__..,_‘( ~———; ~———‘ v. v _

THE IMPERATIVES or THE COMMUNHY
SCHOOL CONCEPT FOR-STUDENT
TEACHING PROGRAMS .

Thesis for the Degree of Ed.,D.
MICHIGAN STATE COLLEGE
1.. Morris Mc Clure
1953

    

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thesis entitled
l'El‘he Imperatives of the Community School
Concept for Student Teaching Hograme.‘

presented by
II) N A. Me 011): 0

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

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THE IMPERATIVES OF TEE COL-i-LUNITY SCHOOL
CONCEPT FOR STUDBIT TEACHIIIG PROGRAMS

by

’\
s

L4” Morris McClure

A THESIS

Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan
State College of.Agriculture and Applied Science
in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

Michigan State College
East Lansing, Michigan
November. 1953

 

AW.

ACIIIEOX‘ILEDQIBC

The Author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to the
following members of his Guidance Committee for the assistance and
counsel they provided so generously-during the planning and prep—
aration of the thesis: Dr. Clyde M. Campbell. Chairman, Dr. Duane L.
Gibson, Dr. Carl E. Gross, Dr. Cecil V. Millard. and Dr. Milosh
Muntyan.

The Author is also indebted to Mr. G. Robert KooPman, Associate
Superintendent of Public Instruction, Michigan, for his guidance and
suggestions. particularly with regard to the sections dealing with
the background of the community school.

Appreciation is also expressed to the Michigan Department of

Public Instruction for the use of material used in Chapter VI.

L. Morris McClure

3:31-295

THE IMPERATIVES OF THE COMMUNITY SCHOOL
CONCEPT FOR STUDENT TEACHIIIG PROGRAMS

by

L. Norrie McClure

A] ABSTRACT

Submitted to the School of Graduate Studiee of Michigan
State College of Agriculture end Applied. Science
in Partial Fulfillment of the Require-one
for the Degree of

DOCTOR 01' EDUCATI ON

SCHOOL 01’ INCA'I‘I 0H

Teer 1.953

 

Approved —%‘ 37" W

Ale IU‘J’AI “WA“.

masts usmgg

During the peet twenty-five yeere the litereture in.neny of the
ereee of the eoeiel ecieneee end in education hue reflected the cone
corn of nan: uritere with what they eee ee en increeeing tendency
towerd dieunity. eeanentelizetion. general weakening of treditionel
eociel veluee. end videepreed culturel end inetitutionel inetebility
in the current eociety. Thie tendency hee been cited ee undeeireble
end hee been viewed uith.generel elern. One of the theoreticel de-
velopnente in the field of public echool education that hee evolved
ee e pertiel reeponee to these eociel end cultural cherecterietice
hee been the community echool concept. It hee been beeed primarily
on.the hypotheeie that the neture of the common education provided
by e eociety for ite eenbere deterninee et leeet in pert whet the
cherecterietice of thet eociety ehell be.

A further beeic hypotheeie hee been thet in order to heve e
eignifieent influence upon the fulfilheent of the indiceted eocietel
neede. educetion nuet eeek ite objectives tron end be eloeely end
reelieticelly involved in the social proceeeee opereting in.eny
given community.

the preeent etudy ettenpted to ehoe thet the neture of the tench!
in; done in community echoole ie sufficiently different to require e
reorientation of teecher educetion. It coneidered one pheee of the
profeeeionel edueetion of teechere for community school eervice — the
eree of etudent teeching.

The eociel beckground of the community echool concept wee reviewed

end the concept wee defined. deepetenciee to be deeired in con-unity

school teachers were developed from the literature and were elso
logicelly developed free the definition of the community school.
Enemplee of teaching unite end echool-community projects thet had
been reported were described and enelysed for their sinilerity to
units end projects that would be e pert of en ectuel community school.
The litereture es indicated ebove. the definitions of the con-
lunity school. end the illustretions noted in the preceding persgreph
served es the source of the logical inperetives for student teeching
programs that were finally developed. These were expressed es princ-
iples end ney be summerised es follows:
(1) The schools in.which student teechere ere assigned
should be cerefully selected in terms of the degree
to which their curricule. nethodology. edninistretion.
end generel philosOphy eppeer to be sufficiently
flexible end conmunity oriented so that teacher cone
didetee could heve experiences eonewhet siniler to
those they would heve in e connunity school.
(2) The student teaching experience should be ecconpenied
by e perellel leboretory experience where groups of
student teechere nay work together with e feculty

coordinator.

(3) The student teechere should live in the school eon-
nunity during their student teeching experience.

these principles were developed in such e nenner thet each one
could logicelly be et leest e pertiel solution to the unperetive needs
of prospective teachers being prepared for community schools.

The study recognised some of the neJor blocks that night heve
to be considered in the inplenentetion of the proposed student teechp
in; program. Emphasis wee directed towerd the need for further re-

eeerch end study in many of these erees.

 

1
CHAPTER
I
II
III
C I",

; V

i

l

I

V

i

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER

II

III

IV

II

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGhENT
TABLE OF CONTTETS
THE PROBLEM AND METHOD

THE NATURE OF THE C NTEHPORARY SOCIETY.AND
THE ROLE OF EDUCATION

Education in the Current Society
THE COMMUNITY SCHOOL

RELATED CONTRIBUTIONS IN THE AREA OF COM-
PETENCIES FOR COMMUNITY SCHOOL TEACHERS

Contributions of General Teacher Education
Literature

Contributions from Community School Literature
THE COMMUNITY SCHOOL AND TEACHER COMPETTTCIES

The Ability to Identify Realistic Problems
on all Levels of Community

Ability to Work with and Exercise Teaching
Skill with any Age Group

The Ability to Apply Problem-Solving Methods
to Social Problems

The Ability to Operate in Accordance with the
Democratic Ideology

.Ability to Utilize Resources. Human.and
Material. from the Entire Community

The Ability to Teach the "Fundamentals" as
Tools

The Improvement of Human Living is 3 Continuing
Over-all Aim and Skill that is Characteristic
of the Community School

 

13

18

31

31
42

48

58

54

57

59

62

63

VI CURRENT PRACTICES INVOLVING-COMMUNITY SCHOOL

FACTORS 54
PART I

An Eighth Grade Approach to Soil Erosion 67
Becoming ACquainted with a Community Agency 68
An Eighth Grade Studies a Community Problem 68
A Group Becomes More Conscious of a "Broader
Community" 72
A Senior Class Studies Religions 73

A Fifth Grade Debates Statehood for Hawaii
and Alaska 75

Fourth Grade Children Learn.About Their City
Government 78

A Ninth Grade Civics Class Studies Minority

Groups 80
A Project Geared to the Main Economy of the

Community 81
A Seventh Grade Class Attacks a Group Problem 82

A Sixth Grade Class Helps Parents Understand

the Issues Involved in a School Bond Election 84
A Student Council 85
A School-Neighborhood Problem 86
A Senior Government Class Sees Governing
Being Done 88
A School Newspaper is Produced by Sixth Grade
Class 90
VII THE IMPLICATIONS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS FOR
STUDENT TEACHING-PROGRAMS ‘ 105

Problems Related to the Implementation of
Student Teacher Programs for Community School
Service 119

BIBLIOGRAPHY 130

CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM.AND METHOD

The literature in the field of education during the past ten to
twenty years has contained an increasing number of references to the
community school concept. In general. these references deal with
such factors as the philosOphical and logical assumptions which under-
lie the concept and the kinds of programs carried on in schools that
are attempting to be community schools.

