1 GROCERY STORES AND LOYALTY By Paphajree Vajrapana A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Advertising Master of Arts 2015 iv ABSTRACT GROCERY STORES AND LOYALTY By Paphajree Vajrapana T he number of international students in the United States has increased, with almost 9 00,000 students in 2014. Chinese students were a large part of the growth, comprising 30.4% of the international student population . International students spend more than 24 billion dollars each year to the U.S. economy. Therefore, this group should be considered as an interesting and profitable segment for marketers to invest in understanding their shopping behavior . This study inves tigated factors affecting Chinese students' choices of grocery stores and loyalty and whether their degree of ethnic identity and acculturation influenced grocery store choice and loyalty. Both online and offline questionnaires were distributed and t he fin al sample with usable data consisted of 162 Chinese students studying in the U.S. Results showed that ethnic identity had a positive effect on the importance of ethnic store product assortment, cleanliness, and ethnic store loyalty. On the other hand, accu lturation was positively related to the importance of mainstream store price, location, and mainstream store loyalty. Managerial implications and limitations were also discussed. v Copyright by PAPHAJREE VAJRAPANA 2015 iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS University professor is always my dream job and I realized that I need to complete both thesis. I would like to thank my profes sors and friends who involved in helping me complete this thesis. First of all, I would like to thank Dr. Patricia Huddleston for accepting me as her advisee and advising me. Her recommendations were very insightful and helpful. I know that it was not eas y for her to guide me who started to do a thesis for the first time. Second, this thesis could not be completed without my two committee members: Dr. Dawn Pysarchik and Dr. Ayalla Ruvio. Their suggestions have helped me a lot in completing the thesis with careful thoughts . Third , I am grateful to Dr. Robert LaRose for helping me form the idea. Without him, this thesis would have taken longer time to complete. Fourth, I would like to thank my friends who helped me reach eligible respondents. Last but n ot least, I would like to thank S. for love and support. Paphajree Vajrapana v TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ................................ ................................ ................................ ......................... vi LIST OF FIGURES ................................ ................................ ................................ ...................... vii CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ................................ ................................ ................................ .... 1 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................ ................................ ......................... 4 Store A ttributes ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................ 4 Ethnic I dentity ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 5 Acculturation ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 10 Store L oyalty ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 14 CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY ................................ ................................ ................................ . 17 Sample, Design, and P rocedures ................................ ................................ ................................ 17 Measures ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ ..... 18 Ethnic I dentity ................................ ................................ ................................ ........................ 18 Acculturation ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 18 Store A ttributes ................................ ................................ ................................ ....................... 18 Store L oyalty ................................ ................................ ................................ .......................... 19 Attitude t oward American P roducts ................................ ................................ ....................... 19 Cultural D istance ................................ ................................ ................................ .................... 19 Data A nalysis ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................. 20 C HAPTER 4. RESULTS ................................ ................................ ................................ ............... 21 Additional A nalyse s ................................ ................................ ................................ ................... 32 CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION ................................ ................................ ................................ ......... 38 Ethnic I dentity ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................ 38 Acculturation ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 40 CHAPTER 6. IMPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS ................................ ................................ 43 Theoretical C ontributions ................................ ................................ ................................ ........... 43 Managerial I mplications ................................ ................................ ................................ ............. 45 Limitation s ................................ ................................ ................................ ................................ . 46 APPENDICES ................................ ................................ ................................ ............................... 48 A PPENDIX A. SURVEY INSTRUMENT ................................ ................................ ............... 49 APPENDIX B . ITEMS DROPPED OUT OF THE SCALES ................................ ................... 58 REFERENCES ................................ ................................ ................................ .............................. 59 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1 . Descriptive I nformation Table 2. Items Contributing to Factors of Ethnic I dentity Table 3. Items Contributing to Factors of A cculturation Table 4. Items Contributing to Factors of Ethnic and Mainstream Store L oyalty Table 5. Summary of R esults Table 6. Sum mary of Additional A nalyses Table 7. Results from R egression of Model 1 Table 8. Results from R Table 9. Items D ropped . vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Conceptual F ramework Figure 2. Final M odel Figure 3. Pictures Describing Chinese and A 5 6 1 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Recently, there has been an increase in the number of international students in the United States. According to the Opendoors report (2014 ) , there are almost 9 00,000 foreign students enrolled in U.S. colleges and universities . According to the Institute of International Education over 24 billion dollars to the U.S. economy . Moreover, these international students generated more than 300,000 jobs during 2013 academic year (Explore International Edu cation, 2013). With continuous growth for over 50 years and their contribution to the U.S. economy each year (Institute of International Education, 2013) , international students should be considered as an interesting and profitable segment for marketers to invest in understanding their shopping behavior . This study focuses on Chinese students in the U.S., as they are a large part of the growth in international student enrollment with over 274,000 Chinese students in recent year, or 30.4% of total internatio nal students (Opendoors report, 2014 ) . For those students that become permanent residents, we assume that their university experience would have shaped their buying patterns after graduation , thus it is logical to conclude that they may continue to have th e same shopping patterns . According to the Hierarchy of N eeds (Maslow, 1970), food is one of the most basic needs , t herefore, food shopping is likely to be one of the first shopping tasks that Chinese students become involved in. M any researchers have inve stigated ethnic diversity in various consumer behaviors such as food consumption (Jamal, 1998), food adjustment (Brown, 2009), food meaning (Brown et al., 2010), eating patterns (Pan et al., 1999), influences on buying decision processes ( Tirelli et al., 2 013 ), purchasing behavior ( Seitz, 1998 ), acculturation (Gordon et al, 2003; Hartwell et al., 2011; Kang & Kim, 1998 ) and ethnic identity (Laroche et al., 1998; Phinney, 1992; Wang, & Lo, 2007 ). While there is a lack of research investigating Chinese 2 students and their dietary adjustment after moving to the U.S., there are studies of food adjustment with international students as their samples. As Chinese students represent a large proportion of international students, studies related to international students may also reflect insights of Chinese students and their food adjustment. Studies of international student food habits, consumption and dietary adjustment include the work of Pan et al. (2009) who studied Asian students and their eating pattern af ter migrating to the US. The ir result s showed th at 73% of informants ate more snacks. The se researchers also found an increase in consumption of dairy products, fats and fruits consumption by res pondents, but they consumed less meat and vegetables (Pan et al., 2009) . Brown (2009) investigation of showed that many international students in England rejected the , but were willing to try dishes from other int ernational friends. They also reported that they prepared dishes of their home country. Furukawa (1997) studied whether cultural distance had an impact on Japanese exchange students who lived in a new host country for one year and which aspect had the most impact on respondents. The results showed that cultural distance had a positive effect on education, food, religion, material life, leisure, family life, and courtship) , food had the greatest influence on psychological adaptation to the host culture . While several studies investiga ted consumption after living in a new cou ntry, there is a lack of research about thei r choice of and their loyalty to grocery stores . Research acknowledges that food habits, values and consumption have an influence on grocery stores (Furst et al., 1996; Lust, 2011). However, t he most closely related investigation to the topic of interest f ocuses on immigrants and their grocery store 3 perception s (e.g., Wang, 2004; Wang & Lo 2007; Fowler et al., 2007; Kang & Kim, 1998; Wijnen et al., 2011 ). However, Chinese students may have different perceptions of grocery stores and store patronage behavior than immigrants because of their age , income, and education. For example, Hamlett et al., (2008) stated that education in terms of a host language contributed to a significant difference in shopping experience. Seock & Sauls ( 2008) revealed that age is one f an apparel retail store. In addition, Hrboticky & Krondl (1985) posited that younger immigrants are more inclined to alter their food consumption after migration. This internati onal student group, including those who are Chinese, consists of young people with high education ( Hsu, Huang, & Swanson, 2010) and who are open to experienc ing new things (Brown, 2009; Brown, Edwards & Hartwell , 2010) . The current study is one of the firs t to investigate Chinese students' choices of grocery stores based on their degree of acculturation and ethnic identity. The study will provide insights on how Chinese students choose to shop at and become loyal to a particular grocery store. Moreover, gro cery stores can utilize the results of this study in order to strategically manage product assortment, service mix and store promotional messages to attract the Chinese student group. This study will explore whether the degree of acculturation and ethnic identity have an effect on Chinese , patronage frequency and loyalty for both ethnic and mainstream grocery store s . 