A STUDY OF THE ADEQUACY OF PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION FOR TEACHING DISADVANTAGED CHILDREN AS PERCEIVED BY SELECTED ELEMENTARY TEACHERS By Gerald Charles Martin AN ABSTRACT OF A ‘l'IfESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION Department of School Administration 1965 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE ADEQUACY OF PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION FOR TEACHING DISADVANTAGED CHILDREN AS PERCEIVED BY SELECTED ELEMENTARY TEACHERS by Gerald Charles Martin The increase in the concentration of disadvantaged in our inner cities poses prdblems for their education. There is a need for more teachers who can successfully work in the schools in these areas. This study was designed to determine what teacher preparation institutions can do to more adequately prepare elementary teachers to teach disadvantaged children. The study was particularly directed toward the relationship of the type of clinical experience of the teacher to the length of the adjustment of the teacher to the teaching situation. To determine the perception of the teachers concerning the adequacy of their professional preparation, a structured interview was used with sixty teachers primarily from the Flint Public Schools. The teachers were Selected on the basis of the type of clinical experience they had while attending college. The teachers were placed, depending on their clinical experience, in four groups, namely: I. Intern experience in disadvantaged schools and now teaching in dis- advantaged schools. II. Regular student teaching in disadvantaged schools and now teaching in disadvantaged schools. Gerald Charles Martin III. Regular student teaching in advantaged schools and now teaching in disadvantaged schools. IV. Regular student teaching in advantaged schools and now teaching in advantaged schools. Fifteen teachers were in each group. The total criterion sample was sixty. A fact data sheet was obtained on each teacher and each teacher completed the Nfinnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory. The groups were matched as to race, sex, age, length of experience, college grade point average and grade level of teaching. The chi square analysis and the one way analysis of variance were used, depending on the data, to measure the significance of responses pertinent to the hypotheses. There was found to be a significant difference between the major problems perceived by the teachers of the early elementary grades in disadvantaged schools and those perceived by the teachers above grade two. The teachers of grades one and two believed that lack of background concepts was the major problem. Teachers of higher elementary grades said that the negative attitude of students ranked first. There was a significantly lower rating of the adequacy of formal college preparation by teachers of the disadvantaged as compared with the rating by teachers of the advantaged. There was a signi- ficantly higher rating of adequacy of student teaching by those teachers who were teaching in a situation similar to their clinical experience. Teachers who were not prepared clinically for the teaching situation they were in had a significantly longer period of adjustment to teaching than did those prepared clinically for the teaching situation. The teachers did Gerald Charles Martin not differ significantly in attitudes as measured by the Nfinnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory. Inadequacies in the professional preparation experiences of the teachers were identified. Suggestions were made as to possible means of correcting these inadequacies. An implication of this study is that teacher preparation institutions need to provide clinical experiences in disadvantaged schools for teachers going into these situations. The type of clinical experience of the teacher was found to be directly related to the task of assuming the teacher role efficiently and successfully. A STUDY OF THE ADEQUACY OF PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION FOR TEACHING DISADVANTAGED CHILDREN AS'PERCEIVED BY SELECTED ELEMENTARY TEACHERS By Gerald Charles Martin A THESIS submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION Department of School Administration 1965 Mk ' Q.“ I, qflifl/U [4d /‘ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to express his appreciation to all who have contributed to the development and completion of this study. Special acknowledgment is due Dr. George Myers, chairman of the author's doctoral committee, who has given valuable counsel to the author. To Drs. Clyde Campbell, Richard Featherstone and James MbKee, appreciation is expressed for their continued interest throughout the development of this study. Appreciation is also expressed to Dr. Robert Green for aid in the development of the design of the study, to Bruce Rogers for aid in the statistical analysis, and to the teachers and administrative personnel of the Flint, Muskegon and Detroit School systems who cooperated to provide the data. Finally to my wife, Elsie, who gave the encouragement and aid necessary for the completion of this study. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introductory Statement! Need for the Study “ Purpose of the Study 7 Hypotheses of the Study‘/ gzlimitation o the Study swimsuits em in». .. . Overview I I O REVIW OF TIE LITEMTURE O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Introductory Statement The Situation in Our Cities The Problems Posed for Eduaaticn Drop Outs Low Achievement and the Culture Teacher Frustration Responsibilities for Teacher Education Suggested Action The Preparation of Teachers in General Early History of the Development of Teacher Education Teacher Preparation in the Universities Laboratory Experiences in Teacher Education Student Teaching in Teacher Preparation III. DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Events Leading to Development of Design The Design Instruments Fact Data Sheet Structured Interview M.'I'.A.I. The Sample Limitations of Study Analysis iii Page ii vii lO Chapter IV. PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA The Statistical Analysis The Structured Interview V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . APPENDICES BIBLIOGRAPHY Question 1. Ideal Teaching Situation Question 2. Most Pressing PrOblems Question 3. Adequacy of Formal Education Question A. Adequacy of Student Teaching Question 5. Improvement in Formal Education Question 6. Experiences in Student Teaching Question 7. Length of Adjustment to Teaching Situation Question 8. Present Status of Adjustment to Teaching Question 9. Mbst Help for Teacher Question 10. Desire to Transfer Summary Conclusions Recommendations Situation iv Page 53 112 121 125 Table III-la III-lb III-lc III-1d III~2 IV-1 IV-3 IV-h IV-5 IV-6 IV-7 IV-8 IV-9 IV-lO IV-ll IV-l2 LIST OF TABLES Comparison of subject Populations by Groups . . . . . Comparison of Subject Population by Groups Comparison of subject Population by Groups . . . . . . Comparison of subject Population by Groups . S.R.A. Achievement Scores for Schools Used in Sample Responses by Groups -- Ideal Teaching Situation . Percentage of Teacher Responses by Categories - Ideal Teaching Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Teacher Responses -- Most Pressing Problems Percentage Comparison of Responses of Teachers by Teaching Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . Chi Square Analysis of the Comparison of the Prdblems of Lack of Background Concept and Negative Student Attitudes by Grade Levels . . . . . . . . . Chi Square Analysis of Teacher Ratings on Adequacy of Formal Education Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of Teachers' Comments Concerning Adequacy of Formal Education Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chi Square Analysis of Teacher Ratings of Adequacy of Student Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . Comments of Teachers on Adequacy of Student Teaching Suggestions For Improving Formal Education Classes . Teacher Suggestions For Improving Education Cla ass -~ Percentage of Responses by Categories . Teacher Suggestions For Improving Formal Education Classes -- Percentage of Responses by Teaching Situations Page 48 1+9 50 51 52 .56-57 Table IV-l3 IV-lh IV-15 IV-l6 IV-17 IV-18 IV-19 IV-QO IV-21 IV-22 IV-23 IV-2h IV-25 IV-26 IV-27 IV-28 1V-29 IV-3O Participation in Necessary Experiences During Student Teaching -- Percentage by Groups . . . . . . . . . . . Teacher and Principal Responses to Number of weeks of Adjustment Time For Teacher . . . . . . . . . . . Length of Adjustment Time as Perceived by Teachers -- Analysis of Variance Length of Adjustment Time as Perceived by Teachers -- Analysis of Difference Between Means by Tukey's Method . Length of Teacher Adjustment Time as Perceived by Principals -- Analysis of Variance Teacher Adjustment Time as Perceived by Principals -- Analysis of Differences Between Means by Tukey's Method Socio-economic Level of Child Home vs Length of Adjustment to Teaching -- Analysis of Variance Socio-economic Level of Elementary School Attended vs Length of Adjustment to Teaching -- Analysis of Variance . Socio-economic Level of JUnior High School Attended vs Length of Adjustment to Teaching -- Analysis of Variance . Socio-economic Level of Senior High School Attended vs Length of Adjustment to Teaching -- Analysis of Variance . Other Types of Educational Experiences with Low Socio- economic Children vs Length of Adjustment to Teaching -— Analysis of Variance . Other Experiences with Low Socio-economic People vs Length of Adjustment to Teaching -- Analysis of Variance . Grade Level Taught vs Length of Adjustment to Teaching -- Analysis of Variance . . . . . . . . . . . Racial Origin of Teacher vs Length of Adjustment to Teaching Disadvantaged -- Analysis of Variance . MJT.A.I. Scores of Teachers in Criterion Sample Plot of Raw Score Means -- MQT.A.I. Scores MIT.A.I. Score -- Analysis of Variance Racial Origin of Teacher vs MJT.A.I. Scores -- Analysis of variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi Page 80 83 00 \J": 91 93 9h 96 98 100 101 102 103 10k 105 107 Figure l Perception of Student Attitude vs Background Concepts as Most Pressing Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2' Teacher Ratings of Adequacy of Formal Education Classes in Relation to Most Pressing Problems . . . . . . . . . 3 Teacher Ratings of Adequacy of Student Teaching . h Plot of Means of Teacher Ratings of Adequacy of Student Teaching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Teacher Responses as to Source of Most Help With Problems . 6 Teacher Responses to Desire for Transfer LIST OF FIGURES vii Page 63 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Introductory Statement The problems of inner—city decay have produced Kajor challenges for the preparation of teachers. These blighted areas are different from the middle class env1ronment from which n st teachers c*:e end in which most teachers are trained to work. Many factors have contributed to the change in the cities. Such factors include the increased need for industrial abor due to war production during and following WOrld War II, the ’ncreased standard of u. living accompanied by the peacetime manufacture of raterLal good , the increased technological advancements res ulti ii LEI? efficient methods of production thus reducing lahor needs on the farms and in the mines, and the dream of m.or e freedom and x; e nears (7 tie Text of Southern Negroes. According to Havinghurst,l Cobb,2 and others the increased reed for industrial labor brought on by WOrld War II can seed a great migration of illiterate and poorly educated people from the South and other "I disadvantaged rural areas into our cities. This migration cc.:i-1e and at the present time is composed primarily of citizens who are 1Robert J.‘ Havinghurst and Bernice L. Neugarter, So; Education (Boston. .Allan and Bacon, Inc., 1957), chapters ie 1,. I...“— “—N‘ I .J-\- :a'i 313. 2Lecture by Mr. Cobb, Director of Urtan Le.<. :e, Fliht. N :Eisa; to Mott Interns, January, 1965. 2 non-white. As these individuals take up residence in the inner part of the cities the more advantaged white citizens move to the outer parts of the cities and to the nearby suburbs. This migration to the city by one group and from.the city by the other group has produced large con- centrations of minority groups who live in squalor and who remain economically and educationally disadvantaged. Racial discrimination and housing restrictions tend to keep them.in the center of the city and thus in an environment that is lacking in the assets necessary for the development of a citizenry that can appreciate, enjoy, and contrib- ute to our democratic way of life. The larger cities of New York, Chicago, Detroit, and Los Angeles are rapidly approaching the point where one out of two children living in the city comes from a disadvantaged home. Similar changes are occurring in other industrial cities throughout the nation. Need for the Study The need for more education in order to compete successfully in the adult labor market is a direct result of the trend toward a more technical society. This has placed the inner-city inhabitants in the unfortunate position of becoming more and more disadvantaged. The concentration of the disadvantaged poses many problems for their education. They are frequently one or more years behind the national norm when they enter school and by the time they reach the sixth grade they may be two or three years retarded educationally. This failure to achieve at grade level produces negative attitudes that are counter to the task of providing them with an adequate education to meet the demands of our complex and highly technical society. The difficulties encountered in teaching the inner-city schools 3 result in high teacher turnover -- a fact that tends to compound the problem of educating the disadvantaged. (a It is possible that much of the teacher turnover is a consequence of inadequate professional preparation resulting in the inability to comprehend the situation as well as a failure to cope with the problems long enough to reach the point where personal satisfaction is achieved. The need for preparing teachers to teach economically and educationally disadvantaged children is rapidly becoming a major problem in our society. . Gertrude Noar, writing in the December, 196%, issue of the JOurnal of Teacher Education, confirms the need for this study. Teacher education institutions, by merely increasing the number of subject courses required for AJB. and A.MJ degrees, do not and can not produce the kind of teachers needed by the 212 metropolitan localities of the nation which are now in sore need of highly qualified personnel. Moreover, the need in these cities will in- crease because 8h percent of the population growth will occur there. The attention of the nation is presently focused on the city children who do not get into high-ability groups; whose potential- ities go undeveloped, even unrecognized; who come out of the grinding poverty which surrounds them into the schools in whic; many of the teachers do not know what tlo ks their learning or how to teach them. - Teacher education institutions are teing challenged to make whatever changes may be required in their curricula to provide what the teacher needs to know, to be aware of, and to be sensitive to before he attempts to teach so-called culturally deprived and dis- advantaged children in both rural and urban slum and depressed areas. The fact that a disproportionate number of children are Negro, Puerto Rican, Mexican-American, or Indian; and that among them are the children of migrant laborers, who in some parts of the coni+ry are Italian and lower-class white of the Appalachian Mountains, indicate still another element to go into preservice education programs. Information about the cultural patterns and value dif- ferences of those minority groups must be accessitle to their children's teachers. Young, middle-class white teachers ought not to have to say, as so many now do, "But I never met people like this before. I don't know how to talk to them. I don't understand them." In addition to being informed, prospective teazners while in college, should have opportunities to meet, to like, and a: accept people who are unlike themselves in order that they ma1 come to see human difference as a positive good. Unless they are so prepared, they will not be ready to teach these cdildren ard will h be quite unable to meet with and interview parents, to p visits and to plan and participate in meaningful P T A projects. Purpose of the Study It is the purpose of this study to determine the adequacy of past professional preparation as perceived by a group of selected elementar teachers, primarily from.the Flint school system, who have had a variety of clinical (student teaching) experiences and who are now teaching in schools enrolling a majority of youngsters from disadvantaged home en- vironments. The responses of these teachers will be compared with the responses of another group of teachers who had their clinical (student teaching) experience in schools enrolling a majority of students from advantaged home environments and who are now teaching in the more advantaged schools. The study will attempt to determine the relationship between the most pressing prdblems encountered in teaching in the two uniquely difa ferent elementary school communities, namely disadvantaged and advan- taged, and the teachers' perception of the adequacy of their formal professional education to help them meet these profilems. An attempt will also be made to determine the period cf adjustment involved in beginning teaching and its relationship to the type cf clin- ical (student teaching) experiential background. The responses will he analyzed to determine the effect of this adjustment on the degree cf teaching satisfaction experienced by the teachers of the various groups. Hypotheses of the Study The hypotheses of this study are that there are specifi: experience: 3Gertrude Near, "The Times Call For Courage," fiburnal of 25232:? Education, XIV (December, 1963), 365. 5 that teacher training institutions can and should provide to more adequately prepare teachers to teach in disadvantaged areas, and that those teachers who have had clinical (student teaching) experielce in -schools enrolling a majority of children from disadvantaged homes prior to their first year of teaching adjust more rapidly to the teaching situation, experience less frustration, and thus, from the onset of their teaching, enjoy a more satisfying teaching experience. Delimitation of the Study This study is limited primarily to subjects who are now teazhing in the Flint school system. Since it studies the perceptions of selected elementary school teachers in this particular geographic area, it makes no claim that situations are identical in other cities in other geographical locations. It is believed, however, that similarities may exist to a degree and that the findings may well contrihute to a better understanding nationwide of the need for adequately pre axing teachers to teach the disadvantaged. Although the study is directed primarily toward prepara ion of teachers to teach the disadvantaged, the writer realizes that teachers must also be prepared to teach in other situations with other types of youngsters. For this reason, the findings of this study are to'he applied only to the professional preparation of teachers fer that grew» ing segment of our population that are not now being given adequate consideration. Definition of Terms It is important that a number of terms be defined in relation to the way they are used in this study. A listing of these terns and tEeir definitions follows: Disadvantaged - individuals lacking in adequacy or means. Disadvantaged Children - children who come from a home and/or community environment that is lacking economically and educationally. Economically Disadvantaged - children from home and/or comminity background where a majority of the residents lack adequate financial income thus resulting in substandard living conditions. Educationally Disadvantaged - children from home and/or community background lacking cultural assets necessary for normal school achieve- ment thus placing the individuals at a disadvantage grade level—wise. Disadvantaged School - elementary school in which a majority of the children are from educationally and economically disadv'ntaged en- vironments. Socio-Economic Scale - scale constructed for this stud) consistin~ f s of three levels - high, average, low. As this study is directed primarily to the preparation cf the teachers who are working in schools where a preponderant majority of the youngsters are from educationally and economically disadvantaged x p. 7*“ l v‘ D 4 < l I) homes, the term Socio-Economic Rating is clearly defined,.ar categories - High, Average and Low are delineated as follows: Low Socio-Economic Rating a. Income $3000 or less. b. Family receiving social aid or breadwinner freqdently unemployed. c. Breadwinner unskilled laborer, usually working on day to day basis. d. Home'barely meeting minimum necessities of food, shelter and clothing. 7 e. Extremely limited educational and cultural opportunities such as use of newspapers, magazines, radio, television, travel, vacation and the like. f. Part of a sub-culture where language usage, social con- cepts, and the like, frequently do not conform with, or add support to, the activities that are conducive to school success. Average Socio-Economic Rating a. Income $3000 to $8500. b. One or more of adult members working at semiuskilled, skilled, technical, or professional employment. c. Adequate necessities of food, shelter, and clothing. d. Opportunities for educational and cultural experiences such as use of newspapers, magazines, radio, television, music and art appreciation, travel, vacation, and the like. e. Language usage, social concepts, and the like, strongly supportive of activities that are conducive to school success. High Socio-Economic Rating a. Income over $8500. b. One or both adult members are college graduates employed in highly professional or managerial types of positions. c. Affluent food, shelter, and clothing conditions. Free quently owning cottages in resort areas. d. Affluent opportunities for educational and cultural experiences of all types. e. Language usage, social concepts, and the like, strongly supportive of activities that are conducive to school SUCCESS . Formal Education Courses - education classes taken ty teachers as a part of their professional training and which are normally classified as pre-clinical preparation. Student Teaching - clinical preparation experience previded whereby the prospective teacher assumes the teacher role in the class» 8 room, and which is under school and college supervision. Clinical preparation and student teaching are used interchangeably in this study. Intern Program - experimental student teaching program in progress in Flint, Michigan. After two years of formal college training the prospective teacher is placed in the classroom for three years. The student teacher (intern) is supervised by a helping teacher and is paid a partial salary. The intern fulfills degree requirements by attending college classes evenings, Saturdays and summers. Regular Student Teaching Program - typical full-time laboratory experi- ence in a public school for a term or a semester. The student teacher is supervised by a classroom teacher who works in cooperation with a college representative. Pressing Prdblems - problems which are most frequently encountered by the teacher in the teaching situation, and which are therefore of the most concern to the teacher. Adjustment to Teaching Situation - successful adaptation to the parti- cular teaching situation by the teacher. This term implies a length of time as well as the degree of change that may be involved. Overview Chapter Two of this study is devoted to a review of the literature pertinent to the prdblem. The design of the study is presented in Chapter Three. The method of sampling, the instruments used, the hypotheses to be tested, and the methods of analysis are covered in detail. The findings of the study and an analysis of the data as they apply to the support or rejection of the hypotheses are presented in Chapter Four. A summary of the study and conclusions and recommendations derived from the results of the study are found in Chapter Five. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The review of the literature was directed primarily toward infor- mation concerning the basic assumptions on which the study was under- taken, namely: Assumption 1. The concentration of the disadvantaged in the larger cities is producing conditions of environment that have a direct effect on the educational systems of these cities. Assumption 2. The problems involved in the education of dis- advantaged children are unique and to a degree different from the prdblems involved in educating their more advan- taged counterparts. Assumption 3. This uniqueness poses a responsibility to teacher training institutions to include certain experiences3in their teacher preparation programs to properly prepare 4'teachers to teach the disadvantaged child. The Situation in our Cities The concentration of disadvantaged people is increasing in the 1 cities} The Great Cities School Improvement Studies states that in 1950 approximately one child of every ten in the fourteen largest cities 1The Great Cities School Improvement Studies, Ford Foundation Project, mimeographed, 1965. ' lO ll of the united States was culturally deprived. By 1960 this figure had risen to one in three. It is estimated that by 1970 there will be one deprived child for every two enrolled in schools in the large cities. In New York City the concentration of disadvantaged in the inner- city became a major problem.in 1956. In recognition of the situation, the Higher Horizons Project was started in 1959. In the Progress Report of January, 1963, it was stated that as of October 31, 1961, approxi- mately 225,000 of their 573,000 elementary school children and 75,000 of their 186,000 junior high school pupils mdght be classified as dis- advantaged.2 Dr. Herbert Schuler, Hunter College of New York University, on February 5, 1965, remarked that, in the fifteen largest cities, one out of three children was disadvantaged, and that this could be contrasted with one out of ten in 1950. He further stated that as of September, 1965, the number of disadvantaged children in New York City was four out of ten. The Boroughs of Manhattan, Brooklyn and Bronx had numbers of seven out of ten, five out of ten, and four out of ten respectively.3 This concentration of disadvantaged poses serious pr0blems for educational systems. Riessman concludes that clearly one of the most pressing problems facing the urban school today is "the culturally de- prived child."1+ any cities have recognized this prdblem and are developing 2New York City Board of Education, The Higher Horizons Program- Progress Report, January, 1963, p. 1. 3Statement by Dr. Herbert Schuler to Inter-Institutional Seminar, Flint, Michigan, February, 1965. hFrank Riessman, The Culturally Deprived Child (New York: Harper and Rowe Publishers, 1962), p. l. 12 programs aimed at improving the education of the disadvantaged. Some of these experiments are described in Higher Horizons5 and in the United States Office of Education publication, Programs for the Educa- tionallyDisadvantaged.6 Higher Horizons is a report of the New York program. The state program of West Virginia, the city programs of Chicago, Illinois; Wilmington, Delaware; washington, D.C.; Quincy, Illinois; Detroit, Michigan; St. Louis, Mussouri, and the individual school program of the Harry E. Wood School of Indianapolis, Indiana, are described in Programs for the Educationally Disadvantaged. A survey of these two publications reveals that the prime objec- tive of all of the programs is to save the great waste of talent now occurring in the inner cities by improving the educational programs of the schools in these areas. They attempt to do this by involving parents and others in the community and by developing a curriculum.that is more in harmony with the culture and background in which the dis- advantaged live. Cultural deficiencies are removed by providing cul- tural experiences for the children. The resources of various govern- mental and social agencies are also brought to bear on the situation. The St. Louis.Program7 under the direction of Sam Shepherd is slightly different from the others in that the program focuses primarily on achievement. Dr. Shepherd reports on the success of the project as follows: 5Higher Horizons, 42. cit. 6Programs for the Educationally Disadvantaged, U. s. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Office of Education, Bulletin 1963, No. 17. 7Ibid., pp. 86-90. 13 Attendance in one school last year (1961), reached an unprece- dented 97.1 percent. Median scores in reading for eighth graders have gone from 7.7 in January, 1958, to 8.8 in June, 1961; language from 7.6 to 9.1; and arithmetic from 7.9 to 8.7. In the same period children assigned to Track I in the beginning ninth- grade group increased from.7 percent to yg3percent, in Track II from h5.9 percent to 5h.8 percent; while the number placed in Track III fell from h7.1 percent to 10.9 percent.8 The Flint Board of Education of Flint, Michigan, is also carrying on an experimental program for the inner-city child. It is entitled "Better Tomorrow For Urban Youth."9 The program is financed by the Charles Stewart Mott Foundation and includes pre-kindergarten experi- ences, in-service training of teachers, health care, curriculum devel- opment, curriculum enrichment through the community school program, and provision for more instructional materials. Each of the thirteen schools currently in the experiment is encouraged to work with its com- munity and develop its own compensatory program. The writer does not intend to give the impression that the pro- grams described thus far are necessarily the best, nor to imply that the above program descriptions are all-inclusive, nor that they are the only programs. There are many more experiments being conducted in cities across the nation. The fact that cities are developing educa- tional programs for the disadvantaged supports the assumption that the existing concentration of these individuals does pose unique prdblems for education. These programs are attempts to alleviate the problems. Sargent Shriver, at a recent commencement address at western Nfichigan University, stated that the Economic Opportunity Act provides federal aid for education of the disadvantaged. He also stated that 8Ibid., pp. 89-90. 9"Better Tomorrow For Urban Youth,“ a mimeographed report by the Flint Board of Education, Flint, Michigan, l96h. 1h this emphasis on improving education proved that the problem is nation- wide in scope.lo The Problems Posed For Education The Dropouts The results of the inadequacy of our educational program in respect to the disadvantaged are probably most apparent to society in the large number of individuals who terminate school prematurely--the “dropouts.“ Robert D. Strom, author of the National Education Association publication The Tragic Migration,ll writes: Studies designed to assess the impact of social class on adolescents have consistently shown the highest incident of school failure to occur among children from low income families. As early as 19h1 in his extensive investigation of a Midwestern city, Hollingsheadl2 found that by far the largest proportion of dropouts, eight out of nine, were reared in the poorest of socio- economic circumstances. These findings were duplicated in the 1950's by McCreary, Kitch and Young.1 V‘Mbst notable among studies completed during the present decade have been those of Bowman and Mathews1h who conclude that perhaps 88 per cent of today's dropouts are members of lower class homes. 5 loAddress by Robert Sargent Shriver at Commencement at western Michigan University, June 12, 1965. 11Robert D. Strom, The Tragic Migration, a publication by the National Education Association, Department of Home Economics, with the aid of funds from the Sears-Roebuck Foundation, 196A. 12A. B. Hollingshead, Elmtown's Youth (New York; John Wiley and Sons, l9u9), Chapter 13, “Leaving School,"'pp. 329-59. 13W. H. MbCreary and D. E. Kitch, Now Hear Youth, a report on the California Cooperative Study of School Dropouts and Graduation Bulletin, Vol. 22, No. 9, Sacramento, California, State Department of Education, 1953. th. Bowman and C. V. Mathews, Motivations of Youth for Leaving School, V. A. Department of Health Education and welfare, Office of Education, Cooperative Research Project No. 22, Hashington, D. C., 1960. l5Strom,‘c_>'p_. cit., p. 5. 15 A large proportion of the unemployed are "dropouts." The lack of education in these individuals makes them ill-equipped to compete in the labor market of our highly technical society. The employment they do receive is menial, part time and low income--thus poverty, plus lack of education, breeds more poverty. Ernest 0. Melby stated that a large proportion of the Negro drop- outs are unemployed.16 Martin Deutsch reported that the bulk of the unemployed are from the poorly educated low socio-economic group and that the majority of 17 individuals in the low socio-economic group are non-white. Low Achievement Related to Culture "There are a number of reasons why students drop out of school. The early termination of formal education is a result and not a ggusex The review of the literature for this study was primarily directed toward the influence that poverty and its culture has in the creation of problems faced by education in attempting to provide an adequate education for the disadvantaged. One of the apparent reasons why students leave school prematurely is that they are unable to achieve satisfactorily. This lack of achieve- ment is a direct result of their environment. Strom summarizes the relationship between poverty and low achieve- ment in the following paragraph:' It cannot be denied that where the so-called culture of poverty exists, there are familial tendencies inducing conditions that v— fir l6Statement made by Dr. Ernest 0. Melby in an address to the Flint Interns, October, 196A. l7Statement made by Dr. Martin Deutsch in an address at the Inter- Institutional Seminar in Flint, Michigan, November, l96h. l6 foster dropout. Here one finds a high proportion of disrupted and broken homes where the father is often absent and in which an emotional distance between parents results in dilution of affection for the young. Where no father is present during the evening, there is usually no organized meal, no organized opportunity for language exchange, no real interaction. A common result is cumu- lative deficit in the language component of a child's develop- ment.18 The deficiency in language component is discussed further: Evidence most often points to an inadequacy in the cognitive features of early mother-child exchanges that tends to foster later alienation from.the educative processes and other basic institu- tions of society. The pattern of communication that develops between mother and child has a lasting effect upon the youngster's cognitive equipment influencing what he attends to, how he inter- prets messages, and how he responds. These patterns are not always adaptive or functional for academic situations and may prevent the child from taking advantage of learning experiences available in the classroom. Strom goes on to quote research studies that contrast the way a lower class mother communicates with her child as compared to the way a middle or upper class mother communicates with her child.‘ The latter is supportive to formal education--the former is not. This inadequacy of a language component that is in accord with or that provides for the start and continuation of our traditional educa- tion processes, handicaps the child from the start. This handicap con- tinues to plaque the child and increases the grade level achievement gap as he progresses through school. Lack of achievement produces frustration and failure. Failure lowers self-image. Feelings of in- adequacy produce negative attitudes toward school and learning. Nega- tive attitudes frequently result in either overt behavior or passive complacency. Martin Deutsch makes this statement: lBStrom, _p, cit., p. 5-6. l91.'bid., p. 6. 17 Among children who come from lower socio-class socially impov- erished circumstances, there is a high proportion of school failure, school dropouts, reading and learning disabilities, as well as life . adjustment problems. ‘This means that not only do these children grow up poorly equipped academically, but also that the effective- ness of the school as a major institution for socialization is diminished. .The effect of this process is underlined by the fact that this same segment of the population contributes disproportion- ately to the delinquency and other social deviancy statistics. The study from which the above quote was taken is still in progress and is being undertaken to determine the relationship of various facets of the disadvantaged child's background to his unsuccessful school achievement. The In Deutsch's words the purpose of the study is to . . . demonstrate and evaluate the effects of increased exposure at an age prior to school age to a variety of organized stimulation that will better prepare the child for success experiences in school.21 study is based on these assumptions: We know that children from underprivileged environments tend to come to school with a qualitatively different preparation for the demands of both the learning process and the behavioral re- quirements of the classroom . . . . The culture of their environ- ment is a different one from the culture that has molded the school and its educational technique and theory. 22 Many experiential differences have a direct relationship to developmental processes. There are simple differences in the variety of stimuli to which many lower-class children are exposed, and this can be especially important in the verbal area: children who are exposed to a greater variety of words and organization of words will more likely develop greater verbal skill. The research evidence available indicates that lower-class children have a con- siderably narrower range of language. -Further, our data at the Institute indicate that these children are retarded in the devel- opment of auditory discrimination skills. These skills, along with language--and related to language-~are necessary prerequisites for learning to read or for achieving success experiences in school. F 20Martin Deutsch, "Reversing Deprivation Effect in the Pre-School Child,“ (Design for the Institute of Developmental Studies Research Study, New York Medical College, 1963), p. 3. 21Ibid. 22Ibid., p. 2. 18 An important corollary of this is the tendency for children from underprivileged circumstances to have no training in attentional focusing or sharpening. 2 Deutsch continues: The thesis here is that a disproportionately large group of lower-class children enter the school situation so poorly prepared to produce what the school demands that initial failures are almost inevitable and the school experience becomes negatively rather than positively reinforced.‘ Thus the children's experience in school does nothing to counteract the invidious influence to which they are exposed in the slum, and oftentimes segregated neighborhood.2 The effects of home environment and culture of these individuals are therefore to be considered as different from the effects of the home environment and culture of the more advantaged counterparts. The teaching of disadvantaged children appears to be different from the teaching of advantaged children. Teacher‘Frustration Deutsch states that in discussions by the teachers in the Institute, the lack of ability to pay attention on the part of disadvantaged chil- dren had been repeatedly brought forth as a cause of frustration and great impatience for teachers.25 One quickly becomes aware of this when he visits the classrooms of the inner-city schools and confers with the teachers and administra- tors there. The teacher frustration, which appears to result in a high rate of teacher turnover each year, compounds the problems. According to Mrs. Harriet T. Latimer, Director of Research for the Flint Public Schools, the teacher turnover is significantly greater in those schools enrolling a large proportion of disadvantaged children as compared with 23Ibid. .25Ibid. 2“Ibid. .__AH9 A the teacher turnover in those schools enrolling only advantaged chil- 26 dren. It is not uncommon to find some elementary classrooms in the schools of the inner city that have had several different teachers during the school year. The writer discovered an instance in one school where one classroom had five different teachers in the l963-6h school 27 year. Responsibilities For Teacher Education There appears to be a direct implication in this for teacher training institutions. They need to take a long and hard look at their methods of preparing teachers--especially those who are going to teach in the disadvantaged areas. Haubrick states that: Rightly or wrongly, justified or not, teachers prefer to teach in an integrated school which is predominately white rather than in an integrated or difficult school . . . . It adds up to one of the biggest challenges that administrators, teachers and school personnel have ever faced . . . . Colleges of education and all agencies interested in the preparation of young people for the profession of teaching will continue to experience difficulty recruiting teachers for "difficult schools" as long as th per- ception of many prospective teachers remain-as they are. Riessman concurs with Haubrick: Because so many teachers refuse jobs at special service schools [Eh underprivileged_area§7, and so many leave shortly after having accepted the positions, the pr0blem of teacher preparation and placement is especially acute.~ High teacher turnover is related 26Personal interview with Mrs. Harriet T. Latimer, Director of Research, Flint Public Schools, November, 196A. 27Personal interviews with elementary school administrators in the Flint Public School System, November, 196A. V2avernon Haubrick, "Culturally Different; New Context For Teacher Education," Journal of Teacher Education, XXIV, June, 1963, pp. 163-67. 20 to a problem of considerable importance to the underprivileged child; namely teacher continuity. (Deutsch suggests that the instability of broken homes might be somewhat compensated by 2 children having the same teacher over a longer period of time. 9) The fact that the child changes teachers all the time together with the fact that he.move8 so often, contributes to a lack of rootedness in the school.3 The disadvantaged youngster is behind when he starts school. He, above all, needs well trained, dedicated, understanding, empathic teachers if he is to use his time efficiently in school. He can ill afford to change teachers frequently or to have teachers who are not properly prepared to cope with his problems. Dr. Virgil Rogers likened the disadvantaged child to a runner in the hundred yard dash who has a 100 lb. pack on his back.31 The need for teacher training institutions to attempt to prepare teachers to meet more adequately the prdblems of teaching the disadvantaged is confirmed further by Strom.in his booklet The Tragic Migration. The high rates of teacher turnover among central city schools in nearly every urban complex lend credence to the assertion that a more adequate type of training is needed by those assigned to such institutions. Certainly there are a number of instructional and behavioral problems indigenous to the role of the inner city teachers which occur less frequently in schools of more favored background. Thus, teacher training institutions purporting to equip candidates for positions in almost any type of environment. must give more than cursory attention to whatever tasks, diffi- culties and procedures appear vital to successful teaching in poor neighborhoods.32 And further by Martin Deutsch in his proposed study "Reversing V829Martin Deutsch, “Minority Group and Class Status as Related to Social and Personality Factors in-Scholastic Achievement," Mono ra No. 2 (published by the.Association for Applied Anthropology , p. 2 . “/30Frank Riessman, The Culturally Deprivedehild (New Yerk: Harper and Rowe Publishers, 1962), pp.~ll8-l9. 31Lecture to Mott Interns by Dr. Virgil Rogers at Flint, Nfichigan, November, 196M. 328trom, 22. cit., p. 15. 21 Deprivation Effect in the Pre-School Child": We know that it is difficult for all peoples to span cultural discontinuities, and yet we make little if any effort to prepare administrative personnel or'teachers and guidance staff to assist the child in this transition from one cultural context to another. 33 Dr. John H; Fischer, formerly Superintendent of Public Instruction, Baltimore, Maryland, and later of Columbia University, stated at the National Teacher Education and Professional Standards Conference (T.E.P.S.) held in Bowling Green in 1958: I shall not prescribe for all the ills of teacher education. Instead . . . I shall deal with the contributions teacher education might make toward improving elementary and secondary education in the large, cosmopolitan, urban school systems . . .VTn.the first place, it is in the big city that American democracy now faces many of its toughest trials. . . . In the second place, the big city confronts the teacher with educational problems that require not only a superior combination of skills but a different approach to the teacher task itself. The metropolitan.teacher cannot assume that this typical pupil will be well scrubbed, well behaved, ambi- tious youngster the teacher probably was in his school boy day. The greater chance is that many of his pupils will be culturally handicapped, poorly motivated and, in all likelihood below average in measurable intelligence. To be sure there are bright, eager children in the cities. There are thousands of them,'but they can be found and educated only by teachers who are willing and able to work in the social setting from which the slow and the reluctant as well as the quick and the ready come to school. The graduates of teacher education, in its traditional forms and in some of the newest patterns, are rarely prepared to cope with urban school problems. Indeed they often view these tasks with distaste and reject as unworthy of their efforts the very children who most need to learn the value of learning.1 The attitude of many new teachers might be likened to that of a psychiatrist who would object to associating with mentally ill patients or a social worker who insisted on a case load of families with no domestic difficulties.3 Jacob Landers, coordinator of the Higher Horizons Program in New York City believes the only solution is for the teacher education insti- 33Deutsch,_p. cit., p. 2. 3LLG. K. Hedenfield and T..M. Stinnett, The Education of Teachers (Prentice Hall, Inc.: Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1961), p. 66. 22 t35 -tutions to provide a special program of training and recruitmen . Suggested Action In spite of the fact that a survey of the literature indicates a need for specialized professional training for the teachers of the dis- advantaged, little evidence is to be found to indicate that teacher training institutions are doing much of anything along this line. A review of numerous Association for Student Teaching Bulletins, including the 196A publication, New Development, Research, and Experi- mentation in Professional Laboratory Experiences revealed the lack of attention on the part of training institutions to the preparation of teachers for disadvantaged areas. One page of the 196M bulletin was devoted exclusively to this topic. The article on that page was con- fined to statements pointing up a need for such attention.36 Howard H. Cummings, of the U. S. Office of Education, states that "There are few training institutions which prepare teachers to work with culturally disadvantaged pupils.