There is also a considerable body of literature dealing with
pro-service teacher education. However. this literature. as well as
that dealing with the community school concept. is generally not
directed toward the more specific problems related to the education
of teachers for community school service. This forms the basic moti-
vation for the present study.

The implementation of the community school concept depends to
a considerable extent upon the kind of professional teachers available
and the skills and abilities they possess that are particularly essenr
tial to the functioning of the community school. The study will
analyze the community school concept for the purpose of deducing from
it these teacher competencies. Many of these will probably not differ
from those considered to be desirable for the "non-community“ school
teacher. In some respects. however. it is logical to assume that the
competencies will differ since the general orientation of community
school programs is to some extent different from that obtaining in

the bulk of the schools in the country.

2

Such a study would not be complete. however. without going one
step further. This second step would be to study specifically one
part of the teacher education pragram in order to show how it might
provide the kinds of experiences which help develop some of the sig-
nificant skills and abilities needed by a community school teacher.

For purposes of the present study. the phase of teacher education
that will be studied specifically in terms of its potential contri-
butions to the preparation of community school teachers will be the
area of student teaching. This area will include more than the organ-
ized experiences the teacher candidate has that are carried on in a
school with children. Student teaching will. therefore. be assumed
to include not only activities connected.with the school and children
but also carried on outside the school as part of the ongoing proces-
ses of the community. The particular kinds of experiences involved
will be made more apparent once the community school has been defined.

The problem as stated suggests that two tasks should be accom-
plished prior to approaching the problem itself. These tasks appear
to be in the nature of orientation to the main problem - they set the
stage. More important. they provide some rather basic assumptions
that give direction and foundation to the rest of the study.

The first of these tasks is to determine what appears to be the
source of the community school concept. It involves examining the
literature dealing with the community school for the purpose of iden-
tifying the social factors that other writers seem generally to agree

constitute the “reason to be" of the community school. In other words.

8
it seems appropriate and rather essential that the social situation
that indicates the community school should be discussed briefly.

The second task that appears to be in order is that of stating /
a.workable definition of the community school. Considerable discus-
sion.and study is available in the literature which deals with the
community school program. A synthesis of such definitions could be
made and suggested for purposes of this study. or. one current de-
finition that shows evidence of having been carefully and 10gically
develOped could be accepted. For purposes of this study. an accept-
able course appears to be the latter. plus any appropriate definitive
additions from other sources that add to the clarity and usefulness
of the definition.

Once the above tasks are accomplished. the study will define those
teaching competencies that may be inferred directly from the community
school concept. This may be done first by means of the current liter-
ature dealing‘with community school teaching competencies. and second.
by means of an analysis of the community school concept for the logical
inferences it poses in terms of teaching competencies.

Certain selected examples of teaching practices and school-
community projects will be cited. These will serve two purposes. First.
the examples will illustrate in.a concrete fashion certain factors in
current teaching and school-community relationships that are actually
closely related to the Operational imperatives of the community school
concept. Second. the examples will serve as demonstrations of the kinds

of experiences student teachers may have that are now available and which

 

provide practice in competencies they will need in a community school.

4

The important task of the study will be to apply in a legical
manner the outcomes of the above analyses to the student teaching
process. Stated differently. the final task of the study will be to
suggest what appear to be reasonable and practicable conclusions or
principles that should help determine the structure of a student teache
ing program for prospective community school teachers.

Since the community school concept is not a part of the conventional
pattern of school programs at the present time. the realities of the
educational scene will have to be kept in mind. The student teacher's
program to be suggested. for example. will need to be developed within
the structure of what now Constitutes common institutional resources
and practices. This does not preclude some projection into the area
of the ideal since such a design may well serve as a guide for teacher
educators and as an ultimate objective for their planning.

The purpose and method. then. of the present study may be con-
cisely summarized by means of the following statements:

1. The central objective of the study will be to develop

principles for student teaching programs planned to

provide teacher candidates with experiences designed
to prepare them for service in community schools.

 

2. The logical imperatives for student teaching that may
be drawn from the community school concept_will serve
as the bases for the principles to be suggested.

3. The discussion regarding the implementation of the
principles in terms of organization and practice will
give appropriate consideration to the existing insti-
tutional structure for teacher education and public
education.

CHAPTER II 5

THE NATURE OF THE CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY

AND THE ROLE OF EDUCATION

The nature of the contemporary society should be extremely sig-
nificant to the educator. He should recognize that the total society
is an educational force with which educators must reckon. It is an
educational force which is operating continuously and has more impact
in some areas on those who are to be educated than does the school.
Both the society and the school introduce the immature learner to the
society in which he lives. One does it through a multitude of in-
formal and unplanned. but nevertheless effective. conditionings. The
other attempts to accomplish its task through a deliberately planned
and logically organized program.

The nature of the society is important to the educator for a
second reason. The society is a reflection of the quality of the
educational process the individuals in the society have experienced.
Put in another way. the society is a constant living example of the
kinds of educational processes to which its members have been exposed.
This involves. of course. both the informal environmental educative
forces and the formal educative forces of the school.

The nature of the society. then. provides the educator with.a
continuous evaluation of the educational process and a continual
source of ideas and needs. He looks to the society both for clues
as to the success of past and current educational programs and for

societal needs that subsequent programs must be designed to serve.

6

If we look to the literature dealing with the contemporary society.
we find that there has been an increasing concern demonstrated during
the past generation or two with what appears to be the rapid segmental-
ization of that society. This point of view has been expressed in
various ways. For example. in the late 1920's Joseph K. Hart1 pub-
lished his penetrating analysis of the social situation.and its impli-
cations for education. Hart expressed concern over the degree to which
areas of ideological community were shrinking in American society. He
discussed the effects of technology and specialization on the culture.
pointing out the growing compartmentalization of value systems struc-
tured around unrelated aspects of social living.