4 CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Store A ttributes Studies competitiveness, cleanliness, product assortment, atmosphere, travel distance, perceived product and service quality ( Babakus et al., 2004; Bloemer & De Ruyter, 1998; Chang & Tu, 2005; Hsu et al., 2010; Sivadas & Baker - Prewitt, 2000; Carpenter & Moore, 2006; Briesch et al., 2009 ) , but the majority of the studies related to store choice characteristics have focused on specialty and department stores rather than food stores. The work of Briesch et al. (2009) , using household - level market basket data, found that consumers considered assortment as being more important than retail price when they made store c specialty store attributes. The result showed that frequent shoppers considered cleanliness, crowding, product selection, courtesy of personnel and price competitiveness as the top five retail attributes when they chose a specialty store. Sivadas & Baker - Prewitt (2000) asserted that service quality of a s and satisfaction. The literature cited above illustrates th at there are several store attributes that consumers take into consideration when they choose stores to shop, but what accounts for differences in socially learn ed knowledge and patterns of behavior shared by so & Bailey, the national or geographic origin & Tel lis , 2001, p. 60) are two of the most important factors that affect consumer sho pping patterns (Luna & Gupta 2001; Rossiter 5 & Chan 1998; Hartwell et al., 2011 ; Ho et al., 1966; Hrboticky & Krondl 1985; Sobal, 1998; Peñaloza & Gilly, 1999). Ackerman & Tellis (2001) examined differences in grocery store perceptions and shopping pattern s between Chinese and American consumers. The results showed that Chinese shoppers take more time to shop and look at items than American shoppers. Lee et al. ( 1992 ) also asserted that e thnic differences affected Shim & Gehrt (1996) observed that Hispanic s had different shopping approaches from white people, using a hedonistic orientation while Whites exhibited a utilitarian orientation. Baltas & Papastathopoulou that product quality and feature s are the most significant product choice criteria and store location also play an important role. Chinese immigrants in T oronto, Canada acknowledged their preference for Chinese supermarkets , with the most impor tant factor for store choice being ethnic identification (Wang , 2004). Based on the previous literature, we hypothesize that ethnicity plays an important role in cons Ethnic Identity There are two separate constructs used to connect a person to a particular ethnic group: ethnicity and ethnic identity. Ethnicity refers to an objective designation of oneself to a sp ecific group based on some similar demographic backgrounds (Ackerman & Tellis 2001; Ogden et al., 2004). Most previous research studying ethnicity has classified individuals by using their last names or native language ( Stayman & Deshpande, 1989 ). However, this approach fails to take self - perception into consideration ( Stayman & Deshpande, 1989 ). Later studies investigated Stayman & Deshpande, 1989 ). Ethnic identity is an identification of oneself to a particular social group involving a sense 6 of belonging and emotional attachment with the group ( Tajfel, 1981; Jamal, 2003) and is more subjective compared to ethnicity (Ogden et al., 2004). The formation of ethnic identity by adolescent mi nority groups of people in a White culture is a posited to be a three - stage process. Stage one includes an acceptance of the host have either positive or negati ve attitudes toward their ethnicity ( Phinney , 1989). Moratorium is the next stage, when individuals try to understand their own ethnicity. Confusion about their ethnicity may occur during this stage. The final process of ethnic identity is an achievement o f identity, when individuals have a clear understanding about their ethnicity and accept themselves as being in a particular ethnic group ( Phinney , 1989). Different stages of forming ethnic identity can lead to different scores on ethnic identity , which th en affects immigrants different choices of grocery stores . Delener & Neelankavil (1990) asserted that people in a particular ethnic group will have a similar preference for type of stores, sources of information and products that satisfy specific needs. Felt ethnic identity can be affected by a social situation in which a person engages, as Stayman & Deshpande, 1989 ). Therefore, in different circumstances and with different people, a person may beha ve differently according to their felt ethnic identity at that time (Jamal, 2003). Phinney (1992) also asserted that ethnic and consumption in situational context s in which respondents (Anglo, Mexican and Chinese undergraduate students) were asked to make a food choice for eating with parent or with business - associates situation. The results showed that respondents with different ethnicity had different perceptions of the appropriate food for consumption in the two situations. 7 Many researchers have investigated various aspects of ethnic identity . For example, Balasubramanian & Herche (1994) studied six ethnic groups of people and their shopping behavior. The result s showed that Black people were more likely to seek and patronize ethnic (Black) businesses than the other groups (Hispanic, Chinese, Japanese, Ital ian, and Korean). Donthu & Cheri an (1992) studied Hispanic response to marketing activities and reported tha t the level of ethnic identification had an impact on Hispanic coupon usage. People who scored high on their ethnic identity tended to use fewer coupons and respon d e d to marketing activities less than people with low score ethnic i dentity. They also indicated that strong Hispanic identifiers were more likely to patronize Hispanic retailers ( Dont hu & Cherian , 1995). (1986) study about H ispanic identity found that Hispanic s who scored high on their ethnic identity had a tendency to co nsume Spanish language media. Studies about Chinese immigrants and their ethnic identification include the work of Wang & Lo (2 007). They examined Chinese immigrants living in Toronto, Canada and their grocery shopping behavior. Results indicated that stro ng Chinese identifiers patronize d Chinese businesses more often than those who scored low in their ethnic identification. Based on the previous literature, ethnic identity appears to have a direct effect of on cy of patronage in ethnic grocery stores. Therefore, the following hypothesis is provided: H1: Ethnic identity score is positively related to patronage frequency in ethnic grocery stores for Chinese students . See Figure 1 for hypothesized relationships. Many studies suggested that immigrants need a wide range of specific product s for their traditional home food, relating to their ethnicity . For example, Hartwell et al. (2011) indicated that international students in the UK shopped at specialty grocery sho ps for specific ingredients 8 from their home countries, which were related to their ethnicities . Ethnic respondents from Jamal (2003 ) study stated that they could find a wide variety of specific products and ingredients from their country at one of the et hnic stores in the UK. Therefore, it is logical to assume that ethnic ingredients motivate people to shop at ethnic stores. Kaufman & Hernandez (1991) discovered that a wide variety of ethnic food was one of the factors affecting Puerto supermarket. As Chinese students are part of an immigrant group, it is logical to assume that they may also consider ethnic food as an important factor when deciding to shop at ethnic stores. With this regard, the following hypothesis is proposed: H 2a : Eth nic identity score is positively related to the importance of eth nic product assortment for Chinese students when considering ethnic store to shop . Based on previous literature, people can find ethnic ingredients in an ethnic grocery store. Therefore, thes e specific ingredients may lead to increased patronage frequency of ethnic grocery store. With this regard, the following hypothesis is proposed: H2b: E th nic product assortment is positively related to patronage frequency in ethnic grocery stores for Chinese students. There is a lack of research on whether a relationship between ethnic product assortment and mainstream store patronage exists. However, there may be a relationship between these two constructs . Therefore, the following research ques tion is provided: RQ1: What is the relationship between the importance of ethnic product assortment for mainstream store and mainstream store patronage? Hamlett et al. (2008) analyzed dual shopping as a common practice of South Asian people living in Brit ain. D ual shopping involves consumers shopping at local stores for basic 9 needs and traveling further to the other stores in order to purchase specific ingredients . This phenomenon indicates that location is less important than specific ingredients when the y consider which stores to shop. Moreover, Wang & Lo (2007) found that respondents (Chinese immigrants in Toronto, Canada) with a strong ethnic identity are willing to take time on making a trip to an ethnic store. With this regard, the following hypothesi s is proposed: H3 a : Ethnic identity score is negative ly related to the importance of store location when considering ethnic store to shop . Drawing from hypothesis 3a, if Chinese students with high ethnic identity score consider store location to be less important and they still shop at ethnic stores, it is logical to assume that importance of store location will be negatively related to ethni c store patronage. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H3b: When considering ethnic store to shop, i mportance of store location is negatively related to ethnic store patronage. Based on a pre - test study with 30 international students at Michi gan State University, results showed that students who indicated they always go to a mainstream store considered store location and low price s to be the most significant choice criteria. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed : H3 c : When considerin g mainstream store to shop, i mportance of store location is positively related to mainstream store patronag e for Chinese students . The relationship of travel distance to ethnic grocery store patronage leads to the question of whether these Chinese studen ts are more or less price conscious than those who do not shop for ethnic ingredients. Segev (2014) investigated price consciousness of Hispanic immigrants in 10 the US and found that ethnic identification was a positive predictor of price consciousness. Ther efore, the following hypothesis is provided: H4a : Ethnic identity score is positively related to price importance when considering mainstream store to shop for Chinese students . I nternational students from the pre - test investigation considered low price as one of the factors that accounted for their mainstream store patronage. