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LIBRARY

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University

 

AN ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF AN EXPERIMENTAL
PROGRAM DESIGNED TO INCREASE THE LEVEL OF
ECONOMIC UNDERSTANDING AMONG ADULTS

by
\

3.
1LL
1

Allen J? Matherne

AN ABSTRACT

Submitted to the College of Education
Michigan State University of Agriculture
and Applied Science in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Teacher Education

1960

Approved ~;74;éflac4vék<( yék‘”<;i:éaf;rm_/,

ALLEN J. HATEERNE ABSTRACT

This study is concerned with the problem or deter-
mining whether the level or economic understanding among
adults could be raised significantly through use or selected
methods, materials, and other resources available in most
communities.

The author has made an analysis and evaluation of
a program in basic economic education conducted during the
fall or 1959 by the Mott Adult Education Program, in
cooperation with the Industrial Relations Center or the
University of Chicago and A C Spark Plug Division or General
Motors Corporation. The program involved 8’41 adults enrolled
in 37 classes in comnmnity schools throughout the city of
Flint, Hichigsn.

The teaching staff was recruited among lay persons
in the community, was trained in conference leadership
methods and in basic economics, and assigned to the various
classes. The basic text material and visual aids used in
the program were developed by the Industrial Relations Center.
Local resource persons were employed when, in the opinion
or the leaders, an expert could contribute to the success
or a particular session.

The adult participants were invited by the building
principal and the community activities director to take part
in the experiment. A SO-statement true-false test was ad-
ministered at the first meeting of the class and repeated
at the final session. or the 37 school groups involved,

30 returned both the "pro" and the "post" tests. This study
is based upon the performance of these 30 groups.

Analysis of the data was made from two different bases:
the SO-statement test and the eleven topics covered in the
course. It was ascertained that, program-wide, on the basis
of performance on the 50-statement test, a growth of -2.5 to
2h.9 percentage points had taken place, with a median increase
of h.3. By topics, it was discovered that a growth of 2.5
to 15.9 percentage points had occurred, with a median increase
of 6.9 percentage points.

These findings seem to suggest the results which an
adult education program planner might reasonably expect to
achieve in designing a similar program. It is recognized
that different results would obtain under different circum-
stances and employing different methods and materials from
those analyzed here. It is hoped that further study might
be undertaken which, when added to this work, would make
up a body of knowledge which would be useful to adult edu-

caters.

AN ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION OF AN EXPERIMENTAL
PROGRAM DESIGNED TO INCREASE THE LEVEL OF
ECONOMIC UNDERSTANDING AMONG ADULTS

by

Allen JffiMatherne

A THESIS

Submitted to the College of Education
Michigan State University of Agriculture
and Applied Science in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Teacher Education

1960

 

(‘7 I577 IL
elf/LI

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to express his gratitude and appre-
ciation to Dr. Harold J. Dillon for his encouragement and
guidance during the planning of this study and the preparation
of this thesis.

In addition, the author is grateful for valuable
criticism and suggestions received from Dr. Walter Johnson,
Dr. Clyde Campbell, and Dr. Max Smith.

The author wishes to recognize the contributions of
Dr. Myrtle F. Black, Dr. Marvin R. Sitts, Mrs. Anne Dressel,
Mrs. La Léne Derr, and Mrs. Marion Gordon, all of the staff
of the Mott Adult Education Program of the Flint Board of
Education. He wishes to express special indebtedness to
Mrs. Heléhe Lutz of the Mott Program.

Encouragement from his wife, Ruth, made this study

possible for the author.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACMOWLEW’MENTS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

CHAPTER
I.

II.

III.

TI-iE PROBLEM O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Introduction 0 e e e e e e e e e e 0
Level of Economic Understanding
Among High School Students in
the United States . . . . . . . .
Opportunities for High School
Students to Acquire Economic
Understanding . . . . . . . . . .
Economic Education Programs for
Students. 0 e e e e e e e e e e
Prospects for the Future . . . . .
Opportunities for Adults to Acquire
Economic Understanding. . . . .
Adult Education Programs . . . .
Business and Industry Programs .
Need for Economic Understanding.
Scepe and Limitations. . . . . .
The H'YpOthOSia e e e e e e e e 0

REVIEW OF LITERATURE . . . e e . e e e e

School Programs in Economic
Education a e e e e e e e e e e e
Adult Programs in Economic
Education e e e e e e e e e e e e
Business and Industry. . . . .
Programs Sponsored by Special
Groups. e,e e e e e e e e e e e e

METHOD 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0
Establishing the Hypothesis. . . . .

iii

Page

ii

27

35
h}

#5
56
S6

CHAPTER Page

Proposed Plan of Teaching Method . . 56
1. The TOEChing Staff e e e e e e S6
2. Resource Persons . . . . . . . 60

Basic Economics Materials. . . 61
AL: Visual Aides e e e e e e e e 63
5. Conference Leadership Method . 6h

Population and Sample. . . . . . . . 67

ThemS‘bmonteeeeeeeeeee 69

Areas of vulnerability . . . . . . . 75

Ive ANALYSISeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 76

Analysis of Scores by Statement. . . 76

Analysis of Scores by Topics . . . . 81

V. SUMMARY'AND CONCLUSIONS . . . e . . e . . .100
Summary of Methods Employed In The

Conduct of the Course . ... . . . 102

Summary of Test Results. . . . . . . 105

Recommendations. e e e e e e e e e e 107

APPENDIX. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 111

BIm'ImRAPHY. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 120

iv

Table

1.

2.

3.

9.

10.

LIST OF TABLES

Number of Statements on Test Relating to
Topics in Basic Economic Program . . . . .

Percentages of Statements on Test Relating
to Tepics in Basic Economic Program. . . .

Numbers and Percentages of Correct Responses
on Pro and Post Tests and Increases
in Percentage Points by Statements . . . .

Five Statements Ranked in Order, From
Highest to Lowest Score, Pre and Post. . .

Range of Numbers and Percentages of Correct
Responses on Pro and Post Tests and In—
creases in Percentage Points by Statement.

Numbers and Percentages of Correct Reaponses
on Pro and Post Tests and Increases in
Percentage Points: A Look At Our Economy

Numbers and Percentages of Correct Responses
on Pro and Post Tests and Increases in
Percentage Points: Managing Your Income .

Numbers and Percentages of Correct Responses
on Pro and Post Tests and Increases in
Percentage Points: Competitive Prices
inACtj-oneeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

Numbers and Percentages of Correct Responses
on Pro and Post Tests and Increases in
Percentage Points: Producing for Better
L1V1n8eeeeeeeeeee,-eeeeeee

Numbers and Percentages of Correct Responses
on Pro and Post Tests and Increases in
Percentage Points: Capital-~Key to
Progresseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

Page

70

71

77

79

81

82

8h

85

87

9O

Table
11.

12.

13.

1h.

15.

16.

17-

18.

19.

Numbers and Percentages of Correct Responses
on Pro and Post Tests and_Increases in
Percentage Points: Your Wages . . . . . .

numbers and Percentages of Correct Responses
on Pre and Post Tests and Increases in
Percentage Points: Profits--Sparkplug
of thO Economy e e e e e e e e e e e e e e

Numbers and Percentages of Correct Responses
on Pre and Post Tests and Increases in
Percentage Points: Understanding Meney
and Bankinge eye e e e e e e e e e e e e 0

Numbers and Percentages of Correct Responses
on Pre and Post Tests and Increases in
Percentage Points: The Ups and Downs of
Buainess e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e

Numbers and Percentages of Correct Responses
on Pre and Post Tests and Increases in
Percentage Points: Security and
Opport‘mj-ty. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Numbers and Percentages of Correct Responses
on Pro and Post Tests and Increases in
Percentage Points: America and the
World Economy. e e e e e e e e e‘e e e e e

Summary, By Topics, of Numbers and Percent-
ages of Correct Responses Pre and Post and
Increases in Percentage Points . . . . . .

Range of Numbers and Percentages of Correct
Responses on Pre and Post Tests and In-
creases in Percentage Pointsby,Statemcnts

Range of Numbers and Percentages of Correct

Responses on Pre and Post Tests and In-
creases in Percentage Points by Topics . .

vi

Page

92

93

95

96

97

98

99

106

107

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

Introduction

 

Most Americans make decisions daily which are based
upon economic considerations. Indeed, the mere act of
living in a free economy necessitates such decision-making.
For example, a person purchases an automobile or refriger-
ator on an installment plan; he contracts for a life insur-
ance policy; he pays his property taxes or his union dues.
In each case he must judge various economic factors and then
act in what he hopes is his own best interest.

That this hOpe is often a vain one is not surprising,
considering that most of the decisions have been reached
with little organized knowledge of basic economics.

That this hOpe is often a vain one is not surprising,
considering that most of the decisions have been reached
with little organized knowledge of basic economics.

There is evidence to indicate a paucity of economic
understanding among persons at all age levels, at various
educational levels, and at most socio—economic levels.
Studies conducted in recent years to gauge the level of
economic understanding among Americans have revealed a

serious lack of such understanding.

2

Level of Economic Understanding
Among High School Students
in the United States

In a survey of eighty-six high schools, conducted by
Opinion Research Corporation for the United States Chamber
of Commerce, members of the senior classes were asked
questions designed to measure economic understanding. The
results of this study indicated a disappointingly low level.
The syndicated columnist, Sylvia Porter, deplored the fact
that "almost 90% of the students did not recognize that
'the surest way to raise the country's living standards is
to produce more goods per man hours."'1 She expressed the
Opinion that:

In our high schools and colleges the future leaders
of America are taught either nothing about our economic
system or are being giv§n courses woefully superficial,
appallingly inadequate.

At a time when the effectiveness of our economic
system is being tested and challenged, predictions are
being made that it will not survive. Yet, in the midst of
this crisis, many are ignorant concerning basic economic
concepts. John H. Crider, in attempting to appraise the
threat--or promise--of Nikita Khrushchev that the Soviet

Union would "bury" us, despairs the evidence revealed in the

Opinion Research study. He was particularly disturbed with

lSylvia F. Porter,"Are We a Nation of Economic
Illiterates?” (Speech delivered before the Economics Club
of Detroit, February 1, I960.) Vital Speeches, XXVI, No.12
pp. 366-70, April I, 1960.

 

21bid.

3

the fact that when students were asked to indicate their
preference for certain statements used to describe various
economic systems, 55% had selected the socialist slogan
"from each according to his abilities and to each according
to his needs."1 He believes further that:

. . . we have grossly neglected the seeds of our

own survival. For, if our youth have no under-

standing of it, or pride in their own economic

system, how can we be sure they won't be Bushovers

for the salesmen of antagonistic systems?

Further evidence of lack of economic understanding on
the part of high school students is revealed in the Opinion
Research study. Sixty-one per cent said that the profit
incentive is not needed for the survival of our system; 26%
said that "most gains from new machinery go to the owner";
82% said we have practically no competition in business.

On the question relative to the best way in which workers as
a whole could raise their living standards, “3% said "to
produce more," while 56% said "to get more pay from the
corporation."3

The director of the Joint Council on Economic Educa-

tion, G. Derwood Baker, points out that only 39% of the

seniors polled believed that keeping the profit incentive

 

lJohn H. Crider, "The Khrushchev Challenge," America,
Vol. 100, March 28, 1959, pp. 737-40.

21bid.

3Roscoe L. West, at El, "Economics in Teacher Education
and Secondary Schools." _Report of the Teacher Education and
National Schools Committees. American Economic Foundation,
December, 1958. New York.

u
alive was essential to the survival of the economic system
under which we live. He further indicates that teachers
as well as students believed that 25% of corporation revenue
was retained as profits. He cites United States Department
of Commerce figures which indicate that over a 20—year
period corporation profits averaged around 3% of sales.
Baker does not condemn the high school senior, however, He

believes that:

The average high school senior is not a revolu-
tionary; neither is he opposed to our system of
economic enterprise; but he is so poorly informed
about it and so confused with respect to its functional
operation that his judgment with relation to it is not
to be relied upon.

Opportunities for High School Students
to Acquire Economic Understanding

When confronted with the evidence of the lack of eco-
nomic understanding among high school students, one may well
ask "why?" Several possible reasons might be cited: the
paucity of courses in economics offered in high schools
throughout the country, the small number of schools which
require courses in economics for graduation, the tendency of
schools to dilute the study of economics by including it with
other social studies, the lack of preparation in economics
on the part of many high school social studies teachers, the

dearth of effective teaching materials, and the fear that

—_

1G. Derwood Baker, "Education for Economic Competence"
Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary-School
EEERClpals, Vol. XXXVII. No, 562 (April 1954), p. 109.

5
economics is too complicated and too controversial.

At the Fifth Annual Conference of the National Schools
Committee of the American Economic Foundation, Dr. Ellison M.
Smith, superintendent of schools at Abbeville, South
Carolina, appraised the problem as he saw it.

There are weaknesses, of course, in our educational
program. I have been alarmed for several years by the
paucity of instruction concerning our American govern-
ment and particularly our economic system. We have
taught history, and I think we have taught students
to love our country and even to boast about our econo-
mic way of life. We have taught them that we are the
greatest nation on earth; that we have the highest
standard of living and the greatest productivity, but
we have failed to teach why our way of life is better
and wh our economic system gives us more of the
material goods than other systems. We have made boast-
ers, but we have failed to teach them the simple truths
and advantages that underlie our greatness. A great
number of our people are downright illiterate when
it comes to knowing just what makes our economic system
tick.

Only a few secondary schools offer courses labeled
"economics." Many schools have relegated the study of eco-
nomics to mere units in "Problems of American Democracy" or
other courses such as civics, history, or business and commerce.
Thus, economics gets attention by accident or design, depend-
ing upon the teacher.

A study in 1951 by C. W. McKee and H. G. Moulton for
the Brookings Institution indicates that approximately 60%

of 500 schools which replied to a questionnaire sent to

1-Address before the Fifth Annual Conference of the

National Schools Committee of the.Amgnican_Eggngmig
Egungagggg, March 31,1958. Cleveland, Ohio.

6

2000 schools offered courses in economics. Eighteen per cent
of these schools required the course for graduation. The
study further indicates that only about 20% of the students
in the schools offering economics as an elective chose
actually to take it.1

When state superintendents were asked what percentage
of high school graduates in their state had taken as much
as one semester in economics, the answers ranged from 1%
to 95%. Half of them reSponded "10% or less" and only one-
fifth indicated that as many as 30% had had one course.
The general conclusion drawn by the authors of the test was
that less than 5% of all high school graduates have taken the

2

equivalent of one semester of economics. On a state-wide

basis, only the state of Oregon requires a course in econo-
mics for graduation.3
If the generalization can be made that only 5% of
those students completing high school take as much as one
semester in economics, what of those who drop out of school

without graduating? Thomas D. Bailey, Superintendent of

Public Instruction for the State of Florida, claims that:

 

1“Ben W. Lewis, "Economic Understanding: Why and What."
Address before the Section Meeting on Economic Education,
Annual Conference of the American Economic Association,
December 27, 1956.

21bid.

3G. Derwood Baker, loc. cit.

7

Despite compulsory school laws and the tremendous
improvements we have made in elementary and secondary
education over the past years, an appalling number of
our young people are still leaving school prior to
graduation. Retention studies by the Office of Edu-
cation show that approximately h0% of our youth who
enter the fifth grade leave prior to graduation from
high school.1

It might well be asked what the level of economic under—
standing is among the group of students who never complete
high school.

Economic Education Programs
f6r Students

 

Some progress has been made in recent years, however,
toward giving the study of economics a more prominent place
in the high school curriculum. This seems to have stemmed
from the efforts within the schools and from encouragement
of outside agencies and organizations. There are indica-
tions, also, that improvements have been made in teaching
methods, in classroom materials, and in other aids to
instruction.

Appraising the need for economic education for youth,
Dr. Roscoe L. West, president emeritus of New Jersey State
College, cited three reasons for this need:

To aid in his personal life; to help him, as he grows

into the responsibilities of citizenship, to understand
such things as farm aid and inflation; and to aid him in

1Thomas D. Bailey, The School Administrator's Respon-
gibility for Providing An Adequate Programfor Adult Educa-
tion. An Address before the National Association of Public
School Adult Educators, (February 12, 1960), Atlantic City,
New Jersey.

8

understanding ourlrelation with other countries in such
matters as trade.

A committee of educators under the leadership of Dr.
Ben C. Wood, Director of Educational Research, Columbia
College, and chairman of the National Schools Committee,
American Economic Foundation, has developed discussion
materials for use in secondary schools. William H. Hartley,
of State Teachers College, Towson, Maryland, reviewing a
series of films produced by the committee, appraised it
thus:

From watching these films your reviewers got the
impression of a 'hard sell' for the American competi-
tive system. The situations set up were, however, so
challenging that youngsters and oldsters shall get a
kick out of the discussions which will follow the
film showings.2

One of the problems facing a teacher of economics is

the great number of possible topics which could be explored.
Should he attempt to teach every possible economic concept,

or should he be selective? An attempt to help solve the
problem has been made by the National Education Association's
National Association of Secondary-School Principals in COOp-
eration with the National Better Business Bureau. The Associ-
ation established a Council for the Advancement of Secondary

Education as a curriculum organization and charged it with

the responsibility for curriculum development in economics.

lRoscoe L. West, quoted in the Charleston Evening
Post, January 26, 1959.

. 2William H. Harley ”Sight and Sound in Social Studies"
§gcial Education XXI, No. 8 (December, 1957).

 

9
The council asked 2000 leaders in agriculture, busi-
ness, labor, and education, to suggest topics they believed
should be covered in economics courses. Over 10,000 topics
were suggested and these were classified under 1h categories
into a list of 88 topics. These were submitted to a panel
of judges to rank in order of importance. CASE also under-
took to compile a basic economic vocabulary which the general
reader should possess. The council compiled a list of terms
used in 2332 issues of 62 different l950-5h publications.
The result was a rank-order list of 244 economic terms from
national magazines, 459 from general newspapers, 394 from
farm journals, 351 from labor union journals and 235 from
company publications.l
School peOple seem to be of the Opinion, too, that

economic understanding should start early and should encom-
pass a number of grades, courses, and activities. In their
"Guide for Teaching Social Studies," the public schools of
Minneapolis have listed the following objectives for econo-
mic competence:

_ Every pupil should have an opportunity to participate

in learning experiences which will enable him to achieve

maximum development as an individual and as a member

of society--so that, to the limit of his capacity, he

will be a citizen who

functions effectively in daily economic life
and makes valid economic judgments,

maintains a sound personal financial program
and purchases and uses goods and serv1ces
wisely,

. 1'Baldwin Lee and Galen Jones, "Toward Economic
Literacy," National Education Association Journal, 46,
(Aprll. 1957). pp. 248-250.

10
makes an intelligent choice of vocation,
understands and appreciates the contributions
of the many groups of workers who produce goods

and services,

understands how the environment affects the ways
in which people live,

interests himself in, and understands, how our
economic system Operates,

thinks critically about economic problems and
assumes a responsibility for contributing to
their solution.

