AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF TRAFFIC SAFETY FILMS, THE FACTORS INVOLVED IN DETERMINING DRIVER BEHAVIOR. AND THE PREDICTIVE EFFECTS OF A BEHAVIORAL CHANGE ANALYSIS Thesis for the Degree of Ed. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Hildreth Hoke McAshan 1960 This is to certify that the thesis entitled An Experimental Study of Traffic Safety Films, The Factors Involved in Determining Driver Behavior, and the Predictive Effects of A Behavioral Change Analysis presented by Hildreth Hoke McAshan has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for EdoD. degree in Educ. Adm. Majdr professor Date March 24, 1960 0-169 E LII! {NIK‘II U11 ire-“r.- I.’i'r AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF TRAFFIC SAFETY FILMS, THE FACTORS INVOLVED IN DETERMINING DRIVER BEHAVIOR, AND THE PREDICTIVE EFFECTS OF A BEHAVIORAL CHANGE ANALYSIS By Hildreth Hoke McAshan A THESIS Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION Department of Administrative and Educational Services 1960 Cw. a a. I / 1‘ ~ 'I I \, Iv 0) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to Dr. Loran C. Twyford, under whose supervision this research was initiated, to Dr. Irving R. Merrill, under whose super- vision all field work was carried out, and to Dr. Charles F. Schuller, under whose supervision this research was completed. He also desires to express his gratitude to many other faculty members of Michigan State University, particularly to Doctors Ernest O. Melby, Harold J. Dillon, and Duane L. Gibson for their assistance in setting up the experimental design, and advice in the treatment of the data. The writer is indebted to members of the Michigan State University Highway Traffic Safety Center for participation in various phases of the field work required in this study. Further gratitude is due Dr. John Krumboltz, Dr. Randolph Webster, Dr. James Page, Dr. Joseph Dzenowagis, Mr. Dick Bishop, and Mr. Glenn Schultz for their aid in securing sample subjects. To the young men and women who acted as subjects in the study, the writer wishes to extend his thanks for their invaluable cooperation. >I<***>I<*>‘.<***>I<********** ii Dedicated To My Wife, Jerry, and Children, B rian and Beth iii AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF TRAFFIC SAFETY FILMS); THE FACTORS INVOLVED IN DETERMINING DRIVER BEHAVIOR, AND THE PREDICTIVE EFFECTS OF A BEHAVIORAL CHANGE ANALYSIS BY Hildreth Hoke McAshan AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION Department of Administrative and Educational Services 1960 r / @dki%—TMA M ‘ / 5/ / L/ Approve / ABSTRACT It was the purpose of the study to make factual, attitudinal, and behavioral analyses of traffic safety films and to investigate the factors involved in determining driver behavior. The experiment was conducted at Michigan State University. Facilities and materials were generally provided by the Highway Traffic Safety Center and the Audio-Visual Center of Michigan State University in conjunction with a research grant from the Public Health Service Division of the United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. The subjects were one hundred sixty-five sophomore, junior, and senior students, sixty--five of whom were male and one hundred one famales. The selection of these people was by both the pur- posive and random assignment methods. The purposive selection was to insure heterogenity of the types of students selected, and the random assignment indicated into which of two control or two experimental groups each would be placed. The research design placed the sample population into two non- related film groups and two experimental film groups. Experimental Groups III and IV were shown a film on "Driving at Night. " At the same time Control Groups I and II viewed a non- related film entitled "The A. B. C. of Internal Combustion Engines. " Immediately following the showing of the above mentioned films, Control Group I and Experimental Group III were administered written tests concerning attitudes, achievement, and driving skills. Six weeks after the showing of the films, Control Group II and ‘ Experimental Group‘IV were given tests on attitudes, achievement, and driving skill to determine the retention effects of the experimental film. The experimental film was selected because of the following factors: (1) the frequency of use of the film in driver-training courses, (2) the educational level for which the film was best suited, (3) the subject matter content, (4) the quality of photography and sound effects, (5) the adaptability of the film to the objectives of this particular research, and (6) the important contributions which the film can make toward the goals of highway traffic safety. A behavioral analysis was deveIOped by projecting the film and making a record of all of the important commentary and visual events as individual statements of facts. These facts were analyzed in order to estimate the reaction of viewers of the film. Next, potential change components were obtained from personal interviews and street corner observations. ~ Each one of the behavioral change components was then analyzed to determine how learning, attitude, and behavior might change. The instrument was administered to ten judges who made predictions on the possible changes in learning, attitude, and driving performance which might result from viewing the film. The writer constructed and pre-tested instruments to measure achievement and attitude shift. A skill test was developed but pre- testing was deemed unnecessary since the test was designed to allow direct observation of driving behavior of each member of the sample. - Evaluation of results was accomplished by: the F test to determine if the variances of the two populations might be presumed equal; the t-test of significance to determine whether the results vi obtained were significant; and the Pearson r was employed in the analysis of the data for purposes of evaluating the behavioral analysis technique. The results of the statistical analyses reveal that experienced drivers do learn factual information from viewing traffic safety films, and this learning prevails both immediately after viewing the film and for a long period afterward. However, the learning of factual information does not necessarily coincide with a correSponding shift in attitudes or improvement of driving skill. The analysis also reveals that it is possible to predict the proportion of learning increase, but very difficult to predict shifts in attitude and driver performance which may be obtained from viewing a film. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER Page I. THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED . . . ..................... The Problem .................... ‘ Statement of the problem ............ Importance of the study ............. Assumptions .................. Testable hypotheses . . ............ Definitions of Terms Used ............ Driving attitude ....... . ......... Experienced drivers . . . . . ......... Learning . . . ......... . ....... Driving skill . . ....... . ........ U1U1U1U1U1rI>UJHHH H II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ........... 6. Literature on Traffic Safety ............ 6 Literature on Behavior . . ............ 8 Literature on Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Literature Concerning Attitudes and Learning and Their Acquisition Through Film Presentation . 12 III. POPULATION, MATERIALS'USED, AND EXPERIMENTAL. DESIGN . . . . . . . ...... 19 Population 0 O O O O O O O O O O C O ........ 19 Materials Used 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 20 Experimental Procedures and Design . . . . . . . 21 IV. - DATA GATHERING INSTRUMENTS . ...... . . . 7.5 Selection of the Film . . . . . . . . ....... 25 DevelOpment of the Behavioral Analysis Technique ................... 28' viii TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued CHAPTER Deve10pment of an Achievement Test . . . . . . . Deve10pment of an Attitude Test . . . . ...... Deve10pment. of a Driving Skill Test . ...... V. TEST RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF DATA . . . . . Results of the Tests for Immediate and Retention Learning . . . . . .............. . Results of the Tests for Immediate and Perman- ent Attitude Change . . .......... . . Results of the Tests for Immediate and Perman- ent Change in Driving Performance . . . . VI. RESULTS AND ANALYSES OF THE TESTS DESIGNED TO EVALUATE THE SUCCESS OF THE BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE. VII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . Summary . Conclusions ..... . . . . . ..... BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....... APPENDIX . . . . . . . ...... . . . . . ....... ix 42 42 44 50 56 76 76 80 82 85 TABLE III . IV. -VI. VII . VIII . IX. LIST OF TABLES Results othests, t-Tests, and Mean Scores. . . . . . The Results of the F Tests, t-Tests, Mean Scores, and Hypotheses DiSpositions for Attitude Shifts . . . . . . . Results of the F Tests, t-Tests, Mean Scores, Degrees of Freedom, and N for Change in Driving Performance. ' Coefficients of Linear Correlation for Immediate IncreaseinLearning................... . ~ Coefficients of Linear Correlation for Permanent Increase in Learning ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . Coefficients of Linear Correlation for Immediate Attitude SIIiftS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O 0 ‘ O Coefficients of Linear Correlation for Permanent Attitude Shift 0 o o o o 000000 o o o o o o o o o o 0 0 ' Coefficients of Linear Correlation for Immediate ‘ Change in DriVing Skill 0 o o o o o o o o ooooooo Coefficients of Linear Correlation for Permanent Change in‘Driving Skill. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ Coefficients of Linear Correlation and t-Values of Significance for All Components of the Behavioral AnalySi-S ..... O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O Page 44 51 55 59 62 65 68 71 73 75 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE Page 1. Experimental Design ...... . . . . . ........ 23 2. Behavior Analysis of the Film "Driving at Night. " . . . 35 CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITION OF TERMS USED Each year there are. about forty thousand deaths from automobile accidents and several hundred thousand people are seriously injured. If present trends continue, it may be expected that one person out of every one hundred and fifty in this country may be killed or injured in a motor vehicle accident within a period of one year. This traffic toll is greater than that of several of our most serious diseases. Among various efforts being made to attack this problem, several million dollars have been and are being Spent to produce educational films on traffic safety. However, there has as yet been no objective evidence that these films are improving driver behavior. I. THE PROBLEM Statement of the problem. The purpose of this study is to make factual, attitudinal, and behavioral analyses of traffic safety films. A secondary objective is to investigate the factors involved in deterrnin- ing driver behavior. Importance of the study. Traffic safety has frequently been stressed as one of the most important considerations for the educators of America and for society in general. Educationally Speaking, there are many needs such as: 10. The need to better plan and organize all instructional mate rials . . To develop improved techniques to shdw what change of learning, attitudes and behavioral skills can be accomplished through films . . To understand the impact of films and audio-visual services on drive r education. To deveIOp administrative procedures which will better evaluate factual information contained in films. To be able to improve programs of traffic safety and other instructional fields through better utilization of educational films . . To determine how much academic training should be given in the classroom and how much time and money should be Sphnt using laboratory techniques, such as driver trainers. To study other administrative and teaching. practices involving educational communication media in order to promote more effective types of educational programs, improve the methods of instruction, and advance the techniques of program supervision. . To add to the general understandings which involve the learn- ing, attitudes, and behavioral characteristics of peOple in relation to traffic safety. To determine the correlation between film facts and those presented by textbooks and other sources. To deveIOp improved and more objective methods of presenting-- qualitative data in quantitative form. 'De3pite recognition by various groups of these educational and - safety needs, and of the seriousness of our traffic problem, the accident rate has continued to increase each year. Over three hundred films have been produced on traffic safety. These films are being shown to a large number of viewers each month with little evidence that traffic safety is being improved. Film research studies have shown that the dramatic type of film most often produced actually may be very ineffective in changing a person's attitudes and habits. ‘ A careful analysis of the learning from the content of traffic films could have an important bearing on other safety training methods and could conceivably be applied to other fields of education. Such research could show which facts employed in films may be expected to have the greatest effect in changing human behavior . As sumptions . 1. Driving behavior is a function of immediate knowledge, long range knowledge, attitudes, chance situations, and other components directly affecting driving behavior. 2. It is possible to separate, isolate and analyze components of driving behavior. 3. Films are probably more effective for new drivers than for experienced drivers . 4. Some of the factors involved in driving behavior possibly cannot be changed. 5. Because of the relatively rough measuring devices we must use in determining behavior, we shall assume that behavioral change can occur only if there are significant results obtained in the measurement of the dominating purposes of each film. These purposes will be considered to be gain in knowledge, 6. shift in attitude, and improvement in driving skill. Change at the five percent level of significance will be considered adequate . A substantial part of driving behavior is determined by individual driving eXperiences received in everyday life, personal judgments, disagreement with certain laws, negli— gence, and chance factors. Te stable Hypothe s e s . I. There is no immediate difference in the learning of experienced drivers who have seen the film "Driving at Night, " and of eXperienced drivers who have not viewed this film. . There is no permanent difference in the learning of experienced drivers who have seen the film ”Driving at Night, " and of experienced drivers who have not viewed this film. . There is no immediate difference in the driving attitudes of experienced drivers who have seen the film "Driving at Night, " and of experienced drivers who have not viewed this film. . There is no permanent difference in the driving attitudes of experienced drivers who have seen the film "Driving at Night, " and of experienced drivers who have not viewed this film. . There is no immediate difference in the measurable change in driving skill of experienced drivers who have seen the film "Driving at Night, " and of experienced drivers who have not viewed thi 3 film . . There is no permanent difference in the measurable changein driving skill of experienced drivers who have seen the film - "Driving at Night, " and of experienced drivers whohave not viewed this film. 7. It is possible to predict, by the use of a behavioral analysis, the measurable change in knowledge, driving attitudes, and driving skills which will occur as a result of viewing the film "Driving at Night. " II. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED Driving attitude. Throughout the report of this investigation, the term ”driving attitude” shall be interpreted as meaning a mental state or diSposition toward driving a motor vehicle, and toward traffic safety in general, which tends to cause a person to perform certain driving behaviors. EXperienced driver. An "eXperienced drive r" shall be interpreted as meaning a licensed driver with a total driving time of over six months. Learning. In this eXperiment the term "learning" shall be interpreted as meaning the acquisition of new facts or knowledge which may enable an individual to improve his driving performance by making wiser, better informed decisions. Driving skill. In this experiment the term "driving skill" shall refer to the measurable behavior displayed by automobile drivers when performing a specific driving function. CHAPTER 11 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Little has been written with respect to the effect of an audio-visual experience upon the driving behavior of the viewers. Traditionally, we teach factual information in an attempt to increase knowledge, shape attitudes, and deve10p motor skills while anticipating that these will change behavior. A brief summary will be given here of the work done on those problems which appear to be very closely related to the problem at hand. This problem involves the analyses of traffic safety films in order to determine their effect upon experienced drivers. I. LITERATURE ON TRAFFIC SAFETY There have been few studies made previously on the general problem of the role played by knowledge and attitudes with respect to traffic safety. This deficiency in study also applies to the evaluation of traffic safety films to determine their effect upon an audience. However, some research has been done and certain important points of general interest to this writer's research will be given here. The National Research Council, in attempting to explain the causes of accidents, states that "human limitations, misjudgments or lapses are among the causes in from 75 to 90% of the highway traffic accidents. " (18, p. 22) These findings were based upon accident record data kept by public authorities. However, the report emphasizes that such accident records are often incomplete, and that the number of accidents for a given group of drivers is usually so small that pure chance may play a large part in their occurrence. (18, p. 22) The National Academy of Sciences and the National Research Council report that the human element involved in problems of traffic safety changes very little and presents the greatest challenge to scientists and other traffic authorities in general. In order to achieve the ultimate in highway safety, they report that "traffic authorities need to have a great knowledge of man. " (17, p. 0. 2) McFarland, Moore and Warren have made valuable contributions concerning human variables in driving. Among the variables investigated are the attitudes drivers hold toward driving and toward various social aspects of the total driving situation. They report that the driving behavior in particular situations ”often depends on the attitudes which have been developed over a period of time. " (16, p. 91) They further state that "practically nothing is known concerning the attitudes of drivers nor of the factors which play significant roles in their formation or modification. " (16, p. 91) The Center for Safety Education at New York University reports that psychologists are beginning to discover that there are habit patterns and consistent attitudes incorporated within drivers which are significant as causes of automobile accidents. (5, p. 139) This group is said to have faulty attitudes which may be either temporary (due to an iMediate problem) or permanent (arising from inherited weakness, faulty up- bringing or other sociological factors). The N. Y. U. research refers to these habit patterns and attitudes as the individual's personality traits. (5, p- 139) The N.