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H4b: When considering mainstream store to shop, the importance of p rice is positively related to mainstream store patronage fo r Chinese students . There is a lack of research on price and ethnic store patronage. However, there may be a relationship between these two constructs . Therefore, the following research question is provided: RQ2: What is the relationship between price and ethnic store patronage? Acculturation Acculturation is a process of trait acquisition of the host society or culture ( Seitz , 1998; Laroche et al., 1998 ) and is multidimensional (Berry, 1980; Sobal, 1998). Redfield et al. ( 1936) defined acculturation a different cultures come into first - hand contact with subsequent changes in the original cultural . It is logical that immigrants who live in a new h ost ( Kang & Kim, 1998 ). Although an acculturation process can happen for both immigrants and a 11 host culture group, it is more likely that immigrants will adopt th country ( Ogden et al., 2004 ). The process of acculturation can vary among immigrants ( Seitz, 1998 ). People who stayed in the host c ountry for a short period of time may have a lower degree of acculturation than people who stay longer, such as the case of immigration ( Penaloza, 1989). Shopping patterns can also be different among immigrants when they have different degrees of acculturation ( Kang & Kim, 1998 ) . Many studies attempted to measure the degree of acculturation by using a variety of indicators that include language dimension, media type consumption, social interaction, social participation and the number of host culture friends ( Laroche & Tomiuk, 1998) . Acculturation is also related to social and psychological factors ( Tirelli et al., 2013 ) including behavioral changes of immi grants such as food and consumption patterns ( Wallendorf, & Reilly, 1983; Hamlett et al., 2008 ). which refers to a more specific process of learning and acquiring consump tion patterns, attitudes and values from the host culture ( Ogden et al., 2004 ). According to Penaloza (1989) , both individuals and a group of people can experience consumer acculturation. Psychological theories acculturation, which involves the acquisition of norms and knowledge whereas social - psychological theories help explain consumer acculturation at a group level at which people share information with each other and this process umer learning (Penaloza, 1989). Examples of acculturation studies include research by Mehta & Belk (1991) who found that Indian immigrants in the US were different from Indians in their own country. Indian 12 immigrants have bigger places to live with more rooms and also adapted their use of local language and have local food. Kang & Kim (1998) explored Asian American s a nd their social clothes decision - making and learned that degree of acculturation had an influence on store attribute evaluation . Result s showed that respondents who scored low on their acculturation level considered convenience to be significant store attribute. Dietary acculturation , one typ e of acculturation process, refers to the process of acquiring eating practices of the new envir onment by immigrants (Satia - Abou ta, 2003). Even when immigrants prepare their ethnic food, they also use ingredients from the host country (Satia - Abou ta, 2003). The study also found s to both more and less healthy lifestyles. Different socioeconomic, demographic and cultur al factors can lead to different dietary adaptation of people to the new host culture (Satia - Abou ta, 2003) . For example, Korean immigrants consumed fewer cookies and sweets but coo ked rice was consumed more often than by Korean Americans (Park et al., 2004). Many researchers have studied this process of dietary acculturation . For example, Satia et al. (2001) developed specific scales to measure Chinese - Americans and Chinese - Canadian degree of dietary acculturation. Gordon - Larsen et al. (2003) studied Hispanic immigrants in the US and their overweight - related behaviors and contended that degree of acculturation is positively related to foreign - born becoming overweight. Wandel et al. (2008) investigated South Asians in Oslo and their food habits. Results showed that many Sri Lankans consumed more meat, potatoes and some of the dairy products after migration. Neuhouser et al. (2004) reported that Hispanics in Washington St ate who scored high (vs. low) on an acculturation scale ate fewer fruits and vegetables. Hartwell et al. (2011) showed that postgraduate international s tudents from Europe and Asia living in southern England accepted 13 different foods but they tried to maint ain having traditional food of th eir home country by bringing ingredients from home with the help of their friends and families. Based on previous literature, the degree of acculturation has an impact on food consumption. Studies indicate that people wh o score high on an acculturation scale tend to findings, we posit that more highly acculturated students may patronize mainstream/local grocery stores more often than less acculturated people. At the same time, more acculturated students may be less likely to patronize ethnic grocery stores. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed: H5a : The degree of acculturation is positively related to frequency of patronage in mainstream/local grocery store . H5b: The degree of acculturation is positively related to frequency of patronage in ethnic grocery store . Based on the finding from Neuhouser et al. (2004) that more acculturated people consume host food more often than less acculturated people, it is logical that more acculturated students may consume less ethnic food and that they may consider ethnic product assortment to be less important. Therefore, the following hypothesis is provided: H6: The degree of acculturation is negatively related to importance of ethnic product assortment when considering mainstream store to shop . There is a lack of research on the degree of acculturation and importance of store location. However, there may be a relationship between them. More acculturated students may behave more like American students. Arnold & Tigert (1978) found that store locat ion is one of 14 the most important attributes for Americans when they consider a store for food shopping. Therefore, the following research question is provided: RQ3: What is the relationship between the degree of acculturation and importance of store locati on when Chinese students consider a mainstream store to shop ? According to the pre - test of 30 international students , p rice appears to be an important attribute for those who stated that they only patronize mainstream stores . It is logical to assume that these students have high acculturation , as they prefer mainstream stores to ethnic stores. Therefore, the seventh hypothesis is: H7: The degree of acculturation is positive ly related to price importance when considering mainstream store to shop . Store L oyalty Store loyalty is defined by Bloemer & De Ruyter (1998) as " The biased (i.e. , non - random ) behavioural response (i.e. , revisit), expressed over time, by some decision - making unit with respect to one store out of a set of stores, which is a function of psychological (decision making and evaluative) processes resulting in brand commitment" (p. 500). Brand loyalty is defined by Oliver (1999) as " A deeply held commitment to rebuy or re - patronize a preferred product/service consistently in the future, t hereby causing repetitive same - brand or same brand - set purchasing, despite situational influences and marketing efforts having the potential to cause switching behavior" (p. 34). Many s tudies have investigated brand loyalty , including N am et al. ( 2011 ) and Chaudhuri & Holbrook ( 2001 ) . These two studies focused on two dimensions of brand loyalty : behavioral loyalty and attitudinal loyalty. Behavioral loyalty refers to repurchase frequency and attitudinal 15 loyalty is defined as customers' commitment to a b rand such as purchase intention and recommendation ( N am et al. , 2011 ). Söderlund ( 2006) investigated different aspects of loyalty and found that loyalty intention has two aspects: re - patronage intentions and word - of - mouth intentions. Re - patronage intention s referred to a repeat act of a person that comes into contact with a supplier whereas word - of - mouth intentions involve people talking to others (Söderlund, 2006). There is a lack of research on Chinese students in the U.S. and grocery store loyalty and there are only a few studies that investigated immigrants and grocery store loyalty. Such studies include Kaufman & Hernandez (1991) who examined the role of a small grocery store to a US Puerto Rican neighborhood. Results fro m personal interview s indicated that this small store helped maintain the Latin culture where people shopped for ethnic food. Another study about immigrants and their preference is from Wang (2004) . Results showed that Chinese immigrants in Toronto, Canada prefer to patronize Chinese businesses such as Chinese travel agencies as well as Chinese grocery store s . Segev et al. (2014) studied ethnic identification and acculturation of Hispanic immigrants in the US and f ormer USSR living in Israel to determine whether the se characteristics have an effect on their store loyalty. Results showed that both acculturation and ethnic identification have a direct effect on immigrants loyalty to mainstream and ethnic stores. Ethnic identification is positiv ely related to immigrants loyalty to ethnic stores. Acculturation has a positive effect on immigrants loyalty to mainstream stores, but has a negative effect on ethnic store loyalty. While Segev et al. (2014) investigated a relationship between ethnic id entity, acculturation and store loyalty, this study postulates a relationship between store patronage and store loyalty . As previous literature demonstrates, store characteristics influence store patronage 16 and store patronage should influence store loyalty. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed: H 8 a: Ethnic store patronage is positively related to ethnic store loyalty. H 8 b: Mainstream store patronage is positively related to mainstream store loyalty. Figure 1 . Conceptual F ramework H 5a RQ1 RQ2 2 H3b RQ 3 H 7 H 8 a H 8 b H 6 H 4 a H 5b H 4 b H2b H1 H2a H 3 a H 3 c Acculturation Price Ethnic store loyalty Ethnic identity Ethnic product assortment Ethnic store patronage Store location Mainstream store patronage Mainstream store loyalty 17 CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY Sample, Design, and Procedures As there is a lack of research on international students and their choices of grocery stores, a pre - test online survey was administered to Michigan State University students by using a student pool, SONA system to discover important criteria use d when shopping for food. The main online survey for this study w as distributed through Amazon Mechanical Turk (mTurk) and the SONA system , a student research pool of Michigan State University. Using mTurk provides access to more heterogeneous respondents than SONA and mTurk is considered as a facilitating tool for researchers in gaining access to specific pools of respondents (Paolacci & Chandler, 2014). The proposed s ample size of this study wa s 2 00 Chinese students , defined as students who are Chinese and are studying at US universities , and included both undergraduate and graduate students). S tudents who w ere recruited through SONA system earned 0.25 SONA credits per completion as an incentive. S tudents who complete d the survey through Amazon Mechanical Turk receive d an incentive of $0.7 5 per complet ion. From a pre - test session, we gained only a few respondents who stated that they go to ethnic stores, thus in addition to the SONA and mTurk recruitment strategies, s tudents w ere also recruited by using a n online snowball sampling technique through Fac ebook to gain an adequate number of Chinese students who go to ethnic stores. Atkinson and Flint ( 2001 ) defined snowball sampling as a " technique for finding research subjects. In snowball sampling, o ne subject gives the researcher the name of another subject, who in turn provides the name of a third, and so on" (p. 1). Therefore, online snowball sampling is a snowball sampling method through online recruitment. Marpsat & Razafindratsima (2010) identified one of the hard - to - reach populations as the pop ulation with a relatively small numbers and an online snowball sampling can help 18 access this hard - to - reach population (Baltar & Brunet, 2012) . After the initial data were collected, participants were also recruited from one of the ethnic stores in East Lan sing called Measures Ethnic Identity The study uses a scale developed by Phinney (1992) to measure a person's level of ethnic identity, and is comprised of two subscales, ethnic ide ntity achievement and affirming and belonging. The measurement was considered to be reliable with Cronbach's alpha of 0.81 and 0.9 for high school and college samples, respectively. Phinney (1992) asserted that the scale could be used with ethnically diver se groups, not specific to a particular group of people (See appendix A for survey instrument) . Acculturation A 32 - item scale to measure level of acculturation developed by Stephenson (2000) is adopted to use in this study. The measurement included two s ubscales, dominant society immersion (DSI) and ethnic society immersion (ESI). Each subscale measured language, interaction, media, and food. The measurement was considered to possess high reliability of 0.94 coefficient alpha for an ethnic society immersi on factor and coefficient alpha of 0.75 for a dominant society immersion factor. Stephenson's (2000) study confirmed that this measurement could be used with a variety of ethnic groups. Store A ttributes There were 8 items that measure the importance of store attributes (1=never important, 5=always important). The attributes include price, oriental product variety, and location. The study asked about other store attributes to see whether there are other store attributes that 1 9 respondents consider to be important such as cleanliness, crowding, security, parking facilities, and atmosphere. These store attributes are adopted from Yavas (2003) . Store Loyalty This study uses 18 items from Zhao & Huddleston (2012) to measure two dimensions of store loyalt y : conative loyalty and action loyalty. Conative loyalty refers to people's loyalty intention whereas action loyalty involves people's actual loyal behavior (DeWulf et al., 2001 and Zeithaml et al., 1996) . Zhao & Huddleston (2 012) adopted action loyalty items from DeWulf et = 0.881) and Zeithaml et al., (1996). Conative loyalty items were from Zeithaml et al., (1996 ) . Attitudes toward American P roducts Attitude toward American products may have a potential effect on respondents' choices of grocery stores. For example, if a person does not like American products, (s)he may not choose to shop at American stores and shop at ethnic grocery stores instead regardless of their level of acculturation and ethnic identity. Therefore, attitude toward American products should be controlled. Attitudes toward American products consisted of 3 items from Kumar et al. (2009; Cronbach's alpha = 0.82), who derived these items from Shimp & Sharma (1987). Cultural D istance Respondents are asked how close they feel about their culture and American culture. This single - item measurement is adopted from Aron et al. (1992), which is called the Inclusion of Other in the Self Scale (IOS Scale). C ultural distance should be considered as a control variable as it may have an effect on respondents' choices of grocery stores. For example, if a person feels 20 that Chinese and American culture are very similar, that person may not consider ethnic stores as places to shop because (s)he does not feel that ethnic and mainstream stores are different. Other d emographic information such as age, gender, length of stay in the US, nationality, and decision whether to stay or leave the U.S. after graduation were c ollected. Data Analysis Principal components factor analysis with varimax rotation was used to determine dimensions of ethnic identity, acculturation, and loyalty scales. Hierarchical Multiple Regression and Pearson Correlations were used to examine the e ffect of acculturation and ethnic identity on importance of store attributes, frequency patronage, and store loyalty. Descriptive statistics were computed to provide information of respondents on their demographic variables such as age, gender, education, income, and length of stay in the US. 21 CHAPTER 4. RESULTS The final sample with usable data consisted of 162 participants. Seventeen participants w ere recruited at one of the ethnic stores in East Lansing, and 15 participants were recruited through Facebook snowball technique. Thirty - seven participants completed the survey through SONA system and 93 participants were from Amazon Mechanical Turk. Part icipants who failed to answer checking questions were not included in the analysis. Of the sample, 42.6% (n = 69) were men and 57.4% women (n = 93). Age of respondents ranged from 19 to 52 years, with a me an age of 25.6. The mode of total family income was in a category of $60,000 or more with 21.6% (n = 35). Mean score of formal education was 15 years. Length of stay in the U.S. ranged from less than 1 year to 10 years, with an average of 5.5 years. After graduation, ther e were 13.6% (n = 22) who plan to leave the U.S. , 44.4% (n = 72) who plan to stay, and 41.4% (n = 67) who were undecided. There were 145 participants who stated that they go to mainstream stores, 112 participants who patronize ethnic stores. Ethnic identity, acculturation, loyalty, and attitude toward American products score s were computed as an average score of the scale items. After computing mean scores for importance of store attributes, ethnic store customers considered Asian pro duct assortment (4.38) and cleanliness (4.0) to be the most important criteria, whereas parking facilities (3.07) and crowding (3.21) were the least important. For mainstream store customers, price (4.14) and location (4.0) were the most important criteria , while the least important criteria were Asian product assortment (3.01) and parking facilities (3.22). (See Table 1). 22 Table 1. Descriptive Information Min Max Mean N % Age 19 52 25.6 Length of stay 0 10 5.5 Years of formal education 8 28 15 Gender Male 69 42.6 Female 93 57.4 Decision After Graduation Stay 72 44.4 Leave 22 13.6 Undecided 67 41.4 Patronage Behaviors Ethnic Store customers 112 69.1 Mainstream Store customers 145 89.5 Go to both 104 64.2 Ethnic Identity Ethnic Store Group 2.13 5 3.83 Mainstream Store Group 1.63 5 3.77 Acculturation (Dominant society immersion) Ethnic Store Group 1 .5 4 2.72 Mainstream Store Group 1.5 4 2.89 Store Loyalty Ethnic Store Group 1.5 5 3.44 Mainstream Store Group 1 5 3.29 Importance of Store Criteria (Ethnic, Mainstream) Price 1,1 5,5 3.90,4.14 Asian product assortment 1,1 5,5 4. 38 ,3.01 Location 1,1 5,5 3.82,4.00 Cleanliness 1,1 5,5 4.00,3.97 Security 1,1 5,5 3.36,3.41 Crowding 1,1 5,5 3.21,3.34 Parking Facility 1,1 5,5 3.07,3.22 Atmosphere 1,1 5,5 3.41,3.34 P rincipal - components analyses with varimax rotation were conducted on the 12 - item ethnic identity, 32 item acculturation and 18 item loyalty scales. For hypothesis testing, the study combined subscales and computed a mean score to create the study constructs (ethnic identity, acculturation and loyalty). Factor analysis of ethnic identity, acculturation, and loyalty scale was used only to determine if factors loaded o n the same subscales as the original scales and possessed appropriate values. Two criteria were used in the selection of items to retain: (a) a 23 factor loading of at least .6 on the primary factor, (b) a cross loading of no more than .4. These criteria were suggested by Matsunaga (2010) in order to avoid cross - loading problems. The number of factors retained in each analysis was determined by the scree test plot. In addition to meeting the above two criteria, items were retained only when they loaded on both ethnic and mainstream store customers. Items which were dropped out of the sc ales are presented in Appendix B . The ethnic identity analysis yielded a two - factor solution. A total of 8 items were retained that accounted for 64.174% of the scale variance; Factor 1 accounted for 41.425%, Factor 2 accounted for 22.749%. Factor 1 included 5 items related to affirmation and belonging 2 included 3 items related to ethnic identity achievement entire scale was 0.848. Factor loadings and items contributing to the factors are presented in Table 2. Table 2. Items Contributing to Factors of Ethnic I dentity Items Component Affirming & Belonging Ethnic Identity Achievement I feel good about my cultural or ethnic background. .805 I am happy that I am a member of the group I belong to. .798 I have a strong sense of belonging to my own ethnic group. .797 I have a lot of pride in my ethnic group and its accomplishments. .793 I feel a strong attachment towards my own ethnic group. .792 In order to learn more about my ethnic background, I have often talked to other people about my ethnic group. .758 I think a lot about how my life will be affected by my ethnic group membership. .754 I have spent time trying to find out more about my own ethnic group, such as its history, traditions, and customs. .650 Eigenvalue 3.31 1.82 % of variance 41.43 22.75 24 While the original ethnic identity scale purported to be comprised of three subscales: ethnic identity achievement, affirming and belonging, and ethnic behaviors, the current study factor results showed that ethnic identity measurement yielded only two subscales: ethnic identity a chievement, and affirming and belonging. These results are similar to evidence from another study where this same scale yielded the two same subscales as the current study (Roberts et al., 1999). The analysis of the acculturation yielded a two - factor solut ion. A total of 15 items were retained that accounted for 56.2 3 % of the scale variance; Factor 1 accounted for 30.05% ; Factor 2 accounted for 26.1 8 %. Factor 1 included 8 items related to dominant society immersion ed 6 items related to ethnic society immersion items contributing to the factors are presented in Table 3. Table 3. Items C ontributing to Factors of A cculturati on Items Component Dominant Society Immersion Ethnic Society Immersion I have many (Anglo) American acquaintance s . 0.797 I feel totally comfortable with (Anglo) American people. 0.755 I speak English at home. 0.751 I feel comfortable speaking English. 0.737 I am familiar with important people in American history. 0.709 I feel at home in the United States. 0.702 I regularly read an American newspaper. 0.659 I think in English. 0.657 I know how to speak my native language. 0.819 I know how to read and write in my native language. 0.804 I speak my native language with my friend and acquaintances from my country of origin. 0.796 I feel comfortable speaking my native language. 0.762 I like to speak my native language. 0.743 I eat traditional foods from my native culture. 0.608 Eigenvalues 4.207 3.665 % of variance 30.05 26.18 25 Previous studies that used Stephenson's (2000) acculturation scale did not factor analyze the scale. Rather than confirming the underlying dimensions of acculturation, they computed only subscale reliability (Gordon et al., 2010; Rayle & Myers, 2004 ; Miville & Constantine, 2006 ). Some studies combined the two subscales, computed reliability, and used the scale as a whole (Calin et al., 2007 ). According to Stephenson (2000) , dominant society immersion was created to measure acculturation to the host cul ture and ethnic society immersion was created to measure level of ethnic identification. Therefore, this current study used only dominant society immersion to measure acculturation to the host culture. The analysis of the 18 - item both ethnic and mainstream store loyalty yielded a two - factor solution. A total of 8 items were retained that accounted 63.26% (ethnic store loyalty) and 64.69% (mainstream store loyalty) of the scale variance; Factor 1 accounted for 36.57% (ethnic store loyalty ) and 39.6 6 % (mainst ream store loyalty). Factor 2 accounted for 26.69% (ethnic store customers ) and 25.0 4 % (mainstream store customers). Factor 1 included 5 items related to and 0.865 for ethnic and mainstream store loyalty, and 0.698 for ethnic and mainstream store loyalty, respectively). scale was 0.854 for ethnic store loyalty and 0.836 for mainstrea m store customers. Factor loadings and items contributing to the factors are presented in Table 4. 