A professor of education at Brooklyn College, Ruth W.
Gavian, also believes that economic education should begin
early.

Education for economic understanding starts in the
lower grades. Like education for health, citizenship,
esthetic appreciation, and moral values, it is a
strand that should be woven intg the curriculum from
the first grade to the twelfth.

To support her contention, she relates the experience of a
second grade teacher in Kalamazoo, Michigan, who capitalized
upon her pupils' curiosity about a crane operating in the
school yard to drive home some lessons of the use of labor-
saving machinery in our economy.3

Ruth Gavian is supported in this contention by Hersh

and Jansen writing for The Nation's Schools. They indicate

 

lRoscoe L. West, E; El, "Economics in Teacher Educa-
tion and Secondary Schools," a Report of the Teacher Educa-
tion and National Schools Committees. American Economic
Foundation, (December, 1958), New York.

2Ruth W. Gavian, "Developing Economic Understanding,"
333 Instructor, (March, 1958), No. 67, p. 6.

 

31bid.

11

that:

Economic education is not confined to a single grade
or a single subject but permeates all levels of the
school system and many subject areas. It is not con-
fined to the textbook or the classroom but draws upon
a variety of school activities and community resources.

Prospgcts for the Future

 

The future of economic understanding in the high
school seems brighter than in the past. Plans are being
made and implemented to improve the level of economic
understanding. Teachers are attending inservice courses,
conferences, and workshops to improve their own understand-
ing of the subject. A number of economic councils have been
organized throughout the country. These,for the most part,
consist of teachers, administrators, and community leaders
representing a cross-section of economic interests.
Materials designed to aid the teacher in bringing about eco-
nomic understanding in the classroom are becoming more
readily available.

Thus, it is expected that the adult of the next gener-
ation will be better informed. Meanwhile, today's adults
are making economic decisions which are affected by their
understanding, or lack of understanding, of the economic
system under which they live.

Opportunities for Adults to Acquire
Economic Understanding

 

The study of economics is not generally one of the more

 

1 . . . .
Isaac Hersch and William Jansen, ”Economic Literacy
for all Pupils,” The Nation's Schools, 62, (December, 1958),
pp. h3-45.

 

12
popular adult education courses. Because adults take adult
education courses which have either an element of recreation
or a promise of immediate vocational gain, the study of
economics is often overlooked. When the National Association
of Public School Adult Educators undertook in l956 to prepare
a number Of monographs in those areas of adult education which
were thought to be difficult to promote and in which very
little instructional work was being done, the area of economic
education was selected.1 Encouragement of economic education
for adults has come from the various adult education associa—
tions; from industry, labor and government groups; and from
economic councils and associations.

Robert A. Luke of the Division of Adult Education
Services, National Education Association, reflected one of
the philosophies of adult educators when he said:

Throughout our American history we have refused to
think of "education" simply as the learning of facts;
teaching reading, writing, and calculating; imparting
vocational or professional skills; or learning subject
matter content in the sciences, arts, and humanities.
Rather, the American dream has always imparted to edu-
cation some quality saturated with the power to change
people and help them grow; to give them tools they

could use in fgeeing themselves from ignorance, poverty,
and prejudice.

 

The objectives of many of the groups interested in
encouraging economic education for adults seems to be pre-

Cisely what Luke postulates: to modify peOple's ideas about

1Interview with Lloyd Woolfe, May 10, 1960.

2Robert A. Luke, "The Educational Issue Between the
East and West," an address before adult education class,
Inquiry. U.S.S.R., Flint, Michigan, February, 1960.

l3
economics and to help them grow in understanding and fulfill-
ment. John W. Gardner of the Carnegie Corporation said:

If we believe what we profess concerning the work of
the individual, then the idea of individual fulfillment
within a framework of moral purpose must become our
deepest concern, our national pre-occupation, our
passion, our obsession.l

It is a common concept among adults that economics is
difficult to comprehend. This misconception needs correction
before reasonable success can be expected in the promotion of
economic education for adults. Morgan S. A. Reichner,
Executive Director of the American Economic Foundation, speak-
ing to a group of educators in Ohio declared that:

Teaching formal economics can be likened to teaching
the intricate ideas and practices a student must learn
to become a doctor. This does not deter us, however,
from teaching every student a course in health and
hygiene which results in a working knowledge of his
body and what is good and bad for it. Let us not be
deterred by the reputation that economics has acquired
as an intricate, confusing and dull subject. Let us
offer every future citizen a course in economic health
and hygiene which will give him a working knowledge of
what is good and bad for his material life.2

Adult Education Proggams

 

In 1956, Lloyd Woolfe, chairman of the curriculum
committee of the National Association of Public School Adult
Educators, requested from a number of directors of public
school adult education programs that they share their experi-

ences in the area of economic education for adults as they

1‘John W. Gardner, The Servant of All Our Purposes,
Carnegie Corporation of New York, 1958, p. 5.

 

2Morgan Reichner, an Address at Economic WorkshOp,
Kent State University, from the Akron Beacon Journal, Akron,
Ohio, July 23, 1959.

 

14
relate to classes, forums, radio or television programs and
other projects. The questionnaire requested descriptions of
the programs, methods of instruction, community cooperation
in planning and promotion, evaluation of the programs, and
identification of needs and desires.

The following list Of course titles will indicate the
kinds Of programs in economic education which were offered
in this sampling Of communities:

Charlotte, North Carolina

Family Life
Small Business Management
Flint, Michigan
Social Security and You
Stretching Your Bread and Butter Dollar
Your Life Insurance Budget
Building Your Financial Future
Basic Economics
Washington, District of Columbia

Sound Principles for the Small and Large
Investor

Tacoma, Washington
Banking
Insurance
Record Keeping
New Haven, Connecticut
A B C's of Investing
Cleveland, Ohio

Investment Securities

15
Income Tax Clinic
Income Tax Forum
Insurance
Consumgr Economics
Home Management
Operating a Small Business
Denver, Colorado
So You Want to Buy a Home
Stretching the Family Dollar
Baltimore, Maryland
Baltimore Industry Tours
Building and/or Buying a Home
Business Economics
Family Budgeting
Consumer Economics
Income Tax Clinic
Labor Economics
Brooklyn, New York
Consumer Education
Methods of instruction included lecture and discussion,
by radio and televison as well as the conventional face-to—
face situation found in the classroom and lecture hall. The
teaching staffs consisted of university professors, teachers,
government officials, stock brokers, social workers, real
estate agents, insurance agents, brokers, attorneys, employ-
ment agents, and building contractors.

Community cooperation came from a number of organizations,

l6

agencies, and miscellaneous groups: Associations of parents
and teachers, governmental agencies, family life councils,
real estate boards, associations of home builders, indivi—
dual companies (insurance, investment, manufacturing, retail,
banking), social agencies, educational institutions, news-
papers, radio and television stations, and trade associations.
Although the degree of cooperation received from these
community organizations was not requested, some of the
comments indicated a wide range of usefulness of these
"COOperating agencies." In one program in "family life," the
respondent indicated that the local Parent-Teacher Association
and the Family Life Council had "promoted" the course and
further reported "superior cooperation from local groups."
Another indicated "no co-sponsorship—-no problems." A course
in banking, involving over 600 participants, was "promoted by
the bankers association," and one course in insurance, in the
same community, was "promoted by the insurance organization."

Formal evaluation of the various programs had not been
requested, nor was it indicated in the responses. However,
respondents noted briefly their own appraisals of the success
of most of the courses. These comments ranged from "highly
successful" to "very moderate success, too general, not
personal enough." Attendance figures were indicated for some
Of the programs. These ranged from 15-20 in a few instances
to 5,000 attending a forum. Most groups involved between 30
and 40 participants.

Many Of the respondents commented on how needs and

17

. desires were identified. Some of these included: "informal
sampling," "by numbers enrolled," "public library book'with-
drawals," "business and professional advisory committee,”
"administrative calculation," "other directors," and "trial
balloons."

This questionnaire and resulting replies were made
available to the writer because, in the opinion of the
Chairman Of the Curriculum Committee of the National Associ-
ation of.Public School Administration Educators, doubt exists

that the monograph will be published in the fireaeeable future.

Business and Industrngggggams

Efforts of business and industry in the area of
economic education for adults have been restricted to their
own employees.‘ General Motors Corporation, General Electric
Company and General Mills have sponsored classes in economic
education for a number of years for their employees. Republic
Steel Corporation has developed a program, with the cOOpera-
tion of the Industrial Relations Center of the University of
Chicago, to increase the level of economic understanding
among its employees. The Industrial Relations Center spent
two years researching, writing, and field testing a set of
materials designed "to translate ideas into simple language,
to deveIOp visual aids when language proved effective, and

to teach the teachers how to teach even this simplified set

of facts and formulas.

18

l The results were gratifying to the

company, which reported that among supervisory personnel the

ability to understand and interpret economic data increased

an average of 40%.2

Need for Economic Understanding

A review of literature by persons advocating more study

of economics reveals a number of reasons given for greater

economic understanding. Some of these include:

Better," U.S. News and World Report, #3: 91-93, August 9

1957.

l.

The need to manage intelligently the large sum
of money each individual will earn during his
lifetime.

The need to evaluate the effects upon the economy
of public policies, programs, agencies, and
institutions.

The threat to our economic system of Opposing
systems of economic organization.

The need to learn how to utilize most effectively
the factors of production, distribution, and
consumption of economic goods and services.

To enable individuals to relate economic in-
sights with other areas of social life.

TO enable businessmen, labor leaders, and
government officials to make more intelligent
decisions, based upon better understanding of
economic concepts.

To counteract the notion that economics is
"just common sense" and only "straight thinking"
is required to understand economic concepts.

10. M. White, "Why Business Should 'Tell Its Story'

2

9

Ibid.

l9
8. To enable citizens to develOp a sound economic
"ethic" which will make our conception of

economics as a foundation for freedom.

Louis C. Milione, Field Director of the American Eco-
nomics'Foundation, makes what seems a reasonable point for

the understanding of money management.

He told a group of
Cleveland teachers:

Every child in your classroom will earn a quarter
of a million dollars in his working lifetime, statistics
show. It's up to the teachers to instruct these
children in the wisi use of money, how it can be in-
vested and managed.

The American voters put into public office individuals

whose decisions, whether they be to raise teachers'salaries
in a local school district or to spend billions of dollars
for defense, presuppose an understanding of economic concepts.

Dr. B. U. Ratchford, Professor Of Economics at Duke University,

emphasized this need When he said:

Economics studies man's behavior in earning a living
in the kind of economics we have today .

. .. It pro-
vides criteria for evaluating the effects of public

policies, programs, and institutions upon the different
segments of the economy and

Ehus provides a basis for
the making of public policy.

'MuCh has been said and written about the danger faced

by our free economy in its struggle with the Opposing systems

of economic organization. Ernest O. Melby, Distinguished

Visiting Professor at Michigan State University, issues the

1Louis G. Milione, quoted in the Cleveland Press,
November 18, 1959.

28. U. Ratchford, quoted in the Durham (North
Carolina) Morning Herald, September 21, I958.

20
following declaration:

In the present cold war for human freedom, our
opponents believe that we will ultimately lose
because our economic system will fail us. The only
way we can prove them wrong, and the only way we can
make human freedom a reality is to give our citizens
the economic attitudes and understanding that will
equip them to develop sound economic policies and
which will make our economic system a foundation for
freedom, rather than a source of weakness in crisis.
Such education will be effective as it examines the
issues clearly in the free market of opinion which
should prevail in every school and college. It will
have meaning and power as it is conducted in the true
spirit of democracy and as it is dominated by a
concern for moral and spiritual values.

Ratchford reveals a basic need for economic understand-

ing when he cites as the purpose of studying economics as
learning ".

. how man can use the economic resources

available most efficiently, so that they may produce the

greatest amount of goods and services to satisfy human
wants.“2

He is supported by Enos C. Perry, Director of

Business Education for the Chicago Board of Education when he
declared:

Educators, businessmen and labor leaders and the
general public do not understand the economic structure
Which has grown up in this country during the past 75
years; therefore, they cannot think intelligently about
it. These groups are burdened with day to day problems,
therefore, they do not have time to learn anything about
it. The educator requires a course in music or art

1'Sc'hultz quotes Melby in Frank C. Schultz "House and
Buggy Economics,“ School and Socigty, Vol. 77, NO. 2008,
(June 13, 1953). pp. 372-75.

2B. U. Ratchford, quoted in the Durham (North Carolina
‘Morning Herald, September 21, 1958.

21

rather than economics because he understands the one
and not the other; the businssman pleads for freedom
of competition on the one hand and asks for government
regulation on the other; labor wants favorable legis-
lation with respect to the union shOp but wants the
government to stay out of its affairs when strikes

are shaping up; the farmer wants price supports fo

his crOps but would deny them to the manufacturer.E

A strong plea has been made for the introdiction of

economics courses in more schools and.more encouragement to
students to take these courses.

Some writers, however, have
either accepted the fact that economics will continue to be

an adjunct to social studies or business courses or have

even advocated that this be done.

The latter view has
been taken by Proctor Thomson when he says:

Economic education should enable the rational citizen
to walk up to a practical problem, lay hold of the

appropriate economic tools, and hammer out a successful
solution.

And, to prevent misuse and overemphasis, he

should see the connection between economic insights and
other dimensions of social life.

I doubt that we shall
promote these objectives by insisting on separate eco-
nomic courses in grade school or high school. We shall
have to infiltrate and insinuate. Economics must be
admixed with social studies; it must inform histor ,
supplement literature, and illuminate mathematics.

When an individual makes a decision based upon either

good understanding or poor understanding of economic princi—

ples, and that decision affects only himself or his family,
it reflects upon himself alone. It appears incumbent upon

a business man, labor leader, or government official, however,

1

Enos C. Perry. Remarks made at the Sixth Annual
Conference of the National Schools Committee Of the American
Economic Foundation, February 17, 1959, Atlantic City,

New Jersey.

2

Proctor Thomson, "Economic Education and Public
Policy“ SOhool Review 66: 152-163, (Summer, 1958).

22
to base decisions upon sound economic understanding when
they affect other individuals. Sylvia Porter told members
of the Economic Club of Detroit that in her Opinion:

Most of our lemmakers are loaded with misconceptions
about the economic issues on which they're passing laws.
And this indictment goes to the very top Of our nation
at a time when understanding Of our own economy and
what's right with it, what's wrong with it, what might
be done to make it stronger, more virile, more produc-
tive of basic values as well as of Just things which
make everyday life more comfortable--is absolutely
imperative if w are to meet the challenge of the
Soviet economy.

If Miss Porter is right, and there is reason to believe her
appraisal to be correct, there is need among our lawmakers
for economic understanding. She tends, also, to support
Perry's contention.2
All of our own evidence, therefore, indicates a sub-
stantial need for all secondary and college level students
as well as adults to acquire a systematic understanding of

the American economic system.

Scope and Limitations
This study is concerned with the analysis and evalu-
ation of thirty classes in basic economics, which were con-
ducted in Flint, Michigan, during the fall of 1959. An
analysis was made of the employment of the following methods
of instruction:

1. Lay persons specially trained for the program.

1Porter, 10c. cit.

2Porter, loc. cit.

23

2. Resource persons, when apprOpriate, to supple-

ment other methods.

3. Basic economic materials specially designed

for the program.

4. Carefully prepared visual aids.

5. Conference leadership techniques.

Analysis was made only of the impact of the formal
classes upon the level of economic understanding of the
participants. No attempt was made to determine the extent
to which the participants might have registered growth through:

1. the reading of other materials,

2. the reading Of the selected supplementary

materials,

3. the mass media, or

A. discussion of economic issues in other groups.

Evaluation of the program, for the purposes of this
study, consisted of measuring the level of economic under-
standing of the participants, by using a single instrument
prior to their having taken the course and again at the
conclusion of the course. It is recognized that valuable
contributions to the study could have been made by an analysis
of the age, sex, and educational level of the participants;
their occupation and income level; and by subjective evalu-
ations by the participants and discussion leaders.

Further, evaluation was made only in terms of the
five teaching methods employed in the program. The follow-
ing variations, used in some of the groups, might have revealed

additional information:

2h

. Employment of economists.
Utilization of professional teachers.

Use of a different set of basic economics mahnflab.

Exclusive use of the chalkboard, without any other
visual aids.

0141‘me

. Employment of only the lecture method, or some
other method.

Additional study might also have been made of the basic
‘classes conducted during the subsequent tanm to determine

if comparable results accrued. However, no tests were admin-
istered to these groups. In the advanced classes offered

the following term, and consisting of participants in the
previous basic course, study might have been made of perform-
ance at this higher level.

The participants in each school group were selected
and invited by the building principal or community activi-
ties director (see Appendix 119). The general characteris-
tics Of the persons involved probably differed from the
traits of those who would have been attracted by a general

announcement. A different study might have involved the
performance of groups selected in a number of ways, or

completely at random.
The Hypothesis
This thesis is an analysis and evaluation of an experi-
mental program in basic economics, designed to increase the
level of economic understanding among adults. The hypothesis

to be proved is that the level of economic understanding can
be raised significantly through the use of selected

methods, materials, and other resources available in most

25

communities. For the purpose of this study, these include:

1.

2.
3.
4.
5

lay persons specially trained for the program,
resource persons,

basic economics materials,

carefully prepared visual aids, and

conference leadership method.

The procedure will be to analyze.

l.

the selection of a method of teaching economic
understanding,employing the five techniques;

the recruitment of a teaching staff among people
normally found among lay persons in any community;
the inservice training (if the teaching staff in
conference leadership methods and in basic
economics;

the recruitment of groups of adults who partici-
pated in the experiment;

the use of tests to be administered to the students
before and after the program; and

the provision for a follow-up to enable certain

retention of gains.

Further, the effectiveness of the program will be evaluated

in terms of student performance on the tests before and

after taking the course.

The program herein described was sponsored by the

Mott Program of the Flint Board of Education, in cooperation

with the Industrial Relations Center of the University of

Chicago, and the A. C. Spark Plug Division, General Motors

26
Corporation. It involved groups of adults in 37 community

schools of the School District of the City of Flint, Michigan.

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A survey of the literature relative to economic edu-
cation for adults reveals that there is not only a dearth
of Opportunities for adults to gain economic understanding
through adult education programs, but also a paucity of in-
formation on the subject. Because of the relationship which
exists between economic education for youth and for adults,
and because the writer explored the broad area of developing
economic understanding, this chapter will deal with the sub-

Ject of economic education for both youth and adults.

School Programs
in Econom c use on

Much of what has been written about economic educa-
tion in the schools seems to have been concerned with the
following questions:

Why teach economic concepts?

Who is teaching economics?

What is being taught in ecOnomics classes?

How shall economic understanding be taught?