- E. A. National Commission on Safety Education states that "analysis of the causes of motor vehicle accidents clearly indicates that human factors such as skill deficiencies, psych0physi‘cal disabilities, attitudes, and other personal limitations, account for the majority of accidents. ' Such analyses strongly suggest that in the area of accident research and prevention, paramount attention must be focused upon the personalcharacteristics of the driver. " (19, p. 115) The implication to be derived from this analysis is that we must study 'whole persons' rather than just 'drivers'. " (19, p. 116) Major factors which determine accidents are listed as the role of chance, temporary emotional stress, and inadequate sense of personal and social reSponsibility. According to this study, "most of the reasons why we behave as we do stem from experiences we have had in the course of our growing up and of which we are no longer aware. " (19, p. 128) Obviously, the problem is not just the psychology and sociology of human behavior in general. It is not the problem of driver educators and safety educators, but it is the problem of educators and society in general. (19, p. 130) The American Automobile Association says that "why the driver behaves as he does is a problem of driver psychology. " (l, p. -74) A few of the variables listed as components of good driver behavior are judgment, physical condition, attitudes, emotions, negligence, driver education and other factors. (1, pp. 15-87) 11. LITERATURE ON BEHAVIOR The ultimate end of any educational message is to stimulate its target audience in such a manner as to produce a change in behavior toward some desirable goal. In the case of traffic safety films, the behavioral change desired is increased skill or performance by all drivers. Much has been written in regard to defining and changing behavior in general. However, there seems to be a variety of Opinions with regard to the definition of behavior and how it may be altered. Certain findings pertinent to the present study and a general understand- ing of behavior are referred to in the following discussion. In a joint report Sponsored by The American Trucking Industry and the Pure Oil Company, it is stated that "driver behavior is largely determined (a), by his awareness of the traffic situation and (b), his attitudes and emotions. " (3,. p. 2) McFarland broadly states that "a man drives as he lives. " (15, p. 236) Brody suggests that driver behavior patterns are a product of certain personality factors peculiar to the individual. (4, p. 2) Hartshorne and May have done valuable work devising tests of behavioral and character traits. They succeeded in constructing tests which will measure certain phases of character. The behavior or traits evaluated were cheating, stealing, and other violations of trust. The correlations secured between moral knowledge as measured and actual deception were not high; however, Hartshorne and May (seem to have) uncovered usable measures of the components of behavior and human character. (6, pp. 179-189) One observation, published by the American Educational Research Association, concerning this study is that "knowledge and behavior do not seem to be closely related. " (2, p. 192) Definitions of behavior are plentiful. This leaves much of the interpretation of behavioral patterns up to the individual. Hull states that behavior is primarily response to a stimulus according to the conditions under which the stimulus occurred. (9, p. 6) Kaplan and Baron indicate that the maiinsprings of human behavior are determined by individual personality. Therefore behavior is the activity caused by the motivation of human personality. (10, p. 116) Kimble defines the behavior of living organisms as being any of the observable character- istics of the gross, modifiable actions of whole, intact individuals. I (11, p. 11) Neilson and others define the behavior of pe0p1e as the mode of conducting oneself. (20, p. 246) 10 More important and more difficult is the problem of attempting to measure various phases of behavior, and to determine the actual‘manner in which we may change existing, set patterns of behavior. ‘ Watson says that the way to change behavior is to change our personality. . (31, pp. 301-307) Marx devised a theory that unseen causal agents such as the mind, past eXperiences, instincts, and organic change make it impossible to predict behavior completely. He states further that initiating causes of behavior are immediate purposes, capacities of the individual to mediate these purposes and corrective behavior adjustments. (13, pp. 325-425) I Osgood writes that the ”more closely a training situation resembles that in which the training is to be used, the more effective will be the training. " (23, p. 351) The American Educational Research Association states that "human behavior is determined by a complex pattern of limiting and motivating factors. A change of one factor alters the whole configuration. " (2, p. 761) The Association also states that behavior is sometimes due to the immediate situation and temporary motivation. (2, p. 128) III. LITERATURE ON PERSONALITY This researcher considered it important to briefly mention certain findings concerning personality since this component of all human beings appears to be closely associated with behavior. Personality is a difficult term to define because of the multiple character- istics it seems to possess. It apparently has its roots in genetic factors determined before birth and grows during the entire life of each individual. Personality is interaction between genetic traits and the A total number of environmental factors which influence each of our lives. The end result is what distinguishes each individual from every other individual. 11 Watson, in attempting to define personality, implied that it con- sists of the sum of all observable activities of behavior which can be detected over a long enough time to give reliable information. He also says that the only way to change personality is to unlearn things we have already learned and then learn new things. (31, pp. 274-302) The American Educational Research Association states that personality is the result of interaction between genetic and environmental factors, and that this must be accounted for in any discussion of human behavior. This concept emphasizes the growth and behavior of the individual as a whole. (2, .pp. 806-815) Neilson, W. A. Knatt, and others define personality as an integrated group of emotional tendencies and behavior tendencies which include the totality of an individual's characteristics. This integration results in distinctiveness and individuality of personal character. (20, p. 1828) Kimble states that each adult human has a fairly permanent set of characteristics which distinguishes that individual from any other individual. These characteristics are organized and integrated by their interaction upon one another into unique combinations which may be called personality. - These factors are important to his behavior, and at the same time will determine how other people re Spond to him. (11, p. 358) Pressey and Robinson write that an individual's attitudes will partially depend upon his personality, and ”as the personality becomes integrated, attitudes tend to be more consistent. " (25, p. 268) 12 IV. LITERATURE CONCERNING ATTITUDES AND LEARNING AND THEIR ACQUISITION THROUGH _ FILM PRESENTATION One assumption stated in the first chapter of this study is that we Imay assume that behavioral change can occur (from viewing a film) if there is a significant gain in knowledge or shift in attitude. This as sump- tion required further inve stigation, by the researcher, on both attitudes and learning and of the effects which films may have upon either of them. There have been many studies made previously on these general com- ponents of behavior. Findings which were considered pertinent to the present study are referred to in the following discussions. Many attempts to define attitudes have been made during the past twenty years. Remmers, in attempting to define attitudes, considers them as an "emotionalized tendency, organized through experience, to react positively or negatively toward a psychological object. " (26, p. ~ 362) He further indicates that attitudes are a function of specific situations and that each person will behave differently as the situations are changed. (26, p. 359) Newcomb states that "an individual's attitude toward something is his prediSposition to perform, perceive, think and feel in relation to it. " (21, p. 118) He-also elaborates upon attitudes to the extent of stating that there are varying degrees of organization of attitudes, which are not independent causes of behavior, but are outgrowths of experiences through which we have gone. (21, p. 121) Two other interesting definitions of attitudes are advanced by Stouffer, who referred to an attitude as "a delimited totality of behavior, " (27, p. 49) interchangeable withopinion, and Young, who defined an attitude as a "mental organization which predi3poses an individual towards or away from-a verbal statement. ” (32, p. 242) 13 \ The U.- S. Army and the U.~ S. Navy have done valuable "work in determining how much attitude change will result from seeing a film. .These studies included measurement of the effects of entertainment films on both Specific and general attitudes, and the influence of films on opinions. » Some of these studies concerned the effect of films on attitudes toward Negroes, Chinese, Germans, criminals, crime, moral values, soil erosion, W. P.- A. , movie heroes and "books, " prohibition, . sex, escape from danger, militarism, war, U.~S. entry into war, democracy, nationalism, willingness to serve as a soldier, resentment against the enemy, and other subjects. (28, pp. 5-1, 5-18) The summary of these reports states that: “Few, if any, specific attitude changes will result when the film bias is strongly contradictory to the social norms. - In the case of contradictory influence, film bias may actually reinforce the existing attitude, rather than modify it. " (29, pp. 5-18) "There is, however, no direct evidence that motion pictures are reliably superior to other media of communication in their influence on general attitudes. Some evidence exists to the contrary. " (29, pp. 5-18) "A person soon forgets the ideas he has learned which are not consonant with his prediSpositions, but he retains without loss or even with an increment those ideas consonant with his prediSpositions. " (29, pp. 5-18) The American Educational Research Association states that studies indicate important social attitudes which form in early childhood tend to be firmly established, and mere presentations of information, are not likely to effect modification. (2,. p. 82) Pressey and Robinson have made valuable contributions in the determination of attitudes. Their study indicates that attitudes come 14 from the total condition of affairs dealing with a Specific subject. ' Children deve10p attitudes quickly from the attitudes of adults, and these‘attitudes tend to become more consistent as their personalities become integrated. (25, pp. 267-280) As a result, Pressey and ' Robinson state, "most important and most subtle Of all determinants of attitudes is culture-—the total complex of beliefs and values and * accepted points of view of a nation, class or community. ” (25, p.‘ 276) Newcomb approaches attitude change by suggesting that we may modify attitudes slightly by becoming more familiar with them. This is true, however, only if existing attitudes are not very intense, and if the new experience is predominantly favorable, or predominantly unfavorable, in relation to the Object of the attitude. He further says that influences in changing attitudes are more effective if they are vivid and involve first-hand eXperience. In summary he states that: Attitudes will be affected by external influences to the extent that previous attitudes are not strongly held, to the extent that such influence is not neutralized by contrary influences, and to the extent that the influences are vivid, first-hand ones. (21, p. 209) Hovland, Lumsdaine, and Sheffield contributed another study which was very pertinent to this research due to its implications concerning attitudes or Opinion formation. The film "The Battle of Britain" was selected for its possible effect on short and long time film effects. Four groups of soldiers (two experimental and two control) were given an Opinion questionnaire. One eXperimental and one control group was given a second questionnaire five days after the film presentation. A second eXperimental and control group received the after-questionnaire nine weeks after the film was shown. The findings report that Opinion changes showed an average increase with the passage of time. The . authors hypothesize that a person soon forgets the ideas he has learned which are not consonant with his prediSpositions, but may retain or 15 even increment ideas which are consonant with his predispositions. The delayed change of Opinion may be termed the "sleeper effect. " This sleeper effect assumes equal learning Of content with initial resistance to acceptance of the material presented. This resistance to acceptance diminishes with time while the content is forgotten more slowly. Thus, the elapsed time interval allows the individuals to think and talk about the communication message, and allows the peOple with agreeable prediSpositions to change in extent of favorable agreement with the communication. (29, pp. 182—200) There is an abundance of literature concerning learning. The definitions of learning range from the dictionary concept that learning is the acquisition of knowledge, to the psychologists' belief that learning is synonymous with behavior. Kimble says learning is primarily a permanent change in behavior which results from practice. He also indicates that learning may pro- duce widely different performances in peOple. Learning depends upon variables such as the amount of practice, interstimulus time, schedule of reinforcement, amount of reward, and the delay of the reward. Variables which are important to performance are motivation, the intensity of the conditioned stimulus and effortfulness Of the response. He further states that there are two kinds of learning. These consist of verbal learning and the acquisition of skill. Each individual is said to select from a wide array of possible reactions one apprOpriate to the particular situation. This is known as selective learning. (11, pp. 192-243) The American Educational Research Association says that "It is a persistent belief that the person who is best informed will also be the one to make the best decisions. ” (2, p. 128) l6 ‘ Relating learning to films, we find that Norbeck states that visual presentations may result in learning. ~ (22, no. 146-8) Hoban and - van-Ormer write that "in communicating facts and demonstrating con— cepts, films (or filmstrips) are about equivalent, and sometimes better than su’perior instruction. " (7, pp. 6-22) KOpstein and Roshal indicate that pictures are more effective than words as stimulus terms but less effective as re8ponse terms. (12,. p- 407) May and Lumsdaine write that there are intervening variables which are the basic determinants of learning. This may apply to films as follows: ‘- Antecedent Conditions Intervening Variables Changes in Behavior Film Variables / Gains in Knowledge :Utilization Variaé Motivation New Learning Activities Audience Variables : Motivated Improvements in Skill May and Lumsdaine measure the amount of learning from films by using certain dependent variables. These dependent variables are ones upon which learning always depends (in some part at least). The problem is to find measures of these variables among the complex manifolds of film, utilization, and audience variables. These dependent variables (basic determinants of learning) are illustrated above as "intervening variables" because they are set between the antecedent conditions on the one side and the consequent changes in pupils on the other. They are dependent variables to the antecedent conditions and independent variables to changes in behavior. Motivation may be viewed as one intervening variable upon which most types of learning at least partially depend. It is essential for the acquisition of knowledge or skill, and also for follow up activities after a film has been seen. i (14, p. 7) Probably the principal value of learning or a knowledge of facts (with reference to behavior) lies in the ability of the individual to apply, 17 or use, the facts. A number of studies have been completed which furnish data on various phases Of acquiring factual knowledge from motion pictures. The following discussions will refer to a few Of the pertinent findings from these studies. ~ Holoday and Stoddard attempted to measure both immediate and delayed gain in knowledge based on film experience. The study utilized seventeen films, approximately 3000 children in grades two through ten, and 200 graduate students and faculty members. The conclusions revealed that the general information of children and adults is increased considerably by information correctly shown in motion pictures; that information presented incorrectly by pictures may be accepted as valid unless the incongruity is quite apparent, and that the retention of the Specific incidents of motion pictures is high. (29, p. 3-2) Hovland, Lumsdaine, and Sheffield attempted to Show the effect of films on increasing factual knowledge of Army trainees concerning the background of the war, the Nazi strategy, and the events of the Battle of Britain. Measurements were made one week after the trainees had been shown one or more of the V_V_l_1_y “is F_‘_i_g_ht films. The analysis Of the results reveals that the Film Group exceeded the Control Group in learning by 14. 5 percent on the background of the war, 19. 2 percent on the Nazi strategy, and 22 percent on the events of the Battle Of Britain. (29, p. 3-3) Knowlton and Tilton conducted an experiment with seventh-grade pupils to determine if learning will take place by the use of silent films, and the kinds of facts and concepts that may be learned from Specific kinds of films. The results of this study "reported that the scores of the groups who received film instruction in addition to the regular instruction exceeded those of the groups that received the regular instruction only." (29, p. 3-4) 18 Rulon investigated the influence of films on "rote" and “eductive" learning by studying the effect of adding eight sound films to usual methods Of instruction. His tests Showed that ninth-grade pupils taught by text plus films excelled the text-only pupils by a larger margin on the eductive items than on the rote items. He also states that the tests reveal that performance on "eductive items can be pre- dicted more accurately from a knowledge of mental ability and previous achievement than can performance in terms of Rote Items. " (29, p. 36) Vernon conducted a study on the effectiveness Of motion pictures by themselves in aiding conceptual learning which comes from motion pictures and filmstrips. His work indicates that filmstrips, motion picture films, good instructors, and high intelligence are the most effective ingredients in instruction. He pointed out that the addition of the film to the usual instruction aided all groups tested. (29, p. 3-7) Gibson and others conducted a study which found that "aviation cadets learned and remembered more about the system of position firing from a training film than they did from either classroom teaching or study of a manual. " (29, p. 3-8) The Holaday and Stoddard, Hovland, Lumsdaine, and Sheffield, and Knowlton and Tilton studies were also tested for long-time retention of knowledge from films. Each of these studies reported that retention remained high over a long period of time, that the contribution of films is greater for immediate learning than in retention of material, and two of the studies indicated the presence of a sleeper effect in learning with the passage of time. (29, p. 3-9) CHAPTER III POPULATION, MATERIALS USED, AND EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN 1. POPULATION One of the general assumptions concerning this study is that inexperienced drivers would probably Show greater increase in knowledge, shift in attitude, and improvement in driver skill than will experienced drivers. However, the eXperiment was set up to evaluate the effects of the film upon experienced drivers, since this group appears to be the most likely target audience which could benefit from any film effects. The groups for the study we re drawn from a p0pulation of sophomore, junior, and senior students at Michigan State University. The selection of these peOple was by both the purposive and random assignment methods. The samples utilized consisted of approximately one hundred and sixty students from classes representing the departments of Education, Health, Physical Education, Audio-Visual, Police Administration, and Highway Traffic Safety. The purposive selection of these peOple was to insure heterogeneity of the types of students. In most instances the samples used consisted of volunteers from the classes selected. Each volunteer filled out an information and Signature card. The cards were then shuffled and dealt into four groups which indicated into which of two control or two experimental groups he, or she, was placed. 19 20 II . MATERIALS USED Due to the complexity of the problems undertaken in this study, the author was required to use a diversified assortment of materials and tests in the development of this research project. Among these are the following: 1. A research of pertinent related literature, street corner driver observations, depth interviews, and the previewing of many films were utilized in the deve10pment of a prediction device called a behavioral analysis technique. 2. An attitude scale was deve10ped, pre-tested, and administered to the sample population to determine shifts in attitude. The type of scale used is commonly referred to as a "Semantic Diffe rential" rating device . 3. An achievement test was deve10ped, pre-tested, and admin— istered to measure increase in knowledge which could be attributed to viewing the experimental film. 4. A driving skills test was developed and used to measure improvement in driving performance which could be brought about by viewing the experimental film. This test required the use of fifteen driver trainer cars, Michigan State ‘Universities' Driving Range, and twenty-five professional driving instructors. 5. The film "Driving at Night" was utilized as the experimental mechanism which differentiates between the two control and two experimental groups. 