“37 Herbert Schuler, in a lecture to the Inter-University Seminar ‘group,made a statement to the effect that most colleges are preparing teachers to teach everywhere and thus are preparing them to teach no- 38 where--especially not in the inner city. 35Programs for the Educationally,Disadvantaged, U. S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, Bulletin No. 17, 1963, p 55 36Helen F. Storen, “Educating Teachers for Underprivileged Schools,“ Association for Student Teaching Bulletin - Number 22, A. S. T., Cedar Falls, Iowa, 196A, p. 155. 37Higher Horizons, op, cit., p. 104. 38Lecture to Mott Interns at Flint, Nfichigan, by Dr. Herbert Schuler, February, 1965. 23 Hunter College in New York City, one of the exceptions, is experi- menting with a program whereby prospective teachers are being encouraged to do their student teaching in the disadvantaged schools. This prac- tice is being watched with interest by teacher education institutions and public school pe0ple. The first-hand experience of working in the disadvantaged schools should accomplish the following: 1. Acquaint the prospective teacher with the problems involved and help him to acquire skills in solving them. 2. Screen out those prospective teachers who lack ability or the proper attitude to relate to these youngsters. 3. Provide a basis for a continuing fruitful experience for those teachers electing to teach the disadvantaged.39 The provision of opportunities for first-hand experiences with the deprived may very well be one of the most needed activities in pre- paring teachers for the disadvantaged. Hodenfield writes: The solution would seem to be to expose prospective teachers to the classroom early in their college careers to see whether, like the measles, it will “take" . . . . A beginning teacher thoroughly familiar with the particular kinds of problems he must face is going to be that much better teacher . . .‘. I would in- volve the teacher, as a part of his advanced on—the-job development, in a variety of social and civic enterprises. The purposes of this work would be to enable the teacher to better know the total metro- politan complex and those who live in it, to see the special role of the school, and to appreciate the work of other agenciefiowhich join with the school in meeting the needs of young people. Strom.also believes that without exposure to and understanding of 39Frank Riessman, The Culturally Deprived Child (New'York: Harper and Rowe Publishers, 1962), pp. 118- 120. “OHodenfield, 9p. cit., pp. 83, 87, 68. 3;": 2h their forthcoming role in the central school; it is unlikely that teacher candidates will be able to dispatch their responsibilities #1 in an efficient manner. Dr. Herbert Schuler,”2 Dr. SamShepherdf‘3 and Dr. Martin Deutsch uh strongly recommend first hand experience for prospective teachers of the disadvantaged. In the typical professional teacher preparation program the major contact with children occurs at the time of the student teaching ex- perience. This is considered by teachers and other educators to be the most valuable of all of the pre-professional training. This point was confirmed by Cartwright in a recent article appearing in the Educational Forum. Mr. Cartwright stated that "Dr. Conant, in an address to the American Association of School Administrators, made in Atlantic City in 1963, said that his staff found universal testimony from teachers that the most valuable part of their professional preparation was in their student teaching.“ According to Cartwright, Dr. Conant also expressed amazement at the casual manner in which many schools go about providing for student teaching. Cartwright concludes that there is almost no sophisticated research about teacher education and that since . . . the only basis for wise decision is certain knowledge . teachers colleges and teacher preparation institutions must find out what it is that teachers must do and decide in what ways the ulStrom, _p. cit., pp. 15-16. L12 ‘ Personal interview with Dr. Herbert Schuler, Flint, Michigan, February, 1965. u3Personal interview with Dr. Sam Shepherd, Flint, Michigan, November, 196A» thersonal interview with Dr. Martin Deutsch, Flint, thhigan, November, 1964. 25 instifigtions can best contribute to helping teachers do their jobs well. The review of the literature yielded no sophisticated research on the problem of preparing teachers for teaching in disadvantaged areas. Information found dealt primarily with programs and experiments cur- rently in progress. The Hunter College experiment in training teachers for the disadvantaged areas is one such example. In a personal inter- view with Dr. Schuler of Hunter College, the writer was told that as of February, 1965, no research had been completed on the teacher prepara- #6 tion project at Hunter College. The Preparation of Teachers in General v The lack of available research concerning the need for, or the ways to, prepare teachers for work in disadvantaged areas is regrettable. The fact that the educational problems which are caused by the concentra- tion of disadvantaged, have arisen only within the past two decades, probably accounts for the situation. A more alarming situation exists, however, in that there is a scarcity of sophisticated research concerning the best methods to pre— pare teachers for any situation. This is true of all phases of teacher preparation and particularly for student teaching. Shane, Callis and Meredith, in the 1958 Yearbook of the Associa- tion for Student Teaching, state that improvements in the professional preparation of teachers are being attempted in the following ways: u5W. H. Cartwright, “Improving the Preparation of Teachers: One Staff Member's Interpretation of the Conant Report: Education of Ameri- can Teachers," Educational Forum, XXVIII, January, 196%, pp. 187-97. u6Personal interview with Dr. Schuler of Hunter College at Flint, Michigan, February, 1965. 26 Improved selection of students in teacher education. A new interpretation of foundation courses. More meaningful pre-student teaching activities. More observation and participation activities. Attentifin on student teaching as a professional education course. 7 \J‘I-F'UOIUH N0 research other than simple evaluations were cited. The infor- mation was limited to description of programs and experiments. L. M. Neagle quoted Stratemeyer's summary of problems and issues in teacher education: When the research [6n student teaching7 is examined one finds that much of it is in the nature of surveys, descriptions, or analysis of the total student teaching program or some part thereof. Little of the research hag sought to provide comparisons of programs of student teaching. The methods used in the professional preparation of teachers have, for the most part, evolved through trial and error. Changes have been based on the judgment of the professional educators and have been de- signed to meet situations as they arise. An understanding of the history of this development is necessary for an understudy of the current status of the professional preparation of teachers. The latter part of the review of the literature was directed toward a description of this development as well as of the situation currently existing in teacher preparation. Early History of the Development of Teacher Education Woodring, in the May, 1962, issue of School and Society, gives a w “7H. G. Shane, M. A. Callis and H. V. Meridith, "Improving In- struction in Elementary Education,“ Improving Instruction in Profes- sional Education, Thirty-Seventh Yearbook, 1958, The Association, pp. 33‘74'0 o 1+8L. M; Neagle, “Some Effects of Student Teaching upon Profes- sional Attitudes,“ Journal of Educational Research, LII, May, 1959, pp. 355~57- 27 history of the development of teacher education. He states that the professional preparation of teachers began about one hundred and twenty- five years ago when the first American state normal schools were estab- lished in New England. After the Civil war a few midwestern universi- ties created Departments of Education. The state universities of Iowa and Michigan, and Columbia University were among the first to do so. It -was not until the beginning of the twentieth century that Departments of Education were included in most of our other universities. The normal schools carried the major part of the responsibility for teacher preparation throughout most of the nineteenth century and continued to do so until they gradually became obsolete some time be- tween 1930 and 1950. Professional preparation in the early normal schools was primarily for elementary teachers and was quite meager but the educational prepa- ration of teachers improved as the number of these schools increased. In the period from 1921 to 1930 nineteen state normal schools trans- formed themselves into four year degree granting institutions called state teacher's colleges. A period of rapid transformation took place after 1931 so that by 1950 the normal school had almost ceased to existL.‘9 The accrediting organization, the American Association of Colleges of Teachers Education, had a significant effect on the improvement of teacher education in the teacher colleges. In 1926 the following standards for accreditation of teacher-education institutions were adopted: 1. Each teacher college maintain a training school, or equiva- lent facilities. thaul Woodring, "Century of Teacher Education," School and Society, Ix, may, 1962, pp. 236-u2. 28 2. Each teacher in the training school has responsibility for not more than forty children at any one time. 3. A minimum per student of ninety hours of student teaching be required. A. For every eighteen college students engaged in student teaching there be a mdnimum.group of thirty children. 5. One full-time supervisor be utilized for every fifty student teachers in affiliated schools. 6. At least two-fifths of the teaching in the training school be done by the regular staff or college faculty.50 The state teacher's colleges had a short life. Within twenty years after they were founded most had become state colleges and universities. It may be said that, in general, since 1900 universities have accepted a growing proportion of the responsibility for teacher educa- 51 tion. Teacher Preparation in the Universities Statistics in 1958 showed that twenty-five percent of all begin- ning teachers came from public universities and another ten percent from private universities.52 The state universities differ in their organization. Some have departments of education and some have separate units called Colleges of Education. In some instances the teacher candidate is encouraged to enroll in Education classes as a freshman--in others as a sophomore or a junior. In any case, a major portion of his work is taken from liberal 50AmericanAssociation of Teacher Colleges, "Standards for Accred- iting Teachers Colleges," Yearbook of the Association of American Teacher Colleges, Oneonta, New York, 1926, p. 11. 51WOOdring, 22, cit., pp. 236-h2. 52W. Earl Armstrong and T. M. Stinnett, "A Manual on Certifica- tion Requirements," (washington: N.E.A., 1959). 29 arts professors. I Conant found that the typical university preparation program for elementary teachers consisted of four parts, namely: general education, professional courses, methods courses, and practice teaching. There was a wide diversity in the amount of preparation in each of these areas depending on the institution and its philosophy.53 The difficulty involved in evaluating teacher preparation pro- grams is discussed by Woodring. None of the various programs for teacher education found in normal schools, teachers colleges, liberal arts colleges, or universities ever has been evaluated adequately in terms of the ultimate cri- terion-~the effect of the program upon the learning experiences of the child whom the teachers will teach. The variables are too com- plex; the results cannot be fully known until-the teacher has taught for many years; and there is insufficient agreement about the proper goals of education. Such evidence as we have is based upon the professional judgment of people who have worked with the various programs and those who have employed the teachers coming from.themJ On the basis of such evidence each program has both its vigorous supporters and its critics.5n Woodring summarizes the current situation of teacher preparation as follows: Today, however, there is widespread agreement that any sound program for teacher education must include: a substantial program of general or liberal education, representing not less than two years of work.beyond high school; a knowledge of the subject or subjects to be taught . . . . a knowledge of the contributions of philosophy, history, psychology, and the other social and behavioral sciences to an understanding of the place of the school in the social order and the process of learning; and a period of practice teaching or an extended internship during which time the prospec- tive teacher tries out various methods of teaching under competent supervision. . There is still in 1962, widespread disagreement about the proper organization and content of professional courses for teachers and about the place of these courses in the curriculum. There is 53J3 B. Conant, The Education of American Teachers (New York: MbGraw Hall Paperback, 1963), p. 153. ShWoodring, op, cit., p. 242. 30 also disagreement about whether the internship should come during the undergraduate years or after the student receives the bacca- laureate. It seems clear, however, that, in the years ahead, teacher education will not be a thing apart, provided by separate institutions for teachers, bu will be a part of the mainstream of higher education in America. It is clear that teacher preparation programs differ from educa- tional institution to educational institution. This makes it very difficult to describe a typical preparation program in detail. Since this study is primarily directed toward the two latter phases of teacher preparation, pre-clinical and clinical, the review is focused further on these areas. Laboratory Experiences in Teacher Preparation Sinclair, in a doctoral study on pre-clinical education experi- ences, found that those subjects who took part in observations as a part of their professional education classes‘believed that they were better prepared for student teaching than did those who had no observations. Sinclair was unable, by using test instruments, to find these differ- ences and he concluded that his instrumentation was not adequate. The lack of conclusive evidence in his study did not bear out his findings in the review of the literature in which many educators believed that "prior experiences with children especially in a classroom setting, better prepare students for their teaching experiences."56 In his review of the literature Sinclair found that many teacher training institutions were providing laboratory experiences prior to 55Ibid., p. 211. 56Ward William Sinclair, “An Analysis of Three Pre-Student Teach- ing Experiences in the Preparation of Elementary Teachers" (unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Nfichigan State University, East Lansing), 1961. 31 student teaching. He quotes this example: Rucker conducted a survey that pointed out certain trends in student teaching during the twenty year period from.l932 to 1952, namely: a. student teaching as a full time experience; b. the use of more laboratory experiences in teacher education; 0. more off-campus experiences in student teaching including community experiences in the locale where the teaching is performed; d. increasing the time allotment given to student teaching and to other laboratory activities of teacher education; e. increasing the amount of academic credit awarded for student teaching; f. the use of laboratory activities, including student teaching, as a reference point of the whole curriculum in teacher edu- cation; and g. student teaching on more grade levels.57 One concludes, after a study of Sinclair's review of the litera- ture, that there is little sophisticated evidence as to what constitutes a good laboratory type of pre-clinical program of teacher education. A discussion of ways providing quality laboratory experiences for prospective teachers is presented in the A.S.T.Bu11etin, entitled: ‘hchieving Quality in Off-Campus Professional Laboratory Experiences."58 Most universities and other teacher training institutions have courses in psychology, human growth and development, introduction to directed teaching or teaching and learning theory, general problems in education, and methods courses. Many of them.have observation and parti- cipation classes in connection with the psychology and learning theory classes. Humphrey, in a survey of 2M8 N.C.A,T.E. accredited institutions, found the following education courses listed.by these institutions as 57w. Ray Rucker, "Trends in Student Teaching - 1932 to 1952,“ The Journal of Teacher Education, IV, December, pp. 261-63. 58Association For Student Teaching, "Achieving Quality in Off-j Campus Professional Laboratory Experiences,".Association Bulletin No. 8, Cedar Falls, Iowa, 1957. 32 required in teacher preparation: ' Psychology and Related Areas Educational Psychology Human Growth and Development General Psychology Human Development Psychology of Learning Child Psychology Mental Hygiene Adolescent Psychology Psychology of Childhood and Adolescence Learning Process Introduction to Psychology Child Growth and Development Developmental Psychology The Learner Development and Learnin Psychology for Teachers Learning and the Learner Psychology of Adjustment Education of Exceptional Children Psychological and Sociological Foundations of Education Tests and Measurement Measurement and Evaluation Evaluation valuation and Guidance Guidance Educational Foundations Introduction to Education Philosophy of Education School in American Society History and Philosophy of Education Foundations of Education History of Education American Education School and Society Professional Orientation Principles of Education Orientation to Education Developments in Educational Thought Social Foundations of Education Teacher and School and Community Foundations of American Education Sociological and Philosophical Foundations of Education Educational Sociology History of American Education Contemporary Educational Thought I—‘wmmmrtwmmmm-qsl 16 11 l4 e1e4n3n3—q F‘Gfi0<3\0\fi H W H I'DIUUO-F' -\]O\C\O\\DO\\Ol-' 33 Sociological and Historical Foundations of Education 159 Community Education 1 It is apparent from the above list that the pre-student-teaching offerings are quite varied both in name and in content. Student Teaching in Teacher Preparation One finds closer agreement among institutions in their student teaching programs. Sinclair reports that there has been constant awareness by educa- tional institutions of the importance of student teaching experience in the total preparation of teachers. He found that supervised teaching was a part of the teacher training program of the early normal schools. Sebaly states that: A teacher preparation institution, which started as a normal school, generally had as an integral part of the institution some type of laboratory school for observation and practice urposes.. The elementary division [at western Michigan Universit was6an integral part of the original plans for teacher preparation. When the Campus School at‘Western.Nfithigan University was origin- ated, all the prospective elementary tea hers did their practice teach- ing there. The college student enrollments increased and western turned to affiliated school systems to train the teachers. A continued increase in enrollment of prospective teachers has forced the University_to make 59Betty J'. Humphrey, "A Survey of Professional Education Offer- ings in 0.0. A. T. E. - Accredited Institutions," Journal of Teacher Educa- t_i___on, xrv, December 1963, pp. 1.06-10. 6OSinclair, op. cit., p. 13. 61A. L. Sebaly and Others, "Study of the Functions of the College or University Controlled Campus School with Specific Recommendations for the Campus School at Western.Nfichigan University," (Ad-hoe com- mittee report to the president, mimeographed, February 1,196h), p.11. 34 more and more use of the facilities of public schools for off-campus student teaching experiences. Sébaly reports that in 1955 the Western Nfichigan Campus School was potentially able to provide only thirty-five percent of the needed teaching stations for teacher preparation.62 There are still other reasons why the use of campus schools as practice-teaching centers has declined. The typical campus school has a select group of students who are college-bound and who thus are dif- ferent from the heterogenous groups found in most public schools. Mbst campus schools represent the ideal teaching situation. Sebaly states that many educators are now asking whether the preparation which an individual needs might not be done better in public schools.63 The developmental history of laboratory schools and their decreas- ing involvement in the provision of student-teaching experience is pre- sented in the 1958 Association for Student Teaching Bulletin, entitled "The Purposes, Functions and Uniqueness of the College-Controlled Labor- atory School."61+ The financial prdblem also enters the picture in regards to the use of this campus school for supervised teaching. It is much less expensive to place student teachers in public schools where the salaries of supervising teachers are mostly paid out of local funds. 62Ibid., p. 2. 63Ibic1., p. 9. 6hAssociation For Student Teaching, “The Purposes, Functions, and Uniqueness of the College-Controlled Laboratory School," Associatiqn Bulletin Number 9, Lock Haven, Pennsylvania, 1958, pp. 9-20. " 35 The majority of student teachers are now being placed in off- campus situations. The 1951 yearbOOk of the Association For Student Teaching reported forty to fifty percent of its members using off- campus student teaching.65 This percentage has surely increased in the last decade. Nelson found a majority (sixty percent) of student teachers from institutions in eight southeastern states did not live in the field and that eighty percent commuted to the school where they did their student teaching.66 Off-campus student teaching can be divided at least two ways-- part-time vs full-time and regular vs internship. A part-time student teacher is one who is in the public school for a portion of the day and is on campus for classes the rest of the time.6 A full-time student teacher is one who is in the public school all day every day. Any col- lege classes taken by the full-time student teacher must come at a time other than the regular school day. The regular student teacher program.may include both part-time and full-time student teaching but differs from the internship program in that the interns take the place of the teacher and are paid for their teaching., All of the above types are jointly supervised by uni- versity and local personnel. The amount and degree of supervision varies depending on the personnel and the school system. The third edition of the Encyclopedia of Educational Research 65Association for Student Teaching, Off Campus Student Teaching, Yearbook, A.S.T., 1951. 