THE SEL -0THER. CONCEPT AS REVEALED 'FHROUGH AN
ANALYSiS OF A $E£ECTED EAST OF CHELDREN’S BOOKS

Thesis Mr M flamers of Ed. D.
MECHIGAN STMTE UNIVERSSTY
George E. Winsor
1965

 

u-HESIs

 

This is to certify that the
. thesis entitlieti‘
; THE SELF-OTHER CONSEPT AS‘REVEALED
' THROUGH AN ANALYSIS OF'A SELECTED
LIST OF CHILDREN'S BOOKS

presented by \

1 George E. Winsor

has been accepted towards fulfillment
f of the requirements for

Doctor's degree in Education

LO / / ,7“
, , aw

i D;
0-159 {
A !

 

 

 

   

AW A0)”
APR '
mg
LEV-:1. #- ‘3' A “JD
" LI“ /3/ 0

 

 

Vide

COXCI

ABSTRACT

THE SELF-OTHER CONCEPT AS REVEALED THROUGH AN
ANALYSIS OF A SELECTED LIST OF CHILDREN'S BOOKS

by George E. Winsor

This study is an attempt l) to define the components of
the self-other concept; 2) to review the research relative to the
effects of reading, and; 3) to ascertain whether or not children's
fiction first c0pyrighted within the United States in the twenty—year
period preceding 1961 are books that could be expected to, or not
to, contribute to the deve10pment of the self-other concept.

In this study it is hypothesized that:

l. The content of the books that children read will pro-
vide ideas that may contribute to the development of the self-other
concept.

2. The content of the books that children read will pro-
vide ideas that may contribute to the understanding of others, may
give social insight.

3. The content of the books that children read will pro-
vide ideas that may contribute to values, to ideals, to a philosophy

of life, which, as children develop, becomes an integrating factor

or“ t...
.’ ,
it. Int:

«‘5
.3

n

.
na‘A‘l

George E . Winsor

in all they do.

The Children's Catalog, published by the H. W. Wilson

 

Company affords a list of books about life in the United States. The
list consists of fifty books. Children's books used in this study are

taken from the 1961 edition of the Children's Catalog and deal specifi-

 

cally with American children. All books comply in every respect
with the following limitations: (1) all books have been copyrighted
in the United States from 1941 to 1961 inclusive, (2) all books are

classified in the Children's Catalog as fiction, (3) all books are in-

 

dicated as suitable for grades four through six, though they may also
be suitable for grades three through nine, and (4) all books appear

under the subject heading, life in the United States, from Sears List

 

3f Subject Headings. No book which falls within the above mentioned

 

limitations is omitted.

This study employs the technique of content assessment.

A review of the literature by authorities in sociology and
psychology reveals their thinking about man's relationship in the
contemporary world. Four components of the self-other concept
were determined. They are:

l. The realization that personal status and style are

an essential part of the self-other concept.
2. The realization that effective interpersonal relation-

ships are an essential part of the self-other concept.

wvdt
.6

’JI
.t.

. ..
‘1‘?“

;.L

..k .

CLliC

Aw
. Gm

.H‘K
A:

.n‘

George E . Winsor

3. The realization that aspiration or expectation of
adequacy is an essential part of the self-other
concept.

4. The realization that a moral sense is an essential

part of the self-other concept.

Each of the four components of the self-other concept as
it appears in the children's books is treated in a separate chapter
in this study.

The examination of the content of the selected list of
children's books does not reveal that children are concerned with
physical status and personal style, although there are a few instances
which indicate that girls from various parts of the United States are
concerned about their dress.

The books that comprise the selected list used in this study
do provide content that is concerned with interpersonal relationships.

The third component of the self-other concept, the realiz-
ation that aSpiration is an essential part of the self-other concept is
found in many bits of information in the content of the books in the
selected list.

With very few exceptions the leading character in each story
adheres to or makes an effort to adhere to the following standards of

behavior: family affection, kindness, honesty, cooperation, pride in

tr?“
.. Lc.L'.

the dev
I

‘1'
(I)
p!

m

(n
’1
(I)

George E . Winsor

country, responsibility, courage, and kindness to animals.

Stories about children in the United States do, with some
limitations provide ideas that emphasize the social and moral values
of our culture, ideas that may develop a moral sense necessary for
the development of a self-other concept.

Almost without exception the stories of children in various
parts of the United States describe some kind of relationship that
the book child has among his peers. Relationships between parents
and children are also revealed.

The careful investigation of the selected list of books of
fiction apprOpriate for the intermediate grades reveals very little
information about the teacher's role in the development of the self-
other concept.

Though the books used in this study do not individually or
as a group meet all the positions as defined by the four components
of a self-other concept, it is conclusive that in many respects they

are ve ry s atisfactory.

AX.

THE SELF-OTHER CONCEPT AS REVEALED THROUGH AN

ANALYSIS OF A SELECTED LIST OF CHILDREN'S BOOKS
By

George E. Winsor

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCT OR OF EDUCATION

College of Education

1965

CFAPTE

CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . o . . l
The Problem . . . . . . . . . . 6
Statement of the Problem . . . . . 6
Importance of the Study . . . . . . 6
Review of the Literature . . . . . . 10

Method and Procedure . . . . . . . 15
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . 15

, Method . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Definition of terms . . . . . . . 19
Plan of the Study . . . . . . . . 20

II. THE SELF-OTHER CONCEPT . . . . . 21
The Self . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Components of the Self-Other Concept . . 27
The Physical Self . . . . . . . . 28
The Social Self . . . . . . . . . 32
The Ideal Self . . . . . . . . . 4.2
The Moral Self . . . . . . . . . 48

summary 0 o o o e o e e o e e o 52

ii

Ti.
D.

CPA

CHAPTER PAGE
III. PHYSICAL MAKE UP AND PERSONAL
STYLE IN A SELECTED LIST OF
CHILDREN'S BOOKS . . . . . . . . 55
Summary...........66
IV. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS IN A
SELECTED LIST OF CHILDREN'S BOOKS . 69
Summary...........105
V. ASPIRATIONS IN A SELECTED LIST OF

CHILDREN'S BOOKS . . . . . . . . 108

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . 121
VI. STANDARDS OF BEHAVIOR IN A SELECTED

LIST OF CHILDREN'S BOOKS . . . . . 124

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . 138
VII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . 141

Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . 146
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
APPENDIX I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

APPENDIX II O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 160

iii

a:

‘5‘-
‘4‘
.
(1.7
a

“W

. U"

L1;-

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Reading is among the school subjects most discussed by
educators and laymen. It is written about in journals and books,
spoken about on radio and television, and heard about in conferences
and meetings.

One of the significant emphases in the modern reading
program is the extent to which it affects the wholesome growth of
children. At one time it was believed that the ability to read was
acquired in the elementary grades. Formal reading instruction
was for the purpose of developing general reading ability. Teachers
at the present time are still concerned with developing reading
abilities as such, but the aim of the reading program extends beyond
the acquisition of certain abilities to include the effects of reading
upon the whole pattern of personality development of the child. The
values of such reading are obvious:

It insures a growing body of concepts and ideas, the
validity and the relationships of which are clearly recog-
nized in so far as they can be determined by the reader.

It aids, also, in the development of attitudes, ideals, and
appreciations that are products of discriminative thinking.

Furthermore, critical reading may enable a reader to
change advisedly his outlook on life, to modify his purposes

P.’

child 6‘

9'.

/

/;i’

'5

U '
m

1'

~—o

and intentions, and to chart new courses of action with care
and discrimination. 1

Gates suggests that ”In whole hearted reading activity the
child does more than understand and contemplate; his emotions are
stirred; his attitudes and purposes are modified; indeed his inner-
most being is involved. "2

Hildreth has pointed out that reading plays a role in shaping
the emerging personality of children and young people. ”By bringing
the child into contact with lives and deeds portrayed in literature,
books can enhance his personality and help a thoughtful child develop
a sense of values. ”3

It has been stated by Smith and Dechant that:

Reading can and often does have a great influence on

personality; it may be used as a tool for promoting personal

growth, and it has been advocated as a means of furthering
personal adjustment. 4

 

1William 8. Gray, Promotirfi Personal and Social Develop-
ment through Reading, Supplementary Educational Monographs, No. 64,
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947), p. 2.

ZArthur 1. Gates, "Character and Purposes of the Year-
book, " Reading in the Elementary School, Forty-eighth Yearbook of
the National Society for the Study of Education, Part II, (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1949), p. 4.

 

 

 

3Gertrude Hildreth, Teaching Reading, (New York: Henry Holt
and Company, 1958), p. 7.

 

4Henry P. Smith and Emerald V. Dechant, Psycholo y .131
Teachirg Reading, (Englewood Cliffs, N. J. : Prentice Hall, Inc. ,
1961), p. 313.

 

2126.1? up

1 fl ,
snoulc .

As an example of the possible effects of reading and liter-
ature upon children's development the suggestions of Dora V. Smith
should be noted:

1. Reading can help young people gauge themselves ac-
curately, to understand the motives of human conduct in general
and their own in particular.

2. Books can furnish young people information that they
need to do the things life challenges them to do and to under-
stand its ever widening and deepening problems.

3. Reading is a necessary adjunct to understanding first
hand experiences and an inevitable substitute for experience in
all our knowledge of the distant in time and space.

4. Young people come, through reading, to a clearer
definition of their own basic philosophy and of their own con-

viction as to what values are of most worth.

5. A final service of reading is to offer escape from the
difficulties of strained conditions of life in modern times.

These ideas of Gray, Gates and others reflect the trend
to extend the aims of basic reading instruction to include the aims
usually associated with the teaching of literature. This is because
they are concerned with the effects of reading on the child as well as
the abilities to be acquired. Another way of stating this is to say
that the teaching of literature is concerned more with attitudes and

appreciations which extend beyond the knowledge and skills which

 

5Dora V. Smith, "Nature of the Reading Program to Meet
Personal and Social Needs, " In W. S. Gray, Ed. , Promoting Personal
and Social Development through Reading, Supplementary Educational
Monographs, No. 64, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947),
pp. 11-16.

 

 

usuaii'

-‘l‘

to

‘.
Ff)

I:

“NIH!

usually make up the aims of basic reading instruction.

An attitude is defined as:

. . . an enduring learned predisposition to behave in a
consistent way toward a given class of objects, a persistent
state of readiness to react to a certain object or class of
objects, not as they are but as they are conceived to be.

The way a child reacts to ideas will gradually be built up
and organized through his experiences, some of which may be ex-
periences in literature. Attitudes are often connected with emotional
responses which may be elicited from literature. Through the ex-
periences of the characters that he meets, the feelings that he may
have about the characters, and the evaluations that he makes, a
child may become better acquainted with himself and his own strengths
and weaknesses.

The children in ”our” classrooms differ greatly in per-
sonality. To plan appropriate educational experiences it is necessary
to understand the nature of personality deve10pment. This indicates
the need for an intensive study of personality patterns which relate
to the success or failure in reading and how personality may be in-
fluenced by reading. Recently educators have designed systematic

investigations to determine the relationships between reading and

personality development. The meager scientific research and the

 

6Horace B. English, and Ava Champney English, A Com-
prehensive Dictionary of Psychological and Psychoanalytical Terms,
(New York, Longmans Green and Company, Inc., 1958), p. 50.

 

 

publication of the University of Chicago Conference on Reading,

Promoting Personal and Social Development through Reading, sug-

 

gests that what children read may have an influence on their attitudes.
At the present time research in personality development
in children, the "self-concept, ” has been reported in terms of moti-
vation and learning, but not specifically in terms of reading and
literature. 7
A. formulation prepared by the Educational Policies Com-
mission under the sponsorship of the National Educational Association
has been widely accepted and used as a frame of reference for formu-
lating objectives of education.
”The educated person reads the mother tongue efficiently, "8
is one of the Objectives of Self-Realization. In a modern society the
ability to read well all types of materials is fundamental to self-
realization.
Sayres and Madden have found in their analysis of the

democratic way of life that self-other realization is one of the traits

of democratic character whose growth the schools must promote.

 

7Ruth C. Wylie, The Self Concept, A Critical Survey of
Pertinent Research Literature, (Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska
Press, 1961).

 

 

 

8Educational Policies Commission, The Purpose of Edu-

cation in American Democracy, (Washington, D. C. National Education
Association, 1938), p. 50.

 

 

 

\I‘IE
re?

e
O

D\

Fundamentally the traits are:

(1) Integrity of personality, (2) that respect for self and
other which we call self-other realization, (3) disciplined
judgment in the cooperative making of decisions, plans and
policies, and in the achieving of factual knowledge and the
technical skills needed for effective participative activity,
(4) artistic-aesthetic quality in experience, and (5) the
religious attitude.

They define self-other realization:

. . . to denote an attitude and outlook on life in which both
individuality and the social conditions which make individuality
possible are recognized as primary values. The purpose of
democratic education is to help the individual realize the po-
tentialities of his individuality. But he can realize his indi-
viduality only by experiencing other selves and by learning to
respond sensitively and constructively to other selves.

THE PROBLEM

Statement 2f the problem. This study attempts: 1) to define

 

 

the components of the self-other concept; 2) to review the research
relative to the effects of reading, and 3) to ascertain whether or not
children's fiction first copyrighted within the United States in the twenty
year period preceding 1961 are books that could be expected to, or not

to, contribute to the development of the self-other concept.

Importance 2f the study. In recent years psychologists and

 

sociologists have assumed that the descriptive account of each person's

 

C)Ephraim Vern Sayers and Ward Madden, Education and the
Democratic Faith, (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1959), p. 430.

 

 

10Sayers and Madden, pp. _<_:_i_t., p. 435.

,1‘
“0.“.C

name

0.
5.1.
(I)

1131

{1!

F0

world is best arrived at by an analysis of the central character,
namely the self.

Interest in the psychology of the self was revived about
thirty years ago, and today personality psychologists are no
longer apologetic regarding their interest in it. In this con-
nection it is pertinent to observe not only that the self is a
central problem in books on personality, but that two presi-
dential addresses before the American Psychological
Association, in less than fifteen years were made on the
subject of the self. 11

Concepts such as the self or soul were widely used in

discussing human personality up to the end of the nineteenth century.
With the rise of behavioristic psychology these notions were judged
too mystical to be of value in a scientific study. "It is only recently,
perhaps, since the publication of Allport‘s volume on personality,
that the self has again become respectable. "12
Many factors, such as family influence, teacher's atti-
tudes, types of instruction, and motivation, at one time or another,
must be considered in a thorough investigation of the self. Though
all such factors are recognized as having importance it is more prac-
tical to deal with only one factor at a time. This study is concerned

with the part reading materials play in the development of the self-

other concept.

 

11Hubert Bonner, Psychology o_f Personality, (New York:
The Ronald Press, 1961), p. 457.

 

 

12Ross Stagner, Psychology 2f Personality, (New York:
McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1961), p. 182.

 

 

The ability to identify with others is perhaps the most im-
portant factor in the development of the child's self—other concept.
Books provide an avenue for such identification. There Should be a
time in every day when a child can say, ”Now, book, you belong to me,
and I belong to you! ”

Undoubtedly, individual children vary greatly in the amount
and type of their identification, . . . but the possibilities exist
even in later childhood. Juvenile literature must be considered
as one of the more important avenues for identification. . . .13

Books are gateways to a wider world than our immediate
surroundings provide, serving to interpret other cultures and epochs
in history than our own. The printed word has the power to revolu—
tionize our ways of thinking and living.

In a democratic society it is particularly important that .
citizens be skilled readers, not only in their ability to under-
stand the printed page but also in their ability and disposition
to evaluate what they have read in the light of its accuracy,

the source from which it has come, its fairness, and the
presence or absence of emotional tones in its presentation.

14
Reading is surely one of the means by which the elements of
a culture are shared and transmitted. The person who is interested in
personality development would be wise to inquire into the matter of
whether or not printed materials make a difference in the person who

O
reads.

 

13Ethel J. Alpenfels, ”All Children Need to Identify, "
Childhood Education, 25 (May, 1949), pp. 394-396.

 

14Margaret G. McKim, Guiding 5Growth i_r_1 Reading, (New
York: The Macmillan Company, 1955), p. 5.

 

It is believed that certain professional implications will
result from this study. Educators, parents, librarians and authors
of children’s books, who use literature as a means of promoting per-
sonal and social development (desirable self-other concepts), must
become more aware of the kinds of books children need. Children
must have many different types of characters from which to select
models, as well as have a wide variety of story situations in which
they can place themselves.

Remedial programs could possibly add another dimension
as a result of this study. This would stress developing the child's
attitude toward himself as a reader as well as developing reading
skills. ‘Such a program could include many successful reading ex-
periences to help the child relate reading to his personal life.

If it is accepted that a self-other concept is important, then
it follows that reading materials, as one means of developing a self-
other concept must be investigated.

In this study it is hypothesized that:

1. The content of the books that children read will provide
ideas that may contribute to the development of the self—other concept.

2. The content of the books that children read will provide
ideas that may contribute to the understanding of others, may give
social insight.

3. The content of the books that children read will provide

10

ideas that may contribute to values, ideals, and to a philosophy of
life, which, as children develop, becomes an integrating factor in

all they do.

Review of the literature. Opinions about the impact of

 

reading materials range at least from the words of Plato to those of

Carl Sandburg. Writing in The Republic on the importance of im-

 

pression on youth Plato said, "We must do everything in our power
to contrive that the first stories our children are told shall teach
virtue in the fairest way. ”15
Writers like Annis Duff, Phyllis McGinley, McKinley
Kantor, Clifton Fadiman, and Carl Sandburg testify to the power of

good literature in their lives. Carl Sandburg wrote in his auto-

biography, Always EIEE Young Strangers:

 

The great book Mary brought home-~great for what it
did to me at that particular time, opening my eyes about
law, government, history and people, was Civil Government
i_n the United States. Here I first read the Constitution of
the United States and tried to get my head around the English
Magna Carta. . . It was a honey of a book and I was glad we
had all helped send Mary through high school if only that she
brought that one book into our house.

 

 

From the research point of view the effects of reading are

 

15Plato, The Republic _o_f Plato, (New York: E. P. Dutton
and Company, Inc., 1958), p. 74.

 

 

16Carl Sandburg, Always the Young Strangers, (New York:
Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1952), pp. 225-226.

 

my sc

11.5.1

m‘ H 1
ifiOIAG

V " n,-
00561116

1 111:2"

media

H-

:‘J
(’0
a

TECI

11

very scant. Research related to the effects of reading according to
W. 5. Gray dates back to 1910, or perhaps a few years earlier, when

Thorndike gave some attention to the extent and character of ideas

obtained through reading. 17

In Betts' bibliography of articles and studies there is only

a limited reference to research studies on the effects of reading. 18

The studies which do relate to the effects of reading stress mass

media. They include investigations of newspaper and magazine read-
ing, and the effects of TV on reading rather than emphasizing the di-
rect effects of reading on the child. Russell clarifies the point further:

Studies in the effects of reading are the present no
man's land of this large domain in the language arts area.
Since at least the 1880's starting with Janal and Cattell,
the psychology of the reading act has been charted with
considerable care. Beginning a little later, the problems
of reading behavior and instruction have been explored and
analyzed by Buswell, Dearborn, Gates, Gray, McKee,
Thorndike, and their students and other workers. It is
this third large area, the investigation of the effects of
reading that large unknown regions and unmapped
territories exist today. 19

Russell, in his article, ”Some Research on the Impact of

Reading, " makes this explanation:

 

17William S. Gray, ”The Social Effects of Reading, ”
School Review, 55 (May, 1947), p. 269.

 

18Emmet A. Betts, E. W. Dolch, Arthur Gates, and David
H. Russell, "Unsolved Problems in Reading, A Symposium I, ” Ele-
mentary English, 31 (October, 1954), p. 335.

 

1911min, p. 335.

12

The meager re search about the effects of reading on
young people‘s lives suggest that this impact depends upon
at least three factors: (1) the needs, attitudes, and "set”
of the reader himself, (2) the content of the materials read;
and (3) the circumstances or setting in which the reading
takes place. 20

In What Reading Does t_o PeOple, Douglas Waples reports

 

the results of his studies of the effects of reading on groups of adults.

He has listed five general areas:

a.

b.

C.

e.

The instrumental effect: the results of reading
for knowledge, information.

The prestige effect: the results of reading for
self-approval.

The aesthetic effect: the results of reading for
the beauty of expression.

The respite effect: the results of reading that
relieves tensions.

The reinforcement effect: the results of reading
that inforces our attitude 8.21

Nila Banton Smith's study concerning the influence of

reading cannot be said to be a controlled experiment. It has never

been proved that the reading of certain books did change their thinking,

although the children thought it did. In an attempt to learn if reading

does change people, Smith sought the aid of various teachers throughout

 

20David H. Russell, ”Some Research on the Impact of
Reading, ” English Journal, 47 (October, 1958), pp. 398-413.

 

21Douglas Waples, Bernard Berelson, and Franklin R.
Bradshaw, What Reading Does '_I'_o People, (Chicago: University of

 

Chicago Press, 1940), p. 114.

13

the United States. Teachers of grades four through eight asked pupils

if they could recall any story, poem, or book that had caused them

to change their thinking or attitudes in any way. Of 502 responses,

60 per cent indicated that they had experienced changes in their atti-

tudes as a result of reading. An additional 10 per cent said that they

had also felt changes in their behavior. 22
- Evaline P. Jackson reports an investigation of the place

of reading in attitude formation. Jackson attempted: 1) to investi-

gate the effects of reading fiction upon attitudes toward the Negro race

of a group of southern white children, assuming a decrease in pre-

judice against that race to be desirable and 2) to Show applicability

to a library problem of a technique borrowed from social psychology.

The results showed a small but significant change in the direction

of a more favorable attitude toward the Negro as measured by the

Hinckley Scale for Measuring Attitudes. According to the results of

Jackson‘s investigation one can conclude that the effects of reading

upon attitude formation is subject to change. 2.3

Weingarten, in a que stionnaire study involving 1, 256 stu-

dents from 17 colleges reports the following: 28.2 per cent of those

 

‘ 22Nila Banton Smith, "The Personal and Social Values of
Reading,” Elementary English, 25 (December, 1948), p. 491.

 

23Evaline P. Jackson, ”Effects of Reading Upon Attitudes
Toward the Negro Race, " The Library Quarterly, 14 (January, 1944),
p. 47.

 

respo

s
H
9'

catio

171611".

COHi
of th

‘rldt

the l

«:J. .3
731
NO:

1
K;
(’7

l4

responding felt that their reading had led to self-understanding;
32. 6 per cent, to finding the ideal self; 19. 9 per cent, to solving
a problem; 10 per cent, to selecting a vocation; 34. 3 per cent, to
changing their behavior; 60. 5 per cent, to finding a way of life; and
29. 9 per cent, to imitating a character read about. 24

Elementary teachers, in Russell's study, indicated that
in their childhood reading, the most frequent effects were identifi-
cation with character(s), enjoyment of humor and adventure, enrich-

\

ment of everyday experiences, enjoyment of fantasy, stimulus to

dramatic play, and added knowledge. 25

The Review 3f Educational Research presents studies by

 

Collier and Gaier, and Lili Peller centered around the role-function
of the characters in childhood stories as it related to sex, culture
and other variables which influence the psychological functioning of
the individual.26
Reading has various effects on the reader. Waples, Jackson,

Smith, and others have reported these effects and the personal factors

of the reader which permit or prevent these effects from taking place.

 

24Samuel Weingarten, ”Developmental Values in Voluntary
Reading, " School Review, 62 (April, 1954), pp. 222-230.

 

25David H. Russell, "Teachers' Memories and Opinions of
Children's Literature, " Elementary English, 26 (December, 1949),
pp. 475-482.

 

26American Educational Research Association, Review 3f
Educational Research, Vol. 31, No. 2, (April, 1961), pp. 184-186.

 

15

If it is accepted that some of these effects do take place to varying de-
grees, depending on the reader, then it may be the individual's ability
to identify that produces the greatest effects. It is the ability to identify

that transmits the effects of reading to the self-concept.

ME THOD AND PROCEDURE

Procedure. Several studies designed for the purpose of

 

determining whether or not reading has any effect on the reader have
been conducted over the past few years. A review of this literature
has been made as a part of this investigation.
Eminent scholars in the field of psychology and sociology,
have written books and articles that reveal their thinking about man's
relationship in the contemporary world. A careful study of this literature
yields the components of that which one might term the self-other concept.
The review of research relative to the effects of reading have
been presented. Components of the self-other concept are discussed in
Chapter II). It remains to be ascertained what self-other concepts
children's books of fiction contain and whether or not these concepts
are consistent with the self-other concept as defined in this study.

The Children's Catalogue,27 published by the H. W. Wilson

 

 

27Marion L. McConnel and Dorothy H. We st, compilers,
Children‘s Catalogue, Tenth Edition, (New York: The H. W. Wilson
Company, 1961).

 

Com

The

16

Company, affords a list of books about life in the United States.
The list consists of fifty books. Children's books used in this study

are taken from the 1961 edition of the Children's Catalogue and deal

 

specifically with American Children. All books comply in every
respect with the following limitations: (1) all books have been copy-
righted in the United States from 1940 to 1961 inclusive, (2) all books

are classified in the Children's Catalogue as fiction, (3) all books

 

are indicated as suitable for grades four through six, though they
may also be suitable for grades three through nine, and (4) all books
appear under the subject heading, Life in the United States, from

Sears List 2f Subject Headings. No book which falls within the above

 

 

mentioned limitations is omitted. A list of the books used in the study
appears in the appendix.

A careful investigation of the books which compose the list
according to the limitations previously determined affords many ex-
amples of incidents, descriptions, bits of conversations, and illus-
trations, all of which make some kind of impression on the reader's
mind. Though the illustrations, whether black and white drawings,
sketches, or paintings, are recognized as making a great contribution
to each book, they are not included in this investigation.

Various bits of material which are a part of the content of
the books are identified and classified in accordance with the com-

ponents of the self-other concept. By means of content assessment

it is th

comii

nurse.
as a t]
attituc'

We 0

O
7».
‘.
x ‘Q‘ ’
D

17

it is then determined that they are, or are not likely to make a

contribution toward the development of the self-other concept.

Method. In recent years students of sociology and com-
munication research have displayed some interest in content analysis
as a type of investigation into the factors that affect public opinion,
attitudes and social change. Berelson has written much about this

type of investigation in his book, Content Analysis in Communication

 

 

Research, 28 and in the Handbook 2f; Social Psychology.29 Good and

 

 

 

Scates in their book, Methods _o_f_ Research, 30 give a thorough iden-

 

tification and description of the kinds of quantitative (content) analysis
of documentary materials. This study employs the technique of con-
tent assessment. ”Content analysis is a research technique for the
objective, systematic and quantitative description of the manifest

31

content of communication."

The content analyst aims at a quantitative classification
of a given body of content, in terms of a system of categories

 

28Bernard Berelson, Content Analysis £1 Communication
Research, (Glencoe, I11.: Free Press, 1952).

 

 

 

29Gardner Lindzey, ed., Handbook 2f Social Psychology,
Vol. 1, (Cambridge, Mass.: Addison-Wesley‘Publishing Company,
Inc., 1954).

