GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION OF BOBWHITE QUAIL RAISED IN CONFINEMENT Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Taha Hassan Huss‘ein Mahmoud 1966 - ‘ —‘.~ LIB " 4 n V Michigan State University This is to certify that the thesis entitled GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION OF BOBWHITE QUAIL RAISED IN CONFINEMENT presented by Taha Hassan Hussein Mahmoud has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ldeqme In Poultry Science $74. 14mg Major professor Date July 8, 1966 0-169 Sew of accumt tertain n of Bobvhi Quail ver also made {oturnix . A 31; '91th an: 0? Bobvhii nlficant‘, t at hatChir bm‘ Sexes No 31 Sobvhites floor Spac Mductior and livab three d1! Sifinific“ and egg p.- ABSTRACT GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION OF BOBWHITE QUAIL RAISED IN CONFINEMENT by Taha Hassan Hussein Mahmoud Several experiments were undertaken with the objective of accumulating information concerning the effect of certain management practices on the growth and reproduction of Bobwhite quail. _For comparative purposes, Coturnix quail were used in certain experiments. Observations were also made on certain physical preperties of Bobwhite and Coturnix eggs. A significant correlation was found between body weight and egg weight and between egg weight and the weight of Bobwhite chicks at hatching time. There was a sig- nificant correlation between the weight of Bobwhite chicks at hatching time and their weight at 16 weeks of age for both sexes. No significant reduction in growth occurred when Bobwhites were raised at 0.2u, 0.12 and 0.06 sq. ft. of floor space per bird. Significant differences in egg production, fertility, hatchability, age at sexual maturity and livability of Bobwhite quail, when housed at these three different floor space allowances, were found. Significant differences were found in growth, livability and egg production of which received different allowances of drinking water. Fert varied c0 of an 1nd 180 name bath was less matrix ratio was However, 1 Scbvhite ; Where Siderable '35 noted, Bobwh Giant eggs Véighing a ”91? foll of inCreas Taha Hassan Hussein Mahmoud Fertility and hatchability of Bobwhite quail eggs varied considerably. The lowest hatchability for the eggs of an individual quail was b8.0 percent and the highest was 100 percent. Best results in fertility of Bobwhite eggs (both mass and pen matings tested) and Coturnix eggs (only mass matings tested) were obtained when the male to female ratio was 1:1 in pen matings and 6:6 in mass matings. However, higher fertility was obtained from eggs produced by Bobwhite pen-matings (1:1) than from mass-matings (6s6). Where Bobwhite were paired in individual cages, con- siderable variation in age of females at sexual maturity was noted. Bobwhite eggs averaged about 10 grams in weight. Giant eggs, weighing almost 17 grams, as well as dwarf eggs, weighing as little as three grams, were observed. Immedi- ately following sexual maturity, Bobwhite quail laid eggs of increasing size until somewhere between the fifth and seventh week of production. The size of eggs produced by a mature Bobwhite in relation to their position in the cycle did not follow as definite a pattern as had been reported in the chicken. No significant differences could be demonstrated between egg weight loss of Bobwhite quail eggs and Coturnix eggs stored at the same temperatures. 0n 1 32 parcel percent : Bobwhite icantly mbrane those of Q. 11 ‘ a Taha Hassan Hussein Mahmoud 0n the average, albumen contributed #7 percent and yolk 32 percent to the total weight of Coturnix eggs and #1 percent and #0 percent, reapectively, to the total weight of Bobwhite eggs. The shells of Coturnix eggs were signif- icantly thicker than those of Bobwhite eggs; whereas, shell membranes of Bobwhite eggs were significantly thicker than those of Coturnix eggs. GR VT”: in par GROHTH AND REPRODUCTION OF BOBWHITE QUAIL RAISED IN CONFINEMENT BY Taha Hassan Hussein Mahmoud A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Poultry Science 1966 The a' Coleman, P and intere helpful su The a provided b 3- K. Ring 5. A. Arat Professor Thanh DePartmem f" Provic this stud; The 1 her Sacrij ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS “The author wishes sincerely to thank Dr. Theo H. Coleman, Professor of Poultry Science, for his guidance and_interest in this study and his direction and many helpful suggestions in the preparation of the manuscript. The author also appreciates the guidance and the help provided by Professors H. C. Zindel, P. J. Schaible and R. K. Ringer of the Poultry Science Department, Professor D. A. Arata of the Foods and Nutrition Department, and Professor H. W. Snyder of the Dairy Department. Thanks also to Michigan State University, the Department of Poultry Science and the peOple of Michigan for providing laboratory and farm facilities used in this study.“ The author is indebted to his wife, Bothaina, for her sacrifice, patience and encouragement during this strenuous period of study and research. ICKXOYLEDG TABLE OF C LIST 0? TA LIST OF II LIST 01" AP :xracm'cm REVIEW OF SSXERAL E) InCut Growi Breed Stat} mamas-1 EXPERIMExi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . TABLE or CONTENTS. . LIST or TABLES . . . LIST or FIGURES. . . LIST or APPENDICES . INTRODUCTION . . . . REVIEW or LITERATURE GENERAL,EXPERIMENTAL Incubation. . . Growing quail . Breeder quail . Statistical procedures TABLE OF 6 CONTENTS PROCEDURES. EXPERIMENT I - The interrelationship weights, between dam chick weights for Bobwhite quail. EXPERIMENT II egg weights and one-day-old The relationship between body weight ii iv viii ix 22 23 2h 25 26 at hatching time and subsequent growth of Bobwhite quail EXPERIMENT III and livability of Bobwhite quail. EXPERIMENT IV production, of breeder Bobwhite quail . . EXPERIMENT V on growing quail. EXPERIMENT VI on breeder Bobwhite quail . . ii The influence of floor Space on egg fertility and hatchability Effect of restricted water consumption Effect of restricted water consumption bl The influence of floor Space on growth 5h 70 90 112 .8 :9.“ i 5 i .z I .. EXPERIMEX' EXPERIMZN' litany TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont'd.) Page EXPERIMENT VII - Certain factors influencing fer- tility and hatchability of Bobwhite quail. e e e e e e e e e ere e e e o 120 1. Variations between individual quail e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 125 2. The effect of male to female ratio on fertility and hatcha- bility of Bobwhite quail. . . . . 127 30 Age at Sexual maturity. e e e e e 132 EXPERIMENT VIII - A study of certain characteristics of BObWhite quail eggs. e e e e e e e e 137 A. Egg Size 0 e e e e e e e e e e e e 139 l. The influence of progressing egg production on size of eggs pro- duced by Bobwhite quail in the period immediately following sexual maturity e e e e e e e e o 139 2. The size of the egg in relation to its position in the cycle. . . 139 3. The loss in weight of Bobwhite and Coturnix eggs stored at different temperatures. . . . . . lho B. Preportion of component parts of Bobwhite and Coturnix eggs. . . . . lhl 1. The albumin and yolk. . . . . . . lhl 2. The shell and shell membrane. . . lhl GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . 16h LITERATURE CITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 APPENDICES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 177 iii Table 10 11 12 Thble 10 11 12 LIST OF TABLES Page Simple correlation between egg weight, body weight of laying Bobwhite quail and the weight of 9h1°k5_at hatChing time. o e e e e e e e e 33 Simple correlation between egg weight, body weight of Bobwhite quail in their first year of lay and the weight of chicks at hatching timeeeeoeeeeoeeogcocogggo 3" Simple correlation between egg weight, body weight of Bobwhite quail in their second year of lay and the weight of chicks at hatching time. O O O O O O O O O I C O O O O O O O O O 35 Simple correlation between egg weight, body weight of Bobwhite quail in their third year of lay and the weight of chicks at hatching time. . 0 age 0 e e e e e e e e e e e o e e e 36 The correlation between the weight of a one- day-old chick and its weights up to eight weeks of age (mixed sexes of Bobwhite quail). #5 The correlation between the weight of a on- day-old chick and its weights from ten to 18 weeks of age (mixed sexes of Bobwhite quail). U6 The correlation between the weight of a one- day-old chick and its weight up to eight weeks of age for female Bobwhite quail. . . . #7 The correlation between the weight of a one- day-old chick and its weight from ten to 18 weeks of age for female Bobwhite quail. . . . #8 The correlation between the weight of a one- day-old chick and its weights up to eight weeks of age for male Bobwhite quail. . . . . #9 The correlation between the weight of a one- day-old chick and its weights from ten to 18 weeks of age for male Bobwhite quail. . . . . 50 Effect of different floor Space allowances on body weight gain of Bobwhite quail. . . . . . 59 The correlation between the initial and 16- week-old body weights for Bobwhite quail raised on floor space of 0.2b square feet per bird. 0 O O O C O O C C O O O O O O O O O 61 iv r" v_n: ”14‘ "I‘M-:4 l m Table .ll- 16 17 18b 18:: 19 20 31 22 ”(11 or? [T1 A ”(‘1 HmI-I Table 13 lb 15 l6 17 18a 18b 18c 19 20 21 22 LIST or TABLES‘ (Cont'd.) The correlation between the initial and 16- week-old body weights for Bobwhite quail raised on floor space of 0.12 square feet Per bird. 0 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e The correlation between the initial and 16- week-old body weights for Bobwhite quail raised on floor Space of 0.06 square feet per bird. 0 C O C O O O O O O O O O C C C C 0 Effect of different floor space allowances on average feed conversion of Bobwhite quail . . Effect of different floor Space allowances on the mortality of growing Bobwhite Quail . (2 to 16""ko 01d) 0 e e e e e e e e e e e e 0 Effect of different floor space allowances on age of sexual maturity of Bobwhite quail. . . Effect of different floor space allowances on egg production and external quality of eggs prOduced by BObWhite quail. e e e e e e e e 0 Effect of different floor Space allowances on egg production and external quality of eggs prOduced by BObWhite quail. o e e e e e e e 0 Effect of different floor Space allowances on egg production and external quality of eggs produced by Bobwhite quail. . . . . . . . . . Effect of different floor space allowances on average weight of eggs produced by Bobwhite quail O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O 0 Effect of different floor Space allowances for breeder Bobwhite quail on fertility and hatchability of eggs they produced. . . . . . Effect of different floor space allowances on the mortality of breeder Bobwhite quail during the experimental period. . . . . . . . Average water consumption of control birds (111ml). 0 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e co Page 62 63 65 57 7b 77 78 79 82 8h 87 95 Table 9‘1 '4 24 Z‘a 26 27 25 29 30 31 32 33 LIST or TABLES (Cont'd.) Table Page 23 Average water and feed consumption of control and water-restricted growing Bobwhites. . . . 96 2b Effect of water restriction on body weight of the Bobwhites in the pro-experiment . . . . . 98 25a Effect of water restriction on body weight of Coturnix quail with respect to sex. . . . . . 99 25b Effect of water restriction on body weight of Coturnix quail with respect to sex. . . . . . 100 26 Means of initial weights and the weights of 11- and l3-week-old water restricted Bobwhite quail e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 102 27 Effect of water restriction on the age of sexual maturity of the Coturnix in the pre- experiment. 0 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 106 28 Effect of water restriCtion on livability of Bobwhite and Coturnix chicks. . . . . . . . . 107 29 Average water and feed consumption of water-. restricted adult Bobwhite quail . . . . . . . 109 30 Mean of initial and final weight of adult Bobwhite quail given different amounts of drinking water (Length of tria1=twelve week3)0 e e e e e eve e e e e e e e e e e e e 116 31 The influence of water restriction on egg production and livability of Bobwhite quail . 117 32 Selected records showing individual variation in fertility and/or hatchability in Bobwhite quail e e o e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 126 33 Effect of malezfemale ratios on fertility and hatchability of Bobwhite and Coturnix quail eggs. 0 e e e e e e e e e e e e e o e e e e e 128 3b Age at sexual maturity of female and male BObWhite quail. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 133 vi I. “we: war ~.. A: Table }6 37 38 39 #0 1”+1 t2 b3 ’44 :1qu _—_ :1 -r9 0 Table 35 36 37 38 39 #0 #1 #2 43 an LIST OF TABLES (Cont'd.) The correlation between weight of initial eggs laid and the subsequent weight of eggs. laid byy Bobwhite quail in the period im- mediately following sexual maturity. . . . . The influence of progressing egg production on the size of eggs produced by Bobwhites in the period immediately following sexual maturity O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O 0 O O 0 Mean weights of and the interrelationship between, eggs of three-egg cycle of the BObWhite quail e e e e e e e e e e e e o e 0 Mean weights of, and the interrelationship between, eggs of a four-egg cycle of the . BObWhite quail o o e e e e e e e e e e e e 0 Mean weights of, and the interrelationship between, eggs of a five-egg cycle of the BObWhite quail I O O O O I O O O O O O O O 0 Mean weights of, and the interrelationship between, eggs of a six-egg cycle of the BObWhitB quail e e e e ego e e e e e e e e e The effect of storage temperature on quail egg weight lose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The interrelationship between egg weight, albumen weight and yolk weight of eggs produced by Bobwhite and Coturnix quail. . . The interrelationship between egg volume and yolk volume of eggs produced by Bovwhite and COturnix quail e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e The interrelationship between shell thickness and Specific gravity of Bobwhite and Coturnix egg. 0 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 0 vii Page lab 1&8 1&9 150 151 15h 156 157 159 I! ”I ' l' I dulmvb-an .- u .- u ., wL—__—. Ilguze Figure LIST OF FIGURES Page The interrelationship between egg weight and percentage chick weight was of egg weight for BObWhite quail. e e e e e e e o 38 The average body weight of Bobwhite quail from hatching to 18 weeks of age . e . . . 51 Influence of floor Space on growth of BObWhite quail o e e o e e e o o o e e e e 60 Average water consumption of control birds (water and fOOd 22 11b.) 0 o e e e e o e e 103 The effect of water restriction on the body weight of growing Bobwhite quail . . . . . 