Although Hart's analysis of the situation is one to which the
literature appears to refer most consistently. there are many other
references to this apparent lack of community and increasing frac-
tionalization of the social system. Beers treats the problem in an
historical manner. describing the evolution of communities in our
society from the beginning of our history. He concludes that this
evolution has progressed to the point where we are now experiencing
a situation characterized by urbanization of an advanced kind which
gives the appearance of geographic community but which has tended
actually to erase community in the accepted sense. In discussing
this particular stage of social evolution. he says:

"The last is individualistic. with communities of
larger size; contractual. impersonal. indirect. and casual

interaction; complex and elaborate division into groups
and classes. Its regulation is more improvised. rational

 

 

lJoseth. Hart. A.Social Interpretation of Education. New York:
Henry Holt and Company. 1929. pp. XX + 458.

and legal. It has a highly develOped exchange economy.
using money in a world market. Its emerging norms are
those of efficiency. Its social solidarity is based
mainly on the interdependence of specialized parts. Its
social change is rapid and of broad coverage. It is some-
times characterized as an integrated society because of
the ramifications of interdependence upon its parts. but
actually its need for further social integration seems
more conspicuous than any present integration of its
character. In this society the plurality of each member
is moored now here. now there. now nowhere! This is the
kind of society in.which most of us live today. It is the
society of the metropolis. and it seems not to have as a
pervasive type of unit. the community as MacIver defined it.

"The puzzle of diversity. In such an urban society as
this. can the school. the church. or any other agency he-

come a 'community institution' as is urged by some of the

leaders of churches and schools! Is the community a real

enough entity so that a school can both express and serve

its wholeness and integrity? Is the concept of community

fatuous and outmoded?”

Beers' reference to the lack of not only a geographic community
but also a lack of community in the areas of ideas and values is
typical of much of the thinking in the literature. The old geogra-
phical community with its closely knit and independent character-
istics is no longer the typical community. Growth of large metro-
politan centers and progress in the methods of communication and
transportation have eliminated the isolation of even the small rural
community as it was one hundred years ago. Muntyan summarizes a
similar observation by pointing out wherein current uncritical accept-
ance of the existence of “community” errs.

”The substance of the argument here is. then. that in

our common usage of the term community. we err both posi-
tively and negatively. We err negatively in that our most

 

1National Society for the Study of Education. The Community
School. The Fifty-Second Yearbook. Part II. Nelson B. Henry. Editor.
Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. 1953. p. 17.

 

common use of the term connotes little more than con-
tiguity. we err positively in that we falsely ascribe a
significant community. even when.we do not use the term
itself. to groups which represent partial. or segmented.
community at best. In brief. the very language we employ

in discussing community is evidence of the lack of a far-
reaching community.”1

In.a democratic society where group. societal. and individual
values must exist in.a delicate balance. the seeming trend away from
a solid core of societal values is disturbing. The role of the school
in such.a situation becomes extremely difficult since whatever values

it may emphasize may run counter to some segment of the local pOpu-

lation.

Stanley introduces another aspect of the problem of fractional-
ization in the society when he discusses the significance of various
segments of a society shaping their behavior in.accordance with values
and objectives selfishly developed for the good of their own segment
but which are systematized and expressed in terms of the good of the

total society.

"Each of these groups represent a portion of the
public. the more important of them a Large and significant
portion: consequently their interests are in some measure
a part of the public interest. Moreover. these groups
typically conceive these purposes. not in terms of purely
private advantage. but in terms of their conception of
the common.wea1; they usually regard their respective
programs. not as obstacles to the common good. but as
essential conditions of its realization. Each of these
groups has. consciously or unconsciously. developed some
societal philosophy; and each of them must be understood
as making. in.some particulars at least. proposals to the
American public with respect to the goals of.Lmerican life

 

lMilosthuntyan. Community School Concepts in Relationship to
“Sgcietal Determinants. Unpublished Dissertation for the Doctor of
Education Degree. Illinois: University of Illinois. 1947. p. 43.

and the means by which they are to be achieved. Nor can
these proposals be dismissed.with impunity as sheer
rationalizations. The members of pressure groups are
also members of society; and as such they. no more than
other men. can free themselves in.their own minds from
the common obligation to respect the public weal. More-
over. in order to advance the interest which they represent.
pressure groups must frequently secure the cooperation of
other groups. Hence. they are compelled both by moral
principles by their members and the practical necessities
of the situation to relate their particular interest to
the 'general' welfare.

“The tendency of men. where their interests are at
stake. to erect their particular concern into a universal
may be readily admitted. But that is a principle that is
limited to no single group: and it is pertinent to ask
where. in a modern industrial society. the impartial
public is to be located. The fact is that the existence
of powerful. organized interests in American society is
the reflection of the division of that society into sig-
nificant functional groups. Just as the existence of group
perspectives and points of view is a reflection of the
absence. in part at least. of universally accepted standards
of public welfare. In the last analysis the conflict of
social philosOphies and programs represented by the welter
of contending interest groups is contention of contrasting
theories of the public good. undoubtedly conditioned by
the particular interests cherished by each of these groups.
but not. in any sense. simply a cynical and selfish dog-
fight fonceived solely in terms of purely private advan-
tage.”

These allegations. that the fractionalized society not only is
characterized by large numbers of groups. each of which is following
its own set of values and interests. but that each of these groups
in turn interprets its own set of values and interests to be that
which is best for the total society. have many kinds of implications.
For the school it is particularly important since it would be impos-

sible for the school to remain ”non-partisan” in a society which is

 

13. 0. Smith. William 0. Stanley. Kenneth D. Benne. and
.chhibald W..Lnderson. Readings in the Social Aspects of Education.
Danville. Illinois: Interstate Printers and Publishers Incorpor-
ated. 1951. pp. 230-282.

10
fractionalized to this degree. Furthermore. it would be equally
difficult for the school to align itself with.any one of these groups.
It would not be wise or expedient for the school either directly or
indirectly to challenge the particular selfish interests or values of
any one group. then. as seen from Stanley's point of view. This
would be so because values and interests whicklwould be challenged
are seen by the particular group as being the values and interests of
the total society.

Many other writers support the argument discussed here. Two

1 and Smith2 and his colleagues. Both present

examples are Angell
further evidence that serves to reveal the disunity and increasing
confusion that characterizes the contemporary society.