 

 

3OCarter V. Good and Douglas E. Scates, Methods of

Research, (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1954).—

 

31Lindzey, ed., pp. 33., p. 489.

18

devised to yield data relevant to Specific hypotheses con-
cerning that content.

Good and Scates state that:

Simple statistical investigations utilize categories al-
ready existing, or easily made, with no particular subtle
challenge; the categories do not have to emerge as to quality,
only as to quantity. On the other hand, content analysis is
highly subtle in its obligation to rec0gnize, identify, and
detect the presence of essential or significant factors re-
presented in the categories, for the purpose of placement
in larger categories. 33

Children's books about life in the United States deal with
meanings and relationships among meanings. The theme is an as-
sertion about subject matter and by its very nature lends itself to an
investigation of this kind. Be relson has written about the theme:

The theme is among the most useful units of content
analysis, particularly for the study of the effect of com-
munications. . . . But it is at the same time among the
most difficult units of analysis from the standpoint of re-
liability, especially if it is at all complicated (i.e. , more
than just a simple sentence). One elaborate complex
method of attacking this problemwis to break the theme
down into its components, to analyze by them, and then
to reconstruct the theme by a ”mechanical process."34

For the purpose of this study the components of the self-
other concept which will be used will fall into four categories: the

physical characteristics of the self, the social self, the ideal self,

 

32Lindzey, ed., Ibid., p. 488.

33Good and Scates, _o_p. Ell" p. 670.

34Bernard Berelson in Lindzey, ed., pp. _c_i_t., p. 508.

13m
in

I...

11' "

19

the moral self. The analysis of content of the selected list of children's
books is then made by the use of these components. Some components
in theme analysis require special indicators, others may not require
indicators. This study makes no use of indicators. Instead it relies
upon many concrete and specific examples from the literature. Many
writers seek to validate their studies. In content assessment, however,
validity is not a major problem. A careful definition of components
usually suffices in this regard.
With respect to reliability Berelson has written:
The reliability of a list of symbols (3. g., Grey, Kaplan,
and Laswell, 1949) may be high, but the reliability of a com-
plex semantic analysis is another matter. Presumably the
use of complicated and sophisticated categories creates
serious problems in reliability. This is the problem of the
balance between reliability of the procedures on the one hand
and the richness of the categories on the other. What does it
matter that we gain reliability if in the process we lose all
our insights ? This critical area of content analysis, i.e. ,

the reliability of complex categories, still needs to be ade-
35
quately handled.

Definition 2f terms. For the purpose of this study the

 

following terms are defined. Other definitions are explained in
Chapter II.

Self - In technical discussion two distinct concepts appear
and reappear: (A) the self as the subject, the agent, the indi-
vidual person, the living being; and (B) the self as the individual
that is somehow revealed or known to himself.

 

35Berelson, 22- 2.3., p. 173.

36English and English, pp. git” p. 485.

1:.

“L

f O
074

g.

20

Self-concept - A person's view of himself; the fullest
description of himself of which a person is capable at any
given time. 37

Planpf the study. Chapter I has presented a review of the

 

literature concerning the effects of reading. Chapter II is concerned
with the self-other concept. The literature of such persons as Carl
Rogers, Gordon W. Allport, Calvin Hall and Gardner Lindzey,

Earl C. Kelly, Abraham Maslow, Arthur Combs, and others is ex-
amined and a review is presented to define the components of the self-
other concept. Chapters III, IV, V, and VI consist of the analysis of
the selected children's books in terms of the components of the self-
other concept, and Chapter VII is a summation of the Study. In the
last chapter it is determined whether the literature does or does not
approximate the position identified in Chapter II. Implications gleaned
from the study are emphasized in Chapter VII. Appendix I contains a
table giving the number of books which refer to various components of
the self-other concept, and Appendix II contains a list of the books used

in the study.

 

37English and English, pp. 313., p. 486.

113:

I”)

4“

COT:

CHAPTER II
THE SELF-OTHER CONCEPT

Formation and preservation of the self is probably a con-
tinual and never entirely successful process. To find out what parts
of the world are "mine" and then to maintain these as ”mine" is a
complex process of synthesizing factors which are sometimes seem-
ingly and sometimes actually disparate. What is mine ? This body
which keeps continually changing its substance? These impulses to
do good or bad? Are these ideas mine which appear so good to me,
so creative and sparkling, or are these others mine which keep in-
truding themselves as unbidden guests ? The pronoun ”I" is one of
the most common in usage in our language. But who am I?

The self is the "I" or the ”Me" of which the person is aware
in his thoughts, feelings, and actions. However, the self is not a
perception alone, nor a general feeling, nor‘a "pure" thought. It is
all of these simultaneously. It is no different in principle from other
complex entities existing in our experience. But the self is vastly
more complex than any other entity we experience and generally the

most important.

 

.G

:-

22

THE SELF

In order to avoid confusion it is necessary to distinguish
between the synonymous terms "self, " "self-concept” and "self-
image. ” In much of the literature these terms are used interchange-
ably and it is sometimes difficult to understand their meanings in
specific instances.

The term ”self, " as explained in Hall and Lindzey has come
to have two distinct meanings.

The first meaning may be called the self-as-object
definition since it denotes the person's attitudes, feelings,
perceptions, and evaluations of himself as an object. In
this sense the self is what a person thinks of himself. The
second meaning may be called the self-as-process definition.
The self is a doer, in the sense that it consists of an active
group of processes such as thinking, remembering, and
perceiving.

James said that a person's self is the ”sum total of all that he

can call his. "2

In the words of Jersild, "it is a composite of thoughts and
3

feelings which constitute a person's awareness of his individual existence. "

Ausubel states that:

 

1Calvin S. Hall and Gardner Lindzey, Theories of Person-
ali,fl (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1957), p. 468.

2William James, The Principles o_f Psychology, Vol. 1,
(New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1902), p. 179.

 

 

3Arthur T. Jersild, In Search of Self, (New York: Bureau
of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1952), p. 9.

 

 

i<

(fl

:7.

a!

If '

23

The Self is a constellation of individual perceptions and
memories consisting of the visual image of the appearance
of one's body, the auditory image of the sound of one‘s name,
images of kinaesthetic sensations and visceral tension, and
memories of personal events.

For Symonds the self is defined as the ways in which the
individual reacts to himself. The self, as he sees it, consists of
four aspects: (1) how the person perceives himself; (2) what he thinks
of himself; (3) how he values himself, and (4) how he defends or en-
hances himself. 5

Lundholm has made a useful distinction between a subjective
self and an objective. self. The subjective self is "what I think of my-
self" and the objective self is "what others think of me. "6

The self is a cognitive structure which consists of one's
ideas about various aspects of his being. Sarbin explains: ”One may
have conceptions of his body (the somatic self), of his sense organs
and musculature (the receptor-effector self), and of his social be-

havior (the social self). ”7

 

4David P. Ausubel, Theory and Problems 21: Child Develop-
ment, (New York: Grune and Stratton, 1958), p. 273.

 

 

5Percival .M. Symonds, The Ego and the Self, (New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1951), pp. 79-120.

 

6Helge Lundholm, ”Reflection Upon the Nature of the
Psychological Self, " Psychological Review, 47:137-146, 1948.

 

7T. R. Sarbin, "A Preface to a Psychological Analysis of
the Self, " Psychological Review, 59:11-22, 1952.

 

 

rt

24

The self may be described as the individual as known to
the individual. 8
The re are others that have described and defined the self
which adds to the total picture. Like other functions that cannot be
directly observed, the self must remain a construct, inferred to ex-
plain observable behavior. "The self appears to be an object of
value to the individual. ”9 It may be viewed from without as person-
ality involved attitudes. Sherif and Cantril state:
The more we study, the more we find that the ego (the
self) consists mainly of those attitudes formed during the
course of genetic development: attitudes related to one's

body, parents, family, school, church, profession, property,
class, and the like. I

Mead, one of the most influential philosophers of this
century, postulated a socially formed self. In other words, he said
that one responds to himself as others respond to him. He goes on

to say:

The self . . . is not initially there, at birth, but
arises in the process of social experience and activity,
that is, develops in the given individual as a result of

 

8Gardner Murphy, Personality, (New York: Harper and
Brothers, Publishers, 1947), p. 996.

 

9Ernest R. Hilgard, "Human Motives and the Concept
of Self, " American Psychologist, 4:374, 1949.

loMuzafer Sherif and Hadley Cantril, The Psychology 93
Ego Involvements, (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. , 1947), p. 156.

 

25
his relations to the process as a whole and to other indi-
viduals within that process.

According to Sullivan the self is made up of ”reflected
appraisals" of what others think. He also suggests that the earliest
experiences which influence the development of the self are ex-
periences with people and it is on the basis of complex inter-personal
relations, with experiences of approbations and disapproval, of re-
ward and punishment that the self is realized. 12

This has much in common with the self theorized in Carl
Roger's theory of personality which he says develops out of the or-
ganism's interaction with the environment. 13

The phenomenal self "includes all those parts of the phe-
nomenal field which the individual experiences as part or characteristic
of himself. "14

"Self-concept” or ”self-image“ is defined by Thorne ”as

the self one thinks oneself to be, either actually in the present, or

 

11George H. Mead, Mind, Self, and Society, (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1934), p. 135.

 

 

 

12Harry S. Sullivan, Conceptions _o_f_ Modern Psychiatry,
(Washington, D. C.: The William Alanson White Psychiatric Foun-
dation, 1947), p. 324.

l3Carl Rogers, Client Centered Therapy: Its Current
Practice, Implications and Theory, (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Pub-
lishing Company, 1951).

 

 

 

l4Donald Snygg and Arthur Combs, Individual Behavior,
(Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Publishing Company, 1949), p. 58.

26

ideally as one thinks one would like to be in the future. "15

The individual's self-concept, and the nature of it, cannot

be seen directly. Gordon explains that:

We infer the existence from the organized positive,
functional behavior of the individual--the language he uses,
the roles he takes, the ways of problem solving he utilizes6
the ways of expressing and handling feelings he displays.

. According to Ausubel the self-concept can be thought of in
the following manner:

It is an abstraction of the essential and distinguishing
characteristics of the self that differentiates an individual's
selfhood from the environment and other selves. In the
course of development, various evaluative attitudes, values,
aspirations, motives, and obligations become associated
with the self-concept. 17

A person's perceptions and conceptions of himself as a

totality are referred to by Stagner as the ”self-image. "1
”A wide variety of theories which accord an important or even
central role to the self-concept have been postulated by Adler, Fromm,

Horneéy, Maslow, McClelland, Rogers, Sullivan and their followers. 19

 

15Frederick C. Thorne, Personality, (Vermont: Journal of
Clinical Psychology, 1961), p. 102.

 

16Ira J. Gordon, Human Development, (New York: Harper
and Brothers, Publishers, 1962), p. 19.

 

l7Ausubel, Sp. git” p. 273.

18Ross Stagner, Psychology _o_f_ Personality, Third Edition,
(New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. , 1961), p. 186.

 

 

19Hall and Lindzey, 2p. £1}, pp. 467-498.

27

The self-concept as it finally evolves, is a composite of
thoughts and feelings which constitute a person's awareness of his
individual existence, his perception of what he has, his conception
of who he is, and his feelings about his characteristics, qualities,
and properties.

Examining the diversity of ideas and theoretical notions
concerning the self and self-concept, it is seen that the self is both
constant and changeable, it is both a knower and a thing that is known,

a perceiver and a thing perceived.

COMPONENTS OF THE SELF-OTHER CONCEPT

In order to more fully understand the self and see it in its
truest perspective, the emphasis must shift from an examination of
what the self is to an examination of how the self emerge s.

Harsh and Schrickel make this statement about the devel-
opment of the self.

From play and work and exploration, from books or TV
or conversation, one discovers sensory pleasures, activity
preferences, abilities, and sources of mental stimulation.
From appraisal by adults and age-mates a child forms
impressions of his social worth and of his adequacy to
play various roles. Moreover, from knowledge of growth
and social processes the child forms expectations of the
future. . . . He evaluates himself relative to a perceived
environment and directs behavior toward an imagined future
which is sometimes unlike anything previously experienced. . .

State
EXpe

feels

28

self-attitudes reflect many of the physiological processes
and social influences.20 '

The physical self. Anyone watching babies sticking their

 

fingers into their mouths, and a little later, putting their feet (one

at a time, of course) into their mouths, is aware of the great pleasure
the infant receives from these experiences. Throughout this devel-
opmental period the infant experiences what is him and what is not-
him through the process of feeling, handling, and tasting. As Sullivan
states, the thumb in the mouth is the classical example of the body
experiencing itself, or what he calls "self-sentience." 1"The mouth

feels the thumb and the thumb feels the mouth; that is self-sentience.

This is a point of departure for an enormous development.”21

A quotation from Ge sell and Ilg also serves to convey how
these concepts of the physical self develop.

The infant Spends many moments looking at his hands,
fingering his hands, mouthing his hands. These sensory
experiences, visual, tactile, wet, dry, still, moving, stop-
go, oral, palmar, touching, and being touched, provide him
with a medley of data. By gradual degrees he comes to
realize that he has a hand that feels when it contacts (ac-
tive touch), which feels when it is contacted (passive touch),
which feels when it moves (sense of motion, or kine sthetic
sense, mediated by sensory end organs in muscles, joints,
and tendons.) His ceaseless manipulation ~ therefore acquaints

 

20Charles M. Harsh and H. G. Schrickel, Personality,
Development and Assessment, Second Edition, (New York: The
Ronald Press Company, 1959), pp. 160-161.

 

 

21Harry S. Sullivan, The Interpersonal Theory 2f
Psychiatry, (New York: Norton, 1953), p. 141.

 

 

.(,
4
t

T‘)‘Si¢
the a;
"11.134

Come

r+
/~'
' m

H
\(7
I

29

him not only with the physical universe and the physical
presence of other persons, but with the physical presence
of himself.

Thorne stresses the importance of the perceptions of the
physical body when he says: ”The characteristics (and particularly
the appearances) of the physical body exert life-long determining
influences on the development of the Self and what the Self can be-
come. "23

Fisher and Cleveland have published a series of researches
on the body image. A major finding is that some persons perceive
their body as surrounded by a hard, protective armor, whereas
others see themselves as open and soft. They have been particularly
concerned with demonstrating that arthritis, skin cancer, stomach
ulcers, and other ailments are systematically related to these body-
irnage types. Their conclusion about body concepts influencing the
choice of psychosomatic symptoms is supported by the observation
that when surface symptoms are "cured” by hypnosis, patients spon-

taneously acquire other surface symptoms. 24

 

zzArnold Gesell and Frances L. Ilg, Infant and Child In
the Culture of Today, (New York: Harper and Brothers, Publishers,
1943), p. 336.

23Thorne, 2p. _<_:_i_t_., p. 108.

 

 

 

2‘J‘Semour Fisher and Sidney E. Cleveland, "The Role of
Body Image in Psychosomatic Symptom Choice, " Psychological
Monographs, No. 17, and "Body Image Boundaries and Style of Life, ”
Journal ngbnormal and Social Psychology, 52:373-379.

 

teri:

thes

CO:

der-

/

/S.
[In

r4

30

In determining the body image, certain parts of the body
seem to have more importance than others. Horowitz tells of asking
very young children the questions, "Is this you?” as he pointed to
parts of their bodies. The children mentioned a variety of localiz-
ation points, including the mouth, the head, the abdomen, the eyes,
the heart and the face. 25

The child's body image is influenced by his “real" charac-
teristics, size, speed of running, and muscular co-ordination. But
these depend on social norms (in part, on the performance of those
around him).

The importance of social norms is illustrated in the study
by Jourard and Secord. They found that for males, a large body was
conducive to self-satisfaction; for females, on the other hand, a body
somewhat smaller than the norm led to greater feelings of satisfaction
with the self- -with one exception: bust measurement. 26

There seems to be little doubt that physical characteristics
contribute to self-attitudes in present day society. Statistical evi-

dence is provided by Jersild. He asked nearly three thousand children

to write on what they liked or disliked about themselves. The importance

 

25Eugene Horowitz, "Spatial Location of the Self, " Journal
p_f_Social Psychology, 6:379-387, 1935.

 

26Sidney Jourard and Paul F. Secord, "Body-Cathexis and
the Ideal Female Figure, ” :1. Abnormal and Social Psychology, 50:243-246.

 

 

.6

pl;

31

of various factors changed widely from the fourth to the Sixteenth
grade, but in nine of the twelve age groups, physical appearance was
more important to girls than to boys. At the peak, 53 per cent of
ninth-grade girls disliked their physical characteristics, as com-
pared to 32 per cent of the boys. Sports ability was a source of
pride for one-fourth of the sixth-grade boys, but was mentioned less
frequently at successive stages. During the later years the focus of
self-esteem shifts to personality and success in social relationships;
yet from other evidence it appears that even these factors depend
upon cultural acceptability of the individual's physical characteristics.

Feelings of personal identity tend to be enhanced by all

factors that contribute to "personal style. "

Personal style is the distinctive pattern of individualizing
expressive behaviors characterizing the mode of presenting
one's self to the world. It consists of personal styles of
grooming, hair style, beauty culture, posture, expression
gestures, facial expressions, talking, laughing, posing and
acting which tend to establish one's own "trade-mark" or
personal style.

The status of the physical body and appearances (personal

style) are important components of the self-concept. The fact is

that the status of the physical body is very important both personally

and socially because it to a large extent determines and limits what a

 

27Jersild, 2p. 312., pp. 135-141.

28Thorne, 213. £13., p. 107.

p;

‘4

32

person can be and become. Such factors as age, sex, health, ap-
pearance, skin color, and functioning capabilities of the physical body
as well as the factors of personal style need to be considered in any

evaluation of the development of the self-concept.

The social self. Each person‘s self is something individual,

 

yet it has a social origin. Among those who have emphasized the social
origins of the self is George H. Mead. "The self is essentially a social
structure, and it arises in social experience . . . it is impossible to
conceive of a self arising outside of social experience. "29
The social history of man started with his emerging from
the state of oneness with the natural world to an awareness of
himself as an entity separate from surrounding nature and
men. Yet this awareness remained very dim over long periods
of history. The individual continued to be closely tied to the
natural and social world from which he emerged; while being
partly aware of himself as a separate entity he also felt part
of the world around him. 30
The influence of social relationships on the development of
the self have also been emphasized in writings by Adler, Karen
Horney, Sullivan and their followers. The concept of "interpersonal
relationships" is essential to a theory of personality development and

to self- othe I re alization.

Many of the experiences influencing a child's self-other

 

29Mead, 33. 53., p. 142.

30Eric Fromm, Escape From Freedom, (New York: Rinehart
and Company, Inc., 1941), p. 24.

 

33

concept are practically predetermined by culture patterns as they
apply to a specific family configuration. Stated more generally, a
child's self-other concept is an outgrowth of the role which he plays
in the family.

Walt Whitman has stated it poetically:

His own parents, he that had fathered him
and she that had conceiv'd him in her
womb and birth'd him,

They gave this child more of themselves
than that,

They gave him afterward evgfy day, they
became part of him . . .

Ruth C. Wylie reviews critically the recent research
literature pertaining to the self-concept. In reference to parent—
child interaction and the self-concept she states:

All personality theorists who are concerned with constructs
involving the self accord great importance to parent-child
interaction in the development of the self concept.

The conclusions that are drawn by Wylie from the exami-

nation of the available studies on parent-child interaction and the

self-concept are:

There is some evidence, not entirely free of possible
artifact, to suggest that children's self-concepts are similar

 

31Walt Whitman, "There Was A Child Went Forth, " in The
Literature _o_f the United States, (Chicago: Scott Foresman and Com—
pany, 1949), p. 714.

32Ruth C. Wylie, The Self Concept, _A_ Critical Survey 3f
Pertinent Research Literature, (Lincoln, Neb. : University of
Nebraska Press, 1961), pp. 121-122.

 

 

 

 

 

34

to the view of themselves which they attribute to their
parents. There is some limited evidence that a child's
level of self-regard is associated with the parents‘ re-
ported level of regard for him. There is some evidence
to suggest that children see the like-sex parent's self
concept (as contrasted to the opposite-sex parent's self
concept) as being somewhat more like their own self
concept.

Jersild has this to say, "When a child is accepted, approved,
reSpected, and liked for what he is he will have an attitude of self-
acceptance and respect for himself. "34 Thus there is a close rela-
tionship between attitudes toward self and attitudes toward others,

. . 35
according to Sull1van.

Second only to the family in its impact upon the self of the
child is the school. Up until the time of the child's entry into School,
the family has acted as a buffer, constantly at hand to interpret his
experiences. Going to school brings about changes. The child moves
into a new society, with its own way of life.

It is recognized that the schools teach not only the "funda-
mentals, " but also values and behavior patterns, concepts of world

and self, and information which is necessary to the child in the process

of self-other realization in contemporary society.

 

33lhid. , pp. 135-136.

34Arthur T. Jersild, Child Psychology, Fourth Edition,
(New York: Prentice Hall, Inc. , 1954), p. 183.

 

35Sullivan, pp. E_i_t_., p. 157.

school play

are appro]
aritl
3.1301

the
the}
dis:

are

Illll‘

wri
to 1
hilr
are inflm
lS affecte
l'OOm. E
would be
101‘ thEIT
ach' fl

1 111C

35

There is a paucity of research concerning the part the
school plays in the development of the self. Jersild's comments
are appr0priate.

Great numbers of children are pressed into reading and
arithmetic whether or not they are ready; they must learn
about Mother Goose and the habits of beavers, the Gold Rush,
the ”Dark Ages, " and the amendments to the Constitution;
they memorize the dates of bygone wars and the names of
distant stars. But human motives and the inner life of man
are largely ignored in the education they receive from
nursery school through college. As expressed by one
writer, in our educational system we have asked the child
to learn about everything except the most important thing--
himself. 36

An interesting study is used by Gordon to show that children

are influenced by the teacher's behavior. Their self—understanding
is affected by the way the teacher behaves toward them in the class-
room. Staines in Australia hypothesized that children's self-images
would be influenced in different ways by teachers, depending upon the
frequency of self-reference statements.

This study revealed "that changes in the Self-picture are

an inevitable part of both outcomes and conditions of learning in every
classroom, whether or not the teacher is aware of them or aiming

for them. . . . The Self can be deliberately produCed by suitable

teaching methods" (Staines, 1958, p. 109). 37

 

36Jersild, gp. 3313., pp. 592-593.

37J. Staines, "The Self-Picture as a Factor in the Classroom, ”
British Journal of Educational Psychology, cited in Ira Gordon, Human
Development, (Ne-w York: Harper and Brothers, Publishers, 1962),
pp. 217-218.

 

 

 

by 1.8V
anothe
impo r1

fizure

for ch
grade

group

asthe
and ac

Sfillt

36

The classic study of boy's preadole scent group life
by Lewin, Lippit and White, a study by Anderson and Brewer and
another study by Lippit and White, are studies that illustrate the
importance of the behavior of others (in these cases adult authority
figures) in shaping and modifying the self of the child. 38
This investigation is concerned with books suitable
for children in grades four through six. The children in these
grades are called preadolescents. The dominance of the peer
group begins its period of ascendancy during this phase of growth.
The years of preadolescence have been characterized
as the unknown years. The voluminous body of research on infancy
and adolescence dwindles down to a small quantity of articles on

the preadolescent. Redl's article, although written in 1943, is

still to the point.

 

38Kurt Lewin, R. Lippit, and R. White, "Patterns of
Aggressive Behavior in Experimentally Created ‘Social Climates', "
Journal o_f Social Psychology, 1939, 10:271-299.

 

Harold Anderson and J. Brewer, "Studies of
Teachers' Classroom Personalities, 11. Effects of Teachers'
Dominative and Integrative Contacts on Children's Classroom
Behavior, " Applied Psychology Monographs, Volumes 8 and 11,
1946.

 

R. Lippit and R. K. White, "The Social Climate of
Children‘s Groups," in R. Barker, J. S. Kounin and H. F. Wright,
eds., Child Behavior and Development, (New York: McGraw~Hill
Book Company, 1943), cited in Gordon, 12131., pp. 485.

 

37

The reason why we know so little about this phase of
development is Simple but significant; it is a phase which
is especially disappointing for the adult, and especially
for the adult who loves youth and is interested in it. These
youngsters are hard to live with even where there is the most
ideal child-parent relationship. They are not as much fun to
love as when they were younger, for they don't seem to ap-
preciate what they get at all. And they certainly aren't much
to brag about, academically or otherwise.

Robert J. Havinghurst has contributed to our understanding
of human behavior and the educative process by identifying develop-
mental tasks.

According to Havinghurst, the developmental tasks of
middle children, the period from six to twelve years of age, which

included preadolescence, are:

1. Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary
games.

2. Building wholesome attitudes toward one self as
a growing organism.

3. Learning to get along with age-mates.
4. Learning an appropriate sex role.

5. Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing,
and calculating.

6. Developing concepts necessary for everyday
living.

7. Developing conscience, morality, and a scale
of values.

 

39Fritz Redl, "Pre-adolescents, What Makes Them Tick?"
Child Study, 1943, pp. 44-48.

 

38

8. Developing attitudes toward social groups and

institutions. 40

In an effort to comprehend the various environmental
forces which exert their influence upon the developing self of the
child, the adult world--the family and the school have been investi-
gated. The child, however, lives in two worlds: an adult world and
a child world. When the child enters school the world of peers as-
sumes a commanding position in his life.

Every society possesses language, shared values, standards
of behavior, rituals, tasks which need to be performed, and an or-
ganizational framework. A peer society is a subsociety in the general
American scene. Within this peer society is a more intimate and
more vital subgroup-~the peer group.

There are reasons for the formation of these peer groups.
One reason can be seen in the very name sociologists have given these
groups. Peer groups are a society of people on a par with each other.
Need. for acceptance, for belonging, for experiencing are all provided
by adults, but it is only in the peer society that the child can meet
these needs as an equal. "In the shadow of superordinate adults he
cannot gain recognition, play differentiated roles, practice social

skills or interact with others except as a dependent and subordinate

 

40Robert J. Havinghurst, Developmental Tasks and Edu—
cation, (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948), pp. 17-25.

 

39

figure. "41

The child is also establishing his own personal identity,
his self-concept. He needs experience with equals, he needs the
warmth, support, and acceptance of a non-family group as he strives
for self-expression, self-understanding, and self-realization.

A peer group is characterized by being an intimate, selec-
tive group in which admission is by mutual choice, and status within
the group is a function of the group's values and the individual roles.
Variables influencing the organization of the group and the acceptance
of individuals change somewhat with age, sex, and social class back-
ground.

Preadolescents perceive their relationship with their peers
in many ways. They are highly aware of sex differences. Behavior
toward the opposite sex is usually aggressive and antagonistic. Boys
won't be caught dead Showing affection toward girls, although girls
do not feel as negative toward boys. Since sex identification is a
major concern of the preadolescent, he perceives this sarne-sex
gang as an essential force in helping him to meet this concern.