26 Table 4 . Items Contributing to Factors of Ethnic and Mainstream S tor e L oyalty Items Component (Ethnic Store Loyalty) Component (Mainstream Store Loyalt y) Action Loyalty Conative Loyalty Action Loyalty Conative Loyalty Even if this store was more difficult to reach, I would keep buying there. 0.786 0.848 If competitors' stores are more conveniently located I still shop at my selected store. 0.762 0.747 There are certain products I exclusively purchase at this store no matter what the price is. 0.722 0.794 I am willing to 'go extra miles' to remain a customer of this store. 0.717 0.834 I feel loyal to this store. 0.715 0.706 I say positive things about this store to others. 0.858 0.814 I will recommend this store to someone who seeks advice. 0.819 0.794 I intend to continue shopping at this store over the next few years. 0.625 0.706 Eigenvalues 2.926 2.135 3.173 2.003 % of variance 36.57 26.69 39.66 25.04 To test hypotheses, hierarchical multiple regression was performed to investigate the predictive ability of the various independent variables (ethnic identity, acculturation) on dependent variables (importance of store characteristics, store patronage and store loyalty). For ethnic store hypotheses, only 112 ethnic store customers were included. For mainstream store hypotheses, 145 mainstream store customers were included. Those who indicated that they shop at both mainstream and ethnic store were included into both mainstream and ethnic store analysi s. For each analysis, attitude toward American products and cultural difference were controlled for. In the first step of each hierarchical multiple regression, two predictors were entered: attitude toward American products and cultural difference. Model 1 , attitudes toward American products and cultural distance was not statistically significant, F (2, 109) = 0.556; p > .05. After entry of ethnic identity at step 2, the model was not 27 statistically significant, (F (3, 108) = 0.903; p > .05). There was no re lationship between ethnic identity and ethnic store patronage frequency. H1 was not supported. (See T able 5). The model 1 predictors, attitude toward American products and cultural distance were not statistically significant, F (2, 109) = 2. 582 ; p > .05. After entry of ethnic identity at step 2, the total variance explained by the model as a whole was 8 .3% (F (3, 108) = 3. 271 ; p < .05). The introduction of ethnic identity explained additional 3.8 % variance in importance of assortment, after controlling for attitude toward American products and cultural distance (R - square change = 0.0 38 ; F (1, 108) = 4.48 3; p < .05). Ethnic identity has a positive effect on importance of ethnic product assortment. H2a was supported. The model 1 predictors, attitude toward Am erican products and cultural distance were not statistically significant, F (2, 109) = 0.556 ; p > .05. After entry of importance of ethnic product assortment at step 2, the total variance explained by the model as a whole was 5.6 % (F (3, 108) = 2.141 ; p < .05). The introduction of ethnic product assortment explained an additional 4.6 % variance in ethnic store patronage frequency , after controlling for attitude toward American products and cultural distance (R - square change = 0.0 46 ; F (1, 108) = 5.266 ; p < . 05). E thnic product assortment has a positive effect on ethnic store patronage frequency . H 2b was supported. The two predictors entered in Model 1 were attitude toward American products and cultural distance. This model was statistically significant, F (2, 109) = 2.551; p < .05. After entry of ethnic identity at step 2, the model was not statistically significant F (3, 108) = 1.780; p > .05). There was no relationship between ethnic identity and importance of store location. H3a was not supported. 28 The two p redictors entered in Model 1 were attitude toward American products and cultural distance. This model was not statistically significant, F (2, 109) = 0.556; p > .05. After entry of importance of ethnic store location at step 2, the model was still not stat istically significant F (3, 108) = 0.920; p > .05). There was no relationship between ethnic store location and ethnic store patronage frequency. H3b was not supported. The two predictors entered in Model 1 were attitude toward American products and cultural distance. This model was not statistically significant, F (2, 142) = 0.222; p > .05. After entry of importance of mainstream store location at step 2, the model was still not statistically significant F (3, 141) = 0.382; p > .05). There was no rel ationship between mainstream store location and mainstream store patronage frequency. H3c was not supported. The two predictors entered in Model 1 were attitude toward American products and cultural distance. This model was not statistically significant, F (2, 142) = 0.985; p > .05. After entry of ethnic identity at step 2, the model was still not statistically significant F (3, 141) = 1.020; p > .05). There was no relationship between ethnic identity and mainstream store price. H4a was not supported. The t wo predictors entered in Model 1 were attitude toward American products and cultural distance. This model was not statistically significant, F (2, 142) = 0.222; p > .05. After entry of importance of price at step 2, the model was still not statistically si gnificant F (3, 141) = 0.375; p > .05). There was no relationship between importance of price and mainstream store patronage frequency. H4b was not supported. The two predictors entered in Model 1 were attitude toward American products and cultural distance. This model was not statistically significant, F (2, 142) = 0.222; p > .05. After 29 entry of acculturation at step 2, the model was still not statistically sig nificant F (3, 141) = 0. 916 ; p > .05). There was no relationship between acculturation and mainstream store patronage frequency. H5a was not supported. The two predictors entered in Model 1 were attitude toward American products and cultural distance. This model was not statistically significant, F (2, 109) = 0.556; p > .05. After entry of acculturation at step 2, the model was still not statistically significant F (3, 108) = 0.3 94 ; p > .05). There was no relationship between acculturation and ethnic store patronage fr equency. H5b was not supported. The two predictors entered in Model 1 were attitude toward American products and cultural distance. This model was statistically significant, F (2, 142) = 5.491; p < .05. After entry of acculturation at step 2, t he model was not statistically significant F (3, 141) = 3. 738 ; p > .05). There was no relationship between acculturation and ethnic product assortment. H6 was not supported. The model 1 predictors, attitude toward American products and cultural distance we re not statistically significant, F (2, 142) = 0.985; p > .05. After entry of acculturation at step 2, the total variance explained by the model as a whole was 4.4 % (F (3, 141) = 2. 172 ; p < .05). The introduction of acculturation explained additional 3% va riance in mainstream store price, after controlling for attitude toward American products and cultural distance (R - square change = 0.03 0 ; F (1, 141) = 4.497 ; p < .05). Acculturation has a positive effect on importance of mainstream store price. H7 was supp orted. The model 1 predictors, attitude toward American products and cultural distance were not statistically significant, F (2, 109) = 0.196; p > .05. After entry of ethnic store patronage at step 30 2, the total variance explained by the model as a whole wa s 10.2% (F (3, 108) = 4.071; p < .01). The introduction of ethnic store patronage explained additional 9.8% variance in ethnic store loyalty, after controlling for attitude toward American products and cultural distance (R - square change = 0.098; F (1, 108) = 11.782; p < .01). Ethnic store patronage has a positive effect on ethnic store loyalty. H8a was supported. The model 1 predictors, attitude toward American products and cultural distance were statistically significant, F (2, 142) = 3.554; p < .05. After entry of mainstream store patronage at step 2, the total variance explained by the model as a whole was 7.6% (F (3, 141) = 3.889; p < .05). The introduction of mainstream store patronage explained additional 2.9% variance in mainstream store loyalty, afte r controlling for attitude toward American products and cultural distance (R - square change = 0.029; F (1, 141) = 4.388; p < .05). Mainstream store patronage has a positive effect on mainstream store loyalty. H8b was supported. The two predictors entered in Model 1 were attitude toward American products and cultural distance. This model was not statistically significant, F (2, 142) = 0.222; p > .05. After entry of importance of ethnic product assortment at step 2, the model was still not statistically signif icant F (3, 141) = 0.161; p > .05). There was no relationship between importance of ethnic product assortment and mainstream store patronage frequency. The two predictors entered in Model 1 were attitude toward American products and cultural distance. This model was not statistically significant, F (2, 109) = 0.556; p > .05. After entry of importance of ethnic store price at step 2, the model was still not statistically significant F (3, 108) = 0.368; p > .05). There was no relationship between importance o f ethnic store price and ethnic store patronage frequency. 31 The two predictors entered in Model 1 were attitude toward American products and cultural distance. This model was not statistically significant, F (2, 1 42 ) = 0. 172 ; p > .05. After entry of accultu ration at step 2, the model was still not statistically significant F (3, 1 41 ) = 1.267 ; p > .05). There was no relationship between acculturation and importance of mainstream store location . Table 5. Summary of R esults H/RQs Description of hypotheses/research questions Results p - value Correlations R - square H1 Ethnic identity ethnic store patronage frequency (+) Not supported .210 .114 .024 H2a Ethnic identity ethnic store product assortment (+) supported .037 .214 .083 H2b ethnic store product assortment ethnic store patronage frequency (+) supported .024 .219 .056 H3a Ethnic identity ethnic store location ( - ) Not supported .602 - .062 .047 H3b Ethnic store location ethnic store patronage frequency ( - ) Not supported .203 - .134 .025 H3c Mainstream store location mainstream store patronage frequency (+) Not supported .403 - .069 .008 H4a Ethnic identity mainstream store price (+) Not supported .299 .079 .021 H4b Mainstream store price mainstream store patronage frequency(+) Not supported .410 - .064 .008 H5a Acculturation mainstream store patronage frequency(+) Not supported .132 .130 .019 H5b Acculturation ethnic store patronage frequency( - ) Not supported .780 - .046 .011 H6 Acculturation mainstream store ethnic product assortment ( - ) Not supported .593 .028 .074 H7 Acculturation mainstream store price (+) supported .036 .209 .044 H8a Ethnic store patronage ethnic store loyalty (+) supported .001 .314 .102 H8b Mainstream store patronage mainstream store loyalty (+) supported .038 .180 .076 RQ1 What is the relationship between the importance of ethnic product assortment for mainstream store and mainstream store patronage? Not correlated .834 .005 .003 RQ2 What is the relationship between price and ethnic store patronage? Not correlated .978 - .007 .010 