When should this economic education take place?

much of Chapter One has been concerned with the im-

portance of teaching economic concepts in order that the

27

28

individual may assume a more effective role as a citizen in
a democracy. Dr. Roscoe L. West, President Emeritus of New
Jersey State College, emphasizes the objectives Of effective

citizenship in his appraisal of the reasons for teaching

economics. He says:

The youngster entering school needs to be taught
economics for three reasons: (1) to aid in his
personal life; (2) to help him, as he grows into
the responsibilities of citizenship, to understand
such things as farm aid and inflation; and (3) to
aid him in understanding our relation with other
countries in such matters as trade.1

Morgan S. A. Reichner, Executive Director of the
American Economic Foundation, sees the danger of communism
as a threat to our way of life unless our schools teach

economic competence. Speaking at a teacher seminar in Houston,

Texas, Reichner warned:

Young Americans are unaware of the dangers from
Communism because of a condition of "economic ignor-
ance" that prevails in this country today. That
economic ignorance is not the fault of any single
segment of the American system, but of all elements
of the community. The "let George do it" attitude
of Americans is undermining the American way Of life
and provides a fertile field for crackpots and
demagogues. Americans must wake up to the existing
threats to the free enterprise system and fight t3
protect a way of life that has no equal on earth.

In an apparent understatement of the importance of
economic education, Donald K. David, Vice Chairman of the
Ford Foundation and Chairman of the Board of the Committee

for Economic Development, set forth as one of the national

lRoscoe L. West, quoted in an interview, Charleston
Eyenigg Post; January 26, 1959.

2Morgan S. A. Reichner, The Houston Chronicle,
September 2, 1959.

29
objectives of economic education the following:

There should be sufficient economic education.in
our prhmary and secondary schools so that at least
a majority of our high school graduates'have sopnd
understanding of how our economic system works.

The Flint (Michigan) Board of Education has launched
a.program of economic education for youth and adults which
is designed in terms of this objective. Commenting about

the program, Dr. S. W. Myers, Flint's Superintendent of

Schools, said:

Today our way of life is being severely criticized
and attacked. This attack is not one of atomic or
hydrogen bombs. The war being waged against us is
the 'cold war.‘ It is a war of words and ideas --
a war aimed at the minds of men. The goal of the
enemy is to undermine and destroy our faith in the
American way of life . . . . The free enterprise
system has been a major factor in contributing to
the tremendous growth and development of this
country . . . . America's answer, and Flint's answer,,
to this attack is already being made. Your Board
of Education has initiated.a program called The
Economics of Our Community.

This is an educational program.

It is for the children, youth and adults
of our community.

It is designed to impart a new knowledge
and understanding of the productivity of
our community, using the community as a
learning laboratory.

It is planned by educators with local,
business, labor, pgofessional, industrial,
and civic leaders.

One of the necessary ingredients of an effective

 

1Donald K. David, "Chairman's Report," Annual Report
9f the Committee for Economic Development, 1959, p. 1.

2Spencer W. Myers, in introduction to The Economics
f Our Communit , published by the Board of Education,
nt, ich gan, (1958).

30

:program of economic education is high quality of teaching.

It would seem reasonable to assume that a.successful program
would be impossible without it. There is evidence to indicate,
however, that the quality of teaching in the area of economics
is not high. Ben W. Lewis, Chairman of the Department of
Economics, at Oberlin College and Chairman of the American
Economic Education's Committee on Economic Education, makes
this assertion. In an address before the Economic Education

Section of the Annual Conference of the American Economic

Association, Dr. Lewis declared:

The quality of the economics taught in our schools
today is, by and large, not good, and, given the
preparation which most secondary school teachers who
are forced to teach economics in the schools have
had, it is difficult to see how the quality could be
otherwise. . . . The teacher who has had only a
minimum of college preparation for his work is not
well equipped to do fully and positively the job we
want him to do, but he is in a better position by far
to keep his head above the flood of "economics mater-
ials" now sweeping over the schools than the teacher

who has never seen the inside of a college economics
textbook.1

There is evidence to support the belief that improve-
ments are being made in the curriculum which are yielding
a higher degree of economic understanding among students.
Ben W. Lewis appraises the situation thus:

Promising activities to improve the teaching of
economics in the schools are taking definite form,
gaining strength and spreading. In-service courses,
conferences and workshops for teachers, eager to
better their own understanding of economics and to

1Ben W. Lewis, Economic Understanding: Why and What,
an address before the Economic Education Sectibn, American
Economic Association, (December 29, 1956), Cleveland, Ohio.

31'

improve their teaching in the schools, are now in
Operation widely over the country, both during the
school year and in the summers. Economic councils,
made up of teachers, administrators, and community
leaders, representing a cross-section of economic
interests, are springing up. Useful materials
designed to aid in the teaching of economic under-
standing rather than to dispense eternal economic
truths are being prepared. All of these activities
were begun, and are still being carried and driven
by educators and businessmen. Economists, at last,
are participating, but it would be an exaggeration
to picture us even at this late datp as gallOping
in strength to the field of action.

Howerononfics will be taught has been the subject of
muzh of the literature dealing with economic education.
Educators, businessmen, industrialists, and labor leaders
have attempted to add to this body of knowledge. Commenting
on the use of the materials and techniques developed by the
American Economic Foundation, Dr. Ralph C. Davis, of Ohio
State University's Department of Business Organization,
indicated that, "The challenge is to help teachers put an
interesting economic message into their discussions."2

Reichner believes that:

Economics can be introduced interestingly in
regular courses on history and geography. And
every field trip can be made more exciting by
explaining how each commercial, agricultural,

and industrial project fits into the free enter-
prise system.

He indicates, also, the extensive use to which the American

*

1Lewis, op. cit.

2Ralph C. Davis, quoted in the Columbus (Ohio) Sunday
Dispatch, October 11, I959.

3Reichner, loo. cit.

32
Economic Foundation's film discussion programs have been put
when he announces that 6,000 high schools incorporate the

films as an integral part of their curricula.1

But Ben W. Lewis summarizes one of the dilemmas of

the teacher when he says:

The materials--statements, guides, briefs, pamphlets,
books, workbooks, booklets, brochures, reports, bulle-
tins, reprints, pictures, charts, films--come from
individuals and organizations of every sort and descrip—
tion--firms, corporations, unions, churches, banks,
groups, governments, leagues, bureaus, committees,
foundations, boards, conferences, presses, councils--
all bent on furnishing "sound" material to "our
citizens of tomorrow."2

The literature concerning economic education would
lead one to conclude that economic understanding must come
to the individual as a gradual process, over a long period
of time, rather than as an event in one‘s life. Hersh and

Jansen declare that:

Economic education is not confined to a single
grade or a single subject but permeates all levels
of the school system and many subject areas. It is
not confined to the textbook or the classroom.but
draws upon a variety of school activities and com-
munity resources.

It may be well, also, to reiterate Ruth Gavian's thesis

which is, in part:

Education for economic understanding starts in the
the lower grades. Like education for health, citizen—
ship, esthetic appreciation, and moral values, it is
a strand that should be woven into t 9 curriculum
from the first grade to the twelfth.

 

1Reichner, loc. cit. 2Lewis, loc. cit.

3Isaac Hersh and William Jansen, "Economic Literacg
for all Pupils," The Nation's Schools LXII: December, 195 ,
pp- hB-uS.

“Ruth W. Gavian, "Developing Economic Understanding,"
Ihe Instructor LXVII: March 1958, p. 6.

33
However, to Ruth Gavian's declaration might be added Margaret
Meade's broader concept of a "lateral" rather than "vertical"
organization of economic understanding:

Is it not possible that an educational system that
was designed to teach what was known to little children
and to a selected few young men may not fit a world
in which the most important factors in everyone's
life are those that are not yet, but soon will be
known?1 a ’

A significant new develOpment of importance to colleges

has been the establishment of the Teacher Education Committee
of the American Economic Foundation. According to its chair-

man, Dr. Roscoe L. West:

Its purpose is to examine the field of economic edu-
cation in the country's schools and colleges with par-
ticular emphasis on the teacher education institutions
and the public secondary schools. Its objectives are
to stimulate the inclusion of teaching of basic econo-
mic processes and procedures in the pre-service general
education of teachers, regardless of subject specialty,
in teacher workshops and institutes, in secondary and
elementary schools.

These purposes and objectives are supported by Donald K.
David, who lists the following as one of the national objec-
tives of the Business-Education Committee of the Committee
for Economic Development:
The economic content of undergraduate training for

business and public careers should be strengthened

so that at least half of our colle e students have

some college training in economics.

Lawrence Leamer summarizes the unique role of insti-

tutions of higher education in his appraisal of economic

 

1Margaret Mead from "A Redefinition of Education,"
National Education Association Journal, October 1959, p. 16.

2West, 100. cit. JDavid, 10c »1c.

' 3h
education on the college level in the following statement:

The colleges occupy a.particularly crucial position _
in any program.to educate youth for economic compe—
tence. To educate youth, it is necessary first to
educate the teachers of youth. To educate the teachers,
it is necessary first to educate the teachers of teach-
ers. The basic economic education of most teachers or
teachers of teachers (if they have any) is probably
secured in some collegiate course in principles and
possibly its sequels. To educate youth for economic
competence requirei that collegiate economics instruc-
tion be effective.

Whether it is fable or fiction that collegiate courses
in economics are dry, overly abstract, uninteresting, and un-
inviting, a number of new developments have been taking place
within the past few years which may bring about changes in
college programs. Many of these have stemmed from the stimu-
lus given by a number of organizations like the Joint Council
on Economic Educational and the American Economic Association's

Committee on Economic Education. Leamer reviews a few of
these in a section of the 1958 American Business Education
Yearbook.

Syracuse University is engaged in an experiment with
a non-directive problem approach to the teaching of economics
to education majors. The students assume responsibility for
problem areas, operating procedures, and evaluation.2

The University of Chicago has attempted to dispel
the fears of those who are loath to integrate economics

into social science courses for fear that economics would

lLawrence Leamer, "Economic Education in Colleges,"
in Educatinngouth for Economic Com etence The American
Business Education'Yiarbook I553, Vol. XV, (Somerset Press,
Somerville, New Jersey), p. 59.

 

2Leamer, op. cit., p. 145.

not receive its proportionate share of consideration. The
College of the University of Chicago has integrated econo-
mics with courses in history, social analysis, and social
problems.1

Oklahoma State University has used its course in eco-
nomics as a device for showing future teachers how to teach
effectively. It employs the use of films and filmstrips,
chalkboard and flannelboard, field trips and speakers, note-
books and scrapbooks, newspapers and magazines, picnics and
luncheons, and projects.2

The State University of Iowa has launched a program
of stimulating adult education efforts through the state,
of improving competence of high school teachers, of publish-
ing teaching materials, and of research. In addition, it
has been engaged in experiments to improve the teaching of
economics at the University itself.3

Adult Progpams
in Economic Education

 

 

Need for Adult Education Programs

_In his concluding statement describing the need for
economic education, Dr. Elvin S. Eyster, chairman of the
Department of Business Education and Office Training at
Indiana University, wrote the following for the American

Business Education Yearbook:

 

lIbid., pp. h7-u8.
21bid., p. 50.

‘3Ibid., p. uh.

36

To have the opportunity to learn about the American
business and labor system and to develop economic
understanding at the nontheoretical level is the
right of every American youth and adult. The future
not only of the free enterprise or competitive econo-
mic system but also of democracy depends at least in
in part upon raising the level of economic and business
understanding on the part of the general public. Atti-
tudes that are not compatible with the principles of
democracy and with the free enterprise system often
stem from a lack of knowledge and understanding of
democracy and of free enterprise.

Greater economic and business understanding on the
the part of the general public is of great concern to
to all American citizens. The need is boundless. The
responsiblity for meeting the need rests heavily on
educators and business managers; however, every Ameri-
can has a big stake in the fulfillment of the nation's
need for raisipg the level of economic and business
understanding.

It has been at this nontechnical and nontheoretical
level, which Eyster claims to be the right of youth and
adults, that so little has been done in adult education pro-
grams. Reporting to the Annual Conference of the Adult Edu-
cation Association of Michigan, its Economic Affairs Commit-
tee Spelled out the following basic philOSOphy:

We believe we must achieve a more adequate under-
standing on the part of many more persons of the
nature and workings of our monetary system in its
relationships to international and domestic commodity
prices, technological displacement, cyclical unemploy-
ment, wage rates, pretraining, volume of business,
volume of savings, and levels of interest rates.

Such widespread knowledge is essential for wise policy
decisions in a democracy where the Central Government
has come to dominate monetary policies. In this
setting, economic and political decisions complicate
and blur each other; and both are weakened by the

1Elvin S. Eyster, "The Need for Economic Education"
in Educating YOuth for EconomicACompetence. The American
Business Education Yearbook, 1958, Vol. XV, (Somerset Press,
Somerville, New Jersey), p. 18.

37

prevailing ignorance about this basic mechanism.in
our lives.

When he was chief administrator for the Economic
Cooperation Administration, Paul G. Hoffman deplored the
apparent inconsistency between his role in other countries
and the level of economic understanding at home. He declared:

I'm going to spend billions abroad to fight

communism, yet here at home people in business
and education are making decisions every day 2
that are not based on the way our system works.

Part of the problem of maintaining a high level of
economic understanding, apart from the fact that few adults
have acquired it as youth in school, is the fact that econo-
mic concepts are continually changing. Every decade brings
changes in the area of economics. Thomas D. Bailey, Super-
intendent of Public Instruction for the State of Florida,
describes part of this change:

Science is rapidly reshaping our entire lives.

Automation has created a new technology. Millions
of jobs in business and industry which for genera-
tions have remained essentially unchanged have
suddenly changed completely overnight.

It seems apparent from Bailey's assertion that econo-

mic education for adults is necessary. A plan for accomplishing

 

1Economic Affairs Committee, Adult Education Associa-
tion of Michigan A Report to the Annual Conference, Kellogg
Center, Michigan State University, East Lansing, May 13, 19 0.

2Paul G. Hoffman, quoted in "Teaching a City Economics,"
Business Week, (June 20, 1953), PP- 78'80-

3Thomas D. Bailey, The School Adminstrator's Responsi-
bility for Providin‘ an Ade uate Pro ram.ofIAdult Education,
a speec g ven at the annual meeting of the National Associ-
ation of‘Pfiblic School Adult Educators at Atlantic City, New
Jersey, February 11, 1960.

 

 

38
this is outlined by the Joint ANA—AAAA Committee on Improve-
ment of Public Understanding of Our Economic System in its
pamphlet spy Can the American People Be Given a Better Under-

standing of Our Economic System? The committee outlines

 

four recommendations for educating the American public on
how our economic system Operates, in order that Americans
might have sufficient knowledge of its basic principles to
enable them to judge issues, both present and future.

Recommendation 1. A complete, well—planned, and
permanent program in each plant and plant city.
This plant program to have as its objectives:

1. To correct the economic misinformation
and lack of information that exist in
the industrial worker's mind about
profits, production, dividends, etc.

2. To restore his pride in his job, his
feeling of importance or economic signi-
ficance, and his sense of belonging to
the group.

3. To give him a better appreciation of the
benefits our American economic system
brings him.

A. To give him a better understanding of the
fundamental principles on which our econo-
mic system operates.

Recommendation 2. To develOp a broad, general
product-type campaign on what the American economic
system has done for us and what it can do--if we
keep it.

This campaign, addressed to the general public,
would illustrate the strength of our ststem;
what it means to the individual American's
everyday life and to his future; and the great
benefits to be gained by c00peration between
management and labor.

It would use all the avenues of mass communica-
tion, including advertising, magazine and news-
paper editorial cooperation, radio programs,
posters, direct mail, motion pictures, and so on.

39

This method of approach would, we felt, give us
a dynamic campaign--one that promised something
for the future, not just defended the past.

It would counteract subversive propaganda.

And it would answer the collectivist arguments
that Capital and Labor must constantly be at war.

Recommendation 3. To build a nation-wide educational
campaign on how and why the American economic system is
able to do what it does--using advertisements, booklets,
motion pictures, radio and any other media of communi-
cation that fit our purpose.

Recommendation A. That some means be found to make
all three programs absolutely fair and unbiased --
programs that could be supported by labor unions as
well as by business, or by any other groups in the
country who could be interested.

It would seem that the survival of our system of
free enterprise, functioning in a democratic atmosphere,

depends upon a greater degree of economic understanding

among adults.

Existing Adult Education Programs

The study conducted by the curriculum committee of
The National Association of Public School Adult Educators,
in 1956, under the chairmanship of Lloyd Wolfe, revealed

a wide gamut of adult education offerings throughout the

 

1Joint A.N.A. - A.A.A.A. Committee on Improvement
of Public understanding of our Economic System,* How Can
The American People Be Given a Better Understandinggo
Our Economic System?" Monograph published in l9u9 by
the Joint COmmittee, 420 Lexington Avenue, New York,

New Yerk.

fiAssociation of National Advertisers and American
Association of Advertising Agencies.

no

country. These course titles may be summarized under several
broad headings as follows:
Characteristics and Principles
Basic Economics
Labor Economics
Principles of Economics
Problems of Democracy

Business Practices

 

Small Business Management
Business Economics
Banking
General Insurance
Management of Personal Affairs
Stretching Ybur Bread and Butter Dollar
Your Life Insurance Budget
Consumer Economics
Building Your Financial Future
Buying or Building a Home
Family Budgeting
Government Business
Social Security and You
Income Tax1
Michigan State University offers a program in basic
economics which its descriptive leaflet describes as:
Designed to meet the needs of people who find it

increasingly necessary and desirable to understand
better the nature and operation of the American

lWolfe, pro. cit.

41
economy . . . . It is designed for anyone interested in
economic questions. It is conducted so that anyone who
can read a newspaper can participate in the discussiors
and in participating, come to a better understanding.

The program is organized in two parts: Part I, Our
National Income, deals with the economy as a whole; Part II,
Some Understandings of the Way Our Economic Functions, is
concerned with production, income and comparative economics.
The following list of tepics comprise the ten-session course:

THE LEVEL OF NATIONAL INCOME

THE CURRENT ECONOMIC SITUATION

THE BANKING SYSTEM

GOVERNMENT AND THE NATIONAL INCOME

ECONOMIC GROWTH

PROFITS AND THE PRICE SYSTEM

WAGES

CAPITALISM, COMMUNISM AND SOCIALISM

INTERNATIONAL PROBLEMS

PROBLEMS AND REVIEWZV

University professors serve as discussion leaders for
the programs, which are available to the groups of adults
throughout the state.

The University ongochester conducts a televised pro-

gram in basic economics, which is aired every other Friday

over station WHAM-TV. The fifteen-minute program is backed

~—

1Michigan State University Basic Economics, a descrip-
tive leaflet published by the College of Business and Public
Service, Department of Economics, through Continuing Educa-
tion Service, East Lansing, Michigan.

 

elbid.

