A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TWO WORK - STUDY FROGRAMS IN AN URBAN COMMUNITY COLLEGE Thesis for the Degree of Ph D.» MEGHIGAN STATE UNEVERSITY FREDDIE MARTIN, m 1972 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TWO WORK-STUDY PROGRAMS IN AN URBAN (DMMUNITY COLLEGE presented by FREDDIE MARTIN, 111 has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for PH.D. degreein ADMINISTRATION e HIGHER ED. (11 ’. > Major professor Date 7'29'72 ABSTRACT A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TWO WORK-STUDY PROGRAMS IN AN URBAN COMMUNITY COLLEGE BY Freddie Martin, III The Problem The purpose of this study was to compare the structural and process differences in two separate work- study programs in a single urban community college; and to analyze and compare selected behavioral outcomes commonly viewed as related to positive growth and development among college students. The traditional work-study group operated accord- ing to guidelines set forth by the Federal Government under the Economic Opportunity Act of 1965. The second work-study group operated according to guidelines set forth by Peralta Colleges Inner City Project of 1968. Design and Methodology The population for the study consisted of 750 students who attended Laney Community College in California. A sample of 160 was drawn from the work-study program, and 38 from the Student Service Corps. Freddie Martin, III A review of the related literature focused on the sources of related literature with respect to citations, quotations, and reports of research investigations as it related to work-study programs. Data were gathered on each student from each work- study program coordinator; and two types of objectives were taken into consideration in both work-study programs. First, there were the objectives of the school itself. Second, there were the Federal objectives which the college must consider as being a part of the cooperative education system. Two three-way analyses of variance were used to test the hypotheses. The first design was analyzed through the use of multivariate analysis of variance. The four dependent variables were absenteeism, grade point average, retention, and tardiness. Sex, race, and group effect were employed as independent variables. The second design was analyzed through the uni- variate analysis of variance on the measure of the 32-item Likert type response questionnaire, with the same independent variables referred to above. Findings l. The grade point average earned by the Student Service Corps was significantly higher than that earned by the work-study group. Freddie Martin, III 2. The Student Service Corps group had a signi- ficantly lower rate of absenteeism than the work-study group. 3. The work-study group had a significantly higher retention rate than the Student Service Corps group. 4. The Student Service Corps group was signifi- cantly more satisfied with their jobs than the work-study group, as measured on the job satisfaction scale. 5. The multivariate test indicated that there were significant differences between races on grade point average, and whites tend to have higher grade point averages than either Black or others; they also tend to have a longer retention rate than either of the other two racial groups. 6. The univariate test indicated that females in both groups earned a significantly greater grade point average than males. 7. The univariate analysis indicated that the Student Service Corps group was less frequently tardy at a significant level than the work-study group. A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF TWO WORK-STUDY PROGRAMS IN AN URBAN COMMUNITY COLLEGE BY Freddie Martin, III A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and and Higher Education 1972 DEDICATION In view of the tragic and unexpected death of Mary Martin, this study is dedicated to her memory. While all individuals may experience events or activities fatalistically sometimes, certain segments of society are more likely to perceive their very existence in fatalistic terms. As Max Weber pointed out, life itself was defined as predetermined by God's will; neither man's deeds nor his wishes could change the inevitable outcome. There are situations and settings that tend to induce the same subjective sense, apart from the belief in fatalism. The urban blacks, inmates of various kinds, are but a few of the most noticeable social groups that experience their life situations fatalistically. From her belief that life is a sequence of episodes in which peOple achieve some measure of understanding and influence but which has no independence, this being true, then this study is but another situation, and the experi- ment but another episode, within which the investigator dwells, negotiating his own identity and providing his own excuses and justifications. And all he gets back in ii response are the excuses and justifications of his subjects. Thus, Mary Martin, my sister, tried to understand the existential man, the creature who strives after sense in a senseless world. iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The study presented here has been read by and discussed with a great many friends, and my debt to them is beyond payment. Moreover, some of those with whom a brief, intense conversation later resulted in improvement of the study have been obscured by faulty memories and thus will go unsung, though their ideas are not forgotten. I am especially grateful to Dr. Max R. Raines, Chairman of my doctoral committee, for his assistance, support, and whose critical advice at nearly every stage of this study added immeasurably to its quality. Appreciation is also extended to my guidance committee members, Drs. Howard Teitelbaum, Donald Nickerson, and James McKee for their assistance and advice which was given with excellence and unfailing good spirit. I am particularly indebted to Drs. Howard Teitel- baum, William Farquhar, and Gundar Myran for the support provided during the development of the research proposal and to Jeffery Yager for his research assistance during the initial and final stages of the study. iv Various people have typed and proofread numerous drafts of this study. Most of the work has been done, however, and done with excellence and good spirit, by Marilyn Vogt. She, along with Bonnie Fons, deserves a share of whatever pleasure and satisfaction attend in the completion of this study. Finally, I wish to express my deepest appreciation to my lovely wife, Ednola, for her devotion, assistance, and encouragement and to my daughter, Michelle, for with their awareness, deep full awareness, always seems to make my energy outflow more positive. TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . . . . II. III. The Purpose of the Study . . . . . Importance of the Problem . . . . Background . . . . . . . . . Research Hypotheses . . . . . . General Design . . . . . . . . A Comparison of Structural and Process Elements in the Two Programs . . . Nature of the Overall Work-Study Program at Laney College . . . . Student Eligibility Criteria . . . The Inner City Project . . The Student Service Corps at Laney College The Selection of Cooperating Agencies The Training Program for Student Corpsmen Summary . . . . . . . . . . Limitations . . . . . . . . . Value of this Study . . . . . . Organization of the Study . . . . REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE . . . . . Advantages of COOperative Education . Disadvantages and Problems of Cooperative Education . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . Definition of Variables . . . . . Sample Selection . . . . . . . vi Page . ii . iv .viii . l . 3 O 5 . 7 . lO . ll . 12 . 15 . l6 . l8 . 22 . 23 . 23 . 29 . 29 . 3O . 31 . 32 . 36 . 37 . 48 . 49 . 49 . 50 . 51 IV. V. Instrumentation . . . . . Description of the Analysis . Hypotheses . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . ANALYSIS OF DATA . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . Tabulation of Original Data . Quantification of Data . . Correlation Analysis of Satisfaction Comparison of Absenteeism, Grade Point Average, Tardiness and Retention Through Analysis of Variance . Scale CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Organization . . . . . . Behavioral Outcome Comparison Findings From the Analysis of Job Satisfaction Scale . . Conclusions . . . . . . Implications . . . . . . Recommendations . . . . . Epilogue . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . A. Profile of the Target Areas . . Project Overview . . . . . . Means Tables} . . . . . . . Letters . . . . . . . . . Questionnaires . . . . . . vii the Page 51 52 53 56 57 57 57 58 60 61 74 74 77 78 81 87 91 92 97 103 104 110 113 122 142 LIST OF TABLES Page Family Income Levels Which Qualify for Low-Income Preference (1969) . . . . . . 18 Summarized Comparisons of the Traditional Work Study Program and the Student Service Corps at Laney College . . . . . 25 Statistical Design for Multivariate Analysis of Variance, Analysis Number One . . . . . 54 Statistical Design for Analysis 2 on Satisfaction Scale . . . . . . . . . 55 Correlation Between the Item Score for Each Item and the Total Score . . . . . . 61 Analysis of Variance Test of the Second Order Interaction Group x Sex x Race . . . . . 64 Group x Sex Interaction . . . . . . . . 65 Race x Sex Interaction . . . . . . . . . 66 Race x Group Interaction . . . . . . . . 67 Effect for Sex . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Effect for Race . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Effect for Group . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Analysis of Variance of Groups, Sexes and Races for the Variable, Job Satisfaction . . 73 viii Table Page C-l Cell Means for the Variable, Job Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . 114 C-2 Cell Means for the Variable, Job Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . 114 C-3 Cell Means for the Variable, Job Satisfaction . . . . . . . . . . . 115 C-4 Means, Grade Point Average—-Student Service Corps . . . . . . . . . . . 115 C-5 Means, Grade Point Average--Work-Study . . . 116 C—6 Means, Grade Point Average--Summing Across Groups . . . . . . . . . . . 116 C-7 Means, Retention--Student Service Corps . . . 117 C-8 Means, Retention--Work-Study . . . . . . . 117 C-9 Means, Retention--Summing Across Groups . . . 118 C-1O Means, Absenteeism--Student Service Corps . . 118 C-ll Means, Absenteeism--Work Study . . . . . . 119 C-12 Means, Absenteeism--Summing Across Groups . . 119 C-13 Means, Tardiness--Work Study . . . . . . . 120 C-14 Means, Tardiness-Student Service Corps . . . 120 C-15 Means, Tardiness--Summing Across Groups . . . 120 D-l Laney Student Service Corps Agency Assignments . 140 ix CHAP TE R I THE PROBLEM Many work-study programs suggest strategies which might be employed effectively by the community college. Many carry with them, however, a tendency to further undermine the individual's sense of being part of any community worth belonging to. A few such programs seem to be effective in salvaging individuals who are victims of poverty and prejudice by providing them with the skills and opportunities for a fuller, more productive life. Myers found the major difficulty in dealing with poverty in urban work-study programs is the low level of educational skills of its victims.1 Other writers (Lichter, Rapien, Seibert and Sklansky) suggest that this inhibits or even destroys the students' abilities to cope effectively with school.2 Early termination of both 1Albert E. Myers, "An Analysis of a Work-Study Program for Inner-City Pupils," Journal of Special Education, 3:1 (1970), pp. 37-44. 2S. O. Lichter, Elsie B. Rapien, Frances M. Seibert, and M. A. Sklansky, The Drop Outs (New York: Free Press, 1963). educational and vocational training by community college students restricts them to a future of low-paying jobs. Some efforts to deal with this have been to incorporate work-study programs into the community college curricula. The stated attempt is to provide a "meaningful" curri- culum, orient the students toward accepting responsibility, introduce the students to the world of work, and provide better education by keeping the students in school. The traditional college work-study approach according to Myers is not new.3 The program has been described and prescribed for college students, alienated youth (Burchill,4 Levine,5) and potential dropouts (Savitsky).6 As with many basically good ideas in education, however, it has rarely been compared and evaluated with other work-study programs that have a different approach. Burchill and Savitsky have reported on larger programs which were generally well-received in their respective communities.7 They provided some insight, 3Myers, op. cit. 4G. W. Burchill, Work-Study Programs for Alienated Youth, A Casebook (Chicago: Science Research Assoc1ates, 1962). 5D. U. Levine, "Work—Study Programs for Alienated High School Students," Journal of Special Education, 41 (1966): pp. 371-378. 6C. Savitsky, "S.T.E.P., Program for Potential Dropouts," Bulletin National Assoc. Sec. School Pr1nc1pals, December, 1963. 7Burchill, op. cit. on the basis of their experiences, and on how such programs should and should not be run.8 There is a need for an opportunity to compare separate programs in a single community college to identify major differences that seem to be related to the two pro- grams. Laney College in the Peralta District of Oakland, California, provided that opportunity. Purpose of the Study The basic purpose of the study was: A. To compare the structural and process implementations of two separate work study programs in a single urban community college. B. To analyze and compare selected behavioral outcomes commonly viewed as related to positive growth and development among college students. The control program is one that was organized as a traditional work-study program operated according to guidelines set forth by the Federal government under the Economic Opportunity Act of 1965.9 The second or explora— tory program is one that used the work—study program assignment but with emphasis upon a) group efforts to provide humanitarian services to inner city residents, b) 8Savitsky, op. cit. 9FACA 2 - LYV - Aug. 25, 1970. weekly training seminars for participating students, and c) use of field supervisors. In developing this comparative analysis it was assumed that absenteeism, tardiness, academic achievement in college and expression of job satisfaction (on a 30- item scale) would be indicators of student progress in each program. These indicators would therefore become the dependent variables in the comparison of the control group (Work-Study Program) and the exploratory group (Student Service Corps). Dependent variables assumed as reflecting positive personal development are as follows: 1. Absenteeism--(estimate by supervisors)-- Lower rates of absenteeism would be viewed as related to greater satisfaction with work assignment. 2. Grade Point Average—-A higher grade point average would be viewed as related to a more productive and satisfying work experience. 3. Tardiness--(estimate by supervisors)--Lower rates of tardiness would be viewed as greater job satisfaction. 4. Job satisfaction--Response to a job satisfac- tion questionnaire would reflect the signifi- cant differences in attitudes between the two groups. In addition, this study compared descriptively two different approaches to work-study programs for inner-city community college students. Comparative descriptions included: 1. Work experiences (Questionnaire to student)-- A description of the similarities and differ- ences of work experiences to which students were exposed and extent to which the experiences were related to major fields or projected professions of the student. 2. Differences if any in the approaches to supervision. 3. Extent to which the assignments in each group were humanitarian in their orientation. 4. Selection of work projects-—The basic criteria used to select and assign work projects in each group. 5. Nature of special curricula designed for workfstudy students and for students in the serV1ce corps. Independent variables would include selected demo- graphic characteristics such as sex, racial origin, and group effect in order to increase the precision of the tests for the independent variables of major importance, which was the program Student Service Corps versus Work— Study variable. In addition, the use of the independent variables was employed to determine whether or not a relationship exists between the dependent and independent variables; and if a relationship did indeed exist, what the nature of that relationship might be. Not only is there a need to study the comparative efficiency of the work-study programs, but also there is a need to study the structural differences between work— study programs. Importance of the Problem There has been a din of brave words attesting to how community colleges should serve the communities' needs; they should not only open their doors but should reach out to those most in need of education, in need of cultural identity, and in need of opportunity.10 The uncomfortable fact is that much of the rhetoric has been largely hollow. Societal changes and new demands upon educational systems require educators to consider and develop new ways of restructuring aspects of school organization to provide more effective and efficient educa- tional programming. Many forces provide impetus for changes, but the problem remains--how best to organize to provide socially responsive systems to help insure quality educa- tion in a mass, technologically oriented society.11 The problem is complex. The multiplicity of agencies in urban areas suggests the need for new and larger structures of educational governance to provide greater coordination with other related community organi— zations.12 Yet, there is pressure for accountability, decentralization, and "local" control; yet, again, there is pressure to remain independent and unique to a community. The rapid expansion and increase of the number and type of educational work-study programs indicate an 10B. S. Bloom, Allison Davis, and R. Hes, Compen- satory Education for Cultural Deprivation (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1965). 