RQ3 What is the relationship between the degree of acculturation and importance of store location when Chinese students consider mainstream store to shop? Not correlated .065 .159 .026 32 Additional A nalyses An additional hierarchical regression analysis of the relationship of importance of ethnic store cleanliness to ethnic identity and ethnic store loyalty was conducted, as this criterion was considered the second most important by ethnic store shoppers. Th e model 1 predictors, attitude toward American products and cultural distance were not statistically significant, F (2, 109) = 1.136; p > .05. After entry of ethnic identity at step 2, the total variance explained by the model as a whole was 7.8% (F (3, 10 8) = 3.046; p < .05). The introduction of ethnic identity explained additional 5.8% variance in ethnic store cleanliness, after controlling for attitude toward American products and cultural distance (R - square change = 0.058; F (1, 108) = 6.747; p < .05). Ethnic identity has a positive effect on importance of store cleanliness (See table 6). The model 1 predictors, attitude toward American products and cultural distance were not statistically significant, F (2, 109) = 0.196; p > .05. After entry of import ance of ethnic store cleanliness at step 2, the total variance explained by the model as a whole was 4.3% (F (3, 108) = 1.630; p < .05). The introduction of importance of ethnic store cleanliness explained additional 4% variance in ethnic store loyalty, af ter controlling for attitude toward American products and cultural distance (R - square change = 0.040; F (1, 108) = 4.485; p < .05). Ethnic store cleanliness has a positive effect on ethnic store loyalty. Segev et al. (2014) tested the relationships betwee n ethnic identity and ethnic store loyalty. Results confirmed that they were positively related. Therefore, the study tested relationship between these two variables to see whether ethnic identity had a direct effect on ethnic store loyalty. 33 The model 1 p redictors, attitude toward American products and cultural distance were not statistically significant, F (2, 109) = 0.196; p > .05. After entry of importance of ethnic identity at step 2, the total variance explained by the model as a whole was 32.5% (F (3 , 108) = 17.301; p < .001). The introduction of importance of ethnic identity explained an additional 32.1% variance in ethnic store loyalty, after controlling for attitude toward American products and cultural distance (R - square change = 0.321; F (1, 108) = 51.331; p < .001). Ethnic identity has a positive effect on ethnic store loyalty. The relationship between acculturation and mainstream store location was positive. While store location was not directly related to store patronage, the researcher wanted to investigate whether location had a direct effect on loyalty. The model 1 predictors, attitude toward American products and cultural distance were statistically significant, F (2, 142) = 3.554; p < .05. After entry of importance of mainstream store loc ation at step 2, the total variance explained by the model as a whole was 7.5% (F (3, 141) = 3.791; p < .05). The introduction of importance of mainstream store location explained an additional 2.7% variance in mainstream store loyalty, after controlling f or attitude toward American products and cultural distance (R - square change = 0.027; F (1, 141) = 4.108; p < .05). Importance of mainstream store location has a positive effect on mainstream store loyalty. Segev et al. (2014) tested the relationships betw een acculturation and mainstream store loyalty. Results confirmed that they were positively related. Therefore, the study tested relationship between these two variables to analyze whether acculturation had a direct effect on mainstream store loyalty. 34 The model 1 predictors, attitude toward American products and cultural distance were statistically significant, F (2, 142) = 3.554; p < .05. After entry of acculturation at step 2, the total variance explained by the model as a whole was 1 1 . 1 % (F (3, 141) = 5 . 876 ; p < .01). The introduction of acculturation explained additional 6. 3 % variance in mainstream store loyalty, after controlling for attitude toward American products and cultural distance (R - square change = 0.06 3 ; F (1, 141) = 10.066 ; p < .01). Acculturation has a positive effect on mainstream store loyalty. Table 6. Summary of A dditional A nalyses Description p - value Correlations R - square Ethnic identity ethnic store cleanliness (+) .011 .227 .078 Ethnic store cleanliness ethnic store loyalty (+) .036 .200 .043 Ethnic identity ethnic store loyalty (+) .000 .566 .325 Mainstream store location mainstream store loyalty (+) .045 .174 .075 Acculturation mainstream store loyalty (+) .002 .3 22 .1 11 35 Figure 2. Final Model To separate the influence of the various (significant) independent variables on ethnic store loyalty, the study ran a hierarchical multiple regression and included ethnic identity, ethnic store cleanliness, ethnic product assortment, and patronage frequency as independent variables. Only ethnic identity and store patronage predicted store loyalty. The model explained 38.8% of the variance (See Table 7) and results showed that ethnic identity was the strongest predictor of ethnic store loyalty. From Table 7, ethnic identity was a strong predictor of ethnic store loyalty ( ) which means when ethnic identity increases by one point, ethnic store loyalty will increases .526. This means cultural factor which is ethnic identity in this case is the best predictor of ethnic grocery store loyalty while other store criteria do not matter in predicting Ethnic identity ( Ethnic store) cleanliness ( Ethnic store) patronage frequency ( Ethnic store) loyalty (Mainstream) price (Mainstream) store location Acculturation (Mainstream) patronage frequency (Mainstream) loyalty ( Ethnic store) ethnic product assortment 36 Chinese students' loyalty to the ethnic stores. Patronage frequency was also a predictor affecting ethnic store loy alty. However, the effect was less than ethnic identity ( Table 7. Results from R egression of Model 1 Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 3.575 .277 12.904 .000 Attitude toward American products - .020 .087 - .022 - .229 .819 C ultural distance - .022 .041 - .053 - .550 .583 2 (Constant) .359 .540 .665 .507 Attitude toward American products .027 .071 .030 .375 .709 Cultural distance - .002 .033 - .005 - .065 .948 Ethnic identity .622 .096 .526 6.459 .000 Ethnic product assortment .016 .072 .018 .217 .829 E thnic store cleanliness .043 .061 .056 .699 .486 Patronage frequency .153 .050 .244 3.087 . 003 a. Dependent Variable: Ethnic store loyalty Finally, t o separate the influence of the various (significant) independent variables on mainstream store loyalty, the study ran a hierarchical multiple regression and included acculturation, mainstream store price, mainstream store location, and patronage frequency as indepe ndent variables. Both acculturation and store patronage predicted mainstream store loyalty. The model explained 15. 5 % of the variance (See Table 8) and results showed that acculturation was the strong est factor affecting mainstream store loyalty. From Tabl e 8, acculturation had a moderate impact on mainstream store loyalty ( 22 8 ) which means when acculturation increases by one point, mainstream store loyalty will increase by . 22 8. This means that acculturation as a cultural factor is the best predictor of Chinese students' mainstream store 37 loyalty, whereas store criteria do not predict loyalty to mainstream grocery stores. Patronage frequency was also a predictor affecting mainst ream store loyalty. However, the effect was less than acculturation ( Table 8. Results from R egression of Model 2 Model Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t Sig. B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 2.685 .238 11.283 .000 Attitude toward American products .129 .068 .155 1.890 .061 Cultural distance .062 .036 .141 1.710 .089 2 (Constant) 1.4 71 .4 00 3.673 .0 0 0 Attitude toward American products .0 69 .06 8 . 083 1 .019 . 310 Cultural distance .0 17 .03 8 .0 39 . 458 . 648 Mainstream store price .0 57 .06 6 .07 3 . 870 .3 86 Mainstream store location .0 85 .05 8 . 122 1. 469 . 144 Patronage frequency .1 0 8 .054 .1 5 8 1.986 .0 49 Acculturation . 226 . 091 .228 2. 478 .01 4 a. Dependent Variable: Mainstream loyalty 38 CHAPTER 5. DISCUSSION The study investigated Chinese students' choices of and their loyalty to both ethnic and mainstream grocery stores. Data were collected both online and offline. An online survey was distributed through mTurk , SONA system, and Facebook. The study also distributed a questionnaire at one of the ethnic grocery stores in East Lansing. Ethnic identity and acculturation were independent variables affecting store choice criteria and loyalty to the stores. Results sh owed that ethnic identity was positively related to importance of ethnic store product assortment and cleanliness. Ethnic product assortment was positively related to ethnic store patronage frequency. Ethnic identity, cleanliness, and frequency each had a separate, direct effect on ethnic store loyalty , but when analyzed together, only ethnic identity and patronage frequency affect ethnic store loyalty . Ethnic identity was not related to ethnic store location and price, nor did these two store criteria have an effect on patronage frequency or loyalty. Acculturation had a positive effect on importance of mainstream store price. Analyzed separately, acculturation and mainstream store patronage frequency were positively related to mainstream store loyalty. Et hnic Identity This study demonstrated that ethnic identity predicted ethnic store loyalty with a moderate ly strong relationship ( = 0.5 2 6). This result supported Segev et al. (2014), affirming that ethnic identity has a positive effect on ethnic store loy alty . Ethnic identity had a positive effect on ethnic product assortment , which contributed to ethnic store patronage frequency . However, when ethnic identity, store characteristics and patronage were analyzed together, only ethnic identity and patronage predicted ethnic store loyalty. 39 Ethnic product assortment was rated the most important criterion with a mean of 4.38. These r esults confirmed previous studies that ethnic product assortment was one of the most important criteria for both immigrant and int ernational student groups . For example, Kaufman & Hernandez (1991) argued that a wide variety of ethnic food was one of the factors affecting supermarket. Hartwell et al. (2011) ass e rte d that UK international students patronized sp ecialty grocery stores for their home country ingredients. Jamal (2003 ) also found that e thnic respondents in UK shopped at ethnic store for specific ingredients for their home country foods. Ethnic identity had a positive effect on importance of ethnic store cleanliness , which in turn, was related to ethnic store loyalty. Cleanliness was rated as the second most important ethnic store choice criterion, but it was not related to patronage frequency . When people consider store criteria, it is possible that they put an emphasis on cleanliness as they are about to purchase food, but cleanliness does not appear to draw people to a store. This may be because Chinese students expected that grocery stores have to provide a clean shopping environment. However, cle anliness may not attract consumers to a store, unlike offering a variety of ethnic products, explaining the lack of relationship with patronage frequency. This result was in line with Liu (2010), who found that Chinese immigrants in Toronto considered rest aurant cleanliness to be a choice criteria and may be related to cultural value s of Chinese students . Ethnic identity was not related to importance of ethnic store price, in contrast with previous literature. According to Segev (2014), ethnic identification was a positive predictor of price consciousness . A p ossible explanation for the conflicting results may be because of the price sensitive. Future research could investigate price sensitivity with this Chinese group. 