on the surface of damp soil. 2) Barely cover with soil. 3) 1/4 inch. ‘ 4) 1/2 - 1 inch. The amount of water a plant needs depends on: 1) The kind of plant. 2) The kind of soil. 3) The temperature of the room. 4) All of the above. 151 4. What is a good rule of thumb to follow in watering plants kept in a classroom? 1) Add a tablespoon of water each day. 2) Add 1/ 4 cup of water each day. 3) Add water if the surface soil feels dry. 4) Keep the plant in a tray of water. 5. Radish seeds are placed on damp blotters in two petri dishes and covered with paper towels. Dish 1 is placed in the re- frigerator and Dish 2 on a lighted window sill. The seeds in Dish 1 did not germinate while those in Dish 2 did. What is the probable reason for the difference in results? 1) Dish 1 did not receive light. 2) Dish 1 did not receive enough heat. 3) Both reasons 1 and 2. 4) Not enough evidence presented. 6. A small plastic swimming pool is put on a lawn. In two weeks when the pool is moved the grass has turned yellow and appears to be dying. Which is the most reasonable explanation for the change? 1) The grass did not receive enough "light. 2) The weight of the water in the pool crushed the grass. 3) The plastic trapped too much heat. 4) Too much air was taken away from the grass. 7. Two teachers, one in Kentucky and the other in Michigan, were using the same teacher' 3 guide to help them grow plants for the classroom. All conditions seemed the same including the amount of water used and theitype of soil. The plants of both were placed in a window with a northern exposure. Both teachers grew strong healthy plants until October when the Michigan teacher noticed her plants were not doing well. What would be a reasonable guess about the nature of her problem? 1) The difference in water in the two states. 2) The difference in temperature. 3) The difference in exposure. 4) Not enough evidence given. 8. 10. 11. 12. 13. 152 If corn, wheat, radish and bean seeds were planted at the same time under the same conditions, which would you expect to germinate first? 1) corn 2) wheat 3) radish 4) bean For most of the common garden variety of seeds which factor would you consider the least important for germination? 1) Water 2) light 3) warm temperature 4) all factors are important A plant that is left in the dark after it germinates: 1) will not grow at all. 2) will grow normally but will be colorless. 3) will grow tall and spindly with relatively small leaves. 4) none of the above. Pond water or aged tap water is recommended for fresh water organisms since it: 1) is not polluted. 2) has no chlorine. 3) contains minerals. 4) contains no minerals. Tap water is considered aged water when it is allowed to set a minimum of: 1) 8 hours. 2) 24-48 hours, 3) .1 week‘. 4) 1.0 :14 days . Stirring a culture of Daphnia or Algae is necessary in order to: 1) aerate the water. 2) aid reproduction of algae. 3) keep. food for the Daphnia suspended. 4) either 2 or 3. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 153 Daphnia cannot be kept in the dark since: 1) they require light to feed and reproduce. 2) the algae they eat needs the light. 3) light is needed to maintain a constant temperature. 4) no correct answer is given. A culture of Daphnia may be kept in: 1) fresh tap water 2) deoxygenated water 3) salt water 4) pond or aged tap water The diet of the Daphnia includes: 1) green algae 2) bacteria 3) both green algae and bacteria 4) small fish The best temperature range for a Daphnia culture is: 1) 70°F 2) 50°- 60°F 3) 65°- 70°F 4) 75°- 79°F The green algae, Chlamydomonas, commonly called green water: 1) grows best in salt water. 2) can be found in ponds. 3) both 2 and 1.. 4) feeds on fish. Daphnia and Chlamydomonas survive best in: 1) separate containers. 2) full sunlight. 3) subdued light. 4) no light. 20. 21. 22. 154 Chlamydomonas survive best at: 1) 50°F 2) 60°F 3) 70°F 4) 80°F If optimum factors of temperature, light and heat are main- tained and a culture of ChlamydOmonas still fails, a probable cause of the failure is: 1) low mineral supply. 2) too much oxygen. 3) a stray fish in the container. 4) any of the above. Which of the organisms pictured below is a Daphnia? 23. How deep would you plant clover or grass seeds? 1) lay on the surface of damp soil. 2) barely cover with soil. 3) l/4 inch. 4) 1/2 - 1 inch. 155 INTERMEDIATE TEST Maintaining Living Organisms in the Classroom Directions: Mark your answer on the answer sheet with a scoring pencil or a soft lead pencil. Be sure to put your name and SAS section number on the answer'sheet. Before you start the tape return the test and answer sheet to the desk attendant. 1. A teacher purchased a jar of Daphnia from a pet store. They were put in a container of tap water'that had been allowed to set for eight hours. Within a few hours the Daphnia were all dead. What was the probable cause of death? 1) lack of oxygen 2) lack of food 3) the chlorine in the water 4) not enough evidence Questions 2 -7 refer‘to the following situation: A group of students experimenting with growth require- ments for Daphnia planned the following set ups: Group I - Kept in the light, kept warm, changed water every other day. Group II - Same as Group I but added yeast every other day. Group III - Kept in the dark, kept warm, added green algae every other day. 2. Which group probably would have the least success in keeping their culture going. 1) Group I 2) Group II 3) Group III 4) all groups should be successful 156 The ”warm" temperature for each'group should be: 1) 2) 3) 4) 60°F 70°F 65°- 70° F 75° - 79° F Which group(s) provided food for the Daphnia? 1) 2) 3) 4) Group I Group I and II Group II and III all groups provided food If the culture for Group’III did not survive the probable cause of failure could be: 1) 2) 3) 4) no light was provided the culture was too warm the algae was disagreeable not enough evidence given The food supply in these experiments was: 1) 2) 3) 4) no food was provided dissolved minerals, yeast, algae - yeast, algae algae The green algae was added to the cultures in Group III because: 1) 2) 3) 4) no minerals would be present to help the algae grow no light was provided for the algae the algae requires cold water to grow not enough evidence given ADaphnia can be recognized by its: 1) 2) 3) 4) transparent, segmented body the ventral brood pouch of eggs peculiar oval shape and jerky movement none of the above 10. For 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 157 Which of the following is essential for algae growth but not Daphnia growth? 