11C. O. Fitzwater, "Patterns and Trends in State School System Development," Journal on State School System Development (Spring, 1967), pp. 5-32. 12Joy Liasson and Michael Spina, "The New York Regional Center Network: A Regional Educational Planning Resource," Journal of the New York State School Boards Association, Inc. (June, 1970), p. 15. implicit assumption by many educators and school boards that work-study program arrangements have the potential to complement educational practice. However, not all educational work-study programs are equally effective or have similar roles or functions; it may be possible to identify constraints upon work-study program activities.l3 Background Using a variety of measures, Longstreth, Stanley and Rice concluded that identical treatment does not imply identical impact.l4 Myers reported the civil rights move- ment has made everyone sensitive to racial issues. School personnel, who have frequently been criticized, are in many cases anxious and defensive about dealing with Black and white students. They become scrupulously fair; all the students are treated alike. The data showed that identical treatment does not imply identical impact. Black students reacted differently to job-dissatisfaction than white students and the nature of the difference was indicative of the special problems of these students and l3Glen W. Hoffman, "The Flexible Intermediate Unit in California: A Study of Regional Educational Activities," Fairfield, Calif.: Committee of Ten, California School Boards Association, 1966. 14L. E. Longstreth, F. J. Stanley, and R. E. Rice, "Experimental Evaluation of a High School Program for Potential Dropouts," Journal of Education Psychology, 55 (1964), pp. 228-236. ways in which educational work—study programs and person- nel must deal with them.15 There have been urban work-study programs through- out the United States introduced to communities where the people who participated had similar educational levels, attitudinal and economic status. These programs have been successful. Why? Smith found there was no real opposition; no one to cause guilt feelings to surface; no one to cause palpable tension. In other words, the groups were homogeneous. Smith concluded there is a need for urban work-study programs to take a different route, a 180-degree turn; select students whose educational levels are diversified, and attitudinal views vary. There is a need for a comparative analysis at a selected community college whose work-study students are heterogeneous.16 These are the ingredients that went into the Student Service Corps that is taking place at Laney College in Oakland, California. To demonstrate student potential for community outreach, Peralta Colleges proposed an economic assistance program to employ 50 students at Laney College in a Student Service Corps which would carry out programs of community outreach, development, and service to the inner city. 15 . Myers, op. c1t. 16Lawrence C. Smith, "The Urban Studies Program," Journal of Special Education, Vol. 3, No. l (1970), pp. 134-137. Students involved in this program were selected on the basis of their family income (using O.E.O. worknstudy criteria) and because of their first-hand experience with life in the inner city. These students were full-time students carrying twelve or more units of classwork. They participated in weekly seminars where the effectiveness and meaning of their community experience were discussed and analyzed. Two convictions underlaid the presentation of the seminars. The first is that the nation is confronted with a crisis in its domestic life to which college instruction must respond. The second conviction is that students have to deepen their perception of this crisis and relate themselves to it. Students not only identified urban problems, but they were encouraged to reflect on the effect these problems have on the quality of life in the Oakland area as a whole and in specific neighborhoods, and on the quality of their own lives. The college work—study program was authorized by Title I, Part C, of the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 (P.L. 89-329) and Public Law 90-82, approved September 6, 1967. The purpose of the college work-study program was to expand part—time employment opportunities for students, particularly those from low income families, who are in need of the earnings from part-time employment in order to pursue a course of study at an institution of higher 10 education. Federal grants are made to institutions of higher education to enable them to create job opportunities for their eligible students.17 An attempt will be made in this study to identify and analyze differences between the Student Service Corps and the traditional college work—study programs. Research Hypotheses The following hypotheses in the form of the ques- tions to be answered; which is what relationship if any, exists between these inferred job satisfaction and measured job satisfaction variables as they relate to a single criterion. Hl: There will be no significant difference between groups on grade p01nt average, retention, absenteeism and tardiness. H : There will be no significant differences between Races on grade point average, retention, absenteeism and tardiness. H : There will be no significant differences between Sexes on grade point average, retention, absenteeism, and tardiness. There will be no significant interaction between Grpups and Races on grade point average, retention, absenteeism, and ' tardiness. H : There will be no significant interaction between Group and Sex on grade point aver- age, retention, absenteeism, and tardiness. H : There will be no significant interaction between Race and Sex on grade point average, retention, absenteeism, and tardiness. 17U. S. Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare, "College Work-Study Program Manual," 1968. 11 There will be no significant interaction between Group, Race and Sex on grade point average, retention, absenteeism, and tardiness. There will be no significant differences between Groups on job satisfaction. H : There will be no significant differences between Races on job satisfaction. H : There will be no significant differences 10 between Sexes on job satisfaction. H11: There will be no significant interaction between Groups and Race on job satisfaction. H12: There will be no significant interaction between Gropp and Sex on job satisfaction. H13: There will be no significant interaction between Race and Sex on job satisfaction. H14: There will be no significant interaction between Group, Race and Sex on job satis- faction. General Design Sample The sample of work-study programs were selected from students who come from Laney Community College in California. The students themselves were from the inner city, therefore should be able to establish effective relationships with indigenous community leaders, engaging their participation in the planning of workshops and other activities. The samples were drawn from a population of 751 students from Laney Community College Work—study pro- grams. 12 A Comparison of Structural and Process Elements in the Two Programs* Setting of the Study Laney College, one of the five Peralta Colleges, is a public community college maintained by the Peralta Community College District. Included are the cities of Alameda, Albany, Berkeley, Emeryville, Oakland, and Piedmont. Plumas County has been included since 1968. Other colleges in the district are College of Alameda, Feather River College and Merritt College. The District has included North Campus College since December 1971. In addition, since 1966, the Peralta District has administered the East Bay Skills Center in North Oakland. Laney College is accredited by the Western Asso- ciation of Schools and Colleges and registered by the California State Education Department. During the 1970—71 school year, there were 6,931 male students and 4,450 female students. Nearly 180 full-time faculty are employed. Laney College provides liberal arts, business, and trade-technical programs. Programs are offered during the day and evening hours as well as during a six-week summer session. The college offers classes for adults and pro- vides a large number and variety of community services. *Because of the need for the reader to have an early understanding the similarities and differences in the two programs, the comparative description is presented in Chapter I rather than Chapter IV. 13 The educational philosophy of Laney College is stated as follows: A democratic, constitutional society which values freedom demands an informed, participating citizenry. The Colleges believe in the dignity and worth of each individual, and cognizant of differences in abilities, skills, experiences and purpose, Laney College believes in equal and diversified opportunity for all who need and can profit by the type and level of instruction which the college is empowered to provide. Laney College accepts the responsibility to provide a broad educational program which recognizes the needs of all students. Laney College supports the idea that a broad education should precede or accompany the train- ing of the specialist to the end that such specially trained citizens will have breadth of view and flexi- bility of mind along with specific competencies. Laney College believes that the college is dedicated to serving the community by exerting leadership and identifying the educational needs of the community, providing programs to fill those needs, and evaluating the effectiveness of these programs. Laney College believes that the heart of any college is the students and faculty, without whose energetic support and cooperation the institution cannot exist; that a commitment to academic freedom is basic to the existence of an intellectually sound college environ- ment for both faculty and students.18 Instruction in both liberal arts and trade-technical programs is adapted to different levels of student ability. Evidence to support this contention can be found in an examination of class schedules. Examination of course offerings semester by semester since 1964 reveals a dramatic change in curriculum reflecting that departments are designed to broaden vital understanding and skills. Prior to 1963, when Laney became a part of the Peralta Junior College District, the curriculum of the 18Laney College, Accreditation Report 1970-71. 14 college was predominantly trade-technical in orientation. Presently, 60 to 70 per cent of the college's offerings are liberal arts transfer programs. The college occupied leased, temporary facilities beyond the Lake Merritt-Estuary tidal channel. A new permanent campus has been completed. Many students live in the inner-city flatlands of Oakland; however, the college also serves students from other parts of Oakland. Sixty per cent of the students enrolled at the college are members of ethnic minority groups. The college has a historical tradition of community involvement through Citizens Advisory Committees for each of its vocational programs. This has resulted in the need for community involvement at a wider more inclusive level than that provided by the traditional vocational advisory committees.19 Laney College's concept of general education includes the fundamental belief that such education is an essential part of preparation of all students for effec- tive living. The Faculty Handbook defines general educa- tion as follows: Courses whfch will enable students to acquire and assimilate the common skills and shared apprecia- tions, attitudes, and values characteristic of the effective personality in a democratic society.20 lgIbid. 20Laney College Faculty Handbook. 15 Efforts toward outreach and service to inner-city residents were initiated by the offices of community ser— vices. college' program follows: 1. and the arrange in both These efforts provided a workable base for the s involvement in the inner city project. Nature of the Overall Work-Study Program at Laney College The major purposes of the traditional work—study as reflected in the federal guidelines are as Encourage eligible institutions to expand their efforts to enroll needy students, particularly those from low income families; Increase the proportion of eligible high school graduates who continue their education in eligible institutions; Provide financial aid for eligible students through combining the earnings from part—time employment with other forms of financial assis— tance to enable students to meet their educational expenses without the necessity of incurring an unduly heavy burden of indebtedness; and Broaden the range of worthwhile job opportunities for qualified students in employment for the institution itself or for public or private non— profit organizations, especially those engaged in health, education, welfare, and related public service activity.21 Coordinators of both the Student Service Corps traditional work-study program will generally interviews with prospective employers. Students programs receive $1.90-$2.00 per hour and work no more than 15 hours per week. The coordinators attempt to make placements which are as close to the student's 21"College Work-Study Program Manual," 0 . cit. 16 interests as possible in both programs. The coordinators have been the key to both cooperative programs. They were required to have understanding of both the academic objec- tives and the work situation within each agency so that the student's job related to and supplemented his field of study. The coordinator's responsibility to the employer was to screen the students to determine who could best fill the jobs. Students in the work-study program are assigned both to on-campus and off-campus jobs; however,“ students in the Student Service Corps work only with off- campus agencies, which have tended to be "grass root" in nature. Student Eligibility Criteria Under the law, a student may be selected for employ- ment under the college work-study program only if he meets all of the requirements listed below. He must be: 1. In need of the earnings from such employment in order to pursue a course of study at the institution; 2. Capable, in the opinion of the institution, of maintaining good standing in such course of study while employed under the cooperative program; 3. Accepted for enrollment as a full-time student at the institution, or in good standing and in full-time attendance there as an undergraduate; 4. A national of the United States, or in the United States for other than a temporary purpose with the intention of becoming a permanent resi- dent thereof, or have his principal actual dwell- ing temporary, without regard to his intenté in the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands. 22Federal Register, Vol. 34, No. 91 (Tuesday, May 13, 1969). 17 The Placement Office has been responsible for implementing the college cooperative program, under the Economic Opportunity Act and for recommending individual students for part—time employment on campus. The coordi- nator cooperated with business, industrial, service organizations, and maintained liaison with local offices of the California State Department of Human Resources Development. As mentioned earlier, the purposes of the college work-study program provided part-time employment for students, especially those from low-income families, who were in need of assistance from part-time employment in order to pursue a course of study at Laney College. The college has the option of placing its eligible students in work £93 the institution or in work for a public or private organization away from the college. Students whose parents have a combined income of $3,200 or less or whose parents qualify as welfare reci- pients are given first priority in the work-study program. Table 1.1 lists the income levels which have priority. The office of financial aids and placement was responsible for placing students in work-study jobs on and off campus and served as a referral center for outside job opportunities. The Federal share of the compensation of students employed in the cooperative program could not exceed 80 18 TABLE l.l.