10h The influence of water restriction on the livability of growing Bobwhite quail . . . 110 The influence of different malezfemale ratios on fertility in single-male flock matings and multiple male-flock matings of Bobwhite quail. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e o e e e 129 Comparison between fertility of eggs pro- duced by multiple-male quail flock matings of Bobwhites and Coturnix quail. . . . . . 130 The average size of Bobwhite eggs in relation to their position in the cycle . . . . . . 1“? viii IIJT.. 5.11 .7 A Iii-.57.! LIST OF APPENDICES Table Page 1 Composition of quail ration used in all experimentS. e e o e o e e e e o e e e e o 177 ix Bobwl defining a nether ix function, definitiol and resp01 (1952), he mformati. function I 151 prer Such quail Her UilOt am In n farmers h, aesthetic American. In c I” Rule data On I md bell“ sDeCits, able inf, lan339mp ' INTRODUCTION Bobwhite quail management is essentially a process of defining and solving problems concerning raising Bobwhites whether in wild life or in captivity. The observation function, as one of the six managerial functions (problem definition, observation, analysis, decision making, action and responsibility bearing) as defined by Johnson and Rover (1952), has to do with the gathering and accumulation of information concerning Bobwhite quail in this case° This function is necessary and important because good information is a prerequisite for good decisions. Such information might be useful, whether Bobwhite quail were raised as profitable birds or were used as a pilot animal. In nature, Bobwhites are considered as an ally for farmers who rank them first among the game birds. For aesthetic reasons, Bobwhites have a stronghold on the American's affections (Stoddard, 1931). In captivity, their possible use as a pilot animal for poultry research has stimulated the accumulation of data on nutrition and management, incubation and brooding and behavior and physical characteristics of this avian Species. There is a need for exact detailed, and depend- able information concerning the influence of certain management practices on growth and reproduction of Bobwhites raised in captivity. F . . ._____Aa;akas_l;_i .;1 ){any ati :fie Bobwhite ;::pagation ieclded that 1549).- ihen r2 ".2 Counts, and many ot‘; ‘35 deprive< ihczce of {I ”ace will 1 land, men lit-end enti Ilantities the field 0' believe thal “minty f the hatches In: tality’ A bet 312k pelt Coht Many attempts have been made to restore and increase the Bobwhite pepulation through the practice of artificial proPagation and release. Almost twenty years ago, it was decided that this was an inefficient practice (Greenberg, 19h9). when raising Bobwhite quail in captivity was practiced (Le Compte, 1931; Petty, 193“; Bass, 1937; Greenberg, 19h9; and many others), quail breeders realized that the quail was deprived of many things that mother nature had provided during the wild stage. If, for instance, there is a good choice of food materials available, the bird in the wild stage will balance its diet successfully. 0n the other hand, when Bobwhites are raised in captivity, they must depend entirely upon man to furnish them with sufficient quantities of necessary nutrients. Lack of information in the field of quail management led some Bobwhite breeders to believe that Bobwhite quail are hard to raise in captivity, mortality frequently amounting to from #0 to 60 percent of the hatched young (Nestler 3£_gl., 19h2). With this high mortality, Bobwhite quail rearing is thought to be both inefficient and costly. A better understanding of Bobwhite quail management might contribute to an increase in efficiency and, therem fore, maximize the profit when raising Bobwhite quail in captivity is practiced. In order to assure better feed efficiency, whether with respect to growth rate or egg production, a better sierstandine and reproduci 1: attempt we affect zrowtl 361)” weight, all other {a‘ b addition, itliity, and ZiaarativE the” ”Peril All the itsfiite QUa ‘L. . “3515. It “”15 Vill c 30:19m or ,- understanding of the factors which influence growth rate and reproduction of Bobwhite quail is needed. Therefore, an attempt was made to compile information on factors which affect growth rate on one hand, such as egg weight and adult body weight, egg weight and the weight of one-day-old chick, and other factors such as water restriction and overcrowding. In addition, age at sexual maturity, fertility and hatch- ability, and egg characteristics were studied. For comparative studies, Coturnix quail were used in some of these experiments. All the information concerning the proper raising of Bobwhite quail in captivity could not be accumulated in one thesis. It is heped that the information this thesis con- tains will contribute to a better understanding of the problem of raising the Bobwhite quail in captivity. Iti that affe raised in I: Certa Lack 1 growth of| concernin fipeciall that high VhiCh Her REVIEW OF LITERATURE It is evident that there are many managerial practices that affect the growth and reproduction of Bobwhite quail raised in captivity. 1. Certain Factors Which Affect The Growth of Bobwhites Lack of information about the factors that influence the growth of Bobwhite quail led to a review of the literature concerning some of the experiments conducted on other birds, especially the chicken and the turkey. Some of the factors that might influence the growth of the Bobwhite and those which were of Special interest for this study are: A. The influence of egg weight on the weight of the chick at hatching time. No documented reports could be located concerning the interrelationship between the dam weight and the egg weight on one hand, or the interrelationship between egg weight and the chick weight at hatching time on the other hand with respect to Bobwhite quail. In some studies on chickens, results showed that there is a high correlation (0.h) between hen weight and the weight of the eggs she produces (Asmundson, 1921; Atwood, 1923; Jull, 192h; and many others). After both body weight and egg weight reach their maximum, it seems that this cor- relation between these two variables persists (Atwood and Clark, 1930). m4 E I'LL i 0n the I 5.11 and Q11j tat in the i5 percent < :art of the :lidity duo Scbthites a‘ :o be 6.33 g eggs incuba‘ 5* nercent e Although “0 Tie correla‘ SENflites a. 3‘55 ' 0.9; the chicken “=3 others 3. Ch \‘ 'I’hile fate of etc 11. I: ‘ .Eks, chic .ain large and NUSsehlr A. rel Eight 01‘ ol 0n the other hand, several investigators, including Jull and Quinn (1925) and Hays and Sanborn (1929) have shown that in the chicken at hatching time chicks weigh from 61 to 68 percent of the weight of the eggs from which they hatched, part of the range of variation being due to the relative humidity during incubation. The average body weight of Bobwhites at hatching time was reported by Romanoff (1960) to be 6.U3 grams. Assuming that the average weight of the eggs incubated was ten grams, the chicks would weight about 6% percent of the weight of the eggs from which they hatched. Although no documented reports could be located concerning the correlation between egg weight and chick weight of Bobwhites at hatching time, a high positive correlation (0.68 - 0.95) between these two variables was reported in the chicken (Upp, 1928; Graham, 1932; Galpin, 1938; and many others). B. Chick size and growth rate While certain studies on the chicken indicated that rate of growth was independent of chick Size at hatching time, other workers observed that during the first few weeks, chicks small at hatching time grew somewhat slower than large chicks hatched from the same dam (Halbersleben and Mussehl, 1922; Hays and Sanborn, 1929; and Wiley, 1950). These workers also found a relationship between weight of the chick when hatched and weight at four weeks, but at 21 weeks no such relationship was evident. me in‘ use and it! 7533' little iTallabl e a are heavier L331; Nestle 1351; and B; with rESpec‘ Stoddard, Similar riiin in 11w a”? EIOwt} I I: “he:- '0: the gain in 4. f .r .H ee-ent er Org. . 3.410“ if A fie reQu~ The interrelationship between chick weight at hatching time and its growth for Bobwhite quail seems to be unknown. Very little information concerning body weights of quail is available. Female Bobwhite quail grow faster than males and they are heavier when they reach full body maturity (Stoddard, 1931; Nestler 33.31., 19U2; Nestler, l9h3, 19b9; Baldini, 1951; and Baldini 22.2l" 1953). There are race differences with respect to fully mature body weight of Bobwhites (Stoddard, 1931; Aldrich, 19h6; and Ripely, 1960). Similar to the fowl, Bobwhite quail make a greater gain in live weight per unit of feed consumed during the early growth stages than during the later growth stages. In other words, as a Bobwhite quail increases in weight, the gain in weight which it makes per pound of feed con- sumed decreases (Baldini, 1951; and Heuser, 1955). C. Influence of floor Space Overcrowding and too close confinement are the most frequent errors in poultry management conducive to the development of vicious habits such as cannibalism, besides their ill effect on growth of the birds. Very little in- formation has been published concerning the amount of floor space required by Bobwhite quail for optimum growth and production. . .‘ i—n-.., y~._ McNamar square foot reeks of age between 16 : Bobwhi‘ long as ten floor Space [Sreenberg, if" 33 bir: mine: 30.2 E59 (Baldinl meore mld ”act Slickens 0r It has Sutd0m- ca't bird (3.1150 relatiVeal}. zatUritV wi McNamara (1933) stated that he allowed 0.52 to 0.58 square foot per bird and obtained favorable results to four weeks of age. He reported mortality to four weeks as being between 16 and 20 percent. Bobwhite quail may be kept in battery brooders for as long as ten weeks with an average of 30 square inches of floor space per bird, without danger of cannibalism (Greenberg, 19U9). Bobwhite quail did very well when there were 33 birds in 999 square inch compartments, each bird having 30.2 square inches of floor space at ten weeks of age (Baldini gt’gl., 1950). Theoretically, it might be expected that Bobwhite quail would react in somewhat the same manner as Coturnix quail, chickens or turkeys in studies of this type. It has been recommended that Coturnix quail raised in outdoor cages be allowed 2.0 to 2.6 square feet of Space per bird (Wilson 2£|gl., 1961). They also reported that in a relatively crowded pen (20.5 square inches per quail) sexual maturity was delayed about one week when birds in this crowded pen were compared with birds in pens under Optimum management conditions. Optimum management conditions were not defined in this paper. Ernst (1963) reported that body weight means were not significantly different when Coturnix quail were raised in concentrations of four, eight, twelve, sixteen and twenty birds per square foot. Egg production ed fertili :5! square crowding re :1 the more dirty. l'nus, Space allot Bose work I". talented face allot :rooding, 1 iinter and 5t ‘Jld have M --.ck under t . me'hdlf Sq fillets are some” r: mate to I11. and fertility were higher at a concentration of four birds per square foot than in the more dense groups. Intense crowding resulted in more checked and dirty eggs. Quail in the more crowded groups were also poorly feathered and dirty. Thus, little experimentation has been done with floor space allotments for either Coturnix quail or Bobwhites. Some work has been done with chickens and turkeys. No documented reports could be located concerning the optimum space allotment for chicken pullets. For best results in brooding, it was suggested by Rice and Botsford (1956), Winter and Funk (1960) and many others that the chicks should have from 7 to 12 square inches of floor space per chick under the hover and one-half to three-fourths square foot of floor Space and that this should be increased by one-half square foot per chicken each four weeks until the pullets are ready for the laying house. There, they should have one to three square feet of floor space per bird. Broilers require three—fourths to 1.0 square foot of floor space to market age. The fact that the growth rate of chicken broilers is depressed by increasing the pOpulation density beyond certain limits has been repeatedly demonstrated (Hartung, 1955; Brooks Et‘al., 19573 Siegel and Coles, 1958; and Moreng 33 31., 1961). Many researchers have demonstrated that egg p“ :reasing th: 1931; Hoffm; J39; GOde‘I Crowdil unaturall The in been report “35 renorte 5939 intest :2" 193$ .530) that in 31058 C0 Irtvided th D'Th The eel barn. m a i: evident with“; foe 53.3313; is r scurces ott 3.5m . “tamlna t ‘ .l‘h ".