1) warm water 2;) subdued light 3) food supply 4) oxygen If Daphnia and the green algae, Chlamydomonas, are to be in the same container which temperature range would satisfy them hnth? 1) 75°- 79° F 2) 72° - 74° F 3) 70°F 4) 65° - 70° F questions 11 —13 select your answer from the choices below: 1) radish 2) bean 3) sunflower 4) pumpkin Which seed would you plant just beneath the surface of the soil? Which seedewould probably germinate first if all were planted at the same time? Which seed would you plant deeper, the pumpkin or sunflower? Which condition is necessary for plant growth but not essential for germination? 1) water 2) light 3) air 4) warm temperature A first grade student anxious to grow his first plant kept the seeds inundated with water. What essential element was being denied the seed? 1) water 2) light 3) air 4) warm temperature 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 158 A small aquarium is being kept on the teacher's desk. The students notice that some of the leaves on the plants are turn- ing brown and although the plants are growing faster, the new leaves are not as large as before. What might be the-reason for changes in the plants? 1) the plant is not suited for water 2) the aquarium water is too warm 3) the fish are eating the plants 4) the aquarium is not getting enoughlight Bean seeds are often soaked before they are planted. Of what value is the soaking? 1) it softens the seed coat 2) it softens the cotyledons 3) it helps to decrease germination time 4) all of the above Clover and squash seeds are planted in the same flower pot. The clover seeds germinate and grow nicely while all the squash molds. What is a probable cause for this failure? 1) clover requires less water and time to germinate 2) the squash seeds were already infected with mold 3) clover'seeds are less susceptible to mold 4) all of the above are reasonable Two flats are planted with grass. Flat A is kept in the dark while Flat B is kept in the light. Which statement below is not a reasonable hypothesis about the plants based on requirements for seed growth and germination. 1) Flat A will have tall grass 2) Flat B will have more grass to germinate 3) the grass in Flat A will be colorless 4) the grass in Flat B will be green A plant that is given the right amount of light and water might still grow smaller than normal if: 1) the water used is too warm 2) it is the wrong season for it to grow 3) the soil is lacking minerals 4) the plant is turned daily 159 POSTTEST Maintaining Liviiig Organism in the Classroom Directions: Mark your answer on the answer sheet with a scoring pencil or a soft lead pencil. Be sure to put your name andFSAS section on the answer sheet. For questions 1-3 refer to these seeds: A W 1. lima bean 2. corn 3. marigold 1. Which seed would you plant closest to the surface of the soil? 2. The seed coat of the lima bean and the corn are relatively thin and the cotyledon(s) of both‘a-re relatively dry. What might be a reason for the corn germinating before the bean if they both are in the same planter? 1) corn requires less light for germination. 2) corn requires less heat. 3) corn is smaller than the lima bean. 4) no correct answer given. 3. Which seed would probably germinate first? ********** 4. Grass and marigolds are planted in damp soil and placed on a window ledge where the temperature ranges from 65° to 70 F. If, after seven days the seeds have not germinated, what might be the reason? 1) water is not provided. 2) there is too much light in the window. 3) the temperature is not high enough. 4) all of the above. 5. 160 A teacher preparing for a-lesson on germination gives her second grade students the following instructions: Place a paper towel in the bottom of an aluminum pie pan. Put three bean, pea and corn seeds one inch apart. Cover the seeds with another paper towel. Stack the pans in groups of three and place them in the box at the front of the room. None of the seeds ger- minated. What did the teacher overlook? 1) Seeds will not germinate in aluminum. 2) No air could get to the seeds. 3) The light could not get in the box. 4) No moisture was provided. Refer to the picture to answer questions 6-8. leaf cotyledon leaf 1. 2. Which plant probably grew in the dark? What evidence best supports your decision? 1) height of plant. 2) color of plant. 3) size of leaves. 4) all of the above. Which plant probably has greener leaves ? ********** A group of students in your third grade class want to grow a variety of garden seeds just to see how the plants look as they grow. From 9 -11 choose a container, the growing material and the best light. 9. Choose a container. 1) a cut down cardboard box. 2) a plastic egg carton. 3) a cut down plastic milk container. 10. 11. 161 What would be the best growing material? 1) sand. 2) garden soil. 3) vermiculite (packing material), Where would be the best place to put the plants. 1) in a window that gets bright sun all day. 2) under an incandescent light source. ' 3) in a window with sun in the morning. ********** In late spring your class collected some small fresh water animals from a pond and wish to keep them alive. The pond was semi- shaded,. the water slightly green and contained large healthy Daphnia along with the other animals. Answer questions 12 -16 about the pond? 12. 13. 14. 15. A source of food in the pond for some of the animals is probably 1) bacteria. 2) algae. 3) yeast. 4) either 1 or 2, The temperature range of the water is probably 1) 70°F. 2) 50°to 70° F. 3) 60°F. 4) 65° to 75° F. The Daphnia would be larger than the other animals since 1) they prefer the semi -shaded pond. 2) they eat the smaller animals. 3) they are better scavengers. 4) no correct answer given. If all the animals collected from the pond lived would you need to add minerals to keep the water green? 1) yes. 2) no. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 162 The animals pictured below are found in pond water. Which is a Daphnia? ********** In what way is aged tap water like pond water? 1) 2) 3) 4) it is polluted. it has no chlorine. it contains minerals. all of the above. Daphnia maintained in a small container with yeast might have a low survival rate if: 1) 2) 3) 4) the container is too small. the oxygen supply is low. the temperature is 75° F. the above factors are combined. When green algae in a Daphnia culture settles to the tibttom but the water remains green, this probably means that: 1) 2) 3) 4) the Daphnia are not feeding. the algae is reproducing. the culture needs stirring. none of the above. How can you tell if a Daphnia has been feeding on green algae? 1) 2) 3) 4) compare the sizes of all Daphnia in the culture. look at the color of the shell. examine the long tube that runs the length of the body. both 2 and 3. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 163 You can predict to some extent the reproductive possibility of a Daphnia culture if you: 1) compare the sizes of the Daphnia. 