--Family Income Levels Which Qualify for Low- Income Preference (1969). Number of Children or Other Dependents Income Level 1 $3,200 2 4,000 3 4,700 4 5,300 5 5,800 6 6,200 7 6,600 per cent, except in certain circumstances defined by Federal regulation and approved by the Commissioner. The cooperative program at Laney has provided up to 15 hours of on-campus employment per week to qualified students. Limited full-time summer employment has been offered. In addition, the college's placement office personnel assisted students in locating part-time jobs both on and off campus. Students in the program earned $2.00 per hour during the school year. The Inner City Project The Student Service Corps, which represented a new approach to work-study assignments, was developed as a part of an INNER CITY PROJECT at Laney and the basic purpose was described in the 1967 proposal which led to funding of the Inner City Project. The basic purpose of the Peralta College's Inner City Proposal is to demonstrate ways in which the 19 community college may effectively disperse its services and programs into the inner city to develop there a new sense of community identity, participation and involvement. The mechanisms used to deliver these services and programs were as follows: 1. A Student Service Corps to carry on a work-study/ service program of community outreach, development, and service in the inner city. 2. Community Development Centers to provide educa- tional and counseling services in the inner city. The centers would also serve as the focal point for workshops and other programs initiated under phase three of the proposal. They would also facilitate the supervision and administration of the activities of the Student Service Corps. 3. An enrichment program to provide workshops in art, music, and drama to be supplemented by recrea— tional, social, cultural, and educational experi- ence at the block, neighborhood and community level. 4. A scholarship-subsistence project to provide financial assistance to residents of the inner city who wish to attend college to prepare themselves for careers in public service. Laney College has felt that by taking the educa- tional, cultural, and human resources of the college into the community in this fashion, they could demonstrate not only how the community college can serve the inner city, but how residents of the inner city might be involved as active participants in the task of serving their neighbors. The proposal was submitted to the Office of Econo- mic Opportunity and was championed by the American Associa- tion of Junior Colleges as one of several models to 20 demonstrate ways in which community colleges could help to reduce some aspects of the urban crisis.23 The four basic elements of the project were accelerated by the opening of the fall semester, 1968. An Advisorerommittee was appointed for the inner city project. This committee consisted of 20 members. Each target area advisory committee appointed three mem- bers of the project advisory committee, two of whom met the poverty criteria established by the Oakland Economic Development Council. The Inner City Project presently maintains the features outlined above; however, many of the services enumerated in the proposal, namely the development centers, and conceptually the enrichment program and the Student Service Corps, have been integrated into the normal func- tions of the colleges. In summary, the inner cit; project was conceived initially in the Spring of 1967, the proposal was refined considerably during 1967; after receiving funding from O.E.O. in the summer of 1968, it became operational with its Inner City Demonstration Project identity in September, 1968. The Integration Process The presidents, district staff and key staff of the Inner City Project met with members of the administrative 23See Appendix A for a description of the target areas as documented in the self-study. 21 staff of the colleges to work out a plan of integration of the Inner City Project into the ongoing operations of the colleges. It was hoped that a greater degree of financial accountability could be accomplished; and that the college resources could be directed in a more positive manner to the purposes and programs of the project. On July 31, 1970, as anticipated, Federal funding for the project ended. Therefore Laney College took over the funding and operations of both the development center and the Student Service Corps. Future plans for former Inner City staff became apparent, an orientation program for the staff began, meeting with administrators and representatives of various instructional areas and depart- ments on campus to increase their knowledge and awareness of facilities and service which the college has to offer the community. The administrators met with resistance from that part of the college's faculty and staff who had typically voted against change, but in the main the majority of the college personnel were open and receptive.24 In summary, the overall effect of the integration phase of the Inner City Project into the college's opera- tion can be described as successful. Some administrators stated that integration of the project did not alleviate the very fundamental problems of organization of the Inner City Project. 24Peralta College Final Evaluation, from adminis- trative point of View, 1970. 22 The focus of this study was on the first element, the Student Service Corps. Funding of the scholarship- subsistence project was terminated with the end of the second year of operation. The Student Service Corps at Laney College The proposal for establishment of the Student Service Corps as part of the Inner City Project stated that students are probably the most effective force for dispersal of the college's programs and services. The task was to build an effective approach for organizing, supporting, and dispersing of the students into the inner city. The development of the corps on Laney campus was initiated by communicating the idea and concept to the students. This was done by placing articles in the stu— dent newspaper, speaking to and working with on-campus student organizations such as the Black Student Union, Third World Organization and the Student Council. The coordinator of the Corps used O.E.O. work-study criteria which are based on family income to insure that there was need for assistance. In addition, each student was a resident of the inner city target area and must have been a full-time student carrying 12 or more units. After the initial screening was completed, the final selection of 55 students was made through interviews; conducted jointly by the Corps Coordinator and the staff from Student Personnel Services. A record of the remaining 23 qualifiers is retained both by the Student Personnel Ser- vices and the office of Community Services to be used for filling vacancies as they arise. The Selection of Cooperating Agencies An organization, in order to qualify for use of students from the Corps, had to be either a public agency or a non-profit "grass roots" organization with 51 per cent of its Board of Directors drawn from among the poor. When applications are received from an organiza- tion requesting students, these agencies are reviewed by the Student Service Corps staff and the Community Advisory Committee for approval or disapproval. If the application is approved the coordinator will arrange an interview with the agency personnel responsible for supervising students to discuss the respon- sibilities of the agency and those of the students and the college. The students are supervised by the agency, student supervisors, and faculty of the college. An evaluation of each student's work performance is done monthly by the agency supervisor. The students in the Corps were involved in both public and private agencies (see Assignments, Appendix B). The Training Program for Student Cogpsmen Students involved in the corps were required to par- ticipate in weekly seminars where the effectiveness and meaning of their community experience was discussed and analyzed. 24 In the seminars an attempt was made to build an educational framework for interpreting field activities. The input for the seminars came from instructors who spent six hours each week in the field as well as from students themselves. In addition, opportunities were provided for informal meeting with community leaders to discuss problems of the inner city, basic training in counseling, interviewing and tutorial skills, were pro— vided. A project overview was initially placed in all faculty mail to obtain faculty involvement and presenta- tions by the Coordinator were presented before the faculty senate. From these presentations a list of faculty members was generated to serve as consultants, instructors, speakers, workshop leaders and field observers.25 Basically speaking, the coordinator's primary responsibility was to act as liaison between the employer and the institution while the student was working. His overall objective was to help the student obtain the best type of experience which related to his field of study. The Corpsmen are working in tutorial programs, local news— paper, and high school counseling programs, to name a few. (Appendix D gives a case history of three corpsmen's work assignments.) 25See Appendix B for Project Overview. 25 .Hmom Hmcoflummsooo mfln mumsHm>m paw ocflmmu ucopsum may mam: OB .v .xuoz UHEOCmom mflc oumzou :oflum>fluoe Houwoum pampsum mnp =o>flm= 08 .m .cofluosuumcfl vasoomom DcoEonmsm paw mamHoH OB .m mOHHHEMM oEoocHIBOH.Eoum omona SHHwHDOHuHmm .coflumosco Hflong mocmsflm mucopsum damn OH .H oo.ooo.om w thalahma oo.ooo.om w HBmHIOSmH oo.ooo.mh w onmalmmma ucoaunmmoo oofl>uom mwflssEEou mmmaaoouucmmmHEIORmH “ommanmmmfi wpflssunommo UAEocoom mo moflwmo maflessm chmfi .uoomonm SDHU HocsH omoaaou muHmuma mo used we .mema mo Hams .coHumospm umnmfln mo cofiusuflumcfl cm :A coflumUSUo Hflmnu mscflucoo ou moDMSGMHm Hoonom swan mmmusoocm 09 .m .moHHHEmm oEoocfl IBOH Eouw omocu wannasowuumm .mpcopsum xpooc Haoucm 0p muM0mmo uflmnu pcmmxo 09 .m .mmHHHEmM oEoocH 30H Eoum mmonu mammasofluumm .mucopspm mo undemoHQEo mEHDlpumm map OOOEOMQ paw mamaseflpm 09 .H oo.ooo.ooww thalanma oo.ooo.omvm AhmHIOSmH oo.ooo.oamw onmalmmma ucomonmlhmma SpecDDHOQmo OHEocoom wo woemmo .smma .m sonsmudom ©®>ommmm omlom 3mg OHHQSA cam vmma mo D04 mpflcsuuommo OHEo Icoom map No .o puma .H msufle ma pmNHHonusm mmB Emumomm mge mmwmcfiwhooo 03p an emcflmma mm mamow Hmupcou mcflpcsm mo ucsoad mcflpcsm mo oousom ODMQ mcflccflmom mmuou moofl>nom DCOUSDm Emnmoum upsum xuoz Hmcofluflpmue mucoEon Emumowm .mmoaaoo >ocmq pm manou OUA>Hom unopsum map can Emnmoum xosum xuoz Hmcoflpflpmue ocu mo mCOmHummEov ooNHHmEEDmII.m.H mamas 26 .mmmysoo yflpmHU mum mHmGHEmm .myampflmmy wyflasEEoo cam mumaEmE >yysomm ma pmymyfiaflomm mum mumayEmm .mmHyH>flyom ayo3 maflymymymyafl no“ aMOSmEmyy Hmaofly Imospm am caflsa mumaHEmm .mm>amm IEmay mycmpsym may cam yoymafipyooo .mmflocmmm .mmmaaoo mo aoflymyommxm .>Hoymflm oy mycmpsym may one lyamfiyo oy pmyo>m© mum 03y ymyflm may a0fla3 ca mumaflamm maflomlao mm maoz .coflyom HmHOOm ayHB pmaymocoo mmfloammm :myooy mmmym= msmEmo mmo >Ha0 mHOmH>HmQDm camflm mmuae mmofl>ymm hyHCDEEOU mo yoymawpyoou .ymmm mm0H>ymm myflasafiou mo yoymaflpyoou HmQQOmHmm yamcsym mo ammm .mmflocmmm wo QOyymnmmo mmUonlmmp may ..m.y .Hoonom way an yassmy y.amym aoHaB .mmayaymma maa lymamyafl yampsym may m>Hm 09 .m .aoflymn Iflammyo may >a aofl may no maov mymz mcflaflmyy paw mQOHymycmflyo oov oom .COAymNflcmmyo pmamwaamymm ayflz myamEamHmmm Myoz msQEmo wmo cam co ayom yamEmomHm mo Hoymafloyooo .ymm¢ hosymlayoz mo yoymaycyoou Uflm Hmwoamaym mo Hoymaflpyooo HmaaOmHmm yampsym mo ame .mcoflymm lyammyo yewOuQIaoa mym>yym paw oyyasm How yo mammyfi aoflysyflymafl may now yamESOHmEm :fi myamosym How mmflywcsyyommo aofl mHHaBayyoz mo mommy may ampmoya OB .v Ammysou yflpmnov mycmEamHmm« amoz oy aowymyamflyo cam mcflcwmye mo mysymz msmfimo mmo Hmafisz mamamo so HmaESZ yamEamflmmd xyoz yo mysymz aymyymm maflmmmym 27 aomapmmm amp 0y mmo .pmhonEm ma oy mp3 myampsym aofiaz CH yothHm pm>oymmmmH© Ho cm>oymmm amae .mHmaEmE msoammflpcfl om mo omymflmaoo mmyyHEEoo >y0mfl>©< om mm om mm om mm mm om .ammB ymm mysoa mallysoa ymm oo.mw .mmyyHEEoo >H0mfl>pm cm m>ma yon Op mEmHmoym mpsymlxyoz oom oov omH 0mm OHH oma mma mha .ammz ymm mysoa matlysoa ymm oo.mm Ammsoyw mo mysymzv mmsoyo mcflmw>©< mo mm: amEoz cmz tha amEoz amz Huma amEoz amz onmfi amEoz amz mmma myamm IyOHyymm wo ymaESZ Ammmym>ymm yamosym Emsmoym mosym ayoz HmCOHyflomHB myamEmHm Emumoym .pmscHyCOUII.N.H mqmfiB 28 .yommoym may CH ©m>ao>afl mmfloammm cam mumaEmE wwmym .mycmpsym may aye3 aosoy mmoHo ca mmyyHEEoo may maflya myyommy mmmumoym cepoflymm mam 29 Summary Analysis of Table 1.2 reveals that the primary differences between the two groups centered in the nature of their assignments. The work-study group was assigned both on- and off-campus and the off-campus assignments were in the established offices and agencies of the Oak- land area. On the contrary, the Student Service Corpsmen were assigned to emerging agencies that were largely ethnic and social action in nature. They focused their efforts on producing changes in the environment. Conse- quently there was a considerable sense of purpose among these groups of which Student Corpsmen became a part. This sense of unity as well as the opportunity to reflect on their experiences in campus seminars gave the Student Corpsmen a sense of involvement that was less apparent in the traditional work—study program. Limitations The study was limited to investigation of docu— ments collected from student files located in the Laney College coordinators' offices in California, and from a self-reported 32-item questionnaire. There was no way to put them together without biasing the way the students answered the questionnaire form. Students were given the option of recording their names on the questionnaire. Because many of them chose not to record their names it was necessary to analyze selected independant variables 30 through multivariate and univariate analysis to offset this absence of linkage between names and variables. It is hoped that the results obtained from this study are not generalized beyond a community college situation similar to Laney College, which is an urban community college. For a community college in northern Utah, with an agricultural emphasis, the results from this study might not have much meaning; whereas a school in New York City, in some ways similar to Laney College, might expect the data collected in this study to be generally relevant to its situation. The samples were drawn from a population of 751 students from Laney Community College work-study programs. There were 51 students involved in the Student Service Corps, from whom 38 questionnaires were collected. There were 700 students in the traditional work—study program from which 200 were randomly selected. The Student Ser- vice Corps sample may have systematic differences from the total population. Since the Student Service Corps has never been instituted at any other school, some of the effectiveness or lack of effectiveness of the Corps might be attributed to Laney College. Value of this Study There are three significant services which can possibly be accomplished from this study. First, it was hoped that the results would cause some alterations in the 31 requirements of the Federal agreements performed under work in the public interest, such as the basic one of relating students' jobs to his academic work. Second, other community colleges might be interested in the methodology of the study and use the findings as comparable data. Third, Laney College would gain empirical data on its work-study programs which would help make it more effective. Organization of the Study The general plan of the study is to present, in Chapter II, the review of related literature which shows the behavioral differences related to positive growth and development. The third chapter is an account of the methodology used in collecting, organizing and analyzing the data of behavioral outcomes. The results of the analysis is reported in Chapter IV. The summary, conclu- sions, and implications for further study appear in Chapter V. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Cooperative education was conceived by Dean Herman Schneider in 1906 at the University of Cincinnati. He initiated the first work—study program by uniting undergraduate studies and field work experience. The pur- pose of Dean Schneider's plan was to make this alliance an integral part of the educative process. The program was called "cooperative education." This name has been used interchangeably with the more informal term of "work- study." Many definitions of educational cooperatives or regional education agencies have appeared in publications. A definition should include many cooperative arrangements outside the scope of this study, as well as being broad enough to include all kinds of educational cooperation mentioned in this chapter. No single definition, however, is completely ade- quate. What is necessary is the understanding of a con— cept. For this reason the following general statements 32 33 are designed to give an idea of an educational coopera— tive:l A cooperative is a consumer's organization started by consumers and not mandated from above; it is a participatory organization. An educational cooperative is a joint effort of two or more educational organizations which has as its purpose change and innovation in education, and to enlarge the scope, quality and accessibility of programs and services in education. An educational cooperative is built upon an exchange system; it is a voluntary, mutually reward- ing system. One goal of a cooperative is to provide students access to certain features of quality education through the pooling and extending of resources. An educational cooperative is generally thought of as a system within a defined region containing a number of contiguous, independent school districts which develop and share educational resources through the use of such things as communications media, mobile facilities, joint research and development activities, and computer and data processing technology. The educational cooperative, a multi~district con- federation, provides the conceptual and organizational framework for local school systems to increase their capabilities to produce quality education . . . It provides structure for the joint solution of inter- district and interstate educational problems. It also promotes widespread dialogue among professional educators and the wider intellectual community. The educational cooperative is a confederation of autono- mous school systems whereby each retains local control and is not merely a service center or unit. It is a process which integrates cooperating schools as its components. It is not a consolidation of a few school districts, but a creation of them. l"Educational Cooperatives,’ Putting ResearCh into Educational Practice, 1970, pp. 2—3. 2"The Educational Cooperative: Rationale, Admin- istration, Implementation," a Summary Report (Charleston, W. Va: Appalachian Educational Laboratory, Inc., June, 1969). 3Ibid. 34 These definitions, while satisfactory for coopera- tives comprised mostly of school or educational systems, do not specifically include other organizations such as businesses, industry, financial sources and foundations, or service agencies. A definition which better fits this study is: The cooperative plan of education is defined as that educational plan which integrates classroom experience and practical work experience in indus- trial, business, government, or service type work situations. The work experience constitutes a regular and essential element in the educative process and some minimum amount of work experience, and minimum standards of performance are included in the requirements of the institution for a degree. In addition, there must be liaison between the administration of the institution and the employing firm. The essential criteria . . . are that the work experience be considered an integral part of the educational process and that the insti- tution take a definite responsibility for this integration. The working structure of the Student Service Corps at Laney College in Oakland, California, is well-contained in the above definition. Since its beginning in 1906, the concept and the practice of "cooperative education" has greatly expanded. From the relative simplicity of mutual self-help between the engineering students at the University of Cincinnati and the professional engineering community, to the creation of the Student Service Corps as utilized at Laney College, 4James H. Wilson and Edward H. Lyons, Work-Study College Progpams (New York City: Harper and Brothers, 1961I, p. 19. 35 we see the progressing growth and development of the con- cept of "c00perative education." Unfortunately, there is a dearth of publication regarding the Student Service Corps which can be related to this particular study. There is, however, an increas— ing interest and subsequent proliferation of writings regarding the work-study concept as regards both Univer- sities and Junior Colleges, as well as high schools, in general. A good deal of literature can be found regarding how to set up a work-study situation, and what the values are, or should be, as well as descriptive studies of cooperatives and other various work-study programs. Most of these have been written by the various industries, businesses and government agencies which have used the work-study method. In The Journal of EngineeringyEducation, May, 1950, there is a discussion on the pros and cons of the coopera— tive engineering program. At the annual meeting of the American Society for Engineering Education in June of 1949, representatives of certain industries presented their views on the subject.5 5P. A. Carlstone, "Critical Evaluation of Coopera- tive Education," Journal of Engineering Education, Vol. 40, No. 9 (May, 1950), PP. 503-506. 36 There is a group of like descriptive writings which cover the advantages and disadvantages of work-study in a rather general manner. The conclusion in all these point out that the advantages of cooperative education far outweight the disadvantages. Following is a synthesis of the factors pointed out in these writings. Advantages of Cooperative Education 1. On the job, students learn a great deal abOut human relations. 2. Cooperative education enables students from lower economic levels to attend college. 3. The work experience makes the academic material more meaningful. 6C. F. Arnold, "Why Industry Likes Coop," Journal of Engineering Education, ILVII (December, 1956), pp. 314-319. Carl E11, "The Social Significance of the Coopera— tive Plan," School and Society, ILI (April 6, 1935), pp. 42-46. C. J. Freund, "The Cooperative System-—A Mani- festo," Journal of Engineering Education, XXXVII (October, 1946), PP. 117-134. J. M. Houchens, "Cooperative Standards and » Criteria," Journal of Engineering Education, IL (November, 1949), pp. 199—202. E. M. Strong, "Cooperative Education at the Under- graduate Level, " Electrical Engineering, LXVIII (April, 1949), PP 279- 281. J. B. Wiley, "One Answer for Two Problems?" Journal of Engineering Education, ILVIII (October, 1957), pp. 56-58. A. C. Roller, A College Education Plus Job Experi— ence (New York City: Birk and Company, 1961). 37 4. Working in the field is valuable "try-out" experience for students. 5. The system enables business and industry to find unusually talented students early in their careers. 6. Cooperative education helps students to mature faster. 7. Cooperative students are more highly motivated and approach their academic work with greater enthusiasm. 8. The cooperative students are better equipped to make a vocational choice. 9. The system enables students to make professional contacts, which may be of value after graduation. 10. There are public relations and information exchange values for the school. 11. The school can better utilize its facilities and faculty under a cooperative system. 12. Cooperative work gives experiences which enable schools to eliminate "How-to" courses from their curricula. Disadvantages and Problems of Copperative Education 1. Administration of the program is very difficult because of the movement of students to and from schools. 2. During recession or depression periods, jobs are difficult to find for the students. 3. Good coordinators are difficult to find as the coordinator must understand both the industrial and educational aspects of the work situation. 4. Faculty must be alert and be able to relate academic work to job experiences. 4. Students do not have enough time for extra- curricular activities.7 7E. H. Fram, "An Evaluation of the Work-Study Pro- gram at the Rochester Institute of Technology," an Ed.D. dissertation, State University of New York at Buffalo, 1964. 38 The major recent comprehensive research study of cooperative education was completed in 1961.8 This project has been reported in the book, Work-Study College Programs, and it has been the subject of three other shorter writ— ings.9 The study was carried out under a foundation grant by nine distinguished educators and three foundation and industrial executives, and their objective was to appraise cooperative education by comparing students in cooperative programs with those in traditional ones. Using extensive research data, these researchers came to the following conclusions about cooperative educa- tion: 1. There is no difference in academic potential between cooperative and non—cooperative students. 2. Cooperative work provides experiences which relate to academic work. 3. Cooperative education enables students from lower eCOnomic statuses to attend college. 4. Business and industry like c00perative education. 5. Cooperative education lessens the financial problems of able students. 8Wilson and Lyons, op. cit. 9E. H. Lyons and D. C. Hunt, "Cooperative Education Evaluated," Journal of Engineering Education, LI (February, 1961), pp. 436-444. Thomas Alva Edison Foundation, Cooperative Educa- tion and the Impending Educational Crisis—-High11ghts of a Conference (New York City: Thomas Alva Edison Founda- tion, 1957). R. W. Tyler and A. L. Mills, "What is Cooperative Education?" Education Digest, XXVII (December, 1961), pp. 38-39. 39 6. COOperative students enjoy extra-curricular activities to the same extent as non-cooperative students. 7. The extra year required by some cooperative schools is no handicap to the student's career. 8. Shifting from the job to the classroom is not a significant educational problem. 9. Cooperative education aids in better utilization of college physical facilities. 10. The majority of cooperative graduates are satisfied with the p1an.1 Two other recent studies are a doctoral disserta- tion by Robert Hudson,11 and a U. S. Office of Education Bulletin by Henry Armsby.12 Both of these are similar descriptive studies of the status of cooperative education in the United States at the college level. In addition to these three major studies, there are four others of note that have been conducted13 as well 10Wilson and Lyons, op. cit., pp. 155-158. 11Robert Hudson, "Cooperative Degree Programs in American Colleges and Universities (unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, School of Education, Michigan State Univer- sity, 1955). 12Henry Armsby, COOperative Education in the United States (Washington, D.C.: Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1954). 13 D. L. Arnold, "Swap Sessions," Occupations, XXIX (January, 1951), pp. 271-273. W. B. Mossbacker, "Women Graduates of Cooperative Work-Study Programs on the College Level," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXV (April, 1957), pp. 508-511. Blanche Perskey, "The Value of Field Work Experi- ence,’ Journal of Educational Sociology, XXIX (November, 1955), PP. 113-119. H. R. Bintzer, "What is the Optimum Load for a Coordinator?" Journal of Engineering Education, XXXIX (June, 1949), PP. 593-595. 40 as a major text14 which has as its objective the orientation of guidance personnel directors of vocational education, supervisory personnel, and school administrators to the fundamental methods of organizing and operating . . . cooperative education programs. The results of the above mentioned five studies can be summarized as follows: D. L. Arnold analyzed information exchange sessions Antioch students have after returning from their cooperative jobs. He came to the conclusion that the students learned from other student's job experiences as well as from their own. W. B. Mossbacker's study was of a sample group at the University of Cincinnati composed of mainly business administration cooperative women graduates. Her conclusion gas that the experience was of value to this group.1 Blanche Perskey surveyed 179 teachers who had graduated from New York University and found student teaching work experience to be rated very high. Of this group, 97% felt that this work ex erience was of positive value in their education.1 H. R. Bintzer concluded from a mailed questionnaire to coordinators that 100 cooperative students was the maximum load for any single coordinator. He also made a recommendation that the coordinator should be responsible for gertain aspects of the public rela- tions function.l 14Ralph E. Mason and Peter G. Haines, Cooperative Occupational Education and Work Experience in the Curri- culum (Danville, Illinois: Interstate Printers and Pub- l1shers, Inc., 1965). 15 D. L. Arnold, op. cit. 16W. B. Mossbacker, op. cit. l7Blanche Perskey, op. cit. 18H. R. Bintzer, op. cit. 41 There have been many articles describing, in a subjective manner, specific work-study programs.19 In summary, they all have praised the cooperative system, and the authors usually have concluded that the success they have witnessed in their own situations can easily be applied elsewhere. Most of the writers also discussed the advantages and disadvantages of the work—study programs as they related to their own schools.20 The article about the program at Kalamazoo College shows a rather unique form of the work-study concept. For ng. H. Bedford, "College Work Experience Program," Personnel and Guidance Journal, XXXII (November, 1953), pp. 163-164. C. Brown, "Cooperative Education-—The Extended Classroom," Junior College Journal, XXXI (Summer, 1960), pp. 22-24. The Hand in Hand Book Committee, Alfred L. Down- den, Chairman, Hand in Hand (Medford, Massachusetts: Gordon and Company, 1958). H. E. Krusa, "COOperative Work-Study Program in Retailing," Journal of Educational Sociology, XXV (January, 1952), pp. 300-307. I. G. Needles, "Cooperative Education in Canada," Journal of Engineering Education, ILIX (June, 1959): PP. 961-966. v Esther Oldt, "The Antioch College Cooperative Work Study Program," Journal of Educational Sociology, XXV (January, 1952), pp. 308-316. N. Stewart, "Cooperative Education Path to a Career in Engineering and Science," School Science and Mathematics, XVIII (March, 1958), pp. 175-180. "Kalamazoo Coup," Newsweek, July 29, 1963, p. 69. 20E. H. Fram, op. cit., p. 25. 42 example, in one year, member students translated English into Spanish in Guatemala, ran errands for Michigan's Senator Phillip Hart in Washington, and worked with retarded children in a hospital near Detroit. At least one quarter of the students are at overseas colleges from Ecuador to Africa to Provence.21 Weimer Hicks, President of the College, is con- vinced that the program is a great success. It enables the college to expand enrollment without expanding faci- lities, and it could be, in Hick's View, both the financial and the academic salvation for many other small private colleges. Mr. Hicks says it helps the college to develop more mature, self-reliant students who have a world con- sciousness, and eventually all member students will have travelled overseas and every one will be bilingual.22 The work-study travel plan has not only broadened students' vistas, but has helped raise student grades (the dean's list has increased by 50%) and faculty salaries, by enabling the college to operate at better than 100 per cent of capacity.23 Successful as this plan is, there have been a few minor drawbacks. A prime problem is that all students must carry a very concentrated program that allows little room for electives or academic flexibility. In addition, 21" ll ' Kalamazoo Coup, op. Cit. 22Ibid. 23 Ibid. 43 the tight academic calendar forces students to declare their majors as early as spring of their freshman year.24 The Kalamazoo College program is a good example of both the advantages and the disadvantages of the work- study concept at work. In addition, it appears to have a few more previously unmentioned benefits, i.e., world traveled and bilingual graduates, possessing a worldliness not ordinarily obtained while in college. Most present day work-study programs, unlike some of those previously mentioned, are intended specifically to benefit disadvantaged, often alienated youth who have not been succeeding in regular school programs. The Office of Economic Opportunity is heavily involved, and the Economic Opportunity Act of 1964 created three youth programs of special significance to educators: Title I Part A created the Job Corps to provide young people with education, work experience and vocational training in conservation camps and residential training centers. Title I Part B created a work training program, "The Neighborhood Youth Corps," under which State and local governments and non-profit organizations will establish full or part-time employment oppor- tunities to enable young men and women, age 16 to 21, to continue or resume their education or to increase their employability. Title I Part C creates a work-study program under which the Federal Government will enter into agree— ments with institutions of higher learning to pay part of the cost of part-time employment for under— graduate or graduate students from low income 24Ibid. 44 families to permit them to enter upon or continue college level education. The stated purposes of the work—study program created by this Act are: 1. To provide a financial base for needy college and university students from low-income families through part-time employment oppor- tunities; 2. To assist colleges and universities in broaden- ing and expanding their on-campus work programs; and, 3. To aid colleges and universities in developing new off-campus employment through arrangements with public and private non-profit organizations directly involved with educational, recreational, welfare, social service, and other activities in the public interest. Various essays and descriptive studies have been written with this social service aspect of the work‘study concept in mind.27 25"Work Study Programs," Chronicle Occupational Briefs, SE 8/65/17/SB4 (Moravia, New York: Chronicle Guidance Publications, Inc., 1965). 