For the purposes of this study. then. the assumption will be
accepted that the current society is in.a state of confusion and that
it is characterized by an increasing tendency to become segmentalized
éggo conflicting interest groups. Inherent in this assumptionnwill
be the idea that in the course of an individual's daily living he
participates in different categories of interest groups that fre-
quently are in conflict with each other and which inevitably provide
him with divergent sets of values which at best merely confuse him
and at worst force him into a pattern of’living that borders on inr

cipient schizophrenia. The work group in which the individual earns

his living. the geographic community group in.which he lives. the

 

1Robert C. Angell. The Integgation of.American Society. New
York: McGraw-Eill Book Company. Incorporated. 1941. pp. 192-194.

33mith and Others. 0p. cit. p. 265.

 

11
various social groups in which he participates. all may have different
attitudes toward various social questions. The confusion this is bound
to produce may be more or less unconscious but it is certain to have
an impact on the personality and the quality of living of the indi-
vidual.

The recognition of this assumption implies another: there is a

 

need either for the solution of the problem of segmentalization or the
development of new cultural_patterns and deliberately planned activi-
ties for the achievement Of significant and increasigggunity on an
interjgroup over-all basis.

Another characteristic Of contemporary society needs to be men-
tioned. The current society is characterized by an ever widening lag
between technological progress and progress in many crucial areas of
human relations. Science has lent itself with.marvelous facility to
the improvement of technolOgical processes. In a sense. one might
say that the science of applying science is one of the dramatic phe-
nomena Of the age. Parallel with this develOpment. however. is what
appears to be a lag in the application of science to the improvement
Of social relationships.

The role of education in this situation is an extremely critical
one. By and large. the literature indicates that we are still attempt-
ing to Operate educational institutions in terms of a society which
has drastically changed. In an extremely generalized form. then. one
might pose the problem of education today as being that Of learning
to look at the current social situation with eyes that are unprejudiced

by the past in order to develop aims and objectives for the current

12
society and future society. using methods and techniques that are con-
sistent with the current society and with.what the infant sciences of
human relations can suggest. This implies many significant changes
in educational objectives and methods.

This responsibility of the school has been sensed by others.
Hart. for example. saw it and expressed it as follows:

“Our public schools grew out of an attempt to

universalize that education which the English tradition

had limited to the aristocracy; and no attempt was made

to transform the aristocratic psychology and philosophy

that underlay that English tradition and justified it.

Hence our public schools have never been democratic in

the psychological and ethical sense. but only in.the

geographic sense: they have been everywhere - but not

for all children 'according to their neede.'"1

Prior to the above statement. Hart discusses the role of insti-
tutions. He points out that institutions have historically assumed
I'rights." but in his opinion institutions are not entitled to rights
except the right to fulfill the need for which they were set up. What
has happened. according to Hart. is that the original right has become
"vested." This results in an institution resisting change because its
methods become habitual just as do methods with individuals. It is
more comforting and secure for institutions to protect this vested
right to continue with original objectives and methods by making "change-
lessness” sacred. Institutions then reveal themselves as having been
begun as a means to a real end but end up becoming the ends themselves.2

He compares this tendency with the institution of the school.

In summary. then. it is possible to state another assumption of

 

lHart. OP. cite P0 1820
2This is a condensation of the argument Hart (Ibid) presents on
pages 31-36.

13
a rather negative kind that underlies a study such as this. If we
assume. as we have done. that the current society is becoming increas-
ingly fractionalized and divided. then it is possible to further
assume that the school. the organized educational effort of society.
has failed to strive to create and maintain a society that is intern—

ally harmonious. This implies. then. that we must look at the school.

 

at its objectives and its processes. in an effort to change the basis
of education in such a manner that it will no longer attempt to repre-
sent and assume a community that actually may not exist but will plan
to use all of its resources toward the goal Of creating community where
it is needed and aChieving a balance between conflict and community

that is essential to democratic living.

Education in the Current Society

.A look at the current literature dealing with the role of the
school reveals some lack of community among educators themselves. There
appears to be reasonable agreement upon the need for a new or expanded
role for the school. There is agreement. in general. with regard to
the responsibility of education to help shape a society. It is true
that this agreement is not unanimous. but in general the literature
reflects a concern on the part of educators with regard to this prob-
lem. For example. the publications of such a leadership group as the
Educational Policies Commission reflects an acceptance Of such a role

for the school.1

 

1Educational Policies Commission. The Unique Function of Edu-

cation in American Democragy. washington: National Education
Association. 1937. pp. 129.

 

14

The whole area Of general education has been characterized during
the last twenty-five to fifty years by two developments of significance
to this study. The first of these has been.an increasing reliance
upon scientific methods for determining educational goals and methods
and for evaluating the educative process. The literature in the area
of what has come to be known as child growth and development is par-
ticularly significant. The literature contains many discussions and
reports of experimental information dealing with education as a ”science."

The identification of educational Objectives by scientific analysis
of the human functions in the society is another example of this ap-
proach. The identification of "social needs” and methods of teaching
them have had their day. The measurement of educational "achievement"
and “progress” has been made "scientific." it is said. It has been
found that statistics not only can be used to "prove things." but they
also provide the educator with a handy sophistication that lends a
respectable “scientific" speciousness to theories and practices. The
standard deviation has become overworked to the point of exhaustion.

In no sense is the intent here to disparage these developments.

 

Educational Policies Commission. The Structure and Administration of
Education in American Democragy. washington: National Education
Association. 1938. pp. 128.

Educational Policies Commission. The Purposes of Education in.American
Democracy. washington: National Education Association. 1938. pp.
15?.

Educational Policies Commission. The Education of Free Men in American
Democracy. washington: National Education Association. 1941. pp.
115.

Educational Policies Commission. Education for All American Youth.
Washington:' National Education Association. 1944. pp. IX + 421.

 

 

15

Actually. the position is taken that these accompaniments of the
initiation of the scientific method in education were natural. In
a sense they were the growing pains of intensified development. They
were symptoms caused by the haphazard and frequently uncritical accept-
ance of the methods of other disciplines in a frantic effort to achieve
status and respectability as a ”profession." .Actually. many of the
results of this increased use of scientific methods in education re-
present real prOgress toward making school experiences more valuable
to learners. The period may well be maturing now into the next -
that of better appraising the unique needs of the profession in an
effort to systematize educational knowledge and method so that the
new arrangement better reflects a profession that embodies the worth
of many disciplines and many arts in its functioning patterns.