An attempt to see how preadolescents perceived their peers
used an incomplete sentence technique, in which 3, 000 children in a
Minnesota county in grades three to twelve completed such statements

as: "Most boys " and "Most girls . " An

 

 

analysis of the content of the replies showed that most preadolescents

40

are more favorably disposed to their sarne-sex peers and that the
girls make increasingly unfavorable comments about boys through
the sixth grade and then modify their positions. 42
A study designed to test the relationship between peer ac-
ceptance, self-acceptance, and acceptance of others was conducted
by Zelen. Zelen studied 145 fifth-grade boys and girls in Iowa.
Zelen found a substantial relationship between acceptance of others and
peer acceptance, between acceptance of self and peer status, but not
between acceptance of self and acceptance of others. He suggests
that external, behavioral factors are perceived by peers of this age,
but little attention is paid to understanding others. Peers are judged
on performance and utility. 43
The studies mentioned support the fact that the preadolescent
years are unique in the self-development of the child. Body and social
forces present the child with new views of his interpersonal world and
his own body. It is a time when growth in stature is slow, when co-

ordination skills allow team play, and when society provides many

group experiences. External control begins its great shift from adult

 

42D. B. Harris and S. C. Tseng, "Children's Attitudes
Toward Peers and Parents as Revealed by Sentence Completions, "
Child Development, 1957, 28: 401-411.

 

43S. Zelen, "The Role of Peer Acceptance, Acceptance
of Others and Self Acceptance, " Proceedings Iowa Academy pi Science,
1954, 61:446-449.

 

41

to age-mate. It is a time when the self continues to develop.

A major deve10pmental task of middle childhood consists
of identification with one's own sex-~1earning the appropriate male
or female adult role.

Identification is a major process by which roles, attitudes,
and the self-other concept are learned. The early childhood period
is a period of the greatest intensity of identification, of the greatest
need to identify. 44

Since these roles and attitudes are learned early in life,

in a close interpersonal setting, they become a basic part
of the core of the child's self and are fairly stable elements
in the way he will feel and behave throughout life.

There seem to be three levels of identification according
to Lynn. These are: (l) sex-role preference, the wish to be a parti-
cular sex, (2) sex-role adoption, the acting out in behavior of an
aspect of the role of a particular sex (for example, when a girl wears
boy's shirts and jeans), and (3) sex-role identification, the "actual
incorporation of the role of a given sex and of the unconscious re-

actions characteristic of that role. "46

 

 

44L Kagan, "The Concept of Identification, " Psychological
Review, 1958, 65:296-305. .

45Gordon, pp. Ei_t. , p. 114.
46D. B. Lynn, "A Note of Sex Difference in the Development

of Masculine and Feminine Identification, " Psychological Review, 1959,

 

42

The ability to identify with others is an important factor

in the development of the child‘s self-other concept.

Combs' view of the importance of identification is sum-

marized as follows:

The feeling of oneness with one's fellows produces in
the truly adequate person a high degree of responsible, trust-
worthy behavior.

The truly adequate personality has the capacity for
identification with his fellows. The feeling of identification
seems to produce a deep sensitivity to the feelings and
attitudes of others. '

The child selects those parts of others which he desires

for himself and adapts them to himself. The more successfully the
child can relate the action of others to himself and understand how

they concur or alter his actions, the more successfully will he

understand his self-other concept.

The ideal self. Man is a mythmaker, and among the myths

 

which he creates is the ideal self. "The ideal self is the image

which a person has of the kind of person he would like to be."48

The concept of the ideal self is employed in the studies by

47Arthur W. Combs in Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming,
(Washington, D. C. : Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development, National Education Association, 1962), p. 54.

 

48Bonner, pp. pit}, p. 471.

43

Carl Rogers, and Karen Horney uses the term extensively in her

book, Neurosis and Human Growth.

 

Cattell's view of the self draws upon psychoanalytic con-
ceptions of the ego and superego. He differentiates between the
"real self" and the "ideal self. ”
Normally the subsidiation of the actual self to the ideal
self tends to pass in time into a single self-sentiment, through
abandoning of the symbols and behavior representing rewards
which cannot be attained (or attained without too great a counter—
vailing ergic deprivation) or through the elevation of the actual
self to the aspired performance level. 49
Despite the extensive psychoanalytical literature on the ideal
self, there is little reliable evidence regarding its effect upon the
personality.
When the ideal self is founded on a realistic assessment
of one's own capacities and limitations it can serve as a compass to
guide the individual's behavior. It also can aid the individual in
planning and aspiring for long-range goals. In some people it is
50

what Allport calls a "criterion of conscience. "

Krech and Crutchfield's views about the ideal self are as

follows:

 

49Raymond Cattell, Personality, A Systematic, Theoretical
and Factual Study, (New York: McGraw—Hill Book Company, 1950),
pp. 656-657.

 

 

50Gordon W. Allport, Becoming: Basic Considerations for
_a_ Psychology pf Personality, (New Haven: Yale University Press,
1955), p. 97.

 

 

44

Parents and others help to shape the developing self-
structure in the child by pointing out, what he should and
Should not do, what he should and should not be like. Re-
wards and punishments help to accentuate the difference
between "desirable and undesirable" aspects of the self.

Thus the individual comes to develop an enduring con-
ception of what he ought to be like. This aspect of his whole
self-picture has been called the self-ideal (or ideal self).

It defines the "highest" level in the hierarchy of the self.
It provides a standard against which the rest of the self may
be evaluated. 51
When children and adults are asked to describe themselves,
most of them are able to make a distinction between what they think
they are and what they would like to be or think they ought to be.

Jersild reports that what a person reports about himself

depends upon: (1) what he is consciously able to recognize as quali-

ties belonging in his make-up, (2) what he not only recognizes, but

is also willing to admit, (3) what he feels impelled to deny, and (4)

what he feels impelled to claim about himself. 52
In describing themselves children differ greatly in the ex-

tent to which they are able to recognize or are willing to admit even

minor childhood foibles. In one study children were asked to respond

to a list of statements which were regarded as "probably true" of.

all children (e. g. , "I sometimes disobey my parents;" "I sometimes

 

51David Krech and Richard S. Crutchfield, Elements 33
Psychology, (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1960), p. 208.

 

52Jersild, Child Psychology, 33. 333., p. 124.

 

45

say bad words or swear. ") The children who had been rated as least
well adjusted according to an earlier measure (test of personality)
less frequently admitted common faults than those rated as well
adjusted. 53
Level of aspiration is identified with the ideal-self. An
individual's aspiration level represents him not only as he is at any
particular moment, but also as he would like to be at some point in
the future. It is a measure of his intentional d13position, an impor-
tant element of his long-range behavior. By knowing a person's level
of aspiration a great deal can be learned about his self-other concept,
and insight into the ideal-self.
A person's level of aspiration is also markedly deter-
mined by his self-image, especially his ideal self-image.
He strives and achieves, not only because of external
pressures in the form of group standards and other people's
opinions, but also because of his loyalty to his conception
of himself as a person.
In recent years, increased emphasis has been placed upon
"self-realization" as a need. The ideal-self, aspiration level, self-
realization, and self-actualization are inter-related.

Aristotle made the concept of self-realization a basic at-

tribute of the good life. The goodness of man, he believed, consisted

53C. Taylor and Arthur W. Combs, "Self-Acceptance and
Adjustment, " Journal 23 Consulting Psychology, 1952, 16:89—91.

 

54Bonner, o_p. £533., p. 486.

46

in the realization of his essence, that is, in his self-realization.
Kurt Goldstein's point of view regarding self-realization
is summarized as follows:

What are usually called drives are tendencies corres-
ponding to the capacities and the nature of the organism and
the environment in which the organism is living at a given
time. It is better we speak of "needs. " The organism has
definite potentialities, and because it has them it has the
need to actualize or realize them. The fulfillment of these
needs represents the self-actualization of the organism. 55

Maslow developed an integrated system of needs arranged
in a hierarchial order based on the relative importance of the satis-
faction of the needs. Maslow's needs include: (1) physiological needs,
(2) safety needs, (3) love and belonging needs, (4) esteem needs
(needs for achievement and recognition), (5) self actualization needs,
and (6) desires to know and understand. 56

Self-actualization appears to involve more than just a
passive naturation and growth as would a plant grow to
maturity. Self-actualization is more than just a passive
accumulation of experience as a result of ageing. While
growth, maturity and the accumulation of experience do
occur more or less automatically with ageing, these factors
alone could not produce more than instinctive (maturational)
or mechanistic (chance conditioning from the environment)
behaviors. The highest level of perfect Skills and produc-
tive creativity occur only when a person consciously and

 

55Kurt Goldstein, "The So-Called Drive, N in Clark E.
Moustakas, Editor, The Self: Explorations 333 Personal Growth,
(New York: Harper and Brothers, Publishers, 1956), p. 23.

56Abraham W. Maslow, "A Theory of Human Motivation, "
Psychological Review, 1945, 50:370-396.

 

 

 

 

the As
the V1
Rho

irthe

18 0:;
films:
the I

SOci

7

f
r

["1

t": f) ’H

47

deliberately imagines what he could be or could do and then
strives (works) for its accomplishment. 57

Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming, the 1962 Yearbook of

 

the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, presents
the views of Earl C. Kelly, Carl Rogers, Abraham H. Maslow, and
Arthur W. Combs dealing with the truly adequate person, adequate
in the sense that a person is fully functioning and self-actualizing. 58
Rogers describes the fully functioning person as one who
is open, without the need for defense to his experience. This person
trusts himself and his'organism. He finds that his own self- system
is trustworthy. Since he is so self accepting that he need not distort
the perceptual world, this trust usually leads to good personal and
social decisions. 59
If a child receives stimulationand guidance he may be en-
couraged to develop his own potential and achieve a healthy self-

image, ideal-self image, and the self-other concept while moving

toward the goal of uniqueness.

 

57Thorne, 22. 3:33., p. 172.

58Association for Supervision and Curriculum Deve10p-
ment, Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming, (Washington, D. C.: National
Education Association, 1962).

 

 

59Carl Rogers, "Toward Becoming a Fully Functioning
Person, " in Perceiving, Behaving, Becoming, Chapter 3, and "The
Concept of the Fully Functioning Person, “ mimeo paper, 16 pp.
from Dr. Kinget.

 

48

The moral self. In the review of the nature of the percep-

 

tual self there is no doubt regarding its importance in the organization
of personality. There is, however, another frame of reference in
which the self originates. This is in the realm of moral judgment
and behavior.

"The moral self is a system of inner checks which impels

the individual to act on the principles of altruism, justice, and other-

mindedness."60

Social conditioning, or the whole process of social-
ization and the resulting higher level of integration, is an
evolution which no creature below man has experienced.

This higher level of integration is found in the self. . . .

A unique feature of the integrative self is that, as G. H.
Mead has so well shown in his Mind, Self and Society, it
enables man to become an object to himself. The capacity to
be an object to himself is what makes man, in contrast to the
non-human primates, a self-conscious, self-directing, and
self-evaluating being. In the absence of these character-
istics moral behavior-“which is to say, behavior engaged

in for the sake of others and not only for one self--would

be impossible. Moral behavior so conceived is predicated
on the existence of an integrating centerm-of a self.

 

From this point of view moral behavior arises from
the individual's conception of himself as a moral person. Char-
acter and moral goodness are expressions of man's image of

himself as acting in the interest of others as well as of himself.

 

60Bonner, pp. 313., p. 470.

“mm. , p. 402.

49

Even children, as a consequence of positive socialization,
act in ways designed to bring satisfaction to others and not
only to themselves. Altruistic behavior, for example, is
substituted for selfishness, not because of a conflict between
egoistic and altruistic impulses, or out of fear of punishment,
but because the child in his interaction with his parents has
learned to identify with them. The image of his parents or
other "ideal" selves is incorporated into the child's person-
ality and becomes internally re-inforcing. The child's self-
image is often suéficient to cause him to behave in morally
acceptable ways. 2

From early infancy children face the impact of moral values

and moral obligations. They are constantly reminded of what is ap-
proved and not approved, what is good and what is bad. The under-
lying moral emphasis in much of the child's upbringing has a sig-
nificant bearing on his developing attitudes toward himself and others.

It has been found that the young child's moral judgments

and his ideals are greatly influenced by the standards that prevail
in his home. As the child grows older his moral judgments are in-
fluenced by the standards he meets outside the home. In narning the
persons whom they eSpecially admire (and probably feel inclined to
emulate) younger children usually mention parents and relatives,
while children in middle-childhood and adolescence mention persons

outside the home, including historical characters, heroes and

heroines in fiction, and prominent contemporary figures such as

Bonner, 2p. _c_i£., p. 404.

50

athletes, movie stars, and government officials, 63. 64

In a comparison between ten-year-olds and sixteen-year-
olds it was found that as children move from middle childhood into
adolescence, the influence of the family becomes less important and
social relationships outside the home become relatively more impor-
tant in determining the child's character, such as his reputation for
honesty, moral courage, loyalty, responsibility, and friendliness. 65

Jone's summary of the research up to 1954 indicates that
there is no age level which can be properly referred to as the "age
of discretion" before which children's actions may be considered
relatively unsusceptible to training and unimportant in terms of char-
acter development, and after which children's conduct suddenly yields
to education and the conditioning of the culture. 66

Piaget's work greatly influenced the study of children's

moral development. He described certain qualities of children's

 

63D. H. Hill, "Personification of Ideals by Urban Children, "
Journal 93 Social PsychOlogy, 1930, 1:379-392.

 

64R. J. Havighurst, M. 2. Robinson and M. Dorr, "The
Development of the Ideal Self in Childhood and Adolescence, " Journal
2£Educational Research, 1946, 40:241-257.

65A. W. Brown, J. Morrison, and G. B. Couch, "Influence
of Affectional Family Relationships on Character Development, "
Journal 23Abnorma1 Social Psychology, 1947, 42:422-428.

66V. Jones, "Character Development in Children- -An
Objective Approach, " in L. Carmichael, ed. , Manual _<_)_f_ Child
Psychology, 2nd ed. (New York: Wiley, 1954), pp. 781-832.

 

 

 

51

67 Piaget's

moral judgments during various periods of childhood.
account of the thinking that underlies moral judgments and his con-
clusions concerning the characteristics of children's moral judgment
at one particular age level compared with the next have not generally
been confirmed by other investigators. 68
Children not only know what behavior is expected of them;
they also know how teachers and peers perceive this behavior. Boys
and girls both know that teachers view the behavior of boys as gener-
ally more socially unacceptable, than that of girls. 69
The moral ideas of preadolescents correspond to those of
adults. However, preadolescents are still thinking about behavior,
except in those cases where they have received special training. They
know what adults expect even if they do not meet these expectations. 70

Peck and Havighurst have reported a longitudinal study of

more than eight years of a group of Midwestern children. Those

 

67J. Piaget, The Moral Judgment 933133 Child, (London:
The Free Press, 1932).

 

6812.. Bloom, "A Reappraisal of Piaget's Theory of Moral
Judgment, " Journal 23 Genetic Psychology, 1959, 95:3-12.

 

69Arthur Foshay, et a1. , Children's Social Values: fl
Action Research Study, (New York: Teachers College, Columbia
University, 1954).

 

 

7oH. Ojemann, et a1. , ”The Effects of Causal Teacher-
Training Program and Certain Curricular Changes on Grade School
Children, " Journal piExperiInental Education, 1955, 24:95-114.

 

52

growing up in democratic homes were characterized by friendliness
and spontaneity; those living in severely autocratic, nontrusting, non-
accepting homes were characterized by hostility and guilt. The
children reared in a consistent, stable, warm, mutually approving,
and trusting climate deve10p a strong sense of reality and personal
worth. In addition a strong sense of personal values, a conscience,
and an ability to maintain his own position seem to be the results of
regularity and consistency in the child's home training. 71
There seems to be an interrelationship between a child's

moral development and his ideas and attitudes pertaining to himself

and othe r 3.
SUMMARY

The self-other concept consists of (a) thé'physical self, ”
as used by William James to call attention to the fact that a person's
physical features have an important place in his concept of himself,
(b) the self in relationship to others, (c) the potential self or the
expectancy of what one might be in the future.

To explain the way in which the individual selects from

his environment according to this concept, Syngg and Combs and

 

71Robert F. Peck and Robert J. Havighurst, The
Psychology if. Character Development, (New York: John Wiley and
Sons, Inc., 1960).

 

 

53

others have distinguished two selves; the "phenomenal self" and
the "perceived self." The phenomenal self, apparently is that
part of the environment with which the individual is most closely
associated. The perceived self is the "inner vision."

What one senses, feels, perceives, thinks, and expects
about one's self, reflects and determines the basic attitudinal
balance to all of life.

The review of the literature suggests that the self-other
concept may evolve through a large number of stages according to
the various periods of life and situations. In general, a person
tends to act out what he thinks he is and this is important to the
deve10pment of the self-other concept.

A person may shape himself by shaping his self-concept
according to ideas of how he would like to look. He may arrange his
grooming, dress, posture, and his gesturesto conform to a model.
Or his striving for self may be imagined in more abstract terms or
traits such as courage, strength or lovability.

A person may shape himself by Shaping his self-concept
according to what he may imagine he can be. The first stage of
deliberately becoming, apparently, is to get the image of what one
can be and then form an ideal self in relation to the actual self.

In our present day society the self acquires through social

pressure an upward tendency, a need to be highly elevated. This

54

need can be seen to some extent in the research relative to level-
of—aspiration experiments.

The self-other concept evolves relative to a social group
and includes everything a person believes to be true of his usual
behavior and inner experience. It is acquired through self obser-
vation and through adoption of the conclusions about the self held in
relation to other selves.

The ideal self includes all of the ideals and standards with
which a person must conform, if he is to maintain self-esteem, and
develop moral character.

From the previous discussion the position is taken that the
self-other concept develops in a psycho-social sense. The self-concept,
we know is learned. People learn who they are and what they are from
the way they perceive themselves and from the ways in which they have
been treated by those who surround them in the process of socialization.

The components of the self-other concept may well be
categorized as follows:

1. Realization that physical makeup and personal style
are essential parts of the self-other concept.

2. Realization that effective interpersonal relationships
are an essential part of a self-other concept.

3. Realization that aspiration of expectation of adequacy
is an essential part of a self—other concept.

4. Realization that moral sense is an essential part
of a self-other concept.

CHAPTER III

PHYSICAL lVIAKE UP AND PERSONAL STYLE

IN A SELECTED LIST OF CHILDREN'S BOOKS

It was previously suggested that, one by one, each com-
ponent of the self-other concept would be the main theme of a Single
chapter of this paper. This chapter is concerned with component
number one, realization that physical status and personal style are
important to the development of a self-other concept.

If it is accepted that the development of a self-other con-
cept is necessary, and if it is also accepted that printed materials
can be influential in the formation of attitudes and have an effect on
the personality, it follows that the content of children's books should
be assessed in order to ascertain whether or not such content can be
expected to contribute to the development of the self-other concept.

Among the books that children read are those that tell
about children in the United States. These stories about boys and
girls, their families, their friends living in Arizona, Pennsylvania,
Iowa, Vermont or some other state contain attitude building material.
It would seem important to observe if the children in all parts of the

United States as portrayed in the content in a selected list of children's

56

books are revealed as being concerned with physical status and
personal style.

Melindy lives in the Bethune Building of the Federal Housing
project for negroes in Boston. In the 'wonderful year'--as she called
the year she was eight, many wonderful things happened to her.

Little girls who are eight sometimes are concerned about personal
appearance.

For an eight-year old girl, Melindy was small--well,

about the size of some girls who are seven. She was very neat,
and She always wore her hair braided in one pigtail with a rib-
bon on it. The ribbon always matched her dress, and she had
four dresses, two blue, one red, and one white-~that is, she

had four dresses until yesterday (her birthday), when she got
another dress, a pink one. Of course she also got a pink

ribbon. She was a very neat little girl, too and she had the softest
skin in the world. 1

Another story that provides a warm understanding of a child's

needs is The Long White Month.

 

"You will have to have some new dresses, " said Aunt
Millicent briskly. "You're growing out of everything you own. ”

"She's all knees and elbows, " remarked Mattie, jerking
at Priscialla's short blue linen skirt. Priscialla knew it was
no use jerking. When a dress is too short, and the hem has
been let out twice, there is just nothing you can do about it.
She had been waiting for weeks for Aunt Millicent to notice
this.

"Yes, " she agreed eagerly. "Aunt Millicent, couldn't
I have some sweaters and skirts this time, instead of just
dresses?"

 

1Georgene Faulkner, Melindy's Medal, (New York: Julian
Messner, Inc., 1945), p. 32.

 

57

"Sweaters ?" Aunt Millicent said vaguely. "Skirts ?"

"Yes, " Priscialla's voice was very earnest. "Every-
body wears them. All the girls at School do. ”

Aunt Millicent smiled indulgently. "I'm sure they do,
dear. But we don't want to look like everybody, do we ?"2

Judy is a fierce-tempered loyal child, who with her family
journeys from a leaky Alabama Sharecropper's shack to follow the
cr0ps.

Papa drove right on. When they were five miles beyond
town, Judy remembered.

"0h, Papa. . . " she began.
"What is it sugarpie?"

"One-Eyed Charlie said. . . if I'd come back he'd give
me---"

"Who on earth is One-Eyed Charlie ?" asked Papa.
"The man in the feed store, " said Judy.

"He promised me a blue flowered feed sack the next time
I come in, and now we won't ever go there no more. . . "

"What you want a feed sack for?" asked Papa gently.

"To make a dress, " said Judy. "Mama could sew it on
her sewing machine. . . "

"You ain't got dresses ?" Papa looked down at her faded
and torn overalls, as if noticing them for the first time.

"Only two, " said Judy, "and one is tore and patched. The
others got too small. Cora Jane's wearing 'em. "

 

ZDean Marshall, The Long White Month, (New York: E. P.
Button and Company, Inc., 1942), pp. 10-11.

 

58

”Too bad, " said Papa, "but there's more feed stores and
Missy (the goat) will be needing more grain, won't She ?"

Judy nodded. They went riding on. 3

Esther, a shy child at first, grows into a girl who can
accept the best of a "new world" without giving up the traditions of
the Amish people into which she was born.

What a mixup her feelings were! She was glad and she was
curious. But She was worried too. From going to town and
even to the Fair, She knew how it was going to be in many ways.
She could not Show more if she wore a dress the color of a
cardinal. Only in a crowd of dark dresses exactly alike, and
white bonnets and black shoes and white aprons, was she hidden.
At the Fair, where hundreds of people wore different styles
and colors, she had been absolutely clear and alone among
them, like one black bird against the sky. At school she would
Show every day, every hour.

When Sue's father took a job as superintendent of a big
New York apartment house, Sue was delighted and looked forward to
making new friends, but being 'the janitor's girl' made it difficult at
first.

Sue looked at the newest dress. It was red wool, with
darker-red collar and cuffs. If she had been going to the party
she would have worn that dress. She touched the soft wool.
She would wear the dress anyway, she decided. It would make

her feel better as She sat upstairs alone, watching television.

She looked at herself in the mirror after she had put on
the red woolen dress. It was a lovely color, and she knew

 

3Lois Lenski, Judy's Journey, (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott, 1947), pp. 57-58.

 

4Virginia Sorensen, Plain Girl, (New York: Harcourt,
Brace and Company, 1956), p. 39.

 

59

it went well with her dark hair and eyes. "You really look
very nice, " Sue told the girl in the mirror. "It's too bad no
one at the party will see you. "

An interesting story of the adjustments that Indian children

from the Arizona reservations must make when they attend school

for the first time is told in the story of Navaho Sister.

 

Sad Girl braided her long hair and put on the dress which
Grace Yucca had given her, feeling very self conscious as she
did so. As Mrs. Jucca said, the Skirt felt very skimpy indeed
and was much too short. Instead of the yards which went into
the usual Navaho costume, this one could not have contained
more than three or four. It was cotton, in a shade of blue that
Sad Girl did not greatly admire, and the skirt was not gathered
but was made with a pleat in front and another in the back.
Worst of all, it did not come to the ground but ended at the
center of her calf. There was a round white collar which came
closely around her throat, with cuffs to match, and a cloth belt
of the same material as the dress.

It was quite the ugliest dress Sad Girl had ever seen and
even Grandmother did not think it was pretty.

The rest of the day was a series of strange and unexpected
experiences. People kept asking her questions and making
tests. She was provided with more clothing, panties, a shirt,
and a cotton slip, all to go under the blue dress which Grace
had given her. To Rose this was a great extravagance, for all
these garments were worn out of sight, and the sun was hot
enough so she did not need them for warmth. She was given a
sweater too, but what impressed her most of all was a pair
of shoes. She had always worn moccasins, and the leather
oxfords which laced up over her instep felt heavy and unyielding.
She was conscious of them with every step, and she had a
little trouble getting used to them. But they made her feel

 

5Frieda Friedman, The J anitor's Girl, (New York: William
Morrow and Company, 1956), pp. 80-831.

 

6Evelyn S. Larnpman, Navaho Sister, (New York: Doubleday
and Company, Inc., 1956), p. 22.

 

60

very elegant, and she only wished Grandmother could see
them.

A lively family story about a ten year old girl who is forever
getting into all kinds of scrapes is laid in Rockport, Massachusetts.

When the dinner dishes had been washed Saturday noon,
Rowena went to her room and changed into a clean dress. She
wished she had jodphurs to wear for the walk. Her sisters
made it quite clear to her that she was much too chubby to
wear jodphurs or slacks and that they did not come in sizes
made for fat girls. She hadn't even joined the Girl Scouts be-
cause the uniform would have to be made to order and her
mother thought it was too expensive.

The Saturdays give insight and a pleasant appreciation of

 

the everyday life of young people. Four Story Mistake is a sequel to

The Saturdays.

 

The dress was pretty. It had a long full skirt, really long,
right down to the floor; and it was made out of thin pink cotton
stuff, nineteen cents a yard at the Carthage Dry Goods and
Confectionery.

"Jeepers, you look old, " commented Rush, looking in at
the door, "about eighteen or nineteen at least. "

"Do I really, Rush ?" Mona was delighted. 9

There is a ten year old heroine for this story of a warm-

hearted, jolly New York family. Dot, one of four children struggles

 

71bid. , p. 35.

8Ruth Holberg, Rowena Carey, (New York: Doubleday and
Company, Inc., 1949), p. 44.

 

9Elizabeth Enright, Four Story Mistake, (New York: Rine-
hart and Company, 1942), p. 53.

61

with some problems that confront many ten year old girls.

"Look at yourself in the mirror, " said Mommy, and
they all went into the little bedroom that Dot shared with Peg.
They filled every inch of it. Dot looking at herself in the
mirror over the dresser, could hardly believe her eyes. The
coat fitted as if it had been made just for her. Red was her
favorite color, too. She stroked the beaver collar lovingly.

"She's really very pretty, " said Grandma, so low that
only Mommy was supposed to hear. But Dot heard, too, and
almost burst with happiness. Everyone was always so busy
telling how pretty Peg and Fluff were that they didn't even
notice her. 0

The year of growing up for twelve-year-old Ellen was when
her folks left Kansas to go to a fruit farming ranch in Colorado.