2) examine the dorsal brood pouch. 3) look for color changes in the shell. 4) keep a record of the food consumed. Do you feel that your background in biology is adequate for you to teach life science in grades l~6? 1) yes. 2) no. Do you believe you should be well versed in a subject before you attempt to teach it? 1) yes. 2) no. Which do you consider more important to your learning in science? 1) learning process skills. 2) learning content. I believe science should not be stressed in elementary school. 1) yes. 2) no. For the plant and animal study tapes included in weeks 6 and 7, I: 1) completed week 6. 2) completed both weeks. 3) started week 7 but did not gather data. 4) did neither tape. In the plant and animal study for weeks 6 and 7 which tape(s) do you feel should be eliminated. 1) the ones that give the information only. 2) the ones that require activity, 3) neither type tape was helpful. 4) keep both types. 28. 29. 30. 164 What I disliked most about the tapes was: 1) the length of time they required. 2) the extra work involved in checking the set ups. 3) keeping the data sheets. 4) other (write your comments on reverse side of answer sheet). I believe research is necessary to give instructors a basis for improving a course. 1) yes. 2) no. I resent being used to try out new ideas for changing a course. 1) yes. 2) no. APPENDIX E ITEM ANALYSIS PRETEST, INTERMEDIATE TEST, POSTTEST 165 TABLE 12. --PRETEST RAW SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS RBW' Cumulative Percentile Standard Score Frequency Frequency Rank Score 17 2 2 99 74.7 15 3 5 97 67.7 14 6 11 94 64.2 13 8 19 88 60.7 12 24 43 77 57.1 11 22 65 60 53.6 10 15 80 46 50.1 9 22 102 33 46.6 8 13 115 20 43.0 7 3 118 14 39.5 6 6 124 11 36.0 5 6 130 6 32.5 4 3 133 3 29.0 3 1 134 1 25.4 2 2 136 0 21.9 hflean 9.96 Standard Deviation 2. 84 Variance 08. 08 Standard score has mean of 50 and standard deviation of 10 166 TABLE 13. --PRETEST SUMMARY DATA Distribution of Item Difficulty Indices Number of Items Percentage 91 - 100 0 81 - 90 4 17 71 - 80 4 17 61 - 70 3 13 51 — 60 5 22 41 - 50 1 4 31 - 40 3 13 21 - 30 0 11 - 20 2 9 00 - 10 1 4 Distribution of Discrimination Indices 1 Number of Items Percentage 91 - 100 0 81 - 90 0 71 - 80 0 61 - 70 1 4 51 - 60 1 4 41 - 50 1 4 31 - 40 8 35 21 - 30 6 26 11 - 20 6 26 00 - 10 0 Less than 00 0 Mean item difficulty 57 Mean item discrimination 29 Kuder Richardson reliability #20 . 4803 Standard error of measurement 2. 0472 167 TABLE 14. --INTERMEDIATE TEST RAW SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS Raw Cumulative Percentile Standard Score Frequency Frequency Rank Score 16 1 1 99 70. 5 15 2 3 98 66. 7 14 10 13 92 62. 9 13 16 - 29 80 59. 0 12 16 45 65 55. 2 11 15 . 60 50 51. 4 10 13 73 37 47. 5 9 12 85 25 43. 7 8 6 91 16 39. 9 7 7 , 98 10 36. 0 6 3 101 6 32. 2 5 3 104 3 28. 4 4 2 106 0 24. 5 Mean 10. 63 Standard Deviation 2. 61 Variance 06. 86 Standard score has mean of 50 and standard deviation of 10 168 TABLE 15. --INTERMEDIATE TEST SUMMARY DATA Distribution of Item Difficulty Indices Number of Items Percentage 91 - 100 l 5 81 - 90 1 5 71 - 80 0 61 - 70 5 25 51 - 60 2 10 41 - 50 3 15 31 - 40 l 5 21 - 30 5 25 11 - 20 2 10 00 - 10 0 Distribution of Discrimination Indices Number of Items, Percentage. 91 - 100 0 81 - 90 0 71 - 80 0 61 - 70 0 51 - 60 0 41 - 50 6 30 31 - 40 6 30 21 - 30 4 20 11 - 20 3 15 00 - 10 1 5 Less than 00 0 Mean item difficulty 47 Mean item discrimination 32 Kuder Richardson reliability #20 . 4490 Standard error of measurement 1. 9372 169 TABLE 16. --POSTTEST RAW SCORE DISTRIBUTIONS Raw Cumulative Percentile Standard Score Frequency Frequency Rank Score 17 3 3 98 71. 6 16 7 10 95 .6714 15 12 22 88 63. 3 14 13 35 79 59. 2 13 16 51 69 55. 1 12 23 74 55 51.0 11 17 91 40 46. 9 10 23 114 26 42. 7 9 13 ' 127 13 38. 6 8 7 134 6 34. 5 7 5 139 1 30. 4 Mean 11. 75 Standard Deviation 2. 43 Variance 05. 93 Standard score has mean of 50 and standard deviation of 10 170 TABLE 17. --POSTTEST SUMMARY DATA Distribution of Item Difficulty Indices Number of Items Percentages 91 - 100 0 81 - 90 2 10 71 - 80 1 5 61 - 70 2 10 51 - 60 1 5 41 - 50 4 19 31 - 40 6' 29 21 - 30 3 14 11 - 20 1 5 00 - 10 1 5 Distribution'of Discrimination Indices 91 - 100 0 81 - 90 0 71 - 80 0 61 — 71 0 51 - 60 2 10 41 - 50 2 10 31 - 40 7 33 21 - 30 2 10 11 - 20 6 29 00 - 10 2 10 Less than 00 0 Mean item difficulty 44 Mean item discrimination 28 Kuder Richardson reliability #20 . 2857 Standard error of measurement 2. 0536 APPENDIX F MODULAR RESEARCH MATERIALS FOR MAINTAINING LIVING ORGANISMS IN THE CLASSROOM 171 MODULAR RESEARCH MATERIAL Cul turing Daphnia Objectives: Upon completion of this module the student should be Materials: establish and maintain a Daphnia culture for at state the proper environmental conditions necessary determine the proper diet for Daphnia. able to: I. recognize a Daphnia , 2. least 14 days. 3. for Daphnia growth. 4. 5. (for each student) culture an algae that can serve as food for the Daphnia . 6 baby food jars/cover 6 labels 1 tumbler 1 medicine dropper toilet tissue, 3-4 sheets yeast, 1 tbsp. stirring stick Magnifier Printed materials: Introduction to unit Picture of Daphnia Summary sheet for Daphnia care Data Sheet Materials: (for the class) Gallon jars of green water 1 gal/ 4 students Gallon. jars of aged water 1 gal/ 4 students Daphnia stock culture 507student 3 large basters Extra stir sticks Extra green water stock for maintaining setups Extra yeast/ tumbler Empty gallon jars for return of cultures Pan for dirty jars Objectives: 172 Plant Study Upon completion of this module a student should be able to: 1. hypothesize how deep to plant seeds if given size, thickness and texture of seed coat and cotyledon. 2. state that light is not necessarily needed for certain seeds to germinate. 3. infer that water and a suitable temperature are re- quired for seeds to germinate. 4. demonstrate a suitable method for seed germination. 