The second development in education which appears to have sig-
nificance for this study is the growing recognition in practice of
the educational impact on people of the total environment. It is true
that there is nothing new in this idea and many writers in giving an.
historical treatment to this subject go back to antiquity and show
that the impact of the total environment has been recognized by great
teachers throughout the recorded history of man. .Actually. however.
schools in this society have not Operated as though the impact of the
total community was as important as they may have verbalized in the
literature. .According to this point of view. education and the school
have been seen in a narrow perspective. The school was considered.as
a place where the child was educated for adult life. and incredible

powers Of wisdom were assumed by educators in the formation of the

16
curriculum of such a school. The school was unattached to the on-
going life of the society and the community. The assumption that the
curriculum can be manipulated to fill the needs of’a dynamic society
within the four walls of the school room or in the Office of an admin-
istrator was unrealistic. As Hart says:

"Eflucation can never be made over in school houses
and by school men. and no change even in the school will
long persist. Nothing is more discouraging than the fact
that all the movements which have been initiated in school
houses in the past twenty years to refonm school procedures
have almost completely been.assimilated to the old school
procedures and have lost their significance. ...Until the
fact is clearly grasped that education is a fUnction of
the whole life of the child and of the whole community of
which the child is a part. and that therefore. it cannot
be changed. if it is changed at all. in the whole structure
of the whole community - until this fact is seen.and.grasped
and acted upon. there will be few real changes either in
schools or in education."1

This idea is further reinforced by Dewey. In speaking Of the
ways of inculcating into the young the ideas and values of a society
he says:

"The answer. in general formulation. is; by means of
the action of the environment in calling out certain re-
sponses. The required beliefs cannot be hammered in: the
needed attitudes cannot be plastered on. By the partic-
ular medium in.which an individual exists leads him to see
and feel one thing rather than another; it leads him to
have certain plans in order that he may act successfully
with others: it strengthens some beliefs and weakens
others as a condition of winning the approval Of others.
Thus it gradually produces in him a certain systen of
behavior. a certain disposition of action."2

Recognition Of the impact of the total environment as an edur

cative force has also carried the oftentimes explicitly stated and

 

lwte Op. Cit. pp. 304-8050
2John Dewey. Democracy and Education. wa York: The MacMillan
Company. 1925. P0 13.

17
sometimes implied conviction that the school - the appointed agency
for education provided by society — must assume the responsibility
for improving the quality and educative effectiveness Of the "out
of school" environment whenever possible and to an increasing extent.
The full implications of this conviction. or. if you.will - assump-
tion. are far-reaching and of great import. It serves as the basis
from which creative minds can set new frontiers and justify innova-
tions. On the other hand. the position of those who accept it is
fraught with danger. The reaction against educators who suggest that
schools can "remake“ the social order is well-known. Conviction that
the school has a role to play in improving the educative effect of
the total environment is one that is. indeed. easily misunderstood
and misinterpreted.

For purposes of the present study. the above discussion suggests
one more fundamental assumption which serves to give support and
direction not only to the community school but also to the parts Of
the study which.will deal with teacher competencies and teacher edur

cation. This assumption may be stated as follows: The total environ-

 

ment. social and physical. is educative for the individual. Corollary
to this assumption is the proposition that environments vary from
situation to situation in their educative effect and they may be
arranged and predetermined in order to utilize those situations which
have been demonstrated to be particularly effective in terms of the

achievement of certain objectives.

CHAPTER III 18
THE COMAUNITY SCHOOL

The implications of the assumptions and references stated above
point the direction toward a role'for the school and for education
which is inextricably bound up with the community and with the
society. The creation of community. the resolution of conflict.
the integration Of a society cannot be done by the school working
by itself. Furthermore. it must do more than merely ally itself
with this agency or that institution temporarily or for the moment.
The community school. as eventually defined for purposes of this
study. must cease to be an institution by itself and become in a
sense a complex of institutions and social agencies. The inadequacy
of the school to deal with problems of the magnitude indicated above
is expressed by Hart.

”The true educational agency_is the community within
which and by means of which the individual comes to what-

ever maturity he reaches. By and large. the qualities of

that community will be reflected in its members. variously.

of course. as they have various capacities for responding

to its impacts. and as they touch various facets of exist-

ence. The real problem of education. then. becomes that

of making a community that shall be expressive Of humanity.
present and to come.

 

 

”Nor can we ask some fragment of the disorganized com-
munity. for example. the school. to take over the whole
problem of integration and handle it. ab extra. arrogantly.
intellectualistically.

”The problem of education is the problem of community
making. in the most fundamental sense of the term.'1

 

This denying to education or to the school of the full

 

1Hart. Op. cit. pp. 427-429.

19
responsibility for social improvement and integration is not uncommon
in the literature. Moreover it appears to be consistent with the very
nature of the problem itself. That is to say that no one segment of
society. and in fact the school is such a segment. can by itself re-
make or change that society. This implies. then. that if the school
is to serve as a community making force it needs to become more than
the traditional definition of the school. As Mumford says:

"While the school has become a universal institution.
and the main symbol Of the educational process. the instrue
ments of modern education are continuous with life itself;
no mere building can fully house them. and the notion of
making education "economical" or "comprehensive" by cre-
ating megalopolitan buildings holding 1500 to 3000 pupils.
and then expanding the school of the neighborhood so that
it can bestow a sufficient number of children on these
buildings may be dismissed as a typical megalopolitan
perversion.“

Kilpatrick points out a realistic aspect of the problem when
he says:

”It is clear that the school today will not auto-
matically become a center for community education by the
simple trick of building up more relationships with its
environment. We need to understand.what is indicated by
a community emphasis. A return to a unifying smallness
is out of the question. We must deal with complexity.
Within it. too. we must deal with the conflicts which
arise because our manner of life has made fragmentary
people Of us. This increases the complexity. but con?
trary to our usual supposition. it enhances the edur
cational Opportunity. The present confused character
of society itself. if we but relate ourselves to it.
makes education purposive. Within our society we al-
ready have an educative principle at work. though we may
neither have intended it to be such nor have recognized
it in action."”

 

lLewis Mumford. The Culture of Cities. New York: Harcourt.
Brace and. Company. 1938. Pp. 473-474.

2Samuel Everett (Editor). The Community School. New York:
D..App1eton-Century Company. 1938. p. 30.