School was a daily torture. All the kids knew each
other. Ellen was the'only stranger. The girls all dressed
alike. Ellen alone was different. The girls all had secrets.
E llen heard them whispering to each other and felt the nerve-
tingling conviction that they were talking about her. They
were making fun of her, of course.

Dad bought her a light wo‘oly polo coat, of palest creamy
tan, with a wide belt to hold the soft folds Slim around her

waist.

"It's lovely with your dark skin, " Mother said.

But no other girl had a polo coat. The other girls wore
stiff heavy wool coats, usually a bit too small for them.
Their coats looked used, familiar, belonging. Only Ellen's

coat was brand-new. 11

There are other concerns that young girls may have about their

 

10Frieda Friedman, Dot For Short, (New York: William
Morrow and Company, 1947), p, 11.

 

llHelen Barnes, Wonderful Year, (New York: Julian
Messner, Inc., 1946), p. 161.

 

62

personal appearance other than dress.

Mona in The Saturdays is concerned about her physical

 

appearance and dress.

The sunlight came into the room and so did weaving
branch Shadows from ailanthus trees in the back yard. Mona
was brushing her hair; electricity made it stand out in a silken
skein and Randy could hear it crackle like burning leaves.

It was almost too bright to look at in the sun.

"You have beautiful hair, " She said.

"Oh, beautiful!" scoffed Mona brushing as if she hated
it. "Nasty old straight stuff. You and Rush are the lucky
ones. "

» "Rush'doesn't think so. He's always trying to make his
lie down and be straight. Remember the time he put gelatin
on it?" '

They both laughed.

Mona's fingers deftly plaited the golden hair. Then she
put on her Cleanest sweater and skirt and her green coat and
hat that matched. But where were her gloves ? She jerked
open the bureau drawers, burrowing through them till they
boiled over. Not a glove in sight. Randy got off her bed and
joined the search and at last they were located in the strangest
places. One in the kitchen beside the alarm clock and one
upstairs on the piano.

The curls bounced on Mona's shoulders. They blew
softly, silkily against her cheek; and inside her gloves She
could feel the ten red finger nails sparkling lightheartedly.
It was a long walk home! but Mona was carried swiftly on a
tide of joy. It's something to discover that you're going to
grow up beautiful instead of ugly.

 

12Elizabeth Enright, The Saturdays, (New York: Rinehart
and Company, 1941), p. 72.

3 .
1 Ibid., p. 94.

 

63

When the family moved from the country to a small New
York City apartment, eleven-year-old Carol thought She could never
be happy again.

Carol passed the mirror over the bureau and looked at
herself. The girl in the mirror was tall for her age and slim.
Like Daddy, she had a thin serious face, dark blue eyes, and
blond hair. Her hair was shoulder length and it curled at the
ends. Carol studied herself in the mirror. No one will ever
know I have a dimple, she thought, because it only Shows when
I smile and I'll never have anything to smile at in New York.
She forced herself to smile, just to be sure the dimple was
still there. '4

There are happy times with warm family relationships in
this story of a Jewish family in New York City.
There it was--a long, thick, perfect curl!

"Oh, Sarah, it's just gorgeous, " Charlotte cried.
Sarah's fingers reached up timidly as if fearful that the magic
curl could disappear at her touch. It was true! It was real!
Round and smooth and shapely. "Oh, Lena! Let's hurry and
do the rest. "

When it was over, Sarah raced to the bedroom mirror.
She stared at herself. Was this stranger Sarah? Slowly she
turned her head, studying herself from all angles. Lena
put a mirror in her hand so she could see the back of her
head as well. It was thrilling to feel the long blond curls
bob against her cheeks, her Shoulders, her back! Starry-
eyed, she threw her arms around Lena. "Thanks a million,
billion times ! "1

 

14Frieda Friedman, Carol From The Country, (New York:
William Morrow and Company, 1950), p. 20.

 

15Sydney Taylor, More All of 33 Kind Family, (Chicago.
Follett Publishing Co. , 1954), p. 96.

 

64

Vicky learns some of the useful arts on a farm in Pennsyl-
vania. She has concern for herself as well as hard work and fun.

"Well, well. " Aunt Jess had boomed from the station
platform that afternoon. "This can't be anybody but Vicky--
only carrot-t0p in the family, they tell me. "

Vicky, who thought that greenish eyes and a white com-
plexion we re bad enough without having her hair called
carroty besides, held out her hand.

"Yes, I'm Vicky, " she said politely, even though inside
she felt like telling Aunt Jess angrily that her hair was not
carrot-colored but, as Daddy often told her, strawberry
blonde. "Daddy and--I mean, Daddy--sends his love."

She could feel herself blushing, a hideous, red blush that
she knew crawled up her neck and made her look as though
She had a bad case of the hives. 1

Dot for Short is the only book that is concerned with size

 

as related to self-concept.

Dot had another wish that she never told others, but
now she found herself telling it to Grandma.

"I'd wish that after vacation is over next summer, I'd
go back to school and the teacher would tell us to form a
line according to our size. I'd take first place the way I
always do because I'm the Shortest one in the class. Teacher
would say, 'Dorthea, you've grown during the summer. Get
farther back. ' I'd measure myself with all the other' girls,
' and I'd be taller than anyone except the very last girl. "

"And why not taller than the very last girl?" asked
Grandma.

"Because, everyone notices you and says things if you're
the tallest, same as if you're the smallest. "

 

l(’Mildred Lawrence, The Homemade Year, (New York:
Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1950), p. 5.

l7

 

Friedman, Dot for Short, 3p. 3:33., p. 11.

 

65

Ten-year-old Kate longed above everything to be pretty and
' cute, but was only 'a very sensible child'.

"I'm sure you'll find Kate a very sensible child, " Miss
Wilson had said on leaving.

It hadn't sounded very thrilling, then, and it didn't seem
very thrilling now as Kate lay thinking about it. That was
all anyone had ever been able to say in praise of her. She
was sensible. Somehow it left a great deal to be desired.
In the long catalogue of human endowments, it seemed a
bitter thing that She should have drawn only good sense as
her portion. Perhaps, She decided, it was all she had a right
to expect. People with red hair and freckles couldn't expect
very much. And it was undoubtedly better than nothing at
all.

Like most people, Kate had definite ideas of what con-
stituted feminine charm and beauty. Also She had sense,
enough sense, in fact to realize that in no slightest way did
she fulfill her own standards of what charm and beauty con-
sisted of. Her hair was straight and red, her features were
nothing to Speak of, and where her body should have curved
gracefully, there was only sharp angles and hard muscles,
like a boys. In short, there wasn't the first thing cute about
Kate and she knew it. And suffered accordingly. Because
Kate longed above all things to be pretty and cute. If you
were pretty, everyone was crazy about you, even your rela—
tives. If you were cute, nothing was expected of you except
cuteness. And if you were pretty and cute enough, you
might even get into the movies.

The only boy in any of the books that seems to be concerned
about his self-concept is Cody. The author spins out the story of
Cody, triumphantly ten, who on his birthday boasts that he is a

'ringtailed tooter' and can lick anything.

 

18Doris Gates, Sensible Kate, (New York: Viking Press,
1949). pp. 15-16.

 

66

The day began with young Cody Capshaw waking up ten
years old for the first time in his life. He could feel the
difference of not being nine any more the instant he opened
his eyes, and did he think it was wonderful!

Cody didn't look different. He appeared to be the ex-
act same Tennessee mountain boy who, the night before, had
been only nine years and almost twelve months old. He had
the same snub nose. He had the same blue eyes that always
looked as if they were full of ideas. His head was decorated
with the same straw-colored hair that usually looked like
something a wind storm had torn up. And he had the same
dozens of freckles scattered over his face, looking as if
they had been shaken onto him from a pepper can.

But it was how this boy felt, not how he looked that
tickled him and made him grin till his ears wiggled. He

felt about seven times wiser and about eight times cleverer than
he had the day before. He felt ten. He felt grown up. 19

SUMMARY

It has been observed that physical make up and personal
style are considered as a component of the self concept. Jersild's
study of children's expressed evaluations of themselves shows that
a substantial percentage of children in the upper grades of elementary
school are sufficiently concerned with their bodies to express both
positive and negative feelings about them. 20

Unfortunately most body image research has not been con-

ducted with children. This is a relatively unexplored world.

 

19Leon Wilson, This Boy Cody, (New York: Franklin Watts,
Inc., 1950), pp. 14-15.

 

20Jersild, 1_n Search 33 Self, 33. 333.

67

This chapter has been concerned with component number
one, realization that physical status and personal style are impor-
tant to the development of a self concept. The content in a selected
list of children's books has been carefully examined in order to as-
certain whether or not such content can be expected to contribute to
the development of the understanding of physical status and personal
style.

The child characters as revealed by the examination of
the content of the selected list of children's books do not seem to be
concerned with personal status or appearance. Although, there are
a few instances that indicate that girls in the preadolescent stage of
development may be concerned with their personal appearance.

This concern is related to their dress, their appearance, their size
and their charm and beauty. Boys do not seem to be concerned with
their appearance.

Research in child development has revealed that the years
of preadolescence are marked by the Slow, steady growth of children
with few personal concerns. Authors of children's books have used
the results of this research in the development of the characters in
the books that bOys and girls read.

It is not until adolescence that girls become concerned with
improved personal appearance and boys become concerned with in-

creased strength. Teen age girls show concern about improving

68

their appearanceearlier than boys. Personal appearance may be
related to conformity to the peer group, to behavior and to the self
concept. But this is revealed in a very limited way from the
examination of the content from the selected list of children's

books.

CHAPTER IV

IN TERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS IN A

SELECTED LIST OF CHILDREN'S BOOKS

As has been previously observed, the self has a social
origin. The views of Wylie, Jersild, Fromm, Mead and Sullivan
have been presented. The realization that effective interpersonal
relationships are an essential part of the development of the self
concept has been stated. If it is accepted that a self-other concept
is essential in contemporary society, and if it is accepted that
books are important in the formation of personal and social atti-
tudes about the self, it follows that children's books should be
examined in order to ascertain whether or not the content therein
is such that it could provide ideas for the realization of effective
interpersonal relationships that are essential to the development
of the self concept.

It is when the child begins seeing others in relation to
himself that he begins to think of himself as an individual. This
may be in relation to his mother, his father, his grandparents,
other adults and his peers.

The Melendy family moves to a house in the country known,

70

because of its queer architecture, as the Four Story Mistake. The

story is concerned with the relationship the Melendy children have

with their father.

"There's a window for each child, " Randy remarked.

"So there is, ” said Father, and after a minute he said.
"And now that I think about it, Randy, I believe that each of
these windows belongs to one of you in a particular way.

This one, the north one, for instance that looks so far up

the valley. It must belong to Oliver because he's always
looking ahead; always straining toward tomorrow. The east
one is Rush's. The view from it is all moving and change-
able; the wind strikes the trees, the water clashes in the brook.
And the south one. See how the dark spruce branches beyond
the glass make a sort of mirror of the window. That's
Mona's; she's at the age where she loves her own reflection.

"And the west window?" Randy said.

"The west window belongs to you, Randy. From it you
can look back all day along the road you traveled yesterday. "

Randy thought she understood what Father meant.

"Well, I like today too, H she said. 1

In the Florida backwoods, a world exists which few people
see or even suspect. Many who do see it fail, sadly, to understand
it. Here is a real, authentic corner of the American scene, a segment

of American life.

"Birdie!" called Mr. Boyer, entering the field. "What's
a-goin' on out here? What you been doin' to that 'ere boy?"

"Semina, the mule throwed him, Pa!" said Birdie laughing.
"I was done plowin'. That little ole shirt-tail boy got so

 

lEnright, Four Story Mistake, op. cit., p. 30.

71

biggety, I couldn't stand it no more. "

Mr. Boyer was a tall, thin, genial-looking man, with
a weathered complexion. He shoved his hat back and patted
Birdie on the shoulder.

"Serves him dogged right!" he said with a laugh.

"Got rid of him, eh?" He pointed his thumb after the
retreating figure of the boy and horse.

"Seems like them Slaters air hard folks to neighbor with, "
said Birdie, remembering Mrs. Slater's call. "Likely I had
orter been nice to Shoestring; likely they won't come to see
us no more. "

"They'll be back direckly; don't you pay no mind, " said
Mr. Boyer. "Tired out with all the plowin' ? Little gal
like you, no bigger'n a weeny wren, plowin' a hull big field
like this!"

"I ain't no-ways tired, " said Birdie, "but I'm so hot, I
wish I was a fish in the lake, swirnrnin' 'round néce and cool.
When we gonna set the strawberry plants, Pa?"

Billy Honeycutt was a barefoot mountain boy living his
daily life with the mountain people of North Carolina.

He felt a deep content, as if he had just drained to the
bottom a gourdfull of water, ice-cold from the Spring; or
better still, as if he had just finished off a large slice of
his mother's dried-apple pie, with sugar and cream on top.
But no--his satisfaction was deeper than me re appetite.

, Why else did he hurry so to get his chores done each evening,
and scramble up the mountainside ? Just to watch the sun go
down each night made the whole day seem easier.

He musn't let Pappy catch him, Sitting on the fence,
doing nothing. He musn't let Pappy know. Pappy would
get riled or worse still, laugh at him and joke about it.

 

2Lois Lenski, Strawberry Girl, (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1946), p. 20.

 

72

But Mammy--she would understand. Only he was too shy
to talk to her. But she understood things without being
told. She knew why he was always so restless and couldn't
sit still in the house. She sensed his desire to roam and
encouraged it.

Nancy Barnes has written a story with real perceptiveness
and humor about family relationships.

Dad looked up from the Sunday paper and watched Ellen
come into the room. He looked at her for quite a while.
At last he spoke. "I suppose you know you behaved very
badly, Daught?" he said. "I am ashamed of you. "

Ellen said, "Yes, Dad, " meekly. "I'm awfully sorry. "

Mother came in. "You can set the table for me, darling, "
She said cheerfully.

Ellen knew a moment of intense thankfulness for her
Mother and Father. When they were mad at you you knew they
were mad and you knew why. They did not stop speaking to
you and make you suffer the way some parents did. They
did not yell at you or nag, or else get all dreadfully, dreadfully
hurt. And they didn't get dig‘pified and parental. They just
told you. Right out. Quick.

In 1947 Lois Lenski wrote Judy's Journey. This story
shows how the living and working conditions of migrant workers af-
fect the aspirations and relationships of children.

"Papa! You're not swappin' Mama's sewing machine,

are you?" She grabbed Papa's arm and shook it. "Papa!
Listen to me! " She stamped her foot, but Papa turned away.

"Papa! If you swap Mama's sewing machine. . . "

 

3Lois Lenski, Blue Ridge Billy, (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1946), p. 2.

 

4Barnes, 233. 3333., p. 166.

73

"Git back in the car and stay there ! " Papa said
angrily.

Papa almost never spoke a cross word to Judy. But
she did not care how mad he got. She gritted her teeth
and clenched her fists. She'd fight him if he swapped
Mama's sewing machine.

"Papa. . . Papa. . . "

"Git back in that car and stay there ! " repeated Papa.

Slowly Judy climbed back into her seat. She watched
out the back car window and saw the table go into the
second hand store, but not the sewing machine. She felt

better.

Rowena Carey is the story of a ten-year-old girl's per-

 

ception of herself in relation to her parents and her peers.

"Row, " her father began, "I don't want any more dis-
turbances like the one that took place this afternoon when
you stamped through the waiting room crying and howling.
It was very upsetting for the patients and for me to hear
such a racket. When you stamp up the stairs in a temper
it shakes the whole house. "

"Furthermore, " he went on, "you are too old for such
babyish actions. You will soon be ten years old. You must
learn to control your temper. "

Row's big brown eyes grew very serious. She wanted
to please her father, and the thought of being ten years old
made her feel grown up.

Dr. Carey looked at his fat young daughter for a moment.
He could see that she was planning to make some good reso-
lutions. Row spoke up. Her heart ached with a fervent wish to
please her father. "Daddy, I will 1212! hard not to cry any more
or lose my temper. Honest I will. "

 

5Lenski, Judy's Journey, op. cit., pp. 35-36.

 

6Holberg, pp. _c_:_i3., p. 123.

74

Texas Tomboy is the story of selfish, undisciplined ten-

 

year-old Charlotte Clarissa 'Charlie Boy' Carter.

"Remember the time you got stuck in the post hole ?"
asked her father.

"Sure do, " laughed the girl. "You put me down in there
to clean the dirt out with Mama's pie pan. "

"You were a cute little old girl, not more'n five, but
you were too fat when you squatted down, Charlie Boy. "

"I was scared to death, Papa, " the girl said. "But you
told me, 'Now, hon, don't you cry. In ten minutes I can dig
you out if I have to. Fall down on your knees, hold your
hands up, and I'll pull you out. ' And that's what you did. "

"You never cried a single tear, " said her father.
"I don't guess we ever told Mama, did we ?"

"No sir-reel" laughed the man. "She'd a kept you at
home. And how could I get along without my pardner? Mighty
lonesome riding pasture all day, with nobody to talk to but
myself. "

Another contemporary regional story was written after Lois
Lenski had Spent some time in South Dakota. The Great Blizzard of
1949 is the setting.

"Ach! This snow, it is nothing, nothing," said Papa
Johannes.

He looked at the three children sitting at the supper
table, eating big helpings of beef stew, mashed potatoes and
gravy. He looked at fat little Christy on his wife's lap. The
children were strong and healthy, and their cheeks were red
as apples from the cold air and the snow.

 

7Lois Lenski, Texas Tomboy, (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1950), p. 5.

 

75

"You boys--you are not babies, I hope ?" he said scorn-
fully.

"No, Papa, " said Darrell.

"No, Papa, " said Philip.

"A little cold weather, then you can take it?"
"Yah, Papa. "

"Yah, Papa. "

Papa leaned over and pulled a lock of Delores' yellow
hair.

"How about you, young lady? You take it, too?"
Delores grinned. "Yah, Papa. Sure. ”8

. . . and now Miguel is a memorable and deeply moving

 

story of a family of New Mexican sheepherders, in which Miguel,
neither child nor man, tells of his great longing to accompany the
men and the sheep to the summer pasture.
"You brought what home ?"
"The missing sheep. They are in the corral. "
My father and mother looked. Plasito and my grand-
father, who were watching uS, they pointed out the bunch in

the corral.

"Well!" my father said. At least, he didn't sound so mad
anymore when he looked at me.

"That's why I didn't go to school. "

"Well, " my father put his hands in his back pockets and

 

8Lois Lenski, Prairie School, (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1951), p. 46.

 

76

looked down at me. "That's different. But not so different

to make too much difference, Miguel. Sheep are important.
Even more important. Always there has to be something done
with the Sheep. And if every time something had to be done,
you stayed away from school, my goodness, you'd grow up

to be a burro. And tell me, do we need a burro around this
place ? "

"No, only mules and horses. "

"And even more, what we need is young men who are edu-
cated, who have learned to know what is the difference between
what is right and what is wrong. Do you understand?"

"I understand. And I promise. I will never miss school
again. "

My mother took me by the back of the head to go into the
house with me. And then my father did a wonderful thing. He
gave me a good spank. And when I looked around up at him,
he was smiling.

"It would not be true, " he told me, "if I didn't Say also
I am glad to have the sheep back. How you did it was wrong.

But for what you did, I want to thank you. "

The Ordeal 23 the Young Hunter is a penetrating story of

 

 

a young Indian boy's maturing and of his growing understanding of the
values of his own culture and of that of the white man.

"You are young, " Yellow Nose said. "As you grow older
you will find that there are many ways to Show courage. We
do not have fierce wild animals to face anymore, nor enemies
in battle. We have to have courage to endure many things that
are forced upon us. "

Yellow Nose took a handful of loose sand and let it
trickle slowly through his fingers, and watched it with his
keen black eyes as if each grain were something he remembered,

 

9Joseph Krumgold, . . . and now Miguel, (New York: Thomas
Y. Crowell Company, 1953), pp. 99-100.

 

77

something that happened in his life, or the life of The
People.

"We have had to have courage to give up many of the ways
of our ancestors. We have to have courage to accept the ways
of the Americans that are good for us, and refuse to accept

the ways that are not good. "

"How does one know which ways are good, which ways are
bad for us ?"

"It is sometimes hard to know, " Yellow Nose said. "The
wisest man cannot always know. "

"If the wisest man does not know, " Jadih asked, "how can
I know, who am only a boy ?"

"Some things you can learn from the experiences of
others. Some things you will have to learn for yourself. "

Life on anlowa farm is described with warmth and under-
standing and the feeling for the adventure in everyday living is found

in Corn Farm Boy.

 

Dad had the new tractor and was cultivating the corn for
the first time. Dad slowed up.

"Dad, " yelled Dick, "can I drive for awhile?"

Dad could not hear. He stopped and Dick yelled again.
"Can I drive ?"

"Let the boy drive, " said Uncle Henry. "He can't learn
any younger. "

Dad seemed willing. At least he made no objections.
Uncle Henry patted Dick on the back.

"Of course you can drive the tractor, Dick, " Dad said.

 

10Jonreed Lauritzen, The Ordeal _o_f_ the Young Hunter,
(Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1954), pp. 127-128.

 

78

"You'll be a big strong farmer one of these days. Culti—
vating is easy. Want. me to Show you how?"11

The style in Onion John helps the older reader identify

 

with Andrew Rusch as he is torn between loyalty to his father and
Onion John.
"It isn't Onion John worries me. It's us, the way we're
behaving. You. We fix up a date and you just let it slide.
And me. I go higher than a kite. That's not like us, is it?"

"No, " I said. "Usually we get along pretty well. "

"That's because any problems we have, somehow or
other we settle them. That's what we ought to do here. "

"Now?"
"I don't know. " My father looked at the typewriter and
hammered with a finger at one key. "As a start, I'd say we

ought to forget last night. "

"I'm ready. " It was little enough to get us settled, me
and my father. "And I guess I ought to use better judgment. "

"That's a good idea. If you're not so sure about it,
suppose you talk it over with me. Beforehand. And not wait
until one o'clock in the morning. "

"All right, " I promised. 12

Through the struggles of misunderstanding with his father,

loneliness in the absence of his mother, and adeep desire to match

his growing physical strength with equally manly responsibility and

 

11Lois Lenski, Corn Farm Boy, (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott and Company, 1954), p. 30.

12

 

Joseph Krumgold, Onion John, (New York: Thomas Y.
Crowell Company, 1959). pp. 80-81.

 

79

achievement, Peter emerges with a new sense of values and a deeper
awareness of his own worthwhile place in the world.

"Nothing important happens up here, " Peter muttered.
"We live so far away from everything. "

"Oh, Peter, " Martha said, looking at him in surprise,
"life is where we live, how we live. You wouldn't find it very
different if you were down in the village, or ever far away in
a big city. "

He made no reply.

"Peter, try to remember to go for the mail the first thing
in the afternoon. It's what your father wants you to do. "

"I was going for it in a minute. He didn't have to tell
me. " Peter took his warmed hands away from the stove and
looked quickly at his mother. "He doesn't always have to tell
me, as if I were too young to be trusted. "1

Mother-daughter and mother-son relationships are found

in many stories, as in Carol From the Country, . . . and now Miguel,

 

and This Boy Cody.

 

Mother followed her into the bedroom and sat down on
the chair. "I'm very proud of you, Carol, " she said. "What
I mean is that I'm proud that you have a talent for art. " She
said the last two words--"for art"--very slowly and she
emphasized them. Her voice sounded serious.

"Why did you say 'for art' that way?" Carol asked her
mother.

Mother sighed. "You won't like what I'm going to say,
Carol, " she told her. "I mean you have a talent for art and
some for music, too, but you have no talent for friendship
and in lots of ways that's more important. Your father and

 

13Elizabeth Yates, A Place For Peter, (New York: Coward
MCCann, 1952), p. 6.

 

80

I are worried about the way you act toward the children in the
neighborhood. They've all been very nice to you, but now
they're not as friendly as they were. I don't blame them a bit.
You can't expect them to be friendly when you act so cold and
superior. "1

To prove it was no mistake I worked as good as I could
using only the biggest Shovels and the biggest pickaxes. So
my mother that night made me eat a third mutton chop, just
like the older men, because I had worked so hard. And I ate
it, too, easily.

And now, when I reminded her, She remembered it all.

"I know, " she said. "You already have become one whole
man, Miguel. But even a whole man must learn to wait until
his turn comes. He can work, and he can prepare, but he must
know how to wait, too. "

"I've learned how to wait. In twelve years, I've learned. "
"IS it so hard, then to wait until morning ?"

"Another year. That's how long it will be. This time
comes just once every year. "

"Miguel!" My Mother stopped me. She held me by the
chin, tight. She wiped her apron at my eyes. V "I have watched
you using your strength to open the gate to the barnyard, the
one from which the big stone hangs. But this is not like a gate.
To become something different from what you are, it takes
more than being strong. Even a little time is needed as
well. "15

Sometimes when Cody says something to his mother after
he's been eating huckel berries, Callie will. say to him, "So
help me, Cody, when you open your mouth I have to look twice
to make sure I'm not looking at the sky. "

And Milt will say: "I declare, our boy's half a fool for
those things. He's the huckelberry-eatingest boy in Tennessee,

 

l4Friedman, Carol From The Country, 91. 233., pp. 127-128.

 

15Krumgold, . . . and now Miguel, 233. 333., pp. 30-31.

 

81

I do believe. "

And then Omalia will say (for of course Omalia always
has an opinion about everything): "My brother is a
huckleberry ! "

And Cody when he hears this, will grin till the grin al-
most goes out of Sight around his head. To Cody's way of
thinking, remarks like these are the finest kinds of compli-
ments. 16

The parental relationships are very strong in this story
of a young American Indian boy.

"Your father is sad, " his mother said quietly to warn
him.

"Have I done wrong? Is that why he is sad?"

"No. It is because Mr. Jim brought word from Flagstaff
that your brother is coming home. "

"Bil-dool!" Happiness went through Jadih's tired body.
"Why is father sad? He should be happy to see Bil-dool. "

"He would be happy if he could say to your brother,
'While you were away we took good care of your Sheep and
there are many. ' He cannot say that. "

When Jadih came to his father he had thought what he
would say to him. "My father, I will go away to work like
my cousins in the beetfields and buy Sheep to take the place
of the ones I lost, the ones the cougar killed, the ones you
had to kill for the Mountain Chant. " '

Slim Man smiled down at his son. "Someone will go
away to work, but not J adih. He has to grow. "

 

1(’Wilson, 233. 233., p. 96.

17Lauritzen, 233. 3:33., p. 83.

82

Eleanor Estes has written the Moffat books in which the

children and the adults see eye-to-eye.

When he reached home, he Showed Mama his book. She
smiled at him and gave his cheek a pat. She thought it was
fine that he had gone to the library and joined all by himself and
taken out a book. And she thought it was fine when Rufus sat
down at the kitchen table, was busy and quiet for a long time,
and then Showed her what he had done.

He had printed RUFUS M. That was what he had done.
And that's the way he learned to Sign his name. And that's
the way he always did Sign his name for a long, long time.