~—

h2
by industrial and educational leaders and is_an experiment
to determine whether the public will respond to this kind

of teaching. The format of the production usually involves
a‘regular program participant plus a guest expert on a parti-
cular topic. Issues are raised, and the viewing audience

is invited to phone in questions it wants the guest expert

1

to answer.

In its coordinated program Making the Most of Maturity,

 

the Industrial Relations Center of the University of Chicago
includes a section on "Financial Planning for Retirement."
The material was developed under the direction of Margery J.
Mack, Director of Retirement Studies for the Industrial
Relations Center. The following outline describes the session
on financial planning:

Importance of a Financial Plan

How to Start a Financial Plan

Common Stocks

Protecting Ybur Family

Developing an Investment Program2

The Fund for Adult Education's coordinated, or package,

program Economic Reasoning was developed by The Brookings

 

Institution and prepared under the direction of Dr. Marshall
Robinson. It consists of a book of readings in basic econo-
mics, notes for participants, a leader's guide, and a packet

of supplementary readings. The basic readings were written

 

1Hoffman, pro cit.

ZMargery J. Mack, et al, "Making the Most of Maturity,"
Program of the Industrial Relations Center, University of
Chicago.

 

A3
by Dr. Robinson, Professor Herbert C. Morton of the Ames Tuck
School, Dartmouth College, and Dr. James D. Calderwood of
the Claremont Graduate School.1 The program is designed for

adult education programs making use of lay discussion leaders.

Business and Industry Programs
Programs in economic education, sponsored by individ-
ual business and industrial organizations, have tended to be
for the development of their own employees. The objectives

of these seem to have been:

1. to develop in employees a better understanding
of how our free enterprise system works and the
role their company performs within the system;

'2. to improve employee relations;

3. to counteract erroneous impressions which
employees might have; to improve public
relations, and

h. to put into simple, specific terms ideas which
might be encountered elsewhere only in complex
and abstract form.

The Chairman of the Board of Republic Steel Corp-
oration, C. M. White, believes business and industry should
promote economic understanding among its employees because:

Conflict is stemming out of ignorance and misunder-
standing between management and unions; between industry
and the public; between industry and government. The
solution suggested is for each company to develop a
program to get the facts on pracgical economics to
its employees and to the public.

1From mimeographed announcement of materials available
from the Fund for Adult Education, White Plains, New York.

26. M. White, "Why Business Should 'Tell Its Story'
Better," U. S. News and World Report Vol. XXXXIII. (August 9,
1957) D ppo 91-97.

 

 

uh

Republic Steel Corporation has sponsored classes in

economic education for its employees in which it was felt

the level of economic understanding was raised significantly.
White indicates that the ability of the supervisory staff to
understand and interpret economic data increased an average
of forty per cent. He believes that "PeOple are hungry for
economic information . . . if it is presented in an interest-
ing and understandable form."l

Some indication of the scope of business and industry

participation in economic educational programs may be gathenmi
from the announcement of Morgan S. A. Reichner, Executive
Director of the American Economic Foundation, that approxi-
mately 1700 companies, with.hJD0,000 employees have made

use of the Foundation's film programs. He believes, however,
that greater impetus can be given to economic education than
has been true in the past. "We're making some headway, but
it can go much faster when the businessman realizes that the
means are at hand to do something about economic ignorance."2
Leamer shares Reichner's concern when he says,"It may be
later than we think in the race to make our economic citizen-
ship equal to the choices we must make."3

In addition to economic education courses for its own

 

1Ibid.

 

. 2Morgan S. A. Reichner, quoted by The Houston Chramblg
September 2, 1959. fi_—‘

3Lawrence Leamer, "Everyone Needs Economic Understand-
ings," National Education Association Journal, Vol. XXXXVII,

(December, 1558), ppJE§§~§6T

 

#5

employees, a number of business and industrial organisations
have attempted to acquaint teachers with the manner in which
a particular business operates within the framework of our
free enterprise system. One of these, Bakelite Company,
initiated a program in 1952, whereby teachers can learn first
hand how a large business enterprise operates. Ralph P.
Gallagher, Superintendent of Schools in Bound Rock, New Jersey,
appraised the program as follows:

. j. . it gave an industry a prolonged opportunity

"to show a group of school people what it takes to

make a dollar in the American free enterpise system,"
and to acquaint these teachers with the kinds of

people required in the industrial world. On the

other hand, it gave teachers a chance to learn (with

pay) the concrete meanings of many economii concepts
that are typically taught as abstractions.

 

Business and industrial organizations have also con-
tributed to the support of special groups whose objectives
are to promote economic education. This has involved company
officials serving on boards and cosmittees as well as the

company providing financial support.

Pro rams S onscred
Elspecial Gro_upg
American Economic Foundation.
The American Economic Foundation was incorporated in
1939 as a non-profit organization with its objectives centered

in research and education. Benjamin P. Thomas, Assistant

Professor of Business Education and Office Training of

n

1Ralph P. Gallagher, "An Industry--Public-Schcol
Exchange Program in Effective Economic Education." School
and Societ , Vol. Lxxvn: (May 9. 1953). pp. 295-98.. ""'

I46
Indiana University, ‘ appraises the progress of the foundation
in four stages: '

l. The discovery of the need for new, simplified,
economic vocabulary;

2. the development and testing of that vocabulary;

3. the preparation of a basic body of literature
' employing that vocabulary; and

1;. application of that literature to editorial
material, visual aids, and motion pictures for
use in free discussiop in factories, offices,
schools and colleges.

The foundation has published a series of films which
it has coordinated into a. program entitled How We Live In
America. These are made available to school and community
groups. The titles include: ”How We Got What We Have,"
"What We Have," "How To Lose What We Have," ”Let's Face
It" (Part I and Part II), ”Backfire,” "How to Keep What
We Have," "It's Your Decision" (Part I and Part II).

Thomas lists additional services which the foundation
performs. These include an editorial service for company
. periodicals, publication of folders for employee information
racks, publication of pamphlets on economic topics, consult-
ant service for company economic education programs, and

seminars for executive personnel.2

American Institute for Economic Research.

The "American Institute for Economic Research is

1Benjamin 1". Thomas "Nonacademic Economic Education
Programs" in Educatin Youth for Economic Com etence The
American Business Education YearSooE 1555, (Somerset Press,
Somerville, New Jersey). pg. 115.

are“. ‘

 

in

neither a political nor a commercial organization. It is
entirely independent and represents no fund or concentrated
source of wealth. No advertising of any nature is accepted

for publication of the American Institution for Economic

Research.”1

Information and advice on controversial subjects
can be really valuable only if they are from.sources
independent of all special interests, either commer-
cial or political. It is the high.aim of those
responsible for the organization of the American In-
stitute for Economic Research that the institute be
a dependable source of valuable knowledge on econo—
mic and financial subjects.

American Institute of Cooperation.

The institute is the educational arm of the farmer
cooperatives. It develops course materials for use in
h-H Clubs, Future Farmers of America, and other farm—
oriented youth groups. The institute provides an editorial
service to mass media in order to enlighten the public about
coopgratise marketing.3
American Federation of Labor and Conggess

EfflndustrialOrganisations, Department
3:»Education.

Thomas states the objectives of_the Department of

 

1William J. Matteson and E. C. Harwood, from Foreword
of Life Insurance and Annuities from the Buyer's Point of
View, Ifierican Institute for Economic Research, (Great Barr-
ington, Massachusetts, 1958), p. 2.

3E. C. Harwood, The Counterrevolution, American Insti-

tute for Economic Research, (Great Barrington, Massachusetts,
1956), p. 2.

3Thomas, loc. cit., pp. 119-120.

to
Education of the AFL-CIO as follows:

The Department encourages, assists, and supports edu-
cation programs through local unions, trade councils,
central labor unions, state federations of labor,
regional agencies, and national and international
unions. Working with the respective educational
committees and staffs of those organizations, it
provides organizational support, administrative
experience, staff assistance, speakers, resource
persons, publications, audio-visual aids and assists
in the coordination of resources.1

In his book AFL-CIO:. Labor United, Arthur J. Gold-
berg appraises the functions of the Department of Education
of the union as follows:

This committee has really a triple function: It
will act as a coordinating agency to assist affili-
ated international unions in developing their own
educational programs; it will promote the education
of members of affiliated unions as to the importance
and structure of the AFL-CIO itself; and will also

be the vehicle for expressing the federation's policy
with respect to general educational matters.2

Americans for the Compgtitive
Enterprise System, Incorporated.

The ACES provides programs of lectures, films,
field trips, seminars, and discussions for students, minis-
ters, teachers, and women's clubs in Philadelphia, Harris-
burg, Beading, Erie, and Lancaster, Pennsylvania.3
329 Brookings Institution.

The objectives of the Brookings Institution are quoted
by'Thomas as follows:

1. To study with scientific objectivity the

lipid.

2Arthur J. Goldberg, AFL-CIO: Labor Uhited, (HbGraw-
Hill Book Company, New York, 1956), p. 133-

3Thomas, loc. cit.,pp. 119-120.

to
expanding structure of government--federal, state

and local--and to promote efficiency and.economy
in public administration;

2. to collect facts concerning the working of econo-
tmic forces and to interpret and present these

facts in an unbiased way to the general public;
and

3. to provide a research training program.for advtnced
graduate students of economics and government.

The research program.of the institution is concen-
trated in the areas of the economic health of the nation,
maintenance of democratic government, and insurance of peace
and security.

To ensure the scientific objectivity to which the
institution is committed, its trustees have adapted the
following philosophy, which is stated in the foreword of
a number of reports of Brookings-supported research projects.

It is the function of the Trustees to make possible

the conduct of scientific research and publication,
under the most favorable conditions, and to safeguard
the independence of the rcsearc staff in the pursuit

of the results of such studies.

99mmittee for Economic Development.

The objectives of the Committee for Ebonomic DeveIOp-
ment were outlined by its president, Alfred C. Neal, in the

committee's 1959 annual report as follows:"

To foster, promote, conduct, encourage and finance
scientific research, education, training and public-
ation in the broad field of economics in order that
industry and commerce may be in a position to make
their full contribution to high and secure standards

lThomas, Ibid., pp. 120-121. ‘
2William R. Biggs, in Fbreword to A. D. B. Kaplan,

PIE Entegprise in a gggpetitive Siften, The Brookings
s a u on, as ng on, . . . p. 11. ‘

50

of living for people in all walks of life through
maximum employment and high productivity in our
domestic economy: to promote and carry out these
objects, purposes and principles in a free society
without regard to and independently of the special
interests of any group in the bpdy politic, either
political, social, or economic.

The committee functions through four operating com-
mittees: Research and Policy, Area Development, Business-

Education, and Information.

Reporting for the Research and Policy Committee, its
chairman, T. V. Houser, indicated that research in economic
problems is being conducted under the direction of twelve

economists and other social scientists from universities

and research institutions.2 ..

Jervis J. Babb, chairman of the Area Deve10pment
Committee, reported that his committee is concerned with
two basic areas of interest: the economic development of
regions and localities of the United States and the problems

of metropolitan areas. As he put it:

Many local areas have lost industry or have failed
to keep pace with the national rate of growth. Other
areas wonder whether their economic growth is adequate
for an expanding population og is sufficiently balanced
to avOid severe fluctuations.

The committee's methods are . . . "to commission objective

research, to develop statements of national policy, and

to support local pilot projects."u

1Alfred C. Neal, Annual Report 1959, Committee for
Egonomic Development, p. h.

2‘T. V. Houser, Annual Report 1952, Committee for
Economic Development, p. 5:**'

3Jervis J. Babb, Apnual Report 1959, Committee fgg
Eggnomic Development, p. 12.

thid.

51

Reporting for the Business-Education committee,
J. Cameron Thomson outlined the principal program respon-
sibilities as follows:

Promoting and encouraging among businessmen
and other leaders a wider understanding of
major regional, national, and international
economic policy issues.

Promoting a more effective working relation-
ship between business and academic leaders in
the analysis and discussion of these.issues.

Promoting improvement in the teaching of
economics in universities, colleges and
high schools.1 ‘

The Information Committee has as its primary respon-
sibility the pursuit of one of the objectives of the Commit-
tee for Economic Development, "To bring about increasing
public understanding of the importance of these objectives
and the ways in which they can be achieved."2

Council for Advancement of
SecondaryLEducation..

The council is primarily concerned with the develop-
ment of curriculum materials for use in secondary schools.

Its initial project was concerned with economic education.

Foundation for Economic
Education, Incorporated

The foundation provides literature, speakers, refer—

ence service for students, and coordination of summer fellow-

1,

ships for college professors.

1J. Cameron Thomson, Annual Report 1959, Committee
for Economic‘Development, p. l6.

2Gardner Cowles, Annual Report 1959, Committgg
for Economic Developmenpp p. 1.

3Thomas, pro. cit. “Ibid.

52

Institute of Life Insurance,
Educational Division.

The institute collects information about the industry

and makes it available to schools, adult education programs,

clubs, and libraries.1

Joint Council on Economic Education.

In an address at the Section Meeting on Economic Edu-
cation at the Annual Conference of the American Economic
Association, Ben W. Lewis spoke of the function of his

Committee on Economic Education:

The concern of this committee is with economics in
the schools and in adult education. It is to serve
as a focal point within the Association for the
interests of members who are professionally con-
cerned in this area; to point up, stimulate, and
encourage active, serious professional work in
economics at the school and adult level; and to
improve the status of this work within the field

of professional economics.

This concern with economics in the schools and in
adult education had led to the formation of the Joint Council
by G. Derwood Baker and other educators, businessmen, econo-
mists, labor leaders, farm.representatives, and government
officials. The council is financed by grants from.the Com-
It

mittee for Economic Development and the Ford Foundation.

is governed by a board made up of representatives of the

groups mentioned above.

.—_L

11bid.
2David M. Blank and George J. Stigler, from the

Foreword to The Demand and Su 1 of Scientific Personnelz
National Bureau of Economic Research, Incorporated, New

York, 1957, p. vii.

 

53
Appraising the future outlook for increased economic
understanding, Dr. Lewis indicates what he believes organi-
zations such as the Joint Council can accomplish:

Promising activities to improve the teaching of
economics in the schools are taking definite form,
gaining strength and spreading. In-service courses,
conferences and workshops for teachers eager to
better their own understanding of economics and to
improve their teaching in the schools are now in
operation widely over the country, both during the
school year and in the summers. Economic councils,
made up of teachers, administrators, and community
leaders representing a cross-section of economic
interests are springing up. Useful materials
designed to aid in the teaching of economic under-
standing rather than to dispense eternal economic
truths are being prepared. All of these activities
were begun, and are still being carried and driven
by educators and businessmen. Economists, at last,
are participating, but it would be an exaggeration
to picture us even at this late date as galloping
in strength to the field of action.1

National Association of Manufacturers,
Education—Department.

Commenting upon the development of educational
materials for use in schools and in adult education programs,
the Economic Principles Commission of the National Association
of Manufacturers expressed its philosophy regarding the degree
of objectivity which the commission attempted to achieve:

The purpose of this series of monographs is to
discuss the nature, Operation, achievement, criticism,
and major problems of the American enterprise system.
. . . the authors of the monographs had complete
liberty of thought and expression, without regard
to the past or present beliefs of the association

or its committees and officers.

1Lewis, pro. cit.

2The Economics Principles Commission, National

' t rers in Preface to The American
Association of Manufac u , (Mc Graw-Hill

Individual Enter rise S stem Vol. I.,
5005 Company, Incorporated, flew York, l9h6.)

Sh

The activities and services of the National Associa—
tion of Manufacturers are listed by Thomas as follows:

1. Provides speakers for high school and
college students.

2. Organizes and conducts conferences for educators
‘ and industrialists.

3. Sponsors exchange visits by businessmen and
teachers.

u. Encourages businessmen to employ teachers during
vacations, to their mutual advantage.

5. Provides a flannel board program for high
schools on how our business system Operates.

6. Makes available to schools a number of motion
pictures.

7. Provides career booklets for school guidance
departments.

8. Cooperates with adult education groups and
community organizations in developing programs

designed to bring spout a better understanding
of our way of life.

National Bureau of Economic Research

The object of the National Bureau of Economic Research
is to ascertain and to present to the public important econo-
mic facts and their interpretation in a scientifictuuiimpar-
tial manner. The Board of Directors is charged with the
responsibility of ensuring that the work of the National

' 2
Bureau is carried on in strict conformity with this object.

National Committee for Education
in Family Finance.

The committee is primarily concerned with the conduct

of summer workshops and a parallel program of inservice

1Thomas, pro. cit.
2Blank and Stigler, pro. cit.

55

training for teachers.
The Twentieth Century Fund.

The fund was established by the department store
leader Edward A. Filene. With an endowment valued currently
at over $10,000,000, the fund seeks to disseminate research
information on economic questions. Distribution is primarily

through the mass media.

CHAPTER III
METHOD
Establishing the Hypothesis‘

It is proposed that the hypothesis will be established
by using the teaching method which will be described here,
and by measuring the level of economic understanding before
application of the teaching method and again after the appli-

cation of the method.
Propgsed Plan of Teaching_Method
The Teaching Staff

Criteria for Selection and
Recruitment of TEachingpStaff

Before making the decision as to the selection and
recruitment of a teaching staff for the 35-38 classes it
was hoped would be launched, the planning committee for
the Basic Economics program had in mind many of the criteria
for effective leadership which were listed in the monograph
Training Group Leaders, compiled by the Adult Education
Association of the United States of America. The pamphlet

indicates that the functions of leadership should include:

. . . helping individuals to become a cooperative
group and helping the group:

1. to define its purposes.

56

S7

2. to interpret these purposes into practical goals,
3. to clarify the assignment Of responsibilities,
h. to guide the process Of planning,
5. to keep operations consistent with purpose
and goals,

6. to Open the potentialities of available resources,
7. to maintain action and change continously, and

8. to evaluate efforts and results.1

Realizing that economics is one of the difficult areas
to promote successfully in most adult education programs,
the committee was aware that dynamic and imaginative leader-
ship was essential to the success of the undertaking. Some
of the questions asked were: What kinds Of people are we
looking for, economists or lay persons? Can we find 35-38
economists possessing the leadership qualities needed, or
can we even find that many economists? Can lay persons
possessing the desirable leadership traits be trained both
in specialized leadership techniques and in economic princi-
ples? Will satisfactory results accrue? The Adult Education
Association monograph had a possible answer:

How can we ensure that the leaders . . . will
possess attitudes appropriate to their roles? One
solution is to select as leaders those persons who

already have the desired set of attitudes and orien-
tation.

 

1"Training Group Leaders," a Leadership Pamphlet #8.
iggit Education Association of the United States Of America,

21bid.

 

58

The committee concluded that its best course was to
select persons with good leadership traits and to train them
in specialized leadership skills and in basic economic con-
cepts. The soundness of this decision apparently is supported
by Morgan S. A. Reichner, Executive Director of the American
Economic Foundation, in describing to a group of Ohio teach-
ers the work the American Economic Foundation is attempting
to do:

We are trying to do in the field of eocnomics what

hygiene has done for medicine. The first step is
to impress the teachers, sell them on the need of
the program, and give them the understanding and
the words to do an effective job.
Inasmuch as the objective of the program was to bring about

basic economic understanding and not to train economists,

Reichner's analogy seemed appropriate.