20
Kilpatrick's statement may be interpreted variously. but it is
important to note his reference to the discussion of controversial
problems of community and social living:as an educative process in
itself. The realistic dealing with.social problems and with com-
munity life in a functional way may offer one of the basic and
fundamental clues for the community school as it is to be eventually
defined for purposes of this study. Mumford adds further emphasis
to this point of view when he rather succinctly states the process
of the evolving school:
"From the drill school to the organic school; from
the child school to the child—adult school; from a
I desiccated environment to a living environment; from
closed issues and mechanical indoctrination to open
inquiry and OOOperative discipline as a normal process
of living: that is one series of steps. From the part-
time school. confined to a buildigg. to the full-time
school taking stock of and taking part in the whole life
of the neighborhood. the city. the region: from an edus
cation.whose truths and values are in good part denied
by the actual environment and the social practice of
the community to an education that is integral with the
demands and possibilities of life and that shirks no
needed effort to make Over reality in conformity with
purpose and ideal; here is another series of steps that
mark the path of modern education."l
And so it is possible to move from evidences of disunity in the
community and in the society. from the implications of this disunity
for the role of education. to the conviction. for purposes of this
study. that whatever role the school takes in the light of this situ-
ation. it should be a role that is consistent with the kind of society
that exists and it should. therefore. seek its objectives and its

processes in the community and in the society. It is logical to

 

lMumford. op. cit. pp. 476—477.

21
predict. then. that the school that is thus developed will be in some
fashion a community school.

In order to deal with the problem of teacher competencies in
the community school. it is necessary to have a definition of the com-
munity school from which these competencies may be derived. Put in
another way. it is necessary to have an answer to the question. teacher
competencies for what? The point may be further clarified by suggest-
ing that the previous discussion concerning the role of the school in
the society implies roles for the professional personnel in the school.
In this sense the "school" and ”education." as used above. are the more
abstract terms that include the human elements that actually plan. and
Operate in. the educatiOnal process.

Many studies are available which deal in a definitive fashion
with the community school concept. For purposes of'the present study
it would appear to be an unnecessary departure from the course of the
study to examine in detail the developments of various definitions.
Study of this definitive literature reveals that there is considerable
agreement among writers. although. it is true. there are also points
of issue.

Without presenting the details of develOpment at all. it is pro-
posed to cite briefly certain statements from the literature dealing
with the community school concept. Those that are selected appear to
represent to a considerable degree elements concerning which.there is
relatively general agreement. They appear to offer an acceptable

definitive basis for purposes of this study.

22
One general statement that is structured in terms of community
school objectives provides an appropriate background for definitive
consideration of the community school concept. Muntyan summarizes
what he concludes are the "long range purposes of the community
school" as follows:

"The long range purposes of the community school seem
to be three-fold. First. it would hOpe to re-integrate. or
further the integration of. the population aggregate which
it serves. trying to make of that group a community in
something more than a geographic sense. Second. it would
hope to develop. with the group. what has been called com-
munity process. i.e.. the knowledges. attitudes. appre-
ciations and skills necessary to the preservation and
further development of desirable group life. Third. it
would hope to help resolve the personal and social con-
flicts which now undercut both community and community
process. Obviously. such goals as these imply,that the
school cannot concern itself with only the youth of the
land but must also undertake a far-reaching program of
adult education and re—education."1

It is helpful to extract from this statement the three purposes
as Muntyan has expressed them. They are:

l) The integration or re-integration of the society
served

2) The develOpment of community process
3) The resolution of conflict
Muntyan goes on to say that the community school can serve the

above purposes only if it serves as "an ideal democratic community

I?
.7

both in its internal and extrenal control relationships."2
It seems clear that the objectives of the community school as

stated above complement to a considerable degree the societal needs

 

lMilosh.Muntyan. "Community School Concepts." Journal of Edur
cational Research. XLI (April. 1948). pp. 606-607

3Ibid. p. 607.

 

 

23
sketched earlier. The community school becomes. then. a proposed
approach to the solution of the problem Of identifying the role of
the school in terms of the contemporary societal situation. Its
objectives are oriented around the facts of social disunity and
fractionalization. It finds authority and direction in the demo—
cratic ideolOgy.

In an extended discussion of the operation of the community
school.1 Muntyan emphasizes that the curriculum of the community
school consists in a large measure of the problems and issues which
confront the community. both the local and the broader community of
state. nation. and world. He also points out that emphasis upon
such problems and issues provides for two related accomplishments.
First. the complete or partial resolution of any problem or issue
would tend to improve the quality Of living in the community: and.
second. the process by which resolution was approached would serve
to provide learning experience in methods of solving conflicts and
problems. He states this factor briefly as follows:

"In brief. community activities are not properly

to be used only as immediate problems to be resolved.

They must also serve as the vehicles through which

community. and community process. are developed.“3

The immediate solution of problems. the current resolution of
individual conflicts. may well have a highly desirable impact on
the quality of living obtaining in a community. However. other sig-

nificant achievements would not be sought and measured only in terms

 

lMuntyan (Thesis). Op. cit. pp. 245-248.
31bid. p. 248.

24
of these current and immediate results. but rather they would be
apparent in terms of what had happened to the personalities of the
participants; what changes had taken place in their value systems
and attitudes; what skills. competencies. and insights had been
inculcated and learned as a result of the experience that would
serve them in later similar experiences to an increasingly desir—
able degree.

The position may be taken here. then. that one of the principle
elements in the community school concept is its curriculum oriented
around current social problems. Furthermore. both the processes of
solution and the solutions themselves become objectives. Which is
more important would appear to be situationally determined. With
some groups the process would assume greater significance; with other
groups the solution would loom large in importance.

Naslund. in a study delimited to the determination of a defini-
tion of the community school. follows similar lines of development as
does Muntyan. The areas of divergence are not sufficiently significant
to be elaborated upon here. It is helpful to examine Naslund's de-
finition at this point since it provides a convenient statement for
reference purposes for this study.

"A,community school is a school which over and above

its concern for the production of literate. '1ike-minded.’

and economically sufficient citizens in terms of a partic-

ular social. economic or political setting. is directly

concerned with improving living in the community in all

the broad meaning of the concept in the local. state.

regional. national. or international community. To that V,

end it is the consciously used instrument of the com-

munity. and its curriculum reflects planning to meet the

discovered needs. with changing emphases as circumstances
indicate. Its buildings and physical facilities are at

 

 

25
once a center for both youth and adults who together are
actively engaged in analyzing problems suggested by the
needs of the community and in formulating and eXploring
possible solutions to those problems. solutions which are
in turn put into Operation to the end that living is
improved and enriched for the individual and community."1
The emphases are clear in this statement. They revolve around

such objectives as:
The improvement of community living.
The use of social problems in the curriculum.
Orientation around community values.

It is possible to pursue both Naslund's and Muntyan's discus-
sions further in order to observe more specific characteristics of
the community school.

Muntyan analyzed what appear to be the current community school
concepts with particular emphasis upon their societal genesis.2 He
suggests two areas of educational concern that are intimately involved
in any community school concept which seeks to reconstruct and improve
the school and the phiIOSOphy under which it Operates. The first of
these areas is organization and administration. This area includes
those factors dealing with the administration of the community school
and the organization of its resources. human and material. for the
most productive results. The second of these areas is that dealing

with the school program. This area deals primarily with the curriculum

of the school and the methodology used.