 

Miracles 233 Maple Hill is a well told story of good family

relationships.

In the top drawer Marly found dingy, blackened spoons and
forks and knives. Mother said, "You see why Mrs. Chris thought
we'd better eat with her. You and I will have to get enough of

these cleaned'before suppertime. "

"First can I see the rest of the house?" Marly asked.
Imagine being stuck in the kitchen, no matter how interesting

it was!

"Of course, " Mother said. "But, Marly, this is the first .
place we women have to start to dig. "

'We women. ' Marly felt proud when Mother said that. 19

"Heavens, I'm too weak to get back up the stairs, " Mother
said. Marly saw how relieved she was, not only because there
was no fire but because Daddy didn't seem to mind much about
the smoke. "I thought the whole house was on fire. You know
what went through my mind, just like that? We haven't got the

 

18Eleanor Estes, Rufus M. , (New York: Harcourt, Brace
and Company, Inc., 1943), pp. 29-30.

 

19Virginia Sorensen, Miracles 233 Maple Hill, (New York:
Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1956), p. 25.

83

phone in yet. Everything will burn to the ground. ” Her laugh
was Shaky. She turned and disappeared up the stairs.

Daddy stood rubbing his hands over the fire. "Tell you
what, " he said, "you and I'll fix up those pancakes and take
a platefull right up to her, and she can eat in bed for once,
like a lady. "

Suddenly, for no reason on earth that Marly knew, she
ran to him and threw her arms around him, hard, and began

to cry.

"Whoa, there!" he said. "No damage done. "

But it wasn't because of the fire that she was crying.
It was as if something all wound up in a ball inside of her had
let go at the sight of him just that minute.

The theme of mother child relationship is found in many of
Lois Lenski's books.

Mama looked thoughtful. "We're trying to get out o'
debt, " she said. I'Uncle Shine put a fool notion in our heads
we'd oughta save first and stop buyin' on the installment plan. "

"Fine!" said Aunt Lessie. "I believe in that too, but jest
try to put it in practice. "

"Our money gives out by Christmas, " said Maggie Sutton.
"Then we go hungry for two months till 'furnish' begins again in
March. No matter what price we git for our cotton, I can't
seem to save a penny. " '

Mama set her lips in a firm line. "From now on, it's
gonna be different with us. " '

Joanda wondered. She looked up at the three women's
faces and wondered if Mama was attempting the impossible.
She herself knew how hard it was to keep from spending money
when she had it in her pocket. It would be hard for Mama too,
because she had been used to easy spending all her life. But

2"Ibid., pp. 54—55.

84

Joanda saw a new strength in her mother's face, and in her

eyes a new dignity. The girl sensed the change--that her mother
was no longer a victim of circumstances, but was making a
conscious effort to control her destiny and that of her family.

She was no longer going to take things just as they came. From
now on She was going to make things be different. Filled with
awe and admiration, Joanda decided to stand by her mother

and help her all She could.

A family story of Jewish life in New York City's lower
East Side describes a Jewish family holiday celebration.

Papa was gay, laughing and joking with the children as
he washed up. Tonight the whole family was gay. It was the
time of gladsomeness. It was the first night of Hanukkah--
Festival of Lights--the happy holiday right in the midst of
December's blealcness. Jews everywhere celebrate Hanukkah
with songs, games, and parties, and the giving of gifts and
money.

Ella had polished the brass Menorah till it shone like a
mirror. It had been placed on the t0p shelf of the whatnot,
its eight little holders all in a row ready to receive the slim,
golden yellow candles Papa had bought especially. In the middle,
set up high above the others was the shamosh (sexton) candle.
Its flame would be used to kindle the others.

The children grouped themselves around Papa, and Mama
lifted Charlie onto a chair. Papa placed a candle in the first
holder of the Menorah. Then holding the lighted shamosh,
he turned to Charlie. "Would you like to light it?" he asked.

"Yes, Yes, Charlie wanna light the candle!" he cried,
his little hands reaching out eagerly.

Papa's firm hand guided his son's toward the wick of
candle number one. Bright and shining it sprang to light,
matching the glow on Charlie's face. 2

 

21Lois Lenski, Cotton 3333/11 Sack, (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Company, 1949). pp. 188-189.

zzSydney Taylor, All 231 Kind Family, (Chicago: Follett
Publishing Company, 1951), pp. 56-57.

 

85

Esther, an Amish girl, is concerned about her relation-
ship with her parents.

But they did not need to be afraid about he r, Esther
thought, filled with love as She heard their familiar voices
in the night. Never in the world would she go away from home,
from Mother and Father who we re always kind and always
worked so hard from morning until night to make life good on
the farm. This was her own place, this room in this house.

Other adults besides parents, have an influence on the
development of the self-concept. Grandmothers, grandfathers,
aunts, uncles and adult friends play important roles in the inter-
personal relationships with children.

Now in Spite of this not-being-a-boy and not-being-able-
to-grow-up-and-win-a-medal business, Melindy knew that her
grandmother loved her very much.

Certainly Melindy loved her grandmother mo re than any-
one else in the world except her father and General Shaw and
well-~maybe her teacher, Miss Krum. She loved her grand-
mother for her cooking and she loved her grandmother for her
strange wonderful way of Singing and she loved her for her queer
way of talking. But She loved her most of all for the wonderful
stories she told.

David was sure his Grandma Beverly was the smartest,
most wonderful woman in the world. She could do just about
anything. Ever Since his father and mother had died and he'd
come to live with her, She had been teaching him wonderful
things. He hadn't liked the idea of going to live with the tall
strange woman, but he and she were real family now. She
had shown him how to hunt, how to keep chickens and the cow,

3Sorensen, gp. 233., p. 21.

Z4Georgene Faulkner, Melindy's Medal, (New York: Julian
Messner, Inc., 1945), pp. 41-42.

 

86

how to plant potatoes and corn, and how to use a long-handled

goosene ck hoe. 2‘5

Grandmother turned and looked at Sad Girl with a glance
which seemed to pierce through her very Skin.

"What kind of a granddaughter are you?" she asked
scornfully. "Are you the kind who will not do as her mother's
mother asks ? Would you deny me this thing which makes me
happy. This thing upon which I have set my heart? I have
brought you up since you were born and have done the best I
can for you in every way. I have shared with you everything
that I have and I have taught you all that I know. Is this the way
you reward me ?"

Sad Girl was ashamed. Her eyes were not able to meet the
stern black eyes looking at her accusingly.

"No, Grandmother," she said miserably. "I wil do as
you say. If you want me to go to school, I will go. "

Grandme re patted Suzette's hand, then her trouble came
out. "When I die, I don't know who gonna take care of my
graveyard. " Grandme re wept.

Suzette jumped to her feet.

"W'y Grandmere, have you forgot me ? Have you not see
how nice I put the whitewash on and not make one puddle on
the ground? Don't you know I fix to take care of your grave-
yard after you? Don't you know I all time listen to my Grand-
mere and do what She say ?"

Grandmere looked up and smiled through her tears. 27

"Well now, what's this?" she asked as she unwound the

 

25Jesse Stuart, The Beatinest Boy, (New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., 1953), pp. 9-10.

26

 

Lampman, pp. 2133., pp. 16-17.

27Lois Lenski, Bayou Suzette, (Philadelphia: Frederick A.
Stokes Company, 1943), pp. 82-83.

 

87

clumsy wrapping and soaked it with warm water so it would
come away from the wound without further tearing.

"A cut, " Peter said, then he winced as the last piece of
the shirt came off. He turned his eyes away quickly so he
would not see the ugly gash in the flesh.

"And how did it happen ? "
"With a knife."

"Hrnm, " Gran munnured, "you Should be a bit more careful
when you use a knife. "

"I know that now, " Peter replied.

She looked at him earnestly, trying to read in his eyes
something his lips were reluctant to say. She bent over and
smelled the wound. "It's something more than a cut, " she
said.

Peter was silent.

Gran began to nod her head, then she looked up at Peter,
knowingly this time. "You're a brave lad, a quick-thinking
lad, and that's all I'm going to say. "

Blasito started to laugh. He banged me on the back.
"It's a great thing, finding those sheep. I mean it, Miguel.
You did fine. "

"What did you say ?"

"I said great, fine!"

Grandfather took me by the hand and shook it like when
two men shake hands.

"It's the truth, " he said. "This that you have done, it
was good. "29

 

28Yates, 33. 333., pp. 137-138.

29Krumgold, . . . and now Miiguel, 333. _c_i3., p. 97.

 

88

Lois Lenski gives a picture of a Chinese family filled with

love and loyalty.

When they reached the apartment, Felix walked wearily
up the stairs. A family conference was going on in the front
room, with Grandmother Yee and the aunts and uncles there.
The boy sat down on a chair near the fireplace and listened.
Across the room, over the davenport hung the life-sized
portraits of his Fong grandparents. As the others talked,
the boy could hear Grandfather Fong and all his grandfathers
before him talking. He knew that he was one link in the long
Chain of the Fong family ancestry. He felt the heavy burden
of his inheritance on his shoulders. Grandfather Fong kept
looking at him and talking to him in plain words. Felix listened
to all that was said, and answered questions as well as he
could. He felt free to talk now. He wanted to get the whole
thing over with. He wanted to begin all over again- -with the
regained love and respect of his family. They did not make
him feel a culprit. They tried to rebuild his own self-

respect.

A pair of cowboy boots and a horse--those were the two things
that Bob wanted most of anything in the world, but Bob learned from

his uncle that there are greater rewards.

"But if I'm going to be a cowboy I'll have to know how
to ride a lively horse, " Bob protested.

His uncle looked at him through narrowed eyes.

"It takes time to become a cowboy, " he said slowly. "But
it takes more than that. A person must have certain qualities

to be a good cowboy. "

John Benton paused a moment, then went on thoughtfully,
"a good cowboy must be a real man. He must have courage
and dependability. He mustn't be afraidof hardships and he
must know what to do in an emergency. " He looked straight

30Lois Lenski, San Francisco Boy, (Philadelphia: J. B.

Lippincott Company, 1952), pp. 157-158.

 

89

at Bob. "You'll have to prove that you have those qualities
before I let you endanger your life and my property. See what
I mean?"

Bob nodded. He wanted to cry.

"I'll prove that I have them, if you'll only give me a
chance. " But the words stuck in his throat. I

This book is Henry's private journal in which he records
his relationship with his uncle and other adults.

Uncle Al kept looking at me and shaking his head now and
then.

"You're the spitting image of your mother, " he said. "I
just can't get over it. It sort of gives me a shock every time
I look at you. "

"I don't see much resemblance, " Aunt Mabel said.

"Perhaps not with the way Jane looks now, " Uncle Al said.
"I'm thinking of the way She looked when she was a girl. If
you give him long hair and put a dress on him he could be Jane
sitting there when She was thirteen or fourteen. She had the
same serious, intent look, she wore horn-rimmed Spectacles
just like his and her eyes and his are identical. "

No one ever accused me of looking like a girl before,
but I'm used to relatives making silly remarks about how much
I've grown, who I look like, and where I get my hair and eyes.
My father's folks always claim I look like his side of the family,
and now he re was Uncle Al swearing that I look like my mother.
I didn'gfnind particularly because I like the way my mother
looks.

Four motherless children have good relationships with a

 

31Doris Garst, Cowboy Boots, (Nashville: Abingdon Press,
1946), Pp. 45-460

32Keith Robertson, Henry Reed, Inc. , (New York: The Viking
Press, 1958), p. 13.

 

 

90

housekeeper in The Saturdays.

 

It was sad that they had no mother, but they did have
Father and he could not have been improved upon as a parent.
And there was Cuffy; dear Cuffy, who was housekeeper, nurse,
cook, and substitute mother, grandmother and aunt. She had
always been there and it seemed as though she always would
be. Her real name was Mrs. Evangelin Cuthbert-Stanley,
but ever Since Mona at eighteen months had solved the prob-
lem with "Cuffy, " she has been nothing else. She was fat in
a nice comfortable way; fat enough to creak and puff when she
went up and down stairs, but not so fat that she had no lap to
sit on. She had a nice comfortable face too; wrinkles and round
cheeks, and teeth as regular and gleaming as the white keys
on a piano. Late at night if you had a stomach-ache or a bad
dream and woke Cuffy up to tell her about it she looked dif-
ferent (though still nice).

In the next book the author handles in an interesting way
the reaction of each child to new adults.

Markia blued the Sheets and pillowcases and towels, wring-
ing out the water as best she could and wishing desperately
that her hands were bigger and the skin tougher. She and
Mrs. Weddle hung the washing together, pinning the clothes
.stoutly to the lines and working in Opposite directions from
each other.

"There!" announced Mrs. Weddle with satisfaction as she
finished clamping on the last piece. "I declare, but we're the
first ones through today, Markia. "

"You did it quicker today than ever, " said Markia, and
blushed when Mrs. Weddle turned with something like a smile.

"We did, Markia. I got to admit I couldn't have done it
this fast by myself. You're turning into a real good worker,
much to my surprise and likely to the surprise of everybody
else in town, too. "

They were the first words of praise ever offered by

33Enright, The Saturdays, 2p. __c_i_‘3., p. 9.

 

91

Mrs. Weddle and Markia felt a strange little tingle at them. 34

An island, a shack, and the friendship of four fine men
help a lonely and rebellious boy come to terms with himself in the

story of That Jud!

 

"What you got to say for yourself?" Miz Hanks went on,
"It's all over town you skipped school, so don't think you're
fooling anyone. Ain't you 'shamed of yourself? Can't you
say you're sorry?"

Jud shook his head. "I'm not sorry, ” he said slowly.
Miz Hanks crossed the kitchen quickly and took his shoulder
between her thick fingers. "Well, you ought to be sorry and
'shamed, " she said. "How many boys have a good home like
yours, where folks are willing for you to go to school instead
of getting out to earn your keep, the way lots of twelve -year-
old boys do?"

As Jud made no answer, she continued. "Do you call this
being grateful for what this town--not to mention Captain Ben
and me--does for you? After your pa was drowned and your ma
died of flu, what would have happened to you if the town hadn't
taken care of you?" she asked, her voice hard and cross-
sounding.

Jud stood up quickly, his hands clenched tight, and the
Skipper made the grumbling sound deep in his throat that
passed for a growl.

Captain Ben threw down his paper and stood up with sur-
prising speed. "We'll have none of that in this house, " he
said to Miz Hanks in the thundery voice he'd used at sea.
"You've gone too far, ma'am. This is Jud's home, same as
it's mine. "35 1

34Evelyn Lampman, Bounces 3:1: Cynthiann, (New York:
Doubleday, 1950), pp. 64-65.

 

35Elspeth Bragdon, That Jud!, (New York: The Viking
Press, Inc., 1957), pp. 24-25.

 

92

Jud stood up and slipped his small brown hand into the
big strong grasp offered him. Mr. York held the boy's hand
fast and looked soberly into his eyes. "No getting mad on this
job, " he said firmly. "If you don't understand anything I ask
you to do, just tell me. I'm not a hard man to get along with,
but I came down here for a pleasant time. I don't want to have
to nag at you or check up on you all the time. I'll teach you how
to run the motor and take care of it. I'll tell you what your
duties are and what you pay will be. Then it's up to you. "

Jud's eyes grew large. "Do you mean, " he asked in a
half-frightened voice, "that I'm responsible ?"

Mr. York laughed a little and dropped his hand. "That's
it, " he said lightly. "We'll get along fine--you'll see. " Then
he turned and went into the house.

In the next story Peter has a good relationship with the hired

Peter knelt down and cupped a handful of soil into his
fingers, then he separated his fingers and let it run out between
them. "It feels ready, " he said. He too felt a thrill of pride,
for this earth that was his fathers, and in a certain way that
made it his.

"When a man works well with nature, " Benj added quietly,
"he's got something that's sure to please the Lord. "

Once the work of planting began, Benj did much of it on
his knees. Peter found it easier to bend over and drop the
seeds in the row, but Benj moved along the row at his own pace
and in his own fashion.

Peter teased him about it, saying it was slow and clumsy.

Benj chuckled, leaning back on his heels to take a mom-
ents rest. "Knees are something a gardner come to sooner or
later, Peter, " he said, as he Spread a covering of earth over
some squash seeds he had just put in, smoothing down the earth
with his hands. "Good humus-~that's the soil--and humility--

36Ibid., pp. 60-61.

93

that's something you feel when you're on your knees--go to-
gether like a team in harness. "

Peter watched him and listened. 37

When the two young people that Kate loved most decided to
adOpt her because they needed someone with good sense She learned
that being sensible was very important.

Being needed by someone is quite different from being
merely good for someone. Kate could sense the difference
in the way Nora had Spoke and in the way she looked. She
was lonely and discouraged and, for some strange reason,
both she and Christopher believed that a little girl with red
hair and good sense was what she needed.

Kate's indignation vanished, leaving in its place pride
and satisfaction. Not many times in her life had anyone needed
her. And then not for her good sense. Always she had been
the one who had done the needing. Of course she had only
needed simple things like food and clothing and Shelter. Nora
needed none of these. She needed comfort, the comfort of a
plaything, and somehow, Kate knew, she would have to provide
it. It was expected of her.

"I'll stay, " she announced calmly and, being ten yeggs
old, was pleasantly gratified at the effect of her words.

"Oh, let her go, Martha," said Mr. Tuttle, surprisingly.
"The Clines are sensible young people. If they don't want
her, they'll send her home. A cat in a strange garret is always
restless. "

They exchanged glances, the little man and the little girl.
Hers was grateful, his understanding. In that moment, there
was born to them an appreciation of each other's position and
of what it meant to be a little girl in a strange house and a foster
parent of a strange little girl. From that moment, Kate was

 

37
Yates, 2p. £33., pp. 83-84.

38Gates, 233. 333., pp. 43-44.

94

never to doubt Mr. Tuttle again, and from that moment, he,
in his turn, was to be her open and declared companion. 39

Children may also have good relationships with teachers.

Today a wonderful thing happened. Miss Fenton put J oanda
in charge of the library books. She was to check out the books
for the children to take home. And Miss Fenton told her how
to mark off the books when they we re returned.

"What if something happens to a book and they can't return
it?" Joanda hung her head when she asked the question.

"They'll report it and we'll understand, " said Miss Fenton.
"When we lose a book, we'll remember the happiness it gave
its readers and we will try to replace it. " She paused. "You
will make a good librarian because you love books and take
such good care of them."

She trusts me, thought Joanda. Miss Fenton trusts me
with all the books even though I lost one of them. She felt

happy all the way through, and from that days the other
children looked upon her with new reSpect.

The developmental task of building a wholesome concept.
of the self continues from infancy to adulthood. It rises to eminence
during the middle childhood as individuals make more contact with
persons outside the home. Peer relationships are important shapers
of the self-concept.

He had his shoulders square until he got across the street.

Inside the door he let them sag. So Azor was going away to
Maine. How sorrowful to hear. But then he brightened.

Azor liked him, after all. He'd called him and asked him
to come out. And even had come to find him with the horse's

 

39Ibid., pp. 82-83.

4°Lenski, Cotton_13My Sack, 33. 333., pp. 165-166.

had a

95

tooth that day. Such things you didn't do just for politeness
sake.

To most people Jane was the middle Moffat, age ten, who
best friend and acted gene rally like any ten-year-old.

A long high whistle and a Shorter low note. That's the
way Nancy whistled for he r. She whistled this way in the
morning when it was time to go to school, and at noon when
it was time to go back. They always went to school together
and they came home together, too, both at noon-tirne and in
the afternoon. They did their homework together. For in-
stance, if the teacher said, "Find out something about the
artist, Millet, when he was born, when he died, and what else
he painted besides the picture on the classroom wall called,
'The Gleaners', they studied the encyc10pedia together.

Best friends! That's what that was. 42

Jane wiggled her toes in her shoes. This was a funny
thing, she thought. Nancy's mother doesn't like the way Nancy
laughed. She had practiced often, but so far she had not suc-
ceeded. Nancy's laugh was hearty. It burst out suddenly in
loud high notes and raced down the scale to a deep low pitch.
Jane's laugh was more of an inside job. She shook silently
and tears rolled down her cheeks. How could people tell
whether she was laughing or crying, she wondered.

"Hey Janey!" said Nancy. "Where are you?"
"Here on the fence. "
"Oh. . . Well! I just wanted to tell you you were right.

You were right to stick up for Beatrice because she really was
right. I sure was mad, but you were right. "

 

41Maude Crowley, Tor and Azor, (New York: Oxford Uni-

 

versity Press, 1955), p. 37.

42Eleanor Estes, Middle Moffat, (New York: Harcourt,

 

Brace and Company, 1942), p. 61.

43Ibid., pp. 71-72.

4 . .
e c t l
. v. v
4 . _
v. a a
. A s
. .
s o ,
o
. o a
4
.
r r r . r u ..
i a
. . _
o
_
c
u t
c . . t
I.
s
y l . e
.
4
r . o . . O .
t.
l . vs v
A
a 4 v c
_ t
n o
I o
l
n
. e
. u
_ ,
.\ .
l n
. . 4 a
. o
I
.
. 4.
_ _ . e
A . 1 .r
n
.
n u
A
a
p
o
u
a t 1 ~
.
o .
A
n
. a
a l
_ a
. . n
4
a

a. l! v «t e. a: 1114"! V w aria"? .q-.7I.1wlesolem.1. .1. 4 4 .

in-..
.vJ.H}l-c

 

1... .
.. .b.

96
"I suppose I should have stuck up for you, " said Jane
apolo ge tically .

"No. You were right. You stuck up for Beatrice even
though you're my best friend. That's bravery."

Jane squirmed her toes around in her shoes and said
nothing.

"Here, " said Nancy abruptly. "Here's my ring. It's
red, sort of like a ruby. It's a friendship ring. That shows

we're be st friends. "44

When Tib came to the little Minnesota town where Betsy

and Tacy lived she fitted right in and made a three-some.

ships

When school began Betsy and Tacy stopped every morning
to call for Tib. At noon they all walked home together. And
after dinner, when they went back to school, Betsy and Tacy
called for Tib again. And after school at night they walked
home together. But they did not separate and go to their own
homes; they usually went to one house to play.

Sometimes it was Tib's house and sometimes it was
Tacy's and sometimes it was Betsy's.

This is the story of daily life with natural human relation-
in a Louisiana town.
"I can catch a leapfrog. Do you want to see ?"
I "Go ahead and try, " said Freddy.
Louis' eyes shone, and his teeth flashed in a smile. He
liked to show what he could do. With his right hand he caught

one frog. With his left hand he caught another. He raised
both hands above his head to show the two frogs to Freddy.

 

44Ibid. , p. 292.

45Maud Lovelace, Betsy, Tacy and Tib, (New York:

 

 

Thomas Y. Crowell Company, 1941), p. 54.

97

Then he lowered his hands and let the prisoners jump back
to the grass. In a second, a double Splash told where they
had escaped into the bayou.

Freddy was delighted. He laughed out loud. "Come and
Show me how to catch them!" he cried.

But Louis did not want to be told to go away again.

"I'm not coming over there to your side unless I'm your
friend, " he said cautiously.

"All right. You're my friend , " said Freddy. "Will you
come over now?"

Louis ran across the bridge4 with a hop and a skip. His
heart felt very light within him.

The problem of friendship is also found in this story.

"You're a friend of mine. " Those were just the words
Carol had hoped to hear Betsy say; then she had given up hoping.
The more she knew Betsy, the more she wanted her for a
friend. It was not because she was richer than the others
or wore prettier dresses or because her father was a doctor.

It was because Betsy did not care about any of these things.
Betsy liked you for what you were and she was your friend.
She was a real friend.

The next story is told through the thoughts and the adventures
of Esther, an Amish Girl.

She picked up the letter and unfolded it. In very tall
wriggly letters, Mary had written:

Dear Friend Esthe r:

I like you. I think your dress is pretty. Your

 

Eleanor Frances Lattimore, Bayou Boy, (New York:
William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1946), p. 15.

 

47Friedman, Carol From The Country, 9_p_. _c_:_i_t., p. 188.

98

apron is cute too. And your little hat.
Your friend,
Mary.

She sat still. What a kind, good letter it was! How could
Mary think such a dark dress was pretty ? The white apron
was very common and plain, yet Mary thought it was cute.

A nice little word--cute! cute! cute! It was like a canary
singing. She lifted her hand to her bonnet, tied securely under
her chin with her hair tucked under. It was possible that her
own hair would make curls, she thought. When she took out
the braids and combed it at night, it fell in wide waves over
her shoulders. 4

A Navaho Indian girl, who goes away to school, has good
peer relationships.

She had felt warm and happy when Lucy had exclaimed
that with the same last name they must be related. Of course,
they had both known it wasn't so. Lucy's name had been as-
signed to her, a haphazard selection at best. They couldn't
belong to the same family. But what a comforting feeling it
was when Lucy called her "Younger Sister" as she had taken
to doing.

Rose was learning other things from her new friend.
Lucy laughed a great deal. She made little jokes about the
discomforts, such as a foot which went to sleep or the stuffi-
ness of the bus. Rose had never had anyone to laugh with before.
The Navahos are a cheerful, good natured people, but she had
always withdrawn herself from the others. She had never re-
alized how good it was to Share an idea with someone.

Competition may be important in the development of peer

Q“

relationships.

 

48Sorensen, Plain Girl, 233. 333., p. 54.

 

49Lampman, Navaho Sister, op. cit., pp. 43-44.

 

99

"Ever tried this ?" cried Daphne suddenly, and she went
up the ladder to the loft as quick as a monkey; poised there
on the edge like an aerial performer and then suddenly,
breathlessly, arched into Space, into the golden shafts of
sunlight with the golden motes, landed lightly, softly in the
hay wagon far below.

"I have to do that too, " said Randy and up the ladder she
went, hardly able to find a place to put her foot the hay bulged
out so richly between the rungs.

Daphne's little sun-stained face was turned up to her encouragingly,
pink as a strawberry. Randy couldn't be a sissy even if she
broke her leg not being one. 0

Mei Gwen and her large family moved to San Francisco.
She soon made many friends. But it was not so easy for Felix, her
brother.

As she passed the McClain Label Company, she looked in
through the open door and saw her friend Edith. Edith was
packing small boxes of labels into a large carton. Edith was
tall and beautiful, with blue eyes and red hair. Edith always
gave Mei Gwen scraps of silver and gold paper left over from
the beautiful labels printed by the label company machines.
Just to make sure that Edith was still her friend, Mei Gwen
walked in.

"You still like me, don't you?" asked Mei Gwen.

"Why, of course, " said Edith. "You've been my friend
ever since you moved to San Francisco. "

"Do you like me better than anybody else on Commercial
Street?" asked Mei Gwen.

Edith thought for a minute, then she said, "I think I
do. "51

 

5°Enright, Then There Were Five, 33. 3i_t., p. 26.

 

51Lenski, San Francisco Boy, _o_p_. 333., p. 48.

 

100

Felix looked down the street. Soon he saw Roger Loy
coming. Roger had a stack of papers under his arm. Roger
had a job-~he was a paper boy. He had to deliver the Call-
Bulletin to customers in stores and apartments.