26Ibid. 7Daniel U. Levine, "Work Study Programs for Alien- ated High School Students," Education and the Urban Commun- ity-~Schools and the Crisis of the Cities, edited by M. Hillson, F. Cordasco and F. P. Purcell (New York City: American Book Company, 1969), pp. 350-358. George W. Burchill, Work Study Programs for Alienated Youth (Chicago: Science Research Associates, Inc., 1962). Winton M. Ahlstrom and Robert J. Havighurst, 40 Losers, Delinquent Boys in High School (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc., 1971). Colin English, Diversified Cooperative Training Program in Florida Public Schools (Tallahassee: State Department of Education, 1948). Joseph Messana, "The In-School Youth Work Train- ing Program at the Senior High School Level in an Inner-City 45 Education and the Urban Community brings together 49 essays dealing with the crises and conflicts in educa- tion that exist in urban areas. In the essay by Daniel U. Levine, he says: The recent proliferation of work-study programs has been a response to our forced awareness of the threat which large numbers of poorly educated, un-employed youth are posing to the social and economic institutions of a complicated industrial society and to our increased understanding that all human beings have a right to an education which gives them meaningful preparation for some sort of employment, even if it requires rather radical change in our educational institutions to provide such schooling.28 The Florida State Department of Education Bulletin substantiates this feeling in its statement of the purpose of its state-wide work—study program: . . . every boy and girl should have the opportunity to discover and develOp to the fullest, their interests, latent aptitudes, and abilities which will enable them to become more valuable citizens with a satisfying feeling of confidence and voca— tional security. 9 This Bulletin sets forth the entire program as well as gives guidelines to teacher coordinators and various other administrative personnel. George W. Burchill's Work Study Programs for Alienated Youth30 is perhaps one of the best compilations of the studies of eight separate work-study programs. The Setting in Detroit--A Study (a dissertation, Wayne State University, 1968). 8Daniel U. Levine, op. cit., p. 351. 29Colin English, op. cit. 30George W. Burchill, op. cit. 46 Casebook includes studies of programs dealing with youths that are above normal, drop outs, slow learners, juvenile delinquents, and handicapped. The study also includes important information for those interested in setting up similar or like programs. A complete representation of necessary forms and advice is available in this book. 400 Losers31 is a report of a work—study experiment with socially maladjusted boys in Kansas City, Missouri. The project was a carefully designed control group experiment with boys, starting at the eighth grade and continued through the high school age period. The experiment featured a work-experience program combined with a modified academic program. It was expected that the boys in the experimental work- study group would show better social adjustment and early adult competence than those in the control group, who remained in the regular high-school pro- gram. The experiment showed that the work—experience program was related to improved social adjustment in some but not all of the boys in the experimental group.32 The principal value of the study is the insights obtained into the lives and experiences of boys-- white and black--who seem destined to be losers in the game of growing up in a modern big city.33 The final review in this chapter is of a study by Joseph Messana of disadvantaged youths in inner-City Detroit.34 The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not disadvantaged youth enrolled in this program at two inner-city high schools during the 1965-1966 school year would experience attitudinal changed 3lWinton M. Ahlstrom and Robert J. Havighurst, op. cit. 32Ibid., p. ix. 33 Ibid., p. x. 4Joseph Messana, o . cit. 47 experienced by comparable students not enrolled in the program during the same period.35 Dr. Messana's conclusions were that: l. The program did have a positive impact upon some trainee groups in the areas of self- acceptance, academic self-concept, and the total battery of motivational scales. 2. The gains achieved by the control sub—groups on the "Student Questionnaire" can be explained by the probability that these students gave answers that they felt were expected by "the establishment." Control students had applied, qualified, and were waiting job placement. Generally, they exhibited anxiety about remain— ing in contention for future jobs. 3. The dropout rate of the total student body, when compared with the dropout rates of the experimental and control groups, indicates a probability that the hard-core potential drop- outs tended not to apply for jobs. 4. It is expected that continuation and improvement of this program will, eventually, help transform trainee changes in attitude and perception into changes in school performance. A final mention should be made of the fact that there have been numerous works written strictly on the mechanics of operation and technicalities of cooperative education in general, as opposed to any social, industrial or other values. Two such books, although British, are very thorough sources of information. They are: Work Study, by J. A. Larkin of Edinburgh (McGraw- Hill: Maidenhead, Berkshire, England, 1969), and Work Study--A Practical Primer, by Andrew Rae, of the Hendon College of Technology (London: Odhams Books Ltd., 1964). 351bid. 36Ibid. 48 Summary In summary, the general aspects of the literature relating to cooperative education range from the earliest concept that work-study would be a valuable method with which to train students to be better—advantaged prospec- tive employees, to the modern realization that workestudy is a practical, as well as preferred, method for obtaining maximum efficiency for both commerce, industry, and government, and the school or college. This applies academically as well as financially. The student too, is shown to appreciate the advantages of going to a school where there is a work-study program. CHAPTER III DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Introduction The problem as stated in Chapter I1 was to compare the structural and process elements of two separate work- study programs in a single urban community college; and to analyze and compare selected behavioral outcomes commonly viewed as related to positive growth and development among college students. The design of this chapter is divided into three major sections. The first section describes the data needed to answer the questions and test hypotheses posed in the statement and analysis of the problem sections in Chapter I. The second section discusses the aspects of objective reality that will be observed or measured, original documents and records, and students in both work- study programs. The third section delineates tools and techniques for gathering and analyzing data and standards by which the success of the work-study programs will be judged. 1See page 3. 49 50 Definitions of Variables The following data were gathered on each student from each work-study program coordinator.2 The data for each variable were collected from existing records from the files of Laney Community College. Absenteeism--(Estimate by Supervisors)--Lower rates of absenteeism would be viewed as related to greater satisfaction with the student's work assignment, especially when students are absent deliberately or habitually. Grade Point Average—-A higher grade point average would be viewed as related to a more productive and satisfying work experience. Laney College's scale was used in which the students are classi- fied according to quality of academic work. Tardiness--(Estimate by Supervisors)—-Lower rates of tardiness would be viewed as a reflection of greater job satisfaction. The quality or condi— tion in which students are late or delayed will be classified as being tardy. Supervision-—Student satisfaction with the job will be greater among those students who experienced peer supervision in the cooperative work phase of the program as opposed to agency supervision while working on the job. Nature of Special Curricula-—Designed for traditional work-study students and for students in the Student Service Corps. The following data were gathered on each student from a job satisfaction questionnaire: Job Satisfaction-—Student's job satisfaction would be significantly higher among students whose assign— ments were career related than among those students whose assignments were non-career related. This was basic to the development of the tool to measure the behavioral outcomes of students and to the inclusion of this variable in the hypotheses. 2See Appendix C, p. 113ff. 51 Work Experiences--(Questionnaire to Student)--A descrip- tion of the similarities and differences of work experiences to which students were exposed, and expressions of the way students feel about their work experiences. Independent variables included the demographic characteristics of sex and racial origin, in order to offset the absence of linkage between names of respondents and the scores on the job satisfaction questionnaire, and to increase the precision of the tests for the comparison of major importance which was the program Student Service Corps versus Work-Study variable. Sample Selection The sample of work-study programs were selected from students who come from Laney Community College in California. The students themselves were from the inner city. The samples were drawn from a population of 750 students from Laney Community College work-study programs. Instrumentation The questionnaire was designed to test Herzberg's3 theory of job satisfaction which states that a set of intrinsic factors--achievement, responsibility, work itself, recognition, and advancement——are mainly responsible for job satisfaction; and a set of extrinsic factors-- coworkers, supervision, salary, security, work-study 3F. Herzberg, F. R. O. Mausner, and Dora F. Capwell, Job Attitudes: Review of Research and Opinion (Pittsburgh: Psychological Service of Pittsburgh, 1957). 52 policies and practices—-are mainly responsible for job dissatisfaction. The Herzberg factors were utilized however, to avoid both the subjectivity inherent in interpreting interviews and the possible biasing effects of social desirability; the aim was to measure job satisfaction and dissatisfaction using a 32 item questionnaire based on 12 of Herzberg's factors. The initial pool of 54 items was rated by 23 graduate students and faculty on content and social desirability; 30 items remained after the elimination of those items with social desirability ratings at the extremes and those whose content was not agreed upon by at least 15 raters. A pilot sampling was drawn from a group of 25 work-study students at Michigan State University to test the validity and reliability of the questionnaires. The main purpose of the pilot sampling was to get reaction from work-study students outside the sample selected, and to identify ambiguous items so that they could be clari- fied or eliminated. Description of the Analysis Controlling for the effects of sex, race and pro- gram (through a three-way multivariate analysis and a three-way univariate analysis) was viewed as essential to 4M. Dunnette, et al., "Factors Contributing to Job Satisfaction and Job Dissatisfaction in Six Occupational Groups," University of Minnesota, 1966. (Mimeographed.) 53 offset the absence of linkage between the names of respondents and the scores each individual received on job satisfaction as well as the individual characteris- tics of students which were obtained from their coordi— nators and their personnel records. The first phase was analyzed through the use of a multivariate analysis of variance. The four dependent variables were absenteeism, grade point average, retention and tardiness. The independent variables employed in the design, were sex, race, and program effect (see Table 3.1). The second phase was analyzed through the uni- variate analysis of variance on the job satisfaction score as the dependent variable with the independent variables being sex, race and proqram (see Table 3.2). The internal consistency estimate of reliability of job satisfaction scale was .93 computed by the analysis I of variance method (Hoyt, 1941). r Hypotheses l4 The following are restatements of the hypotheses in the form of the questions to be answered; which is what relationship, if any exists between these variables as they relate to a single criterion. H : There will be no significant difference 1 between groups on grade point average, retention, absenteeism and tardiness. H2: There will be no significant differences between races on grade point average, retention, absenteeism and tardiness. 54 mmmafloyme mmmafioyma mmmaflpyme Emflmmyammam Emwmmyammad Emfimmycmmad mHmEmm M coayamymm aoflyamymm aoflyamymm m mmmum>¢ yaflom momyo mmmym>< yaeom momma momum>¢ yaflom momma % S mmmcflcyme mmmaflcyme mmmafloyme m Emflmmyamma< Emflmmyamma< Emflmmyammad m m .m a0yyamymm aoflyamymm coeyamymm H z mmmym>< yafiom momuw mmmnm>< yafiom mommu mmmum>¢ yaflom mommu S mmmafloyme mmmafloyme mmmaflcyme 1 Emflmmycmmam Emflmmyammad Emflmmyamma< mHmEmm m coyyamymm aofiyamymm aoflyamymm mum mmmum>¢ yaflom momyo mmmym>¢ yaflom momyw mmmum>¢ yCHom momma & 1 s S mmmafloyme mmmafloymfi mmmafloyme m Emflmmyammam Emflmmycmmaé Emflmmyamma< m m m. aoflyamymm aoflyamymm coflyamymm H 2 as mmmum>< yaflom momyw mmmym>¢ yaflom momyw mmmum>¢ yaflom momyo e ymayo myflaz aomam .mao ymaESZ mflmwamad .mUCMHHm> mo mammamam myMHym>yyasz How amflmmo Hmoflymflymymlu.a.m mqmde TABLE 55 3.2.--Statistical Design for Analysis 2 on Satisfaction Scale. Student Service Corps Work—Study BLACK Male Job Satisfaction Female WHITE Male Female OTHER Male Female There will be no significant differences between sexes on grade point average, retention, absenteeism, and tardiness. There will be no significant interaction between Group and Races on grade point average, retention, absenteeism, and tardiness. There will be no significant interaction between Group and Sex on grade point average, retention, absenteeism, and tardiness. There will be no significant interaction between Race and Sex on grade point average, retention, absenteeism, and tardiness. There will be no significant interaction between Group, Race and Sex on grade point average, retention, absenteeism, and tardi- ness. There will be no significant differences between Groups on job satisfaction. There will be no significant differences between Races on job satisfaction. There will be no significant differences between Sexes on job satisfaction. 56 H11: There will be no significant interaction between Group and Race on job satisfaction. H12: There will be no significant interaction between Group and Sex on job satisfaction. H13: There will be no significant interaction between Race and Sex on job satisfaction. H14: There will be no significant interaction between Group, Race and Sex on job satisfaction. Summary The samples of work-study prOgrams were selected from students who attended Laney Community College in California. The samples were drawn from a population of 750 students from Laney Community College work—study programs. An analysis table was constructed to organize the data with one of the independent variables cast into columns and the other into rows. Mean scores on both groups were tested to determine if significant differences exist. The analysis was used to analyze existing differ— ences between the Student Service Corps and the traditional work-study program. A key element in the study was the use of a 32-item job satisfaction questionnaire to differ- entiate attitudes between the two groups, and to test a set of intrinsic and extrinsic factors. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF DATA Introduction The problem as related (a) to the nature and scope was to analyze and compare selected behavioral outcomes commonly viewed as positive growth and development among college students; and (b) to compare the formal and process differences in two separate work-study programs in a single urban community college. (Part (b) is reported in Chapter I.) The substance of this chapter was most directly applicable to research done by quantitative methods. The overall organization of this chapter was to devote a major subdivision to each of the questions in the problem analysis, one section to statistical analysis, and one to summarizing the chapter. The statistical analysis section was divided into the following sub—sections: a) tabulation of original data; b) quantification of data; c) tabular and statistical analysis; and d) descriptive analysis. Tabulation of Original Data Data were collected from written reports on each student that was on file at Laney Community College. The 57 58 coordinator from each cooperative program provided the following data: an estimate of absenteeism, grade point average, estimate of tardiness and the nature of special curricula designed for work-study students in both pro- grams. The second major section of the analysis was a 32-item job satisfaction questionnaire which was a des- cription of the similarities and differences of work experiences to which students were exposed. Quantification of Data The job satisfaction scale was designed to test Herzberg's theory of job satisfaction which states that a set of intrinsic factors--achievement, responsibility, work itself, recognition, and advancement--are mainly responsible for job satisfaction; and a set of extrinsic factors--co-workers, supervision-technical, supervision- human relations, salary, security, program policies and practices, and working conditions—-are mainly responsible for job dissatisfaction.l The Herzberg factors were utilized, however, to avoid both the subjectivity inherent in interpreting :interviews and the possible biasing effects of social desirability; the aim was to measure job satisfaction and dissatisfaction using a 32-item questionnaire based on ¥ lE. Herzberg, The Motivation to Work (New York: Wiley, 1959) . 