5. infer that water, a suitable temperature, and adequate light are necessary for plant growth. Material: (for each student) Material: (for class) plastic cup-cover small watering bottle magnifier watering can on shelf razor blade 3 rulers 6 planter cups / drainers Box for return of cups/ plants 6 cups of soil (bagged) 6 labels 10 bean seeds 15 clover seeds 100 grass seeds Specimen set of seeds Printed Material Seeds for Specimen Sets Beans Sunflower Pumpkin Squash Wheat Radish Rye grass Introduction to unit Picture of seeds Summary sheet for plant care Data Sheets 173 Script for Informative Modal; Plant Study A survey of elementary science textbooks and curriculum programs indicates that seeds and plants are used extensively in the classroom to develop many concepts of growth, reproduction and environmental relationships. The study of plants is also used to help develop skills in making predictions, forming and testing hypotheses, collecting, compiling and interpreting data. The purpose of this module is to inform you of the skills you need to successfully germinate seeds and grow plants. This knowledge should, in turn, increase your confidence in teaching the subject of plant growth to your students. In this module there will be a discussion of factors that affect the germination of seeds and the growth of plants. Upon completion of the module you should be able to answer the following questions: 1. What aresome of the factors that determine how deep a seed should be planted? 2. Is light necessary for seeds to germinate? 3. What is the effect of light on germination and the growth of plants? Some of the more common seeds used in studying plants include: bean, sunflower, radish, Clover, squash or pumpkin and rye grass. Use the pictures you received with the tape‘to help you recognize the seeds as they are discussed. 1 A careful examination of the seeds reveals some rather interesting differences. The most obvious difference is in size and color. The sizes range from the small radish to the larger pumpkin or sunflower seed. The colors vary from eggshell to brown to black. While most of the seed costs appear smooth, waterproof and rather shiny, they differ in toughness. The sunflower' s 174 seed coat appears to afford the most protection as it forms a jacket or hull -like covering. Perhaps you have seen someone pry open a roasted sunflower seed and pop the softer inner part into his mouth. The bean, squash and pumpkin seeds are equally well protected although the bean' s coat is tougher and more skin-like than the pumpkin or squash. Their seed coats can be penetrated with a fingernail or snapped open easily. The inside meat of the bean correctly called the cotyledon is dry and hard, while pumpkin and squash cotyledons are soft and leave an oily spot when mashed on paper. Radish, mustard and clover seeds are all relatively small and round, the seed coats are paper -thin and easily penetrated with a razor blade if you can steady the pin-head size seed of the clover long enough to cut it. The cotyledon or stored food is much like the nut -like meat found in squash and pumpkin seeds. Wheat seeds may be placed between the squash and radish in characteristics. Rye grass seed is like the tip of a blade of dried grass. The seed coat is thin but tough with very little stored food inside. The characteristics of seeds just discussed — size, texture of seed coat and texture of cotyledons - are important factors to consider when trying to determine the proper conditions for seed germination. The major environmental factors of concern in germination are: air, moisture, light and temperature. For the seeds already discussed: air, moisture and a moderate temperature between 70° - 75° F are required. Perhaps you have germinated seeds at some time during your school career on a damp paper towel. Refer to the reference sheet again for some of the possible set ups for seed germination studies. Care must be taken to use the correct amount of water on a germinating seed. Too much might cause mold to grow or the seed to rot. For this reason, it is sometimes difficult to germinate seeds such as beans and radish with varied physical characteristics in the same dish because the bean will require more water than the radish. Light generally has no effect on seed germination. Most seeds will germinate equally as well in the light as in the dark if other conditions are favorable. There are always exceptions to these rules, however. 175 If seeds are planted in soil another question to consider‘is how deep to plant the seeds. As a general rule, seeds like clover and grass that are small and have a thin seed coat should be barely covered with soil. The larger seeds like beans with a hard seed coat should be planted about 1" beneath the surface of the soil. An important point to remember is that the moisture must have time to soften the seed coat so that the young plant can break through. There is enough food inside the seed coat of the larger seeds to sustain the new plant until it reaches the surface and can start pro- ducing its own food. Keep in mind that if you consider the size, seed coat and cotyledon characteristics of thickness, toughness and dryness you should be able to generalize on how deep to plant at least the seeds that have been discussed on'this tape. Think for a minute--how deep would you plant a seed that is small, like grass but tough and dry, like the sunflower? How could you possibly speed up the germination process for seeds with tough seed coats and dry cotyledons? Once seeds have been successfully germinated attention must be turned to providing conditions necessary for proper growth and development of the plant. The same, environmental factors that are important for seed germination are also essential for plant growth. These major factors are air, moisture, moderate temperature and light. Seeds that are germinated inthe dark must be moved to the light for the plant to continue to develop. The plant will grow for a while in the dark but the leaves will be small and colorless and the stems tall but weak. Without light the plant cannot reach maturity. Even plants placed on a window sill or under a lamp might grow tall, spindly and generally weak. Suchconditions indicate the plant is not getting the right light. A fluorescent light combined with an incandescent light is recommended when sunlight is not available. An expensive but perfect light to use is the special Gro -Lux tube. Care should be taken to guard plants against excess heat such as you get from a radiator, direct sun rays, or a strong in- candescent bulb. Excess heat also means you have. to water more often. You should be careful not to over water a plant. It is not a good idea to soak a plant with water to cut down on the number of times you need to water. Water logged soil has no air and the roots will start to rot. No definite amount of water can be recommended 176 since classroom conditions of humidity and temperature must be considered. As long as the soil is clamp to touch no more water is usually needed. From this module you should have two skills well in mind-- germinating seeds and growing plants. The information given‘refers only to the more common plants used for classroom experimentation. Other plants such as cacti, African violets, ferns, etc. require specific temperatures, moisture and sometimes special treatment. The important thing to remember is that you have to control water, , light and temperature. The right combination of these factors will help to insure successful growth. You should now be able to design many simple experiments suitable for elementary students involving plants. 