66HoraceNelson,"A Survey of Student Teaching Practice in Eight Southeastern States," Journal of Teacher Education, June, 1963, pp. 188- 93- 36 describes the situation in this way: Typical programs involve a campus school and from.five to twenty-five off-campus schools in one to ten different school systems. Cooperating teachers in school systems are usually approved by the college but flexible standards for selecting these teachers are in vogue. A few universities provide a full-time college supervisor for each twenty off-campus student placements, but the typical ratio is thirty or thirty-five to one. A significant proportion of schools and colleges provide only trouble shooting supervision. The vast majority of off-campus supervising teachers receive small stipends of twenty dollars to fifty dollars per semester per student from the college. Formal contracts governing student teaching arrangements between colleges and universities are rare. Functions of college supervisors are stimulative, morale building, and ameliorative wi h only a few instances of synthesizing teach- ing being reported. The student teaching situation in the United States is in a state of change. This change is bringing about the evolution of student teach- ing from the Campus School to off-campus situations, from.part-time off- campus situation to full-time off-campus situations, and from regular student teaching to internship programs. The intern program, when com- pared to the regular program of student teaching, is somewhat limited. in its scope. ward and Gubfer report that clinical experience of the teaching internship program developing in Oregon is looked upon as a forward step in the improvement of teacher preparation. Prospective teachers are placed in the classroom under strict supervision and are paid for their services. No evaluation of the program had been made at the time this article was written but ward and Gubfer believed the results to be superior to those of the regular student teaching program. They report that the concept of the preparation of teachers by internship is not new. In 1911 Brown University adopted the internship 67L. D. Haskew, Encyclopedia of Educational Research, Third Edi- tion,(New York: McMillan Company, 1960), pp. 1h56e6o. 37 as a part of the teacher-preparation program. During the 1930's and 19hO's some Oregon colleges had experi- mented with this program. In the 1950's a number of intern programs for preparing teachers appeared in various parts of the United States with the heaviest concentration centering on the East coast, in the Mud—West and in California. It's usage is increasing in the United States. The internship program allows the local school system to assume greater responsibility for the training program and allows the intern to assume the role of teacher in every respect. It also allows a longer time for clinical experience. The time range is from one to three years as contrasted with one semester or less usually found to be true with the regular student teaching program. Hunter College uses the intern program in experimental programs for preparation of teachers for disadvantaged as does also Mercy College of Detroit, Western Michigan University, Central Michigan University and Michigan State University.69 There is no doubt that the above experiments are only a foretaste of what is to come and what must come about in teacher education. There is little evidence in the literature that many institutions are attempt- ing to prepare teachers for disadvantaged areas. Nest of the student teaching is done in schools enrolling a majority of students from white middle-class backgrounds. This was found to be true with a majority of 68William T. ward and JCy Hill Gubfer, "Developing the Teaching Internship Concept in Oregon," Jburnal of Teacher Education, XV-3, September, 1964, pp. 252-59. 69Information Obtained from.personal interviews with college representatives in Flint, Michigan, l96h-65. 38 70 the student teachers in the Nfichigan Universities and Colleges. There is one other innovation in teacher preparation that should be reported. Harvard has originated a departure from the standard or conven- tional program. Harvard‘s program terminates in a degree of Master of "Arts in Teaching. This program selects liberal arts graduates with strong majors in the academic disciplines and offers them a year or more of instruction on the graduate level. The student usually takes courses in educational psychology and educational philosophy in the summer. This is followed by a semester's internship in a public high school. Weekly seminars are attended during the semester in which the candidate studies methods and materials for teaching his classes. His teaching is closely supervised. The following semester he returns to the university to complete the requirement for his degree.71 Summary A review of the literature confirmed the assumptions that there are increasingly large concentrations of disadvantaged appearing in our cities, and that these concentrations are creating problems which have a direct implication to education. These prdblems which affect education and the educative process are unique and different from those in the more advantaged areas. The review further revealed that, because of this uniqueness, teachers in the inner-cities are faced with problems for which they are ill-prepared. Furthermore there is little if anything being done by 7OIbid. 71w66dring, 2p. cit., pp. 2u1-u2. 39 teacher-training institutions to prepare teachers to cope with these problems. The need for pre-professional experience with the disadvantaged is repeatedly emphasized. There is, however, little or no research available that compares the advantages of having had these experiences. Teachers continue to be prepared in predominately all-white middle-class schools. The professional preparation of teachers has improved greatly over the last one hundred years. It is in a state of change and many attempts are being made to improve it even more. The preparation of teachers for teaching the disadvantaged is a challenge that is recent in origin and has not yet been given full consideration. The review of the literature confirms the need for this study as well as the possible importance of findings of this study for the future course of teacher education. CHAPTER III DESIGN The writer, a member of the Education-Department of Western‘ Michigan UniVersity, served aSAa Mbtt Intern in Flint, Michigan during the 1964-1965 school year. This assignment provided many opportunities to work with the personnel in the Flint school system. Personal contact with teachers and administrators in the inner- city schools revealed conditions which appeared to have implications for teacher education. Some of the observed prdblem areas were: 1. An instability of staff as a result of high teacher turnover. 2. A high degree of frustration among beginning teachers. 3. A low achievement level of pupils. ‘ h. A negative attitude toward learning displayed by many students. 5. A community environment and type of culture different from that of the teacher. Hypotheses Interviews with teachers and administrators concerning these prdblems led to the following hypotheses: l. Hypothesis I ~ There are specific experiences that teacher preparation institutions need to provide in the preparation of teachers for the economically and educationally disadvantaged. 2. Hypothesis II - Teachers of theeconomically and educationally disadvantaged who have had student teaching experience in schools con- taining a majority of economically and educationally disadvantaged ho 1+1 youngsters experience less frustration in their teaching, and thus attain a greater degree of satisfaction in their work from the onset of their career than those teachers of the economically and educationally disadvantaged who have had their student teaching in schools containing a majority of economically and educationally advantaged children. Instruments As a result of consultations with a representative of the research department at Michigan State University, the director of research of the Flint Putlic Schools, an elementary consultant in the Flint Public Schools, a research orientated person from the Flint Junior College, and three college professors of education from separate universities, the writer decided that the hypotheses could best be tested by acquiring the teacher's perception of the relationship of the problems encountered in teaching to the professional preparation received by the teacher. It was also decided to try to determine the relationship of the type of clinical preparation of the teacher to the teacher‘s perceived length and degree of adjustment to the teaching situation. 11 ( The relationship of thi. type of professional preparation to the teacher's attitude as measured by a validated teacher attitude instru— ment was also studied. The professional preparation of teachers was arbitrarily divided into two parts--pre-clinical (formal classes) and clinical (student teaching). Three instruments were used in securing the information--a fact sheet, a structured interview, and the Nhnnesota Teacher Attitude Inven- tory. l. The Fact Data Sheet: This instrument (see Appendix A) was developed by the writer and was administered immediately preceding the A2 (structured interview. The data on the sheet was used to determine degrees of similarity of the four matched experimental subject groups. Statistical analyses were employed to determine if there were other important variables that materially affected the results of the study. 2. The Structured Interview: This instrument (see Appendix B) was developed by the writer in cooperation with the mentioned seven con- sultants. It was pre-tested on two teachers, not in the criterion sample, to ascertain that the questions were clearly worded, thus assur- ing that the answers secured were directly related to the purpose of the study. The structured interview was administered privately to each teacher in the criterion sample. Each teacher was coded to assure loss of per- sonal identity to anyone except the interviewer. Each interview was taped for later analys s, thus assuring an exact and permanent record of data. Teacher responses as to adjustment were validated by cross check- ing with principrls and/or supervising teachers. 3. Minnesota Teacher Ht+itude Inventory: This standardized in- - 'w-m 4v 4-—m strument (see Appendix C) was administered iniivigially to each subject several weeks after the interviews were conpleted. The Nhnnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory is designed to provide a reliable measure of the attitude of teachers toward children and school- work. The instrument is based on the assumption that a high score on the test indicates ability to maintain a state of harmonious relations with students and a low score indicates a frustrated, domineerin 1 person. 1Walter W. Cook, Carroll H. Leeds, and Robert Collis, " iin .esota Teacher Attitude Inventory," Manual (New York: The Psychological Corporation, 1951). / “3 If attitudes, as were stated by the authors of the MLT.AJI., are an indication of teacher-pupil relationships, and thus the kind of rap- port found in the classroom, it seemed logical that a measure of these attitudes would indicate the degree of adjustment of teachers to a teaching situation. The instrument was used to measure the relation- ,ship of the MLT.A.I. scores to the type of student teaching experienced, and to the racial'background of the teacher. Sample ' The criterion sample conSisted of four groups of fifteen elementary teachers principally from the Flint School System. The total sample was sixty and was conposed as follows: I. Fifteen teachers who were prepared professionally in the Flint Intern Program, who had their internship in schools enrolling a majority of educationally and economically disadvantaged children, and who were presently teaching in these schools. II. ifteen teachers who were repared professionally in the 0 regular four year college program, who had their U) ' tudent teaching in schools enrolling a majority of educationally and economically disad- vantaged children, and who were presently teaching in schools with eco- nomically and educationally disadvantagedichildren. III. Fifteen teachers who were prepared professionally in the regular four year college program, who had their student teaching in schools enrolling a majority of educationally and economically advan- taged children, and who were presently teaching in schools with economy ically and educationally disadvantaged children. IV. Fifteen teachers who were prepared professionally in the ‘regular four year college program, who had their student teaching in 1m schools enrolling a majority of economically and educationally advan- taged children, and were presently teaching with economically and educa- tionally advantaged children. Each teacher in the above groups graduated from college during the immediately preceding five years. Groups were matched as nearly as possible as to age, sex, length of experience, grade level taught, college point hour ratio, and race (see Tables III-la, III-lb, III-lc, III-Id). The teachers in all in- stances were elementary teachers whose assignments ranged from grades kindergarten through seventh grade. Some difficulty was experienced in securing subjects for groups II and III. There were no white teachers to be found for group II in Flint and also not enough Negro teachers for group III. The sample was ex- panded to include other cities in Southern Michigan. As a result, six subjects from group II were selected from Muskegon. Two subjects for group II and one sjhject for group III was secured in Detroit. Two of the subjects in group II cere taken from.grade seven-«one from.MMskegon, and one from Detroit. School Selection The selection of schools classified as enrolling a majority of economically and educationally disadvantaged children was accomplished with the cooperation of the research department of the Flint school system, which had previously classified thirteen schools as disadvan- taged--B.T.U. schools. All of the subjects from the Flint school system that were used for groups I, II and III were selected from eleven of these schools. The schools in Detroit and Muskegon from which subjects were selected for group II and III were judged by research consultants 1+5 to be comparable to the Flint schools. The schools of Flint from which the subjects for group IV were selected were judged to be advantaged by the Director of Research of the Flint school system. A comparison of the October, l96h average sixth grade Science Research Association achievement test scores for the Flint schools used in this study may be found in Table III-2. The results of this testing indicate the difference in achievement levels of the two types of schools--disadvantaged and advantaged. Ignntations This study was limited to the teacher sample of selected elementary schools in Flint, Detroit and.Nmskegon. No attempt was made to classify the source of the professional education of teachers as to specific in- stitutions, specific types of institutions, or as to the geographical areas in which such education occurred. The teachers in group I all received their professional training from.the same two institutions, namely the Flint Junior College and Central Michigan University. The remainder of the subjects represent thirty-two institutions of various types-~private colleges, junior colleges, teacher colleges, and univer- sities from the midwestern, southern and eastern portions of the United States. .All the subjects of group I had three years of supervised teaching. The length of the student teaching experiences of the subjects U) in groups II, III and IV varied from eight weeks to two semesters. Thir variation in length of student teaching, except for group I, affected all of the remaining groups equally. It was judged not to be signifi- cant as the following means for the length of student teaching were secured: group II - lh.5 weeks, group III - lh.5 weeks, group IV - 19.0 1+6 weeks. The teachers in group I were trained in the Flint Intern Program. This program differed somewhat from the conventional four year teacher education program. After two years at the local junior college these people were placed in the school classroom'under the close supervision of training teachers who were employed by the Flint school system. The interns remained in this situation, receiving a partial salary for teach- ing services, for three years. Their formal education was secured from Central Michigan University by attending classes Saturdays and summers. At the end of five years they received a degree equivalent to the regular four year program. Thus they had had three years of clinical experience. At the completion of the internship they began their regular teaching in the same school. The group was selected because of the uniqueness of this type of clinical experience. The following methods of statistical analysis were used for this study: 1. One way analysis of variance-«teacher's perception of adjust- ment period, principal's perception of adjustment period, and MLT.A.I. scores. This method of statistical analysis was also used with the data on teachers in disadvantaged schools to measure the significance of the re- lationship of: . Type of childhood home to adjustment period . Type of elementary school attended to adjustment period . Type of junior high school attended to adjustment period . Type of senior high school attended to adjustment period . Other educational experiences with the disadvantaged to adjustment period . Other experiences with the advantaged to adjustment period mgoo’m H: 1+7 g. Grade level taught to adjustment period h. Racial origin of teacher to adjustment period 1. Racial origin of teacher to MLT.A,I. scores Tukey's method of analysis of differences between means was used when a significance level greater than .05 was found. 2. Chi square correlations--teacher's rating of adequacy of formal professional preparation, teacher's rating of adequacy of student teaching preparation, major prdblems vs grade level taught. 3. Consent analysis--teacher responses to all questions of the interview. Particular emphasis was given to the teacher-perceived ideal teaching situation, most pressing problems, experiences needed in pro- fessional preparation, prdblems of adjustment, and desire to transfer to a teaching situation in a more advantaged school. oammz m m.m ®.m made H .9; m4 .9; wém opens OH Indus” Imam: madamm :H chmz "com: ma >H osmoz : o.m m.m cams m .9; wé .9; 06m 3.33 .3 I982 some: madam.“ ma undo: Indus ma HHH Emma s Tm Tm mass m .mbx o; .9; ism mpH£3 m loom: loom: madaom ma "mom: undo: ma HH mean: 3 Tm Tm mass a .3» m4 .9; mom osmoz m ago: undo: madam.“ :H undo: names ma H comm mmwamné £30m unmade xmm oodmflmg mmd Monasz @586 8us mmmfloo Esme some i so schema .. . mgomw Mm ZOHBEOAH Borflrnmbm .mO zomgmnzoo .mHIHHH H.393. 1+9 m 02 m owwhoné ma mmmhgd N amnesia NH mow N 30a m swam w swam m >H +2 02 N. swam a mwohmeé 0 mm» m magmas i :3 S swam m HE m 02 N. mm» m emanate ma :3 ma :3 3 HH m oz m mwwaoha .3 wow ma 30R d 30A ma 30A ma H qohdawzo mSpwpm UQSOHwMowm oaom mqflnomma 302 mafinowma pnmospm maoaw H.309 depend: oHaosoomnoHoom oesosoomugoom ogocoomuofloom mmbomo Mm ZOHB¢ADmom BOMhmDm mo zomHmdeoo QHIHHH mqmda 50 mwohofiw :H owshoha. :H owmhmeé. mH o m m OH >H 33 H 30A H 39H m i seem m swam a swam a a m m w HHH owwhoga mH omdaohq. in ommhosa :H swam m swam m magmas 3 m o 0 ma H sweep; NH owmaoga mH omwhohq. mH ommfiofiw :H owmamcé. HH H m H w H 30a H 30A : ema 88mm swam .836 suspeseflm ass 859 gunman .38 HHmam soapoosem monHoouohm ofiaoqooouofloom meow cooneHHno 96.5 mmbomc Mm ZOHafiHDmom Boagm ho ZomHmH mm» P mm» m 02 NH 02 mu m n e. m HHH mm» m mow m oz mH oz mH H OH 0 HH mow m oz w oz NH o mH mH H mow w mow m Hmnpo apHmao>HcD mesa HwHopHH 0HaocoomuoHoom 30H UHSOsooonoHoom 30H an3 ooccoppa momoHHoo msoao new: .mxm.ao£po .gxm .mopm Honowoe scape mmbomw Mm ZOHB¢ADmom BUManm mo zomHm¢mzoo UHIHHH mgmda 52 TABLE III-2 A comparison of the October, 1964 average sixth grade S.R.A. achievement test scores for the Flint schools used in this study. Note - Three Muskegon schools and two Detroit schools were judged to be comparable to Flint disadvantaged schools. Disadvantaged Schools Averaged Grade Equivalent School School School School School School School School School School School war—Immwmuow» $Tv1#?¥r¥?¥rv1$r£r$?#r «Ir—'H-xlmmwmmmw Advantaged Schools School School School School School School School School O\\)'I O\O\O\O\-\]O\ (IDO\O\UU on» [Um UJFJDWOZZH CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA The following organization for presentation and analysis of data is used in this chapter: The data secured on the structured interview is presented in the sequence with which the questions were asked. The questions are in Appendix B. A content analysis is made of the responses to each question on the structured interview. Mathematical analyses are carried out where the data are pertinent to the testing of the hypotheses of this study. A chi square analysis is made to determine the relationship of the two major problemsuulack of background concepts and negative attitudes of studentsu-to the grade level taught by the teacher. A chi square analysis is used for the teachers' perception of the adequacy of the formal college preparation (Question 3). A similar analysis is made on the teachers' perception of the adequacy of the student teaching experience (Question A). A one-way analysis of variance is made on the teacher'siperception of the length of adjustment to the teaching situation (Quastihn 8). ‘he principal's perception of the length of time for teacher adjustment to the teaching situation is used as a validity check on the teacher responses and is similarily analyzed. The relationships between the teacher's perceived adjustment end 53 5h the socio~economic level of childhood home, the socio—economic level of the elementary school attended, the socio-economic level of the senior high school attended, the other teacher preparation experiences with low socio-economic groups, the other experiences with low socio-economic groups, the grade level now taught, and the racial background are ana- lyzed by means of the one-way analysis of variance. These analyses are carried out to check on the influence of variables, other than student teaching, on the adjustment period to teaching. The data obtained from the Minnesota Attitude Inventory are pre- sented in the latter part of this chapter. They are analyzed by a one- way analysis of variance. The relationship of the M5T.A.I. scores to racial origin of teacher is also analyzed by the same method. The Statistical Analyses The statistical recommendations of Siegel for the use of chi square and onevway analysis of variance are followed. He states that the chi square test for §_independent samples should be used when the data of research consists of frequencies in discrete categories. This test determines the significance of differences among 5 independent groups (§_in this case may be two or more independent groups). "The oneuway analysis of variance is to be used for deciding whether E independent samples are from different populations."2 A significant level of .05 or higher was selected for the rejec- tion of the null hypothesis when a statistical method of analysis was lSidney Siegel, Nonparametric Statistics For the Behavioral Sciences (New York: MbGraw Hill, 1956), pp. 10h, 175. 2Ibid., pp. 18u-185. 55 The Structured Interview Question 1. What do you consider to be an ideal teaching situation? This question was used primarily as a "warm up" for the remainder of the interview. Teachers, when first confronted by the interviewer with a tape recorder, tended to be nervous and suspicious. Rapport was established between the interviewer and the interviewee during the course of answering this question. Teachers were encouraged to express themselves as to what they would wish to have as an ideal teach- ing situation. The findings in the literature indicated that the hypothesis to be tested wa that teacners, in general, prefer to teach in a middle 0) class situation. The responses to the question were tabulated in Table IV-l. A percentage analysis was made of responses by categories in Table IV-2. Teachers placed the major emphasis on supplies and materials. This may have been due to evasiveness on their part at the start of the interview. It could also be attributed to the fact that disadvantaged children are more difficult to teach with the regular type of supplies and materials. This latter assumption seemed the most valid as the teachers of the disadvantaged gave more responses to this category than did those in group IV. The responses by groups were 22, 17, 25 and 12 respectively. In general the teachers expressed as their ideal; small classes (under 25), children who were eager to learn, who cane from.supportive middle class home backgrounds, and who were an rage or better intelli- gence. They wanted a principal who was supportive, cooperative, RESPONSES BY GROUPS -- IDEAL TEACHING SITUATION 56 TABLE IV-l Type of Children Class - Upper Class thdle Class Lower Class No Consequence Attitude - Eager to Learn Respectful Attentive Intelligence - Bright Average Slow Homogeneous No Consequence Total Type of Parents C - Upper Class Middle Class Lower Class Attitude - ‘flwSupportive Not Pushy Interested COOperative Total Size of Classes Under 20 20 - 25 25 - 30 Over 30 Total Group I Group II Group III Group IV Total 0 o o o o u 1 1 u 10 o 2 1 2 5 o o o o o 9 6 u 8 27 o 2 3 3 8 1 u 2 5 12 3 1 1 3 8 u 3 u o 11 o o o o o o 2 1 1 u ._l.. .9. .2. .9. 