59 12 of Herzberg's factors. The initial pool of 54 items was rated by 23 graduate students and faculty on content and social desirability; 30 items remained after the elimination of those items with social desirability ratings at the extremes and those whose content was not agreed upon by at least 15 raters. A pilot sampling was drawn from a group of 25 work- study students at Michigan State University to test the validity and reliability of the questionnaires. The main purpose of the pilot sampling was to get reaction from work-study students outside the population selected, and to identify ambiguous items so they could be clarified or eliminated. The internal consistency estimate of reliability was .93 completed by the analysis of variance method (Hoyt, 1941). The students were asked to rate the statements on how they contributed to job satisfaction. Each set of 32 statements was presented in questionnaire form, using Likert type items.2 The students were asked to circle only one of the five alternatives for each item, which stated: how much do you agree or disagree with each of these statements--in a forced choice manner into five categories approximating a normal distribution--strongly agree, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,--strongly disagree. Each statement 2Rensis Likert, "A Technique for the Measurement of Attitude," Archives of Psychology, CXL (June, 1932). 60 was scored by assigning it the number of the category in which the student had circled. Correlational Analysis of Satisfaction Scale The correlations between the item score for each individual item and total score are presented in Table 4.1. The vast majority of the items that were included on the correlation between the item score and the total score was above .50. There were relatively few that were .20 or below, however, there were three items that were negatively correlated with the total score. The negative correlation tends to indicate that these particular items tend to be measuring something different from what is measured by the total test score. Thus, it would be recommended that further use of this satisfaction scale exclude these particular items. Internal consistency-reliability estimates were run on the total scale, on all the items for the total satisfaction scale, and the reliability resulting from that internal consistency estimate was .93. It was con— cluded that there was enough internal consistency among the satisfaction scale that it didn't need to be divided into two factors; it was looked at as a one—factor instru— ment, and was employed as a job satisfaction scale. 61 TABLE 4.1.—~Corre1ation Between the Item Score for Each Item and the Total Score. Variable Standard Deviation r with Total 1 Item 01 1.21 .73 2 Item 03 1.21 .91 3 Item 04 1.07 .85 4 Item 05 1.19 .90 5 Item 06 1.12 .65 6 Item 07 1.11 .73 7 Item 08 .97 .76 8 Item 09 1.02 .59 9 Item 10 .90 .79 10 Item 11 1.04 .84 11 Item 12 1.06 .83 12 Item 13 .91 .79 13 Item 14 1.16 .87 14 Item 15 1.20 .35 15 Item 17 .97 .20 16 Item 18 1.13 .31 17 Item 19 .63 .15 18 Item 20 1.02 .65 19 Item 21 .99 .70 20 Item 22 .96 .60 21 Item 23 .99 .76 22 Item 24 1.17 -.21 23 Item 25 1.15 .01 24 Item 26 1.17 .27 25 Item 27 .99 -.20 26 Item 28 1.20 .80 27 Item 29 1.20 .71 28 Item 30 .89 -.09 29 Item 32 1.05 .80 30 Total 17.20 Comparison of Absenteeism, Grade Point Average, Tardiness and Retention Through Analysis of Variance This particular statistical design was analyzed through the use of a multivariate analysis of variance, with the four dependent variables as absenteeism, grade point average, retention, and tardiness. 62 The independent variables employed in the design were sex, race, and program (Table 3.2). The second design was analyzed through the uni- variate analysis of variance on the single dependent measure of the satisfaction questionnaire with the inde- pendent variables being sex, race, and program (Table 3.3). To determine whether there was a higher grade point average, tardiness, retention, and absences in the Student Service Corps than in the work-study program, the hypotheses were tested for significance at the .05 alpha level with the appropriate degree of freedom. The first statistical analysis, which employed the four dependent variables of absenteeism, grade point average, retention, and tardiness. This multivariate analysis addresses itself to the first seven hypotheses, and the univariate analysis was used to analyze the second seven hypotheses which follow: H : There will be no significant interaction 7 . between group, race and sex on grade po1nt average, retention, absenteeism and tardi- ness. H14: There will be no significant interaction between group, race and sex on job satis- faction. In examining these hypotheses from the most complex interaction to the main effect, it is noted the design employed was a non—orthogonal design. The triple-order interaction which was interaction group by sex by race, was not significant on the multi- variate test, nor on any of the univariate tests; therefore 63 the null hypothesis of no difference between group by sex by race was accepted (Table 4.2). H5: There will be no significant interaction between group and sex on grade point average, retention, absenteeism, and tardiness. H12: There will be no significant interaction between group and sex on job satisfaction. Table 4.3 group by sex interaction indicates the multivariate test and the univariate tests were not significant; thus, the null hypothesis was accepted. H6: There will be no significant interaction between race and sex on grade point average, retention, absenteeism and tardiness. H13: There will be no significant interaction between race and sex on job satisfaction. The multivariate test indicates race by sex inter- action was not significant, nor was race by sex significant on the univariate test; therefore, the null hypothesis of 0 no difference between race by sex interaction was accepted (Table 4-4). H4: There will be no significant interaction between grouppand race on grade point average, retention, absenteeism, and tardiness. H11: There will be no significant interaction between group and race on job satisfaction. The multivariate tests showed no significance in group by race interaction (Table 4.5). The hypothesis of no difference between group by race interaction was accepted on the multivariate test. H3: There will be no significant differences between sexes on grade point average, retention, absenteeism, and tardiness. 64 mmm u yoyym MOM Eocmmum mo mmmymmo m u mammayomma How Eoommum mo mmmymmm mean. Hnmm. memo. mmmafioyme .e ooom. moH. mmmo. Emflmmyammaa .m memm. oo.a hano.nomm aOHyamymm .m mmnm. hmma. Homo. .<.m.w .H Hm>mq moamoflmwamflm oflymmlm om ammz amm3ymm maamflym> aomm.o cane mama a oooo.mae eam m u an memm.o n mnoyom> cams mo spasmsam mo ymme mumaam>ayasz Hoe oyymmum .momm x xmm x msoyw aoHyomymyaH Hmoyo oaoomm may mo ymmB moamflym> mo mflmxama¢II.N.v mqm4e 65 mmm u yoyym How Eoommum mo mmmymmo H n mHmmayomwm MOM Eoommum mo mmmymmo momm.o nmvo.o OHHo.o mmmaHpumB .v HOHm.o mnmo.o HvHo.o EmHmmyamma< .m ommn.o mvHH.o nmmm.0HHH aoHyamymm .N hmmm.o mmmm.H vmmv.o .<.m.w .H amae mmma m m mymHym>HaD gm ammz ammzymm mHaMHHm> oomm.o amaB mmmH m oooo.mmm mam v n ma ommm.o n myoyom> ammz mo waHmsqm mo ymmB mymHym>Hstz How oHymmlm .aoHyomHmyaH xmm x msoyoul.m.e mamafi 66 mmm u Hoyym HON Eoommnm mo mmmHme n mHmmayommm Mom Eopmmym mo mmmymma mmmm.o movH.o mmmo.o mmmaprmB .v mvmm.o mmmm.o GOMH.o EmHmmyamma¢ .m vmmm.o wwmm.o mSVH.omHm aoHyamymm .m ommm.o homm.o OHmm.o .<.m.o .H amaB mmmH m m mymHHm>HaD om ammz cmmzymm mHamHHm> vvwm.o Hmmm.o amaB mmmH m ooo.m>v mam m n ma yoyom> ammz mo myHHmsqm mo ymmB mymHym>Hstz HOW oHymmlm .COHDOMHOQFHH unmwm X TOMMII.V.v mqm/NB 67 mmm u Hoyym How Eoommym yo mmmumma m u mHmmayomwm How Eoommum mo mmmymmo mmmo.o Hmmm.m mmHm.o mmmaprmB .v mHmm.o oomm.H mnmm.o EmHmmyamma< .m mHnm.o man.o ommm.GNMH aoHyamymm .m NmmH.o mHmm.H mmmw.o .<.m.o .H cmae mmmq m m mymHym>HaD om ammz ammzymm mHamHHm> evmo.o amae mmmH m ooo.mnv mam m n ma mmon.H n myoyom> ammz yo SyHHmsqm mo ymme mymHym>Hstz HOW oHymmum I .aoHyomHmyaH msoyw x mommla.m.v mqmde 68 H10: There will be no significant differences between ggggg on job sat1sfact1on. The overall multivariate test for sex indicated a nonsignificant result across all variables (Table 4.6). Thus, the null hypothesis of no difference between sexes, tested by the multivariate, was accepted. In similar manner, Table 4.9 indicates that there is no significant difference between males and females in their mean response to the job satisfaction scale. H2: There will be no significant differences between races on grade po1nt average, retention, absenteeism, and tardiness. H : There will be no significant differences between races on job satisfaction. The effect for race was significant at the multi- variate level with a probability of less than .068. The univariate tests indicated a difference between races on their scores for grade point average and retention. The race category "Others" was higher than Blacks on grade point average but lower than Whites on retention; thus the hypothesis of no difference between races on the grade point average and retention was rejected (Table 4.7). H1: There will be no significant difference between groups on grade point average, retention, absenteeism, and tardiness. H8: There will be no significant differences between groups on job satisfaction. The multivariate test for difference between groups was significant at .0001. The univariate test was signi- ficant on three of the univariate variables for the effect for group. Grade point average yielded a probability of mo.o mmo.os mmmaHoyme .e 00.0 mHo.oI EmHmmyammam .m Ho.MH mmm.v aoHyamymm .N mo.o mHm.o| .4.m.w .H mymEHymm mHaB mmaommmm CH moamHmMMHo GOmHymmEou mo Hoyym pymoamym mo mymEHymm mmymsqm ymmmH mHmEmMIImHmE 9 6 mmm u Hoyym MOM Eoommum mo mmmnmmo H u mHmmayomwm MOM Eoommum mo mmmymmo Hmmm.o momm.o mmmH.o mmmaprmB .v omm>.o Hmwo.o mmHo.o EmHmmyamma< .m BHon.o mth.o mmmm.mmeH aOHyamymm .m wmoo.o mnoo.h mmmm.m .¢.m.o .H amae wmmq m m mymHym>HaD Um ammz ammBymm mHamHym> smea.m u msoyo mmho.o amae mmmq m ooo.wmm mam v n ma m> ammz wo myHHmsqm mo ymmB mymHym>Hstz How oHymmlm .xmm How yommwmll.m.e mqm¢ yaHom mtmyw mmm n Hoynm How EommmHm mo mmmymmo m n mHmmayomhm How Eoommum mo mmmymmo mmev.o mmHm.o vmmH.o mmmaprmB .v mmwm.o omme.o MGOH.o EmHmmyammam .m Hmmo.o mevh.m MHmm.mommm aoHyamymm .m mmmo.o mome.m mHhh.o .<.m.0 .H amae mmmH m m myMHym>HaD om ammz ammBymm mHaMHym> moo.o amay mmmH m oooo.mnv mam m H mm H myoyom> ammz mo myHHmsqm wo ymmB mymHym>Hstz How oHymmlm .momm How yomwMMIl.h.v mqmme mo.o mo.o mmmaHoymB .e mo.o Hm.o EmHmmyammad .m nm.mH mm.mm| aoHyamymm .N OH. mm.o .¢.m.w .H mymEHymm mHaB mmaommmm CH moamumMMHQ COmHmeEoo HOw Hoyym oymocmym mo mymEHymm mmnmsqm ymmmH mpsym aHOZIImQHOU moH>ymm yampsym n mmm u younm How Eoommym mo mmmymmm H u mHmmayommm How Eoommym mo mmmummo oomH.o mwmn.H HeHe.o mmmaHUymB .v mooo.o mmmH.eH movv.m EmHmmyamma< .m Neoo.o vmmm.m mmmm.nmmom aoHyamymm .N mmoo.o anm.> mmvm.m .<.m.w .H amae mmmH m m mymHym>HaD gm ammz ammzymm mHaMHHm> Hooo.o amaB mmmH m oooo.mmm Cam v H mm eemH.m n maoyom> cams mo syaamsem Lo ymme mymaam>flyasz Hoe oHpmmum .msoyo How yomwmm:l.m.v mamae 73 .Hm>mH mo. moamOHwHamHmt amfi mmm mmkm.mmm gonna oaem. oeme.H m mmm~.eme cofluomumycH mommtxmmtasoyo Name. Hams. m omak.mam coflyomnmucH mommtxmm Heme. mmam.m N mamm.aoe soapomumucH mommsasoyo moam. ommo.H H Hmmm.mom coHyotumycH xmmtasoyo amen. comm. m mmma.mm yomuam momm ooeo. omme.m H mmom.mao.a hummus xmm taooo. mmHe.ms H meoo.Hmm.mH someum asouo m oHymmlm mp mumsqm ammz aoHymHym> mo moysom aoo .mHamHym> may now mmomm mam mmxmm .masoyw mo .GOHyommmHymm moamHHm> mo mHmmHma¢s|.m.v mqmde CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Organization The purpose of this study was dual, first to compare the structural and process elements in the implementation of two separate work-study programs in a single urban community college. The secondary purpose was to analyze and compare selected behavioral outcomes commonly viewed as related to positive growth and development among college students. The traditional work-study group operated accord— ing to guidelines set forth by the Federal Government under the Economic Opportunity Act of 1965. The second was the Student Service Corps with emphasis upon a) group focus on helping humanitarian service to inner-city residents, b) weekly seminars, and c) peer supervisors. A review of the related literature focused on: 1. The sources of related literature with respect to degrees of relevance, kinds of references available, and the amount available; 74 75 2. Citations, which have to do with matters related to format and sequence; 3. Quotations, for the purpose of an enumera- tion concerning documentation. The review dealt with two basic types of literature: 1. Articles, written on the basis of experience and opinion, and 2. Reports of research investigations. The section on what is cooperative education explains how cooperative education got its start, and how this approach to education was conceived by Dean Herman Schneider in 1906.1 The first work-study program was initiated by Schneider at the University of Cincinnati, with the purpose being to make this alliance an integral part of the educative process. The program was called "cooperative education." This name has been used inter- changeably with the more informal term of "work-study." There have been many definitions of educational cooperatives and work-study programs. However, no single definition is completely adequate. What is needed is the understanding of a concept. Many definitions, while satisfactory for cooperatives comprised mostly of school or educational systems, do not specifically include other organizations such as businesses, industry, financial sources and foundations or service agencies. 1R. W. Tyler and A. L. Mills, op. cit. 76 A definition which better fits this study is out- lined in Chapter II (page 34) which encompasses all of the above agencies. There has been discussion on the pros and cons of the COOperative programs; and a good deal of descriptive writings which cover the advantages and disadvantages of work-study programs. The conclusions in all these point out that the advantages of c00perative education far out- weigh the disadvantages. In this study data were gathered on each student from each work—study program coordinator; and two types of objectives were taken into consideration in both work- study programs. First, there were the objectives of the school itself--the local work-study purpose of the college. Second, there were the Federal objectives which the college must consider as being a part of the cooperative education system. There were seven individuals responsible for the Student Service Corps, and four individuals responsible 'I lllmva-Im‘r) ’tl—“m .1 I, for the work-study program at the college. The population for the study consisted of 750 students who attended Laney Community College in California. A sample of 160 was drawn from the work-study program, and 38 from the Student Service Corps. (A more detailed comparison of the two programs will be found in Chapter I, pages 15 and 25.) 2James H. Wilson and Edward H. Lyons, op. cit. 77 Behavioral Outcome Comparison An analysis table was constructed to organize the data with one of the independent variables cast into columns and another into rows. Mean scores on both groups were tested to determine if significant differ- ences existed. The analysis was also used to examine existing differences between the Student Service Corps and the work-study program. The Herzberg factors were utilized, however, to avoid both the subjectivity inherent in interpreting interviews and the possible biasing effects of social desirability; the aim was to measure job satisfaction and dissatisfaction using a 32-item questionnaire. A pilot sampling was drawn from a group of 25 work-study students at Michigan State University to test the validity and reliability of the questionnaire. Two 3-way analyses of variance were used to test the hypotheses. The first design was analyzed through l'm_fll': '. ”IQ-w In. . i I the use of a multivariate analysis of variance. The four dependent variables were absenteeism, grade point average, retention and tardiness. Sex, race, and group effect were employed as independent variables. The second design was analyzed through the univar- iate analysis of variance on the dependent measure of the 32-item Likert type response questionnaire, with the same independent variables referred to above. A summary table 78 was constructed, and the various degrees of freedom, F- ratio, and mean squares needed to complete the analysis were calculated. Findings From the Analysis of the Job Satisfaction Scale The following findings were based upon an analysis of the data: 4 Correlational analysis of Satisfaction Scale 1. The vast majority of the items that were . included in the final scale had correlations with the total score of .50 or above, thus indicating a consistency in contributing to the total satisfaction score, and that the test was essentially uni-dimensional. There were relatively few correlations that were .20 or below. 