‘J 01,15 3U . ‘ I" I',‘es sari 1 311: 5T3). f that egg production of chickens can be depressed by in— creasing the pOpulation density in the house or pen (Kimber, l9b1; Hoffmann and Tomhave, l9h5; Siegel, 1959; Nordskog, 1959; Godfrey and Butler, 1959; and Fox and Clayton, 1960). Crowding turkey breeder hens resulted in lower fertility in naturally mated turkeys (Wolford, 1959). The incidence of cannibalism among Bobwhite quail has been reported by many investigators. Although cannibalism was reported as a serious problem in Bobwhite management by some investigators (Stoddard, 1931; Nestler, 19h0; Nestler 33_gl., 19h5), it was reported by others (Baldini gt’gl., 1950) that Bobwhite quail can be reared in battery brooders in close confinement without evidence of cannibalism, provided the diet is adequate. D. The effect of restricted water consumption The essentiality of water for all living cells is well known. This, besides many other functions of water, makes it evident why the animal body is able to exist much longer without food than it can without water. Since the water supply is no better than the poorest water available, all sources other than those known to be clean and safe from contamination should be removed. Birds should have a cone tinuous supply of water for they drink only a small amount at one time. ESpecially with dry-mash feeding it is necessary to have water available (Kellerup et a1., 1965; and others). On the other hand, behavioral adaptations to water ‘yvpv: aw' ‘ p restriction adaptations :articularl; :an remain nth no drix :ércent rel; sizilar cas: 'kbmites a 5:2: their .. ., but ; flanking, mt, Man}- ntering tr filled, and 21:15 uNiece many, q learned thal 3:59;- I ltes Q J,’, “mg th 10 restriction have been reported. The physiological adaptations have been intensively studied in desert rodents, particularly the kangaroo rat (genus Dipodomys). This animal can remain in water balance on a diet of dry pearled barley with no drinking water at all atmospheric humidities above 10 percent relative humidity at 250 C. (Mitchell, 1962). A similar case was reported by Davison (1949). He stated that ”Bobwhites do not need water to drink. They get moisture from their foods. Neither dew nor surface water is essential . . ., but all through the summer heat they can live without drinking. Water is not one of the problems of quail manage- ment. Many peOple have wasted kindly efforts building watering troughs for Bobwhites, hauling water to keep them filled, and have even drilled wells to furnish the birds this unnecessary element for their welfare . . . . Actually, quail require no water at all, not even dew. I learned that under the dryest conditions under which Bobwhites ever lived . . . our ranch in western Oklahoma during the history-making summer drouths of 1933, 193“ and 1935, went weeks with no dr0p of water, dew or rain. Temperatures went above 100 degrees day after day, reaching 110, 111 and 112 in several mid—afternoons. In 193“, the longest period of no dew or rain whatsoever was 62 days in June, July and August. Little quail far from water sur- vived in excellent health.” -- at E 1 .3 Rep“): :znuous "at es-ential 1' Kare a1 izets conta cf water {0‘ :ticks cor!!!3 :efore them utenfeed Restricting: :er day res :ae-week ol _1 (1965) reek-01d ch firmed of .EYEIODQd s 11 Reports by several investigators showed that a con- tinuous water supply for the chicken and the turkey is essential if best results are to be obtained. Kare and Biely (19h8) placed New Hampshire chicks on diets containing 0.9 to b.0 percent salt and deprived them of water four to six hours per day. The water restricted chicks compensated by drinking more water when water was before them which resulted in approximately the same waterzfeed ratios as the controls with water ad libitum. Restricting the water intake to three one-half hour periods per day resulted in depressed growth and feed consumption of one-week old New Hampshire chicks (Ross, 1960). Bierer E: El' (1965) indicated that the average survival time of one- week-old chicks was in the neighborhood of one week, whether deprived of feed, water, or both feed and water. Chicks deve10ped symptoms and lesions like those seen in avian nephrosis, when receiving feed without water. Two of one group of 10 chicks developed lesions of a visceral gout. Romanoff and Romanoff (l9h9) reported that a 10 percent loss of body weight through dehydration and excretion resulted in serious physical disorders. Adult laying hens receiving feed without water died in the first week. The birds developed symptoms of Blue Comb disease in two or three days with a sudden dr0p in egg pro- duction on the third and fourth days (Bierer 23 313, 1965). mounts of « 0n the {15315) Show arkey poul 7:9 effect . - 72 hours E'z’b'r'th and 12 Loss in body weight and a drOp in egg production was also reported by many investigators (Wilson and Edwards, 1955; Sunde, 1962; and others) when birds were allowed restricted amounts of drinking water. On the other hand, the turkey is no exception. Hammond (l9hh) showed that lack of water during the first week of a turkey poult's life was more deleterious than lack of feed. The effect of depriving poults of feed and water for 2h, #8 or 72 hours after hatching was progressively detrimental to growth and livability as shown by Chilson and Patrick (1906). Marsden (l96h) observed 18 and 28 percent mortality in 15 and 22-day-old poults after a change in the method of supplying the water. II. Certain Factors Which Influence Reproduction Of Bobwhite Quail Little is known about those factors which may influence the reproduction of Bobwhite quail. Some observations have been made on this aspect. Unfortunately, these observations were based on systems of rules and methods that were ex= pressions of the eXperience of those who were interested in wild life management, in general, and those who had been most successful in rearing Bobwhite quail, in particular. Information in this field is too sparse to help very much to place the reproduction of Bobwhite quail on a scientific basis. "Nu-r Genera] :2a11 is {31 11930) was 2 1393.311 domd tiris to be Assuming th average abo Ssstler et :totein in "9r." 33 ho :r21uction) :f 3.31, egos 391- bird 0‘. | i :Gtal 0f 1 J h b 53‘: “fl per b: 13 Generally speaking, reported egg production of Bobwhite quail is fairly low. According to Hutt (1907), Coleman (1930) was able to increase egg production of Bobwhite quail through domestication. He found the mean production of 107 birds to be 72 eggs, with individual records up to 125. Assuming that this figure was on a 365 day basis, this will average about 19 percent production. On the other hand, Nestler 23 El“ (1900) reported that one quail fed 23 percent protein in her diet produced 122 eggs, averaging an egg every 33 hours for the breeding season of 168 days (72.7% production). Baldini 33 El. (1952) reported that a total of 300 eggs were obtained over a period of 79 days from a total of 12 birds. The production was from 3 to 00 eggs per bird over this period, for those birds mated in pairs. In a multiple mating pen, the average production was 02 eggs per bird. Nestler (1903) reported egg production per hen per day to be 0.308 and 0.361 when the salt levels in their diets were 0.5 percent and 2.0 percent, respectively. Nestler 23,31. (1900) reported that the best egg production was obtained from birds on a diet containing 23 percent of protein, with an average of 58 eggs per hen for the season of 168 days. Baldini 23.31. (1950) reported that three hens laid 511 eggs (from November 20, 1950 to July 5, 1951) for an average of 170 eggs. From July 12 to November 2, 1951, F 1.4-; :59 hen 131' ized on the average pro| :m a tota Ihe in :as been st hliini 2 ' 335?). Fun treduction the size of "-5112: all- Cent Va 5 1d Entified add t ELI: \- 10 one hen laid 67 eggs in intermittent production before she died on the later date. Baldini stated, ”Assuming only average production over the span of 300 days, this hen would have a total production of 200 eggs." The influence of light on egg production of Bobwhites has been studied by some investigators (Funk 23‘31., 1901; Baldini gt‘gl., 1952; Kirkpatrick, 1955, 1960; and Robinson, 1963). Funk 33 31. (19“) stated that an increase of egg production in the Bobwhite was accompanied by an increase in the size of the cycle. The average cycle size for birds under all-night light was larger than for the control (daylight only). An average egg production of more than 60 percent was obtained during a five-month period during which birds received 20-hour light (Funk 23. 31., 1901). The reproductive efficiency of the Bobwhite quail, like that of the domestic fowl, is determined by the number of eggs laid, the percentage of these eggs that are fertile, and the percentage of fertile eggs that hatch into chicks. It is evident that egg quality is also of great im- prtance in determining hatchability. The intact avian egg possesses various external qualities by which it may be identified. Among these attributes are its size and shape, and the color and texture of its shell. There is consider- able variation in these characteristics among the eggs of all birds, both wild and domesticated. External differences :3: only 561‘ :23: also are gaze specie; The ext the reproduc :;:erous hET isoneratic fenesticati. A. Fe ‘4 Genera :ercentaze sultry rai attire of f rfl‘tent I ”lat-10,, I it: 15 not only serve to distinguish the eggs of various species but also are observable in eggs laid by individuals of the same species, or even by the same bird. The external characteristics of the egg varies because the reproductive functions of the bird are influenced by numerous hereditary, physiological and environmental factors. The Operation of these factors, particularly as modified by domestication, is a subject of interest to many workers. A. Fertility and hatchability Generally speaking, the problem of obtaining a high percentage of fertile eggs is of economic importance to poultry raisers and hatchermen. Information concerning the nature of fertilization and the various factors affecting it should, therefore, be of particular interest to the hatchery industry. The wide variation between individual Bobwhite quail with reSpect to fertility and hatchability requires more studies in order to confirm or disprove the obser- vations made by some workers. Funk 23 El’ (1901) observed that there was a marked variation in fertility of Bobwhite eggs. Infertility ranged from about 3.5 percent to 100 percent. No other documented reports concerning the variation between fertility of eggs produced by individual Bobwhite quail were found. ' I A a P _ 14L;--:_._- Since flack undou reduced, 0 iata on thi sterial on 2: the Bob. fertility thickens pr ratio was Esse stud» fertilized {ale t0 ab; find that 315193 ma 3011 the p. :‘3051911: d i-‘ziustry’ 13:10“ of #35 as in season of Prefe 3&3. more \fi' > ..:a 'rs! ha 16 Since the ratio of males to females in the breeding flock undoubtedly influence the percentage of fertile eggs produced, one would eXpect to find considerable experimental data on this point. However, there is not a great deal of material on this subject whether with respect to the chicken or the Bobwhite quail. Byerly and Godfrey (1937) found that fertility decreased in linear fashion as the number of female chickens per male increased from about 95 percent when the ratio was 0el to about 35 percent when the ratio was 166:1. These studies indicated that the maximum total of eggs fertilized by a single male would be obtained by mating that male to about 120 laying females. Hays and Sanborn (1939) found that a range of l to 10 in the number of chicken females mated to each male had no significant influence upon the percentage of fertile eggs produced. Since this is a problem of considerable importance to the hatchery industry, critical experiments designed to measure the re- lation of the sex ratio in breeder flocks to fertility of eggs as influenced by age, rate of production, breed and season of the year should be encouraged. Preferential mating, or the tendency for the male to mate more often with certain females in the flock than with others, has been observed by Hayes and Sanborn (1939) and many others. 75 4 . ’V."" I. “we...“ Very 1 ratio of t': are monogarr. Eteenberg, that quail season and season (Sto- EST-“icially i ) “e Bildinl :Tfi’iuced by {males as !.7‘.'.".k 5.: a1 fertility h in: ”‘3 mal The he Elierably 3034.- . “.1te o 17 Very little information concerning the male to female ratio of the Bobwhite quail is available. Bobwhite quail are monOgamous (Stoddard, 1931; Mitchell, 1936; and Greenberg, 1909). Observations made in the field showed that quail usually pair off and remain mated throughout the season and may also remain mated or mate in the following season (Stoddard, 1931). On the other hand, in captivity-- especially when artificial lighting is used--Bobwhite quail can be made polygamous (Stoddard, 1931; Funk 22.31., 1901; and Baldini 2£_gl., 1952). Fertility was as high in eggs produced by females mated in the ratio of 0 males to 12 females as it was in eggs from individual pair mating (Funk 32.31., 1901). Strange as it may seem, higher fertility was obtained from the mating having two females and one male than in pair matings (Funk 32.31., 1901). The hatchability of Bobwhite quail eggs varies con- Siderably (Funk 2£_al., 1901; Baldini gt’gl., 1952; and others). Funk 23 El“ (1901) reported that hatchability of Bobwhite quail eggs ranged from a low of 01.3 percent to a high of 90.7 percent. B. Age at sexual maturity This is usually measured in females by the age at which the first egg is laid. There are many factors that influence the age at sexual maturity. If female Bobwhite quail reach the age of sexual maturity earlier than the male, this :‘pf‘nld .‘i‘ I"' 1.120ng age at J ‘0')“; In: I?! :n age C: of rep: ltrodr Ln v91: ‘3 “Wan. fr wbmi 3'88 1C? a1: 18 should create a problem in fertility of first eggs laid. Although certain data could be accumulated concerning the age at which Bobwhite quail reach sexual maturity, no documented reports could be located concerning the differences in age of male and female Bobwhite quail at sexual maturity. Caged Bobwhite quail 0 to 6 months of age are capable of reproduction (Kirkpatrick, 1955, 1960; Robison, 1963). Introduction of artificial lighting caused a great increase in weights of reproductive tissue of Bobwhites (Baldini 22 31., 1952). It was concluded also that Bobwhites could be stimulated by continuous light to reproduce during other than the normal season. Under these conditions, Bobwhites may attain sexual maturity as early as 139 days of age (Baldini 33 31., 1952). C. Egg size Various environmental factors due to domestication of chickens have profoundly influenced this bird's nesting and feeding habits, body size and structure and physiological Processes. In turn, the size of the egg has been affected (Romanoff and Romanoff, 1901). Semi—domesticated BObWhites are probably much closer to their wild ancestors than are chickens to theirs. Consequently, at the present time, research information resulting from studies involving these semi-domesticated Bobwhites would be more applicable to their wild ancestors than information from research with :‘zickens wc :ared the \ largely b) Beachton, 'i :raduced bf highest we 3::anoff a flight of 5'13 grams Becau 955 is a v in IEIatio 19169). T.” and the w hither h 5;? lise b Stoddard ( :r‘ltEd Sta] season the: The W he laYin: ‘ridUally is v‘) ; t ” may I 13;: fit 69-» 19 chickens would be to the junglefowl. Stoddard (1931) com- pared the weight of Bobwhite eggs produced in captivity (largely by birds in their first year of production) at Beachton, Georgia, 1926-1928. The average weight of eggs produced by these birds did not exceed 9.29 grams. The highest weight was 10.23 grams. Funk 33‘31. (l9h1) and Romanoff and Romanoff (19h9) reported the average egg weight of the Bobwhite quail in their experiments to be 9.13 grams and 9.20 grams, respectively. Because of its great bulk of nutrients, the bird's egg is a very large reproductive cell, both absolutely and in relation to the size of the parent (Romanoff and Romanoff, 19h9). The relationship between age of the Bobwhite females and the weight of the eggs they produce is not very clear. Neither has the relationship between female body weight and egg zise been well established with reSpect to this species. Stoddard (1931) found that Bobwhites in the Southeastern United States laid smaller eggs in their first breeding season than in their second. The weight of eggs laid by a chicken changes throughout the laying cycle (Bennion and Warren, 1933; and many others). There is a general tendency for the first egg of the cycle to be the heaviest, and for the succeeding eggs to decrease gradually in size; however, the weight of the successive eggs may not decrease with perfect regularity, and often the last egg is somewhat heavier than the egg immediately J ‘ :mceding 1 afcourse. :yde, the each eg: 5' Rom the f Iffen, how innion a Weight sflciency bfiause ti 1.3.1 a 591’ :h: “t. as { :t'Oi‘JCtiv; tonvmin- \ d “Glanoff . Funk aoifiite ‘ 112-£- chit“ :htch Waq I “:39r of H: .g L gutly J :qu 9t \ 20 preceding it. In short cycles, the decline in weight is, of course, more rapid than in long cycles. The longer the cycle, the smaller is the average decrease in the weight of each egg within the cycle, but greater is the total decrease from the first egg to the last (Bennion and Warren, 1933). Often, however, the tendency for the pullet's eggs to grow larger during the initial stages of laying may somewhat offset the trend toward diminishing weight within the cycle (Bennion and Warren, 1933). To explain this phenomenon, egg weight, largely determined by the bird's physiOIOgical efficiency, probably diminishes throughout the cycle because the bird is unable to build up enough material to form a series of full-sized eggs. It is also possible that, as the cycle advances, the strain on the hen's re- productive organs is sufficient to lower her capacity for converting available material into eggs (Curtis, 1914; and Romanoff and Romanoff, 19h9). Funk 23.21. (19b1) indicated that the weight of a Bobwhite egg was influenced by the position of the egg in the clutch. It was found that the first egg laid in a clutch was usually the largest egg laid in the particular clutch. When the average weights of a representative number of eggs in the cycle were compared, the first egg was slightly larger than the eggs laid on succeeding days (Funk 33 31., 19“). It was also indicated that Bobwhites :2 captivit ;:2te1y tho: egg weight :ct have a 22.. 