3 13 21 19 26 o o o o o 2 6 3 2 13 o o o o o A 7 3 8 22 1 o o 1 2 1 o 1 1 3 ..l.. .9. .€. .9. 5 10 13 9 1h 0 3 u 1 8 7 7 8 5 27 2 1 1 3 7 .9. .9. .9. .9. 9 .9 11 13 9 57 TABLE IV-l (Continued) Group I Group II Group III Group IV Total Type of Principal Friendly 2 l 2 3 8 Cooperative l l 3 h 9 Democratic O l 3 5 9 Supportive O 2 5 3 10 Total 3 5 13 15 Type of Staff Friendly 3 6 7 A 20 Helpful 3 h h 3 1h Cooperative A 6 h 2 16 Total 10 16 15 9 Type of Facilities Space 5 2 5 2 14 Equipment 9 7 ll 4 31 Supplies 8 8 2 6 31 Total 22 17 25 12 Type of Professional IIellg Remedial O l 2 2 5 Consultant 1 O l O 2 In-Service Ed. 1 O O O 1 Other 1 O l 1 3 Total 3 1 b. 3 58, TABLE IV-2 PERCENTAGE OF TEACHER RESPONSES BY CATEGORIES - IDEAL TEACHING SITUATION Responses Percentage Children Class - Upper Class 0 0.0 thdle Class 10 75.0 Lower Class 25 0 15 100 Attitude - Eager to Learn 27 57.3 Respectful 8 17.0 Attentive 12 25.] E7 100 Intelligence - Bright 8 30.8 Average 11 h2.3 Slow 0 0.0 Homogeneous A 15.h No Consequence 3 11.5 “""26’ 100 Parents Class - Upper Class 1 7.2 Middle Class 13 92.8 Lower Class 70 0.0 ’"ITHF' ' 100 Attitude — Supportive 22 68.8 Not Pushy 2 6.2 Interested 3 9.h Cooperative 5 15.6 32 100 Size of Classes Under 20 8 19.0 20 — 25 27 eu.u 25 - 3o 7 16.6 Over 30 0 0.0 """EE" —"_”_T55 59 TABLE Iv-2 (Continued) Responses Percentage Principal Friendly 3 20.0 Cooperative A 26.7 Democratic 5 33.3 Supportive 3 20.0 15 100 Staff Friendly 20 no.0 Helpfu 1h 28.0 Cooperative 16 32.0 50 100 Facilities Space 1h l8.h Equipment 31 no.8 Supplies 31 h0.8 76 100 Professional Help Remedial 5 h5.h Consultant 2 18.2 In-Service 1 9.1 Others 3 27.3 11 100 democratic, and friendly. cooperative staff. They also preferred a friendly, helpful and Although teachers frequently did not mention class or culture when describing the student, it was assumed that they wished mostly for middle class children since most of the responses on home background described that type of environment. Teachers preferred children from middle class background rather than from upper class. describe upper class parents. A statistical analysis was not used on the data. "Pushy" and "snobby" were adjectives used to Instead the hypothesis was judged to be acceptable on the basis of inspection of 60 the responses. Teachers do identify with the middle class type of back- ground more frequently than with the lower or upper. -Question 2. What are the most pressinggproblems encountered in teach- ing the economically and educationally disadvantaged? The term advantaged was substituted for disadvantaged in the inter- views with the teachers of group IV. The findings of the literature posed the hypothesis that the prob- 1ems of teachers of the disadvantaged would be unique and to a degree different from those of the teachers of the advantaged. The responses to this question are listed in Table IV-3. TABLE IV- 3 TEACHER RESPONSES -- MOST PRESSING PROBLEMS Group I Group II Group III_ Group IV 1. Negative attitudes of students 11 9 1h 0 2. Discipline O 3 10 0 3. Hyperactivity of students 2 3 3 0 h. Motivation of students 2 3 3 0 5. Inattentiveness of students 3 2 2 0 6. Emotional instability of students 0 2 A 0 7. Attendance of students 0 0 2 l 8. Lack of supportive home environment 0 3 7 0 9. Lack of background concepts 12 10 10 0 10. Conflicting culture 2 1 2 0 11. Accepting child 1 2 2 0 12. More patience of teacher 1 O 0 0 13. Building student's self concept 1 O 2 0 1t. Understanding child 1 3 1 0 15. Individualizing instruction 2 0 0 0 16. Child centered instruction 2 l 0 0 l7. Superiority of parents 0 0 0 1 18. Parental pressure 0 O 0 8 l9. Snobbish children 0 0 0 2 20. Challenge students 0 0 0 4 21. Other problems 0 0 2 l 22. To pressing problems 0 0 0 A 61 Since group I, II, and III were teaching in similar situations, the responses for these groups were combined, and a percentage of total responses were computed for each category. This percentage was compared with the percentage of total responses of group IV in Table IV—h. TABLE IV - h PERCENTAGE COMPARISON OF RESPONSES OF TEACHERS BY TEACHING SITUATION -- MOST PRESSING PROBLEMS Disadvantaged Advantaged 1. Negative attitude of students 22.u 0.0 2. Discipline 8.5 0.0 3. Hyperactivity of students 5.3 0.0 h. Motivation of students 3.3 0.0 5. Inattentiveness of students 9.6 0.0 6. Emotional instability of students 3.9 0.0 7. Attendance of students 1.3 h.8 8. Lack of supportive home 12.5 0.0 9. lack of background environment concepts 21.0 0.0 10. Conflicting culture 3.3 0.0 11. Accepting child 3.3 0.0 12. More patience of teacher 0.6 0.0 13. Building student's self concept 2.0 0.0 it. Understanding child 3.3 0.0 15. Individualizing instruction 1.3 0.0 16. Child centered instruction 2.0 0.0 17. Superiority of parents 0.0 h.8 18. Parental pressure 0.0 38.0 19. Snobbish children 0.0 9.5 20. Challenge children 0.0 19.0 21. Other problems 1.3 4.8 22. No pressing problems 0.0 19.0 99-9 99 9 The prdblems confronting the teachers of the disadvantaged were judged to be considerably different from those of the teachers of the advantaged. Twenty-two percent of the teachers of the disadvantaged listed negative attitudes of students as being the number one protlem. 62 The figure rose to forty-eight percent when the percentage of responses in the related areas of discipline, hyperactivity of students, motiva- tion of students, inattentiveness of students, and emotional instability of students were added to this. No teacher of the advantaged mentioned these categories as a major problem area. Simdlar situations were found in the lack of supportive home environment (listed by 12.5 percent) and in the lack of background con- cepts (listed by 21.0 percent of the teachers of the disadvantaged). There were no responses listed in these categories by the teachers of (.1. the advantage .. 2.. Ten of the advantaged listed parental pressure (38 percent) Q: 1+ | er (D and difficulty in aLility to challenge children (19 percent) as their major problems. Nineteen percent said they had no pressing problems. No teacher of the disadvantaged mentioned any of these categories. A comparison of the types of problems faced in the two different situations seemed to indicate that they fell on the opposite ends of the educational spectrum. 0n the basis of inspection of the evidence as shown in Table IV—M, the hypothesis was accepted. The problems, as perceived by the teachers of the two types of teaching situations, were considerably different. The problems of negative student attitudes and lack of background concepts appeared to be somewhat related in that they were frequently mentioned together. It also appeared that the teachers of the earlier grades mentioned lack of background concepts as the nunmer one prdblem more often than did the teachers of the later grades. In order to test this relationship, the responses of the teachers were grouped at three grade levels. (See Figure l) 63 FIGURE 1 PERCEPTION OF STUDENT ATTITUDE VS. BACKGROUND CONCEPTS AS MOST PRESSING-PROBLEM Teacher Responses Number of Teachers Attitudes Background Grades 1 & 2 l9 7 12 Grades 3 & u 16 15' 1 Grades 5 -'7 _19_ __Z_ __;_ Total 35 29 16 The null hypothesis for this relationship was that these two problems were perceived equally by teachers without regard to grade level. The alternative hypothesis was that the grade level taught did make a difference in the teacher's perception of the problem. (See Table IV-S) Chi square analysis uf the above data produced a value of l2.hh9 with tvo degrees of freedom. On a table of chi square values there was found to be a significance beyond the .001 level. The null hypothesis was rejected and the alternative hypothesis accepted. The evidence indicated the problem of the lack of background concepts was over- shadowed by the negative attitudes of students at some time after the beginning of the third grade. It seemed highly probable that lack of background concepts produced failure and frustration, and thus the negative attitudes of students. It was assumed that the lack of background concepts was still present in students in the upper grades. The S.R.A. achievement scores (Table III-2) for the disadvantaged schools were considered to be 64 TABLE VI-5 CHI SQUARE ANALYSIS OF THE COMPARISON OF THE PROBLEMS OF LACK OF BACKGROUND CONCEPT AND NEGATIVE STUDENT ATTITUDES BY GRADE LEVELS (Collapsed Data) m Background Attitude Total Grades 1 - 2 g Number 12 7 19 Percentage across 63.16 36.84 100.00 ( Percentage down 75.00 24.14 42.22 ( Theoretical frequencies 6.76 12.24 - Grades 3 - 4 ( Nlmfc-er 1 15 16 E Percentage across 6.25 93.75 100.00 Percentage down 6.25 51.72 35.36 ( Theoretic frequencies 5.69 10.31 - Cfiades 5 u 7 E Number 3 7 10 Percen age across 30.00 70.00 100.00 ( Percen.age down 18.75 24.14 22.22 ( Theoretical frequencies 3.56 6.44 « Cai Square = 12.449 Degrees of Freedom 8 2 Significance - .001 evidence oft1.is. The effect of czultur a1 M f fer ;ce or the teachers was shown on. Ta721e IV-4 in that 3.3 percen of the teachers of the disadvantaged mentioned conflicting culture, 3.3 percen+ ment Md cceptance of child, and 3.3 percer t mertioned understanding the child as major problems. The cate- gories were not mentioned oy the teachers of gro p 1‘.. Individual ct.ne".s by teachers of the di; advar+.sed rernlng attitude and lack of background c ncepts .ere as follows: "Mbst of then roblems of the c hild seem to c ome fr an the here background." "Parents of lower class children don't teach needed concepts.“ . .,_ _ n "Lewer class children are irustra ed Lec .4.e they c:n‘t learn.. 65 "Students lack respect. They try to frustrate the teacher. They don't listen even though they can learn." "Students must catch up in behavior. You must broaden on what they bring. You must melt their experience and culture with ours. They are behind in middle class behavior." "Anything they know can be switched around to learning. The word steak is not familiar to them. Hamburger is. They have different concepts. You must build on what they bring." "It's kind of frustrating when you know the child can do it and he won't try." "The things that teachers normally draw on for motivation aren't there in the lower-class child." "They gaze out the window, too tired to learn." "The home and school are separated in a disadvantaged area. The middle-class teacher can cope with lack of background." "These children expect to fail and worry about it. Children with- out proper attitude will not learn." "Children from disadvantaged homes lack space concepts." "Emotional problems of the disadvantaged are such that they must be corrected before learning proceeds satisfactorily." Following are some typical statements of teachers of the advantaged concerning problems of teaching: "Middle class schools don't have the pressure of high economic parents or the apathy of the low sociOueconomic group." "Parental pressure causes children to act immaturely and withdraw.“ "Children from high socio-economic homes have too much to appre~ ciate anything." "Teacher must keep on her toes or she will fall behind the class." "I would rather have an overly anxious parent than a disinter- ested one." "Mbst of these students have a good attitude toward learning and most of the parqpts also have a good attitude." 66 Question 3. How well did your formal college education classes prepare you to meet these problems? The null hypothesis tested by this question was that the responses of teachers would not differ by teaching situation. The alternative hypothesis was that there would be a significant difference in the responses by the teaching situation. Teachers were asked to rate the degree to which their formal college education classes prepared them to meet their most pressing problems. The ratings are shown in Figure 2. FIGURE 2 TEACHER RATINGS OF ADEQUACY OF FORMAL EDUCATION CLASSES IN RELATION TO MOST PRESSING PROBLEMS 322225 Group I Gyoup II Group III Group IV 22331 Excellent 0 0 0 2 2 Very good 0 1 cl 5 7 Good 1 l 4 4 10 Poor 4 l3 5 3 25 Very poor _10. __Q. __5_- __1 _16 Total 15 15 15 15 60 In order to run a valid chi square analysis (see Table IV-6) on this data, the scale was collapsed into two variables. The analysis of the adjusted data gave a chi square of 18.716 with three degrees of freedom. The table of critical values of chi square placed the significance beyond the .001 level. The null hypothesis was rejected and the alternate hypothesis was accepted. 67 TABLE IV-6 CHI SQUARE ANALYSIS OF TEACHER RATINGS ON ADEQUACY OF FORMAL EDUCATION CLASSES (Collapsed Data) Low Rating High Rating Total Group I Ntmber 14.00 1.00 15.00 Percentage across 93.33 6.67 100.00 Percentage down 34.15 5.26 25.00 Theoretical frequency 10.25 4.75 - Group II Nunber 13.00 2.00 15.00 Percentage across 86.67 13.33 100.00 Percentage down 31.71 10.53 25.00 Theoretical frequency 10.25 4.75 - Group III Number 10.00 5.00 15.00 Percentage across 66.67 33.33 100.00 Percentage down 24.39 26.32 25.00 Theoretical frequency 10.25 4.75 - Group IV Number 4.00 11.00 15.00 Percentage across 26.67 73.33 100.00 Percentage down 9.76 57.87 25.00 Theoretical frequency 10.25 4.75 - Chi Square = 18.716 Degrees of Freedom = 3 Significance Level =.001 The evidence indicated that the adequacy of formal education classes was rated significantly higher by the teachers of the advantaged than by teachers of the disadvantaged. In addition to the rating of the adequacy of formal education cla ~=s. teachers gave comments about the classes. A summary of these comments was placed in Table IV-7. TABLE IV-7 SUMMARY OF TEACHERS' COMMENTS CONCERNING ADEQUACY OF FORMAL EDUCATION CLASSES Group I Group II Group III Group IV Total Little application Too unrealistic Too ideal Too theoretical Middle class oriented Too general Class visitations good Psychology good Not child centered Too little contact with children Others (positive) \O-xlxlm O\ F—l H #7 IC>FJ F’F‘l C>$7P4n)n)n) I~JCJ F‘fiflpld 0? —V Total P \o lc>c> C>C>FJF4\DFD\DFDLM H . —q PDIA C>e4e4c>—q+4<3tura H -4 IG\F‘ CDRDFJCDUJUJCDRJCD The comments of the teachers supported the alternative hypothesis. Teachers of disadvantaged children stated that the formal education classes neglected information on the lower class, and thus there was little applica- tion of what they were taught to the solution of problems confronted by the teacher. Teachers complained that their class observations and participa- tionswere too ideal. The significantly higher rating of the adequacy of formal education classes by the teachers of the advantaged gave support to the complaint of the teachers of the disadvantaged that formal education classes were geared primarily to the middle and upper class. Teachers from group IV did believe that their formal education classes were directed toward the type of young- sters they were teaching. 69 Question 4. How well did your student teaching prepare you to meet thesegproblems? The null hypothesis tested by this question was that teachers would perceive the adequacy of their clinical experience similarly without regard to their present teaching situation. The alternative hypothesis was that teachers, now teaching in a situa- tion similar to that in which they did their student teaching, would rate the adequacy of their student teaching higher than those not so prepared. Teachers were asked to rate the adequacy of their student teaching in relation to the present problems of teaching. (see Figure 3) FIGURE 3 TEACHER RATINGS OF ADEQUACY OF STUDENT TEACHING M l‘. Ratin Group I Group II Group III Group IV Tgpalg Excellent 15 9 1 7 32 Very good 0 6 0 6 12 Good 0 0 1+ 1 5 Poor 0 0 4 l 5 Very poor ___9 __(_D_ ____6 ___0 ____6 Total 15 15 15 15 60 The ratings on this table were collapsed into two variables so that a valid chi square analysis could be made. The adjusted data (see Table IV-8) gave a chi square number of 18.716 with three degrees of freedom. The table of critical values for chi square placed the significance beyond the .001 level. TABLE IV-8 CHI SQUARE ANALYSIS OF TEACHER RATINGS 0F ADEQUACY OF STUDENT TEACHING (Collapsed Data) Low High Total Group I Number 0.00 15.00 15.00 Percentage across 0.00 100.00 100.00 Percentage down 0.00 34.09 25.00 Theoretical frequency 4.00 11.00 - Group II Number 0.00 15.00 15.00 Percentage across 0.00 100.00 100.00 Percentage down 0.00 34.09 25.00 Theoretical frequency 4.00 11.00 - Group III Number 14.00 1.00 15.00 Percentage across 93.33 6.67 100.00 Percentage down 87.50 2.27 25.00 Theoretical frequency 4.00 11.00 - SIZES-LIV" Percentage across 13.33 86.67 100.00 Percentage down 12.50 29.55 25.00 Theoretical frequency 4.00 11.00 — Chi Square = 46.364 Degrees of Freedom = 3 Level of Significance =.001 0n the basis of this analysis the null hypothesis was rejected and the alternate hypothesis was accepted. a he data indicated that those teachers prepared for the specific teach» ing situation in which they were teaching, rated their student teaching high in adecuacy. Those teachers (group III) who did their student teaching in A. 71 middle class schools rated this experience as very inadequate in preparing them to meet the problems of the disadvantaged schools. Figure 4 shows the mean rating for each group. FIGURE 4 PLOT 0F MEANS OF TEACHER RATINGS 0F ADEQUACY OF STUDENT TEACHING 5. Excellent (590)-- _ , ~*\ 4. Very good (4.6)~\ ’,(4f3) \ 3. Good \_ a’ ’/ \ 2. Poor (2(0) 1. Very poor Group I Group II Group III Group IV In addition to the rating of the adequacy of student teaching, comments were made by the teachers. Table IV-9 was constructed to show these comments and their frequency. TABLE IVu9 COMMENTS 0F TEACHERS 0N ADEQUACY OF STUDENT TEACHING Group I Group II Group III Group IV Total Varied level of teaching Same type of children Did see extremes Geared to upper class Too ideal Provided goals No chance to teach Too short Better than nothing Should have had chance to student teach in middle class school Total OOOOOOOOUU OOOOOOOI—‘O r0<3<310 O\F’F‘C>C> Ot—‘l—‘Ol—‘OOOO RDF‘FJRD~JFJPJPH» HI c>—q r-‘IO f-l mlo wl 81 72 The comments were judged to confirm the finding that teachers in group III perceived themselves as being less adequately prepared in their student teaching. Individual statements concerning student teaching are listed by groups. Group I - "Wish I could have had the chance to do some student teaching in a middle class school!" (Mentioned by 46% of teachers) "I would have been floored if I had had only formal college prepara- tion." ”This was an excellent experience. I was a teacher from the start. I had close supervision from my supervising teacher." (Mentioned by a majority of teachers) Group II - "You have to get to know these children and their problems before you can teach them.“ "When the supervising teacher was gone and you were in your own classroom, it was difficult." "When I first started student teaching I was just floored. I had no idea what it was like." "When I started student teaching I did very poorly. I almost quit. It took me the entire period to get to know them." Group III - "The student teaching experience was no good. I was with too ideal a group." (Mentioned by 40% of teachers) "I did my student teaching in a laboratory school. It was no good for this situation." "There are a few of the disadvantaged pr0blems to be found in student teaching in middle class schools." Group IV - "Laboratory schools are too idealistic. They are not a real situation." "I had little chance to actually teach. Mest of my time was Spent Observing." "The student teaching experience was the best preparation I had." 73 (Mentioned by a majority of teachers) Question 5. What kinds of formal college education should be provided for teachers of the economically and educationally disadvantaged? The term advantaged was substituted for disadvantaged in question five when group IV was interviewed. The hypothesis tested by this question was that the responses would differ according to the types of teaching situation--disadvantaged and advantaged. The responses for Question 5 are listed in Table IV-lO. A percentage TABLE IV-lO UGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING FORMAL EDUCATION CLASSES Group I Group II Group III Group IV Total 1. Mere comprehensive socio- economic coverage 7 5 7 l 20 2. Mere experience with children 5 15 15 7 42 3. Include low—socio- economic group 5 9 15 l 30 4. Mere on lower class culture 5 13 15 0 33 5. Tie theory in with practice 7 6 4 9 26 6. Mere observations 0 O 2 4 6 7. Mere on behavioral problems 1 0 2 3 6 8. Mbre methods courses 3 2 l 2 8 9. Mere psychology 2 2 l 0 5 10. Other 2 O O O 2 Totals 37 52 62 27 178 74 analysis of these responses by categories is to be found in Table IV-ll. TABLE IV-ll TEACHER SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING EDUCATION CLASSES- PERCENTAGE OF RESPONSES BY CATEGORIES m Group I Group II Group III Group IV Total 1. Mere comprehensive socio-economic coverage 35.0 25.0 35.0 5.0 100 2. Mere experience with children 11.8 35.8 35.8 16.6 100 3. Include low socio- economic group 16.7 30.0 50.0 3.3 100 4. Mere on lower class culture 15.1 39.4 45.5 0.0 100 5. Tie theory with practice 27.0 23.0 15.4 34.6 100 6. Mere .bservations 0.0 0.0 33.3 66.7 100 7. More on behavioral problems 16.7 0 0 33.3 50.0 100 8. Nbre methods courses 37.5 25.0 12.5 25.0 100 9. Mere psychology 40.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 100 10. Other 100.00 0.0 0.0 0.0 100 Table IV-l2 was used to show a percentage analysis of responses by teaching situations. The teachers of all groups said that formal education should provide for more experience with children. They also wished to have theory tied in with practice. It was evident from these responses that it was difficult, before student teaching, for the prospective teachers to apply the learn: a: 75 TABLE IV-l2 TEACHER SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVING FORMAL EDUCATION CLASSES -- PERCENTAGE OF RESPONSES BY TEACHING SITUATIONS Disadvantaged Advantaged l. Mere comprehension socio-economic coverage 12.6 3.7 2. Mere experience with children 23.2 25.9 3. Include low socio-economic group 19.2 3.7 4. Mere on lower class culture 21.8 0.0 5. Tie theory in with practice 11.3 33.3 6. Mere otservation 1.3 14.8 7. Mere on behavioral pr0blems 2.0 11.1 8. Mere methods courses 4.0 7.5 9. Mbre psychology 3.3 0.0 10. Other 1.3 0.0 Total 100.0 100.0 in formal education classes to the actual teaching situation. The formal education class situation was too removed, in their judgment, from the actual practice of teaching. Groups I, II and III (Table LV-l2) wished for a'broader sonic-economic coverage (12.6 percent) in classes in human growth and development, psychol- ogy and methods. T4858 same groups suggested that there should be more teaching on lower class culture (21.8 percent). Included in these sugges- tions were more on Negro history, Negro anthropology and Negro culture. The desire for experience with the low socio-economic group in fornrl 76 education classes was expressed most by teachers in group III (Table IV-ll). Fifty percent of the responses in this category were from group III. This same group gave the most responses for more comprehensive socio-economic coverage in the formal classes (35 percent), and for more on lower class culture (45.5 percent). The data showed that those teachers who had no prior experience with, or information about low socio-economic people, expressed the most desire that such experience and information be given prior to teaching. Inspection of the data was used by the writer to determine that the hypothesis was acceptable. The responses to Question 5 did differ by teach- ing situation. They also differed according to the prior student teaching experience of the teacher in the disadvantaged schools. Teachers who had student teaching in the disadvantaged schools expressed a greater desire for improvement in other areas, namely, psychology, methods courses, and .ying theory in with practice. Some of the typical individual responses to Question 5 were as follows: Group I - "Formal college preparation should be in part concerned with the disadvantaged." "Methods courses were mostly lecture-~no practice.