21 6. Other materials utilized were film projectors, screens, , various office supplies, tabulating and computer equipment, and miscellaneous physical facilities belonging to Michigan State ‘University. ' III.- EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES AND DESIGN In order to secure information on the effects of a traffic safety film upon its target audience, an instructional and demonstrational film,~ Driving at Night, was selected for the experiment. A matched grouptechnique was employed as the best method of determining what changes among the sample population could be attributed solely to the I effects of the experimental film. This technique was carefully prepared with a view to eliminate bias in its results and confusion in the interpretation. It was checked by six Michigan State University faculty members before being put in its final form. Tests and measures were developed to evaluate the audience reaction to knowledge, attitudes, and driving skills on both an im— -mediate and a retention basis. These tests were administered to the sample subjects in such a manner that no student was required to take any test more than one time. Thus, the debatable bias frequently levied upon "Before and After Tests" was eliminated. . The test of knowledge was coded to include the major infor- mational points in the film. These were divided into four categories termed (1) limitations of headlights, (Z) prOper use of headlights, (3) Special visibility hazards of night driving, and (4) problems involving fatigue. The semantic differential attitude scale was based upon - seven concepts thought to be the most significant contributions obtain- able from this film. These concepts were measured by the use of a seven point scale. The following is a list of the seven concepts as they 22 were deve10ped in the test of attitudes: ‘ a) Night Driving iSkill b) Headlight Limitations c) Night Driving Visibility (1) Night Driving Fatigue e) Pr0per Headlight Use f) Pedestrians g) Driving at Night A series of nine skill items were included in the test of driver performance. - These skill items which were carefully chosen as representative of what skills the film might be expected to improve were supplemented by three additional test items in an effort to measure . the p0pulations driving ability prior to the experiment. The supplementary items were (1) an‘X turn, (2) a ‘Y turn, and (3) a figure 8. The skill items chosen from the film were as follow: ~8. 9. . The switching off of inside lights before starting the car. . Headlights on the dim position when approaching an oncoming car. . Speed reduced within safe limits when rounding a curve. .- Special precaution or consideration of pedestrian safety. . A general reduction of speed due to the hazards of night driving . . The flickering of headlights when passing a car. . Slowing down and pulling to the right when approaching a one-eyed car. Parking lights used properly when parking beside thehighWay. The general concentration and caution shown by the driver. -A complete analysis of the data gathering instruments will be given in the following chapter. 23 .The experimental design may be viewed graphically by reference to Figure 1. EXPERIMENTAL DE SIGN Control Group Control Group Experimental Group Experimental Group I II III IV 58‘Drivers 28 Drivers 54 Drivers 26 Drivers 1. Show non- 1. Show non- 1. Show eXperi- 1. Show experi- related film related film mental film mental film Test Immediately Test six weeks Test Immediately Test six weeks later later 1.7Attitude 1. Attitude 1. Attitude 1. Attitude 2.”"Achiever'nent 2. Achievement Z. Achievement Z. Achievement 3.‘ Skills 3. Skills 3. Skills 3. Skills Figure 1. The method or procedure of administering this experimental design wasas follows: 1. Before the beginning of the experiment, this writer completed a behavioral analysis (exPlained in Chapter IV) of the film "Driving at Night. " This predictive instrument was then administered to five audio-visual and five traffic safety experts. At the completion of the experiment, the results obtained from the sample p0pulationwene compared with the predictions of each of the groups of experts. 2. The sample pOpulation was divided into two control and two experimental groups by random sample procedures. 3. Experimental Groups 111 and IV were shown a film on "Driving at Night. " At the same time Control Group I and 24 Control Group‘II were viewing a non-related film. entitled "The ABC of Internal Combustion Engines. " 4.1 Immediately following the sh‘owmg of the above mentioned films,. Control Group I and Experimental Group III were administered tests concerning attitudes, achievement, and driving skills . 5. Six weeks after the showing of the films,- Control Group II and Experimental Group .IV were given tests on attitudes, ' achievement and'drivin'g skills. 6. Analysis of the data was made following the testing of COntrol Group II and Experimental Group IV. - CHAPTER 1v DATA GATHERING INSTRUMENTS 1.- SELECTION or THE FILM The film "Driving at Night" was selected after thirty traffic safety films had been carefully previewed. Among the factors taken into con- sideration in the selection of the film were the following: (1) the frequency of use of the film in driver training courses, (2) the, edu- catiOnal level for which the film was best suited, (3) the subject matter content, (4) the quality of photography and sound effects, (5) the adapt- ability of the film to the objectives of this particular research, and i * (6) the important contributions which the film can make toward the goals i of highway traffic safety. I ’ Before the final selection was completed, a complete film-analysis Wasmade-to interpret the main-purposes of the film. This film analysis , is as follows:' - FILM ANALYSIS FOR "DRIVING AT NIGHT" ' Introduction _Daytime driving requires skill and concentration. However, night drivers need an extra measure of concentration, skill, caution, and ' courtesy in- order to drive safely and to decrease the highpercentage of accidents which occur after dark. 25 As sumption 26 Thereare correct solutions to the night driving hazards produced by poor visibility and fatigue. . I. Problems and Solutions to Poor Visibility A. Limitations and PrOper Use of Headlights 1. Limitations of headlights 1 (a) Problem: How to compensate for the short range of a 1 (b) Solution: 2 (a) Problem: 2 (b) Solution: car' 3 headlights ? Decrease your Speed at night so that you will not overdrive the headlights. How to compensate for the small angle of ‘ vision created by a car's headlights? Decrease your Speed at night so that you will have time to react to emergency situations. ~- 2. PrOper use of headlights l (a) Problem: 1 (b) Solution: 2 (a) Problem: 2 (b) Solution: 3 (a) Problem: 3 (b) Solution: 4 (a) Problem: 4 (b) Solution: 5 (a) Problem: 5 (b) Solution: How to be sure that maximum brightness is obtained from the headlights? Be sure the headlights lenses are clean at all times. ' What is the pr0per use of the lights when parking at night on a highway? Switch off headlights and turn on parking lights. At what time should the headlights be turned on? One-half hour before dark or whenever there is a need for them. When should the headlights be switched to, the dim position? Whenever approaching an oncoming car or when following close behind a car. What use Should be made of the headlights when passing another car? Signal the driver in the other car of your intention to pass by flickering your headlights- 27 B. Special Visibility Hazards of Night Driving 1 (a) Problem: 1 (b) Solution: 2 (a) Problem: 2 (b) Solution: 3' (a) Problem: 3 (b) Solution: 4 (a) Problem: 4 (b) Solution: What action should be taken when a driver is approaching a car which has only one head- light? Slow down and pull to the right. What action should be taken when a driver is approaching an oncoming car whose headlights are still in the bright position? Slow down and look at the right edge of the road. How may a night driver be st eliminate the hazard of seeing pedestrians at night? Be alert and slow down inorder to drive within the range of the headlights. What is the use of inside lighting when driving at night? \Never light cigarettes or turn on inside lights while the car is in motion. .11. Problemgs and Solutions Involving Fatigue l (a) Problem: What should a driver do in order to combat l (b) Solution: lack of vigilance, loss of judgment concerning Speed and distance, and slower reaction time caused by fatigue? Night drivers should deve10p their Skill, concentration, and alertness. When fatigue sets in they Should pull off of the road, get out of the car to relax, take a nap, or let someone else drive before continuing on their journey. The writer felt fortunate in being able to secure the reaction of Jervis B. ~McMechan, the director-producer of the film, to this film analysis. ' Among his comments was the following statement: "I believe it is. an excellent analysis and summarizes the content of the film most precisely. " 2.8 II. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS TECHNIQUE Twoiof the first activities carried out by the writer, during the planning stages of this study, were the securing of personal interviews of one hour's duration and the direct observation of driver behavior throughvstreet corner observations. The findings derived from these activities indicated that there are various factors which contribute toward driving behavior. Therefore, these factors must be influenced or-changed if a person's driving behavior is to be improved. The development of the behavioral analysis technique takes these factors into account and suggests a new method for evaluating the effect of an audio-visual message upon the behavior of the viewers. A behavioral analysis technique was used which was restricted to'a few behavioral components that may be presented. ina single-film. .When we consider all behavioral components involved in a good traffic behavior, we find that the number of components is too great to be tackled in any definitive manner. Once a film has been selected that appears to'present desirablebehavior to be acquired, it is then necessary tolist every film component. This can be done bymaking a record of the commentary and visual events in the film as individual statements of fact. It is usually necessary to convert compound. sentences into the Simple sentences making up the complex idea. The test- of completion of this stage is that everyitem that the film can be expected to teach, or might possibly teach, is included in the listing. Thismay be accomplished by projecting the film as few as three or four times. , Certain components which are listed may be stated in a . form which «makes it difficult to interpret the meaning. ' It is necessary to=make a Slight conversion such as removing names and filling in references toprevious parts of the film. -It is very important to convert 29 the facts to basic facts without alteration in meaning or general intent. This may require a rewording of the fact. Where visual information has been-presented in such a way as to‘produce an impact on the individual, this needs to be stated as a fact also. ' When all facts have been listed, they can be analyzed. j As an aid to doing this, the facts should be categorized. The four-categories of facts showniin~ Figure 2 are background, unimportant, learnable, and behavioral. The first two are incidental to the films main message and can be listed and then ignored. This includes background facts which are those which give the setting or general conditions of the film. -Unimportant facts are those peculiar to the situation depicted and which were not intended to be learned as facts. It may be difficult to separate these categories and it is not necessary to do so. The remaining facts include that information which the film purports to transmit to the viewer. Of these, the most important category can be‘classified as behavioral. That is, it can be assumed that when these facts are viewed, one can expect some change in the behavior of the viewer. These will be treated more fully in the following paragraph. Those facts which appear to be important components of the film but ‘ whichmay not be eXpected to change behavior have been called learnable facts. _Actually all facts are learnable, however the learnable facts we refer to here may be retained in the mind, but should not effect an individuals behavior. These facts become part of the mentality but are not actionable. They might be labelled "mental facts, " "rational facts, " or "facts that make up attitudes. " It is these two categories of behavioral and-learnable facts that must be fully analyzed. - After the facts in the film have been categorized, it becomes necessary to analyze the reaction of the viewer. How a message is received depends on the previous experience of the viewer and on the 30 facts which. he brings to bear on the message. Therefore, for each fact which may result in a change of behavior, we must list that information which we expect the learner to associate with the fact. This has been called the listing of situational reality. A typical example of the Operation of these components is in teaching one to reSpect Speed laws. A film might state that one should not exceed the speed limit, but the viewer of the film is forced in everyday driving habits to exceed Speed limits on certain roadways. He also knows that he» can exceed the limit by a few miles per hour and still not be ticketed. Therefore, based on the facts stated in the film and his knowledge of common behavior, the learner may fail to learn anything new and will certainly not change his behavior. ~ Consequently, each fact must be treated in context with the reality of the situation in order to obtain an accurate estimate of anticipated behavior. The behavioral items in Figure .2 Show how this is done for each behavioral fact. It may be desirable to do this also for learnable facts. - At this point, it is possible to begin making estimates of the impact of the film. To do this realistically, one must select the target . audience for which the estimates are to be made. The necessity for selecting the proper audience is important since new learners, having little experience, are prone to accept the information as correct and final, whereas older'learners bring to bear a greaterl‘amount of exPeri-- ence. The population to be used in this research was composed entirely of experienced drivers, representing soPhomore, junior, and Senior, students at Michigan:State'University, and the analysis has been made for them. 'One of the first estimates is that of the percentage of the viewers who know the facts. If they know the information, no learning can occur and certainly no behavior change is anticipated. This estimate can be checked by means of tests if it is not felt that the estimate is correct. 31 The remaining percentage consists of the learning potential. - If 80% know a fact, then, theoretically, 20% could learn the information. However, the estimated learning refers to the actual percentage of people who will probably learn the fact, and is stated for both immediate ' and permanent effects (Figure 2) This is the estimate of learning achieved. - If material being presented is too difficult, then the estimate of actual learning is probably. somewhat less than that remaining to be learned. Although learning is probably not related directly to behavior, we can assume that there will be no behavioral changes without learning. Therefore, the estimates of learning are of value. To determine the possibility for a change in behavior, it. is first necessary to estimate to what extent an individual may improve his attitudes and driving skill. - If the film fact states that one should stop completely ata st0p sign, and if the average person does so 70% of the time, this 70% represents present performance. This leaves a potential change in behavior of 30%. It is important to base these estimates on the number of incidents of the fact or performance, rather than on the percentage of time involved. From the present performance, we come to the most important estimate, that of possible change in behavior. It is assumed in this research that the basic ingredients which make up a. persons driving behavior are his knowledge, attitudes and driving skill. Therefore, the components of these three behavioral ingredients are considered highly related or interchangeable with one another, The major components are illustrated in Figure 2. ~ If a film does not have many componcnts with large possibilities for change in knowledge, attitudes, and driving skill, then it cannot effectively change behavior to any extent. Now we will analyze this potential behavioral . change into its components. The method for doing this is one of working back from the reasons stated by drivers for failure to perform correctly. 32 These reasons were obtained in personal interviews of one hour's duration, in which the most basic reasons were obtained. ‘ Actually, these reasons may overlap and, in so far as possible, one must break down complex categories into discrete categories that may be treated individually. Some of the categories that have been obtained are personal judgments, other peOple's behavior, negligence, lack of knowledge, chance Situations, and other factors. These categories were developed for driver-safety films. Other categories would need to be developed for other types of behavior. . When these categories have been set, it is possible to distribute the percentage of total possible change in attitudes and skills to the various components. It has been found that there is relatively consistent agreement in assigning these percentages when it is known what is being considered. . For instance, out of the possible-Schange of 30%, the reason for not conforming to recommended behavior in 10% of the instances may be due to personal judgment. Now that all the components in the film which could affect attitudes and skills have been listed and estimates made of the reasons why drivers have not changed, it is possible to analyze the films more completely. One of the first steps is to rank the facts of the film in order of decreas- "-ingpossibility for learning change. This will indicate which items will change the viewers' knowledge, even though no change in behavior may result. From such an analysis, it has been found that in a ten minute film, there may be only a few facts which affect learning. . Inparticular, it has been found that dramatic or attitudinal type films present S'o‘much situational infOrmation that there is little time to present factual information which might change behavior. There is probably a need to avoid presenting more factual information than can be adequately absorbed .by the viewer. From this analysis of attitude and Skill change possibilities, it is then desirable to test actual attitude and skill reactions to determine conformance with the estimates. 33 ’From'this analysis, it may be seen that lack of knowledge is an insignificant reason for not behaving as desired. In cases we have studied, personal judgment and disagreement with laws and other drivers' behavior seem to be more important factors. To determine the relative impact of these factors, one should add together the estimates of possible change of each" factor and determine which could be most easily changed to result in improved behavior. ~ After one has estimated values for each of the behavior change components, it is then necessary to estimate how much change in attitudes and Skill may be expected as a result of seeing the film. For instance, if personal judgment accounts for 10% of the lack of correct behavior _. Skill, it might be estimated that the film will affect the viewer and‘pro- duce an estimated change of 2% in the desired direction. - Similar estimates can be made for other components. 