Selection of Teaching_Staff

Because of the.long history of cooperation between
the Mott Program.and A C Spark Plug Division, General Motors
Corporation, the committee decided to enlist the aid of the
personnel department of A C Spark Plug in recruiting leaders
from the division staff. Criteria for selection were dis-
cussed, and a list of possible candidates was compiled by
the personnel department.

A letter from the director Of the Mott Program invited

the prospective leaders to a dinner and orientation. At

 

' 1Morgan S. A. Reichner, Address before workshop in
’Teaching for Economics Competence," at Columbus, Ohio.
Columbus Sunday Dispatch; October 11, 1959.

 

 

59

the meeting, the committee described the proposed program,
listed its objectives, outlined its importance to the commun-
ity and asked for the cooperation of the group in launching

the program.

Description of Teaching Staff

 

‘Most of the men selected were young, college-trained,
executives in middle management positions. The director of
the Mott Program observed that these were "young, ambitious
men, eager for community visibility, and with excellent
leadership potential."1

The following list of positions held by the members of
the'teaching staff will indicate the varied interest areas
represented and the level of their responsibilities:

Senior Engineer, Maintenance

Senior Works Standards Engineer

Works Standards Engineer

Foreman, Production

Senior Process Engineer, Manufacturing Development
Coordinator of Advertising and Promotions, Sales
Chief Manufacturing Development Engineer

General Foreman, Maintenance and Construction
Superintendent, Inspection

Senior Project Engineer, Automotive Engineering
Supervisor, Production Control

General Foreman, Inspection
Statistician-Analyst, Accounting

Supervisor, Methods Engineer

District Manager and Supervisor of Field Personnel, Sales
New Products Salesman

Work Standards Engineer

Assistant General Supervisor, Production Control
General Supervisor, Production Control

Director of Marketing Analysis, Sales

Cost Analyst, Work Standards

Engineering, Development and Manufacturing

Certain advantages accrued from selecting a teaching

 

1Interview with Frank J. Manley, Director of the Mott
Program of the Flint Board of Education.

60

staff from.one place of employment. One of the contributions
of A C Spark Plug Division was to release the men from company
responsibilities for part of the training sessions. Thus nego-
tiations were faciliated because only one organization needed
to be contacted. Communications were relatively simple to
administer, because all the members of teaching staff were at
one locality. For example, less time was needed to pass
visual aids from.one leader to another than would have been
required if the leaders had been scattered throughout the

city. Also, there probably was a greater degree of esprit de

 

corps among the group, because the program represented a
joint effort of their community adult education program and

their company.

Resource Persons

A great deal of effort was exerted to ensure the suc-
cess of the program. There was careful selection and use of
all the components of a good adult education experience:
teacher, text materials, audio—visual aids, teaching method,
and resource persons.

There were times during the eleven sessions when the
leader felt that employment of a resouce person would contri-
bute to the success of a particular meeting. Upon these

Occasions he contacted one of a number of individuals (bankers,

economists, farm agents) who had agreed in advance to serve

in that capacity when called upon.
These resource persons were used in a variety of ways.

Because each leader was different and each group was different,

61

the method of using the services of the resource person varied.
In most cases the session became a forum, where the guest lec-
tured and the participants asked questions following the pre-
sentation. Often, the guest sat in the group and answered
questions of a technical nature when these arose. In a few
groups, questions were raised in individual "buzz groups" and
directed to the guest when the total group re-assembled.
Scheduling of resource persons posed no particular
problem. When the same individual was called by more than
one leader for the same evening, he merely accepted the first
and refused any subsequent invitations. The leader in this

event merely called-another person on his list.

Basic Economies Materials

 

Selection of basic economics text materials was auto-
matic. The Industrial Relations Center of the University of
Chicago had developed a set of materials designed for use with
high school and adult groups. The planning committee was
familiar with these, inasmuch as two or three of the members
had previously been involved inrthe testing of these same
materials, before revision, in the high schools in Flint. In
addition, the Mott Program had had a cooperative relationship
with the Industrial RelatiOHSCenter for a number of years.
Use of the materials, audio-visual aids, and personnel for
training the leaders was a continuation of this cooperative
arrangement. Text material for the Fpackage" program con-

sisted of the following topics:—

 

A LOOK AT OUR ECONOMY

MANAGING YOUR INCOME

COMPETITIVE PRICES IN ACTION

PRODUCING FOR BETTER LIVING

CAPITAL-~KEY TO PROGRESS

YOUR WAGES

PROFITS-~SPARKPLUG OF THE ECONOMY

UNDERSTANDING MONEY AND BANKING

UPS AND DOWNS OF BUSINESS

SECURITY AND OPPORTUNITY

AMERICA AND THE WORLD Economl

A reading list of supplementary materials was prepared
for the use of the participants and was required reading for
the leaders. See Appendix:112 Copies of the materials on
the list were placed on reserve at the library at A C Spark
Plug Division for the convenience of the leaders. Partici-
pants made use of the public library resources.

Undoubtedly, text materials from a number of other
sources would also have served the purposes of the program
satisfactorily. An example of one of these is Economic
Reasoning, a coordinated program developed by the Fund for
Adult Education. It contains text materials, leader's guide,
and supplementary references. Another is the coordinated
filfil program developed by the American Economic Foundation.
It consists of nine films which are designed to provide back-

ground for group discussion. The titles include:

 

1"A Look at Our Economy“ Basic Economics, pamphlet

printed for The Industrial Relations Center, The University
hicago, Chicago, Illin01s.

 

 

 

63

How We Got What We Have

What We Have

How to Lose What We Have

Let's Face It (Part 1)

Let's Face It (Part II)

Backfire

How to Keep‘What We Have

It's Your Decision (Part 1)

It's Your Decision (Part II)
A set Of discussion leader's guides accompany the films.
The films have been purchased for use in approximate 6,000

school and adult programs, attesting to the popularity of

the series.

Visual Aids

 

The program relied quite heavily upon well-planned,
well-prepared, and well-executed visual aids. Because the
presentation of economic concepts might tend to be dull if
not accompanied by attention-getters and attention-holders,
many of the ideas were graphically illustrated on "flok cards"
to be displayed on flannel boards or on "cells" to be shown
on an overhead projector. Examination of the list of these
visuals revealed that each session called for employment of
3-11 "cells" and 8-29 "flok cards."

Extensive use was made of the various other items of
supplies and equipment to facilitate visual presentation of
verbal ideas. The following check list for the leader's use

will illustrate:

 

 

6h

Flannel board Chalk

Easel Tape

Blackboard Crayons--red and black
Blank chart pad Flok cards

Printed chart pad Name cards

Advance practice with these aids enabled the leader to
make a verbal presentation and illustrate simultaneously with
the visuals. During a more formal presentation, use was made
of the flok cards with the flannel board and/or the printed
chart pad with illustrations, diagrams, and figures. When
ideas were elicited from the group, or when a spontaneous
presentation was made by the leader, use was made of the
blackboard or the blank chart pad. Use of the latter enabled
preservation of the material for hanging on the wall, for
further discussion, or for writing up for use at subsequent
meetings.

' Because of the large number of classes, meeting in
all sections of the community, careful scheduling of the

visual aids became a necessity in order to av01d the cost

of supplying each group with its own set. Again, the fact

that the discussion leaders were in close proximity during

the working day facilitated scheduling and passing materials

from one to another.

Conference Leadership Method

Because of the cooperative arrangement between the

Mott Program.and the Industrial Relation3Center, University

of Chicago, the planning committee decided to use the cone

65

ference leadership training materials developed by the center

and to involve as trainers personnel from the staff of the

center.

A total of eight sessions (3:00-10:00 P.M.) were

devoted to lectures, demonstrations, and practice in the

leadership function. The following is a brief outline of

the material covered in this manner:

I.

II.

III.

IV.

VI.

VII.

Overview of the meetings

. Three kinds Of meetings

Jobs in a meeting

A way of thinking about leadership and groups
Half-truths about conference leadership

If people want to change

MUOUJ3>

Methods and techniques

A. The leader's presentation . . .

B. Improving your leadership in discu531on groups

C. Participation and democracy U a .

D. Encouraging participation and ut11121ng
contributions 0 . n

E. An introduction to audio~v1sual aids

Planning and conducting the meeting

A. Planning and conducting the meeting

B. Steps in a discussion meeting
C. Meetings: Before, during, and after

The advisory meeting

A. The advisory meeting a
B. The "helping“ relationship

Discussion worksheets

A. Meeting observations 3 . ,
B. Discussion leader's meeting outline guide

Questioning and listening
A. Questioning and listening techniques

B. Barriers and gateways to communication.
C. Questioning and listening check llSt

Group development

A. A good group atmosphere

66

B. Understanding what your members do
. The case of the hidden agenda

. Frustrations in conferences

. How to diagnose group problems

. How groups develop

'litliUO

VIII. Problem-solving methods

A. The case method

B. The rolewplaying technique in business
and industry

C. Reaching a decision

D. Brainstorming: Cure or curse?

IX. Group Problem-solving practice

A. Worksheet for sorting ideas

B. Meeting reactions

C. Preparing for brainstorming

D. Evaluating the brainstorming process

X. Evaluation

A. Questions for Observors

. End-of—meeting evaluation form

. Self—help questions for the leader

. Selected bibliography on discussion
leadership.

DOB!

At the conclusion of the conference leadership train-
ing course, there was time enough to introduce two of the
sessions in the basic economic series before summer vacation
schedules. These sessions were presented in the same manner
in which they were to be handled with the community groups.
(The remaining sessions were to be introduced in the fall.)

During the summer months, the leaders were to study

the basic economfim text materials, the conference leadership

notebook, and the supplementary text materials.

The likelihood that this method of instruction would

 

1"Discussion Leader's Notebook," Industrial Relations
Center, The University Of Chicago, 1958.

67

prove successful is indicated by William H. Burton in his
article Basic Principles In A Good Teachings-Learning

Situation:

The Overall purposes Of learning are relevant to
the social order within which they operate. We
believe in the democratic way of life with its
emphasis on (a) opportunity for the fullest develOp-
ment of the unique capacities of the individual,
and (b) a socially oriented group within which the
individual may realize his destiny. This means
that one goal of learning will be the development
of creativity, individual initiative and responsi-
bility, and leadership. The other will be the
development Of social skills and good human rela-
tions. The use Of experts and of experimentation
will be learned with the democratic social
process.

Population and Sample

Background

 

The adult education program in Flint had experi-
enced varying degrees Of success in courses in economic
education offered in past years. Some of the more success-
ful, in terms of degree of participation, maintenance Of
attendance, and post—program evaluation by participants,
were the following:

STRETCHING YOUR BREAD AND BUTTER DOLLAR

Discussions Of problems of budgeting, savings,
borrowing and home ownership.

FINANCIAL ASPECTS OF RETIREMENT

Designed for persons who would be retiring in
the near future and including investments,
Social Security, and wills and trusts.

 

lWilliam H. Burton, "Basic Principles In A Good
Teaching-Learning Situation, Phi Delta Kappan Vol. XXXIX,
NO. 6, March 195 .

 

68

SOCIAL SECURITY AND YOU

Lectures and discussions about retirement,
survivor, and disability benefits.

STOCK MARKET TECHNIQUES
A study Of the stock market, including how
securities are bought and sold, interpreting
financial statements and planning personal
investment programs.
Those which had not met with particular success, in terms
of the above criteria, included the following:
FAMILY FINANCE
A course in family budgeting.
YOUR MONEY AND YOUR LIFE
A coordinated basic economic program of the
Fund for Adult Education in which the Mott
Program participated experimentally.
Population

The planning committee hOped that the basic economics
program would involve adults from each of the 37 community
schools in the city of Flint. For the purposes of this study,
the population is presumed to be the adults living in Flint
and its environs.

To enroll adults in the classes, the cooperation of
the building principal and community activities director in
each of the public schools in the city was enlisted. The
director of the Mott Program described the proposed program
to the principals at a meeting of the administrative staff
and to the community activities directors at one of their

weekly seminars. The director followed this personal appeal

for cooperation with a letter (see Appendix 118) which out-

69

lined the program and suggested ways in which community parti-
cipation might be enlisted.

Letters of invitation (see Appendix 1J5» were sent
to prospective participants by the school principals. The
community activities directors followed up with personal calls.
An attempt was made to involve a representative group in each
community school area.

As a result of the efforts of the building principal
and the community activities director, 8&1 adults were
enrolled in 37 community schools. Registrations ranged from

a low of 11 to a high of 33.

Description of Test

The test used to measure economic understanding at
the beginning of course, and again at the conclusion,* was
deveIOped by the Industrial Relations Center of the Univer-
sity of Chicago. This instrument accompanied the basic
economics materials used in the experiment.1 The So true-
false statements attempt to test understanding in the eleven
areas represented in the series of topics.

An examination Of the test reveals that, although the
statements relate directly to the topics covered in the course,
there was apparently no attempt to give each Of the eleven

topics equal or near equal representation. Also, many of the

 

*The same instrument was used before and after, and,.
because of the many references which will be made to the
test, the terms Pre and Post will be used henceforth.

1See Appendix, pp. 115-17.

70

statements refer to more than one tOpic. For example, State-
ment hS states: "One of the reasons for increasing producti-
vity is that the average amount of capital equipment per
worker in our labor force is increasing." This statement
could relate to the topics Producing for Better Living,
Capital--Key to Progress, or, to a lesser degree, A Look At

Our Economy. Likewise, Statement 39 states: "When the price

 

of a product goes up, it is a signal for producers to increase
production." One could as logically associate this with
Competitive Prices in Action as with Producing for Better
Living. Certainly Statement 26, which states, "Inflation
usually hurts bondholders more than it does stockholders,"
could apply to Managing_Your Income, Capital--Key to Progress,
Profits-~Sparkplug Of the Economy, Understandipg Money and
Banking, The Ups and Downs of Business, and A Look at Our
Economy.

For the purposes of this study, a somewhat arbitrary
classification of statements under tOpics was made, with some
degree of multiple listing when more than one idea was

specifically implied.

TABLE 1

NUMBER OF STATEMENTS ON TEST RELATING
TO TOPICS IN BASIC ECONOMIC PROGRAM

TOpic Number of Statements
A Look at Our Economy
Managing Your Income

7
2
Competitive Prices in Action 9
Understanding Money and Banking 5

71

TABLE 1 -- Continued

 

Topic Number of Statements
Producing for Better Living 8
Capital--Key to Progress 7
Your Wages 6
Profits--Sparkplug of the Economy 7
Ups and Downs of Business 3
Security and Opportunity 3
America and the World Economy 3

In the table above, one statement was classified under three
different topics, and seven were assigned to two topics each.
Perhaps the representation of topics among the fifty
statements can be visualized more clearly by indicating the
percentage of statements relating to each topic. It should
be remembered that, because of the multiple listing in the
case of eight of the statements, the 50 will be treated as

though there were 60.

TABLE 2

PERCENTAGES OF STATEMENTS ON TEST
RELATING TO TOPICS
IN BASIC ECONOMICS PROGRAM

 

 

ZEEEE Percentage of
*Statements
A Look at Our Economy 11.67-
Managing Your Income 3.33
Competitive Prices in Action 15.00
Producing for Better Living 13.33

Capita1--Key to Progress 11.67

72

TABLE 2 -- Continued

 

 

Topic Percentage of
' ‘ Statements
Your Wages 10.00
Profits--Sparkplug of the Economy 11.67
Understanding Money and Banking 8.33
Ups and Downs of Business 5.00
Security and Opportunity 5.00
America and the World Economy 5.00

In several of the statements, knowledge of the special
vocabulary of the field of economics was necessary. The follow-
ing examples will illustrate: (The terms being discussed
here are underlined.)

Statement 1: Coins and dollar bills make up most

of the money we use in everyday

business.

Statement h7: Under present laws, banks cannot
create money.

Correct answers to the two statements depended upon the
definition of the term "money." It may be significant that
only 232 of 650, or 35.8%, of the participants answered
statement 1 correctly on the Pre test and 255 of u62, or
55.2%, answered correctly on the Post test. For statement

M7. performance was 101 of 650, or 15.6% Pre and 187 of A62,
or h0.5% Post. Thus, gains of l9.h and 2h.9 percentage points

were recorded as the apparent result of clarifying the term

money.

Statement 8: A person who stores things for others
is not engaged in a productiyg_activity.

73

Statement 29: Only those employees who work directly
on the manufacture of a product are
considered producers.

 

.In a city like Flint, Michigan, with its preponderance of
automotive plant employees, "production" tends to be defined
in its narrower terms. This may or may not account for the
fact that the Post scores were lower than the Pre in both
instances -- 352 of 650 (Sh.l%) down to 239 of h62 (51.8%)
for #8 and 560 of 650 (86.1%) down to 397 of h62 (85.9%)
for #29.

Statement 32: The worker's real wages are the

amount of money he takes home
after wage deductions.

 

Statement 33: The fixed costs of doing business
include such items as depreciation
and interest.

 

Statement 36: The point where supply and demand
curves meet is called the break-even
point.

 

Perhaps the terms "real wages," "fixed costs," and "supply
and demand curves" were included to identify the student
of business administration. Possibly a correct answer to

Statement 36 revealed the individual who remembered Alfred

Marshall,1 or one who was lucky.

Specific information was required for success in a

number of statements:

Statement 9: During 1958 approximately 70% of the
National Income was paid to employees
in the form of wages and salaries.

1"Value is determined as an equilibrium between these
series of 'demand prices' and 'supply priceS'- They may be
represented graphically by two 'curves', whose intersection
approximates the equilibrium point." Alfred Marshall, quoted
in Lewis H. Haney, History of Economic Thought. The MacMillan
company, New York, I9h9, pp. 6h2lh3.

 

 

7A

Statement 21: Although total production has increased
tremendously in the last 50 years, the
amount that has been produced per man
has roughly remained the same.

Statement 22: Corgorate profits before taxes in
195 were more than 15% of the National
Income.

Statement A0: The dollar today will buy only about
half what it would in 1939.

Most of the statements, however, were such that a
general understanding of how our economic system functions
should have yielded a relatively high score. Only a few
examples should suffice to illustrate:

Statement 3: The standard of living in the United

States has increased as industry has
used more machinery and capital

equipment.

Statement 16: The peOple hurt most by inflation are
those living on fixed incomes.

Statement 2A: Stockholders generally expect to
receive a greater percentage return
on their investment than bondholders.

Statement A2: If the quantity of an article supplied
is greater than the quantity that
people demand the price will tend to
rise.