2. There were three items that were negatively correlated with the total score. The negative correla- tion tends to indicate that these particular items tend [ to be measuring something different from what is measured E by the total test score. Thus, it would be recommended I that further use of this satisfaction scale exclude these particular items. Analysis of Variance l. A total of three of the four dependent vari- ables (grade point average, retention, and absenteeism) were found to be significant at the .05 alpha level when analyzed through the use of the univariate analysis of variance on effect for grou . 79 2. When effect for £322 was used as the inde- pendent variable, differences between group grade point average and retention were found to be significant at the .05 alpha level. 3. When effect for ggx was used as the inde- pendent variable only grade point average was significant. 4. On race by group interaction, when used as the independent variable, tardiness was found to be significant. Multivariate Analysis 1. The package of four dependent variables (grade point average, retention, absenteeism, and tardiness) was found to be significant at the .05 alpha level when analyzed through the use of the multivariate analysis of variance on group effect. Hypothesis Testing 1. Findings resulting from the testing of null hypotheses l and 8 (see Chapter I) indicated a statistical basis for rejection of the null hypotheses. In rejecting 5‘..--7‘__‘W .. 1.3. .. ‘. the null hypotheses, this indicates that there is signi— ficant difference between groups on grade point average, retention, and absenteeism, and on job satisfactions as measured by the multivariate test and the univariate test. 2. Findings resulting from the testing of null hypotheses 2 and 9 indicated that there is significant statistical difference between races on grade point aver- age, retention, and on job satisfaction. The null 80 hypothesis 2 was accepted on the multivariate test. However, the null hypothesis 9 was rejected in the uni- variate test for differences between races on job satis- faction. 3. Findings resulting from the testing of null hypotheses 3 and 10 indicated no basis for rejection of the null, using the multivariate test. (However, when the individual univariates were examined, there was a significant effect for grade point average.) Therefore, the null hypothesis 3 was accepted which indicated no significant interaction between sexes on the four dependent variables, and the null hypothesis 10 was rejected, which indicated significant differences between sexes on the dependent variable. 4. Findings resulting from the testing of null hypotheses 4 and 11 indicated that there is no statistical basis for rejection of the null hypothesis 4. Failure to I reject the null indicated that there is no significant statistical interaction between group and race on the set of grade point average, retention, absenteeism, and tardi- ness as measured by the multivariate test. However, the univariate tests indicated a significant interaction between group and race on tardiness variable alone. The null hypothesis 11 was not rejected as measured by the univariate test for job satisfaction. 5. Findings resulting from testing of null hypo- theses 6 and 13 indicated no statistical basis for 81 rejection of nulls. Failure to reject the hypotheses 6 and 13 indicated that there is no significant statistical interaction between race and sex on grade point average, retention, absenteeism, tardiness and on job satisfaction as defined and measured by both the multivariate and univariate test. 6. Findings resulting from testing of null hypo- theses 5 and 12 indicated no statistical basis for rejection of the nulls. Failure to reject the null hypotheses 5 and 12 indicated that there is no significant statistical interaction between group and sex on grade point average, retention, absenteeism, tardiness, and on job satisfaction, as measured by the multivariate and univariate tests. 7. Findings resulting from testing of null hypotheses 7 and 14 indicated no statistical basis for rejection of nulls. Failure to reject the null hypothesis indicated that there is no significant statistical inter- action between group, race, sex, on grade point average, retention, absenteeism, tardiness, and on job satisfaction. Conclusions The analysis of the data suggests the following conclusions: 1. The grade point average earned by the Student Service Corps was significantly higher than that earned by the work—study group, suggesting a more positive academic experience. 82 2. The Student Service Corps had a significantly lower rate of reported absenteeism than the work-study group, reflecting a more positive experience. 3. The work-study group had a significantly higher retention rate than the Student Service Corps group, indicating a less positive outcome. 4. The Student Service Corps group was signifi- cantly more satisfied with their jobs than the work-study group, as measured by the univariate test on the job satisfaction scale. 5. The univariate analysis indicated that the Student Service Corps was significantly less likely to be tardy than the work study group, suggesting a more favorable response among Student Corpsmen to their assignments.3 Difference in Mean Scores on Job Satisfaction Scores Because of the nature of this study, there are u 5.. some results of the analysis that warrant further dis- cussion. I" 3The multivariate test indicates that there are significant differences between races on grade point average; and whites tend to have higher grade point averages than either Blacks or others; they also tend to have larger retention scores than either of the other racial groups. The univariate test indicates that females in both groups earned a significantly greater grade point average than males. 83 The cell means tables for the variable job satis— faction indicates4 that White males were satisfied with the Student Service Corps. One should note that the lower the score, the more satisfied they were with their jobs. Blacks tend to be in the middle, and both males and females scored about the same. Others, including American Indian, Oriental American, and Mexican-American, were almost in the middle, although males seemed to be less satisfied than females with their jobs. In the work-study group, one notices differences between males and females; however, not much difference between the races. Cell means across all groups seem to level out. They were all in the 80's. Males average 86, females 85, which suggests there wasn't much differ- ence in job satisfaction. Summing across the sexes was relatively the same, although Blacks tended to be as satisfied with their jobs as Whites and Others. The means for retention indicate that females in the Student Service Corps had a higher retention rate than males, and that Black females had the highest reten- tion rate, while White females had the lowest retention rate. In the work-study program Other males had the highest retention rate, while Black males had the lowest retention rate. 4See Appendix Tables C-l through C-15, op. cit. 84 When we sum across groups on means for absenteeism, it was found that Black females have the lowest rate of absenteeism while White females had the highest rate of absenteeism. It is interesting to note that although White females had the highest rate of absenteeism, they had a much higher rate of retention than both Black males and Other females. The major outcome of this study was that the Student Service Corps group attained a significantly higher score on the job satisfaction scale and reflected greater satisfaction in all but one of the job—related variables. It was interesting to note that the work-study students had a larger overall retention rate, which meant that the students within the work-study program tended to be retained on their jobs longer than the students in the Corps. This could be attributed to the close supervision received by the Corpsmen. There are peer field supervisors and faculty members assigned to the Corpsmen who visit job sites twice a week, whereas work-study students depend on a somewhat detached agency supervision. Some agencies look upon the students in both programs as free labor, therefore when students are absent the agencies are reluctant to report the student to the college coordinators, since they pay only 20 per cent of the student's salary. Since these agencies tend not to report students who are absent or perhaps drop 85 out of the program, many students retain their jobs "on the books." However, students in the Corps are reported immediately by one of the faculty or peer supervisors. There was less absenteeism within the Student Corpsmen group. This might be related to job satisfaction. Since they were highly satisfied with their jobs, they were less likely to be absent from their job. The Student Corpsmen earned a higher grade point average. This could result from the way the Corpsmen were selected, as it was found that the selection process was more intense than that of the work-study group. The demographic information indicated that the Corpsmen tended to be leaders on campus and were an older group than the work-study group. The Corpsmen tend to be political leaders who had more community involvements. The Student Service Corps met as a group on Fridays in a seminar which was taught by faculty members having released time, with three hours in the seminar setting and three hours in field supervision. Grades given in the seminars might contribute to the Corpsmen's higher grade point average. It would be difficult to put a straight implication from the seminar because there are two possible variables that could be Operating. In the race category, "Other," it was found that Others were scoring higher than Blacks on grade point average but not higher than Whites. This means that Whites were higher than Blacks on grade point average. 86 The Oriental students were grouped with Mexican- American and American Indians. It was found that by them- selves the Oriental group earned a higher grade point average than all other racial groups. Implications for further study might be to subdivide racial groups into further subdivisions than just Black, White, and Other. It is interesting to note that some Mexican-Americans would cross out the word Mexican—American and write in Chicano; and some Of the Black students in the Student Service Corps would write in Muslim in place of Black. The Orientals had a lower rate of retention than Blacks or Whites, which means they were not retained on the job as long as Blacks or Whites. This could be attributed to Orientals earning higher grades; they usually transferred to a four year college after one semester or after the first year. The findings do not bear directly on confirmation or refutation of the Herzberg hypothesis; they do cast some doubt on its generalizability and predictive power. There is some support for the belief that the Student Service Corps might be a valuable alternative to the traditional work-study program, as a result of the significant differences that were found. Implications for further research indicate that some research should be done in this area with the two questionnaires put together, so that all the data could be analyzed simultaneously. 87 In spite of its rather lengthy and extensive history, the study of behavioral outcomes, structural and process elements are at the threshold of scientific inquiry. Implications The major implication of this study was that the Student Service Corps group was exposed, at a grass roots level, to work that was meaningful and intimate to them. In addition there work was enhanced through opportunities to debrief themselves, express their concerns at their weekly seminar and to identify with a program that was tangible. This in itself might have been the reason for the success of the Student Service Corps, because an institution cared enough to establish a situation and create the conditions that would allow students to gain a sense of community. The Corpsmen had a strong social action commit- ment. Most of the students in the Corps expressed that their Student Service Corps experience was one of the few times in their lives they had a feeling of solidarity a feeling of caring about something which involved chang- ing the environment. They seem to believe that if they can have an impact on their environment, then they are more likely to modify their behavior in a favorable direction. If the Student Service Corps is actually a superior program, its success is probably related to the 88 fulfillment of group identity needs among Corpsmen and the intense social commitment of the "grass roots" to which Corpsmen were assigned. In addition the Corpsmen appeared to experience a feeling that their work would make a difference in their lives and the lives of others. Also academic achievement is probably enhanced when the academic work is closely tied to the student's career 1 objectives. 1 Another implication is that to get the most out L of the work-study programs, agency involvement in an advisory capacity is important. The agency must really feel they have inputs and can identify with the program if they are to care about their assigned students. As a result the possible tendency to see students as "free" laborers, or a pair of extra hands, can be overcome. Maybe then these agencies will better identify with the educational process. I While the preceding conclusions are viewed as basically sound it is recognized that they must be viewed t as more tenuous than in a study which was established from the beginning as an experimental research project. Consequently, it is recommended that the findings of this study be employed to establish basic hypotheses for an experimental design in a separate situation from the one reported in this study. It is quite probable that some of the positive outcomes in favor of the Student Service Corps can be 89 explained by the Hawthorne effect. This is not seen as a negative feature because most exploratory efforts capitalize upon the sense of frontiermanship and group solidarity which exploration produces. The sense of community within the Corps appears to have had a real impact on the agencies which may have exceeded the impact of the work-study program on its assigned agencies. The weekly seminar which the Corps attended also appears to have provided interaction, group cohesion, and goal interdependence which are important variables in production as well as job satisfaction. Regardless of the level of morale or satisfaction, a cohesive group will be productive only if the group's goals include a high production level. The interaction effect is dependent in part on group size. Therefore in a large group, like the work-study program, one might anticipate lower morale stemming from less cohesiveness than a smaller group like the Student Service Corps could provide. The Corps' lower rate of absenteeism was viewed as a reflection of the relationship between job satisfac- tion and job attendance. There are implications for further research using different breakdowns of the populations under scrutiny to make accurate comparisons dealing with the same variables. Sex, nature of job, and skill level might be factors in determining the relation between attitudes and absence. 1-1.1,... , __-___- " "‘”“HEEW I . 90 Some caution should be exercised in assuming that one large Student Service Corps would be effective. On the contrary, an administrator might want to use different breakdowns of the groups; one for Chicanos, one for Blacks, older women, Women's Liberation, and Gay Liberation. One might then assume that these smaller groups with meaningful assignments in the community would tend to react in essentially the same manner as the Student Service Corps in this study. The study implies that there is a relation between job satisfaction and job performance; yet in fact, there might be no clear relation. It may be that the students in the Corps show high satisfaction because their perform— ance is high, or the work-study students may be satisfied with low production if the group norm favors such a level. The social commitment of the Corps might be one of the key factors in the program which resulted in a higher rate of behavioral outcomes. There are certain sets of behavior and personality that every job carries in our society. They are not always requirements that are obvious in association with the performance of the job itself. A student stands a better chance of succeeding at the job when the job requirements and the individual's style are in phase, other things being equal, than the student who is antagonistic to the job requirements because of his behavioral style. '1‘" 5 r : min A“ 91 Recommendations l. Replication of the study with the instrument to determine whether the overly high incidence of positive correlation among questionnaire items is ultimately due more to bias from acquiescence or to social desirability. 