'When these are totaled, one obtains an estimate of total change in behavior resulting from the presentation of that one fact as might be measured soon after seeing the film. An estimate can also be made for any permanent change that could be expected. . Each one of the behavior change components must be analyzed to determine how behavior might change. There are a number ofpossibili- ties. If the major reason for lack of correct performance is personal judgment or disagreement with the law, then efforts should be made to give understanding to the law or the law should be changed. ~ If a major lack of compliance is due to chance situations beyond any control of the individual, one would not expect to obtain any improvement. If themajor factor is lack of knowledge, then improved methods for presenting' information might be employed. One should study the extent to which . personal judgment is involved and should analyze the factors that make it up. 34 If there is reason to analyze the effect of thefilm on other age levels or levels of experience, then new estimates should be'made. — Estimates can be made by one person and a great deal of clarifi- cation can be obtained in this way. - If possible, it would always be desirable for a number of persons to make estimates of the film so that the reliability of these estimates would provide an index to the degree to which the estimates should be relied upon. There are'probably many instances in which‘learning is assumed to be the end goal, rather than a change in behavior. Certain psycholo- gists have related learning to behaviOr and consider them synonymous. However, the method described above can be used to estimate how much could be learned from any presentation. One can rank items on the basis of knowing the facts which will result in the reinforcement of the information presented. The method described is one deve10ped from information obtained in depthwinterviews. It is assumed that an individual can make estimates of the various factors involved in his conformity to a particular pattern. . Research has been done to validate these estimates. One method used was to make observations of traffic behavior. These have been called street corner observations, and one of these involved measurement of the compliance to the regulation of complete st0ps at st0p Signs. Therefore, this bit of information acts as a check on the estimates which were made of the (stated film fact. Depth interviews were found to be‘valuable fer assigning values to the reasons for non-compliance. Other values in the behavioral analysis will be checked by tests to determine the level of knowledge, attitudes and behavioral skills before and after seeing the film. The various behavior components were checked where possible. - In some cases, estimates were far too generous, and it was necessary to re-evaluate the estimates. In these cases it became apparent that 1 BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS OF THE FILM ”DRIVING AT NIGHT" 35 (10 min.) 1 Behavior Change Components If A. Film Fact. ,, i , :2 a .. s E s 2 *5 2 , B. Conversions ”:6 g o (,3 a) “5 .._. a) .... L "1 Q U) vr-l Q °H M C} .14 '8 :15 “3 .5 a, 'd (13 "d U) as U) 1‘ C. Situational Reality 8 g a a) o '30 (a :19) g g ,4 a ,4 . , o 44 a) 44 4-> 5:, r6 .8 .a (D T, .0 Q n, Odo 0 (1) fl) .6 as re «s o as o B 8.. an m U, “r‘ O H > M U i“ 853 85 EDD 820 0 fits ”L‘s cu 1“” U’ 0‘“ "‘ M g 4) H.123 «1,: T's "'1 Q U) (D U) (D 34 I"; m H .13 PC: 110 U “3 rc,‘ 44 +_, 4—= .,_, 44 KS «H K) 04 1o 0 o .4 a) a) m‘ .1: ._. m 4.: t0 ._. m 43 U! .C! M m A 111 A 1 )m 171. o. o as z A o o 1:: < m < [:1 o m o Unimportant Facts 1 (A) 1. Driving can be mighty pleasant. 0 O O O ‘2 O O O O O 0 0 O O O O (A) 2.. It is easy to see pedestrians in the daytime. O O 0 O 1 0 O O O 0 0 0 0 0 1 Background Facts (A) 1., As a general rule, pedestrians should face traffic and wear light clothes. 0 O 0 0 ‘1 O 0 O 0 0 O 0 O 0 O O (A) 2. Even during the day, many split-second decisions must be made when driving. 0 O 0 0 O O O 0 O O 0 O 0 0 0 Learnable Facts (A) 1. 60% of the total automobile accidents occur at night. 40 40 15 o . 0 0 0 0 o o 0 o o o 0 (A) 2.. Objects more than 150 feet away cannot be identified clearly. 3O 3O 10 0 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 O O O 0 Behavior Facts (A) 1. If you are parking away from the city street- 1 lights, leave your parking lights on when . pulling off the highway. ‘ (B) 1. Use your parking llghts after dark 75 15 5 50 50 25 6 10 6 O 3 (C) l. Thls depends on how far off the highway and for how long. I l l l 3 1 Z 0 Z. This may wear out the battery. 1. 3. Batteries cost a lot of money. ' (A) 1. Don't light matches or cigarettes while driving. 1 (B) 1. Donit let minor things take your attention from 1 your driving or interfere with your vision. 50 30 10 6O 4’0 Z5 5 5 5 0 0 (C) 1. This is too impractical to be of any value. 1 1 Z 0 O 0 2. The risk is small compared to the inconvenience. 3. This is idealistic and impractical. Figure 2. in 0-“ 36 the film;.would.have very little effect on behavior. - After becoming experienced in estimatingbehavior, it was felt that the estimates closely approached actual conditions. This technique was further vali- dated by the judgment of competent persons representing traffic safety and film production experts. ‘ A preliminary exPe riment was conducted and an item analysis made of the data which could be analyzed and thus improve the validity and reliability of the tests used on the final experi— ment. The reliability of the behavioral analysis technique was determined by administering the instrument to two groups of experts from the audio- visual and traffic Safety fields. The Pearson r formula was applied to both sets of predictions concerning both immediate and retention estimates of learning, attitudes, and knowledge. (30, p. 233) The two halves of the expert panel correlated to a high degree (r = +. '72) in their prediction of immediate learning, and to a lesser degree (r = +. 29) in predicting permanent learning. The eacpert panel correlated very highly in their prediction of attitudes with an immediate attitude correlation of r = +. 93 and a permanent attitude correlation of r = +. 78. The panel correlated at r = -. 21 on their predictions of both irn'rhediate and permanent skill change. However, this was not considered significant due to the very low estimates concerning Skill change benefits of the film . III.- DEVELOPMENT OF AN ACHIEVEMENT TEST An achievement test was constructed by the writer since therewere no standardized tests available covering the Specific information desired from the subject-matter area of the film. The steps used in validation of the achievement test were, (1) analyses of the film used in the study . and verification of this analysis by the producer of the film, . (Z) judgment 37 of five Specialists involved in traffic safety film research, (3) use in a preliminary experiment, and (4) item analyses. The writer first made a factual analyses of the film in order to determine what the objectives, purposes, and potentials for learning might be. The facts obtained were then utilized to formulate questions for a preliminary experiment. These questions were reviewed, edited, and formed into a complete multiple choice test. General instructions were prepared which were simple and complete in order to‘minimize the verbal assistance required of the test administrator. The preliminary experiment was conducted as a before. and after type of test design, and the verbal instructions were short and concise in order to'best determine what benefits were derived solely frOm the film content, ratherthan from the manner in which is was presented. Inpreparing the questions for the preliminary test, the writer was more concerned with testing all possible facts than with balancing the questions according to difficulty. The initial test included fifty questions which were of the multiple choice type, and the student had a choice of one of five answers. Later analyses reduced the final test to thirty-seven questions. The final test may be found in the Appendix of this study. - Special pencils and printed answer sheets were used, and the tests were scored by electric scoring machines. - Several indices were used in the analysis of the preliminary test. A .simple index of discrimination was provided by dividing the group of tests into an upper half and a lower half according to scores. The dif- ference between the preportion of students in each group answering the; question correctly was one index. . Further item analyses revealed'that the upper group missed four of the questions more frequently than the lower group. Three questions were answered equally well by both groups while there were no misses by either group on six items. These thirteen" 38 questions were eliminated from the final test which was administered to the control and experimental groups. On the basis of the item analysis, evaluation by the researcher, and other data from the trial experiment, the test was revised. The test items were arranged so that each question could be applied directly to a corre3ponding fact in the behavioral analysis. The final revision of the test resulted in thirty-seven questions constructed so that answer sheets for machine scoring could be used. The tests were scored by the number of ”rights. '..' The reliability of the final test was established by administering it to two matched groups. The Pearson r formula was applied and the groups found to be correlated at r = +. 93 with N = 37. This was con- sidered very high and was tested and found to be significant at €001- »(30, p. 233) IV. DEVELOPMENT OF AN ATTITUDE TEST The writer constructed an attitude test covering the subject matter area of the film since there were no standardized tests available for this film. Validation of this test was obtained by use in a preliminary exPeriment and by item analysis. The attitude scale was a type of semantic differential test which has proved to be very worth-while in similar exPeriments. Tannenbaum secured test-retest reliability data for each of six concepts and six evaluative scale of a semantic differential attitude test in 1953. The test- retest coefficients obtained a mean r of . 91. (24, p. 192) The evaluative dimensions of the semantic differential di5play reasonable face validity as a measurement of attitudes. Suci, . in 1952, and later Tannenbaum and Kerrick were able to discriminate in expected ways in studies of voting behavior and pictorial political symbolism. (24, p. 192) The semantic differential attitude scale has 39 been compared with both the Thurstone and the Guttman-type scales. It was apparent from this analysis thattwhatever these scales measure, the evaluative factor of the semantic differential measures just as well. The correlation between the semantic differential scores and the corres- -ponding Thurstone or Guttman scores was significantly greater than chance with p < . 01 in each case. The items on the attitude scale were organized under two types of components. The first component consisted of ten concepts which were selected as being the major attitudinal considerations of the film. The second component included eight sets of scales representing variations of a good-bad rating. - Each of the concepts was matched with each of the scales in a heterogeneous manner in order to determine the impact of each concept upon the re Spondent. _ The preliminary experiment required each reSpondent to score eighty items on a one to seven rating scale. This test was given to each » student before and after viewing the experimental film. General instruc- tions were made available to each student in printed form, and supple. mented with verbal assistance from the test administrator. A time limit was set at twenty minutes which was not exceeded by any of the _, reSpondents. ' - Upon completion of the preliminary experiment an item, concept, and scale analysis was used to differentiate between whichitems should, and should. not, be used in the final experiment. ' A . 5 shift in attitude was arbitrarily used as the minimum» change which would beacceptable in this research. This rating had been-previously approved in other ' research studies. On the basis of this analysis, evaluation by the project director, and the research findings mentioned previously, the test was revised. The writer decided to- eliminate one set of scales and three of the concepts from the preliminary test. This revision of the test 40 resulted in the number-of items being reduced from eighty to forty- nine. The final attitude scale was given a time limit of fifteen minutes, since it was the first reactions of the students to each concept that were desired, and it was then adrriini‘stered to Groups I and III (immediate effect groups) as soon as the showing of the exPerimental and non-related films was completed, and before the administration of any other tests. The retention groups, 11 and IV, were given this scale six weeks later, prior to their examinations on achievement and driving skill. The reliability of the final test for attitude change was established by correlating the results of two matched control groups. The Peargson r formula was applied to the seven concepts and the groups were found to be correlated at r = +. 98. As a further check the same formula was applied to each item and found to be correlated at r = +. 93 with N = 49. Both of these correlations were high and were further tested by the t-test of significance and found to be significant at t. .301. V. DEVELOPMENT OF A.DRIVING SKILL TEST The writer developed a driving performance or skill test which was representative of the traffic safety elements the film was intended to teach. Validation was based upon the approval of the selection of these elements by the producer of the film, expert Opinion, and the face validity obtained by the direct observation of individual driver perform- ance. An analysis of the basic instructional elements presented through visual demonstration and vs rbalization was first made. - From this preliminary list of fifteen elements, nine were chosen to be used in the driving experiment. The test consisted of two parts. First were the 41 nine important film related elements, and second were three general skill tests to determine if previous driving skill had any effect upon, the performance of the reSpondents. The final test was approved by fifteen traffic safety eXperts before being used in the experiments. The administration of the test was- quite simple. - Each group member was scheduled to drive an automobile immediately after taking the attitude and achievement test. General instructions were given to the students ahead of time which only referred to the second part of the test concerning the general skill observations to be administered at the driving range. - Each reSpondent was to drive his automobile from a fixed starting point over a prescribed route to the driving range. A A professional driving instructor accompanied each driver in order to help familiarize the person with the type of automobile he, or she, was using before reaching the driving range. - Withoutith‘e students being aware of it, the nine film related .elements were secretly installed along the route taken by each automobile to reach the driving range. - Each driving instructor privately rated each reSpondent on all nine elements. The students were turned over to another group of instructors when they arrived at the driving range. This enabled the original instructors tomake their ratings privately on a two point (right-wrong) scale. The reliability of the driving test was established by correlating the results of the two matched c0ntrol groups. The Pearson r formula was again applied and the groups were found to be correlated at r = +. 86. The t-test was applied to these results and found to be significant at t. 01. CHAPTER V TEST'RESULTS AND ANALYSES OF DATA ._Complete data was obtained on 165 students, and only these students are included in the analysis. Of this group of students, 57 were in Control Group I which saw the non- related film; 28 were in Control Group II which saw the non- related film; 54 we re in EXperimental Group‘III which viewed the experimental film; and 26 were in Experimental Group "IV which viewed the eXperimental film. 1.; RESULTS OF THE TESTS FOR IMMEDIATE AND RETENTION LEARNING In order to provide a sound basis for inference, the hypotheses in this study were formulated in exact terms. - Six of the seven testable hypotheses were stated in the null form because the null hypothesis is stated so that the data are given a chance to diSprove the hypothesis. The first two hypotheses stated that there is no immediate or permanent - difference in the factual knowledge of experienced drivers who have seen the film "Driving at Night, " and of experienced drivers who have not viewed this film. These hypotheses seek to determine if the mean ; pr0portion of correct answers for individuals in‘Experimenta'l Groups ‘111 and IV are greater than the mean pr0portion of correct answers for individuals in Control Groups I and 11 immediately after and six weeks after viewing the films. 42 43 Since all groups used the same test, the individual scores made by the students on each test were used in the statistical analysis. E First, the F test was used to determine if the variances of the matched popu- lations might be‘pr'esumed equal. Second, the null hypotheses were tested by the t—test of significance. The result of the F test revealed that there was no statistically significant difference between variances of the two groups of matched p0pulations. The probability was between ‘F.025 and F.975; that is, the chances of the variances of the matched groups being different were less than 5 in 100. Thus the t—test of significance of the difference between the means of the control and experimental groups was made assuming that differences among the reSpondentS were ' negligible. The mean pr0portion of correct answers for individuals in Group III was found to be 28. 963. The mean pr0portion of correct answers for respondents in Group I was 21. 877 The difference between the means ‘ of the experimental and control groups was significant with a prob- ability of 99. 9 in 100. This indicates that the experimental film group. and non- related film group were Significantly different in their amount of factual knowledge immediately after viewing the films. Therefore, on the basis of this evidence, the writer must reject the first null hypothe sis . The mean proportion of correct answers for individuals in ExPerimental Group IV was found to be 26. 154. The mean proportion of correct answers for individuals in Control Group -II was 23.429. The difference between the means of the experimental and' control groups was significant with a probability of 95 in 100. This indicated that the experimental film group and non-related film group were significantly 3 different in their learning and in their retention of factual knowledge as a result of viewing the films. On the basis of these results, therefore, 44 the writer rejects the second null hypothesis. Table I lists the results of the analyses of the data concerning learning. TABLE I . RESULTS OF F TESTS, t-TESTS,- AND MEAN SCORES 'V ITEM MATCHED GROUPS MATCHED GROUPS I and III II and IV F TEST p < . 05 p < .05 MEAN I III II IV ‘ SCORES, 21.877 28.963 23.429 26.154 t-TEST p > . 999 p > . 95 11. RESULTS or THE TESTS FOR IMMEDIATE AND PERMANENT ATTITUDE CHANGE The third and fourth null hypotheses state that there is no im- mediate or permanent difference in the driving attitudes of experienced drivers who have seen the film "Driving at Night, " and of experienced- drivers who have not viewed this film. These hypotheses were to determine if the mean score for individuals in Experimental Groups ' III and IV were different from the mean score for individuals in Control Groups I and 11 immediately and Six weeks after viewing the 'experi- < .mental and non-related films. The test for attitude change consisted of seven concepts on which to determine differences and there were four evaluative scales for each concept. The evaluative scales used were good-bad, safe—dangerous, nice-awful, and wise-foolish. Both groups 45 used the same test. The individual SCOres made by the respondents on each of the concepts were used in the statistical analysis. The F test was utilized to determine if the variances of the matched pOpulations were equal. This was done separately for each of the seven concepts. ~ Secondly, the null hypotheses were tested by the t-test of significance for each concept. The results of these tests were as follow: 1. Night Driving Skill The F tests of the first concept revealed no statistically Signifi- cant difference between variances of the matched p0pulations. The probability was between-F. 025 and Em. This indicated that the chances of the variances of the matched groups being different we re leSs than 5 in 100. Thus, the t-tests of Signifi- cance of the difference between the means of the control and eXperimental groups were made by assuming that the differences between the reSpondentS was negligible. The mean score for individuals in Group III was found to be 4. 0550. The mean score for Group I was 3. 82995. The tmtest of significance'betwe'e‘n these two mean scores was not significant within a probability Of-95 in 100. The mean score for individuals in GrOup'IV was ‘ found to be 5. 375. Group II had a mean score of 4.625. The t-test‘of Significance between the two mean scores of the 'exPerimental and control groups was found to be Significant "with a probability of 95 in 100. This indicates that there is some difference between the two film groups on this particular concept and suggests the presence of a "sleeper effect" connected to the concept of "night driving skill. ” .- Headlight Limitations The 1? tests of the second concept showed no statistically signifi- cant difference between the variances of the matched population's. 46 The probability was between‘F. 025 and F0975. This indicated. that the chances of the variances of the matched groups being different were less than 5 in 100. The mean score for individuals in Group IV was found to be 4. 403846. The mean score of Group II was 4. 526786. Groups III and I had mean scores of 4.45370 and 4.45614 reSpectively. The t-tests of the significance of the differences between the mean scores of the matched groups were not Significant within a probability of 95 in 100. . Night Driving Visibility The third concept was given the F tests and found .to have no statistically significant difference between the matched popu- lation variances. The probability was between F5025 {and F.975 which means, again, that the chances of the variances of the matched groups being different were less than 5 in 100. The mean scores of Groups III and I were found to be 3.45833 and 3. 28070 reSpectively. Groups IV and II had mean scores of 3. 