Why couldn't he make a friend of Roger, Felix wondered?
How could he make him a friend? He had just tripped Roger
up on a rope. That was not a very good start. What could he
do now to make Roger forget it?

All at once he remembered the motto on the paper in the
Fortune cookie--It is better to keep a friend than to have a
dollar. But how do you make a friend in the first place ?

Peter has the real adventures of a New England farm boy.

The boys and girls unbuckled their snow shoes and stood
them in a snowbank. Peter joined them with some of the hot
syrup in a small tin pan. Finding a clean untrodden piece of
snow, he poured the syrup on it. All five watched and waited
as it hardened slowly.

"Help yourselves, " Peter said.

They reached over and twisted off sections, eating it like
candy. Smiling with pleasure at the taste of it, all of them
turned to Randy and waited for him to pass judgment.

The tall boy savored it keenly, then he leaned over and
broke off .another section. He had a thoughtful look on his
face as he measured the maple flavor against the memory of
other maple flavors. Satisfied at last, he turned to Peter.

"If I do say it myself, I've never tasted any better. "

"You mean it's as good as the syrup you've been making
this year?"

"Everybit, " Randy replied stoutly, "if not better. "

 

521bid., pp. 19-20.

101

Peter sighed. He had not realized how much he had been
counting on Randy's approval.

This is the story of 12-year-old Ellen and the problems
of growing up.

She told Ronnie that her mother had said She could not
come to see him unless he asked her, and he said, "I say, I
can't be going over every morning to say, 'Please may Ellen
come over today?' That would be a bit thick. I'll talk to her
and make her see it our way."

Ellen was dumb with gratitude. "Every day, " he'd said.
And "Our way. " She had not known how lonely she was until
she'd found a friend. It seemed to her quite simple that she and
Ronnie had to be together. When Mother understood that, every-
thing would be all right. "And if I don't talk too much and ask
too many silly questions maybe he won't get tired of me, " she
thought. "And I'll have to get over being afraid of things.

Boys don't like that. "

Henry relates many amusing incidents with his friend in his

journal.
"Who are you?" I asked.
"Margaret Glass, " she answered. "Everybody calls me
Midge, and don't make any remarks about my being a little
glass, or that I'd better watch out or I'll get broken, because

I've heard them all. " She took another bite of the apple and
said, "Who are you?"

"That's me, " I said, pointing to the Sign up above my head.

"Henry Reed, Inc.,," she said aloud. "You don't look in-
corporated. " Then she went off into gales of laughter.

I saw right away that I had a crazy giggling girl to deal

 

53Yates, pp. 233., pp. 66-67.

4Barnes, op. cit., p. 55.

102

with. Her remark didn't make any sense at all, but she
seemed to think it was funny. However, I didn't say any-
thing because I had already figured out that she was the
girl my Aunt Mable had mentioned. Since she was the only
person near my age in town there was no use getting off on
the wrong foot. My father, who is a pretty smart diplomat,
says that if you have to get along with people, you might as
well start right out in the beginning to like them. I was
willing to try with this little apple-eater but it didn't look
promising.

The friendship between Suzette, a little white girl, and
Marteel, the little Indian girl, is woven into a tale set in the Louisi-

ana Bayou country.

"Marteel, she my frien', " said Suzette. "Marteel my
sister, now. "

"Your frien' ? Your sister?" cried Tante Celeste. "That
dirty lettle savage?"

"Marteel, she clean, " said Suzette. "My Maman, she
give her a bath. "

"Your Maman? A bath?" gasped Tante Celeste.
"Marteel, she live by me, to my house, " Suzette went on.

"W'at the matter?" cried Tante Celeste, as soon as she
got over her astonishment. "Your Marnan and your Papa,
have they took leave of their senses ?"

"My Grandmere, she say, if Marteel got no family to go
to, she can stay by me and be my frien'. Marteel, she my
sister now. She listen to my Grandmere and do w'at she say--
like me. "5

 

55Robertson, pp. 333., pp. 43-44.

56Lenski, Bayou Suzette, pp. 333., pp. 73-74.

 

103

The Ridgeway children have many hilarious adventures

in a small Wisconsin college town.

"Why?" asked Rudy.

"Well, " said Susan, "I don't know why, but they do. It
is much better to get along nicely with other people than to
be bad. "

"Tell some more, Susan, " said Alvin.

"Not now, " Susan said, "but I will some other time. "

She looked around and saw that Tim and Tad, and Dumpling
had been listening too, and even George, at the same time he
had been building.

Susan got up and brushed off her dress and walked into
the house. She walked with a new feeling of importance, for
she was the only one in the neighborhood, perhaps in the whole
world, who knew how to control the Terrible Torrances.

Both of these regional stories by Lois Lenski have force,
sincerity and realism.

"I wore my new calico dress, " said Dovey.

As soon as she said it, Birdie wished She hadn't.

"Think you're biggety, don't you?" spoke up Billie Sue
Harden.

Birdie looked around and saw that most of the girl's
dresses were made from flour sacks. "No, " she said quickly,
"our dresses are calico, but not new. They've been washed
heaps 0' times. See how faded they are ?" They must not
appear to be better than any of the others.

 

57
Carol Brink, Family Grandstand, (New York: The Viking
Press, 1952), pp. 99-100.

 

104

Billie Sue smiled. That made it all right. 58

"You're not invited! " Gloria stamped her foot on the side
walk. She wore new patent-leather slippers today.

"I don't want you- -in your old feed-sack dress! And your
dirty bare feet--I suppose you don't even own a pair of shoes.
Who'd want a big, overgrown bean-picker at their party? I
don't, so there!"

Beverly and Alice and Betty Anne and the others all linked
arms again with Gloria in the middle. They went skipping off.

Judy stood there. She had to believe it now- -Gloria had
said it plainly enough. She wasn't invited. You had to be in-
vited to go to a birthday party. Judy didn't know that before.

She looked down at her bare feet. They were stained and
dirty. She had washed them clean the night before, but She had
never once thought of shoes. Her new dress had taken all her
attention. Of course you couldn't go to a party without shoes.
That was it. You had to have shoes to be invited.

Frieda Friedman has written wholesome stories of family
life and peer relationships.

"Some people, " said Elaine, in a low voice as if she were
talking to herself, "don't care how their figures look. Some
people wouldn't mind getting as fat as Mrs. Kersten. Some people
think it's all right to eat the things their father could be selling.

Judy sighed. Feeling very much ashamed of herself she
put the ice cream back into the container. Before she could
think of an answer Daddy came to her rescue. He made his
usually deep voice sound soft and ladylike, just like Elaine's.
"Some people help their father in the store so they have a right
to help themselves every now and then. "

 

58Lenski, Strawberry Girl, pp. 3:33., p. 31.

 

59Lenski, Judy's Journpy, p_p_. 3:33., p. 42.

 

60Frieda Friedman, A Sundae With Judy, (New York:
William Morriw, 1949). pp. 23-24.

 

105

Two boys were playing ball against the building. Their
ball made a loud, smacking noise as it hit the wood. Both
boys stopped when the girls came near. They looked at
Fluff admiringly. One of the boys called, "Hi, Gorgeous!"
and the other chimed in with "Hello, Beautiful!" Fluff tossed
her head and tried to look as if she hadn't heard.

Then the boys looked at Dot. "Hi, Shorty!" shouted one
of them and the other greeted her with "Hello, Peanut! "

Dot began to walk very quickly. She turned her head so

Fluff would not notice thag 1her cheeks had turned very red and
her lips were trembling.

SUIVIIVIARY

The self, like so many other aspects of personality, is ac-
quired in association with others. Awareness of self is not wholly
dependent on consciousness of others, but the attitudes of others are,
nevertheless, important determinants. The child's differentiation
of himself from others, first from his mother and father, and there-
after from other adults and his peers is dependent upon their attitudes
toward him. The child early forms an image of himself as he appears
to others and by the way they judge and evaluate him. Before long
he reacts in Specific ways toward their judgments and conducts him-
self in accordance with his understanding of their evaluations, thus
developing a concept of self in relation to others.

The family performs two major jobs. First, it provides

 

61Friedman, Dot For Short, pp. 3:33., pp. 5-6.

 

106

an emotional setting, a climate of affection, an interpersonal net-
work in which the growing child can work toward self-enhancement
through feeling warm, comfortable, and accepted. Second, the family,
through its particular way of life, interprets culture to the child,
passing on from its adult members to its children the appropriate
behaviors and beliefs. In this way the child can "grow out" from

the home and meet the world face to face.

From the findings of psychologists, anthropologists, and
sociologists, we have much information about the forces that come
to bear on the child and his personal-social development.

Literature is also recognized as a significant force in the
life of the individual and of society. It is known that books alone
cannot build personality. It is also known that each reader brings a
unique background of experience to each book that he reads. As books
communicate information about people, the world, and interpret social
relationships they may become a part of the reader. Growth in under-
standing of self and others may occur when such communication takes
place.

The authors of children's books have recognized that books
can help children understand that all behavior is caused. Authorities
in children's literature have effectively stated their feelings about
the effect of the writing of a few of the great writers of children's

books.

107

The sharing of one's childhood, that basic characteristic
of realistic stories for children, is given most complete ex-
pression in the family stories. While there are few writers
who can transmit the sparkle to their pages that Eleanor
Estes can, and few that have such dramatic family experiences
to share as Laura Ingals Wilder or who can give them such
objectivity, there have been many who have succeeded in re-
creating families who remain in the memory, in books written
with beauty.

In this chapter, a selected list of children's books of fiction

about children in the United States, has been studied to find out if
the content could provide information for the realization that effec-
tive interpersonal relationships are essential to the development of
the self concept. Almost without exception the books examined do
provide information about effective interpersonal relationships.

A few book children of the past twenty years stand out as
unforgettable individuals, partially because of the unusual activities
in which they take part, but more because of their author's complete
realization of them. Families play their parts and everyday incidents
abound, but the characters stand out above their surroundings and
touch events with the magic of their special personalities. The re-
lationships these children have are with their mothers, their fathers,
their grandparents, other adults and their peers. Usually these chil-

\

dren have good self-concepts. Children who read these books, may also,

through identification with the characters, deve10p good self concepts.

 

62Cornelia Meigs, et a1. , __A_ Critical History p_f_ Children's
Literature, (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1953), p. 541.

 

 

 

CHAPTER V
ASPIRATIONS IN A SELECTED LIST OF CHILDREN'S BOOKS

Some investigators have resorted to the use of the con-
cept, ideal-self, as a means of determining the self-aspirations of
children. The ideal-self is usually thought of as an expression of
the type of person a child would like to be or resemble. The term
"ideal-self" has been shown to be valuable in determining the re-
lationship between how the child sees himself and what he thinks he
should be like. Havighurst, Robinson and Dorr have hypothesized
that the ideal-self may be developmental in nature. 1 They suggest
that the ideal-self begins when the child identifies with a parental
figure. During middle childhood and early adolescence it moves
through a stage of romanticism and glamor and culminates in late
adolescence as a composite of desirable characteristics.

It is recalled that one of the components of a self-other
concept as previously defined is the realization that aspiration or

expectation of adequacy is an essential part of the deve10pment of

 

1Robert J. Havighurst, M. Z. Robinson and Mildred Dorr,
"The Development of the Ideal Self in Childhood and Adolescence, "
Journal_o_f_Educational Research, Vol. 40 (1946), pp. 241-257.

 

109

the self concept.

Aspiration has been observed to be related to an ideal self.
Print supplies a vast amount of information. Therefore it is not
unreasonable to assume that printed materials influence the aspira-
tions of a great many people. Neither is it unreasonable to assume
that aspirations which are formed through reading will quite likely
be translated into action.

If it is accepted that printed materials can, and sometimes
do, make a difference in the reader, and if it is assumed that the
deve10pment of an ideal-self is necessary for the development of
the self concept; it would seem to be important to ascertain whether
or not the content in a selected list of children's books could provide
information or ideas for the realization that aspiration is an essential
part in the deve10pment of the self concept.

Perhaps the greatest value of the ideal-self concept is that
it provides an idea of the child's aspirations against which his skills,
abilities, potentialities and level of development can be compared.
The influence of parents, relatives, glamorous adults have been
Shown to be important for both beys and girls.

Book children are concerned with their ideal-selves. This
concern may be with their future, accomplishment of some skill,
material things, or some other activity.

One of the aspects of the deve10pment of the ideal self is

110

aspiration for a future occupation, or "What am I going to be when I
grow up ?"

The characters that Lois Lenski has created in her books
are usually very alive and memorable.

Orvie crawled under the barbed wire fence and started to-
ward the derrick.

"Slim wouldn't care--there's no danger now, " he said to
himself.

He had picked up an old neWSpaper from the woodbox in
the kitchen. He tucked it tightly under his arm and began to
climb the ladder of the derrick.

"I always wanted to go to the top, " he said softly, "I never
did because Slim told me not to. I must do it, if I'm going
to be a driller like Slim when I grow up. "

Suddenly he knew that someday he would work in oil. He
might be a driller like Slim, or he might do other important
work, but it would be in oil. Oil had changed his life and got"-
ten into his blood. He knew the excitement and the thrills it
brought, he knew its hazards and tragedies. He knew its best
and its worst, and it still held a fascination for him which he
could not resist.

On and on, up and up the boy climbed. He stopped now
and then to look down at the ground beneath him, but it did not
make him dizzy. He reached the top and stepped out on the
platform there.

It was a magnificent moment. 2

Elizabeth Enright writes about children who have realistic

aspirations.

 

2Lois Lenski, Boom Town Boy, (Philadelphia: J. B.
Lippincott Co., 1948), pp. 174-175.

 

111

All the Melendys knew what they were going to be when
they grew up. Some of them were going to follow several
professions. Mona, of course, had decided to be an actress.
She could (and did) recite yards of poetry and Shakespeare
at the drop of a hat. Randy was going to paint pictures. Rush
was going to be the best pianist in the world, and a great
engineer as well; the kind that builds suspension bridges and
dams, and railroads. Oliver was going to be an engineer
too, but he was going to be the kind that drives trains. It
was nice to have it all settled.

Another story in the regional series for intermediate
grades is about an Iowa farm boy.

"I like animals, " said Dick, "and I like to help them.
They know when you are helping them, don't they ?"

"Indeed they do, " said the old Vet. His eyes twinkled as
he looked down at the boy, so serious and earnest.

"Sometimes you have to be kind of brutal, " Dick went on,
"but when it helps them, I feel I am doing the right thing. "

"A good farmer takes care of his animals, " said the old
Vet.

Doc Musfelt picked up his satchel and Dick walked to the
car with him. He patted the boy on the shoulder and said,

"Maybe you'll be a veterinarian like me some day. "

"Dick smiled. "I'd like to be one--as good as you, Doc.
Thank you for coming out. I hope it wasn't too much trouble. "

Maud Lovelace, like other authors, writes about the con-
cern that children have about their future careers.

While they ate their lunch they had a very serious
conversation.

 

3'Enright, The Saturdayp, pp. £33., pp. 8-9.

 

4:Lenski, Corn Farm Boy, pp. _c__i_1_t_., p. 41.

 

112

"What shall we do when we grow up?" asked Betsy.

"I'm going to get married and have babies, " said Tacy
without even thinking.

"I'm going to be a dancer, " said Tib, "or else an
architect. I haven't made up my mind. "

"I'm going to be an author, " said Betsy, "and I am going
to look exactly like Aunt Polly. "5

Sometimes children identify with adults and have aspirations
to become like them.

"Miss Fox! Can I do that? Can I be a teacher like you
when I finish here?"

Miss Fox smiled. Then she looked thoughtful, as though
she were weighing the possibilities of such a thing.

"Yes, Rose, " she decided after a moment. "I think you
could. It means you'll have to work hard, harder than anyone
in class. You'll have to finish the work here in less than five
years so that you can go into regular school with boys and girls
who have been at it since they were six. You won't have to
start in the first grade with them, but you will be older than
the others in your class and few, if any, will be of your people.
They will not be Navahos. Would you like that?"

Rose looked at her in amazement. In the few minutes
since they had been talking she seemed to have gained new
strength. She felt strong enough to do anything, to conquer
any problem. Her eyes shown with purpose.

Through imagination children have aspirations of becoming

important people.

While she was waiting and looking, She kept playing her

 

5Lovclacc, 333. 333., p. 117.

6Lampman, pp. p33” pp. 168-169.

113

favorite game--planning what she would be when she was grown

up. The one thing that Dot really wanted to be more than any-
thing else was a poet. She imagined a girl about her own age

some day walking into the public library and looking on the shelves.
The girl she was picturing frowned, searched some more and

then hesitantly walked over to where the librarian was stamping
cards.

"Have you any of Dorthea Ann Flemming's books ?" the
girl asked.

Children who have aspirations are not always willing to

share these aSpirations with adults.

"Pretty keen. Pretty keen, Charley. You like to work
with tools '2"

"Yes sir. I'm awful glad to get a chance to work with
Tom in the shop here. "

"What do you aim to be when you grow up? You want to
be a mechanic ?"

"Yes sir."

"Aw, Charley. Why don't you tell him what you really
want to be?" Tom said.

George joined in. "Yes, Charley, go ahead and tell it
all. . . Charley wants to be an engineer!"

Adults, for many reasons, do not always understand the

aspirations of children.

Suddenly the father appeared at the door, his face like a
thunder cloud.

 

7
Friedman, Dot For Short, pp. 3333., pp. 111-112.

 

8Jesse Jackson, Call Me Charley, (New York: Harper

 

and Brothers, 1945), p. 87.

114

"What is this that Lao-po-po (Old Grandmother) tells me--
that you are going to be a doctor?" he demanded of Lu.

"Old Grandmother wants me to study and be a credit to
the family, " Lu said, a bit smugly.

"Did you tell her that you must first go to high school,
then to college, then to medical college and that all this will
cost much money ?" Foo Chen asked.

"No, I didn't Father. "
"That is a true word, I am sure. You would never tell
her such a tale of expense as that. She would not understand

'high school' or 'college' and you would not explain. "

"But I do want to go to high school, father. And to college.
And I have long said that my ambition is to be a doctor. "

Elizabeth Enright recognizes that sometimes children's

aspirations are more romantic than realistic.

"It's terrible what a state the place got into while we were
canning, " groaned Mona. She had her hair tied up in a towel,
and was wearing one of Cuffy's aprons wrapped around twice,
and she looked awful. "How do you suppose people do it?
Real housewives with children and all?"

Randy shook her head, at a loss. "When I grow up I'm
going to be a famous painter and dancer, and live in a hotel. "

"And I'm going to be a famous actress with lots of flowers
in my dressing room. I'll live in a hotel too.

"We won't ever have to cook anything. "10

To some children material possessions are more important

 

9Clara Ingram Judson, Green Ginger Jar, (Boston:

Houghton Mifflin Company, 1949), p. l.

10Enright, Then There Were Five, pp. pi_t., p. 160.

115

than concern about the future.

"We never have no music frolics at our house, " said Billy.
His voice was sad. "My Pappy don't like tune-Singin'--only
hymns at the church house. We ain't got no instrument at
all, no guitar nor banjo. " He pronounced the words git'tar
and ban-jer.

"Your Mammy sang when she was young, " said Granny,
"all them Bronsons could sing. And your Uncle Jamie, her
brother, he still sings. Why, he's called Fiddlin' Jamie,
the Singin' Fiddler, all over the county. "

"Law, yes, they all sing at Uncle Jamie's house, " said
Billy, "all the boys, Rick, Glen, and Jack. And so does
Ettie Bell. " He paused staring at Sarey Sue's accordion.

"I wish I could get me an instru-ment. . . " He breathed
the words softly--he scarcely dared say them. "A banjo to
pick. . . " It was like wishing for the moon.

Long term goals that are finally realized are important
aspirations for children.

. . . Dan had loved the school and now she was glad that
she would see the wonderful things he had described to her.
Books with colored pictures on every page. Bright crayons
and chalk and paper to fold and cut. Pictures on the walls.
Curtains at the windows made of paper with crinkly edges.
That wonderful machine that brought music out of little black
plates by scratching with a needle. . .

So many things. She was so excited she stumbled over
the doorsill and almost Spilled the eggs. She was going to
school!12

Miguel, also, realized a long term goal. He had one wish

for many years.

 

11Lenski, Blue Ridge Billy, 3p. 333., p. 9.

 

l‘7‘Sorensen, Plain Girl, pp. 5333., p. 11.

 

 

116

That's the way it is with Gabriel. Everything that he wants
he can get. With Pedro, it is the opposite. Everything that
he has is enough.

Both of them, they are happy.

But to be in between, not so little anymore and not yet
nineteen years, to be me, Miguel, and to have a great wish--
that is hard.

I had such a wish. It was a secret and yet not a secret.
For how secret can you keep high mountains that one can see
for hundreds of miles around, mountains that face me when I
first open my eyes every morning and are the last thing I see
in the night.

This was my wish, to go up there--into those mountains
that are called the Mountains of the Sang re de Cristos. 1

Children may have aspirations for others that are also
important to themselves. This is illustrated in the two selections

that follow.

It had to be the right place. All outdoors. With miracles.
Not crowded and people being cross and mean. Daddy not
tired all the time any more. Mother not worried. But it
looked little and old to be all that. She was afraid, now that she
was actually there, that it wasn't. She wished that they we re
still on the way. Sometimes Christmas wasn't as much fun as
getting ready for it. Maybe thinking about Maple Hill would
turn out to be better than Maple. Hill itself.

She whispered, "Please, let there be miracles. "14

It was wonderful to know that there would be enough money
now to make all the Mortgage payments, and Aunt Jess could
stay home again.

 

13Krumgold, . . . and now Miguel, pp. _C_i_t_., p. 9.

14{Sorensen, Miracles ppMaple Hill, pp. pi_t_., p. 23.

 

     

.ttlldl _.. ....
fluoouv‘u a. .7 4.. .4-
. so .. r.o . ,_.

 

 

117

"I have a further suggestion to make, " said Mr. Randolph
when he and Aunt Jess came back from a brief talk in the Great
Hall. "Although of course this could not be an actual part of
the sale, as chairman of the commission I Should want to ar-
range for the services of the Gray family as caretakers for
the Society on a year around basis. "

Vicky felt as though she were floating on air. The Society
was safe, the farm was safe, and with the caretaking job Aunt
Jess and the cousins were safe too. 15

Recognition of one's abilities may be important in the
development of a sense of adequacy.

Classes started the next morning and were not what Rose
expected at all. She had been dreading this most important
part of school, because, she was afraid She wouldn't be able to
keep up with the others. What if they learned rapidly, and
she was not able to master the strange lessons at all? Then
people would be sorry for her all over again, and she had not
met pity from anyone since leaving Tuba City. Only the Yuccas
knew she had no family, and she had caught only brief glimpses
of them since she arrived.

To her delight she found that she could learn as fast as
anyone in the room. Some of the children already had a
smattering of English. A few, like Isobel, had even attended
some day school and were ahead of her. But after the first
session she knew She could catch up if she wanted to. And she
did want to. She wanted more than anything to excel in some-
thing. Peo le couldn't be sorry for someone who was head of
the class.

Many children in middle childhood are concerned about
mastering skills. Learning to ride a bicycle is an important asPi-

ration.

 

15Lawrence, Homemade Year, pp. 3:33., pp. 207-208.

 

16Lampman, Navaho Sister, pp. cit., p. 72.

 

118

Randy had a hard time learning. Her bicycle behaved as
though it had a life of its own, doing everything to be rid of
her. It bucked like a broncho, veered captiously in all the
wrong directions, flung itself at trees and walls, and fell on
its side in repeated swoons. Randy fell with it everytime.

At the end of a half hour's patient struggle, her shins were
black and blue, her knee was scraped, and she was close to
tears. Rush, swooping expertly by, saw her fall for the seven-
teenth time and took pity on her.

"Look, Ran, " he said, "you get on and I'll hold the bike
for you. I won't let it fall. Now, push down with your right
foot, now with your left. That's it. You'll have it soon. "

And thanks to Rush's help she did have it soon. In a very
short time she found herself sailing deliriously along the drive,
under her own steam. The wind whistled against her cheek,
her battered knees pumped up and down, and the bicycle, its
spirit almost broken, carried her smoothly; turning when she
wished it to turn, stopping when she wished it to stop. I can
do anything! Randy's thoughts were singing Victoriously. If
I can learn to ride a bicycle I can do anything. Learn to fly
an airplane or dance like Baranova, or draw like Botticelli.
Drunk with success she tried riding without hands, the way
Rush did, and immediately fell off. '7

There are many children who want to learn how to swim.
Jud had this aspiration and realized it.

He didn't do much more for a while but splash and dog-
paddle, watching the strong, even strokes made by the tall
young man and wishing he could really swim.

Finally he asked, "How do you make your feet go? You
don't splash with them at all. " To his surprise, Father Tom
left the deep water and headed in to where the shore dropped
off gradually.

"Flop down here beside me, " Father Tom said, stretching
out on his stomach in the shallow water. "Now watch, and
do just as I do. "

 

17Enright, Four Story Mistake, pp. p33., pp. 44-45.

 

119

For more than an hour Jud practiced the stretching and
pulling motion with his arms, the slow twisting of his body
and turning of his head, and the regular treading of his feet--
which Father Tom called a "crawl. " Then the two of them went
out to where the water was up to Jud's waist, and he tried his
new skills there. He got water up his nose; he swallowed water,
he kept touching bottom with his feet. But finally, later in
the afternoon, for three whole strokes, Jud swam.

Working with their hands and the skills required are im-
portant aspirations for some children.

"Cody, " Uncle Jeff said, almost sternly,"I'm going to
repeat that saying: 'You better face facts or facts are going
to face you. ' "

"Heard you the first time, " Cody said happily. "Now tell
me, if you please, what that means."

"It means that fiddling is a difficult art to pick up, no
matter how smart you are, " Uncle Jeff said. "I've known
some powerfully talented men to study fiddling a year before
they could play a tune anyone would want to listen to. "

"A year ! " Cody whispered to himself. He began doing
some deep thinking and his face got to looking as bunched up as
a walnut. "If I start this, I'll have to keep up with it, " he said
to himself, "and golly--a year is quite a lot of days. "

Uncle Jeff smiled as he watched Cody worry.

"That's right, " he said. "Now you're facin' facts before
facts face you. "

"Well, after about a minute, Cody decided there wasn't
anything he wanted quite so much as to build and play a fiddle
and have Uncle J e ff Show him how. 19

 

18Elspeth Bragdon, That Jud, (New York: The Viking
Press, 1957), p. 77.

1'9Leon Wilson, This Boy Cody and His Friends, (New York:
Franklin Watts, Inc., 1952), pp. 49-50.

 

120

Rowena Carey had aspirations of owning a horse and

 

learning to ride.

The girls went up to Row's room and Doody was shown
the little horse that Mrs. Savage had given Row. Doody ex-
claimed over its beauty so much that Row began to yearn for
a real live horse. "I wish I could learn to ride, and I could
if Daddy would buy me a season ticket at the Loblolly Riding
School, " she mourned and went on, "But Daddy says he can't
afford it. It costs so much just for clothes and education, he
says, and all I want is only a pair of jodphurs and to learn
to ride a horse. "20

For some children learning to play a musical instrument
is an aspiration. Birdie finally realized her aspiration.