177 Picture for Informative and Investigative Plant Modules Seeds Commonly Used in Germination Experiments 1) Bean Sunflower Squash Wheat Rye grass Radish Methods to Study Seed Germination A overed petri dish damp paper towel seeds el seeds p paper towel stic bag 178 Script for Informative Module Culturing Daphnia The purpose of this module is to introduce you to the Daphnia, commonly called the water flea. At the end of the module you should have enough information to help you establish a Daphnia and algae culture. You should know the'correct environmental conditions to maintain and what food you need to supply. The tiny Daphnia can be raised in the classroom without too much difficulty. Its use in the classroom ranges from a point of interest for very young children to more sophisticated studies in developing food chains and food webs, pollution control and pop- ulation studies with older children. With a little effort you could probably devise many interesting lessons involving the Daphnia once you learn how to keep them alive. Starting in the spring of the year Daphnia can be collected from fresh water ponds or they may be purchased at any time from a biological supply house. The water where Daphnia is found is often green since Chlamydomonas, the green algae that gives the water its color, is a good source of food for them. Daphnia can be easily recognized by its peculiar oval shape, its transparent shell and the jerky movements caused by the rapidly moving feet and antennae. Study the picture of the Daphnia you received with the tape to become familiar with the general structure while I talk about some of its features. A close inspection of a living Daphnia reveals a tiny dorsal heart close to the surface of the skin just above the intestine. This long tube -like intestine runs the length of the body and might appear green if the animal has been feeding. If you are lucky you can even see the eggs that will hatch from the brood pouch in the area posterior to the heart. The fascinating story of how these little animals reproduce can be found in any text on freshwater invertebrates. See if you can pick out the structures just described on your picture of the Daphnia. Look for: the heart, intestine, brood pouch with eggs. 179 In a classroom a stock culture of Daphnia might be kept in an aquarium (without fish) in a gallon jar filled with green water. A separate container of Chlamgmonas or green water should also be maintained to resupply the Daphnia culture with food. The culture of algae should be stirred often to promote reproduction of the algae. The water will stay green if the culture is kept at a temperature of about 70°F, supplied with minerals and exposed to light at least part of the day. The minerals can be supplied by keeping a gold fish or guppies in the green water or by adding plant food. If you keep an aquarium in the room and it receives light most of the day, its water may turn green from algae growth, thus giving you another source of food for the Daphnia. You can reward your fish occasionally by giving them a few Daphnia to eat. They are a favorite food of guppies. During warm weather children will enjoy bringing water from a local green pond. In addition to algae Daphnia, also feed on bacteria and yeast. It is a good idea to vary the diet occasionally. Toilet tissue, the white unscented kind, can be added to the Daphnia culture to foster bacteria growth. The tissue decays nicely and the decay bacteria is used for food by the Daphnia. A few grains of yeast, just enough to barely cloud the water, can also be added. The water will appear slightly milky for a few days until the yeast is eaten or settles to the bottom. Be very careful not to add too much yeast as it will produce more carbon dioxide than the Daphnia can safely tolerate. The Daphnia culture should be stirred often to keep the food particles suspended in water and aid the reproduction of the algae, bacteria or yeast. Maintain a temperature of 75°- 79°F. for the Daphnia. They seem able to withstand the lower temp- eratures better than the higher levels. Provision should be made to keep the Daptmia near a light source to maintain a constant temperature and to facilitate the growth of the algae. The light is not essential if yeast or bacteria is the main source of food as long as the temperature is controlled. In the algae and Daphnia cultures the water level will tend to vary due to evaporation but it can be kept constant by adding aged water. Aged wateris prepared by allowing tap water to set for 24-48 hours thus allowing the harmful chlorine to escape. 4 180 Daphnia maintained longer than a three week period follow an almost predictable growth curve. The population continues to increase steadily then for no apparent reason the population appears to be almost wiped out. Then in a week or so it recovers and starts to increase again. Children can speculate for months on why this happens and how the crash can be prevented. Cultures of Daphnia and Chlamydomonas should do well if you follow these simple guidelines; a. Keep the temperature constant. Optimum - 70°F for algae, 77° F for Daphnia. b. Maintain good lighting but not direct sunlight: for the algae. c. Keep a good supply of algae and/or bacteria for the Daphnia. d. If you keep a separate algae culture be sure to supply minerals by keeping afish in the culture or add plant food. . e. Start new subcultures of Daphnia and algae often-if you use these organisms regularly in a classroom to avoid population wipeouts. Daphnia are often overlooked as an animal to use in elementary classrooms. Even though they can at times be temper- mental they require little space and care. They work magic with young children and teachers who are reluctant to handle bugs and other creepy crawlers. Don' t forget the Daphnia when you begin teaching. 