40 However, the importance of ethnic store price was the third most important store criterion (mean = 3.9) , even though was not related to ethnic store patronage or loyalty. This means participants consider price to be one of the important criteria, but it does not appear to influence their ethnic store patronag e or loyal ty . While an inverse relationship between ethnic identity and store location was predicted, it was not negative ly related to importance of store location, in contrast with previous literature. According to Wang & Lo (2007), respondents (Chinese immigrants in Toronto, Canada) with a strong ethnic iden tity are willing to take time to make a trip to an ethnic store. Perhaps students are more concerned with convenience because they have limited time ; or it is possible that m any students do not have a car and have to rely on friends or public transportation to get to a store . Acculturation Similar to the pretest results, in the main study, acculturation ha d a positive effect on importance of price as a mainstream store choice criteria . Suri & Manchanda (2000) asserted that the more people acculturate with the host culture, the more they will behave like people from the host culture . It is logical to assume that the more Chinese students become acculturated to the U.S., the more they behave like Americans . According to Carpenter, & Moore (2006) , American consumers considered price important when considering supercenter to shop . Therefore, it is logical that high ly acculturated Chinese students wi ll behave like American and consider price important. Acculturation did not ha ve a n effect on importance of mainstream store location, even though store location was rated as the second most important criterion. It is possible that Chinese students considered location to be important as they have limited traveling time, but cultural 41 fact ors such as acculturation may not have an influence on location. As there is a lack of research about relationships between these two variables, future research is advised to examine this issue. Moreover, as location was an important criterion, future rese arch may consider adding questions about how they travel to the stores in order to better understand their insights. Acculturation was not related to importance of ethnic product assortment when choosing a mainstream store. This is logical as high ly accul turated people may be less likely to cook ethnic food and eat host country food. Therefore, they may not need ethnic products when consider ing a mainstream store to shop . Moreover, results showed that attitude s toward American products w ere negatively rela ted to the importance of ethnic product assortment when choosing a mainstream store . That is, t he more Chinese students like American products, the less importance they place on ethnic product assortment . Pearson correlations also showed that acculturation and attitude toward American products were related (r (1 ) = 0.1 9 , p<0.05). This means the more people acculturate with U.S. culture, the more they like American products and the less they consider ethnic product assortment to be important. Accultura tion had a positive effect on mainstream store loyalty. This result confirmed Segev et al. (2014) which found that acculturation was positively related to mainstream store loyalty. Acculturation measured in this study included four dimensions which were us e of media, interaction, language, and food. However, this study did not separate these dimensions in the analysis. Future research may consider separately analyzing these sub dimensions. It was interesting that none of the mainstream store criteria wer e related to mainstream store patronage frequency. It is possible that there are other factors accounting for patronage frequency such as family size and income (Roy, 1994) or store reputation (Ou et al., 2006) . For a lack of relationship between store location and patronage frequency, it is possible that Chinese 42 students want to shop at mainstream store that is close to their living place. However, they may not shop at the store frequently because of a lack of ti me, but still being loyal to that store. To sum up, ethnic identity and acculturation lead Chinese students to focus on different criteria when selecting ethnic and mainstream store s . The two most important criteria for ethnic store s were ethnic product a ssortment and cleanliness , however, only ethnic product assortment was related to ethnic store patronage . These results could be explained by their level of ethnic identity. The more Chinese students are attach ed to their Chinese group, the more they consi der ethnic product assortment and cleanliness important. Further, cleanliness was directly related to ethnic store loyalty. However, acculturation explains Chinese students' mainstream store criteria. The most important criteri on when selecting a mainstrea m store to shop w as price. This means the more Chinese students are acculturated with the U.S. culture, the more they consider price important. Acculturation was directly related to mainstream store loyalty. 43 CHAPTER 6. IMPLICATIONS AND LIMITATIONS Theoretical C ontributions This study applied two theories, ethnic identity and acculturation, to explain different behaviors of cultural groups. For ethnic identity, this study confirmed that the ethnic identity scale from Phinney (1992) can be used with Chinese student group with satisfactory reliability of 0.848 and 64.17% of explained variance. Moreover, ethnic identity can help explain Chinese students' choices of and their loyalty to ethnic grocery store. Future research focusing on Chinese students should take ethnic identity into consideration when studying their shopp ing behaviors. For acculturation, this study established that dominant immersion sub scale from Stephenson (2000) can be used with Chinese group, with satisfactory reliability of 0. 868 . In addition, because of its strong explanatory power, this study con firmed that acculturation should be taken into consideration when studying Chinese students and their mainstream store shopping behaviors. Most previous research studying international student group focused on their dietary acculturation after living in t he new host culture. For example, Pan et al. (1999) asserted that Asian students changed their eating habits such as eating more salty snacks and skipping breakfasts. Brown et al. (2010) found that international students tried different foods prepared by t heir foreign friends. These changes in eating patterns are likely to have an effect on how students choose to shop at a particular store, but previous studies have not investigated store choice criteria for international students. Moreover, cultural differ ence was not investigated in Pan et al. (1999) and Brown et al. (2010) whereas this current study analyzed how ethnic identity 44 and acculturation lead to different store choices criteria and confirmed that cultural factors should be investigated when studyi ng ethnic groups. Previous literature studying ethnic identity and acculturation mostly focused on immigrant groups. For example, Donthu & Cheri an (1992) verified that less acculturated Hispanics in the U.S. used less coupons. However, the current study i nvestigated younger and well - educated Chinese group whose behaviors were different from immigrant groups. Results of this study asserted that ethnic identity and acculturation were positively related to loyalty to both ethnic and mainstream stores. Therefo re, future research studying store loyalty and shopping behavior in a host country should take ethnic identity and acculturation into account when studying different minority and ethnic groups. Few studies investigated the influence of ethnic identity and acculturation on loyalty, but the focus was on brand, rather than store loyalty. Studies investigating ethnic identity and loyalty included the work of Deshpande et al. (1986) which also focused only on Hispanic immigrants and asserted that a high level o f Hispanic identity tended was positively related to loyalty to national brands. Donthu & Cherian (1992) also argued that Hispanics who had strong attachment with the group were more loyal to brands. One exception, Segev et al. (2014) demonstrated that acc ulturation had a positive effect on mainstream store loyalty whereas ethnic identity was positively related to ethnic store loyalty. This current study confirmed results from Segev et al. (2014) but with different ethnic group which was Chinese student gro up. Results of this study provide insights about Chinese students. While some of the store criteria had an effect on patronage frequency and loyalty to grocery stores, results showed that the most important factors were related to culture. Ethnic identity was the most influential factor 45 affecting ethnic store loyalty whereas acculturation was the strongest predictor of loyalty to mainstream stores. Managerial I mplications The study yielded useful managerial insights about ethnic identity, acculturation and their store choice criteria, patronage and loyalty to ethnic and mainstream stores. Ethnic identity was not related to price or store location, suggesting that Chinese students may not be price sensi tive and may be willing to travel further to less convenient store locations to shop for their ethnic products. The results suggest three managerial implications for managers of ethnic stores. First, managers of ethnic stores should emphasize attachment wi th the ethnic group in their marketing messages because ethnic identity le a d s directly to ethnic store loyalty. For example, they may advertise that Chinese should be proud of their group as they have precious traditions with history. Managers could incorp orate marketing activities to call attention to Chinese ways of life. For example, stores may ce l ebrate Chinese New Year by selling traditional food of th is ce l ebration such as moon cakes. Second, as ethnic product assortment was the most important criteri on to Chinese customers , managers should highlight the various kinds of Chinese products available to serve their customers' needs in their marketing messages . Third, managers should keep in mind that cleanliness was also important to customers when they s elect and develop loyalty to an ethnic store , so attention to hygiene should be a priority. There are several implications for managers of mainstream stores as well. First, because acculturated Chinese student shoppers prioritize price, mainstream stores should offer products with competitive prices. Second, even though acculturation did not have an effect on importance of mainstream store location , location was still considered important to Chinese students and had 46 a positive effect on mainstream store loyalty . Customers go to mainstream stores that are close to their home, so a convenient location is essential. If a mainstream store does not have a convenient location, it is still possible to provide convenience to their customers. For example, stores m ay provide shuttle bus for students from campus to the store. Acculturation and attitude toward American products were positively correlated, and it is logical to assume that Chinese students who go to mainstream stores would be more or less acculturated t o the U.S. culture. Therefore, managers should emphasize quality of American products in their marketing messages to encourage acculturated people to shop at and be loyal to mainstream stores. Limitations There are several limitations of this study. Firs t, sample size was small with a total number of 162 . In order to provide more precise results, more participants are needed. According to Osborne & Costello (2004) , suggested a minimum of 5:1 ratio respondents to scale items . As this study had acculturation as the lengthiest scale with 32 items, at a minimum, the study required 160 subjects. However, Osborne & Costello (2004) also recommended that a higher respondent to item ratio would produce more accurate results. Second, the study is not generalizable because the data were collected through an online survey via several online channels such as Facebook, SONA system, and Amazon Mechanical Turk. Therefore, these online respondents may not be representative of all internationa l students. Moreover, while the study collected data from Chinese students who are the largest international student group in the U.S., this group is less than half of all international students in the U.S .; there are many more ethnic groups of internation al students who may be different from Chinese students . Therefore, future research should incorporate more nationalities to see whether international students from different countries yield similar results. In addition, while the study 47 used reliable scales to measure ethnic identity, acculturation, and loyalty, the questionnaire was lengthy, which might have result ed in participant fatigue . The study had to eliminate 24 respondents (11.48% of all complete questionnaires) from the analysis because they faile d to correctly answer checking questions. F uture research should use shorter scales to measure respondents' degree of acculturation and store loyalty. 