Then, too, some of the statements might have been in-
cluded as what Louisiana Cajuns call "lagniappe," something
added gratuitously for good will. The following will illus-
trate:

Statement 6: If any company is to remain in business,

it must sell its product at a price

which will cover its costs and allow
a profit in the long run.

75

Statement 18: The purchasing power of one's wages
tends to decrease as the price level
increases.

Statement 25: Both the company and the individual
employee contribute to Social Security.

Areas of Possible Vulnerability
In the following chapter, appraisals of performances
on the test constitute a major portion of the analysis and
evaluation. It must be admitted from the outset that vulner-
ability exists in a number of areas.

Individuals in the groups were selected among the
leaders in each community. Criteria for selection
may be found in Appendix . Thus it is not
alleged that any degree of random selection exists.

The planning committee requested that the adminis-
tration of the test before and after he directed
toward the evaluation of the program as a whole and
not to evaluate individual performance. Therefore,
anonymity was preserved and only group performance
was recorded. For example, it is known that 12
persons in Group A, or 50%, knew the answer to
Statement 1. Individual performance, however, is
not known.

 

There is some possibility that those participants
with the greatest degree of interest and aptitude
completed the course and that the results may thus
be overstated. It is also possible that a number
of individuals, unsure of their abilities, elected
not to take the test. This fact would tend to
overstate the results.

76

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS

Analysis of Scores
By_Statements

 

Analysis of the participants' performance in both
the Pre and Post tests will be under two major headings:
by statements and by topics. Analysis of the test data by
statements will consist, in part, of computing the perform-
ance, program-wide, on each statement. Because fewer people
took the Post test than the Pre test, results will be
expressed both in numbers and percentages, with increases
or decreases expressed in percentage points. For example,
232 correct answers of a total of 650 were posted for
Statement 1 on the Pre test. 0n the Post test, 255 of a
total of A62 were recorded. Thus, 35.8% of the participants
had correct answers on the Pre test and 55.2% on the Post
test. The increase, or growth, was l9.A percentage points.

The following table summarizes the numbers and
percentages of correct responses, program-wide, on the

Pre and Post Tests.

77
TABLE 3

NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF CORRECT RESPONSES
ON PRE AND POST TESTS AND INCREASE
IN PERCENTAGE POINTS BY STATEMENTS

(650 Pre and A62 Post)

W

 

 

 

PRE POST INCREASE

Number Percentage .Number Percentage ~Percentage
Points
1. 232/650 35.8 255/A62 55.2 l9.A
2. 6oA/650 93.0 A33/u62 93.8 0.8
3. 61A/650 9A.S nus/862 96. 3 1.8
A. A56/650 70.1 391/A62 8A.7 1A.6
5. 388/650 59.7 361/A62 78.1 18.A
6. 631/650 97.1 A50/A62 97.A 0.3
7. 528/650 81.3 39S/A62 85.6 A.3
8. 352/650 5n.1 239/A62 51.8 - 2.3
9. SAS/650 83.8 376/A62 81.3 - 2.3
10. 596/650 91.7 A32/A62 93.A 1.7
11. 566/650 78.1 A27/u62 92.5 1u.u
12. 333/650 51.3 288/A62 62.A 11.1
13. 579/650 89.0 A26/A62 92.3 3.3
1A. 567/650 87.3 A29/A62 92.9 5.6
15. A72/650 72.6 376/A62 81.3 8.7
16. 560/650 86.2 AAZ/A62 95.6 9.A
17. ASA/650 69.8 37S/A62 81.1 11.3
18. 586/650 90.2 A21/A62 91.1 0.9
19. A77/650 73.A A19/A62 90.6 17.2
_39. A99/650 76.8 395/A62 85.A 8.6

 

78
TABLE 3 -- Continued

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

PRE POST INCREASE
Number Percentage Number Percentage *Percentage
Points
21. SAC/650 83.1 38A/A62 83.1 0.0
22. 233/650 35.9 180/A62 38.9 3.0
23. AAS/6SO 68.A A10/A62 88.7 20.3
2A. Shh/650 83.7 A05/A62 87.7 A.0
25. 590/650 90.8 A39/A62 95.1 A.3
26. 315/650 A8.A 267/862 57.8 9.h
27. 5A1/650 83.2 A21.A62 91.1 7.9
28. 58A/650 89.9 A08/A62 88.A - 1.5
29. 560/650 86.1 397/A62 85.9 - 0.2
30. 582/650 89.6 AAZ/A62 95.7 6.1
31. 396/650 60.9 328/A62 71.0 10.1
32. 350/650 53.8 257/862 55.7 1.9
33. 586/650 90.1 A2A/A62 91.8 1.7
3A. A77/650 7A.A A32/A62 93.5 1.91
35. 131/650 20.1 120/A62 25.9 5.8
36. 158/650 2u.3 107/862 23.2 - 1.1
37. 5A0/650 83.1 A16/A62 90.1 7.0
38. 535/650 82.3 39S/h62 85.6 3.3
39. 282/650 A3.A 315/A62 68.2 2n.8
A0. 579/650 89.1 A19/A62 90.8 1.7
A1. 528/650 81.2 A22/A62 91.3 10.1
A2. 553/650 85.1 A16/A62 90.1 5.0
A3. 528/650 81.2 395/A62 85.A A.2

 

79

TABLE 3 -- Continued

 

 

 

PRE POST INCREASE
Number Percentage Number Percentage Percentage
Points

AA. 588/650 90.A A18/A62 90.5 0.1
A5. 508/650 78.2 A22/A62 91.3 13.1
A6. A13/650 63.6 297/A62 6A.2 0.6
A7. 101/650 15.6 187/A62 A0.5 2A-9
A8. 512/650 78.8 379/A62 82.0 3.2
A9. 3OA/650 A6.8 22A/A62 A8.A 1.6
50. 363/650 55.9 311/A62 67.A 11.5

 

 

 

A comparison might be made between the Pre and Post

scores of the five statements upon which highest scores were

registered and of the five statements upon which the lowest

scores were recorded.

TABLE A

FIVE STATEMENTS RANKED IN ORDER,
FROM HIGHEST TO LOWEST SCORE,

PRE AND POST

'PRE POST

Table A shows these relationships.

 

 

State- Number Percent State- Number Percent
ment ment

Highest Five
# 6 631/650 97.1 I # 6 ASO/A62 97.A
# 3 61u/6So 98.5 # 3 uhS/héa 96.3
# 2 60A/650 93.0 #30 AA2/A62 95.7

 

 

80

TABLE A -- Continued

 

 

PRE POST
State- Number Percent State- Number Percent

ment ment

 

Highest Five - Continued
#10 596/650 91.7 #16 AA2/A62 95.7
#25 590/650 90.8 #25 A39/A62 95.1
Lowest Five
#A? 101/650 15.6 #36 107/A62 23.2
#35 131/650 20.1 #35 120/A62 25.9
#36 158/650 2n.3 #22 180/A62 38.9
# 1 232/650 35.8 #A? 187/A62 no.5
#22 233/650 35.9 #u9 22A/A62 A8.A

 

 

Among the five statements yielding the highest
scores, Pre and Post, three are on both lists, in the same

order, #6, #3, and #25. Numbers 2 and 10 on the Pre list

were replaced by #30 and #16 on the Post list.
When the five statements registering the lowest
scores, Pre and Post, are ranked from lowest to highest

scores, we see that #1 is replaced by #A9 and that the order

among the remaining form is rearranged.

We find a range in program-wide performance on the
Pre test from 15.6% of the participants making correct re-

sponses to 97.1%. On the Post test, the range is from

23.2% to 97.h%.

81

Examination of the increase from Pre to Post reveals
a range of from.a low of - 2.5 percentage points to a high

of 2A.9 percentage points.

Table 5 summarizes the range, in numbers and percent-

ages, of scores on the Pre and Post tests and the range of

increases, in percentage points.

TABLE 5

RANGE OF NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF CORRECT RESPONSES
ON PRE AND POST TESTS AND INCREASE IN PERCENTAGE
POINTS BY STATEMENT

 

 

Low High

 

Number Percent Number Percent

 

Pre 101/650 15.6 631/650 97 . 1
Post 107/A62 23.2 A50/A62 I 97.11
Increase - 2.5 2A.9

 

 

 

 

Anal sis of Scores
By Topics

As has been indicated, although there was no appar-
ent attempt to give each topic equal or near equal represen-
tation among the statements in the test, all of these related
directly or indirectly to one or more of the topics. The
following tables indicate the arbitrary assignment of the
statements to the eleven tOpics, along with Pre and Post

scores and the increase of Post over Pre, expressed in per-

- centage points.

82

TABLE 6

NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF CORRECT RESPONSES
ON PRE AND POST TEST AND INCREASES
IN PERCENTAGE POINTS

A LOOK AT OUR ECONOMY

 

Statement

PRE

Number

Per-
cent

POST

Number

Per-
cent

In-
crease

 

12.

35.

36.

37.

AS.

A government

goes bankrupt
when it spends
more than its

taxes.

If the economy
is to acquire
more capital
equipment, we
must consume
less than we
produce.

The point where
supply and de-
mand curves
meet is called
the break-even
point.

Specialization
of labor and
machines has
increased our
mutual depend-
ency.

One of the
reasons for in-
creasing pro-
duction is that
the average
amount of capi-
tal equipment
per worker in
our labor force
is increasing.

333/650

131/650

158/650

SAG/650

508/650

 

51.3

20.1

2A.3

83.1

78.2

 

288/A62

120/A62

107/A62

A16/A62

A22/A62

62.A

25.9

23.2

90.1

91.3

 

11.1

5.8

.101

7.0

13.1

 

83

TABLE 6 -- Continued

 

PRE POST
Per- Per- In-

Statement Number cent Number cent crease
50. Over any giveh

period of time,

the economy's

savings limit

the possible

increase in

plant and

equipment. 363/650 55.9 3ll/A62 67.A 11.5

Averages 3A9.A/650 53.8 280.0/A62 60.6 6.8

J

 

 

 

 

A number of observations might be made after an

analysis of the performance in this area. In responding to

Statement 12, did the A9.7% who missed it believe that
their government was either bankrupt or did not engage in
deficit spending? It has been indicated that the term
"break-even point" in Statement 36 might have presented a
problem to many individuals not familiar with the term
"point of equilibrium." It is interesting to note, however,
that after presentation of the concept of supply and demand
curves, by use of carefully prepared visual aids, fewer

people were right in the Post than in the Pre test.

8A

TABLE 7

NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF CORRECT RESPONSES
ON PRE AND POST TEST ANDthCREASES
IN PERCENTAGE POINTS

MANAGING YOUR INCOME

PRE POST

Per- Per- In-
Statement Number 7 cent Number cent crease

 

38. Most familymen
need more in-
surance at age
60 than they
do when they

0
:feage years 535/650 82.3 395/A62 85.6 3.3

A0. The dollar to-
day will buy
only about
half what it
would in 1939. 579/650 89.1 A19/h62 90.8 1.7

Averages ”557.0/650 85.7 A07.0/A62 88.2 2.5

 

 

 

 

It may be presumed that a larger number of percent-

age points of increase should have been registered in bath

these statements.

 

85

TABLE 8

NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF CORRECT RESPONSES
ON PRE AND POST TEST AND INCREASES
IN PERCENTAGE POINTS

COMPETITIVE PRICES IN ACTION

 

Statement

PRE
Per-
Number cent

POST

Number

Per-
cent

In-
crease

 

11.

20.

A price set in
a free market
will balance
the quantity
of a product
demanded by
consumers with
the quantity
supplied by
producers.

If any company
is to remainin
business, it
must sell its
product at a
price which
will cover its
costs and allow
a profit in the
long run.

The retail price
of beef steak
affects ' people's
demand for pork
chops.

Companies set
prices for mnfir
products and
the consumer
has no alter-
native other
than to buy
the article at
the established

 

price.

388/650 59.7

631/650 97.1

566/650 78.1

A99/650 76.8 .

 

361/h62

ASO/h62

A27/862

395/u62

78.1

97.h

92.5

85.A

 

18.A

0.3

1A.A

8.6

 

 

86

TABLE 8 -- Continued

 

 

Statement

PRE

Number

Per-
cent

POST

Number

Per-
cent

In-
crease

 

28.

36.

39.

Al.

A2.

The value of a
product depends
only on the
cost of produc-
ing it.

The point where
supply and de-
mand curves meet
is called the
break-even point.

When the price
of a product
goes up, it is
the signal for
producers to
increase pro-
duction.

An increase de-

mand for a
product has a
tendency to
raise its
price.

If the quantity
of an article
supplied is
greater than
the quantity
that people de»
mand, the price
will tend to
rise.

Averages

SBA/650

158/650

282/650

528/650

553/650
A65.A/650

 

89.9

2A.3

A3.h

81.2

85.1
70.6

 

A08/A62

107/A62

315/862

A22/A62

A16/A62
366.8/A62

-88.A

23.2

68.2

91.3

90.1
79.h

2A.8

10.1

5.0
8.8

 

 

87

Further evidence of the difficulty with the term
Sbreak-even point" is seen_when one compares the performance
in Statement 5 (Pre: 59.7, Post: 78.1, Increase: 18.A) with
that in Statement 36 (Pre: 2A.3, Post: 23.2, Decrease: 1.1).
Likewise, evidence that the concept of supply and demand was
both fairly well understood prior to having taken the course
and covered during the lesson is revealed in the results
of Statements 39, A1, and A2. Further, it appears that the
concept of substitutes impinging upon the supply-demand
curve was understood and re-enforced, as may be noted in

Statements 11 and 20.
TABLE 9

NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF CORRECT RESPONSES
ON PRE AND POST TEST AND INCREASES
IN PERCENTAGE POINTS

PRODUCING FOR BETTER LIVING

 

 

PRE POST
Per- Per- In-

Statement Number cent Number cent crease

L

 

A. Increases in
worker produc-
tivity due to
the.use of new
and more effi-
cient machines
has resulted in
unemployment

th 1
3:31. a one 156/650 70.1 391/A62 8A.? 1A.6

 

 

 

 

Statement

88
TABLE 9 --

 

Continued

 

-_-——‘_‘

 

PRE
Per-

Number cent

—.

POST

Number

Per-
cent

In-
crease

 

21.

29.

33.

390

A person who

stores things
for others is
not engage in
a productive

activity.

Although total
production has
increased tre-
mendously in the
last 50 years
the amount has
that has been
produced per
man has rough-
ly remained
the same.

Only those em-
ployees who work
directly on the
manufacture of

a product are
considered pro-
ducers.

The fixed costs
of doing busi-
ness include
such items as
depreciation
and interest.

When the price
of a product
goes up, it is
a signal for
producers to
increase pro-
duction.

352/650 su.1

5A0/650 83.1

560/650 86.1

586/650 90.1

282/650 A3.h

 

239/h62

38u/u62

397/u62

AZA/A62

315/862

 

51.8

83.1

85.9

91.8

68.2

 

0.0

1.7

2A.8

 

89

TABLE 9 -- Continued

 

 

Statement

PRE
Per-
Number cent

POST
Per-
Number cent

In-
crease

 

AS. One of the
reason for in-
creasing pro-
ductivity is
that the
average amount
of capital
equipment per
worker in our
labor force is
increasing.

A8. We get greater
output per
worker by in-
creasing the
number of
people employed.

Averages

 

508/650 78.2

512/650 78.8
A7A.5/650 73.0

 

A22/A62 91.3

379/A62 82.0
368.9/A62 79.9

 

13.1

3.2
609

 

The two statements in which decreases were register-

ed apparently indicate the tendency to define "production" in

its narrower concept.

It would seem reasonable to assume

that this misunderstanding should have been corrected during

the course and that positive growth would have been recorded.

90

TABLE 10

NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF CORRECT RESPONSES
ON PRE AND POST TESTS AND INCREASES

IN PERCENTAGE POINTS

CAPITAL-~KEY TO PROGRESS

 

 

Statement

PRE

Number

Per-
cent

POST
Per-
Number cent

In-
crease

 

2A.

27.

35.

MB.

The standard of
living in the
United States
has increased
as industry
has used more
machinery and
capital equip-
ment.

Stockholders
generally ex-
pect to receive
a greater per-
centage return
on their invest-
ment than bond-
holders.

High profits
generally attract
investments to
the companies
than can make
the most pro-
ductive use of
the new capital.

If the economy
is to acquire
more capital
equipment, we
must consume
less than we
‘produce.

Stockholders re-
ceive a fixed
share of inter-
est on their
shares of stock.

 

61A/650

Shh/650

581/650

131/650

528/650‘

9A.5

83.7

83.2

20.1

81.2

 

AA5/A62 96.3

A05/A62 87.7

A21/A62 91.1

120/A62 25.9

395/A62 85.h

 

1.8

7.9

5.8

 

91

TABLE 10 -- Continued

 

 

Statement

PRE
Per-

Number cent

POST
Per-

Number cent

In-
crease

 

AS. One of the rea-

50.

sons for in-
creasing pro-
ductivity is
that the aver-
age amount of
capital equip-
ment per workr
in our labor
force is in-
creasing.

Over any given
period of time,
the economy's
savings limit
the possible
increase in
plant and
equipment.

Averages

508/650 78.2

363/650 55.9
A61.3/650 71.0

 

 

A22/A62 91.3

3ll/A62 67.A
359.9/A62 77.9

 

13.1

11.5
6.9

 

connection with Statement 35.

Concern might be felt over the poor performance in

There seem to be far-reaching

implications in the fact that 80% of the participants failed

to recognize that as a nation we must consume less than we

produce in order to build up our capital resources, and that

75% still failed to recognize the fact after eleven weeks of

a basic economics course.

There may be room for Optimism,

however, in the high percentage of correct responses in

Statement 3.

92

CABLE,11
NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF CORRECT RESPONSES
ON PRE AND POST TESTS AND INCREASES
IN PERCENTAGE POINTS

YOUR WAGES

7L

 

PRE POST
Per- Per- In-
Statement Number cent Number cent crease

 

9. During 1958
approximately
70 per cent of
the National
Income was paid
to employees
in the form of
wages and sala-

ries. 5A5/650 83.8 376/A62 81.3 -2.5

10. Our increasesin
wages over the
last 50 years
have been possi-
ble only because
our profits and
other forms of
income have been

getting smaller. 596/650 91.7 A32/A62 93.A 1.7

people's service

has no effect no
their wage ratesl 567/650 87.3 A29/A62 92.9 5.6

15. The greater the
Job mobility be-
tween two areas,
the less differ—
ence there will

tend to be in
wage-rates. A72/650 72.6 376/A62 81.3 8.7

18. The purchasing
power of one's
wages tends to
decrease as the

i l 1 in-
gieiges?ve 586/650 90.2 A21/A62 91.1 0.9

1A. The demand for +

 

 

 

 

93

TABLE 11 -- Continued

 

 

 

PRE POST
Per- Per- In-
Statement Number cent Number cent crease
32. The worker's
real wages are
the amount of
money he takes
home after wage
deductions. 350/650 53.8 257/A62 55.7 1.9
Averages 519.3/650 79.9 381.8/A62 82.6 2.7

 

 

 

 

The relatively high Pre and Post scores posted in

the section on wages give credence to the thesis that peOple

learn most about those things in which they are interested.