194 me n; 9??5 obvio' Sevever, t} 3.7 the rat Shape inde‘ 5? diridin 21 in captivity laid eggs of increasing size until approx- imately the fifth week of production, after which time the egg weight was fairly uniform. Hot weather apparently did not have a depressing effect on egg weight in quail (Funk 33 .22., 19“). The numerous variations in the contour of individual eggs obviously cannot be expressed in mathematical terms. However, the shape of the egg can be approximately indicated by the ratio between length and breadth. At present, the shape index is commonly employed. This value is obtained by dividing the transverse diameter of the egg by the length and multiplying the result by 100. The shape index for Bobwhite eggs was calculated from Funk 23'21. (19fil) and Romanoff and Romanoff (19U9). It was found to be approximately 77 percent (average reported egg length ranged from 3.0 to 3.1 cm.). 301 which hr Sc1ence. Al; from e: ——————-—" Arkansa in some mainta: ofatl In designe quail ml bent de ”a5 no: Greg-in, Chick 5 Wire Ca hada s GENERAL EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES Bobwhite quail used in all experiments were from stock which has been maintained by the Department of Poultry Science, Michigan State University, for at least four years. All stock descended from 28 birds which were hatched from eggs secured from a commercial quail breeding farm in Arkansas. The Coturnix quail used for comparative purposes in some experiments were likewise from stock which has been maintained by the Poultry Science Department for a period of at least six years. No further information concerning either of the stocks of quail is available. In these experiments, lack of facilities and equipment designed for the purpose of keeping and raising Bobwhite quail made it essential in many instances to utilize equip- ment designed for chickens. Therefore, some inconvenience was noted because of the utilization of such equipment. Growing and/or adult quail were housed in either Petersime chick starting battery compartments, 100 x 75 x 2% cm., or wire cages. The wire cages were of two sizes, both of which had a sloping floor and one of which ranged from 30 to 25 cm. in height and was 30 x 30 cm. in length and width, resPect- ively. The other size of cage ranged from 16 to 20 cm. in height from front to back and was 23 cm. in length and 15 cm. in width. Jar-type gravity-feed waterers designed for baby chicks were utilized for the first three weeks unless otherwise noted. Although a wire net type cover was some- times used in the exposed part of the waterer to prevent 22 A.- ' . h..- ~.v- :aby quail emacially suon. g, ape was u mtof the :eblem. :fiults ob tare data hefirst L:::ba t ion K . t “l. 3. 9. Q 6 '"DW~, t0 detect 1:2 forced 23 baby quail from drowning, a marked loss in birds was noted, especially in the first week, because of the above mentioned reason. Because of the small size of baby quail, scotch tape was used where applicable to prevent them from getting out of the batteries and helped somewhat to overcome this jproblem. The equipment utilized might have affected the results obtained from some of these experiments, eSpecially where data pertaining to mortality were collected during the first week of age. ‘lgcubation: In those experiments involving the incubation of eggs, eggs that were to be incubated were usually candled to detect checks and the sound eggs were set in Jamesway 252 forced-draft-type incubators. Eggs were set in the_ «Standard Jamesway egg trays. Cone-type egg flats were cut idlto strips and were placed in the egg trays to hold the smaller eggs. During the first 21 days of incubation the ichubator was Operated at a temperature of 99.0 to 99.50 F.) dry bulb and 86 to 870 F. wet bulb. 0n the let day of 1rmcubation the eggs were transferred to a hatcher. The hatcher temperature was 98.5 to 99.00 F. dry bulb and 88.0 'tc’ 92.00 F. wet bulb. 0n the zhth day of incubation the quail chicks were removed. Chicks were either weighed and ‘Vilag banded with small wing bands or were placed in P9 tersime batteries to be weighed and banded at two weeks (’f‘ age. Eggs which failed to hatch were candled and seeetimes not been c from the c‘ fertile e' the chicks All the 5: To; holes 3min? Q' and grovi placed in on paper 0f the ch Wire maki 51=3n8d fo “5 remox' ‘5 much Wire Win 15% and V in attem: (Or the ( {23 hm” (arm 9 S , 0f the p elements l “Deena-1x 2U sometimes_broken out to determine fertility. Where eggs had not been candled prior to incubation, dry eggs were excluded from the data. Hatchability was calculated as a percent of fertile eggs. Chicken boxes were utilized in transporting the chicks from the incubation room to the broader house. All the side holes of the boxes were closed by scotch tape. pr holes were Open to assure a supply of fresh air. Growing Quail: In all experiments involving the starting and growing of Bobwhite quail chicks, the chicks were placed in Petersime starting batteries. They were reared on paper for three weeks. This was done to prevent the feet of the chicks from being trapped as the size of mesh of the wire making up the floors of these batteries was not de- signed for baby quail. At the end of three weeks the paper was removed and the quail were held in the batteries up to as much as 18 weeks of age. In many experiments, birds were wing banded and individually weighed at two weeks of age and were randomly divided into experimental groups. An attempt was made to provide equal heat in the battery for the different groups. All groups received continuous (2“ hour) lighting, providing not less than ten-foot candles of light at the level of the feed and to all parts of the pen except inside the curtain where the heating elements were located. A quail breeder ration (Table 1 _ Appendix) was fed throughout all experiments unless . v claw mu... .3. - ctherwis by the M for at 1 growth a Ends we hily. they ea: otherwise noted. This ration had been utilized for quail by the Michigan State University Poultry Science Department for at least two years and had proven to be adequate for growth and reproduction in both Bobwhite and Coturnix quail. Birds were weighed each 1“ days. Mortality was recorded daily. Not until the quail were 15 to 16 weeks of age were they easily sexed. Throat and head markings were distinct at this age. Therefore, all birds had to be wing banded at the beginning of each experiment. In other words, banding the birds was the only method to trace the weights of the birds of both sexes from the beginning to the end of the experiment. Since sex could not be easily determined before 15 to 16 weeks of age, mortality with respect to sex prior to this age is not reported as no attempt was made to distinguish sex of dead birds anatomically. Breeder Quail: In some experiments breeder Bobwhite quail were placed in Petersime starting batteries. Similar con- ditions, except that of heat, were provided for the breeder quail as had been provided for growing quail. Three groups of birds housed in individual cages were also used in these experiments. The incidence of cracks or checks was much higher in eggs produced by breeder birds housed in the Petersime brooders than in eggs produced by birds in cages. This was at least partially due to the fact that the brooders had flat-deck wire floors, whereas the wire cages had sloping roll-away bottoms which allowed the eggs to 26 roll outside the cage as soon as laid. Eggs were gathered daily. For some experimental purposes, eggs were weighed to the nearest 0.001 gram each day. Some of the eggs were incubated in Jamesway incubators as mentioned before. Statistical Procedures: Certain data from the experiments were subjected to statistical analysis. Help was gained from the utilization of the Computer Center at Michigan State University. The most common analysis used was the analysis of covariance and analysis of variance. Certain data were converted into new data as shown by Snedecor (1950). The ”t" test and chi-square were also used in certain data. The least squares routine1 was used to estimate re- lationships between a dependent variable and a set of independent variables. Simple (Pearson product moment) correlation was calculated as: N (xitEYl) (theij) ll aw Tl l-l rij 2| (xit'xi)2 (th-xj)2 where N is the number of observations in the problem. 1Stat. Series Description No. 7. Michigan state University Computer Center. Liam-11;; If H :zna' row an if eac tetals :hi-sc and p: 0f coa in D‘ \L') \n nu 27 The analysis of contingency1 tables performs any com- bination of the following operations on designated tables; row and/or column means and standard deviations; percentages of each cell on the associated row, column and/or table totals; theoretical frequencies; cell contributions to table chi-square and degrees of freedom; contingency coefficient and product-moment correlation coefficient.2 The analysis of covariance program was designed to compute analysis of covariance information for one analysis of variance variable with multiple covariates and unequal treatment group sizes. The analysis of variance program3 was used to calculate a one-way analysis of variance table in which unequal frequencies (number of replications) may occur in each category. The "t" test was calculated from the information given in previous programs. Individual as well as group differences for such characteristics as weight of the birds, weights of the eggs, etc., were analyzed statistically for significance at the 95 and 99 Percent levels of probability. 1Technical report No. 18. Michigan State University Computer Center. 2Technical report No. 37. Michigan State University Computer Center. 3Stat. Series Description No. 13. Michigan State University Computer Center. with 30! E DEYCE analw fl ._ 1.44115-..» 28 Egg production data were available 7 days per week with reSpect to both birds raised in pens and in individual cages. Three replicates was the least number for exper- iments concerning egg production. The rate of production for a treatment was usually calculated as "egg per hen per day" basis. However, the actual number of eggs--not the percentage of egg production--was often used for statistical analysis. EXPERIMENT I THE INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DAM WEIGHTS, EGG WEIGHTS AND ONE-DAY—OLD CHICK WEIGHTS FOR BOBWHITE QUAIL It is well known that eggs laid by birds of the same species may differ considerably in weight and that even the eggs laid by an individual bird are not all of the same weight. There are many factors which influence the size of the egg. That dam weight is one of the factors has been reported in many species. No documented reports could be located concerning the relationship between Bobwhite body weight and the weight of the eggs they pro- duce. From an experimental standpoint, such information should be of value if Bobwhites are to be used as pilot animals. From a practical standpoint, egg weight would also be of importance to the quail breeder provided that there is a relationship between egg weight and the size of quail chick hatched from the egg. Objectives: 1. To determine the relationship, if any, between the weight of the female Bobwhite quail and the weight of the eggs they produce. 2. To determine the relationship, if any, between the weight of the eggs produced by Bobwhite quail and the weights of one-day-old chicks hatched from those eggs. 29 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Ninety-two (92) female Bobwhite quail were used in this experiment. They were housed in individual wire cages. Birds were classified into three different groups on the basis of age. The first group of birds (55 females) was in the first year of production. The second group (18 females) was in the second year of production and the third group (19 females) was in the third year of production. The number of observations (978) and not the number of birds was used in calculating the simple correlation co- efficients between body weight and egg weight (r was calculated as shown in the general experimental procedure). Birds were weighed to the nearest gram once each four weeks. Eggs were gathered and weighed each day for a period of approximately eight months. They were weighed to the nearest 0.001 gram. They were incubated in Jamesway 252 incubators with settings made at weekly intervals. Each egg was individually segregated before hatching. Chicks were weighed to the nearest 0.1 gram and wing banded with small wing bands, at one day of age. Individual records were made to include the dam weight, egg weight and chick weight. In the case where some chicks failed to hatch, only information concerning egg weight and the dam weight was included. Simple correlation coefficients between egg weight and body weight of the quail chick at hatching time were computed. 30 q A *‘d be. 6.. 44 L A an 9.. Sb “will... ,Ilwifl ‘ IL 31 In addition to the individually pedigreed eggs, more than 500 eggs produced by mass mated quail, were weighed to the nearest 0.001 gram. These eggs were identified individually and were also individually segregated before hatching. Chicks hatched from these eggs were wing banded and weighed to the nearest 0.1 gram at one day of age. These data, besides the previous data, were included in the determination of the correlation between egg weight and chick weight. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1. The.Corre1ation Between The Body Weight of Female Bobwhite Quail and Egg Weight: Tables 1, 2, 3 and U Show the simple correlation between the body weight of female Bobwhite quail and their egg weight. The overall correlation for the 978 obser- vations in this experiment was 0.36. The correlation (0.81) between body weight of female Bobwhite quail in their first year of production and the egg weight was very high (significant at the 0.01 level). A significant cor- relation between these two factors also existed with birds that were in their second year (0.51) and third year (0.18) of production ( a: 0.01). The correlation between body weight and egg weight of the chicken was reported to be in the neighborhood of O.h (Atwood and Clark, 1930; and others). After both egg weight and body weight became maximum, the correlation between the chicken body weight and egg weight seemed to become almost constant (Atwood and Clark, 1930). In the Bobwhite quail that were in their first year of production in this experiment, there was much variation in both body weight and egg weight; however, the correlation between the two was very high. Despite the fact that body weight of both the birds in their second year and those in their third year of production was quite variable, eggs produced by the 32 .nt Id Q ‘Q‘ g-» 33 TABLE l.-Simple correlation between egg weight, body weight ofalayingl Bobwhite quail and the weight of chicks at hatching time, Av. body wt. Av. egg wt. Av. one-day-old chick wt. gram s.d. ,gram s.d. gram s.d. 228.6 12.6 10.; 1.0 6.5 “ 1.} Body wt. Egg wt. One-day-old chick wt. Body wt. 1.00 O.36** O.3l** Egg wt. - 1.00 A 0.84% One-day-old .- chick wt. 1.00 6.h 06 Av. chick:egg ratio - 5 = 0.63 l0.2933 f 1 Birds of different ages (includes all birds in experiment). ** Significant at the 0.0] level. 3U TABLE 2.-Simple correlation between egg weight, body weight of Bobwhite quail in their first year of lay and the weight of chicks at hatching time. Av. body wt. Av. egg wt. Av. one-day-old chick wt. gram . s.d. gram s.d. figram s.d. 237.0 lh.6 10.8 1.0 6.8_g7 1.0 Body wt. Egg wt. One-day-old chick wt. Body wt. 1.00 0.81 0.77** Egg wt. 1.00 0.81** One-day-old chick wt. 1.00 Av. chickzegg ratio -.—Tg;§%é% - 0.63 fro”: Significant at the 0.01 level. 35 TABLE 3.-Simp1e correlation between egg weight, body weight of Bobwhite quail in their second year of lay and the weight of chicks at hatching time. Av. body wt. Av. egg wt. Av. one-day-old Simple chick wt. Correlation gram s.d. Agram s.d. Lgram s.d. 228.1 11.1 10.5 1.0 6.6 1.1 Body wt. Egg wt. One-day-old chick wt. Body wt. 1.00 0.51 0.39** E99 wt. 1.00 0.81** One-day-old chick wt. 1.00 Av. chickzegg ratio =._§;2§§§. - 0.63 ** Significant at the 0.01 level. 36 TABLE h.-Simple correlation between egg weight, quail in their third year of lay and the weight body weight of Bobwhite of chicks at hatching time. Av. body wt. Av. egg wt. Av. one-day-old Simple chick wt. Correlation gram s.d. gram s.d. gram s.d. 228.7 13.9 10.0 0.1 6.2“ 1.2 Body wt. Egg wt. One-day-old chick wt. Body wt. 1.00 0.18** 0.20** Egg wt. 1.00 0.86** One-day-old chick wt. 1.00 ‘ 6.2h52 A . chi k:e r tio - ————_- 0.62 v c 99 a no.0u37 ** Significant at the 0.01 level. Vi t—l 37 oldest birds did not vary considerably in size. This could explain the reason for obtaining different correlations when birds were classified with respect to their ages. 2. The Correlation Between Egg Weight And One-day-old Wick Va 15111: : W There was a high correlation between egg weight and one-day-old chick weight regardless of the age of the dam (0': 0.01). The overall correlation for all observations was 0.8”. For eggs laid by Bobwhite in their first_year of production it was 0.81 and 0.86, respectively. Chick weight as a percentage of egg weight averaged 62.7 and ranged from a high of 66.2 to a low of 51.1 when eggs were grouped by weight ranges. Relatively speaking, the smaller the chick weight as a percentage of egg weight (Fig. 1). This was possibly due to the fact that the smaller chicks may have hatched out first and thus dehydrated more by the time they were weighed. At hatching time, the weight of the Bobwhite chick, like that of the chicken, probably depends more upon the weight of the egg than upon anything else. That this is true in the chicken was reported by Upp (1928), Galpin (1938) and others. Bobwhite chicks, in this experiment, weighed, on the average, 62.7 percent of the weight of the eggs from which they hatched. These results fall within the range of that of the chicken reported by Hays and Sanborn (1929) and many others. Percent chick weight was of egg weight 70 < ‘— f 7.7 8.6 9.6 10.5 11.6 Average egg weight (grams) Pig. 1. The interrelationship between egg weight and percentage chick weight was of egg weight for Bobwhite quai1 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 1. An attempt was made to determine the correlation between the weight of the female Bobwhite quail and the weight of the eggs they produce on one hand and the correlation between the weight of the eggs and the weight of one-day- old chicks hatched from these eggs on the other hand. For a period of approximately eight months, all eggs produced by 92 individually mated Bobwhite female quail were weighed to the nearest 0.001 gram on the same day they were pro- duced. The 92 females were weighed to the nearest gram once each four weeks. 2. Eggs from the 92 females were incubated with settings made at weekly intervals. In addition, more than 500 eggs from mass-mated quail were also weighed to the nearest 0.001 gram and were incubated in the same intervals. Chicks hatched from all eggs were wing banded and weighed to the nearest 0.1 gram at one day of age. 3. 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U—O 0x0”... N— oo._ 0.0 00003 o. .0.01 00.. 0.0:>00n000 0.0 0000; o. 0.0:>m0n000 0.0 0.0.. 0.0 ..00. 0.. N 00. 0.. 0.00. ..0. 0.0.. 0.0 «.0 .0.0 05000 .0.0 05000. .0.0 050.0 .0.0 05000 .0.0 050501 .0.0 050.0 000000.. 0000x.m 0000030. 0>.035 00h . .00003 0.. 000.0 000 .0 00< 00.00 1~05000. 000.0 000 .0 000.03x000 00000>< 0.0:>001000 00.00.00000 0.02.0 ..030 00.03000 0.05 00. 000 .0 00003 0. 00 000 500. 0000.03 00. 000 00.00 0.0u>00u000 0 .0 000.03 000 0003000 00.00.00000 00hu.0. 0000 00H .N .000 onoosv 00000 00 00¢ m. 0. Q. «a GA m o 0 N p n p p p p p b p .\. .\ \ ... I oq .\ .\\ \ .9 . \ . om .\\. 1\. o .\\\ . .\\\ \\\ . 0N. r 00. 0 .ILTIIaIII m IOIOI 00x00 0000 000 00000>< v cow 0- (30918) 3q813n aSeJaAV a! L...v...;,lk"bn . .‘6 v Pill-El .51 0w0 «0 0x003 0. 00 00000000 5000 .0090 00.0300m mo 00w003 x000 0w000>0 00H .N .000 Aaxooav 00000 00 00< m. 0. #a Na 0. m o 0 N P ? p p p . b b b .\. .\\ \\ t r 00 .\ \\ \.. . \ . ow .\\. .\\. o o\ x .\\x .\\. v Oma r oo. 0 .ILTIIIII. m l.|.l 00x00 0000 000 00000>< . ecu CNN (smBJS) nquan aSeJaAv u». T ii..- “Ii in nntlllll 52 The growth of Bobwhites as reported by Baldini (1951) showed that the birds in his experiment gained weight rapidly up to 8 weeks of age and had attained 73 percent of the adult weight by that age. Results to 8 weeks in the present experiment agree to a great extent with those re- ported by Baldini. In the eXperiment herein reported, growth rate tended to decline after 12 to 1b weeks of age, despite the fact that the Bobwhites continued to gain weight up to at least 18 weeks of age. Female Bobwhites gained more weight than did the males (¢r= 0.01). These results confirm the observations made by Stoddard (1931) and many others that mature female Bobwhite quail weigh more than do mature males. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 1. An attempt was made to determine the correlation between the weight of one-day-old Bobwhite chicks and their subsequent weights up to 18 weeks of age. The chicks hatched in Experiment 1 were wing banded and weighed to the nearest 0.1 gram at 1 day of age. Chicks were raised to 18 weeks of age in batteries.~ Birds were weighed at two week intervals to the nearest gram. 2. It appears that the size of the Bobwhite chick at hatching time influences its subsequent growth. There was a high correlation (0.7) between body weight of the Bobwhites at hatching time and at 2 weeks of age (a: 0.01). High correlations were also noted between body weight at 10 weeks of age and its subsequent growth. Similar correla- tions held true with respect to different sexes. 3. Although growth rate tended to decline after 12 to 1% weeks of age, the Bobwhites were still gaining weight up to 18 weeks of age. Female Bobwhites gained more weight than did the males (as 0.01). h.' The influence of body size of the Bobwhite quail chicks at hatching time on their subsequent growth should be of considerable importance from the standpoint of selection for rapid growth rate. 53 EXPERIMENT III THE INFLUENCE OF FLOOR SPACE ON GROWTH AND LIVABILITY OF BOBWHITE QUAIL It is generally accepted that many management factors influence the early growth of Bobwhite quail. Floor space is one management factor which conceivably might exert an influence. It is evident that a more accurate evaluation of the influence of floor space on the growth of quail would be made if all other environmental factors could be kept on a per bird basis. This would include the type and the amount of feeder and waterer Space and the relationship of feeder and waterer space to floor space, type of feed and surrounding temperature and humidity. No documented report concerning the influence of floor space on the growth and livability of Bobwhites could be located. Furthermore, there is very little information in the literature on floor space allowances for chicksn and turkeys. Studies of this type on chickens and turkeys might be handicapped by limits in budget, time and space. This study was undertaken in an attempt to determine the effects of floor Space on the growth and livability of Bobwhite quail. Such information might be useful either for a pilot study for chickens or turkeys in experiments of this type, or for the prOper raising of the Bobwhite in captivity as a profitable bird. 54 55 Objectives: 1. 2. To determine the effect of different allowances of floor space on the growth and livability of Bobwhite quail between 2 weeks and 16 weeks of age. To observe the incidence, if any, of cannibalism among Bobwhite quail due to crowding. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE The Bobwhite quail chicks in this experiment were raised in Petersime starting batteries. The chicks were reared on paper for three weeks. At this time, the paper was removed and the chicks were held in the battery until 16 weeks of age. Birds were wing-banded and individually weighed at 2 weeks of age and were randomly divided into three experimental groups. Three replications were raised at each concentration. Experimental groups were randomly distributed into two batteries. Floor space of 0.06 square feet per bird, 0.12 square feet per bird and 0.2h square feet per bird was provided for the three different groups, respectively. There were 16, 32 and 6“ birds in each replicate at 0.2“, 0.12 and 0.06 square feet per bird, respectively; thus, a total of 336 birds were utilized at the beginning of this experiment. All groups were provided with equal feeder and waterer space per bird. All groups were allowed 0.“ linear inch of feeder space and 0.2 linear inch of drinking space per bird. Feed and water were kept before the various groups at all times. Insofar as possible, equal heat was provided for the different experimental groups. All groups received continuous (2h hr.) lighting. To keep pOpulation density constant, birds which died were immediately replaced with nonnwing-banded Bobwhite quail of the same age which had been reared in the same 56 5? battery. These replacements were not included in the data on body weight or mortality. Birds were weighed each lb days for the first 10 weeks of age. A daily record of mortality was kept. Feed consumption was measured each day. At two week intervals average feed consumption per bird per day was calculated. Average body weight gain per bird per day was computed for the same interval. Average daily feed con- version for the two week period was derived by dividing average daily feed consumption by average daily body weight gain. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 10 Bady Weight ,The mean body weights of birds grown at the three population densities which were compared in this experi- ment are shown in Table 11. No significant differences could be demonstrated between the body weight gains of the three groups up to 16 weeks of age. Although the average body weight of the female and male birds at the beginning of the experiment was not significantly different, the mean weight of the females was shown to be significantly greater than the mean weight of the males at 16 weeks of age ( a- 0.01). Differences in body weight due to sex are shown in Figure 3. The correlation between body weight at 2 weeks of age and subsequent growth of the Bobwhite quail raised on different allowances of floor space are shown in Tables 12, 13 and 1“. No incidence of poor feathering as reported by Ernst (1963) in Coturnix quail was noted. Growing Bobwhite females at every floor space level were significantly heavier than the males at 16 weeks of age (cr- 0.01). This agrees with what is found in the literature with respect to raising Bobwhite either in captivity (Nestler, 19h3, 19h9; Nestler 32.21,, l9h2; Baldini, 1951; Baldini 25.313, 1953; Kirkpatrick and Leopold, 1952; and Kirkpatrick, 196“) or in the wild state (Stoddard, 1931; Ripley, 1960). 58 3151. Wei; 59 TABLE ll.-Effect of different floor space allowances on body weight gain of Bobwhite quail. w Heights in 0.20 sq. ft./ 0.l2 sq. ft./ 0.06 sq. ft./ grams bird bird bird Male Female Male Female Male female Av. init. wt. 16.9 l8.0 l9.l 20.7 l9.8 l7.9 (2 wks. old) Standard deviation 2.9 3.3 2.“ 4.2 5.3 0.7 Av. wt. 160.0 185.11 165.0 180.5 159.1 175.1 (l6 wks. old) Standard deviation 9.6 2.h 13.7 ll.h 33.6 8.8 Av. body wt. gain lhB.l I67.“ lh5.9 l59.8 l39.3 157.2 00wsv uu00snom we 0usouw so ocean 00°00 00 oucos0wcH .n .w0m 03.33 .83 we 02 . oc . cm 60 o~0 . o3 ow0 (smoifl) aqfirea Apoq eSeJeAv 61 TABLE 12.-The correlation between the initial and l6-week-old body weights for Bobwhite quail raised on floor Space of 0.20 square feet per bird. Males Age of birds Two Four Six Eight Ten Sixteen (weeks) gjinitial) Two (initial) 1.00 -0.31 -o.11 0.01 -0.26 -o.15 Four 1.00 0.17 0.51 0.55*’ 0.00 Six 1.00 0.82“ -0.30 -O.17 Eight 1.00 -0.55*‘* —0.115 Ten 1.00 -0.68** Sixteen 1.00 Females Two (initial) 1.00 -O.15 -0.11 0.01 0.50 0.13 Four 1.00 0.56 0.77* 0.50 0.33 Six 1.00 0.6h‘ -o.25 -0.I8 Eight 1.00 0.40 «0.32 Ten 1.00 0.37 Sixteen . 