 

lRobert.A. Naslund. The Origin and Development of the Community
School Concept. Unpublished Dissertation for the Doctor of Education
Degree. Stanford University. 1951. p. 71.

2huntyan (Jnl. Ed. Res). Op. cit. pp. 597-809.

 

26'

Muntyan divides the area of organization and administration into
three areas or emphases. They are "external control." "internal con-
trol." and ”internal Organization." The factors with.which each of
these deal are self evident from their titles.

In considering the school program. Muntyan developes two over-
all orientations by which it is constructed and operated. He suggests
that the sdhool may either go out into the community and include com-
munity activities in the school program. or it may bring the community
into the school and incorporate community activities into the ongoing
school program. Either of these may be done for three possible reasons
or purposes. The school may go out into the community for purely school
purposes. community purposes. or for school-community purposes. In
turn. the school can bring the community into the school program for
either Of these same purposes.

Both Muntyan and Naslund arrive at similar conclusions when they
decide that school and community purposes are the idggl. Muntyan V/
cautions. however. that even here it is necessary to face the realities
of the human relationships in the community and the social factors
and conflicts Obtaining or the new concept will be as sterile as the
Old. He also agrees with Naslund that conflicts and Opposing points
of view can be the media for the educative process. However. where
Naslund was satisfied with this as a flat assumption. Muntyan goes on
to caution that conflict represent such media only if a basis for

solving such conflicts is shared by all concerned with them.

27

The basis from which Muntyan.suggests conflicts may be approached
he calls the ”rules of the game."1 The "rules of the game" are the
remaining democratic commitments of American society. They are the
idealized values that remain at least the verbalized expressions of
general community in the society. Naslund takes generally the same
view only he relates these values more specifically to the law and
the documentary statements that are part of the American culture.

Smith. Stanley. and Shores suggest a definitive basis in a con—
cise statement which is concluded by five "propositions."

”The notion of the community school is. therefore.
but a concerted emphasis upon the community aspects of
the foregoing curriculum theories. In its mildest form
it would make the community activities of the school the
center of the educational programu Its most complete
form would be. not a school that goes out into the com-
munity. but a community organized and directed with the
intent of producing through all its activities and pro-
cesses healthy. growing personalities. Its ultimate out—
come would be an education-centered community. not a com-
munity-centered school.

"The characteristic principles of the community school
have been fonnulated in a number Of ways. but they can be
reduced to the following propositions:

l. The educational program is designed to meet the needs
Of a particular local community without sacrificing
the needs of the wider society of the nation and
world.

2. The community processes and activities constitute the
medium through which children and youth.receive edu-
cative experiences.

3. Children and youth work c00peratively with adults
on problems Of mutual concern.

 

lumtyan (T119818). Op. Cit. p. 2510
BNasiund. Op. cit. p. 52-54

28

4. With respect to its internal organization and
Operation. the school is a model democratic com-
munit y.

5. The leadership fOr initiating. planning. and
carrying out of projects for community improve-
ments is frequently centered in the school."

Many other writers have contributed to the volume of literature
available regarding the community school concept. waever. as indi-
cated previously. it serves no purpose in terms of the present study
to go into these further.2

For purposes of this study the fellowing definitive statement
regarding the community is submitted. It is primarily a synthesis
of the contributions of Muntyan and Naslund.

The community school is a school that has as its main
objectives the preparation of community members Of all ages

for effective participation in community living. and the

constant improvement of the quality of that living both for

the group and the individual and in the present and the
future.

 

113. o. Smith. William 0. Stanley. and J. Harlan Shores.
Fundamentals of Curriculum Development. New York: World Bock
Company. 1950. Pp. 534.535.

2The following references were particularly helpful to the
writer:
Elsie Ripley Clapp. Community Schools in.Action. New York: The
Viking Press. 1939. PP. XVIII + 429.
Elsie Ripley Clapp._The Use of Resources in Education. New York:
Harper and Brothers. 1952. pp. XVI +'174.
Herbert M. Hamlin. Citizens' Committees in the Public Schools.
Danville. Illinois: Interstate Printing Company. 1952. pp. 306.
Paul R. Hanna and Others. Youth Serves the Community. New York:
D.‘App1eton-Century Company. 1936. pp. XIV + 303.
National Society for the Study of Ehucation._ghe Community School.
The Fifty-Second Yearbook. Part II. Chicago: The University of
Chicagp Press. 1953. PP. XII + 292 + LXXII.
Edward G. Olsen. School and Community. New York: Prentice-Hall.
Incorporated. 1945. pp. IX + 422.
Helen G. Trager and.Marian Yarrow. They Learn What They Live.
New York: Harper and Brothers. 1952. pp. XVII + 392.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

29

The community school uses problems of living and the
social problems of the local and the broader communities
as the core of its curriculum. These problems may be
selected by the users from among those that beset the
community or the individuals in it at any given time. or
the problems may come from the past or the future. The
essential characteristic of problems used in this manner
by the community school is that they shall have an actual
relationship to the lives. ideals. purposes and aspirations
of the individuals working with them.

The problems and issues that make up this core of
the curriculum for the community school are dealt with by’
means of problem solving skills. The community school
orients its activities around and uses as its main ethical
resource the democratic ideology and its implications for
behavior and inter-personal relationships among human
beings.

The community school draws upon resources from through-
out the community. and the totality of the expertnesses
represented in the community are understood to be available
for the use of the school. The unique expertness of the
school staff is based in the community itself and is to a
large degree typified by expertness in the skills of teach-
ing in its broadest professional meanings. The resources.
human and material. that are used by the school for its
purposes are willingly granted because the entire community
is involved in the educational process under the coordinat-
ing function of the school and its staff.

For school purposes the community school considers the
means as well as the ends in all of’its program and activities.
This is particularly so with regard to the social problems
that the youth of the community attempt to solve. With older
youth and with adults the ends may assume greater significance.
The attempt at the solution of problems and the resolution of
conflict situations are means to most Of'what the school
undertakes. The solutions that are being sought will serve
as goals and also as the basis for evaluating the means.

The ordinary skills that are popularly referred to as
"fundamentals" are learned as tools. as means. and they are
learned when the need for them becomes apparent. These
“fundamental" skills are considered to be basic tools and
their acquisition an important end by itself. even though
the process by which they are acquired is part of a broader
plan aimed at a different goal.

The whole structure Of'skills and competencies involved
in problem solving and in the resolution of conflict

30

situations are considered as primary civic skills that it is
the responsibility of the school to see nurtured and.matured
in the young as part of their preparation for effective living
in a democracy.