“ "Knowledge of Negro history, culture and anth_opology would be most helpful in teaching." "I had a formal class that did emphasize practice. It was most helpful." - "There should be more arts and music and how they can be used with the disadvantaged." "It would be helpful if prospective teachers could have tutorial experience with the disadvantaged." "There should be a class on behavior problems and how to cope with them." 77 Group II n "A knowledge of Negro history, culture and anthropology is needed by teachers who teach the disadvantaged. These would help teachers build self concept of child." “There should be lots more on art and music for the disadvantaged. They can achieve here.“ "Colleges must set up better observation and participation. It is too hard to get into lower class schools otherwise." "Give the prospective teachers a chance to get into the lower class homes and to work with lower class children." "Apply some of the theory to the lower class." Group III - "I would have liked to have seen demonstration classes with disad— vantaged children.“ "It isn't fair to teachers and children not to warn or advise teachers as to the situations in disadvantaged schools." "College could help to develop teachers for the lower class but the desire to teach lies in the individual." "Perhaps primary experience along with formal education class would help teachers choose lower class schools." "We should be given the results of research on lower class culture.“ "Gear the material in formal education to all socio-economic classes. Give us something on Negro culture and history." "This (formal education) should prepare us for the problems. It "Let's have more sociology with emphasis on the disadvantaged.“ "There should be more techniques of teaching and the different ape proaches needed for different classes of children." “We should know the reasons for the lower class child's behavior." "Lower class children should be brought into the college class to show students what these children are like." "Let's have some realism along with the theory." 78 Group IV - "The methods courses were the best of the formal classes." "Lab school observation and participation are too idealistic. They are not real situations. Prospective teachers should get into the public schools." "I was satisfied with my formal education courses." "There should be a course on behavioral problems." "There should be something on classroom planning." "Theory should be tied in with practice." "College teachers should be experienced people." "There should be more internships. Formal college classes could be taken while teaching." Question 6. What kinds of student teaching or other experiences should begprovided for teachers of the economicallygand education- ally disadvantaged? The term advantaged was substituted for disadvantaged in the group IV interviews. The assumption was made, before the interviews were conducted, that there are Specific experiences other than actual supervised classroom teaching that prospective teachers need. This assumption was based on in- formation given in lectures by Sam Shepherd, Martin Deutsch and Herbert Schuler at which the writer was in attendance.3 The list of these needed experiences was compiled from interviews with Dr. Mildred Smith, Elementary Consultant for the Flint School System and twelve elementary principals of the Flint School System. Sam Shepherd, Martin Deutsch and Herbert Schuler were also interviewed personally. The following list of needed experiences was prepared: 3Lectures to Mbtt Interns in Flint, thhigan, during 1964-1965 school year. "Interviews made by writer at Flint, Nfichigan, during the lQ6k-l9h§ school year. 10. ll. 12. 13. 79 Communications with parents by phone or mail. Handling problem situations which involved working with parents and principal. Conducting of, or participation in, parent-teacher conferences. Visitation of the homes of the children. Recognition of health problems and working with proper personnel in solving them. Working with social agencies to take care of those cases needing help. Attendance and participation in P.T.A. meetings. Attendance and participation in faculty meetings. Experience of student teaching with varied cultural groups. Visitation of other classrooms of other socio-economic groups while student teaching. Working with people of low socio-economic background. Conduction of field trips-~cultural and educational. Completion of school reports and records. The hypothesis tested by this question was that the student-teaching experiences of the teachers in the sample had not adequately provided those experiences needed in teaching. Each teacher interviewed was asked to name those experiences from the list that he had. He was asked to add any that he thought were missing. Two others were suggested by teachers. These were: 1. a pre- student teacher orientation, and 2. bulletin board construction. These two were not included in the original list. The responses for Question 6 were tabulated and a percentage analysis listed in Table IV-l3. 80 TABLE IV-l3 PARTICIPATION IN NECESSARY EXPERIENCES DURING STUDENT TEACHING -- PERCENTAGE BY GROUPS Group I Group II Group III Group IV 1. Communications with parents, phone or mail 100.0 60.0 h6.7 26.8 2. Handling problem situations 100.0 146.5 26.6 26.8 3. Parent teacher conferences 100.0 86.5 26.6 26.8 A. Home visitations 60.0 13.3 6.7 13.3 5. Health problems 15.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 6. Working with social agencies 26.6 20.0 26.8 6.7 7. Attending P.T.A. meetings l00.0 h6.6 73.3 93.3 8. Attending faculty meetings 100 .o 86.5 80 .o 66.6 9. Varied cultural teaching experiences 0.0 13.3 13.3 6.7 10. Other classroom visitations 13.0 0.0 2.0 0.0 ll. Working with low socio-economic 100.0 100.0 0.0 0.0 12. Conducting field trips 100.0 80.0 66.6 86.5 13. Filling out school reports 100.0 66.7 86.5 80.0 Note -- Number in each group - 15 81 An analysis of the data showed that the interns (group I), because of the three years in the classroom in an actual teaching situation, re- ceived the best preparation in the selected areas. waever, forty percent had not visited homes, eighty-five percent had not worked on health prob- lems, and seventy-three percent had not worked with social agencies. None of these teachers had any experience in student teaching with other cultural groups. Eighty-seven percent had not visited other classrooms in other socio-economic areas. In group II, forty percent had not communicated with parents by phone or mail during student teaching, fifty-three percent had not handled prob- lem situations, fourteen percent had not taken part in parent-teacher con- ferences and eighty-seven percent had not visited homes. None of these teachers had worked on health problems, and none of them had visited other classrooms in other cultural settings. Eighty percent had not worked with social agencies, fifty-four percent had not attended P.T.A. meetings, thirteen percent had not attended faculty meetings, eighty-seven percent had no student-teaching experience in other cultures, twenty percent had not been on field trips, and thirty-three percent had not worked on school records or reports. In group III none of the teachers had worked on health problems, and none of them.worked with low socio-economic children during student teach- ing. Fifty-three percent of them had not communicated with parents by phone or mail, seventy-three percent had not handled problem situations, ninety-three percent had not visited homes, seventy-three percent had not worked with social agencies, twenty-six percent had not attended P.T.A. meetings, twenty percent had not attended faculty meetings, eighty-seven percent had no student teaching with another culture, ninety-eight percent 82 had not visited classes in other cultural settings, thirty-three percent had not conducted a field trip, and thirteen percent had not filled out school reports or records. In group IV none of the teachers had worked on health problems, visited classes in other cultural settings, or worked with children from a low socio-economic background while student teaching. Seventy—three percent of these teachers had not communicated with parents by phone or mail, seventy-three percent had not handled problem situations, seventy- three percent had not participated in parent-teacher conferences, eighty- seven percent had not visited homes, ninety-three percent had not worked with social agencies, seven percent had not attended P.T.A. meetings, thirty-three percent had not attended faculty meetings, ninety-three per- cent had no varied cultural student teaching experience, thirteen percent had not conducted field trips, and twenty percent had no experience filling out school records or reports. The hypothesis was accepted on the basis of this evidence. If the experts were right in the list of needed experiences during student teach- ing, the subjects interviewed were lacking in many areas. There were some areas in student teaching that were adequately covered in the subjects' clinical preparation. This was particularly true for the interns. There were greater amounts of deficiency for those who had the regular student teaching experience than for those who were formerly interns. Question 7. Were there adjustment prdblems for you when you began teaching? If so how long did they last? The null hypothesis tested by this question was that the type of student-teacher preparation, in relationship to the type of teaching, was not important in teacher adjustment. The alternative hypothesis was that teachers prepared specifically 83 for a type of teaching situation adjusted more quickly to that situation than teachers not so prepared, and thus experienced more satisfaction from the onset of their teaching. Teacher responses to this question were checked with their principals and/or other supervisory personnel. Table IV-lh was used to show these responses. TABLE IV-lh TEACHER AND PRINCIPAL RESPONSES TO NUMBER OF WEEKS OF ADJUSTMENT TIME FOR TEACHER subjects Group I Group II Group III Group IV Teacher Prin. Teacher Prin. Teacher Prin. Teacher Prin. 1. oo oo 2 6 12 2h h 2 2. oo oo 2 1 8 8 12 16 3. oo oo 3 2 8 10 8 8 A. 00 oo 1 1 16 20 20 2h 5. oo oo 3 o 2 2 2 o 6. oo oo 12 o 12 12 o o 7. oo 00 u h to no u 2 8. oo oo 8 12 22 28 8 2o 9. oo oo o 1 20 to h 8 10. oo oo 28 12 12 16 8 o 11. oo 00 u 16 u 80 2h 16 12. oo oo 2 o no no 8 u 13. oo 00 h 12 12 8 no 0 1h. 00 00 2h 3 ho to h u 15. oo oo 8 12 8 8 2o 8 Total 00 00 105 82 256 376 166 112 Mean 0.0 0.0 7.0 5.5 17.1 25.0 11.1 7.5 A one-way analysis of variance was run on the teacher perception of adjustment time. (Table IV-15) The F'of 8.7 which was found was significant beyond the .01 level. 8h TABLE IV-15 LENGTH OF ADJUSTMENT TIME AS PERCEIVED BY TEACHERS -- ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 1. quup Frequency Mgap Std. Deviation of Group I 15 0.0 0.0 II 15 7.0 8.3 III 15 17.1 13.0 IV 15 11.1 10.7 Total 60 8.8 11.1 2. Source of §ETJE§ Degrees of Nban Variance Squares Freedom Squares Between groups 2312.3 3 770.8 Within groups M941.9 56 88.2 E Statistic = 8.73 Level of Significance = .01 20 15 10 Plot of Means A further analysis of the data was made to determine between which means this significant difference occurred. Tukey's method of analysis 85 was used.5 (See Table IV-16) TABLE IV-16 LENGTH OF ADJUSTMENT TIME AS PERCEIVED BY TEACHERS -- ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MEANS BY TUKEY'S METHOD x1 x2 x1+ x3 - 7 11.07 17 l. - 7 11.07* 17* 2. - h.07 10* h - 6.33 d f n.56 Table Values Studentized Range .05 3-75 PM YE N 15 at .05 - Group I is significantly different from Group III 2.42 [3.75) 7.50 Group II is significantly different from Group III The length of perceived teacher adjustment for group III was found to be significantly different from that of group I and II at the five per- cent level. Group III did not differ significantly from group IV. 5(The F test on the analysis of variance gives no clue as to how many differehbes there are. Tukey's test gives us a way to make this comparison.) George W. Snedicor and William G. Cockeran, Statistical Methods (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State College Press, 1956), p. 25lf. 86 The null hypothesis was rejected for groups I, II and III and retained for group IV. Those teachers who had student teaching in the inner-city schools did perceive themselves as adjusting in a significantly shorter time than those not prepared for that situation. The difference in the teacher perceived length of adjustment time for teachers prepared in middle class schools was not significantly different for the two different teaching situations—-disadvantaged and advantaged. The principals' perception of the length of adjustment time (see Table IV-lh) was used as a check against the validity of the teachers' responses. A one-way analysis of variance was run on the principals' responses (see Table IVul7). The F value of 13.8 was Obtained. The table of F values at three and fifty-six degrees of freedom showed the differences between groups to be significant beyond the .001 level. A further statistical analysis of the data was carried out to deter~ mine the differences between the means. Tukey's method was used for this. (See Table IV-l8) The length of time for teacher adjustment as perceived by the prin- cipals was significantly greater, .01 level, for group III than for any of the other groups. On the basis of this evidence the null hypothesis was rejected and the alternative hypothesis was accepted. According to the principals, those teachers who had a student-teaching experience similar to their teach- ing situation adjusted more rapidly, and thus enjoyed a more satisfying teaching experience. 87 TABLE IV-17 LENGTH OF TEACHER ADJUSTMENT TIME AS PERCEIVED BY PRINCIPALS -- ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 95222 Frequency MESH Std. Deviation of Group I 15 0.0 0.0 II 15 5-5 5.7 III 15 25.1 20.h IV 15 7.u 7.9 Total 60 9.5 14.5 Source of Spmqpf. Degrees of Mean Variance Squares Freedom Squares Between groups 529h.6 3 176%.9 Within groups 7166.4 56 128.0 E Statistic 3 13.8 Level of Significance = .01 Plot of Means 25 If / \ 20 I \ 15 / \ 3 \ 10 I \* 5 .*/ / / 0 -w’ k. x E’ — 88 TTBIE IV-18 TEACHER ADJUSTMENT TIME AS PERCEIVED BY PRINCIPALS -— ANALYSIS OF DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MEANS BY TUKEY'S METHOD X1 X2 Xu X3 0.0 5.5 7.5 25-1 0.0 5.5 7.5 251* - 2.0 19.6% - 17.6% Table Values Studentized Range .01 M60 “YE "Pia = 2.93 [11.68 13.148 N 5 Group I is significantly different from.Group III Group II is significantly different from Group III Group IV is significantly different from Group III 89 In the course of conducting the study it became apparent that the adjustment of a teacher to a teaching situation involved a number of factors. Some of these factors were cultural adjustment, grade level adjust- ment, adjustment to a new group of youngsters, adjustment to the new school and its personnel, and adjustment to a different race. The adjustment of the teachers, in addition to the length of time, involved the experiencing of a degree of frustration that was very difficult to measure. The writer, during the course of the study, perceived a much greater degree of adjust- ment for teachers of group III than for the teachers of the other groups. This degree of adjustment is implied in the statements of the teachers that follow: Group I - There were no adjustment problems for this group. They had been trained on the job for three years. They began teaching, after the internship, in the same school. Group II - "The Negro teacher doesn't experience the great shock experienced by other teachers from different backgrounds." "It was difficult getting to know where to start the class." "It took me awhile to get to know these children." "I was trained to teach English in the Junior High. It was diffin cult to bring my teaching level down." "It took a while to realize I was a teacher and not a student teacher." Group III - "At first my nerves were completely gone at the end of the day." "I had to adjust to their way of life." "I had a heavy shock the first day of teaching." 90 "At first I would go home at night discouraged and ready to give up." "I was assigned in August to a disadvantaged school. There was too little time to prepare." "There needs to be an adequate orientation program." "The challenge made me work harder." "any a time during the first year I went home in tears ready to quit." "I had to adjust to race and class." "I never had any experience before with Negroes. They still are colored to me. I can't get used to them." "I still haven't made the cultural adjustment and I'm still having trouble after seven months." "Things are better now that I have gotten to know them." Group IV - "As I am a colored teacher, I feel very insecure in this middle class all white school.“ "I had trouble getting the children started. Some of them have had more experiences than I have.“ "There was a difference between teaching and student teaching." "The biggest adjustment is to the teacher role and in the planning of lessons. It is difficult for me to keep up." "I had my student teaching with another grade level. I have had to start all over again." The greatest degree of adjustment for teachers of group IV appeared to be with the Negro teachers. Effect of Other Variables The effect of a number of variables in the background experiences of the teachers of the disadvantaged, other than student teaching, were analyzed to determine the influence on the length of adjustment time for teachers. The nature of these relationships was determined as follows: 91 Socio~Economic Level of Childhood Home vs. Teacher Perceived Length of Adjustment The null hypothesis here was that the type of childhood home back- ground of the teacher did not significantly affect the length of adjustment. The alternative hypothesis was that those teachers from a low socio- economic home background would adjust more quickly to teaching disadvan- taged children. A one-way analysis of variance was carried out (see Table IV-l9) to TABLE IV-19 SOCIO-ECONOMIC LEVEL OF CHILD HOME VS LENGTH OF ADJUSTMENT TO TEACHING -- ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE :_—=.== l. Socio-economic Level Frequency MESH Std. Deviation of Group Low 2 5.5 3.5 Average & High #3 8.1 11.5 Total A5 8.0 11.2 2. Source of Sumqpf 2352222432 MESH Variance Squares Freedgm Squares Between groups 13.3 1 13.3 Within groups 5529.0 A3 128.6 E Statistic - .1035h* * Not significant 3. Plot of Means 10 ,2 ’96 *’ ’ 5 O — — 92 test the hypothesis. An §,value of .1035h was secured which was not signi- ficant. The null hypothesis was accepted. .The effect of the socio-economic level of the childhood home on the length of teacher adjustment was not significant. There were only two teachersout of the forty-five in the sample who were from a low socio-economic childhood home background. This small number might have seriously affected the validity of this analysis. The analysis did show that these two subjects did not materially effect the sample. Socio-Economic Level of Elementary School Attended vs Length of Teacher Adjustment Time The null hypothesis here was that the socio-economic level of the elementary school attended would not affect the length of adjustment to teaching the disadvantaged. The alternative hypothesis was that the teacher, who had attended elementary schools in low socio-economic areas, would adjust more quickly to teaching the disadvantaged. A one-way analysis of variance was used to test this relationship. (See Table Iii-20) The E value secured was .822h2. This was not signif cant and the null hypothesis was retained. The effect of the socio-economic level of the elementary school attended on the length of adjustment to teaching the disadvantaged was not significant. There were only three subjects in the 193 group. This small number might have seriously affected the validity of this analysis. The analysis did show that these three subjects did not materially affect the sampl . 93 TABLE IV-2O SOCIO-ECONOMIC LEVEL OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL ATTENDED VS LENGTH OF ADJUSTMENT TO TEACHING -- ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE - *1. T + — - Socio-economic Level Frequency MEap Std. Deviation of Group Low 3 2.3 0.6 Average & High #2 8.h 11.5 Total A5 8.0 11.2 Source of Sum of Degrees of Mean Variance Squares Freedom Squares Between groups 104.0 1 10h.0 Within groups 5A38.9 #3 126.5 g Statistic .. .822u2* * Not significant Plot of Means lO 9h Socio-Economic of Junior High School Attended vs. Lengph of Teacher Adjustment The null hypothesis here was that the socio-economic level of the junior high school attended did not materially affect the length of teacher adjustment. The alternative hypothesis was that the teachers who attended junior high schools in low socio-economic areas would adjust more quickly to teaching the disadvantaged. A one-way analysis of variance was used to determine the relationship. (See Table IV-2l) TABLE IV-21 SOCIO-ECONOMIC LEVEL OF JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL ATTENDED VS LENGTH OF ADJUSTMENT TO TEACHING -- ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 1. Socio-economic Level Frequency MESH Standard Deviation of Mean Low 2 5.0 h.2 Average & High #3 8.2 ll.h Total #5 8.0 11.2 2. Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Mean Squares Between groups 19.1 1 19.1 Within groups 5523.9 #3 128.5 E Statistic = .1u882* * Not significant 3. Plot of Means 15 10 /,/* 5 at” O 95 An F value of .lh882 was obtained. This was not significant and the null hypothesis was accepted. The type of junior high school attended was judged not to have an affect on the length of teacher adjustment. There were only two subjects who attended low socio-economic junior high schools. This small number might have seriously affected this analysis. The analysis did show that the subjects in question did not materially affect the sample. Socio-Economic Level of Senior High School Attended vs Length of Teacher Adjustment Time The null hypothesis here was that the type of senior high school attended had no affect on length of teacher adjustment to teaching dis- advantaged. The alternative hypothesis was that those teachers who had attended senior high schools in low socio-economic areas would adjust more quickly to teaching the disadvantaged. A one-way analysis of variance was used to determine the relation- ship. (See Table IV-22) An F value of .01A65 was obtained. This was not significant and the null hypothesis was accepted. There was apparently no relationship be- tween the type of senior high school attended and the length of time needed to adjust to teaching the disadvantaged. Only six of the forty-five subjects were from the 123 group. This small number might seriously have affected this analysis. The results did show that these subjects did not materially affect the sample. 