1.00 * Significant at the 0.05 level. ** Significant at the 0.01 level. .5“ ll: 62 TABLE 13.-The correlation between the initial and 16-week-old body weights for Bobwhite quail raised on floor space of 0.12 square feet per bird. Males Age of birds Two Four Six Eight Ten Sixteen jweeks) (initial) ' Two (initial) 1.00 0.04 0.62* 0.03* 0.02 0.02 Four 1.00 0.20- 0.8ote -0.10 ~0.o7 Six 1.00 0.02-, 0.25 0.35 Eight 1.00 -0.10 -o.oz Ten 1.00 0.81** Sixteen 1.00- Females Two (initial) 1.00 0.30 0.19 -0.00 -0.03 0.03 Four 1.00 0.07 0.01 0.29 0.01 'Six 1.00 0.62* 0.10 -0.07 Eight 1.00. 0.27 0.33 Ten 1.00 .0.82** Sixteen 1.00.- * Significant at the 0.05 level. ** Significant at the 0.01 level. «\- .tll ‘\' E Te- 63 TABLE lh.-The correlation between the initial and l6-week-old body weights for Bobwhite quail raised on floor Space of 0.06 square feet per bird Males Age of birds Two Four Six Eight Ten Sixteen (geeks) (initial) ' Two (initial) 1.00 -0.06 -0.10 -0.12 -0.01 -0.10 Four 1.00 0.02* -0.13 0.03 0.hl* Six 1.00 0.11 0.05 0.01 Eight 1.00 -0.1& -0.08 Ten 1.00 -o.35 Sixteen . 1.00 Females Two (initial) 1.00 0.18 0.07 0.11 -0.23 0.08 Four 1.00 0.01 0.25 0.03 -0.35 Six 1.00 0.02* 0.10 -O.27 Eight 1.00" -o.10 -0.22 Ten 1.00 0.41 Sixteen 1.00 level. * Significant at the 0.05 6h The ability of these quail to grow under what were considered to be very crowded conditions was expected, in light of Ernst's report (1963). 23 Feed Conversion Feed conversion measured for two week intervals from 6 to 16 weeks of age for Bobwhite quail in this experiment is shown in Table 15. Average feed conversion ranged from a high of 8.00 grams of feed per gram of weight gain to a low of 0.30 grams of feed per gram of weight gain. Feed conversion was less efficient at 16 weeks of age than at 6 weeks of age. No remarkable differences were noted in feed conversion with respect to population densities. The feed conversion of the Bobwhites in this experiu ment was poorer than that reported for Coturnix involved in a floor space study by Ernst (1963). The results herein reported were expected in light of the reports by many investigators under different experimental conditions (Nestler g: 21., 1902; Nestler, 1903; DeWitt, 1909; I Baldini, 1951; Baldini 33.31., 1950, 1953; and many, others). Accurate feed consumption figures are somewhat difficult to obtain with growing quail because small amounts of feed are involved and the quail bill out feed to a considerable extent unless particular care is taken to prevent feed wastage. The magnitude of feed conversion figures which reached almost eight grams of feed per gram body weight gain suggests that unlike Coturnix quail, 65 TABLE 15.-Effect of different floor Space allowances on average feed conversion of Bobwhite quail w Grams of feed/gram body weight gain/bird Treatment 6gwk. old 8. wk. old 10 wk. old 16 wk. old 0.20 sq. ft./bird 0.6 5.8 h.8 6.5 0.12 sq. ft./bird 0.3 7.6 0.8 7.8 0.06 sq. ft./bird 4.5 5.7 5.2 8.0 66 Bobwhite quail are not very efficient in the utilization of feed. Two factors should be kept in mind in considering the feed conversion figures. First, the feed conversion was measured from 6 to 16 weeks of age. Secondly, the composition of the ration fed in this study might have had an influence on these figures (Table 1 Appendix). 3. Livability The effect of pOpulation density on mortality of growing quail in this experiment is shown in Table 16. Mortality was lowest at a pOpulation density of 0.20 square feet per bird. Although this was shown to be significantly different from that in either of the more dense pOpulations (0.12 and 0.06 square feet per bird) (1!: 0.01), no sig- nificant differences could be detected between the latter groups. The overall mortality was rather high. Forty (00) percent mortality is not unusual (Nestler 23.21., 1902; Bass, 1939, 1901, 1902; and Berstrand and Kimstra, 1962). In this experiment, the least mortality was found among the least dense group (0.20 square feet per bird). No in- cidence of cannibalism was noted under these overcrowded conditions. These results agree with the findings of Baldini g£_gl. (1950) who stated that Bobwhite quail can be reared in battery brooders in close confinement without 67 TABLE l6.-Effect of different floor space allowances on the mortality of growing Bobwhite Quail (2 to lG-wk. old) _ ...— 4.- Replicates Birds died Treatment (1) (2) (3) Total Percent 0.2# sq. ft./bird 6 8 5 19 39.6** 0.12 sq. ft./bird 19 _ 18 12 09 51.0-- o.06 sq. ft./bird . 38 32 36 106 55.2 ** Significant at the 0.01 level. 68 evidence of cannibalism, provided the diet is adequate. Floor space of 27 to 29 square inches per bird was pro- vided in Baldini's experiments. Since sex could not be detected from differences in external features before 15 to 16 weeks of age, mortality with respect to sex was not determined as no attempt was made to distinguish between sex anatomically among dead birds 0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS Bobwhite quail were raised in concentrations of 0.20 square foot per bird, 0.12 square foot per bird and 0.06 square foot per bird. No significant reduction in growth occurred as a result of different floor space allowances. The overall_feed conversion of the Bobwhite quail in this experiment was very poor. Poorer feed conversion was noted at 16 weeks of age than at 6 weeks of age. Mortality was significantly higher in the more dense groups compared to the least dense group (gr: 0.01). No incidence of cannibalism was noted under these conditions. These results indicate that growing Bobwhite quail can be raised in a pOpulation density as heavy as one bird per 0.06 square foot; however, decision-making should be left to the manager or the quail breeder to choose between alternatives concerning floor space on one hand and mortality on the other hand. 69 EXPERIMENT IV THE INFLUENCE OF FLOOR SPACE ON EGG PRODUCTION, FERTILITY AND HATCHABILITY OF BREEDER BOBWHITE QUAIL Floor space recommendations for laying chickens are largely based on hearsay. The floor space requirements sug- gested by commercial management publications need to be placed on a scientific basis. Pilot studies with Bobwhite quail would possibly have some useful application in this area. No documented reports concerning the influence of floor space on the reproduction of the Bobwhites could be located. From a practical standpoint, such information might also be of value to a quail breeder. Objectives: 1. To determine the effect of different allowances of floor space on the onset of sexual maturity of Bobwhite quail. 2. To determine the effect of different allowances of floor space on egg production of Bobwhite quail. 3. To determine the effect of different allowances of floor space on size of eggs produced by Bobwhite quail. h. To determine the effect of different allowances of floor space on fertility and hatchability of Bobwhite quail. 5. To determine the effect of different allowances of floor space on livability of Bobwhite quail. 70 UN: EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE Sixteen (l6)-week-old Bobwhite quail were placed in Petersime starting batteries. Birds were randomly divided into three experimental groups. Three replications were housed at each concentration: 0.06 square foot per bird (60 birds per replicate), 0.12 square foot per bird (32 birds per replicate) and 0.20 square foot per bird (16 birds per replicate). Male to female ratio at the beginning of the experiment was 1:3 in all replicates. Eggs were gathered daily and weighed once each week. Eggs were classified as clean, clean-check, dirty or dirtymcheck as shown in Table 18. Eggs were candled to detect checks and were set in Jamesway 252 forced-draft incubators. Incubation procedures as given under General Experimental Procedures were followed. On the 20th day of incubation the quail chicks were removed and the eggs which failed to hatch were candled, and, if necessary, broken out to determine fertility macroscOpically. To keep pOpulation density constant, birds which died were immediately replaced with male quail of the same age, if needed to correct the male:female ratio, or by female Coturnix quail. Coturnix eggs which could be easily dis- tinguished from Bobwhite eggs, were not included in the data. 71 72 This experiment was conducted for a period of approximately four months. Prior to the end of the experimental period, the crowded groups were distributed in different compartments. All groups were allowed 0.20 square foot of floor space per bird. Coturnix females were used in some of the compartments to provide equal floor space per bird for all groups. Only data for egg production were obtained for all groups after they were redistributed. These data were collected for a period of two weeks. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1. Onset of Sexual Maturity Age at sexual maturity either as indicated by the first egg(s) laid or by the age of the birds when they reached a level of more than 30 percent egg production is shown in Table 17. One bird in one of the least dense replicates laid at 110 days of age. This was not influenced by the floor space allowancy as the bird had been randomized into the treatment groups only two days prior to this time. At least one bird was laying in each of the least dense replicates by 122 days of age. No bird in any replicate of either of the other two treatments laid before 132 days of age. A more meaningful index of the effect of the different floor space allowances on age at sexual maturity would be age at which birds attained a given level of production-~such as 30 percent. Birds in the less dense group (0.20 sq. ft./bird) reached sexual maturity earlier than the other two groups whether with reSpect to the first egg(s) laid or the level of more than 30 percent production (9': 0.01). As in- dicated by the age of birds at the first egg(s) laid, the two more dense groups reached sexual maturity at about the same age. None of the replicates of the heaviest concenu tration group (0.06 sq. ft./bird) reached a level of 30 percent egg production during the experimental period. When these birds were redistributed and given an allowance of 0.20 73 70 TABLE l7.-Effect of different floor Space allowances on age of sexual maturity of Bobwhite quail Average age at sexual maturity_(days) First egg(s) More than Treatment p roduced 30% p roduct i on 0.20 sq. ft./bird 118.0 (110-122) 101.3 (138-105) 0.12 sq. ft./bird 137.0 (133-101) 169.0 (167-172) 0.06 sq. ft./bird 137.7 (132-186) 7 * * None of the replicates reached a level of 30 percent egg production - during the experimental period. 75 sq. ft./bird they averaged 28 percent egg production for the two weeks tested (Table 18). The reproductive organs of mature Bobwhite females on 16 hours constant light (7300 to 12:00) weighed about 0,562 mg. and 0,886 mg, for the ovary and the oviduct, respectively, (Kirkpatrick, 1960). In his different studies, the average weight of the nonproductive ovary was shown to range from 270 to 1,350 mg. and that of the nonproductive oviduct from 1,200 to 2,090 mg. Therefore, individual body weight records might be used to determine approximately when a quail reaches sexual maturity. In the present experiment, egg production (whether as indicated by the first egg(s) laid, or by the level of more than 30 percent egg production), was the only index used to determine sexual maturity of the females. Sexual maturity was delayed about four weeks when birds were allowed 0.06 or 0.12 sq. ft./bird as com- pared to 0.2“ sq. ft./bird. These results do not agree with those of Ernst (1963) in Coturnix quail, but they do agree with those of Wilson 33 El. (1961) who also worked with Coturnix quail. It was observed in the present experi— ment that female Bobwhite quail might have reached the age of sexual maturity about three weeks earlier than did the males since no fertile eggs were obtained in the first three sets (Table 20). This could have possibly been due to the reluctance of males to mate under the artificial conditions imposed in this experiment. In earlier experi— ments with Bobwhite quail, Kirkpatrick (1955) reported 76 that at the end of 16“ days, males exposed to a 15-minute interruption, and females exposed to a 20-minute interrup- tion, of a lh-hour daily dark period produced sperm and eggs, respectively. Baldini gtmgl. (1952) stated that under continuous lighting, the Bobwhite quail may attain sexual maturity as early as 139 days of age. Comparatively speaking, it appears that some individual female Bobwhites in this experiment reached sexual maturity at an age earlier _than that reported by many workers. These results indicate that selection for earlier age of sexual maturity might be effective with respect to Bobwhite quail raised in captivity. 2. Egg Production Egg production measured as egg/bird/day for the ex- perimental period is shown in Table 18. Average egg pro- duction was lowest (0.10 egg/bird/day) in the most dense pOpulation (¢r= 0.01). Average egg production of birds in the least dense group (0.2# sq. ft./bird) was 0.32 egg/bird/day and was higher than that of birds in the intermediate group (0.12 sq ft./bird) which averaged 0.10 egg/bird/day. None of the replicates in the most dense group (0.06 sq. ft./bird) reached more than 17 percent production during the experimental period. When the influence of crowding was removed, egg production increased immediately in both the intermediate and the most dense group (Table 18). 77 TABLE 18a.-Effect of different floor space allowances on egg production and external quality of eggs produced by Bobwhite quail 0.2“ sg:ft./bird Clean- Dirty- Tot. egg Clean check Dirty check Month bi rd/day Z _1 1 j oct.' ‘ 0.01 100 0 0 0 Nov. 0.38 “5.7 #8.6 0 5.7 Dec. 0.39 30.6 61.2 2.0 6.l Jan. 0.33 38.4 62.5 3.] 0 Feb.‘ 0.46 37.2 55.8 4.7 2.3' Average 0.32 36.5 57.2 ‘ 2.5 3.8 Feb.2 0.36 50.0 33.0 8.3 8.3 1The month of October counts only for three weeks and February for two weeks only. 2The influence of crowding was removed. 78 TABLE l8b.-Effect of different floor space allowances on egg production and external quality of eggs produced by Bobwhite quail. 0.12 sq, ft./bird , Clean- Dirty- Tot. egg Clean check Dirty check Month bird/day g_t;§ }L__ . ZL_, _J; Oct. 0 0 0 0 0 Nov. 0.19 62.5 37.5 0 0 Dec. 0.16 38.5 38.5 15.4 7.7 Jan. 0.lh 36.“ 27.3 l8.2 18.2 Feb. 0.23 hl.7 16.7 8.3 33.3 Average 0.lh “3.2 29.5 ll.“ 15.9 Feb. 0.37 38.8 32.h 2l.6 8.8 79 TABLE l8c.-Effect of different floor space allowances on egg production and external quality of eggs produced by Bobwhite quail. 0.06 59. ft./bird Clean- Dirty- Tot. egg Clean check Dirty check Month bi rd/day L i 1 1 Oct . 