288462 and 3.419643. The t~test of significance of the difference between the mean scores of the exPerimental and control groups was not significant within a probability of95 in 100. . Night Driving Fatigue The F tests of the fourth concept revealed no statistically sig- hificant difference between variances of the matched p0pulations. The probability was again between-F. 025and n.7,. This indie cates’that the chances of the variances of the matched groups being different were less than 5 in 100. The mean score for individuals in Group III was found to be 3. 912037. The mean score for Group I was 3. 723684. The t-test for Significance 47 of the difference between the two,mean_scores was not Sig- nificant within a probability of 95 in 100. The mean score for individuals in Group IV was found to be 4. 278846. The mean score for individuals in Group II was 3. 544643. The t-test 6f significance of the difference between the two mean scores of- the exPerimental and control groups was found to be significant with a probability of 95 in 100. This indi- cates that there is some difference between the two film groups on this concept. This difference also indicates that the concept "night driving fatigue" has a “Sleeper effect. " . - Proper Headlight Use The fifth concept was evaluated by the F tests and revealed no statistically significant difference between the variances of the matched p0pulations. Again, the probability‘was between F. 025 and F.975. Thus, as in the previous concepts, the chances of the variances of the two groups being different were less than 5 in 100. The mean scores for Control Groups ‘ I and II were 4. 30000 and 4. 098214. Experimental Groups 111 and IV had mean scores of 4. 12963 and 3. 990385 respectively. vThe t—tests for. significance of the difference between the matched group mean scores were not significant within a prob- ability of 95 in 100. {Pedestrians The sixth concept was administered the F test and found to have no statistically Significant difference between the matched population variances. The probability was between F. 025 and -F.975 which means that the chances of the variances of the matched groups being. different were less than 5. in'100. The mean scores of Groups 111 and I were found to be 3. 995370 and 48 4. 223684 reSpectively while the reSpective mean scores of Groups II and IV were 4. 276786 and 4. 182692. The t-tests of Significance of the difference between the mean scores of the experimental, and control groups were not significant within a probability of 95 in 100. 7. Driving at Night TheF tests of the seventh concept revealed ,no statistically Significant difference between variances of the two groups of matched p0pulations. The probability was again (as was the case in all of the concepts) between F.025 and F.975. This, as before, indicated that the chances of the variances of the two a groups being different were less than 5 in 100. The mean , score for individuals in Group III was found to be 3. 601.852. The mean score for Group I was 3. 526316. Group IV and Group II had mean scores of 3. 586538 and 3. 607143; respectively. The t-test for significance of the difference betweenthe matched mean scores was not significant within a probability of 95 in 100. In all 'of the F tests of the seven concepts, N was 228 for Control Group I and 216 for Experimental Group III, while N, was 112 for Control 'Group II and 104 for Control Group IV. All of the t-tests of the seven c‘oncepts concerning immediate shift in attitude were conducted with 442 degrees of freedom. The t-test of the seven concepts concerning perrnanent- shift in attitude had 214 degrees of freedom. The analysis of the results of the tests for both immediate and permanent attitude Shift may be interpreted as being meaningful in either of two directions. ' First, did any significant attitude shift occur? Second, did the results 'obtained by the whole of the concepts allow us to accept or reject the null hypotheses stated. '49 The former case may be answered in the affirmative. While there was no shift inattitude detected immediately after viewing thefilm, a positive shift was established for the concepts "night driving skill" and "night driving fatigue" by the analysis concerning the permanent effects of the film upon attitudes. This attitude shift represents the sarrfe type of "sleeper effect“ which was found by Hovland, Lumsdaine, . and Sheffield in their study of the motivational film "The Battle of” Britain. " This represents a significant finding since the experimental film utilizes approximately fifty percent of its footage in visualizing the importance of Skill and the awareness of factors involving fatigue. -Apparently the concepts representing hazards of visibility and general problems of driving at night were not affected by this film presentation. The differences found were evidently not due to preferential treatment by the producers of the film since the presentation of all of the concepts was by both visual and verbal instruction of equal quality. I q The second question is summed up in the folloWing statistical analysis: The F test of the total concepts revealed no statistically Significant difference between the variances of any of the matched popu- lations. The probability, in all cases, was between F. 025 and F.975, that is, the chances of the variances of the matched groups being different were less than 5 in 100. The t-test of significance of the difference between the means of the control and experimental groups was made assuming that differences between the respondents were negligible. The N values were 1, 596 for Control Group I, l, 512 for ExPerirriental Group III, 784 for Control Group‘II, and 728 for Experimental Group‘ IV in the F test. The mean scores for Groups I, II, III, and IV were found to be 3,. 91040, 4. 01403, 3. 94378, and 4. 15797 respectively. The dif- ference between the means of the matched experimental and control groups was not significant within aprobability of 95 in 100. The t-tests, which were conducted with. 3, 108 degrees of freedom in the evaluation 50 of the immediate shifts and l, 510‘ degrees of freedom, in the retention analysis, indicated that the exPerimental film groups and non-related film- groups had no significantly different shift in their attitudes either immediately or Six weeks after viewing the films. Therefore, on the basis of all of this evidence, the writer accepts the null hypotheses that there is no immediate or permanent difference in the driving attitudes of experienced drivers who have seen the film "Driving at Night, " and of experienced drivers who have not viewed this film. Table 11 lists the results of the F tests, t-tests, mean scores, and the disposition of the hypotheses. III. RESULTS OF TESTS FOR IMMEDIATE AND PERMANENT CHANGE IN DRIVING PERFORMANCE The fifth and Six null hypotheses stated that there is no immediate *~ or permanent difference in the measurable change in driving performance of experienced drivers who have seen the film ”Driving at Night" and exPerienced drivers who have not viewed this film. The objective of this hypothesis is to determine if the mean proportion of correct answers for individuals in-ExPerimental Groups 111 and IV are greater than the. mean pr0portion of correct answers for individuals in Control Groups I and 11 immediately and six weeks after viewing the experimental and non-related films. The test for driving performance change consisted, of nine items which contribute to the mean scores of the reSpondents. These itemsmay be observed in the Appendix of this study. There were also three general driving skill test items (X turn, Y turn, and figure 8) to determine if prior driving skill had any effect upon the test perform:- ance. All groups used the same driving test. The individual scores made by the respondents on each of the twelve items were used in the - statistical analyses. More Specifically, the writer attempted: 51 move was 230 dBoH “amour. ma . A a. 2:3. .es 83o .e .m 308.41 ma . A a. «$9.1m «23 .m mo. v a £32 an maria .4. savour. ma .. A a new? .e SSS. .e no . .v a semitones e 383». me. A a. amoaa .m Ease .e me. v a on: “smashes Sachs .m. esteem . ma . v a .eewwem .e sheen .m mo . v a newness men/Ea 232 J Seneca... me. A a .Neemmu .m Shiva me . v a ramps; meshes Emaz .m nausea. . me. A a 38: A aeemm .a. me. v a neoseaafifi newness: gm esteem. me. via. come... .m oomme .e me. v a new meshes £32 .4 soflwmomman— a. «mourn» >H . HH anon. h ammoGoO. mwmoauogm mouoom smog mafia -.opsfifi< newsman on nausea. . . me. A m 8.25 .m 35:. .m 3. v a $8280 38.. .w eaten... , ma . A a $236 283 .m me. v a Ewaz an 9.35 ..s nausea. , . me. A a. 5...? .m seems .s mo . v a assessments e ensues. me. A a. meafi .e oooom .s mo . v a on: Emaeeem neaonm .m amoeba. . me. A a Sofia .m wemme .m me . v a senses messes Emhz e nausea. . ma. A a . 8mm: osomN .m me. vs bananas/mega Emaz ..m 383... me . A a Summer. Esme .e mo. v a nsosesfifl “smasher! .N names... me. A a . 830 .e. 233 .m me. v a 22m wasas 232 .4 nosanoanao. has; 5 ._ . a i has a “menace mammfiogm, mouoom smog mans... beasts. eaeaewEEH a} msrfimm -QQDEHH< mom monEmommB mummmsomsm 96s. .mmmoom z .95 49 28 5.2245 5.4643 75 Analyses of Groups Divided According to Skill ’Degrees of F Tests ti-Test N Mean Scores Freedom Skilled Normal Skilled Normal p < .05 p > .95 9o 54 5.5625 5.3148 148 Matched Group Analyses I and III, II and IV F Test tnTest N Mean Scores ‘Degrees of Freedom . I III I III p < .05 p > .95 47 48 5.2245 5.8542 95 11 IV 11 JV p.< .05 p > .95 28 25 5.46429 5.2400 51 ‘ CHAPTER VI RESULTS AND ANALYSIS OF THE TESTS DESIGNED TO EVALUATE THE SUCCESS OF THE BEHAVIORAL ANALYSES TECHNIQUE The seventh hypothesis states that it is possible to predict, by the use of a behavioral analysis, the measurable change in knowledge, driving attitudes, and driving skills which will occur as a result of viewing a traffic safety film. This hypothesis seeks to determine how the estimates of the panel of experts correlate with the actual performance ,Of students on tests Of learning, attitude, and potential driving behavior. ~ In the analysis of this hypothesis, the writer treated each component tested as though it were a separate problem. However, the acceptance or rejection Of the original hypothesis will be based upon the degree Of conformance Of all three Of the components to the conditions set forth in the study. Learning First, the writer determined the correlation between the initnediate learning estimates of the panels as to the pr0portion Of total students answering questions correctly after, but not before, the film viewing, and the difference between the prOportion Of correct answers to an item by Control Group I and Experimental Group'III. This process was then repeated for Control Group II and Experimental Group-IV to Show the correlation Of the retention estimates. 56 57 Since both groups used the same test, the difference between the scores made by the students on each test item was used in the statistical analysis. These differences were correlated with the predictions for immediate change made by the two panels of eXperts representing both subject matter (Traffic Safety Panel) and film production experts (Audio-Visual Panel). The Pearson r, coefficient of linear correlation, was used because of its ability to determine the mutual relationship between two variables such as predicting of achievement from a prognostic test. (.30, p. 233) The Pearson r was applied to the following relationships: 1. Correlation. between the predictions of the two panels Of experts. 2. Correlation between the combined group predictions Of the expert panels and the pOpulation results. 3. Correlation between the predictions Of the AudiOeVisual Panel and the pOpulation results. 4. Correlation between the predictions Of the Traffic Safety Panel and the pOpulation results. Each of these correlations was then tested by the tmtest of Significance as a means Of later accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. The result Of the correlation test between the predictions Of the two panels of experts revealed that r > . 5189. The t~test placed t at 6. 169341 with t.0005 = 3.60 at 35 degrees of freedom. This means that the two groups are highly correlated and the probability of having Obtained the above r value by chance is less than 5 in 10, 000. The r-test between the combined group predictions of the exPert panels and the pOpulation results Showed that r = . 3571. This shows relatively high agreement between the total panel and the test results. The t-test placed t at 2. 262 with t.05 : 2. 03 at 35 degrees of freedom. 58 This means that the probability of having obtained the above r corre- lation by chance is less than 5 in 100. I The r-test between the predictions of the Audio-Visual Panel (film production experts) and the p0pulation results revealed r to be .4303 which is, also, a relatively high. correlation. t was found to be 2.820 with 13.01 = 2. 720 at 35 degrees of freedom. .Therefore, the -probability of having obtained the r value by chance is less thanll in . 100. i i The final correlation concerning the immediate learning estimates and test results was between the predictions of the Traffic Safety Panel (subject matter Specialists) and the population results. r was estab- lishediat . 2175 which represents amoderately acceptable positive agree- ment between these two groups. The t-test placed t at l. 318 with t. 10 = 1. 306 at 35 degrees of freedom. This sets the probability of having obtained the r correlation by chance as less thanlO in 100. Table IV lists the panel predictions, observed change in immediate learning, r coefficients, and the results of the t-test of significance. The positive relationships found in the above correlations appear to be significant and to reveal substantial agreement between the predictions of the various panels and the results obtained by the testing of sample subjects. for-learning achievement. On the basis of this evidence, the writer would accept the seventh hypothesis as far as the immediate effects of the first component (prediction of the measurable change in irrirnediate learning) is concerned. The second phase of testing the sample p0pulation for learning increase was to determine the correlation between the estimates of- learning retention by the panels as to the preportion of total students answering questions correctly six weeks after, but not before, the film viewing, and the difference between the preportion of correct answers to an item by Control Group‘II and Experimental Group IV. TABLEIV COEFFICIENTS OF LINEAR~CORRELATION FOR IMMEDIATE INCREASE IN LEARNING Items X1 X2 V X3 1 3 X4 Traffic Audio- T. S. and A. V. Observed Safety Visual ' Combined Increase 1 .096 .130 .113 .140 2 .180 .070 .125 .039 3 .070 .074 .072 .163 4 .084 .164 .124 .045 5 .120 .200 .160 .286 6 .124 .200 .162 .458 7 .156 .130 .143 .372 8 .352 .300 .326 .190 9 .210 .090 .150 .272 10 .114 .110 .112 .174 11 .114 .112 .113 -.011 12 .128 .140 .134 .409 13 .152 .280 .216 .495 14 .206 .200 .203 .407 15 .064 .004 .079 .113 16 .074 .050 .062 .007 17 .070 .068 .069 .034 18 .074 .060 .067 .032 19 .106 .076 .091 .243 20 .102 .084 .093 -.168 21 .046 .090 .068 .063 22 .086 .042 .064 .051 23 .060 .070 .065 .467 24 .340 .340 .340 .094 25 . .110 .122 .116 .066 26 .280 .190 .235 .390 27 .130 .054 .092 .284 28 .088 .074 .081 —.091 29 .140 .102 .121 .074 30 .040 .070 .055 .210 31 .046 .064 .055 .326 32 .270 .110 .190 .458 33 .160 .210 .185 .185 34 .110 .096 .103 .088 35 .080 .100 .090 -.118 36 .030 .046 .038 -.002 37 .062 .041 .052 .122 r1, = .2175 t1, = 1.318 r3, = .4303 :2, = 2.820 r,, = .3571 t3, = 2.262 (1:0,,l = 2.72 at 35 d.f.) 2.03 at 35 d.f.) 1.306 at 35 d.f.) (t. 05 (t- 10 60 Both. groups used the same test and the difference between-the scores made by the students on each. item of the test wasus'eduin. the ~ statistical analysis. TheSe differencesin stores were thencorrelated with the predictions for permanent change-made by the two'panels of experts. The Pearson r was applied tothe relationships stated: below: 1. Correlation between the predictions of the Traffic safety ' - and Audio-Visual experts. ‘ ~ 2.~ Correlation between the combinedgroup-predictions of the‘ . Traffic Safety and Audio-Visual experts and the results obtained from the sample population. . 3. Correlation-between theipredictions of the'Audio-Visual Panel and the pepulation results. i 4. Correlatio'n‘nbetween the predictions of the Traffic Safety Panel and the p0pu1ation results. - Each/of these correlations was then tested by the t-test of significance as a means of later accepting or rejecting ‘the hypothesis. 2 _ -' The correlation test between the predictions of the Traffic Safety and Audio-Visual experts revealed that r = . 2913. The t-test placed 't at' l. 80. With tJo = 1.69 at 35 degrees of freedom. This means that the two groups are positively correlated to a. moderate degree. The t-test shows that the probability of having obtained that particular r correlation by 3 chance isless than 10 in 100. The r-test foricorrelation between the combined group predictions . of the Traffic Safety and Audio-Visual lexPerts and the results obtained. from the sample p0pulationip1aced r at .4753. Thet-test revealed. that t = 3. 20 With t.“ = 2.73 at 35 degrees of freedom. .This.meant that. the two groups have a relatively high-positive correlation, and that the probability of having obtained that particular value for r by chance «is less than-l in 100. 61 The r-te st for correlation between the predictions of the Audio- Visual' Panel and the p0pulation results revealed r to be . 3497. The -t-test for significance of the correlationplaced t at 2. 20 withtws = 2. 03 at 35 degrees of freedom. This means that the two groups have a .rmoderately high-positive correlation, and that the probability of having obtained that r‘ value by chance is less than 5 in: 100. The correlation test between the prediction of the Traffic Safety Panel and the ~p0pu1ation results revealed that r = -. 2575. The t-test for significance of the correlation-placed t at l. 58 with t. 15 = 1.47 at 35 l _ degrees of freedom. This means that the, positive correlation between the two groups was relatively. low and thatthe probability of having obtained that particular r value-by chance is less than 15 in 100. \ Table V lists the panel predictions, observed increase in- permanent learning, the r coefficients, and the results of the t-test for significance. The positive relationships found for the estimates of retentionlearning appear to be on the borderline of significance, as set forth in the limitations of this study. - It is evident that the agreement between the two variables tested in each case is much greater than a chance relation- ~ ship. Taken as a whole the writer would accept the part of the hypothesis concerned with the prediction of the measurable change in. retention ‘ learning. - The first component of the seventh hypothesis is concerned with the'ability of the judges to predict both‘immediate and retention increases‘ in learning, as a result of having viewed the film. On the basis of the ‘2 3' total evidence obtained by all of the above correlations, the writer would" accept the seventhhypothesis with relationship to this component. ' Attitudes The writer first correlated the predictions of the two panels of experts in regard to the inuhediate change in attitudes anticipated as a TABLE V COEFFICIENTS or LINEAR CORRELATION FOR PERMANENT INanASE IN LEARNING Items X, ' X2 H 'X3 4X4 Traffic .Audio ' ~T—.--.S. and'A. V. -..Obse-rved Safety ~V-i sual Combined Inc rease l .04 .06 . .05 .04 2 .10 .02 .06 -.13 3 .03 .03 .03 .02 .4 .03 .07 .05 -.05 5 .05 .11 .08 .19 6 .04 .07 .06 .08' 7 .06 .07 .06 .06 8 .09 .13 .11 .13 9 .07 .04 .05 -.20 10 ' . O4 . 04 . 04 . 03 ~11 .06 .07 .06 .03 ~ 12 . O7 . 06 . O7 . 28 ,13 .07 .08 . O8 .34 14 .04 .07 .05 .02 15 . 03 . 03 . 03 . 06 16 .04 .02 .03 -.l6 17 .04 .03 .03 -.08 18 .04 .02 .03 .03 19 .06 .04 .05 .02 20 .04 .03 .03 -.17 21 .03 .05 .04 .00 22 .04 .02 .03 .01 23 .03 .02 .03 .10 24 . 07 . .10, . 09 . 20 25 . O6 . 07 . 06 . O6 26 .11 .. 08 . 10 . 21 27 .07 .03 .05 .17 28 .04 .03 .03 -. 17 29 . 08 . 03 . O6 . 20 30 . 03 . O4 . 04 . 28 31 . 03 . 03 . 03 . 23 32 . l3 . 03 . 08 . 19 33 . 05 . O7 . O6 . 23 34 . O5 . 05 .. 05 -. 07 35 .03 .05 .04 -.03 36 . 02 . 01 . 02 . 07 37 . 04 3 £01 . O3 1 . 13 r“ = . 2575 t“ = l. 58 7 r24 = . 3479 tu = 2. 20 r34 = .4753 t“ = 3. 20 (0°, 2. 72 at 35 d.f.) II II 2.03 at 35 d.f.) 1.306 at 35 d.f.) (t. 05 (t. 10 63 result of viewing the film. Next the writer determined the correlation between the estimates of the panels for all seven concepts (average of sub-estimates) for a shift in the desired direction and the actual desired direction shift observed in the sample Oppulation (based upon the dif- ference between-Groups I and Groups 111). This same process was repeated for Control Group II and Experimental Group'IV to show correlations in the retention of attitude shifts. Both groups used the same attitude test, and the differences between the scores made by the students on each concept of the test was utilized in the statistical analysis. The Pearson r coefficient was applied to the following relationships: 1. Correlation between the predictionsmade by the two panels of experts as to immediate attitude shift. 