181 Picture for Informative and Investigative Modules Daphnia 182 Maintaining Living Organisms in the Clasgggom During the next two weeks a study is being conducted as a part of the organism survey to determine a suitable way to introduce material that will be of practical value when you begin your teaching career. The study is a part of the regular re- quired work but does not require or add any additional responsi- bility. The class objectives will remain the same. If changes are made they will be posted. The tests that are a part of the study will not affect your grade. They are necessary to determine the effectiveness of the study. Therefore, it is most essential that the tests be completed by everyone. For week 6 the tape will give information on how to raise a plant or an animal for classroom use. The week 7 tapes will require you to maintain either an animal or plant. If the information you receive this week is on plants, next week your work will be on a small freshwater animal and vice versa. Keep the attached picture but return the test and answer sheet to the desk. (Green sheet used for plant module; pink sheet used for animal module) 183 Maintaining Living Organisms in the Classroom - Week 7 This week you will conclude the tapes for the two -part study designed to introduce material that will, hopefully, be of value to you during your teaching career. The test you take this week is to see if your skill level improved as airesult of last week' 3 tape. A third and final evaluation will be given at some time during week 9 when your experiments are concluded and the datasheets you will keep for the next two weeks are returned. If the tape you did last week was on plants be sure the one you get this week covers the animal study and vice versa. For this week' 8 tape you should receive: 1. A handout with data sheets; pink for animal study; green for plant study. 2. A kit of materials to use. Refer any questions you might have to the special lab assistant. on duty. If she is not present you will find a number at the main desk where she can‘be reached at all times. 184 Plant Study - Care of Plants Check your containers every 2 -3 days to make sure the soil is still damp to your touch. Add water as needed. Do not over water as mold might result or the seeds will rot. A water- ing container will be left with the plants for you to use. Record the date the seeds germinate in cups 1 and 2 on Data Sheet II. Consider that a seed has germinated when it first breaks through the soil. When all the seeds have ger- minated you may terminate this part of the experiment if you wish and return cups 1 and 2 to the pan provided in the Pre- paration Room. When this part of the experiment is completed, fill in the last column of Data Sheet I and turn it in to the Desk Attendant. Observe cups 3 -6 closely. Record the date that at least half the seeds planted in each cup have germinated. When most of the germinated seeds in cup 4 are approximately l/2 inch high, remove it from the box and put it on the shelf beside the box. When the plants in cup 5 are about 1/2 inch high, remove it from the shelf and place it in the box. Cups 3 and 6 remain where they were placed in the beginning. Make note of the rate of growth of all plants in cups l-6. Measure the plants from the rim of the cup to the tip of the plant. Record the heights to the nearest tenth of a centimeter. A ruler will be provided on the shelf for you to use. Record other con- ditions of the plants. Include such things as color and size of leaves and stem, strength and general appearance of plants. Terminate the experiment after 14 days during week 9 and return all cups to the designated place in the preparation room. Also return all Data Sheets to the Desk Attendant. Your data will be added to theclass data for a summary of the results. Be sure to put your name on all Data Sheets. 18S Script for Investigative Module Plant Study A survey of elementary science textbooks and curriculum programs indicates that seeds and plants are used extensively in the classroom to develop many concepts of growth, reproduction and environmental relationships. The study of plants is also used to develop skills in making predictions, forming and testing hypo- theses, collecting, compiling and interpreting data. The purpose of this module is to help develop skills in germinating seeds and growing plants. This knowledge should in turn, increase your confidence in teaching the subject'of plant growth to your students. In this module you will examine factors that affect the germination of seeds and the growth of plants. From the data'you collect you should be able to answer the following: 1. What are some of the factors that determine how deep a seed should be planted? , 2. Is light necessary for seeds to germinate? 3. What is the effect of light on germination and the growth of plants? Whenever you hear this sound *** you should stop the tape and carry out the instructions given before starting the tape again. Remove the material in the box you received and arrange it so that you can identify each item. listed on the cover. *** Empty the specimen seed set into the plastic cover in the kit. *** Use the picture of seeds you received with the handouts to help you with identification. The set consists of bean, sunflower, pumpkin, squash, wheat, radish and rye grass seeds. Compare size, thick- ness and toughness of seed coats along with hardness and relative dryness of the material inside the seed coat. Use the razor blade to help you cut the seed coat. The magnifier will help in the examination of the material inside the seed. Use Data Sheet 1 to 186 record your observations but do not complete the last column until you fill in Data Sheet 11. Examine your seeds now and record your observations on Data Sheet ,1. *** You will plant only a few kinds of these seeds today. From the data you collect, however, you should be able to predict how to plant the other seeds. There are two kinds of cups in your kit: a 9 oz. planter cup with holes in the bottom and a 7 oz. cup to serve as a drain cup. Put labels on each of the planter cups up near the rim. Number them 1 -6, add today' 8 date and your name. *** Fill each cup to within one inch of the top with-soil. One of the drain cups can be used as a scoop for the soil. There is a plastic container of extra soil on the floor near the entrance, if you need more than is in your kit. Fill your cups now. *** Use your pencil to make eight holes about 1 inch deep in the soil of cup #1. Drop a bean seed in each of three holes and one or two clover seeds in each of the five remaining holes. *** Fill in the holes with soil. *** In cup #2 place 3 bean and 5-10 clover seeds on the sur- face of the soil. Lightly cover all the seeds with about l/8 inch of soil. *** ' In cups 3-6 scatter 10-20 grass seeds over the surface of the soil. Cover the seeds with about l/8 inch of soil. *** Set each planter cup into a smaller 7 oz. drain cup. *** Use the water sprinkler in the carrel to slowly add water to all planter cups. The sprinkler can be refilled at the sink if it does not have enough water. The water you add to the soil will stand on the surface for awhile but will eventually soak through and drain into the smaller cup. Pour this drained water back through the planter cup at least once to insure that the soil is soaked. You can tell if the soil is soaked by looking