0 0 0 0 0 Nov. 0.09 lh.3 l#.3 28.6 #2.9 Dec. 0.10 28.6 lh.3 0 57.] Jan. 0.l7 27.3 l8.2 9.] “9.5 Feb. 0.1% 22.2 0 33.3 hh.h Average 0.10 23.5 11.8 17.6 #7.] Feb. 0.28 35.3 52.9 5.9 5.9 80 Egg production expressed on a bird/day basis shows, in general, a downward trend with increased population density. It appears from these results and those cited in the Review of Literature that a level of 30 percent egg production may be about average for Bobwhite quail in captivity. In nutritional studies, Nestler (1903) reported egg production per hen per day to be 0.308 and 0.361 when salt levels in the diets of Bobwhites were 0.5 and 2.0 percent, respect- ively. Similar results concerning egg production level of Bobwhite quail have been reported by several workers (Nestler gt'gl., 1900; Dewitt 33.31., 1909; and Baldini 23 31., 1952). The percent of the total eggs which were checked or dirty, as well as sound eggs, is shown in Table 18. The overall checked eggs of all groups in this study were very high. Clean-checked eggs ranged frOm a high of 62.5 per- cent to a low of zero percent. Birds of the most dense group (0.06 sq. ft./bird) produced a greater percentage of dirty eggs than did birds of the two other groups (a = 0.05). The incidence of clean-checked eggs was very high in the less dense group (0.20 sq. ft./bird) compared to the other groups (¢r= 0.05). The large number of checked eggs from all treatments indicates that it is undesirable to confine birds in batteries where eggs are left on the floor for any period of time. A great number of eggs is cracked during gathering. Sloping floors where eggs would 81 roll away from the birds might be useful. Nests might be of great value in that aspect also. 3. Egg Size The effect of population density on egg weight is shown in Table 19. Although there were significant differences in egg weight at the first laying period (0!: 0.05), eggs from the less dense group (0.20 sq. ft./bird) did not vary considerably, weight-wise, compared to the eggs from the two other groups at the end of the experimental period. Regardless of the different treatments, size of eggs produced by birds in the different groups was in the neighborhood or 10.5 grams at the end of the trial. This average weight was derived from weighing a random sample of clean, sound eggs. Considerable variation in egg size was noted at the beginning of production. Part of this variation might have been due to the differences in age at which birds from the different groups reached sexual maturity. While it took the less dense group (0.20 sq. ft./bird) about nine weeks to produce eggs weighing approximately 10.5 grams, it took the more dense group a longer time to produce eggs of the same size. Funk 22.3i' (1901) reported that Bobwhite quail in captivity laid eggs of increasing size until approximately the fifth week of production, after which time the egg weight was fairly uniform. 82 TABLE 19.-Effect of different floor space allowances on average weight of eggs produced by Bobwhite quail Average egg weights (grams) 0.20 sq ft/ 0.12 sq ft 0.6 sq ft/8 Month bird s.d. ibird s.d. .gird s.d. November 8.9 0.86 6.8 0.20 6.8 0.36 December 9.6 0.55 8.9 0.95 8.7 0.87 January 10.5 0.62 10.3 0.88 10.0 0.82 February 10.0 0.08 10.9 0.71 10.5 0.92 83 The overall average egg size in the present experiment was slightly above the averages previously reported (Stoddard, 1931; Funk 3£_3l., 1901; and Romanoff and Romanoff, 1909). 0. Fertility and Hatchability The percent fertility and hatchability of eggs produced by birds in the three treatments is shown in Table 20. The overall fertility in this trial was rather poor. Eggs produced by the most dense group (0.06 sq. ft./bird) showed a lower fertility than those produced by the two other groups of birds (or: 0.01), while no significant differences were noted between eggs produced by the intermediate group and the less dense group. No fertile eggs were obtained in the first month (November). There was appreciable improvement in fertility of eggs from each of the three different groups as the experiment progressed; however, the highest fertility of about 28 percent obtained from eggs produced by the least dense group of birds (0.20 sq. ft./ bird) is considered rather low in light of previously reported results. Hatchability was highest for eggs pro~ duced by the less dense group and lowest for eggs produced by the most dense group. The difference between these two groups was highly significant (1!: 0.01). The overall fertility and hatchability of all treats ments in this experiment was very low (Stoddard, 1931; Funk 23 31.. 1901; Nestler, 1903; Nestler 32.31., 1900; and many others). Funk et a1. (1901) reported that in 80 TABLE 20.-Effect of different floor space allowances for breeder Bobwhite quail on fertility and hatchability of eggs they produced. 9.20 59. ft./bird 0.12 sq. ft./bird 0.06 59. ft./bird No. eggs No. eggs No. eggs Month ‘ set Fertility set Fertility set Fertility November . 98 0.0 80 0.0 63 0.0 December 112 38.0 92 32.6 75 5.3 January 80 00.5 69 00.9 86 18.6 February 38 00.7 01 , 30.1 - 35 30.3 Total eggs set 332 286 259 Av. Fertility 28.3 26.2 12.0 Av. Hatchability ‘83.0 50.0 33.2 85 their experiment, the lowest percentage of hatchability was 01.3 percent and the highest 90.? percent. There was a marked variation in fertility ranging from about 96.5 to zero percent (Funk 25.21., 1901). Dirty eggs might be a logical explanation for the high embryonic mortality seen in eggs laid by the more dense group. Embryonic mortality in eggs produced by the most crowded group (0.06 sq. ft./bird) was found to be higher than in eggs laid by the least dense group (0.20 sq. ft./ bird). There seems to be a positive relationship betweenfl dirty eggs set and embryonic mortality. Bacterial contame ination and the increased number of dirty-checked eggs missed during sorting could have resulted in higher embryo mortality in these grOUps. Fertility was expressed as a percentage of sound eggs and hatchability was expressed as a percentage of fertile eggs. The decrease in fertility with increased crowding agrees with the results of Ernst (1963) in the Coturnix quail. An attempt was made to make the male to female ratio about the same in all groups (1:3). In the extremely crowded pens (0.06 sq. ft./bird) interference during mating was often observed and this may have caused a decrease in fertility. 86 5. Livability Mortality (Table 21) was highest in the birds at a pOpulation density of 0.06 square foot per bird; however, mortality was significantly higher in both the 0.06 and 0.12 square foot per bird group than in the 0.20 square foot per bird group and was significantly higher in the 0.06 than in the 0.12 square foot per bird group ( a: 0.01). The overall mortality of the least dense group was very light. It reached an average of 2.1 percent at the end of the experimental period. while mortality reached an average of 15.6 percent for the intermediate group, it averaged in the neighborhood of 23 percent for the most dense group. No information concerning the mortality of adult Bobwhite quail raised under conditions similar to those in the present experiment could be found in the literature. 87 TABLE 21.-Effect of different floor space allowances on the mortality of breeder Bobwhite quail during the experimental period Replicates Total Treatment (1) (2) (3) male female Percent** 0.2a sq. ft./bird 0 1 0 1 - 2.1 0.12 sq. ft./bird 0 8 3 8 7 15.6 0.06 sq. ft./bird 20 10 15 23 22 23.u ** All significantly different at the 0.01 level. 111‘ SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 1. Breeder Bobwhite quail were placed in concentrations of 0.20 square foot per bird, 0.12 square foot per bird and 0.06 square foot per bird. An attempt was made to keep both pOpulation density and male to female ratio constant. Data concerning livability, egg production, external egg quality, fertility and hatchability were gathered and statistically analyzed. 2. Birds in the least dense group (0.20 square foot per bird) reached the age of sexual maturity earlier than birds in the other two groups whether with respect to the first egg(s) laid or the level of more than 30 percent production (a== 0.01). 3. Average egg production was lowest (0.10 eggs per bird per day) in the most dense pOpulation group ( a= 0.01). Average egg production was highest (0.32 eggs per bird per day) for the least dense group. Birds housed at 0.12 square foot per bird averaged 0.10 eggs per bird per day. Birds of the most dense pOpulation (0.06 square foot per bird) produced a greater percentage of dirty eggs than did birds of the two other groups. No significant differences in egg weight between the three groups was noted at the end of the experimental period. 0. The overall fertility in this trial was rather poor. Eggs produced by the most dense group showed lower fertility 88 it. 89 than those produced by the two other groups of birds (a = 0.01). Hatchability was highest for eggs produced by the least dense group and lowest for eggs produced by the most dense group (a = 0.01). , 5. Breeder Bobwhite quail should be allowed at least 0.20 square foot of floor space per bird, and possibly more, if best results concerning egg production, egg quality, fertility and hatchability are to be obtained. EXPERIMENT V EFFECT OF RESTRICTED HATER CONSUMPTION ON GROWING QUAIL Chickens as well as many laboratory animals cannot survive very long when deprived of water. Observations in the field concerning the adaptation of Bobwhite quail to water restriction made it essential to determine the effects of increasing regimens of water restriction upon body weight, feed consumption and mortality of Bobwhite quail. From an eXperimental standpoint, such information might contribute to a better understanding of the quail. It would be es- pecially beneficial if the Bobwhite proves to be a good pilot animal for use in studies, the results of which are to be applied to experiments with chickens and/or turkeys. From a practical standpoint, such information might help in the process of decision-making where Bobwhites are being raised commercially. Objectives; 1. To determine the average water consumption for growing Bobwhite quail. 2. To determine the effect of water restriction on the growth of quail. 3. To determine the effect of water restriction on livability of growing quail. 90 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE A total of 192 one—week-old Bobwhite quail were used in a trial which is herein referred to as a pro-experiment. An equal number of one-week-old Japanese quail were also used for comparison in the trial. Both groups hatched on JUIY 1. 1955. Birds from each species (mixed sex) were divided into the following treatment groups (32 birds each)3 1. No drinking water 2. 10 percent drinking water 3. 25 percent drinking water 0. 50 percent drinking water 5. 75 Percent drinking water 6. Control (water 22 libitum) Birds were brooded in Petersime starter batteries. All birds received feed (dry mash) 22 libitum throughout the experimental period (Table 1 - Appendix). Birds were individually weighed at the beginning of the trial (one- week-old), at two weeks of age, four weeks of age, six weeks of age, eight weeks of age, 10 weeks of age and 12 weeks of age. Birds were wing-banded at two weeks of age. Water allowance to restricted groups was based on the previous day's water consumption by the control and was calculated on the basis of numbers of birds. Mortality and water consumption were recorded daily. Average amount of water evaporated was measured daily by using the same kind of waterers used in the trial, under the same experi- mental conditions, in the absence of the birds. Water 91 92 loss through evaporation was ignored when water consumption was calculated. Some of the data were treated by the analysis of covariance. After the beginning of the pre-experiment, another trial was begun. No Coturnix were included. Some experi- mental groups (0, 10 and 25 percent drinking water) were not included in this trial. The water restriction program started at three weeks of age instead of the one week of age which had been_the case in the pro-experiment. A total of 150 three-week-old Bobwhite quail were used in this experiment. Birds were hatched August 3, 1965. Birds were divided into the following treatment groups (duplicate 30 birds each, mixed sex): 1. 50 percent drinking water 2. 75 Percent drinking water 3. Control (water as libitum) The same procedures used in the pro-experiment were followed. Weekly average feed consumption for each group was also calculated. Birds were wing-banded and weighed at two weeks of age. At three weeks of age, birds were weighed and treatment groups were eliminated to 25 birds in each group instead of 30 birds due to the mortality in this period. Birds were weighed each 10 days up to 11 weeks of age. After birds were weighed at 11 weeks of age, 93 the 50 percent and the 75 percent groups were also given a continuous supply of drinking water and were weighed two weeks later. Although no data was collected after this period, birds were kept up to 16 weeks of age in order to distinguish between the sexes. RESULTS.AND DISCUSSION 1. Avgrage water And rged Consumption: Table 22 shows that the average water consumption of the growing Bobwhite quail was about one-third that of the Coturnix quail in the pro-experiment. While Bobwhite quail consumed an average of 8.5 ml. of water per bird per day in the first week of the trial, Coturnix quail consumed about 27_ml. of water per bird per day. There was a trend of increased water consumption as the birds aged (Figure 0). A marked increase in water consumption by the Coturnix quail was noticed when they started egg production. Table 23 shows the average water and feed consumption of Bobwhite quail in trial which followed the pro-experiment. Data concerning feed consumption was available only after birds were five weeks old due to the difficulty in obtaining accurate data before this period. Nhen starting the quail, feed was spread on paper which made it extremely difficult to accurately weigh the remaining feed feces-and- moisture-free. Even when feed was provided in feeders, data were not very accurate in this respect due to the fact that birds billed out certain amounts of feed which could not be measured with a great accuracy. The overall feed consumption was considered to be fairly high for all treatment groups.~ Feed consumption for the control groups agreed to a great extent with that reported by Nestler at 31., (1902) and Nestler (1903). Relatively speaking, the most water restricted group consumed more feed in 90 95 TABLE 22.