2. Further research is needed to compare and analyze other work-study programs at four-year colleges and universities. 3. Further research is needed to determine or support the notion that making job content more attractive will lead to increased job satisfaction. 4. Replication of the study comparing and analyz- ing an urban community college work-study program with an urban four-year college or university work-study program. 5. Work-study programs should be designed to offer special seminars on a regular basis, special coun- seling to prepare students for the world of work. These seminars and counseling sessions should be conducted by faculty members and community leaders. 6. The work of both the Student Service Corpsmen, and the work-study students, which is similar to an internship, e.g., tutoring in the schools, warrants academic units as well as pay, just as it is true of internship in nursing or merchandise management. 7. An investigation is needed to explore correla- tional statistics measuring the magnitude of the relation— ship between predictors (e.g., satisfaction) and criterion 92 (e.g., production) to answer the question—-if high job satisfaction is associated with high production, then low job satisfaction should be associated with low pro- duction. 8. Work-study programs should be administered in such a fashion as to culturally enhance a positive and constructive neighborhood. The work-study programs should entail assignment of work-study students to grass roots agencies similar to those assignments of the Student Service Corps. Epilogue The findings of this study have several implica- tions. The use of Herzberg's theory of job satisfaction which states that a set of intrinsic factors——achievement, responsibility, work itself, recognition, and advancement-- are mainly responsible for job satisfaction, and a set of extrinsic factors—-co—workers, supervision - technical, supervision - human relations, salary, security, program policies and practices, and working conditions-—are mainly responsible for job dissatisfaction. The conclusions of this study offered some evidence to support the following proposals. Mechanistic work-study program approach leads to apathy, acquiescent and limited responsibility. Societal changes with new demands upon educational systems will require educators to consider and develop new ways of restructuring their work—study programs to provide more effective and efficient work experiences. 93 Many forces provide impetus for changes, but the problem remains-~how best to organize to provide socially responsive systems to help insure quality education in a mass, technologically oriented society. The multiplicity of agencies in urban areas suggests the need for new and larger structures of educational governance to provide greater coordination with other related community organi— zations. Contrast this to the theory that the acquiescent work-study student reveals a certain desire for subser- vience in his willingness to go along with anything. Consider, more positively, that these students are just trying to make a good impression. As yet, research has been unable to determine clearly whether the overly high incidence of positive correlation among questionnaire items is ultimately due more to bias from acquiescence or to social desirability. Based upon the findings of this study, it is crucial that we examine the administration of the work- study program. This becomes difficult because of the movement of students to and from schools. Good coordi- nators are difficult to find because the coordinator must understand both the industrial and educational aspects of the work situation. Faculty members must be alert and must be able to relate academic work with job experience. The cooperative coordinator must have a window on the lives of work-study students as few of his colleagues 94 have, and through this window he has an opportunity to learn. If he goes through this learning process with a clear mind and a sharp eye, understanding that human feelings are terribly important, and if he hasn't been too worn by exposure to bureaucratic procedure, then he will have begun to build a background that will be more valuable than much of the sterile academic course work that cooperative coordinators often press on students. The work-study program ought to be both an oppor- tunity for students to earn money and to be involved in important kinds of work in a changing community. The work-study program is potentially one of the most valuable and exciting student aid programs that educational insti— tutions are involved in. Job attitudes, their determinants and consequences, are complex, and as yet relatively unanalyzed, phenomena. Few work-study students have the clear-cut goals of the social critic or motivational systems of the educational psychologist. It is unlikely that work—study students' attitudes will be predicted by a general theory dealing with abilities, background, or motivation in any more accurate manner than students' performance has been pre- dicted on the basis of reported job satisfaction. In listing negative factors associated with parti- cipation in the work-study programs, agency representatives refer most often to the loss of production incurred while new students are being trained. 95 College representatives list the following needs in connection with operating work-study programs: more supervisors and coordinators to handle the administrative details of the programs; more monies for staffing, instruc— tional materials and facilities, and special services needed by educational disadvantaged students; and more flexibility in scheduling classes for work-study students. There is a need for more instructors with a sympathetic understanding of the problems of the low income students. Involving agencies with program ideas at the initial stages is difficult since schools do not have "salesmen" for their programs as some of the new agency programs have. One administrative complaint is that industry may find an outstanding coordinator and take him away from the college by offering a more attractive salary and less diffi— cult working conditions. In conclusion, the most positive factor associated with the college participation in the Student Services Corps is the increased communication with industry and other community agencies which results in curriculum and course content changes that make the job education provided by the college more appropriate to the needs students will meet in the world of work. Once industry and other com- munity agencies become aware of the potential of this new work force and take advantage of the colleges' offerings they can provide upgrading and retraining opportunities for their employees. The colleges then benefit from 96 increased use of their facilities and society benefits as more students increase their level of education. The number of work-study programs must be increased, even in those areas where they now exist, to prevent the charge of tokenism which is often levelled at those who seem to be doing most by disgruntled students who know cooperative programs are available and cannot understand why there is not room for them to participate. BIBLIOGRAPHY 97 BIBLIOGRAPHY Ahlstrom, W. M. and Havighurst, R. J. 400 Losers, Delinquent Boys in High School. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1971. Armsby, H. Cooperative Education in the United States. Washington, D. C.: Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1954. Arnold, C. F. "Why Industry Likes Coop." Journal of Engineering Education. ILVII (1956), pp. 314-319. Arnold, D. L. "Swap Sessions." Occupations. Vol. 29 (1951), pp. 271-273. Bedford, J. H. "College Work Experience Program." Personnel and Guidance Journal. 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Journal of Engineering Education. ILIX (1959), pp. 961-966. Oldt, Esther. "The Antioch College Cooperative Work-Study Program." Journal of Educational Sociology. Vol. 25 (1952), PP. 308-316. Peralta Colleges. Peralta Colleges Final Evaluation from an Administrative Point of View. Oakland, Calif.: Peralta Colleges, 1970. Perskey, Blanche. "The Value of Field Work Experience." Journal of Educational Sociology. Vol. 29 (1955), pp. 113-119. Roller, A. C. A College Education Plus Job Experience. New York: Birk, 1961. Roscoe, John T. Fundamental Research Statistics. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1969. Savitsky, C. "S.T.E.P., Program for Potential Dropouts." Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary School Principals. December, 1963. Smith, Lawrence C. "The Urban Studies Program." Journal of Special Education. Vol. 1 (1970), pp. 134-137. Stewart, N. "Cooperative Education: Path to a Career in Engineering and Science." School Science and Mathematics. Vol. 18 (1958T3 pp. 175-180. Strong, E. M. "Cooperative Education at the Undergraduate Level." Electrical Engineering. Vol. 68 (1949), pp. 279-281. 102 Tyler, R. W. and Mills, A. L. "What is Cooperative Education?" Education Digest. Vol. 27 (1961), pp. 38-39. U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. College Work-Study Program Manual. Washington, D. C.: U. 8. Government PrintIng Office, 1968. Wiley, J. B. "One Answer for Two Problems?" Journal of Engineering Education. ILVIII (1957), pp. 56-58. Wilson, James H. and Lyons, Edward W. Work-Study College Programs. New York: Harper, 1961. "Work-Study Programs." Chronicle Occupational Briefs. SE8/65/17/SB4. Moravia, New York: Chronicle Guidance Publications, 1965. _, «#923377 ‘ I .L APPENDICES 103 1 1.;‘IIMA ‘Iu—eqi‘vm _ L J r v' APPENDIX A PROFILE OF THE TARGET AREAS 104 ind-14w .2, 1‘ "it, J Y . '. — fl“ 4....le fl.‘ u‘n- PROFILE OF THE TARGET AREAS* The area served by the Inner City Project is that portion of Oakland, California referred to as the "target areas." This term refers to those geographical sections of the city designated as poverty areas under the community action program of the Office of Economic Opportunity. 1 T These sections of the city are characterized as depressed [ areas requiring special services to combat the chronic effects of poverty, i.e., high rate of unemployment, coupled with general low income patterns, poor housing conditions, severe health problems, and educational deficiencies. The target areas comprise approximately 41% of Oakland's total population but 91% of the total Negro population and 51% of the population with Spanish surnames. Geographically, the area consists of 37 of the 102 census tracts of the city. All tracts in the target areas have an unemployment rate of at least 9% and some have rates as high as 33%. Many tracts have become urban renewal areas with the conse- quent problems of family relocation. Since decent housing for low income families is at a premium in the target areas, this relocation creates further social problems. 3 t E ; h. Educationally, the children of the areas suffer severe handicaps in academic performance, especially in reading and mathematics skills. Although the schools have given the problem some special attention, the conditions appear to be deteriorating. County health department reports indicate that the health needs of these areas of Oakland are disproportionate to the population. For example, 68% of the active tuberculosis cases of the county are in these portions of the city. *Sam Toney and Alice A. Wright, "Peralta Colleges Inner City Project Evaluation Report," Oakland, May 15, 1969. 105 106 In summary, an examination of the current situation of the population of these target areas leads to the ines- capable fact that the residents of these sections of Oakland suffer severely from all the dilemmas of poverty. These conditions are of such an extreme nature that massive supportive services are required if the situation is to be improved. 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If you have difficulty providing exact information, your best estimate will still be very helpful. 1. Was the total work-study allocation to your institution this year adequate for your needs, inadequate, or more than adequate? adequate inadequate more than adequate Does your institution utilize any of the following means for recruiting students of exceptional financial and educational deprivation? regularly occasionally not at all a. Regular contact with high school principals and counselors in poor-area schools b. Contact with community agencies, church groups, etc. c. Lowering or waiving admissions criteria d. Other (Please specify) Would you say that in general, the work-study program at your institution has been successful in its stated purpose, that is "to assist in making the benefits of higher education to qualified students of exceptional financial need . . ."? Definitely yes Probably no Probably yes Definitely no 143 9. 144 Has your program been under pressure from students to make it more relevant to the community? a great deal of pressure some pressure no pressure Does your institution have any plans to withdraw from the work-study program in the next few years? yes possibly no Do you plan to expand, reduce or maintain your program at its current level during the next few years? expand the program reduce the program maintain the program at its present level Number of all students working in your program during l97l-72 who are: Black Spanish-surnamed Americans American Indians Oriental Americans Whi te Please indicate your official title. Title Do you work directly with the students in your program? Yes No Please feel free to use the space below of this questionnaire to make any further comments about the operation of your program. THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION 145 JOB SATISFACTION QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS IN BOTH WORK-STUDY PROGRAMS We recognize that not everyone will be able to give an exact answer to every question asked, but we should appre- ciate your giving the answer you believe to be most nearly correct for each question. 1. Sex: Male Female G.P.A. 2. Race: American Indian Oriental American Black, Negro, Afro- Lexican—American American, West Indian White Other 3. Age last birthday:~ 4. Semester in College: lst 2nd 3rd 4th Other 5. About how many miles from college do you live 6. Does your work-study program offer any of the following opportunities to students? Special seminars Special tutoring Special counseling Don't know The following are sample items from the Questionnaire: work out the sample items (1) and (2). Circle only one of the five alternatives for each item: ' Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 SAAUDSD l. The work-study policies were well communicated. l 2 3 4 2. There are some conditions concern— ing the program that could be improved. 1 2 3 4 146 Please be sure to answer all items. How much do you agree or disagree with each of these statements? Strongly Agree Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 l. I had a sense of achievement in my job. 1 2 3 4 5 2. I gained a feeling of worthwhile accomplishment from my job. 1 2 3 4 5 3. I enjoyed the feeling of respon- sibility my job gave me. 1 2 3 4 5 4. I was told that I had done a good job. 1 2 3 4 5 5. I liked the people with whom I worked. 1 2 3 4 5 6. I enjoyed the kind of work I did. 1 2 3 4 5 7. The actual duties on my job were challenging. l 2 3 4 5 8. My job was very interesting. 1 2 3 4 5 9. I have a top notch supervisor. l 2 3 4 5 10. My supervisor showed himself to be very competent. l 2 3 4 5 ll. My supervisor was willing to listen to suggestions. 1 2 3 4 5 12. My supervisor backed me up. 1 2 3 4 5 13. I felt my supervisor and I understood each other. 1 2 3 4 5 14. My supervisor doesn't supervise enough. 1 2 3 4 5 15. I felt satisfied with my salary. l 2 3 4 5 147 SD SA 16. My salary is adequate for normal expenses. 1 17. My salary provides luxuries. 1 18. I had an opportunity to do socially significant tasks. l 19. I had an opportunity to improve appearance or comfort of others. 1 20. I had an opportunity to help others find success or happiness. 1 21. My job provides good Opportunity for advancement. 1 22. I have a dead-end job. 1 23. In this program it is not important how much you know, it's who you know that really counts. 1 24. Traditional programs serve a useful social function by providing stability and continuity. 1 25 What is good for the community is good for me. 1 26. I am satisfied with my present work-study program. 1 27. My job experience is related to my major field or projected profession. I 28. Most students at this college come from families with more money than my family. 1 29. I have had adequate preparation for my job. 1 30. I feel my job is worthwhile and important. 1 Name (Optional) Program Work-Study or Student Service Corps