at it through the plastic cup. Complete the watering now. *** Put your cups in the top of the materials box you received. You will use the top as a tray to carry your plants to room 106C where they will be kept under lights. Use the front entrance if there is a class in progress. Cups 1, 2, 5 and 6 are to be placed on the tables behind the partition on the right side of room 106C. 187 Cups 3 and 4 are to be placed in either drawer l, 2 or 5 of the display case behind the partition. The drawers are labeled - Dark for Plants. Take your plants to room 106 now. *** Turn to the sheet in your handouts labeled - Plant Study - Care of Plants. This sheet gives instructions on how to care for your plants. Corrections for paragraph 3 are posted in the carrel. If you have questions ask the special lab assistant at the desk for help. Return any material you did not use to the Desk when you return the tape. Use the inventory on top of the box to help you re -assemble the materials. This is the end of this tape. 188 .oZ sofloom .3515 3 : 32m 33 5:: e838 as: 36388 3: on @242 m 1.86 .136 £333: 5? 533m “.36 34:13: .55 .363 643-5% m N “.35 :35 Sampson 6.3: San v 65m no.“ 3.93 has“ 50% H mmnam MESH nmwcnm e355 nudism Sign :mom aoBoGssm Ema 3 one 30m musoaaou .850 #4 Govern—co. .«c mmosnmaom. mmocxodfi. oaBNoH m «1.00 c%mm 05m onflom mcoom mcoom mo :anfimem u H «madam 3mm 189 Data Sheet II - Plant Study Cup #2 - Seeds _ 11 Cup #1 Seeds 1 Deep 1/8" Deep . Date of Plant Growth Date of Plant Growth Seeds Germination Observation Germination Observation Date Date Beans 1 2 3 Clover 1 2 3 4 5 Which seeds, beans or clover, germinated best when planted 1" deep? Which seeds, bean or clover, germinated best when planted l/8" deep? Based on the germination record-for cups 1 and 2 and the examin- ation of the seeds before they were planted what would you consider when determining how deep to plant a seed? What factors have we controlled in this experiment? Can you infer that these factors are necessary for germination? How would you set up an experiment to prove that these factors are necessary? NAME Section No. 190 Data Sheet III - Seed Germination and Plant Growth ———v + Plant , Germination Growth Observation Date Each Cup 3* Grm 'dark/ er dark Cup 4 Grm dark/ er light Cup 5 Grm light/ er dark Cup 6 Grm light/ er light *Grm - germinate; er - grow; +Date when 1/2 seeds in cup had germinated. Compare the proportion of seeds that germinated in cups 3 and 4 with the proportion to germinate in cups 5 and 6. Is light necessary for seeds to germinate under the conditions - ‘you had established ? Compare the plants in cup' 3 with those in cup 4 after 5 days of " growth. Compare the plants in cup 5 with those in cup 6 after 5 days of growth. How did the plants in cups 4 and 6 compare with those in 3 and 5? Compare the plants in cup 4 with those in cup 6? Does the fact that a seed was germinated in the, light or dark affect the. growth of the plant in the light or dark? 191 What conclusion can you draw about the effect of light on plant growth? What environmental conditions have been controlled to insure the growth of plants in cups 3 - 6 ? NAME Section Number 192 Script for Investigative Module Culturing Daphnia The purpose of this module is to introduce you to the Daphnia, commonly called the water flea. At the end of the module you should have enough information to help'you establish a Daphnia and an algae culture. You should know the correct environmental conditions to maintain and what food you need to supply. The tiny Daphnia can betraised in the classroom without too much difficulty. Its use in the classroom ranges from a point of interest for young children to more sophisticated studies in developing food chains and food webs, pollution control and population studies. With a little effort youcould probably devise many interesting lessons involving the Daphnia. Starting in the spring of the year Daphniacan be collected from fresh water ponds or they may be purchased at any time from a biological supply house. In a classroom a stock culture of Daphnia might be kept in an aquarium, (without the fish) Or a gallon jar of green water. The pond water where Daphnia is found is often green since Chlamydomonas, the green algae that gives the water its color, is a good source of food for the Daphnia. In the class if you are going to raise Daphnia a separate container of Chlamydomonas or green water should be maintained for food. Stir the algae culture weekly to promote reproduction of the algae. The water will stay green if the culture is kept at a temperature of about 70° F, is ‘. supplied with minerals and exposed to light at least part of the day. The minerals can be supplied by keeping a gold fish or guppies in the green water or by adding plant food. During warm weather children will enjoy bringing water from a local green pond. In the algae and Daphnia cultures the water level will tend to vary due to evaporation but it can be kept constant by adding aged water. Aged water is prepared by allowing tap water to set from 24-48 hours thus allowing the harmful chlorine to escape. The stock culture of Daphnia you will use for this study is on the>window ledge near the entrance. The green water you will need is inthe sinks between the carrels and the aged water is on the shelf above the carrels in white plastic containers. 193 Remember when you hear this sound *** you should carry out the instructions given before continuing the tape. The kit you received with the tape contains all the other materials you need. Open the box and sort the materials it contains. *** Rinse the glass jars in your kit at the nearest sink to remove any dust or cleaning solution. *** Put a label on each glass container and a small label on each cover. Number the containers 1-6. Put your name on the label on the jar and leave space to record the number of Daphnia you will add later. Put only your name or identifying symbol on the label placed on the cover.