96 TABLE IV-22 SOCIO-ECONOMIC LEVEL OF SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL ATTENDED VS LENGTH OF ADJUSTMENT TO TEACHING -- ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Socio-economic Frequency MEap Std. deviation level of group of mean Low 6 7.5 10.A Average & High 39 8.1 11.5 Total 60 8.0 11.2 Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedqm Mean Squares Between groups 1.8 1 1.9 Within groups 55Al.l A3 128.8 E Statistic = .olA65* * Not Significant Plot of Means 10 ’* / / 5 *' O 3E1 352 97 Opher Types of Educational Experiences with Low SociOchonomic Groups vs Length of Teacher Adjustment Time Included in other type of educational experiences were cadet teaching, playground director, supervising tot lots, church catechism and tutoring. The null hypothesis here was that the teacher, who had some other type of educational experience with low socio-economic children, would not adjust more quickly to teaching the disadvantaged. The alternative hypothesis was that the teacher, who had some other type of educational experience with low socio-economic children, would adjust more quickly to teaching the disadvantaged. A onenway analysis of variance was used to test the relationship of the two groups. (See Table IV-23) An F value of .07228 was obtained. This was not significant and the null hypothesis was accepted. Those teachers who had other types of edu- cation experiences with low socio-economic children did not adjust more quickly to teaching the disadvantaged. Eight out of the forty-five subjects were in the lqw group. This small number might have seriously affected the validity of this analysis. The results did prove that these eight people did not materially affect the sample. Other Experiences with Low Socio—Economic People vs Length of Teacher Adjustment Time A number of the subjects had previously had experiences with people from a disadvantaged environment that was not considered to be a related part of the teacher's educational preparation. Such experiences included living contiguous to a low socio-economic neighborhood, supervising a swimming pool, working with church groups, serving as a scout leader, 98 TABLE IV-23 OTHER TYPES OF EDUCATIONAL EXPERIENCES WITH LOW SOCIO- ECONOMIC CHILDREN VS LENGTH OF ADJUSTMENT TO TEACHING -- ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Group Frequency Mean Std. Deviation of Mean Yes 8 9.0 lA.6 No 37 7.8 10 .6 Total A5 8.0 11.2 Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degree of Freedom Mean Squares Between groups 9.3 1 9.3 Within groups 5553.7 A3 128.7 F Statistic = .07228* * Not Significant Plot of Means lO 99 serving as a camp counsellor, working in a day care center, and serving as a social worker. The null hypothesis was that the teacher who had a non-educational experience with disadvantaged people adjusts no more rapidly to the teaching situation than one who did not have such an experience. The alternative hypothesis was that the teacher who had a non-educa- tional experience with disadvantaged people would adjust more rapidly to the teaching situation than one who had not had such an experience. A one-way analysis of variance was run on this data. (See Table IV-2A) The analysis gave a E value of 1.12509 which was not significant. The null hypothesis was accepted. The experience of simply working with people from a disadvantaged background did not significantly affect the length of adjustment to teaching of the disadvantaged. The affect of such experience on the degree of adjustment to the teaching of disadvantaged was not measured. Grade Level of Teaching vs Length of Adjustment to Teaching The question arose concerning the effect that the grade level taught had on the length of adjustment to teaching. The null hypothesis was that the grade level taught did not affect the length of adjustment to the teaching situation. The alternative hypothesis was that the teacher teaching in the lower elementary grades adjusted more rapidly than one teaching in the upper elementary grades. A one-way analysis of variance was run on the data. (See Table IV—25) An E value of .30253 was secured. This value was not Significant. The null hypothesis was accepted. There was no difference in the length of adjustment to teaching at the various grade levels. 1! 100 TABLE IV-2h OTHER EXPERIENCES WITH LOW SOCIO-ECONOMHC PEOPLE VS LENGTH OF ADJUSTMENT TO TEACHING -- ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Group Yes No Total Frequency Mean Std. Deviation of Mean 12 5.1 9.0 33 9.1 11.9 A5 8.0 11.2 Source of Variance Between groups Within groups 15 10 Sum oijquares Degrees of Freedom Mean Squares lAl.3 l lAl.3 5A01.6 A3 125.6 E Statistic = 1.12509* * Not Significant Plot of Means 101 TABLE IV-25 GRADE LEVEL TAUGHT VS LENGTH OF ADJUSTMENT TO TEACHING -- ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Group Grades 1 & 2 Grades 3 & A Grades 5 - 7 Total Source of Variance Between groups Within groups 15 10 Frequency Sum of Squares p333 Std. Deviation of Mean 19 8.2 11.0 16 9.3 13.1 10 5.7 8.9 A5 8.0 11.2 Degrees of Freedom 78.7 2 5A6A.3 A2 g Statistic = .30253* * Not significant Plot of Mean 3‘ Mean Squares 39.A 130.1 102 Racial Backgpound of Teacher vs Length of Adjustment to Teaching Situation The effect of the race of the teacher on the length of adjustment to teaching was analyzed to determine if Negro teachers adjusted more quickly to teaching in situations where the children were primarily Negroes. The null hypothesis was that the racial origin of the teacher would not affect the length of adjustment to the teaching Situation. The alternative hypothesis was that the Negro teacher would adjust more quickly to teaching in schools enrolling a majority of Negro children. A one-way analysis of variance was run on the data. (See Table IV-26) TABLE IV-26 RACIAL ORIGIN OF TEACHER VS LENGTH OF ADJUSTMENT TO TEACHING DISADVANTAGED -- ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE 1. S3932 Frequency Mean Std. Deviation of Mean Negro 16 7.3 13.2 White 29 8.A 10.2 Total A5 8.0 11.2 2. Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Mean Squares Between groups 12.5 1 12.5 Within groups 5530.5 A3 128.6 g Statistic = .09723* * Not significant 3. Plot of Means 15 10 u .. —«* *, .. 5 O 103 An F value of .09723 was secured. This value was not significant. The null hypothesis was accepted. The racial origin of the teacher did not significantly affect the length of adjustment to the teaching Situation. The effect of racial origin of the teacher on the degree of adjust- ment was not measured. The Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory The M.T.A.I. was administered to each teacher in order to determine the relationship that existed between the attitude of the teacher and the type of student teaching experienced. The relationship of attitudes and the racial origin of the teachers was also measured. The raw M5T.A,I. scores of the teachers and the adjusted scores are shown in Table IV-27. TABLE IV-27 MQT.A.I. SCORES 0F TEACHERS IN CRITERION SAMPLE subject Group I Group II Group III Group IV Raw Converted Raw Converted Raw Converted Raw Converted 1. ~11 Al -15 37 28 80 -37 15 2. -12 A0 73 125 -23 29 56 108 3. 108 160 0 52 58 110 2A 76 A. 85 137 A6 98 1 53 56 108 5. 55 107 A9 101 A0 92 -15 37 6. 38 90 -1 51 38 90 9 61 7. 79 131 61 113 -33 19 60 112 8. A8 100 55 107 59 111 6A 116 9. 83 135 20 72 9 61 2A 76 10. 66 118 56 108 67 119 6A 116 ll. 59 111 71 123 39 91 10 62 12. 91 1A3 30 82 53 105 57 109 13. 28 80 35 87 -51 1 33 85 1A. 85 137 32 8A 30 82 -2 50 15. 8 60 A 56 50 102 1A 66 Total 818 1590 516 1296 375 11A5 A38 1197 Mean 5A.8 106 3A.6 86.A 25.1 76.3 29.3 79.8 10A The adjuSted scores were secured by adding 52 to each of the raw scores. This adjustment was made in order to give all of the scores a positive value. The converted data were used in the statistical analyses. A comparison of the raw score means with the percentile on the national norm was shown on Table IV-28. TABLE IV-28 PLOT OF RAW SCORE MEANS -- M.T.A.I. SCORES Percentile Scores National Norm 50 60 55 * \ 5O \ A0 A5 \ 30 A0 \ 25 \ 35 *\ \t 30 \~ ., ,* ‘\*,.v' 25 22 xi x2 x3 XA Analysis of the M5T.A.I. Scores The null hypothesis was that the type of student teaching experienced would not affect the attitude of the teacher as measured on the MLT.AJI. The alternative hypothesis was that the teacher, who was teaching in Situations Similar to that of his student teaching, would score higher on the MQT.A.I. than one teaching in a situation different from his student teaching. 105 A one-way analysis of variance was run on the data. (See Table IV-29) TABLE IV-29 MST.A.I. SCORE -- ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Gpgup Frequency p333 Std. Deviation of Mean 1 15 106.0 37.3 II 15 86.A 27.8 III 15 76.3 36.2 Iv 15 79.8 31.6 Total 60 87.1 3A.6 Source of Variance Sum.of Squares Degrees of Freedom Mean Squares Between groups 7903.6 3 263A.5 Within groups 62565.3 56 1117.2 E Statistic = 2.35808* * Not significant Plot of Means 105 *\ 100 90 85 \ 80 \. ’,* 75 70 106 An F value of 2.3508 was Obtained. This value was not significant at the .05 level. The null hypothesis was accepted. The relationship that did exist between the type of student teaching experience and the attitude of the teachers as measured on the M5T.A.I. was therefore judged not to be Significant. Racial Origin of Teachers vs MLT.A.I. Scores In the course of the study, the question arose as to whether Negro teachers would have a better attitude when teaching Negro children than would white teachers in the same situation. . The null hypothesis was that the racial origin of the teacher had no affect on the attitude of the teacher in the disadvantaged school. The alternative hypothesis was that the Negro teacher in the disad- vantaged school would score higher on the M5T.A.I. than the white teacher in the same situation. A one-way analysis of variance was run on the data. (See Table IV-30) An F_value of .91657 was obtained. This value was not significant and the null hypothesis was accepted. The racial origin of the teacher did not affect the attitude of the teacher of the disadvantaged as measured on the M.T.A.I. Question 8. Do you believe you have made a satisfactory adjustment to this situation? “Why? This question was used as a check on the validity of the teacher responses as to the length of adjustment to the teaching situation. When the writer perceived an inability to answer this question, or when he perceived a lack of consistency between the answer to this question and the answer to question 7, he conferred in depth with the principal or with some persons who were listed as giving most help to the teacher. 107 TABLE IV-30 RACIAL ORIGIN OF TEACHER VS M;T.A.I. SCORES -- ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE Epgqp Frequency pggp Std. Deviation of Mean Negro 16 82.8 39.8 White 29 93.3 33-1 Total A5 89.6 35.5 Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Mean Squares Between groups 1157.A 1 1157.A Within groups 5A299.6 A3 1262.8 p Statistic = .91657* * Not significant Plot of Means 95 9O /’ 85 / 8O 75 70 108 Twenty-eight teachers in groups I and II believed that they had adjusted satisfactorily. Two in group II said they were still finding problems that were causing them some trouble. They listed happiness at work, progress of youngsters, enjoyment with work, feelings of success and acceptance by the children as measures of their adjustment. Nine teachers in group III believed that they had adjusted satisfactorily. Six did not believe that they were yet adjusted. The comments of these six were: "I don't really understand these youngsters. I am not understood or accepted by Negro children." "No, but I'm closer to the top than to the bottom. I feel more sure of myself." "I'm.still adjusting." "I'm still bothered by outsiders seeing my class. I'm not satisfied." "I'm still adjusting but I am experiencing more satisfaction." "I would like to solve many of the problems that I am now exper- iencing." The eight teachers, who believed themselves to be adjusted, listed measures of adjustment similar to those in groups I and II. Thirteen teachers in group IV believed they had adjusted satisfactorily. They also listed self satisfaction, enjoyment and pupil achievement as measures of their adjustment. Two teachers of this group believed they were still adjusting. They listed problems in pupil achievement and lack of self satisfaction as proof of their statements. The writer perceived a greater amount of frustration among the teachers of group III than.among the teachers of the other three groups. There was less certainty of adjustment in the statements of the teachers of this group when compared to the responses of the teachers of the other three groups. 109 Question 9. Who has given you the most help in solving your problems? This question was used to identify the best source for the writer to use as a validity check of the teacher responses as to the length of adjust- ment period. The responses are listed in Figure 5. FIGURE 5 TEACHER RESPONSES AS TO SOURCE OF MOST HELP WITH PROBLEMS Group I Group II Group III Group IV Principal 13 10 7 6 Training Teacher 15 O 0 0 Helping Teacher 1 5 8 0 Other Teacher 1 3 6 8 E1. Consultant 0 1 O 3 Others 1 1 1 2 No One .2 .1. .0. .1 Total 31 21 22 20 The training teacher listed by group I was made available for the interns during their period of internship. The helping teacher is placed in the Flint disadvantaged schools specifically to help beginning teachers. Elementary consultants are available from the central office of the Flint Public Schools. Question 10. If you had a chance to transfer to one of the advantaged schools would you do so? Why? The term disadvantaged was substituted for advantaged when the teachers in group IV were interviewed. The responses in general fell into three categories; yes, no, hesitant. Figure 6 was used to Show these responses. Those teachers in group I who said 133 or hesitated in their answer had a desire to broaden their teaching experience to other socio-economic 110 FIGURE 6 TEACHER RESPONSES TO DESIRE FOR TRANSFER *7 Egg Np Hesitant Group I 1 ll 3 Group II 0 13 2 Group III A 8 3 Group IV 0 11 _A_ Total 5 A3 12 groups. Those in group II who hesitated, all expressed an apprehension of the readjustment that would accompany a change in teaching situation. The four teachers in group III who expressed a desire to transfer wanted to work with a different type of youngster. The three who hesitated, expressed apprehension of going through another adjustment period. They said they would transfer only if conditions in their present teaching Situation be- came worse. Two of the teachers in group IV who hesitated were Negroes. They believed that eventually they Should change the teaching situation in order to help their race. The other two were white teachers. They said they would want to think about it for awhile before making a decision. Those teachers of all groups who had no desire to transfer expressed a feeling of satisfaction with their work and with themselves. Those in the inner-city schools believed that they were performing an important service to mankind by remaining in that situation. Four of these teachers did not wish to experience the pressure exerted by the middle class parents in the more advantaged schools. Some typical statements of the teachers desiring to remain in the disadvantaged school were: 111 "I am dedicated to these children. They have such a need for a good education." "I wouldn't want the pressure exerted by parents in the other type of school." "I'm needed here. I can give more to education by working here." "There is something to be done here. These schools need stability if the job is to be done." "I am wanted and needed here. I chose this school because deprived youngsters need good teachers." "I get more of a feeling of accomplishment with lower class children." "These schools need understanding teachers." 3 "This is a cause to devote yourself to." "I am just getting adjusted and I want to see this thing through." "I can do more for humanity here." CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction The decay of our inner-cities has produced environmental conditions that are not conducive to the welfare of the inhabitants there. These blighted areas have problems that are challenging both the urban educational systems and the teachers working in these schools. The problems are unique and to a degree different from those of the middle class environment in which most teachers have been raised. The teachers for these schools need certain experiences prior to teach- ing in order that they may efficiently and satisfactorily assume the teacher role, and thus carry out the task of educating the disadvantaged. This study was undertaken to gain insight into these problems, and to determine the adequacy of professional education in helping teachers meet these problems. It was also made to determine the teacher's perception as to how teacher education institutions could better prepare prospective elementary teachers to teach in disadvantaged schools. Summary A group of sixty elementary teachers primarily from the Flint school system was used to make the study. The teachers were selected and matched on the basis of their clinical preparation and fell into four groups, namely: I. Intern student teaching in disadvantaged schools and now teaching 112 113 in disadvantaged schools. II. Regular student teaching in disadvantaged schools and now teaching in disadvantaged schools. III. Regular student teaching in advantaged schools and now teaching in disadvantaged schools. IV. Regular student teaching in advantaged schools and now teaching in advantaged schools. There were 15 teachers in each group and the teachers were matched as to race, age, grade level taught, sex, college grade point average and length of experience. A fact data sheet, a structured interview and the Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory were used as instruments to secure the data. The informa- tion from the fact data sheet was used to check on the relationship of certain variables, other than student teaching, to the results of the study. The structured interview was employed to obtain the data used in testing the hypotheses. The M5T.A.I. was used to determine possible differences in attitude that might exist due to the type of clinical experience of the teacher. The effect of the racial origin of the teacher on teacher attitude was also tested. It was hypothesized that there are experiences that teacher-training institutions can and should provide to better prepare teachers to teach the disadvantaged. It was further hypothesized that those teachers prepared clinically to teach the disadvantaged, experienced less adjustment to the teaching situation, and these enjoyed a more satisfactory teaching experi- ence at the onset of their career than did those not so prepared. There was found to be a significant relationship between the grade level taught and the two major problems of the teachers of the disadvantaged. Teachers in Grades One and Two were more concerned with lack of background concepts, while teachers of Grades Three - Seven were more concerned with 11A the negative attitudes of students. It was found that, in general, teachers prefer to teach eager, well mannered children from a middle class background. The problems confronted by teachers of the disadvantaged were quite different from those of the teachers of the advantaged. The disadvantaged child lacks a supportive home environment, is behind in needed background concepts and achieves poorly in school. These difficulties produce a low self concept and thus negative attitudes toward learning. The advantaged child has a supportive home environment, is eager to learn. The principal problems of the teacher of the advantaged is centered around the organiza- tion of subject matter in depth in order to challenge the children, and coping with parental pressure on the teacher and children. Teachers of the disadvantaged rated their formal college education classes as lacking in adequacy. The teachers of the advantaged rated these experiences significantly higher. Those teachers who had their student teaching in a Situation similar to the one in which they were teaching, rated the adequacy of this experi- ence significantly higher than those not so prepared. The teachers of the disadvantaged named primary experiences with the disadvantaged, Negro history, anthropology and a broader cultural coverage as most needed in formal education classes. The teachers of the disadvan- taged suggested more primary experience with children. All of the teachers wanted less theory and more practice in their college classes. They sug- gested a greater attempt to tie theory in with practice in order that the beginning teacher could apply the learnings to the teacher Situation. The interns received more of the necessary experiences in their clini- cal preparation than did those teachers prepared in regular student teaching. 115 There were areas of inadequacy of preparation in all programs. There was found to be a significant relationship between the length of adjustment to the teaching situation and the type of clinical experience of the teacher. There was also a difference as to the degree of adjustment experienced. Those teachers in teaching situations similar to those of their student teaching adjusted more quickly and easily, and thus had a more satis- fying experience from the onset of their career. An analysis of variance was run on a number of factors, other than the type of student teaching, to determine their effect on the length of adjust- ment to teaching. It was found that the socio-economic levels of the child- hood home, the elementary school attended, the junior high school attended and the senior high school attended, did not significantly affect the length of teacher adjustment. It was also found that other eXperiences with the disadvantaged--educational or otherwise, with the exception of student teach— ing, did not materially affect the length of adjustment to teaching. The racial origin of the teacher and the grade level taught were also found to be insignificant in the length of adjustment. There were slight differences in the attitudes of teachers relative to the type of clinical experience, but this difference was not significant. The racial origin of the teacher was not judged to significantly affect the attitude of the teacher of the disadvantaged. Conclusions On the basis of the evidence, the hypotheses of this study were sub- stantiated. There are specific experiences which teacher training insti- tutions can and should provide to more adequately prepare teachers for disadvantaged areas. Prospective teachers need to be given primary experience with disadvantaged children whenever possible. They need 116 information concerning lower class culture. They also need to develop competence in applying learning theories to actual classroom situations. Teachers who have not had the clinical experience of working in dis- advantaged schools adjust more slowly and are more frustrated at the onset of their career than are those prepared specifically for the disadvantaged school. The type of clinical experience of the teacher was judged to be the single most important factor contributing to satisfactory teacher adjustment. Recommendations As a result of this study, the following recommendations are made: 1. Educational institutions need to take a long hard look at their total teacher-preparation programs. Teachers on the job perceived many inadequacies in their professional courses. Each teacher-preparation institution should conduct studies to determine these deficiences and should attempt to correct them. There were, however, certain teacher-perceived inadequacies of preparation that were common for all the thirty-four institutions reflected by the teachers in this study. As a result, the following recommendations are made for the pre-clinical professional sequence: a. The content in formal education classes should provide for a broader cultural coverage. b. There should be teaching on Negro history, culture and anthro- pology in those institutions whose teachers go into teaching situations containing a majority of this minority group. A similar coverage should be made on other minority groups if they are represented in the geographical service areas of the institution. c. The theories of learning and teaching need to be more closely related to practical experience. Teachers express this need in these terms: "Tie theory in with practice." "Less theory and more practice.