2. Correlation between the immediate attitude predictions of the Traffic Safety Panel and the test results. 3.‘ Correlation between the immediate attitude predictions of the Audio-Visual Panel and the test results. 4. Correlation between the combined group (Traffic Safety and Audio-Visual) immediate attitude predictions and the test results. ' Upon completion of the above correlations, the t-test of significance of the value obtained for r (was applied to the correlation between the two panels of experts. The significance for the other r values was determined by use of a table designed) to show this relationship. The r-test between the predictions made by- the twovpanels of experts revealed that r = . 9280. The t-test for the significance of’ . the correlation» showed t to be 5. 57 with t.“ = 4. 03 at 5 degrees of freedom. This means that there was a very high-positive correlation between the'predictions of the two panels, and that the probability of having obtained that particular r value by chance is less thanl in 100. 64 The r-test between the immediate attitude predictions of the Traffic Safety Panel and the test results revealed r to have the value - of . 3003. - The table of significance for r correlations revealed that 1'.01. = .6694 at5 degrees of freedom. This means that the positive correlation found was not significantly enough better than chance to accept in this investigation. The, correlation test between the immediate attitude-predictiOns of the Audio-Visual Panel and the test results revealed that r = ~. 3611. ‘ Since r. 10 = .6694 at 5 degrees of freedom, this value of r was not con- sidered '. significantly different from chance to accept in this study. ' A final correlation was established between theimmediate attitude predictions of the combined panels (Traffic Safety and Audio-Visual) and the attitude test results. The r-value was found to be . 3367. This, too, was considered insignificant since r. 10 = . 6694. The probability '; that this particular value of r could have been obtained by chance was too great to accept in our present investigation. Table VI lists the panel predictions, the observed shift of the sample population, and the r coefficients of linear correlationfi The. 1 positive relationships found in the above correlations do not have sub- » stantial enough agreement to be considered significant in this study. This evidence would tend to reject the hypothesis'with reference tothe predictability of immediate attitude shifts. The second phase of testing the sample pOpulation for attitude shift was to correlate the predictions of the experts regarding the retention of the attitude shift resulting from. viewing the film. ~ This involved comparing the estimates of the panels for all seven concepts. for a. shift in the desired direction and the actual shift observed in the ,. sample population (based upon the difference between Groups II and-IV) six weeks after viewingrthe film. 65 TABLE VI COEFFICIENTS OF LINEAR CORRELATION, FOR IMMEDIATE ATTITUDE. SHIFTS xL . xz . x3 x, Concepts .. Traffic Audio- T. S. and A. V. Observed 4 Safety Visual Combined Shift 1. N.D.S. 3.400 3.800 3.600 .002 2.1H.L. 7.600 7.700 7.650 .188 3. N.D.V 4.514 4.029 4.270 -.228 4. N.D~.F 4.371 4.520 4.443 .075 5-"P- H.U 4.150 5. 600 4.875 .203 6.- Ped. 2. 800 3.200 3. 000 .178 7.‘D.N. 4. 555 4.755 4.655 .227 Sum of x 31. 390 33.604 32.493 .645 Sum of x2 , 154.612 174.603 163.890 .217379 N Sum Xz-(Sum X)?- 96. 952 92. 992 91.435 1.105628 «TN Sum XZT(Sum X)2 9. 8464 9. 6432 9. 5622 1. 05,149 Sum xx, = 3.1091 ‘ Sum sz4 = 3. 6614 Sum X3X4 = 3. 3854 _ 3.1091 _ -3.1091 1'“ ' (9.8464)(1.05149) " 10.353 '30—‘33 r _ 3.6614 __ 3.6614 _ 3611 7" ’ (9..64321)(1.05149) ‘ 10.140 ‘ '— 3.3854 3.3854 1'“ ‘ (9.5622)(1.05149) ‘ 10.055 ' '33-?- .6694) (1'10 66 The differences between the test score by the students on each concept were again used in the statistical analyses. , The Pearson r was- used to determine the following relationships: 1.- Correlation between the predictions made by the two panels of eXperts as tolpermanent attitude shifts. 2.- Correlation between the predictions of the Traffic Safety Panel and the test results as to permanent attitude shift. 3.- Correlation. between the predictions of the Audio-Visual Panel and the test results as to-permanent attitude shift. 4.- Correlation between the combined group (Traffic Safety and Audio-Visual) predictions and the test results as to permanent attitude shift. The t-test of significance for the r-value was applied to the correlation between the two panels of eXperts. The r-table of significance was used ~- to determine the significance of the other r values. An r-test between the permanent attitude shift predictions of the two panels of (experts revealed that r = . 7757. The t—test for the significance of the correlation revealed t to be 2.75 with t.05 '2 2. 57 at 5 degrees of freedom. This means that there was a relatively high positive corre- lation between the predictions of the two panels, and that the probability of having obtained the r-value by chance is less than 5 in 100. The r-test between the permanent attitude predictions of the Traffic Safety Panel and the sample population re sults showed r to be .0602. The r-table of significance revealed that r. 10 = .6694 at 5 degrees of freedom. This would indicate that the positive correlation obtained is too small to be significant in this research. - The r-te st between the permanent attitude predictions of the Audio- Visual Panel and the sample population results showed that r = .1192. ~ Sincesr was already known to be .6694 at 5 degrees of freedom, this value for r was, also, considered to be too small to be significant. 67 The final correlation established was between the permanent attitude predictions of the combined panels (Traffic Safety and‘~Audio- 'Visual) and the sample population. results. This r value was found to be . 0914 and was considered too small to have any significance since we had previously established r. 10 = . 6694. Table” VII lists the panel predictions, the observed attitude shift of the sample p0pu1ation, and the r coefficients Of linear correlation. Although the relationships found in the retention attitude prediction correlations were positive, they were too small to accept as significant in the context of this research. Therefore, this evidence would, also, tend to reject the hypothesis. The second component of the seventh hypothesis is concerned with the ability of the judges to predict both iMediate and permanent shifts in attitude, as a result of having viewed the film. On the basis of all the evidence obtained by the above correlations, the writer would reject this part of the seventh hypothesis. 53.1.11 In this experiment the term "driving skill" refers to potential driving behavior or performance when performing a Specific driving function. This component of the behavioral analysis intends to measure the correlation between the predictive estimates of the expert panels and the actual results obtained when the students were administered a - driving test. ‘ It Specifically attempts to determine the correlation between the estimates of the increase in proficiency on nine items, and the difference between Control Group I and Experimental Group III. . ' Upon completion of the analysis of these groups, the process is then 2 repeated for Control Group‘II and Experimental Group‘IV. 'All of the groups used the same driving tests. However, Groups ‘ I and III were administered the test immediately after viewing the film .68 ' TABLE -VII. _ COEFFICIENTS or LINEAR CORRELATION. FOR‘ 'PERMANENTATTITUDE SHIFT . .x1 . x1 .x, x, Concepts Traffic . Audio- T. S. and A. V. Observed Safety . ‘ Visual 'Combined Shift 1. N-.D-.s. 1.80 1.40 1.61’ .123 2. H.L. 2.25 3.10 2.68 .734 3.-N.D.r 7.25 4.20 5.73 .-.094 4.- N;D.—F.' 7.10- 5.88 6.50 -.021 5. P.H-.U. 3.60 5.70 4.65 .108 6. P;E.D. 1.20 1.05 1.13 -.l31 7.- DsN. 1.98 1.83 1.90 .341 Sum of x 25.18 23.16 24.20 1.060 - Sum of X’- .129.5954 100.7158 111.3668 .708268 _ NSum‘Xz-(Sum‘X); ' 273.1354 168.6950 - 193.9276 3.834276 «IN Sum XZ-(Sum x77 16.5268 12. 9883 13.9258 1. 95813 Sum x,x, =1.949l - Sum xzx, = 3.0314 ~Sum~x,x, = 2.4921 _ 1.9491 _ 1:9491 _ ‘ ”I“ (16.5268)(1.95213) " 32.3 2 ‘ '0602 r _ 3.0314 3.0314 _ 1192 24‘ (12.9883)(1.95813) " 25.433 ' ° _ 2.4921 _ 2.4921 _ r3“ (13.9258)(1.95813) ‘ 27.269 ' '0914 (r. 10 = o 6694) 69 in order to observe the immediate £11m effects, and Groups'II and' IV ‘ received the test after six weeks' delay in order to determine‘the permanency of the film effect upon driving skill. . The differences be- tween the scores made by the students on each of the nine items tested swere used in the statistical analysis. The differences in scores between- . Group‘I and Group'II were correlated with the panel predictions by using the Pearson r, coefficient of linear correlation, which was applied as follows: 1. Correlation between the predictions of the two panels of exPerts. > 2.- Correlation between the combined‘group predictions of the expert panels and the p0pu1ation results. 3. Correlation between the predictiOns of the Audio-Visual Panel and the student results. 4. Correlation between the predictions of the Traffic Safety Panel and the student results. ' Uponthe completion of each correlation, each r-value was‘testedfby the t-test of significance as a basis for accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. _ The correlation of the predictions of the two expert panels showed that r = -. 211640. The t-test placed t at -. 5730 with t.“ = . 570 at 7 degrees of freedom. This means that there was very little correlation between the two groups or that the correlation was not significantly different from zero in either a negative or positive direction. The r-test betweenthe combined groups predictions of the expert panels revealed 1‘ to be . 392. A t-test found t to be 1. 128 and t.“ = .3890 at 7 degrees of freedom. This means that, within the limits set in this > study, there was no significant correlation between the two groups. 70 Their-te st between} the predictions of the Audio-Visual Panel and the p0pu1ationresults revealed'that r = -. 0527. The t-test of . significance showed that t = -. 1398 'with t.” = . 7lO.at 7 degrees of freedom. -This.may be interpreted as meaning that there was no Sig-i nificant correlation‘between the two’ groups. _ The fourth correlation was between the predictions of the Traffic Safety Panel and the student results. r was found to be . 6112. The t-test of significance revealed 1: to .be 2. 046 with t, 10 = l. 89 at 7 degrees of freedom. This means that there was moderately high agreement ‘ between the two groups. The probability of having obtained the r-value by chance is less than 10 in 100. 1 Table VIII lists the panel predictions, observed performance of the sample p0pu1ation, the r coefficients, and the t scores. The relation- ships observed in the above correlations show little agreement between the variables measured and cannot be considered Significant in this experiment. This evidence tends to reject the major hypothesis with reference to the predictability of change in immediate driving per- formance. The second phase of the analysis of skill was to determine the correlation-between. the estimates of the increase in proficiency on nine items, and the difference between-Groups II and IV. The differences I between the scores made by the students on each of nine items were used-in. thisanalysis. The Pearson r. was determined for the following correlations: ‘ I I 1.- Correlation. between the predictions of the two panels of experts. - 2.- Correlationbetween the combined grouppredictions or the expert panels and the p0pu1ation results. 'rAsLE' VIII . COEFFICIENTS OF LINEAR CORRELATION FOR IMMEDIATE CHANGEalN DRIVING SKILL v—r , v , , . m x, A .xz ' ..~x,, x, Item -Traffic Audio T18. and‘A. V. Performance . Safety .- Visual ' Combined of Sample 1 .024 . 005 ' —. 008 . 015 2 . 024 . 007 ., 078 ,, 016 3 .012 .007 -.119 - .010 4 .016 .005 .175 .011 ‘ 5 ., 022 . 009 - . 090 . 016 6 .025 .0312 .241 .019 '7 . . 024 . 015 . 049 . 020 8 .028 .013 .350 ' 4.1021 9 .012 _.025 -.070 .019 r14 = .6112 t = 2. 046 r“: -.053 t= -.1398 -r,,,=.392 t: 1.128 (on, = 1.89 at 7 d.f.) (u,o = .890 at 7 d. f.) «.50: .710 at 7 d.f.) 72 3.- Correlation between the .predictionsof the Audio-Vi sual Paneland the student results. 4.‘ Correlation between the predictions of the Traffic Safety Panel, and the student results. Thet-test of significance was applied to each of the r-values obtained as a' method of latter accepting or rejecting the hypothesis. . Predictions of the two-panels of experts were correlated at r = -. 2065. 'A t-test of significance revealed that t = . 56 with t.” = . 71 at 7 degrees of freedom. This means that the correlation between these 7 two groups of judges was not significant. . A - The r-te st between the combined group predictions of the expert panels revealed that. r = -. 3787. The t-test proved that t = '1. 08 with ~. t.” = . 90 at 7 degrees of freedom. Thisresult— may, also, be classed. as insignificant for the purposes of this study. The correlation between the predictions of the Audio-Visual Panel and the p0pu1ation results revealed r as -. 5649. The t-test showed t to be 1.81 with t,10 = 1.89 at 7 degrees of freedom. .This means that the agreement between the two groups is not significant. 1 The -r-te st between the predictions of the Traffic Safety Panel and the‘p0pulation.resu1ts proved r to be .1128. The t-test revealed that t = . 30 with t.50 = . 71 at 7 degrees of freedom. This means that there is no significant correlation between these two groups. Table IX lists the panel predictions, observed performance of the sample p0pu1ation, the-r coefficients, and the t scores. The above , correlations reveal very little agreement between the variables tested, and-must be considered insignificant for the purposes of this experiment. , The evidence gathered on this component of the behavioral analysis tends to reject the major'hypothesis with reference to skill. --TABLE 1.x .COEFFICIENTS OF LINEAR CORRELATION FOR IHERLLAJUENTKCJLAFKIEIHQIIRIVUNCESKJLJ. X3 X4 x, ' 2 x31 . ., _ Item Traffic ' ‘Afiio- T. S. and A. V. Pe rformance Safety ‘ Visual Combined of Sample 1 .024 .005 . 015 .070 ' 2 -. 024 I . 007 . 016 . 030 3 .012 .007 .010 .090 A 4 .016 ‘.005 .011 -.060 5 .022 .009 ‘ ".016 -. 110 6 .025 '.012 '.019 -.040 7 .024 .015 .020 -.070 8 . 028 ‘ -. 013 ~. 021 i. 020 9 .012 _ .025 .019 -.110‘ r,,=.1123 t=.30 r“: -.5649 t: 1.81 r34: -.3737 t: 1.08 (pm 21.89 at 7 d.f.) (t. ‘0 = o 90 at 7 do f0) .71 at 7 d.f.) (t.so Table' X lists the rcoefficients “of linear correlation-and the t-values of significance for all ’of the component areas’of the behavioral ' analysis. , These correlations reveal high-predictability for increase in learning, and. low predictability correlationfor both attitude and behavior change. The seventhhypothe‘sis‘which' states that it is possible to'predict, by the use of a behavioral analysis, the measurable change- in knowledge, driving. attitudes, and driving skills which will occur as a result of viewing a traffic safetyfilm, is so stated that its acceptance I or rejection must be based upon the conformance of all three components to the conditions set forth in the study. Therefore, on the ’basi-s'of the total evidence, the writer-rejects the hypothesis. TABLE X 75 COEFFICIENTS OF LINEAR CORRELATION AND t- VALUES OF ' SIGNIFICANCE FOR ALL COMPONENTS OF THE BEHAVIORAL ANALYSIS Scores Component rn t r” t r“ t r34 t Immediate . Learning .5189 t. 01 o 2175 t‘. 10 .4303 t.ol o 3571 t. 05 Permanent Learning . 2913 t. 10 . 2575 t. 10 . 3479 t. 05 .. 4753 t. 01 Immediate ‘Attitude .9280 1:,01 .3003 610+ .3611 610+ .3367 610+ Change ' Permanent 'Attitude . 7757 t, 05 . 0602 610+ . 1192 t.10+ . 0914 t. 10+ Change Immediate Skill ". 2116 t.43 .6112 t.10 “.053 t.4o .392 t.50 Change Permanent Skill -. 2065 t, 50 .1128 050 -. 5649 t, 10 -. 3787 tag . Change r12 = Traffic Safety Predictions vs Audio Visual Predictions r14 = Traffic Safety Predictions vs Population'Scores r“ = Audio Visual Predictions vs POpulation Scores r“ = Combined Group (T. S. and A. V.) Predictions vs Population CHAPTER VII SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 1. SUMMARY The purpose of the study was to obtain data to test the hypotheses which were set up regarding the effectiveness of a traffic safety motion picture film upon its viewers. This involved determining the immediate and permanent increase in learning, the immediate and permanent shift in attitudes, the immediate and permanent change in driving skill, and the development of a predictive instrument, called "Behavioral Analysis, " by which these changes might be anticipated. The film "Driving at Night” was selected as the experim‘ental film, after thirty traffic safety films had been previewed. Factors such as the frequency of use of the film in driver training courses, the educational level for which the film was best suited, the subject matter content, the quality of photography and sound effects, the adaptability of the film to the objectives of this particular research, and the important contributions which the film can make toward the goals of highway safety traffic, were factors in the film selection. A behavioral analysis was developed by projecting the film and making a record of all of the important commen- tary and visual events as individual statements of fact. After the facts in the film were categorized, the reaction of the viewer was analyzed by list- ing that information which we expected the learner to associate with the fact. At this point estimates were made of the impact of the film. Next the writer analyzed potential behavioral change into its components. 76 77 The components were obtained from personal interviewers and street corner observation. Each one of the behavior change components was analyzed to determine how behavior might change. Upon the completion of the "Behavioral Analysis" it was administered to ten judges, consist- ing of five Traffic Safety experts and five Audio-Visual experts, who made predictions on the possible changes in learning, attitude, and driving performance which might result from viewing the film. The data to be obtained from the sample p0pu1ation included measurement of achievement, attitude shift, and change in driving skill. The writer constructed and pretested instruments to measure achieve- ment and attitude shift. The reliability of the achievement test was established at r = +. 93 with N = 37. It was tested and found to be significant at t. 001 with 35 degrees of freedom. Reliability of the attitude test was found to be r = +. 98 for the seven concepts, and r = +. 93 with N = 49 for the items. These correlations were revealed to be significant at 15,001 with 47 degrees of freedom. The skill test was not pre-tested, but was constructed in such a manner as to allow direct observation of the driving behavior of each member of the sample p0pu1ation. In the experiment, emphasis was placed upon the ability to estimate and obtain effects which were due only to the strength of the film, and not by how it was administered. Therefore, the verbal instructions were short, and the written instructions were designed to enable the student to understand what was required on each test. May and Lumsdaine state that the best results are obtained and learning is increased by: (1) use of the film at the correct ability level of the students, (2) using the film in context with the subject taught and the unit of instruction, (3) giving _ prior instruction on the content of the film and the purpose for seeing it, (4) st0pping the film for practice or test questions, and (5) clarigying obscure points in the film after it is viewed. (14, p. 310) They also indicate that "a strong interaction effect will be found between these 78 devices and the generalcompeten'ce of the teacher." (14,. p. 317) Therefore, the researcher, recognizing the important roles of the teacher and; supplementary instruction, limits his general conclusions to those findingswhichvmay represent film effects obtainable when a film is- used out of phase withrany unit of instruction. The groups for the study were drawn from a p0pu1ation of SOphomore, junior, and senior students at Michigan'State University. - The selectionof these peOple was by both the purposive and random assignment methods. The experimental design placed (by random selection) all members of the sample p0pu1ation into one of two control or two experimental groups. . Control Groups I and II viewed a non- related film and' Experimental Groups’III and IV viewed the. experimental film. ~Control Group ‘I and“ Experimental Group III were tested immediately after viewing the films for immediate effects. Control Group'II and ‘Experimental Group‘IV were tested six weeks after viewing the film~ in order to determine the permanent effects. 1 The F test was employed to determine if the variances of the two populations might be presumed equal in the analysis of the data obtained concerning the six null hypotheses. The t-test of significance was used to determine whether the results obtained were significant. The Pearson r coefficient of linear correlation was employed in the analysis of the data obtained‘for purposes of evaluating the behavioral analysis technique. The r- -va1ue was then tested by the t- test of significance in order to determine whether to accept or reject the seventh hypothesis. In view of the fact that there was statistically significant difference found inachievement between. Groups I and III, and Groups‘ll and'IV, it 1 was logical to reject both the first and second null hypotheses. There was no! statistically significant difference in attitude shift or change in driving skill between Groups 1 and 111,. and Groups 11 and-IV. Therefore, the'writer‘ accepted the third,. fourth, fifth, and sixth null hypotheses. 