*** Fill jars 1-4 about 2/3 full of green water from the gallon jar in the sink near you. Use the baster to get the green water. *** Fill containers 5-6 about 2/3 full of aged water. *** Take the tumbler from your kit and fill it 1/2 full with aged water. *** Take the tumbler of water to the stock Daphnia culture near the entrance. Use the large baster next to the culture to transfer about forty Daphnia to the tumbler. If you do not get enough you may return for more. Do not waste time counting them now. Return to the carrel to complete the next steps. *** The Daphnia should be swimming happily in the tumbler. They can be easily recognized by the peculiar almost oval shape, the transparent shell and the jerky movements caused by the rapidly moving feet and antennae. Catch one Daphnia in the medicine dropper so that you can see it better while I guide your examination. *** Use the magnifier to help with the examination. Try to locate the tiny dorsal heart close to the surface of the shell just above the intestine. The long tube-like intestine runs the length of the body, and might appear green if the animal has been feeding. If you are lucky you can even see the eggs that will hatch from the brood pouch in the area posterior to the heart. The fascinating story of how these little animals reproduce can be found in any text on freshwater invertebrates. Now see if you can pick out the structures just described on the picture of the Daphnia you received with the handouts. *** 194 Use the medicine dropper in the kit to transfer 5-7 Daphnia to each of the six previously prepared containers. Get more Daphnia from the stock culture if you need them. The Daphnia are easily counted while they are in the dropper, *** In the exercise you will be testing the effectiveness of light and three sources of food for the Daphnia: algae, algae plus bacteria and yeast. Jars 1 and 2 will have only the green water or algae added. To jars 3 and 4 add 2 sheets of toilet tissue from the kit after you have torn it into smaller pieces. *** The tissue should decay and the decay bacteria will serve as food for the Daphnia. Now add enough green water to jars 1-4 to fill them just below the rim of the jar. *** Put about 10 grains of yeast into the tumbler you used before. Slowly add aged water, stirring as you add, until the tumbler is 1/ 2 full. The water will be only slightly milkly. This yeast solution should be added to jars 5 and 6. Add more aged water if this solution did not completely fill the jars. *** Place the covers on the jars loosely to help prevent evaporation but not too tightly to keep out air inthose containers where it is needed. *** ' Daphnia survive best at a temperature range of 7 5° - 79° F. The Daphnia seems able to withstand the lower temper- ature better than the higher levels. Put your jars in the top of the materials box. This will be used as a tray to carry your cultures to room 106 C where they will be maintained. Use the front entrance to room 106 if a class is in progress. Place jars 1, 3, 5 on the shelves set up behind the partition in room. 106 on the right side of the room. The shelves are labeled - Daphnia Cultures. If the shelves are filled place your cultures under the hood in room 106 where the mice are generally kept. Place jars 2, 4, 6 in either drawer 6 or 7 of the display case behind the partition. The drawers are labeled - Dark for Daphnia. Instructions for caring for the cultures have been given to you along with the Daphnia picture and Data Sheet. Follow these directions carefully until you terminate the experiment. An 195 inventory is on the top of the box to help you re -assemble the materials that should be in the box. Return the box to the desk attendant when you return the tape. This is the end of this tape. 196 Daphnia Data Sheet Condition of Water Clear Green Cloudy lOther Number of Daphnia L Other omments Jar 1 Algae/ light Observation 1 2 3 4 Jar 2 Algae/dark Observation 1 2 3 4 Jar 3 Algae/ bacterial light Observation ‘ 1 2 3 4 Jar 4 Algae/ bacterial/ dark Observation 1 2 3 4 Jar 5 Yeast/light Observation 1 2 3 4 Jar 6 Yeast/dark Observation 1 2 3 4 197 Daphnia Data Sheet (Continued) Compare the change in the number of Daphnia in Jars l, 3, 5. Compare the change in Jars 2, 4, 6. Based on your observations which food produced. the greatest increase in Daphnia? Compare: Jar l and 2. Jar 3 and 4. Jar 5 and 6. Did the change in light affect the reproduction of the Daphnia with any of the three foods? What is the relationship between the type of food and light as far as Daphnia reproduction is concerned? What environmental conditions were controlled for you in this experiment? What conditions would you conclude are important for the growth of Daphnia? If your cultures did poorly while others placed in the same area as yours appeared to be doing well, can you account for what might have been the causes or contributing factors to your lack of success? NAME Sec. No. 198 Care of Daphnia You should check your cultures about every three days. Stir the material found settled in the bottom of the jars. The stirring helps the reproduction of the algae and yeast by provid- ing a greater surface area. Add more green water to Jars l and 2 if the color fades and to Jars 3 and 4 if the paper seems not to be decaying. Add more yeast if Jars 5 and 6 become clear. The extra material you need will be available with the cultures you have set up. Keep a record of changes that occurin each-culture on the Data Sheet provided. Date each observation. You need not get an accurate count of the Daphnia, a good estimate will be satisfactory for our purposes. (1. e. , 10 -20) Terminate the experiment after 14 days during week 9. Pour all cultures into the gallon jars provided next to the original stock culture. Put the empty jars and. covers inthe container provided. Return your completed Data Sheet upon termination of the experiment to the Desk Attendant. Be sure to put your name on the Data Sheet to assure that you receive proper credit. APPENDIX G MULTIVARIATE AND UNIVARIATE ANALYSIS COMBINED PLANT AND ANIMAL DATA amoflmom 199 can Seaman—smug don—0932: . 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Sam .2 28. 5.00 .3 2:: .3 20080 was. worm .m was. worn .m $00 .3 7320200 805 003 a m 8300 00% 805 000g 0 .m 08080383 0m 8002 mfim0fioqmm 03080> 88. :9: $08 a 8 new a u 0.8 avg .m n. 0808000, 8008 00 520800 00 0008 080803208 800 380me n 0800509?“ HZD QZ< mHsm<>HBADE .mm Mdmafiw APPENDIX K PERFORMANCE SHEET FOR ORGANISM STUDY 214 PERFORMANCE SHEET FOR ORGANISM STUDY Terrarium Checklist Condition of plants: N no gr‘o'vfith dead stunted spindly healthy peas beans clover mustard grass Soil: dry damp wet moldy Conditions of animals: number healthy dead not added crickets snails beetles isopods chameleon Other materials added Observation sheet yes no Date started Name of trainee 215 PERFORMANCE SHEET FOR ORGANISM STUDY Fruit Fly Check List Medium: moist dry soupy moldy . Stages present: larva pupa adult Q Did reproduction take place? yes no Condition: Only adult stage alive Other stages present but dead Other stages alive but adults dead Data started: Observation sheet Name of trainee Mealworm Culture Check List Amount of bran: Less than three inches More than three inches Source of moisture used Other food source Stages of beetle present; - adult mealworm pupa Dead organisms present Stage Observation sheet: yes no___ Age of culture Name of trainee “'TIII'ITIQHILEMJLMIMtrffliflnflmllmm“