The relatively low scores (for this topic) resulting from

Statement 32 apparently indicates a difficulty with the

term "real wages"

TABLE 12

NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF CORRECT RESPONSES
ON PRE AND POST TESTS AND INCREASES
IN PERCENTAGE POINTS

PROFITS--SPARKPLUG OF THE ECONOMY

which was not corrected during the course.

 

 

Statement

PRE

Number

Per-
cent

POST
Per-

Number cent

In-
crease

 

6.

If any com an
is to rema 11
business, itmust
sell its product

a a price which
Ow a

w 11 tcoger1
cost
rofit in the
ong run.

 

631/650

97.1

A50/A62 97.h

 

 

0.3

 

9A

TABLE 12 -- Continued

 

 

Statement

PRE

Number

Per
cent

POST

Number

Per-
cent

In-
crease

 

10.

13.

19.

22.

23.

27.

Our increases in
wages over the
last 50 years
have been possi-
ble only because
profits and other
forms of income
have been getting
smaller.

All profit is
paid out in divi-
dends to stock-
holders.

Profit can be re-
garded as a re-
ward for taking
business risks.

Corporate profits
before taxes in
1958 were more

than 15 percent
of the National
Income.

One of the func-
tions of profits
in our economy is
to reward people
for accepting
risks.

High profits gen-
erally attract
investments to
the companies

that can make theH

most productive
use of the new
capital

Averages

J

S96/6SO

579/650

A77/6SO

233/650

uu5/650

5A1/650
500.0/650

 

91.7

89.0

73.h

35.9

68.A

83.2
77.0

 

h32/A62

A26/A62

A19/A62

180/A62

AlO/A62

A21/A62
391.1/A62

93.A

92.3

90.6

38.9

88.7

9101
8A.?

 

107

3.3

17.2

3.0

20.3

7.9
7.7

 

of understanding in the area of profits.

95

Both the Pre and Post scores indicate a high level

Only Statement 22

prevented this topic being one in which the highest scores

were recorded.

TABLE 13

NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF CORRECT RESPONSES
ON PRE AND POST TESTS AND INCREASES
IN PERCENTAGE POINTS

UNDERSTANDING MONEY AND BANKING

 

 

Statement

Number

PRE

Per-
cent

POST

Number

Per-
cent

In-
crease

 

30.

31.

3A-

37.

Coins and dollar
bills make up
most of the money
we use in everya
day business.

Bank deposits
may be insured
up to $10,000 by
the Federal De-
posit Insurance
Corporation.

Raising bank re-
serve require-
ments encourages
them to loan
more monev.

The Federal Re-
serve System in-
directly has the
power to incream
and decrease the
supply of money
in the country.

Specialization of

labor andlnaflmmes
has increased our

mutual dependency

Averages

SAD/6

 

232/650

582/650

396/650

ABA/650

50

“6.8/650

35-8

89.6

60.9

 

255/A62

AhZ/A62

328/A62

A32/A62

A16/A62
37h-6/u62

55.2

95.7

71.0

93.5

90.1
81.1

 

l9.A

10.1

19.1

 

96

The greatest increase in percentage points (12.A)
between the Pre and Post tests was registered in the state-
ments related to money and banking. This was half again
the growth in the next greatest increase, 8.8 percentage

points in the case of competitive prices.

TABLE 1A
NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF CORRECT RESPONSES
0N PRE AND POST TESTS AND INCREASES
IN PERCENTAGE POINTS

THE UPS AND DOWNS OF BUSINESS

 

 

PRE POST
Per- Per- In-
Statement Number cent Number cent crease

 

7. During a period
of depression or
recession governr
ment income from
taxes usually de-
creases more than
government ex—

penses. 528/650 81.3 395/A62 85.6 A.3

16. The people most
hurt by infla-
tion are those

livin on fixed
incomgs. 560/650 86.2 AA2/A62 95.6 9.A

26. Inflation usually
hurts bondholders

more than it hurts
stockholders. 315/650 A8.A 267/A62 57.8 9.A

Averages 1467.8/650 76.3 368.0/A62 76.7 9.A

 

 

 

 

The fact that there was an identical increase in per-

centage points of Post over Pre would seem to indicate that

97

some growth took place in the understanding of the general
area of business cycles. Perhaps the distinctions between
the stocks and bonds were not sufficiently understood. How-
ever, the increase of 9.A percentage points is above the

median increase of all the topics.

TABLE 15
NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF CORRECT RESPONSES
ON PRE AND POST TESTS AND INCREASES
IN PERCENTAGE POINTS

SECURITY AND OPPORTUNITY

 

 

PRE POST
Per- Per- In-
Statement Number. cent Number cent crease

 

2. Social Security
laws provide
that every work-
er will receive

$150 a month
when he retires. 6OA/650 93.0 A33/A62 93.8 0.8

25. Both the company
and the indivi-
dual employee

contribute to
Social Security. 590/650 90.8 A39/A62 95.1 A.3

38. Most family men
need more insur-
ance at the age
of 60 than they

do when they are
30 years of age. 535/650 82.3 395/A52 85.6 3.3
Averages 576.3/650 88.7 A22.3/A62 91.5 2.8

 

 

 

 

The highest percentages of correct responses, both

in the Pre and the Post tests, were recorded in the state-

ments classified under Security and Opportunity.

98

TABLE 16

NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF CORRECT RESPONSES
ON PRE AND POST TESTS AND INCREASES
IN PERCENTAGE POINTS

AMERICA AND THE WORLD ECONOMY

 

PRE POST
Per- Per- In-
Statement Number cent Number cent crease

 

17. A tariff acts as
a form of'subsidy. ASA/650 69.8 37S/A62 81.1 11.3

AA. The United State;
does not need to
depend on importa

for its supply of
any product. 588/650 90.A A18/A62 90.5 0.1

A9. A subsidy aids
the consumers in
our economy by
fighting off
cheaper foreign

labor. 3OA/650 69.0 ash/A62 73.3 A.3
Averages AA8.7/650 76.A 339.0/A62 81.6 5.2

 

 

 

 

One might speculate on what the performance would

have been in Statement A9 had it been stated with greater

clarity.

99

TABLE 17

SUMMARY, BY TOPICS, OF NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF
CORRECT RESPONSES PRE AND POST AND INCREASES
IN PERCENTAGE POINTS

PRE POST Increases

 

Topic Per- Per- in Percent-
Number cent Number cent age Points

A Look At Our _
Economy 3A9.A/650 53.8 280.0/A62 60.6 6.8
Managing Your
Income 557.0/650 85.7 AO7.0/A62 88.2 2.5
Competitve
Prices in
Action A65.A/650 70.6 366.8/A62 79.A 8.8
Producing for
Better Living A7A.S/650 73.0 368.9/A62 79.9 6.9
Capital--Key
to Progress A6l.3/650 71.0 359.9/A62 77.9 6.9
Your Wages 519.3/650 79.9 381.8/A62 82.6 2.7
Profits--Spark
Plug of the
Economy 500.0/650 77.0 391.1/A62 8A.7 7.7
Understanding
Money And '
Banking AA6.8/650 68.7 37A.6/A62 81.1 12.A
The Ups and
Downs of
Business A67.8/650 67.3 368.0/A62 76.7 9.A
Security and
Opportunity 576.3/650 88.7 A22.3/A62 91.5 2.8
America and
the World
Economy AA8.7/650 76.A 339.0/A62 81.6 5.2

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

This study was concerned with the problems of deter-
mining whether the level of economic understanding among
adults could be raised significantly through use of selected
methods, materials, and other resources available in most
communities. These included the following;

1. Lay persons specially trained for the program

2. Resource persons

3. Basic economics materials

4. Carefully prepared visual aids

5. Conference leadership method

The subject of the study was the program in basic
economics conducted during the fall Of 1959 by the Mott
Program of the Flint Board of Education,in cooperation with
the Industrial Relations Center of the University of Chicago.
It consisted of eleven sessions of two hours each and was
Offered in 37 community schools in the city of Flint. A
total of 841 adults were enrolled in the program. Because
the participants enrolled in the course upon the invitation

Of the Mett Program, no registration fee was charged. The

100

101
following topics were covered during the eleven-week course:

A LOOK AT OUR ECONOMY

MANAGING YOUR INCOME

COMPETITIVE PRICES IN ACTION
PRODUCING FOR BETTER LIVING
CAPITAL-~KEY TO PROGRESS

YOUR WAGES

PROFITS-~SPARKPLUG OF THE ECONOMY
UNDERSTANDING MONEY AND BANKING
THE UPS AND DOWNS OF BUSINESS
SECURITY AND OPPORTUNITY

AMERICA AND THE WORLD ECONOMY]-
The participants in the program were invited by the

Mott Program through the building principal and community
activities director. They were selected on the basis of past
participation in the general program of the Community school;
prior enrollment in adult education classes offered at the
school; participation in one or more school organizations,
such as Home Room Mothers, Parent-Teacher Association, Men's
Club, and Boy Scouts; or a presumed interest in the area of
economics.

.A SO-statement true-false test was administered to the
participants at the first meeting of the class. This was not
idone in every group, because the leaders had been instructed
to omit the test if in their opinion it posed a threat or
might prove a source of irritation or embarrassment. The

same test was administered at the last class session and

 

1"A Look At Our Economy" Basic Economics, The Indus-

.trial Relations Center, The University of Chicago, Chicago,
Illinois. -

102

again, it vvas omitted at the discretion of the leader. The
result was that 30 school groups returned both a Pre and Post
test.

This chapter summarizes the methods employed in the
conduct of the course, as described in Chapter III, and the
resultant data as analyzed in Chapter IV. Conclusions are
drawn, and implications for the Mott Program of the Flint

Board of Education are suggested.

Summary of Methods EmElozed in
the conduct 0 t e curse

For the purposes of this study, an analysis was made

 

of the following elements of the program:

1. The recruitment of a teaching staff among
lay persons normally found in most commun-
ities;

2. The inservice training of the teaching
staff in conference leadership methods
and in basic economics;

3. The use of resource persons, visual aids,
and basic economics materials;

4. The recruitment of groups of adults to
participate in the program;

5. The use of tests administered to the
students before and after the program;
and

6. The provision for follow-up to enable
certain retention of gains.

The teaching staff, or discussion leaders, were re-
cruited among lay persons normally found in most communities.
Young men in various middle management positions at A C Spark

Plug Division, General Motors Corporation, were selected for

103

following reasons:

I. The past history of cooperation between
the Mott Program and A C Spark Plug.

2. The advantages accruing from the leaders'
physical proximity to one another, in
terms of facilitating communication,
scheduling materials, and securing sub-
stitutes when necessary.

3. The varied interest represented among
the leaders.

4. The interest on the part of the leaders
in serving their community.

5. The desire for community visibility on
the part of the leaders, which should
serve as an added incentive to excell-
ence of performance.

The discussion leaders were trained in conference
leadership and in basic economics. The training sessions
were conducted by staff personnel from the Industrial Rela-
tions Center of the University of Chicago, using materials
developed by the center for use in their programs in confer-
ence leadership and in basic economics.

Resource persons with more specialiazed information
were employed upon the occasion when the discussion leader
felt that such a person could make a contribution to the
success of a particular session. The resource persons were
utilized in a number of ways: some made short, formal pre-
sentations, followed by a question and answer period; others
sat in the group and answered questions of a technical nature
‘when they arose; and still others were interviewed by a panel

comprised of members of the group.

The basic text materials and visual aids employed in

10h

the program were developed by the Industrial Relations Center
of the University of Chicago. The text material was in pam-
phlet form, one for each of the eleven topics. These were
distributed to the members of the group at the end of each
session. They were given aftgr the discussion of the parti-
cular topic to encourage independent investigation on the
part of the students; to enable the group to draw its own
conclusions, based upon the knowledge and experiences of

the members; and to prevent a mere "parroting back" of the
information contained in the booklets. The visual aids con-
sisted of specially prepared flok cards to be affixed to a
flannel board, photographic cells to be used with an over-
head projector, printed chart pads, blank chart pads, and
chalk boards.

The plan for follow-up procedures to enable reten-
tion of gains took two directions. Provision was made for
extending the basic economics program, as conducted experi-
mentally, and involving additional adults. In subsequent
terms, l3 classes were offered, with 250 adults participat-
ing. In addition, attempts were made to develop further
the economic understanding the participants had gained in
the experimental program. Advanced classes were offered in
subsequent terms, with 104 persons participating in four
groups.

Those receiving certificates of completion were
initiated into the Flint Economics club, presented with

membership cards, and invited to participate in a number of

105

activities to be announced from time to time. The club was
organized for the purpose of holding the group together and
providing the participants with some sort of economic organi-
zation with which they could identify. Thus far two invest-
ment forums have been scheduled as economics club activities.
These involved speakers of national recognition and attracted
ZOO-250 persons each. One featured Leslie Fourton, head of
the Research Department of Hayden-Stone and Company, the
other, Thomas H. Lenagh, manager of the Research Service

Department of Goodbody and Company.

Summary of Test Results

 

Performance on the Pre and Post tests were analyzed
in this study from two aspects: according to statements
on the SO-statement true~false test and by topics.

An analysis of the numbers and percentages of correct
responses on Pre and Post tests, by statements, revealed
the following:

The range of correct responses on the Pre test

was from (101/650), or 15.6%, to (631/650) or
97.1%. The range of scores on the Post test
was from (lO7/h62), or 23.2%, to (MSG/h62),
or 97.h%

The increase in percentage points from Pre to
Post ranged from a low of minus 2.5% to 2h.9%.

The following table summarizes this information:

 

106

TABLE 18
RANGE OF NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF CORRECT RESPONSES

ON PRE.AND POST TESTS AND INCREASES
IN PERCENTAGE POINTS‘BY STATEMENTS

W

 

Low High
Number Percent Number Percent
Pre 101/650 15.6 631/650 97.1
Post 107/u62 23.2 hso/hea 97.1;
Increase - 2 - 2.5 2h.9

An analysis was made to show, by topics, the per-
centages of correct responses on Pre and Post tests. The

following are the results of this analysis:

The range of numbers and percentages of correct
responses on the Pre test was from a low of
(3h9.h/650) or 53.8%, to a high of (576.5/650),
or 88.7%. On the Post test the low as (280.0/h62),
or 60.6%, the high (339.0/h62), or 91.5%.

The increase of Post over Pre, eXpressed in percent-

age%points, was from a low of 2.5% to a high of
12.h .

 

107

TABLETI9

RANGE OF NUMBERS AND PERCENTAGES OF CORRECT RESPONSES
ON PRE AND POST TESTS AND INCREASES
IN PERCENTAGE POINTS BY TOPICS

 

 

 

Low High
Number Percent Number Percent
Pre 3A9.u/6so 53.8 576.3/650 88.7
Post 280.0/h62 60.6 422.3/u62 91.5
Increase 2.5 6.9
Recommendations

 

During the preparation of this-study, the author
has discovered evidence to support the contention that
the level of economic understanding among youth and adults
in this country is not high. It has been pointed out
that there is a paucity of Opportunity for youth and
adults to acquire understanding of economic principles. It
has been indicated, also, that even when Opportunities
exist, few youth and adults elect to avail themselves of
them. American youth have left school, or have been gradu-
ated, with little notion of how the American free enter-
prise system operates. As adults, this concept has had little

nourishment from organized instruction. The importance of

108
economic competence in a democracy has been discussed. The
fact that the level of economic understanding among adults
can be raised significantly through an adult education pro-
gram has been demonstrated. These observations have prompted
the author to make certain recommendations, if not to any
school system in the country, certainly to the Flint Board
of Education, whose responsibility it is to provide educa-
tional opportunities for youth and adults.

Recommendation 1. That economic education begin early,

 

in order that a sound base for lifelong learning may be
established. If it is possible to teach science in the early
elementary grades, on the level which can be understood by
children of that grade, then it can be presumed that certain
economic phases can be taught in the elementary grades,

also at a level of complexity appropriate for the particular
grade. To defer consideration of these economic principles
until students reach high school or college not only deprives
students of a step by step orientation to complex principles,
it eliminates many who never reach these levels.

Recommendation 2. That school curricula be revised

 

to afford economics a position consistent with its import-
ance to all of us. This should be accomplished through pre-
scription of courses in economics and through inclusion of
economic principles in other courses.

Recommendation 3. That, in view of the rate with which
our technology has been changing, economic education must be

made available to adults. It is the adult who makes decisions

109

based upon economic understanding, or the lack of it.

Recommendation 4. That every possible encouragement

 

be given to media other than those of the classroom Unfurflun~
develop economic understanding among adults.

Recommendation 5. That consideration be given to the

 

community school as the logical locus for the development
of economic understanding among adults. As McClusky says:

There exist in every neighborhood problems which
are best known to and can be best understood by
the people who live there. What is needed is some
mechanism by which these problems may be legiti-
mately brought to general visibility for examina-
tion, and some procedures by which the problems
thus revealed may be brought under some control,
if not resolved. The community school is the
logical center for such activities, and a neigh-
borhood council, with headquarters in the school
and served by a member of the school's staff, is
an effective mechanism of implementation.

Recommendation 6. That further study be made of

 

the methods and materials available for raising the level
of economic understanding among adults. These include:

The contributions made by radio, television,
newspapers, and magazines.

The impact of organizations whose objectives are
the economic education of youth and adults.

The use of text, audio-visual, and other mater-
ials in schools and adult education programs.

 

lHoward Y. McClusky, "Some Propositions in Support
of the Community School-~A Summary" The Journal of Educa-
tional Seeiology, Vol. XXIII, No. 4, pp. 181-82.

 

110

It is acknowledged that the experiment analyzed and
evaluated during the course of this study represents but a
small segment of the total problem of raising the level of
economic understanding among adults. Attention might be
directed to other programs in economic education for adults,
involving selection of different populations, employment of
different methods, and utilization of different materials.
Thus, a body of knowledge about this area could be developed

which could prove useful to the adult educator.

APPENDIX

111

3112

95:: dI/Iotf {Program of £55 9102f Board of «Education

923 EAST KEARSLEY STREET
FLINT 3. MICHIGAN

MYRTLE F. BLACK. PH. D. CEDAR 8-1631
DIRECTOR, ADULT EDUCATION EXTENSION 363-6

Mr. John Principal
Community School
Flint, Michigan

Dear Jack:

We have received lists from many principals who have contacted
leaders in their community relative to the Basic Economics and Leader-
ship Training Class in September. However, as there seem to be
questions by some, we would like to review the program as outlined at
the Administration Seminar last March. These details are as follows:

Forty young industrial executives have been given an
intensive training program in basic economics and
general leadership training under Dr. Robert Burns and
the University of Chicago staff.

These men are now ready to conduct a similar class for
30 leaders from each school community starting the
latter part of September.