79 The three basic components of the "Behavioral Analysis" revealed statistically significant difference in regards to the prediction. of learn- ing, but no statistically significant difference with reference to the predictions of change in attitude shift and driving skill. Therefore, the seventh hypothesis was rejected because of the lack of positive results for all three components. The results of the statistical analyses reveal that experienced drivers do learn factual information from viewing traffic safety films, and this learning is dominant both immediately after viewing the film and for a long period afterwards. However, the learning of factual information does not necessarily coincide with a corresponding. shift in ' attitudes or improvement of driving skill. The analysis also reveals that it is possible to predict the pr0portion of increase in learning which may be obtained from viewing a film, but that it is very difficult to predict shifts in attitude and changes in driver performance. - It is possible that the failure to predict these two components successfully is due to the small amount, if any, of change that actually occurs as a result of viewing the film. _ - Careful effort was made in the experiment by the researCher'to control all variables which could be anticipated. - Special tests were constructed which were used as both pretests and final tests, and the tests were administered under similar environmental conditions in order to prevent contamination by unforeseen variables. All of the tests were submitted to subject matter experts and driver training teachers for their evaluation and suggestions. Those factors which could not be con- trolled were randomized, so that their effects could enter into the esti- mate of error term provided in the statistical analysis. Therefore, on the basis of the type of eXperiment used, the kind of analyses made, and on the evidence found it seems logical to infer that motion pictures 80 concerning Traffic Safety make significant contributions to learning, but little contribution to attitude shift or improved driving performance inso- far as the conditions of use were those followed in this eXperiment. Upon completion of the film analysis, the writer compared the deviant cases, resulting from bad predictions by the panel of experts, with the type of film treatment given these particular points of instruction. This com- parison revealed no differences in film treatment which might explain why those particular cases were deviant. 11. CONCLUSIONS It would seem to the writer that the findings of this experiment further emphasize the need for many carefully designed and statistically analyzed studies before a generalization can be made concerning all Traffic Safety films. The results of the evaluation of this film are indi- cative of the benefits and effects which may be obtained by a teacher who makes only casual use of films as a supplement to a learning situation. In reviewing the steps taken in conducting the research, the writer finds a generally systematic approach to the study of the problems involved. However, fault may be found in the administration of the "Behavioral Analysis" to the two panels of experts. Possibly significant results might be obtained if a replicate of the study were to include a more elaborate orientation of the judges to the predictive instrument. This could result in a more systematic evaluation by the judges of all subjective ratings of the behavioral change components. The findings of this eXperiment lead the writer to believe that the predictive instrument may be used equally as well by the subject matter (Traffic Safety Panel) or film production (Audio- Visual Panel) experts. The subject matter experts did slightly better in predicting driver change, slightly worse in the prediction of learning, and about equally well in 81 the prediction of attitudes when these factors were correlated against student performance. The di 'ferences were generally not significant and a very high degree of correlation was obtained when the two expert panels were compared to each other. The writer would recommend that further study be made concerning the following: 1 1. Apply the predictive instrument to several films to determine its ability to predict accurately the total amount of learning, attitude shift, and skill improvement which may result from viewing a film. Investigate all deviant estimates where both panels were about equally deviant . Investigate all. estimates where one panel estimated closely and where the other panel was off. Determine if any relationships exist between deviant estimates and the type of information presented concerning that portion of the film . Investigate the relationship between the use and success of the "Behavioral Analysis" and the purposes of the film content. Investigate the possibility of producing future Traffic Safety films based upon the behavior change components listed in the "Behavioral Analysis. " Investigate further the cause and nature of the "sleeper effect" found in the tests for attitude shift, and determine whether or not this same type of effect may also exist in tests of learning and behavior. / 10. ll. 12.- 82 BIBLIOGRAPHY . -American Automobile Association. Sportsmanlike Driving. Washington: American Automobile Association, 1955. ‘1 .* American Educational Research Association. EncyclOpedia of [Educational Research. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1950. .- American Truckinglndustry and The Pure Oil Company. , - CenteringTraffic Safety Communications Around Driver's Motivations. An exPloJi-‘atory study conducted for traffic safety. Princeton: Opinion ' Research Corporation, 1 958 . . Brody, Leon. The Psychology of Problem Drivers. New York: New York University, 1957. . Center for Safety Education. Man and the Motor Car. Englewood Cliffs: Prenticeé-Hall, l 954 . .‘ Hartshorne, H. , and May, M. -A. ~ Studies in Deceit. New York: Macmillan-Company, 1928. . Hoban, C. F. and van Ormer, E. G. Instructional Film,Research. Port Washington: Special Devices‘Center No. soc 269-7-19, 1950. Hovland, C. I. , ' Arthur A. Lumsdaine, and Fred D. Sheffield, - Experiments on Mass Communication, PrincetonUniversity Press, Princeton,» New Jersey, 1949. ' Pp. 182E200. . Hull, Clark L. -Essentials of Behavior. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1951. - Kaplan, Louis and Baron,- Denis. Mental Hygiene and Life. '_ New York: Harper and Brothers, 1952. Kimble, Gregory A. Principles of General Psychology. ~ New York: Ronald Press Company, 1956. K0pstein, F F. ,1 and~Rosha1, S. M. 4 "Learning Foreign Vocabulary _- From- Pictures Versus Words. " American Psychologist, 9:40.7-8,“ /13. .14. 15. 1954 abstract. Marx, Meliun‘H. Psychological Theory. New York: Macmillan. Company, 1951. ~ May, Mark A. ,1 and Lumsdaine,: Arthur A. Learning-From Films. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1958. ' McFarland, . Ross A. "Psychological and Psychiatric Aspects of Highway Safety, " Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 32: 234-237, 1957. ‘16. .17 ,18. /19.- 20. ,2 21.- »22. ~23. ~24. -25.' 25 2.7 280' 29. 30. 83 McFarland,- Ross A. ,' Moore, Roland C. , .and'Warren, Bertrand A. -.Human Variables in Motor Vehicle Accidents. Boston: Harvard University, 1955. .' National Academy of Sciences and National Research’Council. ‘ Health, Medical and Drug Factors in Highway Safety. - Washington: National Re search- Council, 1 954. National ResearchCouncil. The Field of Highway Safety Research. , Publication No. 454. Washington: National Research Council, 1956. N.- E. A. National Commission on SafetyEducationX- Second Annual Conference of American Driver and Safety Education Association. Washington: National Commission on Safety Education, 1958. 'Neilson, W. A. , Knott, Thomas A. , and Cashort, Paul W. Webster's New International Dictionary of the English Language. Springfield: G. and C. Merriam Company, 1935. Newcomb, TheodoreM. Social Psychology. New York: The Dryden Press, 1950. 'Norberk, K. ‘Psych'ological Abstracts. Washington American Psychological Association, Vol. 29, 1955. Osgood, Charles E. Method and Theory of EXperimental Psychology. New York: Oxford'University Press, 1953. Osgood, Charles E. , ' Suci, George J. , and Tannenbaum,- Percy H. The Measurement of Meaning. ~Urbana., Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1957. Pressey, Sidney L. , and Robinson, Francis P. Psychology and the New Education. - New York: Harper and Brothers, 1944. .' Remmers,» H.H. and Gage, N. L. Educational Measurements and Evaluation. - New York: Harper and Brothers, 1943. .- Stauffer, Samuel A. and others. Studies in Social Psychology in World War II. . Princeton: Princeton'University Press, 1950. U.- S.‘ Army and U.- S. Navy. Instructional Film Research-Reports. U. - S.- Naval TrainingDevice Center. Port Washington, L.‘ I. , New York: Navexos‘P-1543 Vol. 2, 1956. U. S.'Army and U. ' S. Navy. Instructional Film Research 1918-1950. U.- S.‘ Naval Training Device Center. Port Washington, L. -I. , New York: Navexos- P—977, 1956. ' Walker, Helen M. , and-Lev, Joseph. - Statistical Inference. New York: Henry Holt and Company,~ 1953. 31; Watson, John B. ‘ Behaviorism. New York: W. W.' Norton and Company, 1925. 32. Young, Paul“ Thomas. Motivation of Behavior. -New York: John Wiley and‘Sons, 1948. 84 APPENDIX 86 DRIVING AT NIGHT Gene ral Information 1. Date Number 2. Age Sex 3. Educational background (high school and college) High School - Number years completed College or University - Number years completed Other 4. Residence: Street address, city, state Local phone 5. Driving experience: (a) Year you obtained your original driver's license ; (b) Number of years or months (Specify which) you have driven a motor vehicle Listed below are questions about problems related to the night driving of motor vehicles. There are five possible answers (a, b, c, d, and e) listed for each question. Black out the Space provided on the answer sheet which you think represents the best answer to each statement. E X A M P L E : An automobile has 9. B 2 9. 3. (a) 4 wheels ‘ ' (c) 3 radios (d) 6 tires (e) 3 sets of brakes In this example the correct answer is (a). BE SURE TO ANSWER EACH QUESTION. WORK QUICKLY AND DO NOT SPEND MUCH TIME WITH ANY ONE QUESTION. 87 "Driving at Night" SELECT ONE CORRECT ANSWER. 1. Two essentials needed to drive safely after dark are: (a) fast reactions and good timing (b) fatigue and good visibility (c) companionship and alertness (d) real skill and concentration (e) knowledge of the road and automobile 2. Changing situations on the road ahead require which of the following? (a) complete control of car and readiness to react (b) driver courtesy and patience (c) eye focus far ahead with good visibility (d) reduced Speed and knowledge of the road (e) knowledge of the road and of the fundamentals of driving 3. Which of the following items most nearly represents the most dangerous factors to be aware of when driving at night? (a) blowout and other car failures (b) stOp signs and pedestrians (c) Speed and concentration (d) fatigue and visibility (e) headlight glare and headlight use 4. The best guarantee for safety after dark is to: (a) have knowledge of the road (b) clean the windshield (0) exercise real caution (d) stay right of center line (e) study rules of traffic safety 5. The most important consideration for the driver concerning his headlights is that they be: (a) focused toward the center of the road (b) focused toward the edge of the road (c) focused downward (d) focused with left beam down and right beam up (e) clean and clear 6. Which of the following indicates the pr0per time to turn on your headlights? (a) one-half hour before sunset (b) at dusk 88 "Driving at Night" 10. 11. 12. (c) whenever visibility is impaired (d) as soon as it's dark (e) when you notice other people have done so . If you are pulling off the highway at night with the intention of parking away from the city street lights you should: (a) signal 500 feet before pulling off (b) Signal 300 feet before pulling off (c) signal 150 feet before pulling off ((1) leave parking lights on (e) park on left side of road . At night it is impossible to identify objects clearly if they are: (a) over 200 feet away (b) over 150 feet away (c) over 100 feet away ((1) over 75 feet away (e) over 50 feet away . The range of even the best headlights is far less than the stopping distance required for a Speed of: (a) 30 m.p.h. (b) 35 m.p.h. (c) 40 m.p.h. (d) 45 m.p.h. (e) 50 m.p.h. The first rule for safe driving at night is to: (a) rest before driving (b) have a thorough car checkup (c) make sure visibility is good ((1) study night driving (e) reduce your Speed A night driver should always do which of the following? (a) start car in second gear (b) drive less than 40 m.p.h. (c) know the road thoroughly ((1) use headlights prOperly (e) carry a passenger for conversation When other cars approach, do the following: (a) look at the center line (b) watch the other cars' lights (c) look at the edge of the road 89 ”D riving at Night " l3. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. ((1) pass as quickly as possible (e) stOp if convenient to do so With reference to smoking while driving, don't do the following: (a) smoke while driving (b) light matches or lighters (c) smoke anything but a pipe (d) smoke when meeting cars (e) throw ashes out the window The best conclusion to draw if a car approaches with only one headlight is to: (a) dim your lights (b) assume it is the right one (c) blink your lights ((1) slow down and pull to the right (e) pass as quickly as possible A night driver should always: (a) inspect his headlights before driving (b) keep his eyes on the road (c) know all road signs ((1) review night driving rules (e) st0p smoking while driving One reason why inside lights should not be on is: (a) it distracts other drivers' attention (b) it takes the driver's attention off the road (c) it irritates other drivers (d) it reduces the range of visibility (e) it annoys the passengers With reference to pedestrians, drivers Should: (a) drive slower (b) look for their flashlight (c) remember that they will probably wear white clothes (d) have complete knowledge of the road (e) blow the horn ' If sleepy, a driver should do which of the following: (a) blink his eyes rapidly (b) get out of the car and stretch (c) turn on the radio (d) take deep breaths for five minutes (e) go faster so he can get where he is going quicker 90 "Driving at Night" 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. The greatest hazards in night driving are: (a) poor visibility and fatigue (b) other car headlights and slow reactions (c) drunk driving and pedestrians ((1) Speed and visibility (e) personal negligence and fatigue Conditions necessary for night driving are: (a) courtesy, prOper use of headlights, reduced Speed (b) ability to guess correctly, freedom from fatigue, courtesy (c) readiness to react, concentration, good eyesight (d) driver training experience, slow speed, good reactions (e) steady nerves, good visibility, road knowledge Night driving is made more complex by: (a) multi--focus headlight beams (b) the increased number of rules to remember ((3) limited visibility due to headlight glare (0‘) lack of driver courtesy (e) inefficient preparation for night driving Before taking to the road after sunset we must: (a) check the car mechanically (b) check the gas and oil (c) master the f";-.nd.am.entals of driving (d) practice night driving (e) first master daytime driving The hazards of night driving are greatly increased by: (a) car passengers (b) lack of driver training (c) dangers lurking at every shadow (d) low pressure tires (e) strong headlight beams Which of the following correctly represents the number of fatal accidents occurring at night? (a) 30% (b) 70% (c) 65% (d) 50% (e) 60% 91 "D riving at Night " 25. 26. 27. 28. 30. Which of the following statements is true with regard to night driving? (a) problems are multiplied many times over (b) flicker your lights when meeting a car (c) use bright lights in the city ((1) dim lights in the rural areas (e) at night use only bright lights One courtesy of the road to remember and practice is: (a) flick your lights before passing (b) blow your horn before passing (c) pass one car width to the left (d) pass only one car at a time (e) do not pass on two lane highways When approach-ing an oncoming car at night: (a) look at the center line (b) look directly at the oncoming car (3) look down at the road (d) look away from the headlights (e) increase speed Why should a night driver always decrease his speed when rounding a curve? (a) he can’t see to the right (b) he can't see to the left (3) the tires have better traction (d) to compensate for the small angle of the headlight beam (e) he doesn't have complete visibility . At night you can't see one side of the road when. making a turn because: (a) of Split vision (b) of windshield reflection (c) of the corner structure of the car (d) of night shadows (e) the lights slant diagonally as you turn At night the range of visibility is most important in order to: (a) identify road signs (b) follow the center line (c) read advertisements (d) see night riders or pedestrians (e) develop confidence in driving 92 "Driving at Night" 31. 32. 33. 35. 36. A special hazard to the night driver is: (a) other car lights (b) seeing pedestrians ((2) looking out for drunk drivers (d) reducing Speed (e) cars with one headlight The majority of pedestrian accidents occur: (a) in the daylight (b) after dark (c) due to drunk drive rs (d) due to high Speed (6) due to pedestrian error The factor considered to be the most dangerous at night is: (a) Speed (b) intoxication (c) inexperience ((1) poor reactions (e) fatigue . When you are tired, you are less vigilant and lose your sense of judgment about which of the following? (a) alcohol (b) reaction time (c) road signs (d) Speed and distance (e) visibility One result associated frequently with driving while tired is: (a) reduced driver courtesy (b) mental errors (c) increased driving Speed (d) falling asleep (e) lack of driver courtesy A common way for a night driver to ask for trouble is to: (a) listen to the radio (b) talk with other passengers (c) smoke while driving ((1) turn. off the dash lights (e) drive while tired 93 "Dri ving at N1 ght" 37. Your ability to handle the car skillfully at night is affected most by: (a) pedestrian problems I (b) fatigue and visibility (c) weather conditions (d) mechanical condition of the car (e) road conditions 38. When stopping a car at night, which of the following five factors will probably be the most important? (a) the type of pavement (b) the weight of the car (of: reaction time (d) braking time (e) barometer pressure 39. When a car approaches without both headlights, you should do the following: (a) blink your lights (b) dim your lights (c) signal with your horn (d) turn your lights off (e) 310W down 40. in order to be an efficient night driver we must: (a) memorize all driving rules (10) understand the ear mechanically (c) practice night driving (d) be familiar with the road (e) be courteous at all times 94 Study 593 ~ September, 1959 PreDAN (final) NOTICE: The identity of persons reSponding to this questionnaire will not be revealed to anyone. Completion time is 10 minutes. STUDY OF THE MEANING OF DRIVING AT NIGHT We would like to know what driving at night means to you. We are using a novel way to give peeple an. opportunity to eXpress the feelings they have about things. it consists- of a number of words which refer to some asPects of driving at night and a number of scales. On each scale you; can indicate the direction and intensity of your associ- ation for a given word by placing an ”X" in an appropriate Space. Here is an example: DIRTY HEADLIGHTS Intelligent:_: : : : : :___:Stupid If your association was that dirty headlights are "extremely intelligent" factors of night driving you would mark as follows: DIRTY HEADLIGHTS Intelligent:X: : : : : : :Stupid DIRTY HEADLIGHTS Intelligent: : : : :X: : :Stupid If you felt they are neither intelligent nor stupid factors (or both intelligent and stupid) you would mark: DIRTY HEADLIGHTS Intelligent: : : :X: : : :Stupid Please give your first reaction. Work quickly. It shouldn't take more 7; ., than three minutes to finish a page. 95 Traffic Safety Film Research Project September 1959 Study 593 C 1, 2, 3 FACE SHEET —— SEMANTIC DIFFERENTIAL -- PreDAN (Final) Name: Card fl Subj. 8O . C 4, 5,6 '"' " "Col, NIGHT DRIVING SKILL Passive;:___:__’_:__:__:_:i :Active 7 HEADLIGHT LIMITATIONS Nice: : : : : : : .:Awfu1 8 NIGHT DRIVING VISIBILITY Easy: : : : : : : :Difficult 9 PEDESTRIANS Bad:_:___:__:_:__:_:__:Good 10 NIGHT DRIVING FATIGUE Wise:;__:__:__:__:___:__:__:Foolish ll DRIVING AT NIGHT Large:_:__:__:_:__:__:___: Small 12 PROPER HEADLIGHT USE Dangerous:__:_:__:___:__:__:___:Safe 13 NIGHT DRIVING SKILL Nice: : : : : : : :Awful 14 HEADLIGHT LIMITATIONS Easy: = v : : : : :Difficult 15 NIGHT DRIVING VISIBILITY Bad: : -: : : : : :Good 16 PEDESTRIANS Wise: : : : : : : :Foolish 17 NIGHT DRIVING FATIGUE Large;: : : : : : :Small 18 DRIVING AT NIGHT Dangerous:_:_:__:_:_:__:_:Safe 19 PROPER HEADLIGHT USE Passive:___:___:__:___:___:___:__:Active 20 NIGHT DRIVING SKILL Easy:__:_:_:_:_:_:_: Safe 21 HEADLIGHT LIMITATIONS Bad:__:__:_:_:__:__:__:Good 22 NIGHT DRIVING VISIBILITY Wise:__:__:_:__:_:__:__:Foolish 23 PEDE ST RIAN S La r g e:_:_:_:__:___:__:__: Small 24 NIGHT DRIVING FATIGUE DangerousL:_—:_:_’_ ___:__ Safe 25 DRIVING AT NIGHT Passive:__:__:__:__:_:___:__:Active 26 PROPER HEADLIGHT USE Nice: : : : : : : :Awful 27 NIGHT DRIVING SKILL Bad: : : : : : : :Good 28 m_—~——— 8 :r Study 593 - September 1959 PreDAN (Final) HEADLIGHT LIMITATIONS Wise: :Foolish NIGHT DRIVING VISIBILITY Large: PEDEST RIANS Dangerous: NIGHT DRIVING FATIGUE Passive: DRIVING AT NIGHT Nice: PROPER HEADLIGHT USE Easy: NIGHT DRIVING SKILL Wise: HEADLIGHT LIMITATIONS Large: NIGHT DRIVING VISIBILITY Dangerous: PEDESTRIANS Passive: NIGHT DRIVING FATIGUE Nice: DRIVING AT NIGHT Easy: PROPER HEADLIGHT USE Bad: NIGHT DRIVING SKILL Large: HEADLIGHT LIMITATIONS Dangerous: NIGHT DRIVING VISIBILITY Passive: PEDESTRIANS Nice: NIGHT DRIVING FATIGUE Easy: DRIVING AT NIGHT Bad: PROPER HEADLIGHT USE Wise: NIGHT DRIVING SKILL Dangerous: HEADLIGHT LIMITATIONS Passive: NIGHT DRIVING VISIBILITY Nice: PEDESTRIANS Easy: NIGHT DRIVING FATIGUE Bad: DRIVING AT NIGHT Wise: PROPER HEADLIGHT USE Large: C_3_o_1_. Z9 30 31 32 34 .35 36 38 39 4O 41 42 51 96 Punch llllllllllll I llllll llllill 97 PROJECT 593M NAME Date Group N3. Test Items Right Wrong Code (Yes) (No) 1. INSIDE LIGHTS OFF 7 3 HEADLIGHTS ON DIM POSITION WHEN APPROACHING AN ONCOMING CAR - SPEED REDUCED WITHIN SAFE LIMITS WHEN ROUNDING CURVE SPECIAL PRECAUTION OR CONSIDER- ATION OF PEDESTRIAN SAFETY GENERAL REDUCTION OF SPEED DUE TO HAZARDS OF NIGHT DRIVING FLICKER ING OF HEADLIGHTS WHEN PASSING A CAR SLOWING DOWN AND PULLING TO RIGHT WHEN APPROACHING ONE-EYED CAR PARKING LIGHTS USED PROPERLY WHEN PARKING BESIDE HIGHWAY GENERAL CONCENTRATION AND CAUTION SHOWN BY DRIVER 10. X TURN 5 11. Y TURN 5 12. FIGURE 8 5 13 DID STUDENT USE MATCH OR ‘ 3 ' LIGHTER WHILE DRIVING? 