-Average water consumption of control birds (in ml) Percent water loss _____§obwhites Coturnix .ghggggh evaporation ‘Heek Averagg, Ragga Aveggga. Ragga Average Rangg____ lst 8.5 6.3 - 13.6 27.0 25.0 - 33.3 11.3 10.2 - 12.0 2nd 12.9 10.6 - 10.0 38.6 33.3 - 08.3 9.8 7.9 e112.3 3rd 15.0 9.0 - 18.5 37.8 30.1 - 00.7 10.8 9.2 - 12.2 0th 18.7 15.0 - 19.2 37.3 33.3 - 08.1 11.3 9.8 - 13.2 5th 28.2 26.2 - 30.8 52.9' 00.0 - 59.3 9.8 7.5 - 11.3 6th 32.98 30.8 - 30.6 65.6 62.9 - 66.7 10.0 8.5 - 12.2 7th 36.2 30.8 - 38.2 70.2 60.2 - 72.0 11.2 9.6 - 12.0 8th 38.0 37.5 - 38.2 73.0 65.6 - 70.8 7 7 7 9th 39.2 38.2 - 01.3 370.2 67.8 - 76.2 7 7 7 10th 35.8 29.9 - 38.2 60.8 63.9 - 65.7' 7 7 7 11th 36.2 30.7 - 39.2 70.3 65.0 - 73.2 7 7 7 lCoturnix started egg production 96 TABLE 23.-Average water and feed consumption ofcontrol and water- restricted growing Bobwhites Control - Age Hater Feed . Water/feed ratio of birds ml/bird/day gg/bird/day Control 75hater 50% water 00.0-61.1 13.9 -- -- -- -- 5-wk-o1d 18.6 13.6 1.0 1.5 1.2 G-wk-old 27.9 13.2 2.1 2.3 1.5 7-wk-old 33.0 11.5 2.9 2.8 1.8 8-wk-old 35.8 11.6 3.1 2.9 2.1 9-wk-old 36.2 12.1 3.0 3.1 2.1 IO-wk-O1d 35.8 11.0 3.1 2.9 2.2 ll-wk-‘cld 30.9 10.7 3.3 2.9 7 2.0 97 comparison to water consumption than did either the control group or the 75 Percent group. The water to feed ratio ranged from a high of 3.3 at 11 weeks of age in the control group to a low of 1.2 at five weeks of age in the 50 percent water restriction group. Despite the fact that some of the birds in the restricted group were almost blind, feed con- sumption in the most restricted group was relatively high. In growing chickens, the average water:feed ratio was 1.37 for eight-week-old birds which were receiving water and feed ad libitum (Kellerup et a1., 1965). They found that reducing water intake 20 percent or more had a deleterious effect on feed conversion. Hater reduction resulted in a decrease in the water:feed ratio (Kellerup 33 3., 1965). Reduction in water:feed ratio was also noted when water intake of Bobwhite quail was decreased in the present experiment. water to feed ratio also increased as birds became older. This increase in the water to feed ratio was not uniform. 2. Body Weight Tables 20 and 25 show the effect of water restriction on the body weight of Bobwhites and Coturnix quail, respectm ively, inthe pro-experiment. Although data concerning the growth rate of the Coturnix quail was subjected to an analysis of covariance, no attempt was made to analyze the data concerning the Bobwhites due to the heavy mortality 98 a... TABiE 20.-Effect of water restriction on bady weight of the Bobwhites in the pre-experiment LControl ' m 50 Twater Av. Av. Av. body Av. body Av. body Av. wt. gain wt. gain wt. gain ‘Age 3 s. s. 7 s. s. . s. s. 1 wk.‘ 8.8 -- 9.0 -- 9.8 -- 2 wk. _ 15.0 6.6 13.0 3.6 10.3 0.5 0 wk. 03.1 27.7 27.0 10.0 31.1 16.8 6 wk. 86.2 03.1 63.7 36.3 61.0 29.9 8 wk. 120.0 30.2 103.8 00.1 102.8 01.8 10 wk. 155.8 35.0 138.0 30.2 100.8 02.0 12 wk. 170.5 10.7 150.0 12.0 156.3 11.5 VV—V lBeginning of the experiment. own “—0 mxoos N. teams .32 on Loan: calm one: n33 05 we to:— 99 m.m__ s.e__ n.m~_ .e_~ Aha. p. teuez-eee ..ex.>poh .>poa .><. e.-_ m.~e_ m.~m s._m m.mm_ s.s__ A.aen ..ez apes .>< m.~__ n.5m m.m__ ~.ae. m.a~_ m.mo_ A..eo ..ez apes .>< m.~m _.~a o.sm ~._m s.m~_ m.mo_ A.aem ..uz_>poh .>< a.ao s.so m..m ..aa s.m__ m.am A..ee ..e: a_eoe .>< Nd: has «ram s.~m «.8 Bi fines to: >p2. $5 "v.0 .x! : .mEm .cmom .>< m._~ m.». o.- ...N ..mm o.om A..en ..ez apes .>< as.~_v Am.«_v Am. _V A.a2a ..e: apes .>pon cc comuumuonou Lows: 00 accumu1.sm~ m4m_uceummmcmwn one: masocm _ocucouu .ome mo nxoos1n_ cu 1.. scum one scene cu oco scum Enema“. pa coup: co>mm ecu: mascum Z<~ 78. ..ms 58. 93.... 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" apnea gouucoo _ oo~ (paAIAJnB SPJIq %) Kalllqehll 110 dwssd onussnom wcfisouw mo xuaawnm>aa one so cowuofiuumou booms mo mucosawcu oLH Aaxoozv spade uo ow< .e .whm MA Nd AH 0A a w m o m m ...m ... m nouns vo>woooa 1‘1." u . oN reuse see " 911....IIIOIII. . .l. :1. _ IT II" II.:I JPI:III .l/. r o.» /. l/. 1 l 1 /‘ j 1 p...-—-—..-..-.—-—-— nous: Non 1.11.1 boom: .52 11.1 .euah aeuueeu .oo vow 03 (paAIAIBS SPJIQ %) 6:111q9011 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS An attempt was made to study the effect of water restriction on the growth and mortality of Bobwhite quail. For comparison, Coturnix quail were also util- ized. Birds were given different amounts of drinking water varying from zero percent to 100 percent (con- tinuous supply of water). While growing Bobwhite quail consumed an average of 8.5 m1. of water per bird per day in the first week of the trial, Coturnix quail consumed as much as three times this amount in the same period. There was a trend of increased water consumption as birds aged. Significant differences (a = 0.01) in body weight in both growing Coturnix and Bobwhite quail where shown between treatments which received different amounts of drinking water. Water restriction delayed the age of sexual maturity of the Coturnix quail up to 80 days. There were significant differences (a = 0.01) with respect tothe mortality of both growing Coturnix and growing Bobwhite quail on the different restricted water regimes. It may be concluded that, like chickens and turkeys, growing Bobwhite and Coturnix quail raised in confine- ment require an adequate supply of drinking water, if best results are to be obtained. 111 EXPERIMENT VI EFFECT OF RESTRICTED WATER CONSUMPTION ON BREEDER BOBWHITE QUAIL Water restriction has sometimes been practiced by poultrymen as a means for forcing a melt in chickens. It was hypothesized by Nestler and Bailey (1901) that a lapse of 20 hours without food would not appreciably check the laying of Bobwhite quail, but that the same interval without water might cause complete cessation of egg production. No documented report could be located concerning the effect of water restriction on the reproduction and the mortality of laying Bobwhite quail. This study was undertaken to de- termine the effect of increasing regimes of water restriction upon the body weight, egg production and mortality of breeder Bobwhite quail. From an experimental standpoint, such in- formation might be of value if Bobwhites are to be used as pilot animals in experiments of this type. From a practical standpoint, this information might be of value to quail breeders. Objectives: 1. To determine the average water and feed con- sumption of breeder Bobwhite quail. 2. To determine the effect of water restriction on body weight of adult Bobwhites. 3. To determine the effect of water restriction on egg production of sexually mature female Bobwhites. 0. To determine the effect of water restriction on the livability of adult Bobwhite quail. 112 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE A total of 132 adult Bobwhite quail were used in this experiment (81 females and 51 males). All female birds were in production at the beginning of the experiment. Birds were divided into the following treatment groups (12 birds in each replicate). (1) No drinking water (one replicate of 12 males) (2) Neither water nor feed (one replicate of 12 males) (3) 50 percent drinking water (three replicates of three males and nine females each) (0) 75 percent drinking water (three replicates as (3) (5) Control (continuous supply of water) (three replicates as (3) Birds were individually weighed and randomized into treatment groups which, in turn, were randomly placed in Petersime starting batteries. Water allowance to restricted groups was based on the previous day's consumption by con- trol birds and was calculated on the basis of number of birds. All birds except the second group received feed (dry mash) 32_1ibitum throughout the experimental period. Mortality, water consumption and egg production were recorded daily. After 12 weeks on the treatments birds were again individually weighed. Certain data were sub- jected to the analysis of covariance. 113 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 1. Average water and Feed Consumption Table 29 shows that the average water and feed con— sumption per day by the control birds was, respectively, 29.3 ml. and 9.9 gm. and that the water:feed ratio ranged from a high of 2.9 for the control birds to a low of 2.6 for the 75 Percent water group. The most restricted group had a water:feed ratio of 2.7. Less variation was found in water:feed ratios between different treatments in this experiment than had been noted between different treatments in the similar experiment with growing quail (Experiment V). It is possible that the water-restricted groups in the present experiment were given more water in proportion to their maintenance requirements than were the restricted groups in the growing quail. It is an established fact that eggs contain a high percentage of water. It is also possible that, in addition to the water in the egg, the physiological process of egg formation pg£.ge_might increase the water requirement of a bird in production. In the present experiment, the water-restricted groups of birds ceased production shortly after the water restriction regimens began. Many of the females in the control groups continued to lay throughout the experiment. Since water restriction was based on the water consumption of the con- trols, the amount of water received by the water-restricted groups might have been close to the maintenance requirement of non—laying adult Bobwhite quail. The great increase 110 115 noted in Experiment V in the water consumption by Coturnix quail as they reached sexual maturity tends to add credence to this conclusion. 2. Body Weights Birds on water restriction significantly lost weight (1,: 0.01) when compared with the control (Table 30). Body weight loss was noted in both sexes when birds were given restricted amounts of drinking water. As can be noted in Table 30, birds in the 50 percent water-restriction group lost more weight than did birds in the 75 Percent group. Since all birds in both of these groups ceased egg pro- duction shortly after restriction commenced, all of the water allowance was available for maintenance requirements; therefore, this result was to be expected. The weight loss by the birds in the water-restricted groups in this exper- iment agrees with the results of Wilson and Edwards (1955) and Sunde (1962) in chickens. 3. 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In a two- egg cycle where more than 50 cycles were tested, no definite pattern could be established. In approximately one-half of these cycles, the second egg was the larger of the two. In four-egg cycles, the general tendency was for the second egg of the cycle to be the largest of the cycle whereas, the last egg was usually the smallest and the first was 'm'ta G usually larger than the third egg. Based on averages of the nine five-egg cycles observed, the first and fourth eggs were of the same size and were the largest eggs in the cycle; whereas, the third egg was the smallest. The last egg of the cycle was larger than the second._ Likewise, on the basis of averages of the six six-egg cycles on which data was collected, the third egg of the cycle was the largest; whereas the second was the smallest. The sixth egg of the cycle was slightly larger than the second; while the first, fourth and fifth eggs were approximately the size and slightly larger than the sixth egg. As cycle size increased, tendency toward definite patterns became less.distinct. The small number of the long cycles (more than-six eggs in the cycle), made it impossible to draw any'conclusion about the pattern of these cycles. 153 The size of cycles observed in this experiment suggests that Bobwhite, in their second and third years of lay, tend to produce in cycles of one, two, three or four eggs. 3. The Loss in Height of Bobwhite and Coturnix Eggs Stored at Different Temperatures Eggs stored for 12 weeks at room temperature (approximately 70° F.) lost significantly more weight _w “a (a = 0.01) than those stored at a lower temperature (ap- ‘ proximately 35° F.) (Table &l). This held true for both Bobwhite and Coturnix eggs. There were no significant weight loss differences between Bobwhite and Coturnix eggs within treatments. Information concerning storage of quail eggs at different temperatures could not be found in the literature. Jaap 23.2l' (l95&) reported an ”evaporation loss“ ranging from an average of 6.& to 8.9 percent when infertile chicken eggs were incubated for 1& days. In the present experiment, the average weight loss of both Bobwhite and Coturnix eggs after two weeks storage at room temperature was 6.9 percent; whereas at the lower temperature it was 1.0 percent and 1.& percent, respectively, for Bobwhite and Coturnix eggs. It should be kept in mind that in addition to temperature and time, which were the only variables in- vestigated in the present experiment, factors such as humidity, air movement and barometric pressure may affect water loss from eggs (Romanoff and Romanoff, l9&9). 15&_ TABLE &l.-The effect of storage temperature on quail egg weight loss Mean weight of eggs (grams) and standard error of adjusted mean Storage Storage Bobwhite eggs Coturnix eggs tgggerature period Actual Adjusted §,§, Actual Adjusted S.E. Fresh eggs l0.l --- --- l0.2 --- ---_ gne week 9.7 9.8 0.0l 9.8 9.8 0.0l Two weeks 9.& 9.5 0.02 9.5 9.5 0.02 Three weeks 9.1 9.2 0.02 9.2 9.l 0.02 Four weeks 8.7 8.8 0.02 8.8 8.8 0.03 (approx. 7??? Room Tempe Eight weeks 7.6 7.6 0.0h 7.7 7.6 0.0& Twelve waaks 6.0 6.l 0.55 7.2 7.l 0.57 Fresh eggs l0.3 --- --- l0.3 --- --- One week 10.2 10.2 0.00 10.2 10.2 0.00 2": 3“- Twcweeks 10.2 10.1 0.00 10.1 10.1 0.01 :12 ii Three weeks 10.1 10.0 0.01 10.0 10.0 0.01 O . Ea. Four weeks 9.9 9.9 0.0] 9.9 9.9 0.0l . _‘V . Eight weeks 9.7 9.7 0.03 9.7 9.7 0.03 Twelve weeks 9.& 9.& 0.02 9.3 9.3 0.02 155 The major objective of this study was to compare weight loss of Bobwhite and Coturnix eggs stored in the same environment; therefore, it is felt that this objective was accomplished. B. §;0portion of Component Parts of Bobwhite and Coturnix gs l. The Albumen and Yolk Table &2 shows the average proportions that the albumen and the yolk contribute to the total weight of l , -x_ “fink-Q Bobwhite and Coturnix eggs. In this experiment, on the average, about &1 percent of the weight of a Bobwhite egg was albumen and about &0 percent was yolk; whereas, the ' albumen contributed about &7 percent and the yolk about 32 percent on the average, of Coturnix quail eggs. Thus it is obvious that the albumensyolk ratio of Bobwhite eggs (approximately 131) differed from that of Coturnix eggs (approximately 1.531) in this experiment. There was a negative correlation between yolk weight and albumen to yolk ratio in eggs produced by both species. Table &3 shows the proportion of albumen and yolk volume in relation to egg volume for Bobwhite eggs and Coturnix eggs, respectively. In eggs of both species the albumensyolk ratio computed on the basis of volume was essentially the same as that which had been computed on the basis of weight. 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