Birdie pumped and pounded the keys again.

"Sounds terrible, " said Pa, looking at Ma.

"Reckon there's anything we can do about it, wife?"

Ma smiled. "How's about takin' lessons from Miss
Dunnaway?"

"Oh, Pa! Oh, Ma! Imight could?" exclaimed Birdie.
"Yes, " they said. "We been studyin' on it for a long time. "

"Golly!" said Shoestring. "When you get big, likely you'll
play the organ in church! "

"I hope so, " said Birdie. 21

Learning to write is a simple skill, but to a young Chinese

boy it was a very important aspiration.

 

onolberg, Rowena Carey, pp. p33., pp. 33-34.

 

ZlLenski, Strawberry Girl, pp. 3:33., p. 194.

 

121

Felix held his brush in a vertical position between thumb
and finger. The other fingers grasped the handle, while the
ball of his hand rested on the table. He breathed deeply, working
hard to trace the strokes carefully. Each symbol was different,
and there were thousands of them to be memorized. There was
no alphabet making words as in public school, where he had
learned to read English.

Felix Fong grew very discouraged. Would he ever learn
to write ? It was hard to have to read and write two languages.
But Father said a Chinese boy could not do business in or out
of Chinatown unless he knew both languages.

SUMMARY

The need for an adequate self concept is the core and all-
pervasive need of humans, embracing all an individual is and hopes
to be. It has been pointed out previously that a person learns to re-
spect himself and accept himself in the measure that he is respected
and accepted by others. When this need to become is satisfied, the
need for achievement nourishes the self-esteem basic to the feeling
of adequacy and to a healthy self-concept. Its realization is synonymous
with self-realization and personal integration. Aspiration and suc-
cessful experiences are needed to offset the effect of failure and
frustration.

This chapter has been concerned with the third component
of the self-concept: the realization that aspiration and expectation of

adequacy are important in the development of the self-concept.

 

ZZLenski, San Francisco Boy, pp. 3:33.. p. 11.

 

122

The aspirations of children may be related to some occu-
pation. Every occupation has some interpersonal quality about it.
Children, as portrayed in the content in a selected list of children's
books, have aspirations to become actresses, artists, veterinarians,
teachers or doctors.

It is interesting to note that in only one of the books sur-
veyed is there a desire for a material possession. In this instance
it was a desire to make and learn to play a musical instrument.

Sometimes children have aspirations that they hold to for a
long time. When these aspirations are realized a sense of adequacy
may be developed.

Children may have aspirations that are not only important
to themselves but important to the welfare of others. This concern
for the welfare of others may be an important part in the development
of the self-other concept.

In Chapter II evidence concerning the ideal self and aspi-
ration was examined. If an individual feels relatively adequate, se-
cure, and successful, chances are that he may continue to preserve
this view. Sometimes learning to master certain skills and accepting
his abilities may be a threat to an individual's concept of self.

The few illustrations of book children being concerned
about mastering certain skills, such as swimming, playing a musical

instrument or writing Chinese symbols, indicate that children consider

 

 

123

achievement as important in the deve10pment of a sense of adequacy.
On the whole the books examined do not indicate that
children are concerned with an ideal self but the few books that do
may have some influence on the realization that aspiration and ex-
pectation of adequacy is important to the development of the self-other

concept.

CHAPTER VI

STANDARDS OF BEHAVIOR

IN A SELECTED LIST OF CHILDREN'S BOOKS

The importance of character education has been recognized
throughout the ages. Frequently this has been referred to as moral
training, religious education, and training in ethical ideals and
principles. The importance of experiences in the development of
character has been emphasized by recognized authorities. It is
generally recognized that moral concepts, attitudes, ideals, and
values are outgrowths of experiences.

Modern concepts of child rearing lay stress on the fact
that morality is not developed by rules, creeds, dogmas, or the es-
tablishment of Specific amounts of punishment for various acts of
mischief. The emotional climate and teachings in the home, school,
church, or elsewhere are extremely important factors affecting the
results to be attained from rule‘s, creeds, rewards or punishments.

Many useful studies have been conducted bearing on the
relationship of various cultural forces and conditions upon the moral
growth and character formation of children and adolescents. A

variety 0f devices have been used for studying the behavior of

 

 

 

 

125

children in situations involving cooperation, competition, generosity,
honesty, persistence, self-control, prejudices, and anxieties.

If it is assumed that printed material can and sometime
does make a difference in the reader, and if it is also assumed
that what is regarded as fair, or just, or good is learned from ex-
periences, including the experience of reading, it would seem to be
wise to inquire further into the matter of prevailing standards of
behavior as they appear in children's literature.

If it is accepted that a self-other concept is necessary and
if it is also accepted that printed materials contribute to the devel-
opment of the concept of self; it would seem to be important to ascer-
tain whether or not the content of a selected list of children's books
could provide ideas for the realization that a moral sense is an
essential part of the self-other concept.

The following excerpts from the books that boys and girls
in the intermediate grades may read are concerned with the behavior
of book children in various situations involving responsibility, co-
operation, honesty, kindness to animals, and other character traits.

Lois Lenski has written about the responsibilities of a
young boy growing up on a farm in Iowa.

Clover acted excited, so Dick drove her into the barn.

When he got there he saw what the trouble was. She had
cut her milk bag in jumping the barbed-wire fence. He

knew she was in pain, for she refused to stand still. What
should he do? Dick was supposed to take care of things

126

when Dad and Raymond were not there. He knew what
Dad would do--call the veterinarian to come and take a
look at that cut. Dick did not hesitate. He went to the
telephone and put in the call. 1

In Texas Tomboy, Lois Lenski has also written about a

 

young girl's sense of responsibility.

Charlie hurried to the calf. He was standing on his
wobbly legs now. He was the most beautiful calf she had
ever seen. His face was pure white, and his body was
velvety red. He hadn't had time to get his face dirty. He
was gentle too, because he was not old enough to be afraid.
His eyes were big and appealing.

She must keep him alive. She must get some warm
milk inside him. '

It was not easy. The calf did not know how to drink.
She found the green bottle with the large nipple, which had
been used for calves before. But he did not want to take
it, even when she held it down in the milk. When she
pushed his head down into the bucket, he jerked it up and
sneezed all over her.

She pushed his head down again, and put her milky
fingers inside his mouth. At last he began to suck, and
as he sucked, strength began to flow into his weak
shivering body. 2

In the next story a young girl recognizes her responsibility
for the care of a library book.

J oanda never knew just how it happened. Afterwards
she wished she hadn't tried to lift Ricky over the mud-
puddle. But he had no rubbers and she did. When she
was halfway across, the book slipped out from under her
arm.

 

lLenski, Corn Farm Boy, pp. 333., p. 37.

 

2Lenski, Texas Tomboy, pp. 3:3,, p. 10.

 

127

"Oh! Oh!" she cried. Then she dropped Ricky and he
got his feet muddy and wet, after all.

But it was the book that mattered. Joanda had told
Miss Fenton she would take good care of it. Daddy had
folded a newspaper around its beautiful blue cloth covers,
so not a spot should get on them. He had turned the pages
carefully. Each time after they finished reading, Mama
had put the precious book up on a high shelf out of Lolly's
reach. Joanda wanted to be sure to return the book to
school as pretty and clean as when she borrowed it.

Again the theme of responsibility is found in one of Lois
Lenski's regional books for children when Birdie takes pride in
painting the old weathered house.

The time had come to paint the house, though Pa had
bought the paint months before. Birdie climbed up on the
ladder and set to work. She slapped her paintbrush up and
down noisily. It was good to see one plank after another
change from its weathered gray to a pearly white. No one
would recognize the old Roddenberry house when they got
through. Soon it would be called the Boyer's white house.
How pretty the box flowers would look on the porch all
white and shiny!

Miguel may have a selfish motive but he, too, recognizes
the importance of his responsibilities with the sheep on his father's
ranch.

I got up thinking, I'd done it. After what J uby told me
there was only one thing to do, and now I'd done it. Here
I was, just me, Miguel, getting the sheep that were lost,
all alone. And the re would be no one bringing them home
but me. All I had to do was to get up there, on the mesa,
across the river, round up the bunch and march them back

 

3Lenski, Cottoninlfl Sack, 32. SE” pp. 87-88.

4Lenski, Strawberry Girl, 92. _c_i_t., p. 147.

 

 

o

 

. .,.l4u..._.h..rt«...r!n(l€.ril Itflirii r» . n L. . I r .. p r. .
. « s ,

.v...o_'ot u..¢..r—-‘. nonc<.b

128

to where everyone could see. It would be something worth
watching, me herding the ewes and lambs that were lost
back into the corral at home.

Other book children recognize the importance of being

kind to animals .

”Come on bossy, " she said aloud in a sweet false voice.

The cow came with a heavy dignified tread and sighed
a great sigh that smelled of hay. Randy put up her hand
and found the bridle. She stepped forward and the cow
stepped with her, mild and docile. Randy felt love in her
heart for the creature. Beautiful, trustful, obedient animal.
I must tell Father we should have a cow, she said to her-
self, and to the cow she said, ”Don't be frightened, don't
be scared. We'd never let anything hurt you. "

Jesse Stuart in this book uses the theme of kindness to

animals.
David sat there looking at the possums.

"Little one, I'm going to turn you loose, " he said,
looking at the tiny possum. "I know I'm not going to kill
you for your little hide. It wouldn't be worth twenty-five
cents. I'm going to let you go back to your mother. And
I don't want to kill you either, “ he said softly to the big
possums that were looking up at him with fear in their
beady eyes. ”Grandma wouldn't want me to kill you for
your hides. I'll find another way to buy her a present. ”

Doris Garst also uses kindness to animals as one of the

character traits for Bob in Cowboy Boots.

 

 

5Krumgold, . . . and now Miguel, op. £13., p. 82.
6Enright, Then There Were Five, g. cit., pp. 126-127.

7Stuart, 2p. git” p. 63.

129

True to his word, the next morning Bob went out be-
fore he ate his breakfast and set about teaching the dogie
calf to eat. Cookie helped him dilute a can of condensed
milk in warm water and put it in a bucket. He pushed the
dogie's nose into the milk, but nothing came of this but
much puffing and snorting and violent struggling. Then
Bob tried dipping his fingers in the milk and letting the
calf suck them. This worked better. But Bob was deter-
mined to teach the dogie to drink out of the bucket. He
struggled for half an hour, then the calf finally got the
idea and drank willingly.

Bob went in to find his breakfast cold, but he ate with
the satisfaction of knowing that he had carried out the cow-
boy's first rule of caring for the needs of his animals before
he cared for his own.

Elizabeth Yates develops Peter's character through many
examples. In this incident she shows Peter's kindness to a favorite
hen.

Squawker looked up at him from the floor. She tried
to flutter toward him, but lacking the strength, fell in a
heap of limp feathers. Her head dropped piteously and a
film spread over her eyes; then she opened her eyes and
struggled gallantly to her feet. Her bill gaped wide, but
not a sound came from it.

"Oh, Squawker. " Peter knelt on the floor beside her,
longing to do something to relieve her suffering, to give
her courage in the lone battle she was fighting.

He reached out and stroked her gently and Squawker
subsided under his touch. Peter's heart was heavy.
Everything within him wanted to care for the hen, but he
knew instinctively that there was little one could do.

Had Andrew been home there would have been one course
of action he would have pursued; in his father's absence,
Peter felt that he must do his best to act for him. It was

 

BGarst, op. £i_t., pp. 119-120.

130

for ghe good of the flock as a whole, for the good of them
all.

Courage and bravery are considered to be important
elements of character that are emphasized in many cultures.

The next day her father and her grandmother came in
her room and her father was carrying General Shaw's cage
in his hand and in her grandmother's hand there was a brand
new medal. And her grandmother said, "This is your medal. ”

"Is it for bravery in the field of honor ?" asked Melindy.

"Shucks, no, " said Melindy's grandmother. "Any old
man in our family can win a medal for bravery in the field
of honor any old day in the week. It takes a girl to win a
medal for just pure bravery. This here medal's worth
more than all the medals that even we've got in our family. "10

Georgene Faulkner again uses bravery as one of the
character traits of Melindy in the sequel to the first book about
Melindy.

Melindy and Nancy heard Peggy scream and rushed down
the bank. The water was deep and Peggy floundered help-
lessly.

Nancy shouted, ”Help! Help! Somebody come quick.
Help! Help! Bob, Mother, Mary, Bill! Help Baby! Help,
Oh, help!"

But Melindy did not stop to think. She plunged right
in and paddled out to the frightened baby.

Grasping Peggy by one arm, Melindy tried to paddle
back to shore. Somehow the bank seemed farther away and

 

9Yates, 3p. _c_it., pp. 97-98.

10Faulkner, Melindy's Medal, pp. 313., p. 172.

 

 

131

the water was awfully deep and Nancy was running as fast
as she could go.

Expediency in an emergency in the next incident could

also be considered courage.

They began to climb the rocks. Row followed. Now
she could hear someone crying and screaming. She reached
the top of the hill and found Saima and Doody and a Cub Scout
leaning over a boy who had caught his foot between two rocks.
Row took in the situation at a glance. "Unlace his shoe, "
she ordered the Cub Scout.

Then Row squatted down and peered between the rocks.
She f10pped on her stomach and reached under the rocks
and managed to push the shoe up a bit. She puffed and
squirmed and shoved as hard as she could. Doody and
Saima managed to get the boy's foot out of his shoe just as
Row's final effort lifted the shoe.

The Cub Scout said, "Does it hurt?"

The boy hopped on one foot. Row said, "Sit down and
let me feel it. "

She was gentle and in a jiffy announced in a grave pro-
fessional tone, "No bones broken. Put on your shoe and keep
off those rocks."12

An interesting view of how the Navahos feel about honesty

and telling lies is found in this next excerpt.

"I didn't hear, " said the nurse calmly, "How old did you
say?"

"Fourteen, " repeated Rose, and then With a rising
horror which made her forget the sharp needle, she realized

 

“Georgene Faulkner, Melindy's Happy Summer, (New
York: Julian Messner, Inc., 1949), p. 118.

12Holberg, o_p. _c_:_i_t., p. 193.

I 1111. 1 I! I If} r I} I I'll-ll Illi :1» 1|. I' . I . .
. .
c
u
9.
Ix l
O
. \
r
.\
v
n
c
(
A a
0‘.
l.
o.
.
n
_
.
f~ ~
u o
a
v
-
.
p -
~
Q.
t
n
K
.
¢
,\1/
If

 

132

that she had now told the lie three times.

Three times was all right. Three times was safe.
But the Navaho who tells the same lie four times is subject
to great danger, for now the circle is complete. The four
lies could come at her from every side, north, south, east
and west, to overwhelm her.

"That's all, " said the nurse. She stuck the wet bit of
cotton on the prick on Rose's arm. "Clench your fist and
double your arm. It will stop bleeding in a moment. "

Rose did as she was told. Again the wet cotton felt cold
but it did not hurt.

”Now, " said the Navaho nurse. ”How old are you,
Rose ? "

"Twelve, " she whispered miserably.

"I thought so. " The nurse turned and spoke rapidly to
the doctor in English. To Rose's surprise, the doctor was
not angry. 1

Clara Ingram Judson also illustrates the importance of
honesty among Chinese Americans.

"Oh, father! I do not know! It was not stolen. I hope
it is not broken-~Old Grandmother's jar-~I am so sorry!"
She laid her head on the table and sobbed. With the tears
a harness in her heart vanished and she saw that silence
was evil. Doing nothing could be more wrong than doing
something. Courage came and she wiped her eyes and
raised her head bravely to face her father.

"It was not stolen father, I gave it to her. I, myself. "14

Lois Lenski, in this next book, illustrates the character

 

13Lampman, op. c_it., p. 34.

14Judson, op. c_it., p. 48.

133

trait of bravery in the development of Patsy's character.

Patsy saw the little head go under. Then she saw it
come up again. The next minute she was in the water with
her clothes on. Her action was automatic. She was so used
to jumping in, she did so without thinking. She swam as
fast as she could to the old boat and got there just as the
boy started going down for the third time. She dove under
and grabbed his arm. She pulled him up, and steadying
herself by holding to the boat with her left hand, placed
the boy's arm around her neck. She had seen rescues so
many times herself, she knew just what to do. Then she
swam back to the dock, dragging the boy along with her.

Even though Felix, a Chinese boy growing up in San
Francisco, is kind to animals the character trait that is emphasized

here is hone sty.

Mother came down from the roof, bringing some of the
clothes that were dry. She asked. "Have you telephoned
the dog pound?"

”No, Mother, " said Felix, "The dog likes it here. He
is going to die of homesickness. See how he eats! I will
spend all my paper route money to buy him good food. ”

Mother spoke crossly, "Mei Gwen, what was the number
on the dog's tag? Go to the telephone and call it. Find out
who owns this dog, so he may be restored to his owner."

She turned to Felix. "When a dog is lost, it is a kindness
to restore it to the owner. If {(pu try to keep a lost dog,
it is the same as stealing it."

Three little girls are surprised at what their parents
consider honesty.

Betsy and Tacy and Tib were scolded for going begging.

 

15Lenski, Houseboat Girl, pp. p_i_t.., p. 137.

 

16Lenski, San Francisco Boy, pp. £13., p. 68.

 

134

They weren't surprised that they were scolded, but they
were surprised at what they were scolded for. They had
expected to be scolded for putting mud on themselves, for
mus sing up their dresses and tangling their hair. But none
of the fathers and mothers seemed to mind that very much.
What they minded was their asking for something to eat.

The fathers and mothers tried to explain. It was telling
a lie to pretend that they were hungry when they weren't.

Another type of situation involving honesty and integrity
is shown in this next incident.

When they were back in the kitchen again, Sarah said
tearfully, "How can I go and tell the library that the book
is lost?" She was ready to cry again.

”I'm afraid they won't let you take out any more books
until we pay for this one, " Mama worried. ”And a book
costs a lot of money. "

"But Tillie lost the book, " argued Sarah. "She should
Pay. I!

"We can't be sure of that, " Mama said. "Tillie claims
she returned it. Maybe someone else took it. "

"No library could make me pay for any old book. "
Henny was just trying to cover up how bad she felt too.

"I'm afraid the library will expect you to pay for it.
And it's only right, " continued Mama. "You borrowed the
book and that makes you responsible. The library lets you
borrow the book and you are not supposed to lend it to any-
body else. I know you wanted to be kind to Tillie, but if
Tillie wants to read a library book, then she should take
out her own. I wish I could help you pay for this, but you
know, Sarah, there's no money for such things."

 

17Lovelace, pp. £i_t., p. 14.

18Taylor, All-of-a-kind Family, 32. 533., pp. 15-16.

 

 

135

The importance of the value of brotherhood and pride for
their country that book children have is developed in some of the
stories.

Judy showed Mother the newspaper and told her about
Tom's journalism teacher. Mother looked at the picture
lovingly. "That's just the way things should be here in the
United States, " she said, "people of different religions and
colors and backgrounds all working together. Let's always
keep this picture, darling. "

"You bet I will, " Judy told her. ”I'll p9robably never
have my picture in the newspaper again."1

Brotherhood is also mentioned in the next story.
Finally Charlotte inquired, "Papa, are we rich now?"

Papa paused. His voice and face grew sober. "If you
mean, my child, do we have more money, the answer is yes.
When Mama and I first came to America, things were very
hard for us. But this is truly a wonderful country. Here
everyone has a chance to better himself. And God has
helped also. He blesses our home with six wonderful chil-
dren, and all the time he provided--more than provided--
for all of us. So for a long, long time, we have saved for
this day. "

"But one thing you must always remember. We have
never been poor. We have always been very, very rich.
And do zou know why? Because we have always had each
other. ” O

A young boy growing up during the time of war also is

aware of the value of taking pride in his country.

This is the day of sacrifices, Rush told himself. In

 

19Friedman, é Sundae With Judy, pp. _c__i_t_.. p. 186.

 

20Taylor, More All-of-a-kind Family, pp. it” p. 64.

136

wartime everybody makes sacrifices. But that was just a lot
of words; he might as well have been saying one, two, three,
the cat ran up the tree. All he knew was that he wanted to do
something. He wanted to help: his family, and in a way his
country. "Let's see if I've got a little gold halo shining
around my head, ” Rush said aloud and went and looked in a
mirror. But he hadn't.21

One situation that involved prejudice and the reaction to it
is found in the next story.

"I can't tell you, Tom, but we just can't have Charley in
the Tigers Club."

"Why? You're so smart."

George put his dish on the workbench and raised his hands
to help explain.

"It's like the real estate man told Father when we looked
at our house, before we bought it. He said, 'No niggers or
Jews or dagos live in Arlington Heights. It's only for Ameri-
cans', you see ? Charley doesn't really live here. He only
stays at Doctor Cunninghams because his parents work there. ”

"That kind of stuff ain't what we say at school. "

"What do you mean?” George asked.

"You know when we have the flag raising. You know. . . "
Tom looked at the floor. ”All that stuff about liberty and
justice for all. " Nobody said anything for a minute. "Well,
anyway, " Tom went on, "what you're sayin' ain't what we
learn at school. "

The only other situation that involved the feelings that a

book child has about prejudice is found in the excerpt from this

 

21Enright, Four Story Mistake, pp. p_i£., p. 126.

 

22Jackson, pp. pip” p. 51.

 

137

next book.

”That's how I feel, " Henrietta said. "Let's forget the
whole thing. What difference does it make whether we have
one member more or less?"

Judy couldn't believe her ears. Had her friends really
said, "It isn't important enough, " and, "What difference
does it make ?" Why to Judy it was very important and it
made all the difference in the world. Judy felt she couldn't
remain a member of a club that wouldn't admit a girl be-
cause her skin was a little darker than the other members'
and her eyes were shaped differently.23

The importance of good human relations among all peoples
is a value that is emphasized in this next selection.

J adih did not say anything, but waited to learn what Jim
was leading up to. Jim said earnestly, "Now, the Bellicanos
(Americans)--what do they know about your people or your
country? Maybe a few of them have driven through Canyon
de Chelly and Kayenta and out through Tuba City or Mexican
Hat. But what can they learn about birds by seeing a desert
lark fly out of a bush? What can they learn about animals
by watching a coyote lope off through the sage ?"

Then he went on, "The Bellicanos want to know more
about your people and your country. They want to be friends.
They are interested. If they knew more about your people
they would be better friends. But what do they learn about
the Navajos? They see a few of the people give a little part
of a sing, and it doesn't mean any more to them than the
yapping of a bunch of foxes. "

"When you are older, you will be able to show them some-
thing about the religion and the ritual and the arts of the people.
You can make them understand, and they would have respect
for these things, and maybe some of the things they would
learn about the Navajo people would help them to understand
themselves better, and find happier ways. " Jim paused.

"You don't ever need to be ashamed of being a Navajo, Jadih.

 

23Friedman, A Sundae With Judy, pp. p3}, p. 63.

 

138

But you don't want to forget that you are an American--a
Bellicano. "

"Me ?" Jadih said. He looked at Jim to see if he was
joking.

"Sure. Anybody who lives in America is an American.
You are an American, your father and mother and Starflower,
and Yellow Nose, they are all Americans. It's one big
family, one big clan. We do not have slaves or conquered
peoples, as your grandfathers have told about. We only
have Americans. We do not try to do away with any people's
ideas or customs. We pay attention to them, for they are
our brothers. We learn from them. We take over their
ways that seem good to us, and make them part of our ways.

Jadih was trying hard to understand. It sounded like a
good thinzg4to be an American, but the idea was new and
strange.

S UMMARY

Character can be regarded as a way of life. Fundamental

to the building of character in a young person are the ideals and values

that have become a part of the self. The child is not born with char-

acter, neither can it be imposed upon him from without. Rather it

represents a gradual process of coming to understand and adjust

to the social aspects of day-by-day experiences. Little by little, the

maturing child achieves social consciousness and social habits and

develops certain consistencies of behavior that can be referred to as

char acte r.

 

24Lauritzen, _o_p. _c_i_t., pp. 174-176.

139

Although character has unity, specific motivators of
consistent behavior are given trait names, such as a sense of
justice, loyalty, honesty, respect for authority, generosity, and
the like. An individual's moral self may develop according to
the degree in which character traits function in relationship to
others.

The content of a selected list of children's books has
been studied in this chapter to find out if ideas or bits of infor-
mation could be expected to provide for the realization that a moral
sense is necessary for the development of a self-other concept.

Literature may contribute to the improvement of atti-
tudes and behavior toward people, animals, cultures, creeds, beliefs,
institutions, and one's own country.

Literature may let a person get insights into himself so
that he can possibly change behavior.

The children, as revealed by the analysis of content do
not seem to be concerned with all character traits as they function
in relationship to others. However, there is some indication that
book children may be concerned with a sense of responsibility,
kindness to animals, honesty, courage, brotherhood, and pride in
their country. If it is accepted that reading may bring about a change
in behavior, then it may be possible that some children who read

about people in books who are concerned with the development of a

1‘
n 0.1!
“clash.“

140

moral sense, may also realize that a moral sense is necessary

to the development of a self-other concept.

CHAPTER VII

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Research indicates that it is difficult to estimate the
worth of books. Some books are seldom read. Others are literally
and actually read to shreds. There is no way of determining how
many times a book has been read, whether people have read only
a part of it or all of it, nor what they have thought while reading
it. Because words have only the meaning that the reader brings
to them and because each person has had different experiences, it
is reasonable to believe that words, and consequently books, do
not hold the same meanings for any two people. Nevertheless,
because America has a fairly high rate of literacy, because reading
is generally considered a fundamental of education, and because
printed mate rial appears in such voluminous amounts, there is
reason to believe that Americans must be reading and what they
re ad will probably have an effect on them.

There has been an increased interest in children's books
with the emphasis from recent investigations in the area of child
development and individualized reading. Persons interested in

children could be expected to have some interest in all things that

142

might effect children. Therefore, it is hoped that the result of this
investigation will be of some value to parents, teachers, librarians,
and authors of children's books, all who have some interest in the
development of personal and social attitudes and the development of
the self-concept.

In this paper an attempt has been made to 1) determine the
components of the self-other concept, 2) to describe the research in
the effects of reading, and 3) to ascertain whether or not children's
books first copyrighted within the United States in the twenty year
period preceding 1961 are books that could be expected to, or not
to, contribute to the development of the self-other concept.

A review of the literature by authorities in sociology
and psychology has revealed their thinking about man's relationship
in the contemporary world. A careful research of this literature
has been made. Four components of the self-other concept have
been determined. They are:

l. The realization that personal status and style are

an essential part of the self-other concept.

2. The realization that effective interpersonal rela-
tionships are an essential part of the self-other
concept.

3. The realization that aspiration or expectation of

adequacy is an essential part of the self-other concept.

143

4. The realization that a moral sense is an essential

part of the self-other concept.