14. TOTALS 15. DOES STUDENT SMOKE? 6 (Instructor' 3 Signature) 98 m $383800 >9» as: Home." 3 333255 .m Zap twidgno: H >95 02.3 mg garb .N .usmpgo :30m A . mesh» in um “no? on “was.“ umfiup Ema 4 ~--.——.o -0 .vmuad poo.” 2.3 no mnoflmfifim 939550 23 3 093a >flm um gummy o» capo?” cam mega“ 2m um noun—Goo 303880 a“ on. $35 03 «08 3 39mm m3“ moop 303 .m .EmE a... 2.3. race H .N .OmHm camp 9.3 aw mfifixm cam magic mg no mucuucmocou @3050. Gownmm .m as”: pogmmm ma um .H I . :5qu Ho miOflfidu mun—xv mo. ESE Hmtfiup < Jump Hmuwm Inflowmm mp3 0» common mum H023, 9% pm. 23m amok pad soflwupcoocou {WIS ISM-Ia U! 98119113 Juaueuuad JO aaemtisg {ms ”AUG U! afiumo eietpsuxml :10 9191111393 98'. $113 BP’f-JIHV iuaueuu ed ;0 912111119 3 efiuqu eptarqiv aietpamuq }O enemas $103,323 .19qu suotirnitg 3.311qu 3 a". - 919E“ 0d '10 ei'erujgi- a 2‘? u :31; f) .I org-rm; a g .I 01.x:eqag QQUQSHSQN sydoad .1 aquo 9311 EUIJOIIQCI fill—39 81d st afipetmoux go >{o‘er1 siusmfipnf {91109: 9d guru 1qu 1T19._Igmlgd wavcom ECU www.mflu pogmaom 8113.111 19.9"} 811ij Luml .10 94 ramps 3 .w— peg umoux ‘4‘. .- j‘- ,- *- --.-.-.-,.__ ._. 1H<$MQ 99 on» E wdmundouo muamgoom SH 2:303 , Momma mud oSdeH Him >HHHHnHmH> $33.3 0».th 92ch .99» 3233 cam GmoHo fcoum muanHcdmA p.99» HH go 6.03» one 50% HH .mEHu 23 Ed modeuoHnmnH Ho 33: .35 fidfifimfi uogmu 0:0 .N HmoHomcoooBm m3» 0U no em: oHnHoonH .H 653.250 dun—No on. $55 .3.»an ”3qu 4 .xudp on» A: 303.0. ooEdudSw ado :03 noon Hack Ho onsmmog 93%» dd >30 60.3» and H Goa? moum cam 333m 0>Hup H omdmomo. can 0» enamm fnmmop mEH. .N .9833 omega omnmau ado mnflfloc ado. mow thmnonm mH mEH. .H Sawmmmuo: GonquHou oz .EmHG 3 Ho onward on 3 mucuomH 35ande $08 on» and 3333 was 323ng noonH -- p...—..... .. m-.- 3333 V3V3001N80dd8dd3 W3 U..S U..S n8 nslqeeelaoelas s an. an. In. In. u. e a 8 u.u. 1 en. a in. mm. u u .4 a a u vanes 9 32 gm m smsmmwmmlaosm.xomm.aemme memeamamuaimodwmomwmma uauao. o senazmt xdu m 0 O ULO ULO 1.1...u 9 d f 39 1.0 0 01:01:21.. BTJOUO In U..1 TJHIT: 1 JIu u 1 WM 9 P e In; T...d I. .d S .L.T. 18 O 9 9 A8 Amadaqo O 8 SW U I E E aiamexa up cum: 1 1m 19 m 9 98 m e m. m. Se SP 2 P a 1 u u u mm“ Wm. w m. s as 8 Hu H1 u 3 a 1, a .4 a munonomEoU mimcdaHU nogmgmm 1323 among 1H~ _ mngudm H59» 933 {3330030 m «$3 05 :33 >030 waving 0nd :0.» 3 .< .5 _ .308303. 03 mo 0009 . 063 o“ >03>G0 030 00.00 0Go>n0>m .m a M m 503000.” H0509” 0 m« 03H. .N . m .03» 0800 05. «0 0o. . _ 3 900126 035“ :0 ”Snow 0130a” J .U _ n ‘ . 033mg 0:» m3 wanna £033 Go ”SAME _ « ill..hl--l, . lill -ll . lLl s i .. - . . .. ., : .lfil.-. l . . .- .505 new 600: .199» no ”33003:“ . umufl 0a» 00 9538.00: H59» :0 GHPH. .m . 60:8: 2 3:3me _ W H _ u0>0a0€5 .3 £0230 0.330. .353 _ M . ‘ , H _ W 3.97000 3133000: 0.99» no :03 _ . , _ . g _ . m .1000. H59» 000 G00 50> 00.90 0x05 0H. .4 .0 fl .. M, _ , v m 7 . . H h .m00um0v war??? 5 3.9.0.0." , : ..H :3, 0G0 03030>0GS 0w 05m30h .m ll ll--- W. l.. I ....... -2- , i ll 530 EB lll _. l -- , - l _ a l - l . ll l M no 0003 >000 3300 03?:0003 .N . A H .030 039.2 0no>n0>m~ .H .0 ll - l l ll}- . - lJl - l; M . l W M .0306 H0um0 0.233 8.303 am .m , . l m l 4_ 33 33 V3 VHWODMTNHOdd8.d#d313H U. s U. S fl S n” 9 mm H. . E a a m a o a 1 _ 9 S S u 2.4. 231...“... 1.1. 9.38 u. 1 90. a 1U. u o u t u t 1 1 m a u _y. H e a s s e. s m m 8 m 8 m n m n 1 o w B A 1 o .... m . a m a m u a e a e P e P e a _ o a I. u o. .. u e B P e 1. 1+ 9 1. 9 1. 1d n 1: 0 .d E .l. O . 1 U 1. T. 1. .d I. a t. a a a e S . u 1 a T. a 1 . a a m. a u u 3 O O I. _ X 3 O . d u 9 .8 Gm. Gm...u.m:u.m.mmww 9 «pm. She 1m. mfmf 1 1 L e m x e m a p w) u. 1 1 M u 4.2093000 T... d T: u d S 11. I 8 o a 9 . _ A a A m , 8 a an m m. s u m e e H a 1 a m a 1 a u D. m ow w w 1 1 J m 1 a. m a s cu m m e m. m. . m.» pu. % m? m w m w w am m w .3280 3:33.300 .0 L a .L m.“ 9 m. . a " 933902.30 .m .l W .l a _ W a _ ’ . .. . H 32mm Emu :4. _ _ 0393 S30 0mc0£U now>030m _ w P m~m>A§MQ 0033300 101 033300: 33> 03.3093 ”.300 00 . 3 873 cm 3 000a; 0 000 0003000 000003 wfimmgm 0A“ 00A» 000M 000 0M 03330003 «000. 04.3 G0>0.3 0w00n 03H. 0.) .4..o M .>H000000~30 03001503 030 H 0x03 $0330 0000 3 003 .3300 .N .. . $0330 0235 >030 .00 02 0903. 00 0H0: 00H. .H .0 . 0300300 _- 4L- .. - 32009 0» £9300 H00 0005300 . 03» 03.30000 0.000 0333003 0000 .m _ M . M 033300: 000w _ £3 00>0 >300H0 0003003 00' 30 .1300 >030 .um om.” 00:0 0003 0303.0 M .>0:03 £0.93 00... 300 0030000m .m m _ . .>u030n_ 03‘ 30 H003 >03 00.3. .N . .mGOH Bog no“ 000 >0BAwMA 05. ...... “1 , HMO Haw 305 Gomfi mfiudmmwfiu madam—u .H .U .0300 .3000 3an $30300 53> 003 .0 .N. ._ .__._. _ Mr... __4., 931mm) 9&1:er IIPIS IQAWCI u: 93112110 man'eunad JO aqempsg 11mg JaAgxq u; 0&1qu aqegpewuq 30 0120:3193 quau'euuad ;0 01121111193 efiueqo apmmv QQEEPQUIUII 3'0 STEW'FJSS 9.101095 .Iaq10 suon'enns 2900'qu 08p01moux ;0 X091 aouafiufieN .onveqag s .atdoed .1an0 squamfipnf fence .1 9d GIQ‘ESSOd eBU'qu .Iom'eqeg 000210.10de was 91d 030000300 0W00£0 0030£0m __ Bum; 'ear'I queueuu 9d ;0 areuxpsg 80311201 eyegpaumuI ;0 91211112183 13030001.); '* J§HQ >0200m H00030fifim .0 000300230 .m 030mm 33h .4 102 00003000 .0000 0000000000 000E000. 000 003000.302 .N .2000 00 0000 00000 20 3 :0 u>0m 00. 000000 003000000000 0000h .H .0 50000000 00 00000 unmflh 00.33 000000 >005 000 00003 0000000. .0300 0 >030? 0>00Q ..m .00000 000> 000000 00 00 00mg 00 w00 l ———'" 1,000 0000 000 0000 000.0 000 30000000 00 00 000000.000 00. >000 00> .000 000 . 0005000 000 000003 000 00 0000 000> _ 00m .>000m00000 00... 0... 0000000 0>00> “ 0003 00» >0. .0000 000 m000w 000 00> 0H 3% .00 _ .00000 0000000000. _ 0000000 M00000 0090 0.000 0Hm00nH in, A .00 00000000 90000000 . 000 «00.05 :00 0>0930 0.000 000 .N -.....-I.;i!|.- €11.11}! .00 0300a 0000 30m? 00 0.0.00 om 0.0000 00 >000 00 00 0>00 30H 00H. .0 .0 .2000 .8 33on 0>00 .0 .o 11019 leAE-ICI u: 551112110 1110112u110d 10 0121111193 11019 IBM-Ia u: 93119110 QJ‘BEPSWWI }O QQ‘EUIHSE ,-—_— 03112113 0pn1111v 111011211110d 10 012111119 3 J 93112110 epmmv 0121p01111111 10 012111119 :1 . _4--;- - 9 .1 01025 .1 01110 1011121101; 0011081180N 9 .01d00d 101110 911011211119 00112113 08p01m0'ux 10 >102'I ._ ' 91u0u18pnf [2u0910d 81111112011 111011211110d 91q1ssoc1 08112113 1011121103 0 _ m . w . . 0011211110110d 111090.1d 10 0121111193 8u111120'1 01211101111111 ;0 0121111193 1025 111001151 m _ 0 0000000000 $0000 000000000 M w-_---. r#.. -_. _., . 4§0H>§nmm .0080 00800300 .0 00000000000 .m 380 800 .0 mHWWA§MQ 60.23300 103 :23“? 93503 68.3, 0:» 80.3 309366 339. .N .unmgoum cm 0350 find mfioummcmv 03.3500 mEH .H .U Jam? 3 ado HQamHOGd MGMHQME C033? GBOU BOHW ..m .Udou an» no mmvv 93 am «no, magmmgmma 23 «a «0d M03 .550@ 33.0. .numoummm mydo .356 avg? .< .NH .knfiduflmaofifim 0U H £033 >mmundoo Havana: m“ mEH .0 -H.... ._.. _. .— .mfimflcmo: 9.99» vms o» 30: 95 avg? BOGM .m f V w .3: 1 j 4 A 4” mammmmm 0.8me 3ng ad?» uoxuflm d wad .Hmo yuan—05m 933020“ no mam H 506$ :03? 3ng mmvumov Suuafioo _ . as» E 3ng ”Ewwua 0m: 6233mm: . mo mm: 33 305”” o» Emu—Honda: m“. “H ..< .3 03 33 V3 V303,? 34,. a 13$ u..S ULS n8 n8 1._U..‘E.W amw 7% Mus mm “mm SMWA 2.4.2.9....u. t.1.u.2~o.8 qqxsqaza no umummm 3ma__uwvfl_fi.fieassesmt. 1.” B on P m. 1 a. _8._m1_o PAwe wmawfm a? 92. p. e _e_0 a “u Ntflu eenmuew 1m t.m_am«umu_sw;_u ma; eomnwméjg u u no 9 a_..._.x a o I” 1I”. u 19.2 q00 00 on 8 08008000 08 3 .002. .0 .0000? 000% £005 000m00u0fi .00 w00§00 000% 000.0% 00300000 000% 0&3 mw0Eu 0001.0 00H 0.00Q $0330 030.5 0000033 0300.030 00 00000000 unwfi «.00Q .3000 2.; menu 000.00% 00300 000 000 00 0000003 0090 @00m0v >000 0H .0Hm00m 00.000 005—on 0.000 .000me uawfinm .m .m .4 A; .0 .m .4 .mH .0 .NH .—.————.- ._ _._~- [1mg 10qu H; 0811qu quatreunad yo anempsg J. w _ . 03 V3 V300_1N~30d33dd3m.3 0.3 1.8 19 1W8 0 91 9 09 J as S 1. 1. 3 UL 1+ 1. e... .5... 1.... 0.2.08 u. 1 90.0 1 m u I. 1.... 1w.” a u :4. W... E e s .s 2 S mmue w. Smwmm m. _1 3.08 m.xmowm..m.a e _P 0W.0m. QWJafllaod.wm10Wuwdm.m @309 09mm~im1mlmexdmanaa O O ULO 1.1..u 9 d P.“ 38 10.3.0 G1... WIEJO m.o Inw U..1 "11.11. H. _u.d u 1 10M 94 p B T: .3 .8 an S I. T... an H O 9 .E A,w99 9 H 0.9 S m on 1 9 8m. 1 m. u.P _ 9 m1 31 1 , m W San m 9 . u m. 9 a. u .E I. 30; e P. a M .4 u u .u 3...... u I. . s 0 an .3 I11. 11. I? m 9.. M . W _ _ _ . . _ .0 0000000000 $0000 .0 03000 m w 10123 umoux A§MQ 3080 0800036 .0 00000000000 .m 380 E00 .4 mHmMraH/wZAN J§HM Umdcficou Sudmmvoon mm: no 303 OZ .0 Sndmmvuma Gofimuoinou 02 .m 4333.8? «0 mmndu mg awed—won 105 wad madam m mvudwuo fi “magmuv $233 Go 3ng @393 0.33 no: on .4 .3 .udmuuomew >um> ma wusuoa H93 2:. .m .noficofid 3d." mwdwfi .8530 .N .06 Ou 3am [woman “c0300.“? £033 £095 €115: ii} :«lLi L15. 1 l .4 3.0: .mvdauflfi UdOH can mmov “33 .H .U - I1! ! ill. I 4 ; I? 1.. v Q“ .kwhmmmmomfl Gounmnuxrcoo OZ .m. _ M . H .mmgfi ‘ _ Sm Hm Udon 05‘ Go mmrwm H59» mqu .4 .ma Sumwmmoonfid ad: 335 >m§ vvmmw ucmmmum p.90? .m M .053 was 4,. mo updm >15 Knudmmmooc m“ mEH .N 6923 0.3503 i ‘ ~33 mi» coma mwcmmow mEB .H .0 .3 I ‘ V, J IIPIS lemma H! 98mm zuaueuuad }0 anemnsfi 93 V3 V3 0,3‘T,N 90 d dnufld_d313,.va v.5 nsflns 1,..u. e a a".1 a 09 Ines ms u an. In. Fm. "Ric 3:3 ULH,1 9U._941m. mufio u m 3 9_u XWH 29,5 se,s,,m Wm am pm mm o s o 3.3; mm u an amham «is I 9 od m, to mfum. twi gained/Ema 1.9 a» a v. S u 19 T. 91 ‘99 29, u D "D 3 1.x 3 o , d_u 1 we 0 ULO.U..O 11,“.4 u 9 d «I. 3fl3.10 SOHO .07: ET: 9...... 0 n O .l n U; I, T: 13.1 1.1 u u 1,2 m 8 p EV?! n1 wl. W t. and m. sun... I -53 o a a 39:; @m FWJMTQ mi . g . n 1 a m; a _s a“ Wm“ a m: m. m. , indomfiaoumsfim u w: . :3 T” aw gagged Hm W” m_ b. . _ ‘ 9, , muomhgfih.< _ muGoCOQEOO omqmfio Hom>w£om w ,, —_1 F mHMWAJdea AEmm 106 Umscfldou m pavcomgou owcmflu p.,o.m>..m£mm >Hdmmmooc mm: mo macaw OZ .0 I! s .%Hmmmoumn 903.3280 OZ .m I. -‘ .fl _ dam: fammow .39 fimmnm 09$ ma mac E -lir.xxlllil .m 31..“ 339.3...» 93 ado .23 mo p.90 fem 998 990.9 out. we 2.9m Samoan : .4 .wH .mokfimmEmfi— new 950 £3.95 ado madfiuummvmnm .N .mfiov on “on >99“ H £033 .33 03 magic . mm? H mvudoflnnm 995010. mcflfinfl J .0 _ - I .mcdmuummvom mo H3523 .Sugdufl _ lama we. find Ema Hm 333m o>EQ .m _ :33 W _ .638 £3.95 cam 9030? 99.39 ”mg“ m _. no Unmmmv Econ .mmfiofio Em: m _ _ 9mm? 9cm uawfizmmfl .m >533 .uflmmuu W . W 9350990 903 3909?. 35:30va In. .: .93939V3vauo_?1__N90 dag aggraxm U.S.U.S ”HS ns;.+ "1.?”9 91.9.09 1.99. Swum 91.9.... 1.4.r,uiu.eho”8 qu. stu. aim; u:o,_ um aw Qm 1 b9 unvfl.U.H E9 9.8? 9 mm. mm Q0 8 «L T- n m H I 3 0 Q0 A 1 O “T... A.” 9 M , . _. 9 u .H gm...ffiiw;mduhmmmm:mwm.m m t. 9+ .1. m. mm, a _ E S. m m 1 9 W. m 9 1 . ..9 9 . WW 9 9 J WHdVMmOHK/émm ,u u o 9 5 3H,: 0 dwu _a f . O 0 U; 0 JL 0 1... 1. a U . 8 d PL m 3 9 .11 O M O 3 . _ I, J I u U T191 9. m 8 D... , P. T! .H... _ Y: d T... d S m: I ,. .u 0.0 . O _ 9 w 9 _ . 9 I _ 9 m _ 9 1 9 m . U“ 0.. w _ ow m .1 * l .U A 1. w 1 9 m 9 . s . B 9 .. .u w w. . W Kimom Hmaoflmsfim .0 S E U S D. E D. .. 9 m w. m m. 9 U 9 ,9 . . . . 9 . . y .. . quflmm m. m m . 9 _ muumhaflh < mHm VAAVZAV J999» 9.99993 9:99 999993 9999.99. 09 9930999 9.99 995. 9999999599939 95 9999998 99>9d 99.990999 980m 4N 49999999999 950993 90> 9.90990, 999993999 «90999 -99 :9. >ummm9o9: 99 9999999999 .9 .0 4.».9999999: 99099993909 OZ .m _ £999.99 99999 990.9 _ _ W _ 9:9 0”. magma. 9.909.904 mgr/9.999 90 w 9.999959999999999 993 99.99.9999 “99:99 995 .49. .NN _ _ . . . . fl _ 939990399 OZ 0 m Ii; I Wri .. x - m _ 4>9999999c 99099993909 OZ .m u -- .rl ll' 3.119!!! 9: . -. L .l_+|| .1| 4‘1- 4* . . _. _ _ dzmmc 9.9 m>m.3£m9£ wad . . . . M .- w 9 _ .M 4.399.999 99.: co 94.9.9.2» 90 99.99.5999 a . _ 0 t! 9 . m m m m _ ‘ W 99999999909 999.9, 0.9 @999 :9. 399.99.. . M m w m w 9 9.995999% 9:» was 335.999.). @9998: L a _ _ _ . . . . . u . o. J .. d w M _ _ w M .2999: 2: 90 83,9 999.655 mi. .49 99 .3--- r .4 . - .. u -. r ........_..L............. +13..- 33 .99.: vs vs ouogiN 90.999 9493 main ,1. u. U. :_ _ .M .5 .fl u. S .4. _ U... F. _ 9 a I“... H .3 . O a I _ 9 c... a m u 9.4. pm._v.m._r.m wL9 .._8.u.m_a cu. 991m. male Y. 4 .. .I. ... . . “ I . TI. n .. . 9. ._ ._ _ 4 1. “ U w mu "M .9...“ u _. m w I I w Yl _ .1. _ r; 1 9h. . M9. W .9 1 w w 8 w m :0 QC 1 9L . D O _GC .4 _.\ I. M 8 _ L. . p _ 9E 9? PPHPE J9 I._9Lo.du Umumxcflp: . .I 95%. .79” 9.9m._9.9.m EWS. mu 919.999.91 .4. mammal m4m¢2m4<2< 17m #90:, 43.9mm 109 vmsfiuaoo .muOuodw Adufimoflofimifim 3 «3“. ma mEH .0 .BmE um Hopdouw mud mEmHnoum magic 302 .m 33er mean“ knmg wonmugfi 3m mfiofioa 5ng 2 .< .3 $30 Adaofldgnofi: .D Sawmmouoc newwnokaou OZ .m 33mg Hm H5000 masoufiuom 7 vinofiogd 13mm 23 mo unmouwm >3an .4 .vN 7 7 .nofidmfim wimxfiuw 23 mo amog knmdouo on. mnmwcmv mdofino gmsocm mum 0.323. um .mBOUdAm on wouoiummu won mum mumwndw mmmflH .H ,0 7 \KAAIIVAII flaw" v \ I ‘b\/ h 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 , , 7 77 7 7 _ 7 7 7 7 7 7 , IQLI‘II i ‘ ‘ 7:.il I ‘7‘ L ‘7 7 , 7 7 7 7w 7 7 7 7 b 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 _ 7 7 7 7 _ 7 , 33 DH V37VH 07377 N780 d7d8 d,d3 73 "X Us U.s Us U c. 1,7u.7.y_a 3;... a 709,1,35 wc‘. u mm.” wn7wflmw7fm. w._m7w.aml7w.y 11,“; 1n. mm» o .1 fly ,1 7 ., S t. , . 2.. , . 8m8m7rw7rm17o7 77707;; 07.47 9 mm ewm a? 9P_P..V.7PE 9,079 : mi...‘ u Eu. @9 1 .4 91,94 37 .T. J 0d ?,TO .1 U1771,Ju 1.8 Pa- 97 9 E73 7.x 19 I731 as We. ,u ,u D D .37IiH 0. .d u m P 7 O7 0 H.07ULO 117...... U79 70.1.. D 9 40 0,7,. a T, G I; T) T: 0 7T 0 r: L T. r) 1. rt 7? 7P. M U; I wl. _Id 1.17Jd u: 173 m 9 p P 1: wl. 7!.» ,Jvm 7%» 78 w 5 7:. T a. an u 0 a a, «:9 A 7 9 9 , ,0 9 c. U I P F. .ezwaw791 w7 7u P t on w 1 1 am}; m7? 5% w an m Se SP 2 P. a 1, u m. u Wu vat. u. t., , ,. s ,3 8 S .9 1.2 a7 E_ . 7 . 7 , Hu H1. u. 1 _ 7 . 7a 1.7 9 1.7 9. _ , 7 7 .Hmwcmv GQUUE new “.50 1x03 9:» no en, “ESE 953.5 Emflz gm .BOUdgm >um>m n9». WGERSH mummcmv ohm one“: 55 ”wwkowfi fcoQ .mu 4 muavcomEoU mmnmfio uofipmdfiwm# 7 mdm§mm 110 Umdaficoo 6.84m vmon m5 3 swim ma. 3 noflcofim :3 33.3... 92.57% 3972 .N m a 0:933 x? My 0993 . omfidu ~35 meSvmos .3330 .H .0 - .udu wnwgouno Gm mo 3ng cam: 93 Can“ 530ng Mood «on 0Q .m .8me 3388: E 37.8.73 mafia. mo mmocmao an» $55va . Ewfivdmg 05 60.5 >975 mdgood .4 .hm 7 7 «Home nose mhfidwou 7 Hon meow mufiwfl .357» wagoflh .N .7 .973 .m magic five?» 7 + unduuomg a»??? ma 733.350 .H .0 ,l . 7 .960 90595 mcwmwmm 7 7 7 newon chmfim vfifiogm amt/EU >um>m .m 7 _. 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 633.2% 0» find quEmEou on. 7 . . 7 7 798 .Umou 93 mo 5358500 m, 9.7 mag 7 7 7 7 7 7 awmmm mHOan. 33w: .35..» mcflxoflh Jo. .om y 41 4 {III-I . «1 .vIllijTlllt...|t-.fl? nail} 54141.1 III“! liuvlr‘fi‘z IIIQILI. ii. 1 11 93.33V37V30371N7 o_ddq7d7d371377x7 H.57qs7u7w7u4wmm7v. sigma 09 a 96mm7w7 uni... .7 m7... @777... M. Z. mm 771.7 8w78m7mm Wm 1 3 0.37.7.1 0 mm... 7.727mm7u7 J.Wm.m.wam.em+fia7}m7odwm.o Wmm.7m.1.7fl7 wa7ua_oa_oe wimflxaflmw xdu L797... mqm§MQ 93:93:00 Shdmmoumd commnoxaou OZ .m . magnum 999m .9 o my 03.“ 111 Emu. 8m 3 7:39:79 3 a .9878: mg 75333? HO mmddu. .959» mmfidomm .4 .om .00m ”.0530 do» Hana vdou 3.3 m0 039 £3 0%. ma >999 9H .wqaufiu .onm .99» >95 #03? no 350909 3:8 .0 Sudmmmum: 933.3280 02 .m .vdon 33 mo mvwm ”Em? may mum fame .99» find .935 50% mm 339037.79 992m 397m: 2: Emu. 9... .4 .S. .Umuuflummu m9 7909mm? 9.99» £033 :9 99039.33 .8390 find muonuoo ummuum op mmflmmd 3.48 .U Summmmomn cofimumhdoo OZ .m .9909 on“ G9 9.80. .m undead mfiow 98:? «mm 3ch 90> 033099. 8509 33m 0» 9rd: .90..» 59327an G“ Gmkm .< .wm Hints mAUG U? afiueqo queuewled ;o aavmyqsg IIDIS IaAI-Iq u: afiueqo avavaooqmqoaaiddalgx s 1. s .4 s a. U. 2 9 9 1. 9 o 9 7 1 9 s m s 7 u 1 u. 3 n7. .4 U. 2 .9 8 U. U. 1 s u... 9 1 1 w 1. o 1.1t.at.9 u H.199 ssEsmx. Em m n m r m 1 3 t. 1 o I. A 7 9 w 9 w 7 E p E p E 9 0 co m. u 0.. I... u B E p E u .1. 9 1. 9 11 J T: 8 0 d 9.. H I O 7 1.. U 11 I. 1.7 In mqmdoflzgmq 9 9 9 e S H u x 9 I. 9 1 9 9 w. 9 _ D D 3 I. D O 7 d U 3 7 b... 0 U. 0 U.. 0 1. 1. U 3 d F 3. 3 1+ 0 O . 3 T: E 1: E T: O n O T.. .n U... I T: 711.7 1 u d u 1 w m 9 P 9 7 I. 7.1 1 7 m. 8 GD w. S I. T. 8 90 u ., O 9 .9 7 3 9 9 O 9 S m B 7 1 P. E 7 m 1 w u P 9 9 7 m 1 m 7 m. m m. s 9.777 m. 7 9 m. m. .7 323m Enougfiw .0 m. w m7 9 w 9w 8 mcowmumzuou .m m 7 m m. . 9 . 309.9 Emu :9. 7k muamnomaoo mmadaiu Hot/mgmm 7. 7 mHmWJaoqzaoa déOH>§Mm Umfinflcov ‘ Jam? Hm uduoo mudoguom 112 mdownmm 3d mo ~330th 0:» £03 rmflduw 33.90. “yawn”. 3 wdwvuouodw 10 Snmmmmoon newmumkaoo OZ .m Judd avid Havoc manocmoom .mnmflumovom mo bmuomma 09H. JV .Nm .muomfia’o 035393 .3330 can» wok/Humane”? new 933 o» 03d H0303 03m mud mcdwuummvona .U £3303 nonfio wad .mcfifimfi mo M02 #300 JUNE :33 o» 36 :5de Ha doom. » me. o» >mefi mm“: mum mndwuummvmnm .m {Hokfiuv 2.3 3 vudum: fidwommmd ma.” mndwuummvmm mammmm .4 .10. .523ng m0 mmGMH 590% HO 3:330 “0030 E5 mom 3 35036 3 “H .0 .om IIPIS IQAEICI u: eBU'eqo IIPIS ISAEJCI U? 9&1qu az'eypaumul go eq'euxnsg man'euuad go aq'euxpsg V E V 3 O D W. N H 0 d d H d d E w. 3 X 11 S 1. S 1. U. P a a 1. a O a J a S , S u ”H 1 v1. 1. U. B 3 on U.. U. 1 s q a U. hm u. o .4 . 1 a u v... T... E a S s e s _ n n x a I A a o I. A a m ‘9 m fl p B D.. E 8 O on I. u 0.. I. U P E HD. 2 w a 1 a 1 a... I a o d 2 I o .4 u .4 ‘t. .4 J _ a a e s x u 19 I a; as me. mqmc00 .m 1 a . _ muodh 53h Ida L r w H _ , W mucmnomcfloo mwcmso Hogmamm “ M _ . mHmWAaoazaqq J§MQ 113 833.58 .mmmfiodflg mama no 9.88 Hz.” $535 so??? .wdwafitnnm $05.? No 9.9.3 2 x can 95930.38 2 33 3:. Shdmmvuuq Gofimumhnou oZ .mumamd Sam .99» 99m. 9: 953m 953 9030.8.” .199» .903“ mud .99» 955$ .umoudoo adquEwHudfl .9930 had new 29.3 on 3903 uudm 3.95. .xfihdmeUOQ GOmmhflkrd—OU OZ .moadummv wad woman ”Bond unvfiwwfifl mo omdmm p.99» wmofi wad ”Edam? mmoa ohm .99» .9093 mid 99» Goats .350 093 cm mugmmn knfinmnoum oGO .N L W .Godfimo Mo .3335 .m ma m3? .H CAHMWMQUQHH GmeHONrGOU OZ 7 . 9 .9993 mm uoc knddugd: end 59» 035803 $333325. Room 9.33 «Edna: “vudmuw 995 mm mm vdmflmh U .m JV .mm .0 m J» .wm .0 m 1% .mm "DH 33 V3 V3 0 3 n1 N 80 d d8 d d3 IHUH ULS U..s\«+s 1.8 3 U. 2 9 9.4 9 O9 1 9S m9,u 21 2.4 U... R1 U. 9 a 8 Wu. 1 sq .9 11 4 0 ur. u1.1.... 11.9 u x. I 29 s 32 s wt. m... m 3m 3m Wmflmw 1 o 0 am. M... o mhm. a em_m.w u l 5w. an anvaw J a I, 3 od w Io m umfifi J mqm§MQ 114 9 $93939 So 99 39:3 0... 93350 9.90% 099299300 9033 mucuodw 90990 0m? 09.0 0.9098 .0 Sndmmmoman 903905.900 OZ .m . $9393..“ H8 09» 0309.09 9. 93399.0 990% «0039 58 59339.5 809 25. 29999 .< . S «0093 009 m9 909909 .m 909909? 0099999300 09909.30 90 90320900 9.09? .m 49030099999 3 0999 093 m09930990w cm .3930 09 «099.00 0.39 9.93 009930.990m .H .0 omvmhfl 0H2? 09’th HOHH on .m .0099. 0393 0390 0» 0993900 90% fl 0390.3 90m w9gmm >990 090 90% .4 0m 1...“... _ {ms lam-Ia u: 8&1er queueuuad ;0 aneurpsg HPIS mMIG u: 83mm 91'eyp9u1u11 ;0 avenupsa 9&1qu apnmlv queueuu 9:1 ;0 amulpsg afiuqu apnquv 919gp9u1u11 ;0 alempsg -.‘ —. ___- s 101993 “.1 aqqo suon‘enus 99119113 98p91moux yo 3991 9 . _ 9 9 9 -fl,_,___99.. 9.9.9.- ._ - 99u98n§9N .1 0mqu 3 s ,91d09d 191110 ddfl9dd3w 3 9 0.99.1.9 mm: m I S _ ._ . 5 ”9.9.3.9 ww99m 0 o.u.9 e .P on Wum9t.m I9x.dw99w.+9 9m. 39 1W99m... 9P WFT 9...“. 9m 3.1m 1 999 99m u u 9U E I. T: .m u u 9m 98. 9 9 9 9 . pl 9.. 0990909900 0wn9990 Hogmgom _ 9 9 .9 1995 among H4m4zm4mq 3390M 99903936 .0 99903909900 .m 30mm 9999M .4 mHm >44Z4 44mOH>4mmm 3305,}. USE OM! ROOM USE OMYJ 1’4 ”'TITI'I‘WLEJMJflilfllflfflflmfltWWI?!“ 2976