There will be ten such classes, two hours each, weekly
on an evening suitable to the individual school schedule.

The classes will be given only to hand-picked community
leaders and school staff with no advance publicity.

We feel that, where possible, husbands and wives together should
be involved in this program, and, as a suggestion, they might be
selected on the following basis:

Parents of the five best-adjusted students in your school
Five key community couples who have evidenced leadership in

your various school programs
Five couples or ten individuals from your staff
The principal and community school director

The above are only suggestions for getting the thirty top leaders
who will give this program time and enthusiasm.

I'm sure you will agree that here is a project for Flint worthy
of all the support we can give it.

Very truly yours,

Frank J. Manley
FJM:Jt

113

glint afiuhlit firhnnls

gfi'lint, flirhigan

Mr. and Mrs. Joseph Doaks
1110 Elm Street
Flint, Michigan

Dear Mr. and Mrs. Dosks:

As you know, we have suggested to the Mott Foundation that you
be selected to participate in the new Economics-Leadership program
to be conducted at our school this fall. The program has been
developed by the University of Chicago for key leaders of a community.
Thirty persons from each school-community in the city have been
selected to take part in the lO-week program.

The classes, as you know, are to be conducted by a group of men
from Flint industry who have been trained for the purpose by the
University. The classes will examine, in a strictly objective manner,
economic and governmental matters regarding the workings of our city,
state and nation. The objective is to end up with a group of key
community leaders who are very well informed on the facts of these
matters.

The eleven topics which will be covered are:

The Ups and Downs of Business
America and the World Economy
Security and Opportunity

A Look at Our Economy
Managing Your Income
Competitive Prices in Action
Producing for Better Living
Capital--Key to Progress

Your Wages

Profits-Spark Plug of fine Economy
Understanding Money & Banking

HH
Hoomqoml-‘uror‘
00......

There will be 10 class periods of 2 hours each. The enclosed
slip indicates the time, place and hour of the meetings at our school.
I sincerely hope that we will be able to count on you as a member of
the class.

Incidentally, there has been no publicity on this, since it is
on a strictly invitational basis. You may be interested to know that
the same course of instruction offered to community leaders on the
University campus carries a tuition charge of three hundred dollars
per person. There will be no cost to you except your time, for which
we think you will be amply repaid by the personal benefit to you.

Sincerely,

llh

Basic Economics Program

 

ReadingLList

 

Session #1 - A LOOK AT OUR ECONOMY

Session #2 -

Session #3 -

Session #4 -

The Economic Organization, by F. H. Knight, Uni-
versity of Chicago, pp.—I-37.

 

Introduction to Economics, by J. V. Van Sickle
and B. A. Rogge, D. ven Nostrand Co., Inc.
Chapter 1. The Nature and Scope of Economics
Chapter 2. Features Common to all Economic
Systems

Readings in Economics, by Samuelson, Bishop and
Colemanffst ed.Wc Grew-Hill, 1952.

Free Private Enterprise, by S. Slichter,

pp. 2&35

MANAGING YOUR INCOME

Introduction to Economics, by J. V. Van Sickle
and B.IA. Rogge, D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc.
Chapter 37. American Social Security Program

COMPETITIVE PRICES IN ACTION

Introduction to Economics, by J. V. Van Sickle
and B. A. Rogge, D. Van NEstrand Co., Inc.
Chapter 3. The Private Enterprise System

The Economic Organization, by F. H. Knight,
Universitv of Chicago
Chapter 6. Markets amd Competition
Chapter-30. Government and Business
Chapter 18. Effective Competition

Readings in Economics, by Samuelson, Bishop
and’CoIeman
Roofs or Ceilings, by Friedman and Stigler,
pp. 161-169

Harvard Business Review, March-April, 1953

 

 

"Enterprise on the Prairies," by C. M. Williams

PRODUCING FOR BETTER LIVING

Introduction to Economics, by J. V. Van Sickle

 

and B.IA. Rogge
Chapter 4. Specialization
Chapter 5. Forms of Business Organization

The Economic Organization, F. H. Knight, pp. 14-22

115

Page 2 of Basic Economics Program Reading List

Session #5 -

Session #6 -

Session #7 -

Session #8 -

Session #9 -

CAPITAL--KEY TO PROGRESS

Readings in Economics, by Samuelson, Bishop and
Coleman

RaisinggVenture Capital, by Butlers and
Lintner, pp. 39149

Technological Change, Ideology, and Productivity,
by Y: Brozen

YOUR WAGES

Introduction to Economics, by J. V. Van Sickle
and’B. A.'Rogge

Chapter 15. Distribution: Wages, pp. 175-188
Readings in Economics,by Samuelson, Bishop and
Coleman

Monopolistic Wage Determination, by F. Machlup 3
pp. 2901297

PROFITS--SPARKPLUG OF THE ECONOMY

Introduction to Economics, by J. V. Van Sickle
and'B._A.‘Rogge

Chapter 12. Distribution: Profits and Rent,
pp. 130-149

Readings in Economics, by Samuelson, Bishop and
Coleman

Profits the Spark of the Enterprise System, by
B. RumI, pp. 305-310

Profits and Progress, by Y. Brozen

THE MEANING OF MONEY

Introduction to Economics, by J. V. Van Sickle
and'B. A. Rogge .
Chapter 21. Money and the Price Level,
pp. 251-265

Chapter 22. Banking Operations and the Price
Level, pp. 266-280

Readings in Economics, by Samuelson, Bishop and
CDIeman .

The Value of Money, by D. H. Robertson,

pp. 103-109

UPS AND DOWNS OF BUSINESS

Introduction to Economics, by J. V. Van Sickle and
B. A: Rogge
Chapter 21. Money and the Price Level,
pp. 251-265
Chapters 27,28, and 29. Business Fluctuations,
DD. 369-418

116

Page 3 of Basic Economics Program Reading List

The Economic Organization, F. H. Knight, pp. 14-22

Session #10 - SECURITY AND OPPORTUNITY

Introduction to
and B. A. Rogge
Chapter 36.

Chapter 37.

Economics, by J. V. Van Sickle

Social Security and Private
Enterprise, pp. 509— 525

American Social Security Program,
pp. 526- 542

Session # 11 - AMERICA AND THE WORLD ECONOMY

Introduction to Economics, by J. V. Van Sickle
and B. A. Rogge

Chapter 25.
Chapter 26.

Chapters 38,

International Trade and the Gold
Standard, pp. 325- 344

Revolt Against the Gold Standard,
pp. 345- 368

39, and 40. American Foreign
Economic Relations, pp. 543-596

Readings in Economics, by Samuelson, Bishop and

Coleman

Petition of the Candle Manufacturers-—1845,
F. Bastiat, pp. 3454348*

Petition of the Candle Manufacturers-~1951,
Congregat1onal Hearings, pp. 348- 350

Foreign Economic Aid: Means and Objectives, by

Milton Friedman

 

‘117

Listed below are fifty TRUE and FALSE items. lease register your answer by
blackening the column next to the appropriate number on the answer sheet. A
"TRUE" answer would indicate that generally speaking the item is true in the
majority of cases. There are no catch questions with subtle answers. It is

necessary that you answer every item. You would record a "TRUE" answer in
this manner T F

10.

ll.
l2.
13.
1A.

15.

 

IE1

Coins and dollar bills make up most of the money we use in every
day business.

Social Security laws provide that every worker will receive $150
a month when he retires.

The standard of living in the United States has increased as industry
has used more machinery and capital equipment.

Increases in worker productivity due to the use of new and more
efficient machines has resulted in unemployment over the long run.

A price set in a free market will balance the quantity of a product
demanded by consumers with the quantity supplied by producers.

If any company is to remain in business, it must sell its product
at a price which will cover its costs and allow a profit in the
long run.

During a period of depression or recession government income from
taxes usually decreases more than government expenses.

A person who stores things for others is not engaged in a productive
activity.

During 1958 approximately 70 per cent of the National Income was
paid to employees in the form of wages and salaries.

Our increases in wages over the last 50 years have been possible only
because profits and other forms of income have been getting smaller.

The retail price of beef steak affects people's demand for pork chops.
A government goes bankrupt when it spends more than it taxes.

All profit is paid out in dividends to stockholders.

The demand for people’s services has no effect on their wage rates.
The greater the job mobility between two areas, the less difference

there will tend to be in wage-rates.

TO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE

16.
17.
18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

2h.

25.

26.
27.

28.
29.

3o.

31.
32.

33-

31+.

1153

The people most hurt by inflation are those living on fixed incomes.

A tariff acts as a form of subsidy.

The purchasing power of one's wages tends to decrease as the price
level increases.

Profit can be regarded as a reward for taking business risks.

Companies set prices for their products and the consumer has no
alternative other than to buy the article at the established price.

Although total production has increased tremendously in the last

50 years the amount that has been produced per man has roughly renamed
the same.

Corporate profits before taxes in 1958 were more than 15 per cent of
the National Income.

One of the functions of profits in our economy is to reward people
for accepting risks.

Stockholders generally expect to receive a greater percentage return
on their investment than bondholders.

Both the company and the individual employee contribute to Social
Security.

Inflation usually hurts bondholders more than it hurts stockholders.

High profits generally attract investments to the companies than can
make the most productive use of the new capital.

The value of a product depends only on the cost of producing it.

Only those employees who work directly on the manufacture of a pro-
duct are considered producers.

Bank deposits may be insured up to $10,000 by the Federal Deposit
Insurance Corporation.

Raising bank reserve requirements encourages them to loan more money.

The worker's real wages are the amount of money he takes home after
wage deductions.

The fixed costs of doing business include such items as depreciation
and interest.

The Federal Reserve System indirectly has the power to increase and

decrease the supply of money in the country.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE

4

 

35-

36.

37-

38.

39.

2+0.
A1.

A2.

143.
an.

MS.

1+6.

A7.
1+8.

1+9.

50.

119

If the economy is to acquire more capital equipment, we must consume
less than we produce.

The point where supply and demand curves meet is called the break-
even point.

Specialization of labor and machines has increased our mutual depend-
ency.

Most family men need more insurance at age 60 than they do when they
are 30 years of age.

When the price of a product goes up, it is a signal for producers to 5
increase production.

The dollar today will buy only about half what it would in 1939.

An increase in the demand for a product has a tendency to raise its
price.

 

If the quantity of an article supplied is greater than the quantity
that people demand, the price will tend to rise.

Stockholders receive a fixed rate of interest on their shares of stock.

The United States does not need to depend on imports for its supply
of any product.

One of the reasons for increasing productivity is that the average .
amount of capital equipment per worker in Our labor force 15 increaSing.

Balancing the budget every year will insure a continued high level of
employment.

Under present laws, banks cannot create money.

We get greater output per worker by increasing the number of peOple

employed.

A subsidy aids the consumers in our economy by fighting off cheaper

foreign labor.

Over any given period of time, the economy's savings limit the possible

increase in plant and equipment.

120

B 181. IOGR A PHY

l. A.N.A.--A.A.A.A. Committee on improvement of Public
Understanding of Our Economic System. ”How Can
The American Pegpler Be Given a Better Under-
Standingfof Our Economic System?” Monograph
published in 1949* by the Joint Committee,
420 Lexington Avenue, New York, New York.

2. Babb, Jervis 3. Annual Report 1959,_Committee for
Econqmic Development.

3. Bailey, Thomas D. The School moministrator‘s Respon-
sibility for Providing An Adeqpate Program for
Adult Education. An Address before the National
Association of Public School Adult Educators,
Atlantic City, New Jersey, February 12, 1960.

4. Baker, G. Derwood. “Education for Economic Competence."
Bulletin of the National Association of Secondary-
School Principals, XXXVII, No. 202 (Aprih 1954).

5. Basic Economics, Michigan State University, a descrip-
tive leaflet published by the College of Business
Service, Department of Economics, through Contin-
uing Education Service, East Lansing, Michigan.

6. Biggs, William R. Foreword to A. D. H. Kaplan, Big
gnterprisegin a Competitive System. The Brookings
Institution, Washington, D. C., 1954.

7. Blank, David M. and Stigler, George 3.. Foreword to
The Demand and Supply or bcientitic Personngl-
National Bureau of Economic Research, Incorpor-
ated, New York, 1957.

8. Burton, William H. ”Basic Principles In a Good Teaching-
Learning Situation,“ Phi Delta Kappan, XXXIX, No. 6,
March, 1958.

121

9. Cowles, Gardner. Annual Report 19591 Committee for
Economic Development.

10. Crider,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

John H. ”The Khrushchev Challenge," America,

100, March 28, 1959.

11. David, Donald K. "Chairman's Report,” Annual Report
of the Cgmmittee for Economic Development, 1959.

12. Davis, Ralph C. Columbus Sunday_Di§patch, Columbus,
Ohio, October 11, 1959.

13. Discussion Leader's Notebook, Industrial Relations
Center, The University of Chicago, 1958.

I4. Egonomic Affairs Committee. Adult Education Association
of Michigan. A Report to the Annual Conference,
Kellogg Center, Michigan State University, East
Lansing, Michigan, May 13, 1960.

15.

The Economics Principles Commission, National Associ-
ation of Manufacturers, in Preface to The American

Individual Enterprise System. No Graw-Hill Book
Company,‘NewFYbrk,‘1946.

16. Eyster, Elvin S.

"The Need for Economic Education,” in
Educating Youth for Economic Competence.

The
American Business Education Yearbook, 19§§, XV.
Somerset Press, Sémerville, New Jersey.

17. Thelfund For Adult Education, mimeographed announcement.

White Plains, New York.

18. Gallagher, Ralph P. "An Industry--Public-School Ex-
change Program in Effective.Economic Education."
School and Society, LXXVII, May, 1953.

19. Gardner, John W.

The Servant of All Our Purposes.
Carnegie Corporation of New York, 1958.

Gavian, Ruth W. ”Developing Economic Understanding,”
The Instructor, March, 1958.

20.

21. Goldberg, Arthur J. APL-CIO: Labor United. McGraw-
hill Book Company, New York, 1956.
22.

Raney, Louis. Bistorykof Economic Thought, The MacMillan
Company, New York, 1949.

23.

Barley, Rilliam R. “Sight and Sound in Social Studies,”
Social Education XXI, No. 8, December, 1957.

.‘I

122

24. Harwood, E. C. The Counterrevolution, American Insti-
tute for Economic Research, Great Barrington, Massa-
chusetts, 1956.

25‘ Hoffman, Paul G. "Tending a City Economics,” Business
wgggg, June 20, 1953. "----

26. Hersch, Isaac and Jansen, William. “Economic Literacy
for all Pupils,“ The Nation‘s Schools, 62, December,

1958.

27. Houser, I. V. Annual Report 1959._Committcg_£2£_§gggga£g 3
Develogment. ;

28. Leamer, Laurence. ”Economic Education in Colleges,“ in
Educating Youth for Economic Competence. The American 5
Business Education Yearbook. 1958. Somerset Press, !
Somerville, New Jersey.

29. . ‘Everyone Needs Economic Understanding,” +
National Education Association Journal, Vol. XXXXVII,
December 1958.

30. Lee, Baldwin and Jones, Galen. ”Toward Economic Literacy,”
National Educatign Association Journal, April, 1957.

SI. Lewis, Ben W. Economic Understanding: Why and What. An
Address before the Section Meeting on Economic Educa-
ation, Annual Conference of the American Economic
Association, December 27, 1956.

32. Luke, Robert A. The Educational Issue Between the East
and West. An Address before adult education class,
Inquiry, U.S.S.R., Flint, Michigan, February, 1960.

33. McClusky, Reward Y. ”Some Propositions in Support of
the Community School-A Summary,” The Journal of
Educational Sociology, XXIII, No. 4.

34. Mack, Margery J. Making the Most of Maturity, Program
of the Industrial Relations Center, University of
Chicago.

35. Manley, Erank J. InterView with Frank. J. Manley,
DireCtor or the Mott Program’of the Flint Board
of Education.

36. Matteson, William J. and Harwood, E. C. Life Insurance

and Annuities from thg Buyer's Point of View,

American Institute for Economic Research, Great
Barrington, Massachusetts.

37.

38.

39.
40.

41.

3)

Mead, Margaret. "A Redefinition of Education," National
Education Association Journal, October, 1959.

Milione, Louis G. The Cleveland Pres§,_November 18, 1959.

Myers, Spencer W. The Economics_gf_gur Community, Board
of Education, Flint, Michigan, 1958.

Neal, Alfred C. Annual Report 19594ACommittge for_Econo-
mic Development.

Perry, Enos C. Remarks made at the Sixth Annual Conference
of the National Schools Committee of the American

Economic Foundation, Atlantic City, New Jersey,
February 17, 1959.

42. Porter, Sylvia F. ”Are We a Nation of Economic Illi-

43.

terates?‘I Speech delivered before the Economics
Club of Detroit, February 1, 1960. Vital Speeches
XXVI. NO. 12, April 1’ 19600

Ratchford, B. U. The Durham Morning_herald, Durham,
North Carolina, September 21, 1958.

 

 

 

44. Reichner, Morgan. An Address at Economic Workshop,
Kent State University, from the Akron Beacon
Journal, Akron, Ohio, July 23, 1959.
45. p__. The Houston Chronicle, September 2,
1959.
46.

47. Smith, qu Ellison Mo

 

fi_fi 4* Address before workshop in “Teaching
for Economics Competence,” at Columbus, Ohio.

Columbus Sunday Dispatch, October 11, 1959.

Fighting Fire with_Firg. An
Address before the Fifth Annual Conference of

the National Schools Committee of the American
Economic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio, March 31,
1958.

48. Schultz quotes Melby in Frank G. Schultz "House and

Buggy Economics,‘a School and Society, Vol 77,
N09 2008’ June 13’ 19530

49. Thomas, Benjamin F. “Nonacademic Economic Education
Programs“ in Educating Youth for Economic Compe-
tence, The American Business Education Yearbook,
1958, Somerset Press, Somerville, New Jersey.

SD. Thomson, J. Cameron Thomson. Annual_Report 1959,

Committee_fior Economic Develogment.

 

12m

51. Thomson, Proctor. .“Economic Education and Public
Policy” SchoolfReview 66, Summer, 1958.

52. Training Group Leagers, a Leadership Pamphlet No. 8,
Adult Education Association of the United States
of America, 1956.

53. West, Roscoe L. ”Economics in Teacher Education and
Secondary Schools.W Report of the Teacher Education
and National Schools Committees. American Economig
Foundation, New York, December, 1958.

54. o The Charleston Evening Post, January 26,
1959. —f* “

55. . .“Economics in Teacher Education and.
Secondary Schools,‘9 a Report of the Teacher Educa-
tion and National Schools Committees. American
Economic Foundation, New York, December, 1958.

 

56. Wolfe, Lloyd. Interview with Lloyd Wolfe, May 10, 1960.

57. White, C. M. ”Why Business Should 'Tell Its Story'
Better," U. 5. News and World Report, 43, August 9,

1957.

 

 

 

 

 

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