‘ "Less idealistic and more practical." ! d. Observation and participation that are carried along with 117 formal education classes need to be related directly to these college classes and their teaching. These primary experiences need to be with varied cultures and socio-economic groups. e. Methods courses should be evaluated and improved, particularly for teachers of the disadvantaged. The approach to teaching the lower class child is much different from the approach to teaching his more advantaged counterpart. New ways should be developed to take care of this difference. The lower class child is not achieving and cannot achieve, in a classroom setting which uses traditionally graded text books. Learning materials should be geared to the environment. Teachers must be developed who can individualize instruction so that each child can achieve the measure of success necessary for the develop- ment of a positive self-concept. The content in traditional methods courses in college generally is not now directed to this end. 2. Clinical experience with the disadvantaged should be included in teacher preparation. The disadvantaged are with us. Teachers are needed to teach them. Teachers should be prepared to teach them. This study found that the type of student-teaching experience was more important for satisfactory teacher adjustment than any other phase of professional preparation. It would follow then that the length of this experience should be expanded, particularly in the preparation of teachers of the disadvantaged. A prospective teacher for this type of situation should have at least one- half of her clinical experience in a disadvantaged school. Clinical experience in both types of teaching situations, advantaged and disadvantaged, should give the prospective teacher the knowledge and insight needed to make a choice as to where to begin teaching. Exposure to inner-city teaching must be provided to facilitate selection and screening of teacher candidates for that type of situation. A teacher assigned to the inner-city should have assurance that she can be successful. In any case, student teachers should be given certain experiences that will better prepare them for teaching. They should get into the homes, attend professional meetings, work with social agencies, communicate with 118 parents, handle problem situations, work with school service personnel and see other classrooms in session. They must be given the chance to assume the teacher role while they are student teaching. Many of the teachers in this study stated that during their student teaching the only real experi- ence they had was in front of the classroom while the supervising teacher sat in the back. They were never given enough responsibility to feel like teachers. Most of their time was spent observing the supervising teacher at work. 3. Colleges and universities should prepare and provide consultant help for beginning teachers in disadvantaged schools similar to the help now provided in the Flint schools by the helping teacher. Colleges should work closely with the city school personnel in order to develop programs to improve teacher preparation. The responsibility of the university, and that of the public school, to that end, should be clearly delineated. The development of a teacher for any teaching situation should be a cooperative, continuous process. The need for a cooperative, continuous program is particularly great for preparation of teachers for disadvantaged schools. The intern type of clinical experience with the longer student teaching period and with the more intensive classroom experience appears to be particularly effective for preparing teachers for innerncity schools. h. It is recommended that research on classroom control be carried on in disadvantaged schools. There is a very authoritarian atmOSphere in most of them. Somewhere along the line self-discipline must take over if the child is to develop into an adequate selfnactualizing individual. The use of fear and harsh punishment are not the best way to develop such an individual. Teachers should know how such methods are affecting children. 119 5. Study should be made to determine the degree of adjustment that teachers go through when confronted.by the unique problems of the inner-city school. Such investigation would further test the hypothesis of this study dealing with teacher adjustment. 6. The role of the helping teacher in the disadvantaged school should be expanded for the purpose of promoting teacher efficiency and adjustment. 7. Further study should be devoted to the importance of pre-clinical observation and participation in teacher preparation. This might well in- clude such experiences as tot lot, summer playground and the like. The findings of this study indicated that such experiences did not significantly affect the length of teacher adjustment. It may be that the degree of adjust- ment is materially lessened by laboratory experience. 8. Investigation should be directed toward the validity of the M3T.A.I. norms as they apply to teachers presently in service. All of the MLT.A.I. mean scores in this study were below the national norm. This norm was prepared prior to the advent of Sputnik. Could it be possible that this indicates that the resulting emphasis on subject matter across our nation has significantly affected the attitude of teachers, and thus the validity of the norms of this test, or can this difference be attributed to a rather intuitively expected discrepancy of the homogeneous "city" group used in this study as compared to the national norm? This would be a valuable study. 9. The difference of length and degree of adjustment to teaching for Negro teachers who were teaching in all-white middle-class schools should be further investigated. The sample used in this study was not large enough to determine if this difference was significant. The limited evidence in- dicated that a prOblem does exist. 120 10. It is also recommended that an investigation be made to determine the effect that parental pressure has on the teachers and children of ad- vantaged schools. A significant number of the teachers interviewed viewed such pressure with some alarm. ll. Parents from the lower classes should be assisted in the building of background concepts in their children in the pre-school and early school years. A number of teachers in this study related the lack of background concepts on the part of the disadvantaged child to the type of home back— ground. They pointed out that the type of communication in the home differed radically from that of the middle-class home. Teacher preparation has improved greatly in the past century. There is still a long way to go. As new problems arise methods must be devised to meet them. Progress can only come through continuous research and evalua- tion made in the light of present day problems and conditions. This study was conducted to contribute to this end. If the findings add in any way to the improvement of teacher preparation, the study will have been most worthwhile. 121 APPENDIX A TEACHER PREPARATION SURVEY FACT DATA SHEET Name of Teacher Age Sex Marital Status Number of Children 1. Family Background a. Location of Childhood Home City V Suburb Small Town Farm b. Socio-Economic Rating of Childhood Home Background High Average Low 2. Educational Background a. Name of Elementary School Attended b. Socio-Economic Rating of Elementary School Attended High Average Low c. Name of JUnior High School Attended d. Socio-Economic Rating of Junior High School Attended High Average Low e. Name of Senior High School Attended f. Socio-Economic Rating of Senior High School Attended High Average Low 122 APPENDIX A (Cont. ) g. Type of College Attended University Liberal Arts Other h. Name of College Attended i. Type of Student Teaching Intern Regular j. Number of Weeks at Student Teaching k. Name of place of Student Teaching l. Socio-Economic Rating of Student Teaching School High Average Low m. Teacher Preparation Experiences (other than student teaching) with people of low socio-economic background 3. Other Teaching Experience a. Name and Location of School b. Socio-Economic Rating of School High Average Low 4. Other Experiences a. Other Experiences with People of Low SociOchonomic Background . College Point Hour Ratio \JT 6. Present Teaching a. Grade Level Now Teaching 123 APPENDIX B Structured Interview Areas l. 2. 10. What do you consider to be an ideal teaching situation? What are the most pressing problems encountered in teaching the economically and educationally disadvantaged? How well did your formal college education classes prepare you to meet these problems? How well did your student teaching prepare you to meet these problems? What kinds of formal college education classes should be provided for teachers of the economically and educationally disadvantaged? What kinds of student teaching or other experiences should be provided for prospective teachers of the economically and educationally dis- advantaged? Were there adjustment problems for you when you began teaching economically and educationally disadvantaged children? If so, how long did they last? Do you believe that you have made a satisfactory adjustment to this situation? Why? Who has given you the most help in solving your problems? If you had a chance to transfer to one of the more advantaged schools, would you do so? Why? 121+ APPENDIX C THE MINNESOTA TEACHER ATTITUDE INVENTORY Copyright laws did not permit the inclusion of the instrument in this thesis. A copy of the inventory may be secured by writing to the Psychological Corporation, 30% East hSth Street, New York 17, New York. BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Andrews, L. D. Student Teaching. New York: The Center For Applied Research in Education, l96h. American Association of Teachers Colleges. Standards For Accrediting Teachers Colleges. Yearbook of the Association of American Teachers Colleges. Oneonda, N.Y.: The Association, 1926. Association For Student Teaching. Facilities For Professional Labora- tory Experiences in Teacher Education. Yearbook. LockHaven, Pennsylvania: A.S.T., 195%. Association For Student Teaching. Improving Instruction in Professional Education. Yearbook. Lock Haven, Pennsylvania, A.S.T., 1958. Association For Student Teaching. Off-Campus Student Teaching. Yearbook. Lock Haven, Pennsylvania: A.S.T., 1951. Atkinson, C. and Maleska, E.T. The Story of Education. New York: Bantam Books, l96h. Conant, James B. The Education of American Teachers. New York: MhGraw- Hill Paperback, 1963. Cremin, Lawrence A. The Transformation of the School. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1961. Crow, Lester and Alice. Vital Issues in American Education. New York: Bantam Books, l96h. Davis, Allison. Social Class Influences Upon Learning. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1962. Encyclopedia of Educational Research. Third Edition. New York: NhNhllan Co., 1960. Goodman, Paul. Growing Hp Absurd. New York: Random House, 1960. .Havinghurst, Robert J. and Newgarten, Bernice L. Society and Education./ Boston: Allan and Bacon, 1957. V'Hodenfield, G. K. and Stinnett, T.M. The Education of Teachers. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1961. 125 126 Banjngshead, A.B. Elmtown’s Youth. New York: John Wiley and Sons, l9h9. Passow, Harry. Education in Depressed Areas. New York; Columbia Teachers College, 1963. Rainwater, Lee. And the Poor Get Children. Chicago: Quadrangle Books, Inc., 1961. Rapien, Lichter and Seibert, Sklansky. The Drop-outs. New York: Free Press of Glencoe, 1962. I Richey, Robert W. Planning For Teaching. New York: MbGraw-Hill, 1963. ; Riessman, Frank. The Culturally Deprived Child. New York: Harper and Rowe,, 1962. “T Selltiz, C., Jahoda, Mg Deutsch, M., and Cook, S. W. Research Methods in Social Relations. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston, l96h. Siegel, Sydney. Nonparametric Statistics For the Behavorial Sciences. New York: MeGraw-Hill, 1956. Snedicor, George W. and Cocheran, William G. Statistical Methods. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State College Press, 1956. Van Dalen, Deobald. Understanding Educational Research. New York: MeGraw-Hill, l962. Periodicals Annez, N. L. “Study of Attitudes of Negro Teachers and Pupils Toward Their School," Journal of Negro Education, XXXII (Summer, 1963), 289-293. Black, Marion W. “Programs of Laboratory Experiences in Teacher Education," Educational Administration and Supervision, XLI (1955), #31-439. Cartwright, W. H. "Improving the Preparation of Teachers: One Staff Member's Interpretation of the Conant Report, Education of American Teachers," Educational Forum, XXVIII (January, 1964), 187-197. Cole, T. J. "An Experience in Teacher Training," Peabody Journal of Education, XLI (1963), 19u-196. Corrigan, D. and Griswold, K. "Attitude Changes of Student Teachers," Journal of Education Research, LVII (October, l963), 93-95. Day, H. P. "Attitude Changes of Beginning Teachers After Initial Teaching Experience," The Journal of Teacher Education, X (September, l959),l Del Popolo, J. A. "Experiences A Student Teacher Should Have," The Journal of Teacher Education, XI (March, 1960), 75-78. 127 Douglas, Earl R. "Current Criticism of Teacher Education," The Educational Forum (March, 1955), 3u5-353. Fischer, J. H. "What and How to Teach Teachers," New York Times Magazine, (September 9, 1962), BM. Goldberg, Miriam L. “Adapting Teacher Style to Pupil Differences: Teachers For Disadvantaged Children," Merrill-Palmer Quarterly of Behavior and Development, x, No. 2 (196h), 161-178. Goodaire, E. J. "Teachers and the Socio-Economic Factor,“ Education Research, IV (November, 1961), 56-61. Hammerman, D. R. "First Rate Teachers Need First Hand Experiences," The Journal of Teacher Education, XI (September, 1960), hOB-hll. Haubrich, Vernon. "Culturally Different: New Concept For Teacher Education," The Journal of Teacher Education, XIV (June, 1963), 163-167. Hoyt, Cyril J. and Cook, walter W. "The Stability of MgT.A.I. Scores During Two to Seven Years of Teaching," The Journal of Teacher Education, XI, No. A (December, 1960), h78-h91. Humphrey, Betty J. "A Survey of Professional Education Offerings in N.C.A.T.E. Accredited Institutions,“ The Journal of Teacher Education, XIV (December, 1963), too-A10. Jewett, Helen J. "The Administration of Student Teaching in Their Secondary Schools By Large City School Systems," Education, LXXII, 3hl-3h5. Koener, J. D. "How Not To Teach Teachers," Atlantic (February, 1963), 56-63. Nhller, L. N. "Elementary School Student Teaching in City Colleges," Journal of Educational Research, LII (may, 1959), 331-335. Naegle, L. M. "Some Effects of Student Teaching Patterns Upon Professional Attitudes,“ JOurnal of Educational Research, LII (May, 1959), 355.357. Nelson, Horace. "A Survey of Student Teaching Practice in Eight Southwestern States," The Journal of Teacher Education (June, 1963), 188-193. /Noar, Gertrude. "The Times Call For Courage,“ The JOurnal of Teacher Education, XIV (December, 1963), 365-371. Oelke, Meridith C. and Schultz, R. E. "Functions of Teacher Training and Internship Programs," Educational Administration and Supervision, XLII (1956), 2uu-25o. Rucker, Roy W. “Trends in Student Teaching - 1932 to 1952," The Journal of Teacher Education, IV (December, 1953), 261-263. Sands, Jehn E. "Off-C us Student Teaching Practices in 112 Institutions," Education, LXXIII 1953), 636-6Ah. 128 Scott, W} and Brinkley, J. S. “Attitude Change of Student Teachers and the validity of M;T.A,I.,“ Jburnal of Educational Psychology, LI (April, 1960), 78-80. Symposium. "33w Should Teachers Be Educated?" Saturdapreview, XLIV (June 17, 1961 . Symposium, "A.Symposium.on James Bryant Conant's The Education of American Teachers,“ The Journal of Teacher Education—(March, l96h), 6650. Van Bodegraven, P. "Soft S ots in The Teacher Training Program," Education, LXXXII (January, 1962 , 287-291. "“"‘“"‘ Ward, William T. and Gubfer, be H. "Developing the Teaching Internship Concept in Oregon," The Journal of Teacher Education, XV, No. 3 (September, 1963), 252-259. V . Whitelaw, J3 B. "Teacher Preparation,“ School Lite (January, 196h),'11-13. Wiggins, Sam P. "A State Program in Student Teaching, Education, XL (1954), Woodring, Paul. "Century of Teacher Education," School and Society, IX (May, 1962), 236-2u2. ,Woodring, Paul. "Conant's Report on Teacher Education," Saturday Review, XLVI (September, 1963), A9-51. - Bulletins and Pamphlets American Association of Colleges For Teacher Education. "Needed Research in Teacher Education," AsA.C.T.E. Study Series, Oneonta, N.Y., 1954. American Association of Colleges For Teacher Education. "Research and Study in Teacher Education," Bulletins - January 11, December 27, 1957; June 13, 1958; January 15, April 10, May 15, 1959, The Association. 0 Armstrong, Earl W} and Stinnett, T. M. "A Manual on Certification Require- ments," National Education Association, Washington, D. C., 1959. Batchelder, H. T., Lawrence, R. E. and Myers, George. "A.Guide to Planning For Off—Campus Student Teaching," Bulletin 11, A.S.T., Cedar Falls, Iowa. 1959)- Blair, Lois C. and Others. "Achieving Quality in Off-Campus Professional Laboratory Experiences," Bulletin 8, A.S.T., Cedar Falls, Iowa, 1957. Blair, Lois 0., Curtis, D. K. and Mbon, A. C. "The Purposes, Functions and Uniqueness of the College Controlled Laboratory School," Bulletin 9, A.S.T., Lock Haven, Pennsylvania, 1958. 129 Bowman, P. and Mathews, C. V. “Mbtivation of Youth For Leaving School,“ U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education Coopera~ tive Research Project Number 200,'Washington, D. C., 1960. Central.Michigan University. “Evaluation of Student Teaching and Intern Experiences,“ Mimeographed. A comparison of the various teacher educa- tion programs at Central thhigan University, Mt. Pleasant, thhigan, l96h. . I,Cook, Walter W., Leeds, Carroll H. and Collis, Robert. “Minnesota Teacher Attitude Inventory,“ ‘Manual, The Psychological Corporation, New York, 1951. L,Deutsch, Martin. “Minority Group and Class Status as Related to Social and Personality Factors in Scholastic Achievement," Monograph 2, New York, 1960. vDeutsch, Martin. “Reversing Deprivation Effects in the Pre-School Child,“ an experimental design for the Institute for Developmental Studies, New York Medical College, 1963. "Education and Poverty,“ Second Annual Conference of the National Committee For the Support of Public Schools, l96h. Flint Public Schools. “Analysis of Sixth and Eighth Grade Achievement Testing - October, l96h, Mimeographed, Flint, Nfichigan, 1965. Flint Public Schools. “Better Tomorrow For the Urban Child," Mhmeographed, A plan for compensatory education for the inter-city child, Flint, Michigan, l96h. Flint Public Schools. "Progress Report - Experimental Flint Five—Year Coopera— tive Elementary Teacher Education Program,“ Flint, thhigan, l96h. Ford Foundation. “Teachers for Tomorrow,“ Ford Foundation Bulletin 2, New York. Ford Foundation. “The Great Cities School Improvement Studies," Mimeographed. Ford Foundation Project, New York, 1960. Jelinek, James J. “The General Education of Teachers,“ NHmeographed. Arizona State Teachers College, Tempe, Arizona. Los Angeles State College. “Elementary Directed Teaching,“ Mimeographed. A publication of the Elementary Education Department of Los Angeles State College, Los Angeles, California, 1963. MbCreary, W. H. and Kitch, D. E. “Now Hear Youth,“ A report on the California Cooperative Study of School Drop-Outs and Graduates, Bulletin 9, State Department of Education, Sacramento, California, 1953. 130 Nbrrill-Palmer Institute. “Selected Papers From the Institute For Develop- mental Studies - Arden House Conference on Pre-school Enrichment of Socially Disadvantaged Children," Marrill-Palmer Quarterly on Behavior and Development, Detroit, l96h. National Council For Teacher Accreditation. “Standards and Guides For the Accreditation of Teacher Education,“ The Council, 1957. New York City Board of Education. “Higher Horizons - Progress Report,“ New York, 1963. Palo Alto University. “A Re-appraisal of the.Aspects of Teacher Education,“ Report of a conference sponsored by the Fund for the Advancement of Education at the Center For Advanced Study in Behavioral Sciences, Palo Alto, California, 1960. Schueler, H. R. “Teacher and Resources For Urban Education,“ National Committee on Teacher Education Professional Standards Commission Report, T.E.P.S., 1963. Sebaly, A. L. and Others. “A Study of the Functions of the College and University Controlled Campus School with Specific Recommendations for the Campus School at Western Michigan University," Ad-hoc Committee report to the President, Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, 196M. Storen, Helen F. “Educating Teachers For Underprivileged Schools,“ Bulletin 22, A.S.T., Cedar Falls, Iowa, l96h. Strom, RObert D. “The Tragic Migration," .A publication by the National ‘ Department of Heme Economics with the aid of funds from the Sears Roebuck Foundation, washington, D.C., 1964. ‘ U.S. Office of Education. “Programs For the Disadvantaged,“ Bulletin 17, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Office of Education, Washington, D. C., 1963. Doctoral Dissertations Beutigam, Carl William. "A Study of the Effects of the MQS.U. Full Time Residence Student Teaching Program on the Local Schools in Southwestern Michigan Center for Full Time Resident Student Teaching," Unpublished doctoral thesis, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 1959. Clem, Paul Null. “A Study of the Michigan State University Full Time Resident Student Teaching Program,“ Unpublished doctoral thesis, Nfichi- gan State University, East Lansing, 1958. Davis, Sister an Marie. "A Survey of Practices in Student Teaching Programs for Prospective Elementary School Student Teachers in Catholic Insti- tutions in the U.S.,“ Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Texas, 1957. 131 Shea, James Jeseph. "An Assessment of an Experimental Elementary Teacher Education Program,“ Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Nfichigan, Ann Arbor, 196M. Sinclair, William ward. “An Analysis of Three Pre-student Teaching Experiences In the Preparation of Elementary School Teachers,“ Unpublished doctoral thesis, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 1961. Other Sources The writer was fortunate enough to have been in the Mott Intern Program in Flint, Nfichigan, during the l96h-l965 school year. There were many oppor- tunities to secure information directly from authorities in the field. The lectures to the Mott Interns were placed on tape and are available at the Leadership Center in Flint. Lectures to Mott Interns: Mr. Cdbb, Director of Urban League, Flint, January, 1965. Dr. Martin Deutsch, New York Medical College, November, 196k. Dr. Ernest O. Melby, Michigan State University, October, 196A. Dr. Virgil Rogers, Syracuse University, Nevember, 196A. Dr. Herbert Schueler, Hunter College, February, 1965. Dr. Sam Shepherd, St. Louis Public Schools, November, 196%. Other Presentations Robert Sargent Shriver, Jr., Director of Peace Corps, Vista and the Economic Opportunity Program, Commencement Address at Western.Michigan University, June, 1965. Personal Interviews by the Writer Mas. Harriet Latimer, Director of Research, Flint Public Schools, November, 1964 Selected elementary school principals, Flint Public Schools, November, 1964. Dr. Martin Deutsch, New York Medical College, November, 196A. Dr. Sam Shepherd, Superintendent at Banaker School, St. Louis, Nfissouri, November, 1964. Dr. Herbert Schueler, Hunter College, February, 1965. Elementary school administrators in disadvantaged schools of Flint, Muskegon and Detroit, 196u-l965. 132 Selected college representatives from Western-Michigan University, Michigan State University, University of Michigan, Wayne University, Central Michigan University, Eastern Michigan University and Northern Michigan university, 196h-l965. MIC 11111111111111EITJIEIWIJIMIEIQIDMTI'ES