48 APPENDICES 49 APPENDIX A. SURVEY INSTRUMENT When you shop for food, do you shop at mainstream stores (such as Meijer, Kroger, Walmart)? Yes___ No___ Please indicate how important each of the following factors is to you when selecting a mainstream store (such as Meijer, Kroger, Walmart) to go grocery shopping. Never importan t Rarely importan t Sometime s importan t Often importan t Always importan t Price 1 2 3 4 5 Asian product variety 1 2 3 4 5 Store location 1 2 3 4 5 Cleanliness 1 2 3 4 5 Security 1 2 3 4 5 Level of crowding 1 2 3 4 5 Parking facilities 1 2 3 4 5 Atmosphere 1 2 3 4 5 Other (please specify)................................ When you shop for food, do you shop at ethnic stores (such as Asian market, Oriental Mart, Japanese store, Korean market, Indian market, etc.) Yes___ No____ Please indicate how important each of the following factors is to you when selecting an ethnic store (such as Asian market, Oriental Mart, Japanese store, Korean market, Indian market, etc.) to go grocery shopping. Never importan t Rarely importan t Sometime s importan t Often importan t Always importan t Price 1 2 3 4 5 Asian product variety 1 2 3 4 5 50 Store location 1 2 3 4 5 Cleanliness 1 2 3 4 5 Security 1 2 3 4 5 Level of crowding 1 2 3 4 5 Parking facilities 1 2 3 4 5 Atmosphere 1 2 3 4 5 Other (please specify)................................ When you go grocery shopping, how many stores would you normally visit on a single shopping trip?_____ Please list the names of these stores. 1.____2.______3.______ About how much do you spend at each store per shopping trip? a. Store 1 b. Store 2 c. Store 3 Which of these is your favorite place to shop for food?_______________ How often do you shop at mainstream grocery stores (such as Meijer, Kroger, Walmart)? Check one answer More than twice a week Twice a week Once a week Once every two weeks 51 Once a month Less than once a month I never shop at mainstream stores How often do you shop at ethnic grocery stores (such as Asian market, Oriental Mart, Japanese store, Korean market, etc.). Check one answer More than twice a week Twice a week Once a week Once every two weeks Once a month Less than once a month I never shop at ethnic grocery stores Please indicate how much you agree or disagree with the fo llowing statements. Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree I prefer American products over domestic products. 1 2 3 4 5 American products are of higher quality than domestic products . 1 2 3 4 5 Given a choice, I buy American - made rather than domestic products . 1 2 3 4 5 52 Please tell us how much you agree or disagree with the following statements about your favorite mainstream/ethnic grocery store that you identified in question XX by checking your level of agreement/disagreement w ith each statement. Strongly disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree I intend to continue shopping at this store over the next few years . 1 2 3 4 5 I would expend effort on behalf of this store to help it succeed . 1 2 3 4 5 I say positive things about this store to others . 1 2 3 4 5 I will recommend this store to someone who seeks advice . 1 2 3 4 5 I encourage friends to go to this store . 1 2 3 4 5 I intend to remain a customer of my selected store. 1 2 3 4 5 I would switch to a competitor if I experience a problem with this store . 1 2 3 4 5 I am not interested in advertisements from other stores. 1 2 3 4 5 I feel loyal to this store . 1 2 3 4 5 I love this store, even if I have had a bad experience, I would continue to shop here . 1 2 3 4 5 I am willing to pay a higher price for the products/services I currently receive from this store . 1 2 3 4 5 This store is always my first choice. 1 2 3 4 5 customer of this store . 1 2 3 4 5 Even if this store was more difficult to reach, I would keep buying there . 1 2 3 4 5 53 I only buy from my selected store . 1 2 3 4 5 There are certain products I exclusively purchase at this store no matter what the price is . 1 2 3 4 5 I would not switch from this store under any circumstances . 1 2 3 4 5 located I still shop at my selected store . 1 2 3 4 5 In this country, people come from many different countries and cultures, and there are many different words to describe the different back grounds or ethnic groups that people come from. Some examples of the names of ethnic groups are Hispanic or Latino, Black or African American, Asian American, Chinese, Filipino, American Indian, Mexican American, Caucasi an or White, Italian American, and many others. These questions are about your ethnicity or your ethnic group and how you feel about it or react to it. Check one number to indicate how much you agree or disagree with each statement. Strongly disagree Di sagree Neutral Agree Strongly agree I have spent time trying to find out more about my own ethnic group, such as its history, traditions, and customs. 1 2 3 4 5 I am active in organizations or social groups that include mostly members of my own ethnic group. 1 2 3 4 5 I have a clear sense of my ethnic background and what it means for me. 1 2 3 4 5 I think a lot about how my life will be affected by my ethnic group membership. 1 2 3 4 5 I am happy that I am a member of the group I belong to. 1 2 3 4 5 I have a strong sense of belonging to my own ethnic group. 1 2 3 4 5 I understand pretty well what my ethnic group membership means to me. 1 2 3 4 5 54 In order to learn more about my ethnic background, I have often talked to other people about my ethnic group. 1 2 3 4 5 I have a lot of pride in my ethnic group. 1 2 3 4 5 I participate in cultural practices of my own group, such as special food, music, or customs. 1 2 3 4 5 I feel a strong attachment towards my own ethnic group. 1 2 3 4 5 I feel good about my cultural or ethnic background. 1 2 3 4 5 Below are a number of statements that evaluate changes that occur when people interact with others of different cultures or ethnic groups. For questions that refer to "COUNTRY OF ORIGIN" or "NATIVE COUNTR Y", please refer to the country from which your family originally came. For questions referring to "NATIVE LANGUAGE", please refer to the language spoken where your family originally came. Select the answer that best matches your response to each statement . Fals e Par tly fals e Par tly true Tru e I understand English, but I'm not fluent in English. 1 2 3 4 I am informed about current affairs in the United States. 1 2 3 4 I speak my native language with my friends and acquaintances from my country of origin. 1 2 3 4 I know how to read and write in my native language. 1 2 3 4 I feel at home in the United States. 1 2 3 4 I attend social functions with people from my native country. 1 2 3 4 I feel accepted by (Anglo) Americans. 1 2 3 4 I speak my native language at home. 1 2 3 4 I regularly read magazines in my ethnic group. 1 2 3 4 55 I know how to speak my native language. 1 2 3 4 I know how to prepare (Anglo) American foods. 1 2 3 4 I am familiar with the history of my native country. 1 2 3 4 I regularly read an American newspaper. 1 2 3 4 I like to listen to music of my ethnic group. 1 2 3 4 I like to speak my native language. 1 2 3 4 I feel comfortable speaking English. 1 2 3 4 I speak English at home. 1 2 3 4 I speak my native language with my spouse or partner. 1 2 3 4 When I pray, I use my native language. 1 2 3 4 I attend social functions with (Anglo) American people. 1 2 3 4 I think in my native language. 1 2 3 4 I stay in close contact with family members and relatives in my native country. 1 2 3 4 I am familiar with important people in American history. 1 2 3 4 I think in English. 1 2 3 4 I speak English with my spouse or partner. 1 2 3 4 I like to eat American foods. 1 2 3 4 I have never learned to speak the language of my native country. 1 2 3 4 I feel totally comfortable with (Anglo) American people. 1 2 3 4 I eat traditional foods from my native culture. 1 2 3 4 I have many (Anglo) American acquaintances. 1 2 3 4 I feel comfortable speaking my native language. 1 2 3 4 56 I am informed about current affairs in my native country . 1 2 3 4 Please click on the picture that best describes how close you feel about your culture and American culture. Figure 3. Pictures Describing Chinese and American Culture Please tell us about yourself. Your gender: 1. male 2. female Year of birth (EXAMPLE: 1988)______ Nationality________________ Years of formal education you have completed, not counting kindergarten: ______year(s) Length of stay in the US __________year(s) After graduation, do you plan to leave or stay in the U.S.? __leave __stay __undecided Your total family income: - Less than $25 ,000 Chines e U.S. Chines e Chines e Chines e Chines e U.S. U.S. U.S. U.S. Chines e U.S. U.S. Chinese 57 - $25,000 $29,999 - $30,000 $39,999 - $40,000 $49,999 - $50,000 $59,999 - $60,000 or more - Prefer not to answer 58 APPENDIX B . ITEMS DROPPED OUT OF THE SCALES Table 9. Items Dropped Out of the S cales Scales Drop - out items Ethnic identity - I am active in organizations or social groups that include mostly members of my own ethnic group. - I participate in cultural practices of my own group, such as special food, music, or customs. - I understand pretty well what my ethnic group membership means to me. - I have a clear sense of my ethnic background and what it means for me. Acculturation - I understand English, but I'm not fluent in English. - I am informed about current affairs in the United States. - I attend social functions with people from my native country. - I feel accepted by (Anglo) Americans. - I speak my native language at home. - I regularly read magazines in my ethnic group. - I know how to prepare (Anglo) American foods. - I am famil iar with the history of my native country. - I like to listen to music of my ethnic group. - I speak my native language with my spouse or partner. - When I pray, I use my native language. - I attend social functions with (Anglo) American people. - I t hink in my native language. - I stay in close contact with family members and relatives in my native country. - I speak English with my spouse or partner. - I like to eat American foods. - I have never learned to speak the language of my native country . - I am informed about current affairs in my native country. 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