Children's books used in a large part of this study have
been selected according to the following criteria: (1) all books
have been c0pyrighted in the United States from 1941 to 1961 inclu-
sive, (2) all books are classified in the Children's Catalog as fiction,
(3) a1 books are suitable for grades four through six, although they
may also be suitable for grades three through nine, and (3) all books
appear under the subject heading of life in the United States.

Each of the four components of the self-other concept,
as it appears in the content in children's books, has been treated
in a separate chapter in this study. Physical makeup and personal
style in Chapter III, effective interpersonal relationships in Chapter
IV, aspiration or expectation of adequacy in Chapter V, and standards
of behavior in Chapter VI.

The examination of content of the selected list of children's
books does not seem to reveal that children are concerned with
physical status and personal style, although there are a few instances
which indicate that girls from the Amish district in Pennsylvania,
New York City, and the Navaho Indian Reservation are concerned
about their physical appearance. Personal appearance may be re-
lated to conformity in the peer group, to behavior and to the self-

concept. This is revealed only in a very limited way in the books

144

that children may read.

If personality is the sum of an individual's character
traits, attitudes, and values, the personality of a parent may be
expected to influence the personality development of his child.

The books that comprise the selected list used in this study do
provide content that is concerned with interpersonal relationships.
Many stories contain paragraphs which, in various degrees of
detail, point out the ways in which children and adults are involved
in interpersonal relationships.

The relationship may be between a father and his daughter,

as in Strawberry Girl, a mother and her son, as iné Place For

 

 

Bite—r, or the numerous other incidents that illustrate relationships
that children have with grandmothers, uncles, the hired man, a
teacher, or other adults.

The relationships are also concerned with children and
their peers. These relationships may be concerned with acceptance,
friendship, approval or competition. The second position, that the
content of the books that children read will provide ideas that may
increase understanding of others, may give social insight, is con-
firmed.

Some insight into children's values and their beliefs as
to what constitutes ideal conduct can be gained from the knowledge

of their choice of individuals they would emulate. The third component

145

of the self—other concept as found in the literature of recognized
psychologists, is the realization that aspiration is an essential
part of the self-other concept. The books in the selected list used
in this study do provide bits of information that are concerned
with aspirations and expectations of adequacy. The children in the
books have aspirations to be like some adult that they know. The
children have aspirations to become an actress, a veterinarian, a
teacher, or a doctor.

Social psychologists have pointed out that all activities
and points of view of a group of people are implicit values in some
way. These prevailing values are known as the social values of a
culture. Since it is true that investigations have resulted in the
evidence that feelings, understandings, and attitudes are affected
by printed materials, it is important to observe the nature of that
which is read. If books stress the standards of behavior of others,
which American children have been taught to believe, the books
tend to contribute to the values and the ideals that are similar to
the reader.

A careful investigation of the selected books for children
has resulted in some interesting information in respect to the de-
velopment of a moral sense.

With very few exceptions the leading character in each

story adheres to or makes an effort to adhere to the following

146

standards of behavior: family affection, kindness, honesty,
cooperation, pride in country, responsibility, courage, and kind-
ness to animals.

Stories about children in the United States do, with some
limitations, provide ideas that emphasize the social and moral
values of our culture, ideas that may develop a moral sense nec-
essary for the development of a self-other concept.

The third hypothesis, that the content of the books that
children read will provide ideas that may contribute to the values,
ideals, the philosophy of life, which, as children develop, becomes
an integrating factor in what they do, is accepted.

Authors of children's books have, in the period of 1941-
1961 inclusive, very closely approximated the position as defined
in the first hypothesis. Children' 3 stories do appear to be making

a contribution to the development of a self-other concept.

CONCLUSIONS

The scope of this investigation has been limited to those
children's books copyrighted in the United States from 1941 to 1961
inclusive. Unfortunately the length of time, twenty years, is not
great enough to illustrate a great many trends. Therefore, one
must turn to the articles and books written by those who have long

been interested in the trends in children's literature.

 

 

 

 

 

147

May Hill Arbuthnot has pointed out that books have, for
many years, moved in the direction of depicting the usual life of
- average people in the United States.

. . . If these books center on the child's basic needs;

if they give him increased insight into his own personal prob-
1ems and social relationships; if they make absorbing reading
but still fulfill the standards of good literature; if they con-
vince young readers that they can do something about their
lives--have fun and adventure and get things done without

any magic other than their own eare st efforts, then they are
good and worthwhile books to read. 1

Books unlike other material goods are not discarded just
because they are old. The books copyrighted in 1941 are still on
library shelves and will be there for many years. Children will
read the books, and the books will play a part in their experiences.
Teachers, parents, and librarians need to be aware of the infor-
mation that is contained in such books.

A careful study of a selected list of children's books re-
veals certain facts with respect to the influence of culture on child
rearing practices. Evidence indicates that the definition of parental
roles and practices by "experts" on child rearing practices have
influenced writers of children's books. In most cases the parents 7

of the children in the books look for the causes of behavior and plan

accordingly. Social class, racial, religious, and regional differences

 

1May Hill Arbuthnot, Children and Books, (Chicago: Scott

Foresman and Company, 3rd ed., 1964), p. 464.

 

148

in child rearing practices are evident. Middle class patterns of
democracy, parental involvement in household chores and child
care, parental permissiveness, delayed gratification, long range
planning, and high aspirations for children--a11 seem to be grist
for the mills of writers for children.

American's speak a number of dialects. The difference
between the speech of the Down East Yankee, the dialects of the
Midwest and Far West, and the drawl of the Southerner are easily
discerned, but all Americans can understand each other without
strain. So, too, can they understand the differences in child-
rearing patterns. Differences certainly exist, but there is still
a common bond in the socialization process strong enough to pro-
duce an "Ame rican type, " an individual different from all others
yet patently similar to fellow Americans in basic orientation. It
is within this cultural homogenity that the specific life situation of
an individual child produces a unique person.

A careful inspection of children's books used in this study
discloses the following information about family influences on the
growing child.

The adults, in the books from a selected list, fill a variety
of roles. For each of these roles, certain sets of behavior seem
particularly appropriate. Western culture prescribes general re-

quirements for the role of parent. The father must provide food,

149

clothing, and shelter for his children-~that is economic support.
He is also responsible for children's behavior in public. Increasingly,
it is thought that the role of the father includes emotional and psy-
chological support for the children, too. A father may punish his
daughter for misbehavior, hear another daughter recite verse,
arbitrate a battle between siblings, or do any number of other things.

Society dictates that the mother must provide physical
care for the children-~feed them, keep them healthy, and, if possible,
clean. She must comfort and console them when necessary and in
general nurture them and provide emotional support. Long extolled
by novelist and poet, the role of mother has been made almost im~
possible for the average woman to fill.

The attitudes of parents are revealed in the stories as
patterns of authority and acceptance of the child as an individual.
The most significant aspect of any home is the warmth of the relation-
ship between parent and child. There is considerable evidence that
the parents are accepting in various incidents related to their interest
in a child's plans and ambitions, concern with school progress,
demonstrations of affection, trust, devotion, and the giving of wise
counseling and encouragement.

From the point of view of the development of a self-other
concept, how the children in the books view various aspects of their

parental relationships is important. The girls seems to have a strong

150

identification with their mothers. Consequently the mothers'
demands and values play an important part in the children's develop-
ment.

A topic that holds great interest and concern for parents
is discipline. Children in the books usually talk things out with
their parents. There is only one instance of spanking. In . . . and

now Miguel in the incident with the lost sheep the boy tells the

 

reader

My mother took me by the back of the head to go into

the house with me. And then my father did a wonderful
thing. He gave me a good spank. And when I looked
around up at him, he was smiling.

Authors of children's books seem to agree that the best
way to discipline a child, especially those in the nine and ten year
old group, is to reason with him. Spanking is not an acceptable
method of discipline in children's books.

The relationship between parents and children holds much
in common with any relationship between any two people. Mutual
trust, mutual understanding, and mutual acceptance seem to be
imperative if the relationship is to be satisfying and rewarding to
both. This mutual relationship may have some effect on the develop-

ment of a child's concept of self.

Almost without exception the stories of children in the

 

2Krumgold, . . . and now Miguel, pp. 335.. PP- 99-100.

 

 

151

various parts of the United States describe some kind of relation-
ship that the book child has among his peers. The peer society
plays a vital role in socialization. Peers may have a leveling ef-
fe ct. Peers also allow a child an opportunity for identification.
Peer society conveys to its members a large body of information
and values. It also makes available to the child a reality check
from which he can judge his own behavior more accurately. The
world of peers is largely unexplored by psychologists, but seems
to have importance for writers of children's books. It seems to
have significance for the socialization process and the deve10pment
of a self-other concept.

A careful investigation of the selected list of books of
fiction appropriate for the intermediate grades reveals very little
information about the teacher's role in the development of self-
concept. The teacher stimulates and guides the intellectual devel-
opment, affects attitudes and values, and exerts a marked influence
on the emotional adjustment through the psychological atmosphere
established in the classroom. Perhaps because the primary function
of the school is the teaching of academic skills, and the extent to
which the child learns these skills reflects the effectiveness of the
school's endeavor, writers have neglected to point out the bearing
this has on the child's concept of himself.

The term "self concept" has many, sometime conflicting,

152

definitions. This study has been concerned with the development
of a self-other concept in respect to the child's physical self, and
his behavior. No matter what else may change in the course of
deve10pment, humans carry around the same physical self, and with
it their own responses and the responses of others. Self may also
be concerned with aspiration and a moral sense.

Though the books used in this study do not individually
or as a group meet all the positions as defined by the four compon-
ents of a self-other concept, it is conclusive that in many respects

they are very satisfactory.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. BOOKS

Allport, Gordon W., Becoming: Basic Consideration for 3 Psy-
chology pf Personality, New Haven, Conn.: Yale
University Press, 1955.

 

 

 

Arbuthnot, May Hill, Children and Books, Third Edition, Chicago:
Scott, Foresman and Company, 1964.

 

Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Per-
ceiving, Behaving, Becoming, Washington, D. C.:
National Education Association, 1962.

 

 

Ausubel, David, Theory and Problem pf Child Development, New
York: Grune and Stratton, 1958.

 

 

Berelson, Bernard, Content Analysis 11 Communication Research,
Glencoe, 111.: Glencoe Free Press, 1952.

 

 

Blair, Walter, Theodore Hornberger, and Randolph Stewart,
The Literature p_f_ the United States, Chicago: Scott,
Foresman and Company, 1949.

 

 

Bond, Guy L. and Eva Bond Wagner, Teaching the Child t_o Read,
New York: The Macmillan Company, 1950.

 

 

Bonner, Hubert, Psychology _o_f Personality, New York: The Ronald
Press, 1961.

 

 

Carmichael, Leonard, (ed. ), Manualo_f Child Psychology, Second
Edition, New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1954.

 

Cattell, Raymond, Personality, ASystematic, Theoretical and
Factual Study, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1950.

 

 

 

Foshay, Arthur, and others, Children's Social Values: _A_n Action
Research Study, New York: Bureau of Publications,
Teachers College, Columbia University, 1954.

 

 

o\
.
Q, I\ v»
r.
0\
9\
I»
o
O
f. ax . .
:\ v
v\ V.
p.
o
I
0. . .
a
I
. .
p\
0
a
0‘
t v
v O;
K
o
p
a. .
I\
.
-
r.
r. r
r
I.
a. Q _
u
v
1
c
p
n
a.
. .
o
r. u
a
Ox
v.
n I.
. . v»
1 r
.
v _
l.

 

154

Fromm, Eric, Escape From Freedom, New York: Rinehart and
Company, Inc., 1941.

 

Gates, Arthur I. , Reading _ip the Elementary School, Forty-eight
Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education,
Part 11, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1949.

 

Gesell, Arnold and Frances L. Ilg, Infant and Child Care i_npl'f
Culture _o_f_ Today, New York: Harper and Brothers,
Publishers, 1943.

 

 

Good, Carter V. and Douglas E. Scates, Methods pf Research, New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1954.

Gordon, Ira J., Human Development, New York: Harper and Brothers,
Publishers, 1962.

 

Gray, William S. , Promoting Personal and Social Development
through Reading, Supplementary Educational Monographs,
No. 64, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947.

 

 

Hall, Calvin S., and Gardner Lindzey, Theories p_f_ Personality,
New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1957.

 

Harsh, Charles M., and H. G. Schrickel, Personality, Development
and Assessment, Second Edition, New York: The Ronald
Press Company, 1959.

 

 

Havighurst, Robert J., Deve10pmental Tasks and Education, Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1948.

 

Hildreth, Gertrude, Teaching Reading, New York: Henry Holt and
Company, 1958.

 

James, William, The Principles pf Psychology, Volume I, New York:
Henry Holt and Company, 1902.

 

 

Jersild, Arthur T. , Child Psychology: Fourth Edition, New York:
Prentice Hall, Inc., 1954.

 

Jersild, Arthur T., In Search of _S__elf, New York: Bureau of Publi—
cations, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1952.

Krech, David, and Richard S. Crutchfield, E1ements_p_f Psychology,
New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1960.

 

155

Lindzey, Gardner, (ed. ), Handbook o_f Social Psychology, Volume I,
Cambridge, Mass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company,
Inc., 1954. ‘

 

McConnel, Marion L.. and Dorothy H. West, compilers, Children's
Catalog, Tenth Edition, New York: The H. W. Wilson
Company, 1961.

 

McKim, Margaret, Guiding Growth'pn Reading, New York: The
Macmillan Company, 1955.

 

Mead, George H., Mind, Self, and Society, Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1934.

 

 

Meigs, Cornelia, and others, A Critical History of Children's
Literature, New York. The Macmillan Company, 1953.

 

 

 

Moustakas, Clark E., (ed. ), The Self: Explorationlp Personal Growth,
New York: Harper and Brothers, Publishers, 1956.

 

 

Murphy, Gardner, Personality, New York: Harper and Brothers,
Publishers, 1947.

 

National Education Association, Educational Policies Commission,
The Purposes o_f Education in American Democracy,
Washington, D.— C. . Nationa—l Education Association, 1938.

 

 

 

Peck, Robert F. , and Robert J. Havighurst, The Psychology o_f
Character Development, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ,
1960.

 

 

Piaget, J., The Moral Judgmentp—fphp Child, London: The Free
Press, 1932.

 

 

Plato, The Republic p_f Plato, New York: E. P. Dutton and Company,
Inc., 1958.

 

Rogers, Carl, Client Centered Therapy: It_s Current Practices,
Implications, and Theogx, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Pub-
lishing Company, 1947.

 

 

 

 

Sandburg, Carl, Always the Young Strangers, New York: Harcourt
Brace and Company, 1952.

 

Sayers, Ephraim V. and Ward Madden, Education and the Democratic
Faith, New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1959.

 

156

Sherif, Muzafer, and Hadley Cantril, The Psychologypf Ego
Involvements, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc. ,
1947.

 

 

Smith, Henry P. and Emerald V. Dechant, Psychology i_n Teaching
Reading, Englewood Cliffs, N. J.: Prentice Hall, Inc.
1961.

 

Snygg, Donald and Arthur Combs, Individual Behavior, Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Publishing Company, 1949.

 

Stagner, Ross, Psychology p_f Personality, New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc., 1961.

 

 

Sullivan, Harry S., Conception o_f Modern Psychiatry, Washington,
D. C.: The William Allen White Psychiatric Foundation,
1947.

 

 

Sullivan, Harry S., The Interpersonal Theory p_f Psychiatry, New
York: Norton Publishing Company, 1953.

 

 

Symonds, Percival M., The Ego and the Self, New York: Appleton-
Century-Crofts, Inc., 1951.

 

Thorne, Frederick C., Personality, Vermont: Journal of Clinical
Psychology, 1961.

 

Waples, Douglas, Bernard Berelson, and Franklin R. Bradshaw,
What Reading Does 3 People, Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1950.

 

Wylie, Ruth C., The Self Concept, A Critical Survey o_f Pertinent
Research Literature, Lincoln, Neb.: University of
Nebraska Press, 1961.

 

 

 

B . PE RIODICALS

Alpenfels, Ethel J. , ”All Children Need to Identify, " Childhood
Education, 25:394-396, May, 1949.

 

 

American Education Research Association, Review p_f Education
Research, Volume 31, No. 2, 184-186, April, 1961.

 

157

Betts, Emmet A., and others, ”Unsolved Problems in Reading, A
Symposium 1, " Elementarj English, 31:335-340,
October, 1954.

 

Bloom, Leonard, "A Reappraisal of Piaget's Theory of Moral
Judgment, " Journal pf Genetic Psychology, 95:3-12,
May, 1959.

 

Brown, Andrew W., JoanMorrison, and Gertrude B. Couch,
"Influence of Affectional Family Relationships on Char-
acter Development, " Journal of Abnormal Social Psychology,
42:422-428, April, 1917——

 

Fisher, Seymour, and Sidney E. Cleveland, "Body Image and Style
of Life, " Journal o_f Abnormal and Social Psychology,
52:373-379, June, 1957.

 

Gray, William S., ”The Social Effects of Reading, " School Review,
55:265-271, May, 1947.

 

Harris, D. B., and S. C. Tseng, "Children's Attitudes Toward
Peers and Parents as Revealed by Sentence Completion, ”
Child Development, 28:401-411, December, 1957.

 

Havighurst, Robert J., M. Z. Robinson, and M. Door, "The Devel-
opment of the Ideal Self in Childhood and Adolescence, "
Journalo_f Educational Research, 40:241-257, May, 1946.

 

Hilgard, Ernest R. , "Human Motives and the Concept of Self, "
American Psychologist, 4:374-382, April, 1949.

 

Hill, D. H., "Personification of Ideals by Urban Children" Journal
p_fSocial Psychology, 1:379-392, January, 1930.

 

Horowitz, Eugene, "Spatial Location of the Self, " Journal p_f Social
Psychology, 6:379-387, September, 1935.

 

Jackson, Evaline P., "Effects of Reading Upon Attitudes Toward The
Negro Race, " The Library Quarterly, 14:45-48, January,
1944.

 

Jourard, Sidney, and Paul F. Secord, "Body Cathexis and the Ideal
Female Figure, ” Journal p_f Abnormal and Social Psychology,
50:243-246, March, 1954.

 

 

158

Kagan, Jerome, "The Concept of Identification, " Psychological
Review, 65:296-305, December, 1958.

 

Lundholm, Helge, "Reflection Upon the Nature of the Psychological
Self, " Psychological Review, 47:137-146, February,
1948.

 

Lynn, David B. , "A Note of Sex Difference in the Development of
Masculine and Feminine Identification, " Psychological
Review, 66:126-135, November, 1959.

 

Maslow, Abraham W. , ”A Theory of Human Motivation, ” Psychological
Review, 50:370-396, 1945.

 

Ojemann, Ralph H., and others, "The Effects of Casual Teacher
Training Program and Certain Curriculum Changes on
Grade School Children, " Journal of Experimental Education,
2495-114, 1955. '—

 

Redl, Fritz, "Preadolescents, What Makes Them Tick?" Child Study,
44:44-48, 1943.

 

Russell, David, "Some Research on the Impact of Reading, " English
Journal, 47:398-413, October, 1958.

Russell, David, "Teachers' Memories and Opinions of Children's
Literature, " Elementary English, 26:475-482, December,
1949.

 

Sarbin, Theodore R. , "A Preface to a Psychological Analysis of the
Self," Psychological Review, 59:11-12, April, 1952.

 

Smith, Nila Banton, "The Personal and Social Values of Reading, "
Elementary English, 24:490-493, December, 1948.

 

Taylor, Charles, and Arthur W. Combs, "Self-Acceptance and Adjust-
ment, " Journalpf Consulting Psychology, 16:89-91,
April, 1952.

 

Weingarten, Samuel, "Developmental Values in Voluntary Reading, "
School Review, 62:222-230, April, 1954.

 

Zelen, Seymour, "The Role of Peer Acceptance, Acceptance of
Others, and Self Acceptance, ” Proceedings Iowa Academy
of Science, 61:446-449, January, 1954.

 

 

159
APPENDIX 1

NUMBER OF BOOKS IN RELATION TO TOTAL (50)

REF ERRING TO VARIOUS COMPONENTS

 

Total Numbe r Percentage Basis

 

Realization that personal status
and style are an essential part
of the self-other concept. 18 36

 

Realization that effective inter-

personal relationships are an

essential part of the self-other

concept. 41 ' 80

 

Realization that aspiration or

expectation of adequacy is an

essential part of the self-other

concept. 20 40

 

Realization that a moral sense is
an essential part of the self-
other concept. 23 46

T: u m

 

The table presented is structured in respect to a quantitative
aspect of this study. Column I and Column 11 give the number of books
found to make at least some reference to the various components of a
self-other concept. The first column gives the total number, the
second column gives the number in a percentage basis.

All books, herein counted, can be expected to make a posi-

tive contribution toward the development of a self-other concept.

 

. . . 0.1....-...V- Av... .‘ [ff - 0.1.10. {HJ . . .uf 1's... ‘.ii'
, . . . . .

.w o..1. .1v..vo..‘.r .o
o. 1.917.,

9.5

160

APPENDIX 11

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF A SELECTED LIST

OF CHILDRE N'S BOOKS

Angelo, Valenti, Bells p_f Bleeker Street, New York: The Viking
Press, Inc., 1949. New York (4-6).

 

Barnes, Nancy, Wonderful Year, New York: Julian Messner, Inc.,
1946. Colorado (5-8).

 

Bragdon, Elspeth, That Jud, New York: The Viking Press, Inc.,
1957. Maine (5-8).

Brink, Carol R., Family Grandstand, New York: The Viking Press,
men; 1952. WisconSin (4'6).

 

Crowley, Maude, Tor and Azor, New York: Oxford University Press,
1955. Massachusetts (4-6).'

 

Enright, Elizabeth, Four Story Mistake, New York: Rinehart and
Company, 1942. New York (4-7).

 

Enright, Elizabeth, The Saturdays, New York: Rinehart and Company,
1941. New York (4-7).

 

Enright, Elizabeth, Then There Were Five, New York: Rinehart and
Company, 1944. New York (4-7).

 

Estes, Eleanor, Middle Moffat, New York: Harcourt, Brace and
Company, 1942. New England (4-6).

 

Estes, Eleanor, The Moffats, New York: Harcourt, Brace and Com-
pany, 1941. New England (4-6).

 

Estes, Eleanor, Rufus _1\_/1, New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company,
1943. New England (4-6).

Faulkner, Georgene, Melindy's Happy Summer, New York: Julian
Messner, Inc., 1949. Massachusetts (3-5).

 

Faulkner, Georgene, Melindy's Medal, New York: Julian Messner,
Inc., 1945. Massachusetts (3-5).

 

2. qfldfl. I. : 51.nnl.r‘. ‘ .

 

161

Friedman, Frieda, A Sundae With Judy, New York: William Morrow
and Company, 1949. New York (4-6).

 

Friedman, Frieda, Carol From The Country, New York: William
Morrow and Company, 1950. New York (4-6).

 

Friedman, Frieda, Dot For Short, New York: William Morrow and
Company, 1947. New York (4-6).

 

Friedman, Frieda, The Janitor's Girl, New York: William Morrow
and Company, 1956. New York (4-7).

 

Garst, Doris, Cowboy Boots, Nashville, Tenn.: Abingdon-Cokesbury
Press, 1946. California (4-7).

 

Gates, Doris, Sensible Kate, New York: The Viking Press, Inc.,
1943. California (4-6).

 

Holberg, Ruth, Rowena Carey, New York: Doubleday and Company,
Inc., 1949. Massachusetts (4-6).

 

Judson, Clara Ingram, Green Ginger Jar, Boston: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 1949. Chicago (6-9).

 

Jackson, Jesse, Call Me Charley, New York: Harper and Brothers,
1945. (5-8).

 

Krumgold, Joseph, . . . And now Miguel, New York: Thomas Y.
Crowell Company, 1953. New Mexico (5-8).

 

Krumgold, Joseph, Onion John, New York: Thomas Y. Crowell
Company, 1959. New Jersey (6-8).

 

Lampman, Evelyn S., Bounces _o_f_ Cynthiann, New York: Doubleday
and Company, Inc., 1950. Oregon (4-7).

 

Lampman, Evelyn S. , Navaho Sister, New York: Doubleday and
Company, Inc., 1956. Oregon (5-8).

 

Lattimore, Eleanor Frances, Bayou Boy, New York: William Morrow
and Company, Inc., 1946. Louisiana (3-5).

 

Lauritzen, Jonreed, Ordealo_f the Young Hunter, Boston: Little,
Brown and Company, 1954. Arizona (5-8).

 

162

Lawrence, Mildred, Homemade Year, New York: Harcourt, Brace
and Company, 1950. Pennsylvania (5-7).

 

Lenski, Lois, Bayou Suzette, Philadelphia: Frederick A. Stokes
Company, 1943. Louisiana (5-7).

 

Lenski, Lois, Blue Ridge Billy, Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott
Company, 1946. North Carolina (4-7).

 

Lenski, Lois, Boom Town Boy, Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Com-
pany, 1948. Oklahoma (4-6).

 

Lenski, Lois, Corn Farm Boy, Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Com-
pany, 1954. Iowa (4-6).

 

Lenski, Lois, Cotton-1'3 _M_y Sack, Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott
Company, 1949. Arkansas (4-6).

Lenski, Lois, Judy's Journey, Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Com-
pany, 1947. Alabama (4-6).

 

Lenski, Lois, Prairie School, Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Com-
pany, 1951. South Dakota (4-7).

 

Lenski, Lois, San Francisco Boy, Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott
Company, 1955. California (5-8).

 

Lenski, Lois, Strawberry Girl, Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott
Company, 1945. Florida (4-6).

 

Lenski, Lois, Texas Tomboy, Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company,
1950. Texas (4-7).

 

Lovelace, Maud, Betsy-Tacy and Tib, New York: The Thomas Y.
Crowell Company, 1941. Minnesota (3-5).

 

Marshall, Dean, Long White Month, New York: E. P. Dutton and
Company, Inc., 1942. Connecticut (4-6).

 

Robertson, Keith, Henry Reed, Inc., New York: The Viking Press,
Inc., 1958. New Jersey (5-8).

 

Sorensen, Virginia, Plain Girl, New York: Harcourt, Brace and
Company, 1955. Pennsylvania (4-6).

 

163

Sorensen, Virginia, Miracles o_n Maple Hill, New York: Harcourt,
Brace and Company, 1956. Pennsylvania (5-7).

 

Stuart, Jesse, Beatinest Boy, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,
1953. Kentucky (4-6).

 

Taylor, Sydney, All-of-a-Kind Family, Chicago: Follett Publishing
Company, 1951. New York (4-6).

 

Taylor, Sydney, More All-of-a-Kind Family, Chicago: Follett Pub-
lishing Company, 1954. New York (4-6).

 

Wilson, Leon, This pr Cody, New York: Franklin Watts, Inc., 1950.
Tennessee (4-6).

 

Wilson, Leon, This Boy Cody and His Friends, New York: Franklin
Watts, Inc., 1952. Tennessee (4-6).

 

Yates, Elizabeth, A Place For Peter, New York: Coward-MCCann,
Inc., 1952. New Hampshire (5-7).

 

   

”71111111111111fiiiiiiiiijflififs