The community school moves out into the community. brings
the community into the school. or does both as the occasion
seems to require. Moreover. it considers the entire community 47/
its classroom and laboratory. Efincational experiences may be
going on in the community in which the participants never
enter the school. The school facility itself becomes increas-
ingly merely the hub. the center. from which the program of the
school is coordinated. It serves as the symbol of total com-
munity effort and participation. although the actual participa-
tion may be going on in various parts of the community with
relatively little actual contact with the formal symbols Of
the school.

The community school serves u: illustrate the accep-
tance of two basic educational tenets: First. that the total
environment is the source of’most fundamental human learning;
and second. that to separate the educational activity from
the ongoing social scene results inevitably in the activity
and the processes of the school becoming artificial and
unrealistic.

CHAPTER IV 31

RELATED CONTHIEUTIOKS IN THE.ARZA OF COHPETENCIES

FOB COAMUNITY SCEOOL TEACEERS

As was indicated in Chapter I. the literature dealing with
teacher education does not consider to any great extent the unique
professional needs of the community school teacher. This does not
mean that preparation for community school teaching has been ignored.

The same general Observation may be made concerning the liter-
ature on the community school. Although reference in this literature
is frequently made to the qualifications for teachers which com-
munity school teaching requires. the problem of how these qualifi-
cations are produced by means of the professional education program
is seldom considered by itself.

From the point of view of this study it appears to be helpful
to examine briefly the literature in both of these areas. It will
be helpful inasmuch as it will set the stage. so to speak. for the
later analysis of the community school concept in terms of competen-
cies that may be inferred from the community school definition.

One other contribution such an analysis Of the literature can
make will be to indicate the trend in the literature. particularly
that dealing with teacher education. to pay more and more attention
to the community aspects of teaching. even though this attention is

not specifically an outgrowth of the community school concept;

Contributions of General Teacher Education Literature

The primary task of this chapter. then. will be to draw attention

82
to some of the statements already available which deal with teacher
competencies. Studies selected for this purpose will be those that
appear to accept the teaching role as being intimately related to
community process. and which interpret learning as changed behavior
resulting from the response. or series of responses. the learner
makes to environmental action upon him. The concept Of learning to
which reference is made here is that which Hopkins calls the "inte-
grative or organismic approach to learning."1 The significant
caution should be injected at this point that the theory Of learning
to which reference is made emphasizes the integrating process that
takes place between the environmental stimulation and the evidences
of changed behavior. Integrative learning. then. is not a simple
stimulus-response reaction but a process that goes on.continuously.
A significant element in this process is the exercising Of intelli-
gence on the environmental stimuli. The entire organism is a part
of this process. The amount of conscious and deliberate attention
that is on the stimulus or experience and its aftermath is. in a
sense. a criterion of its potential power. Dewey places emphasis
upon this thinking process. He suggests that this thinking or
deliberation is a refinement of actual overt trial and error. that
as individuals abstract possibilities and visualize outcomes. learn-

ing is occurring and changed behavior results.2

 

1L. Thomas HOpkins. Interaction. Boston: D. C. Heath and Com-
pany. 1941. p. 141. (Hopkins' discussion of the learning process:
pp. 131-171).

2John Dewey. Human Nature and Conduct. New York: Henry Hblt
and Company. 1922. pp. 190-193.

 

33

The literature on teacher education reveals that there has been
considerable concern for the past fifty years with the kind of edu-
cation that has been provided prospective teachers. various studies
are reported and many publications are available dealing with this
problem.

The Michigan Cooperative Teacher Education Study reported in
1943. Even at this late date this report places no particular empha-
sis upon the community school nor does it aim its recommendations in
that direction. In discussing the "role of the teacher" the study
states rather specifically certain abilities. or. competencies. that
the teacher should have.

"The teacher who is capable of serving any culture
and of teaching students of all degrees and varieties of
development will need to be (1) broadly tolerant or. put
another way. as free as possible from prejudices and
sentiments of every sort; (2) highly competent in the
discovery and understanding of all kinds of social values;
(3) possessed Of that maturity of judgment. descriptive
accuracy. reflective skill and predictive efficiency
which characterize all sound evaluation; (4) self-reliant
and effective in releasing others from all kinds of
immaturity. neurotic inhibitions and emotional disorders
and in preventing both himself and others from becoming
victimized by them; (5) expert in defining quickly and
accurately his role in the societies. the communities
and the schools he serves; (6) professionally ethical.
responsible and realistic. His education. to be genuinely
functional. should be planned to achieve these objectives."

Although these objectives or competencies are rather generally
stated. nevertheless. it is possible to detect among them some com-
petencies that would be equally desirable for a teacher in a community

school. .Attention is particularly drawn to those involving freedom

 

1David M. Trout. (Editor). The Education of Teachers. Lansing:
The Michigan COOperative Teacher Education.Study. 1943. p. 9.

 

34
from prejudice and possession of an objective point of view. The
one dealing with the role of the teacher in the ”societies" he serves
is also indicative of the kind of thinking from which the community
school concept has evolved.

The study comes much closer to sensing the needs for a community
school philosophy in its chapter on ”The Community Relations of the
Teacher.” It begins this chapter with three assumptions with regard
to the community role of the teacher:

"(1) The teacher should not only be a mentor for

children. a subject-matter specialist. and a sponsor Of

extra-curricular activities. but also a leader of adults.

a participant in political and social life. and a com-

munity statesman. (2) Only the school staff that under-

stands through participation the life of the people it

serves is able to provide a school program in response

to the needs of the community. (3) A.knowledge of the

experience that may have been responsible for competence

displayed by teachers who are making valuable contri-

butions to their community can be utilized to develop

teachers for more effective participation in community

life."1

This study went on to survey a Large number of teachers who were
rated by their administrators as being highly qualified in the field
of community relationships. The purpose of this was to determine what
experiences these teachers had had that seemed to have made than into
the kind of teacher each was. The kinds of community participation
reported was of the rather superficial variety that is not exactly
the kind of participation implied by the community school concept.

A brief insight into the results of this survey is Obtained by the
following breakdown in terms of percentage of the kinds of partici-

pation the study revealed:

 

11bid.. p. 75.

35
”The percentage of superior Michigan teachers who

participate in the most frequently mentioned community

organizations as regular members are. for Red Cross

56.5. P.T.A. 42. fraternal orders 30. alumni associa-

tions 29. Sunday SOhool 23.2. civic luncheon groups

14.5. adult social clubs 14.5. Bridge Club 14.2. Boy

and Girl Scouts 12.1. and Y.W.C.A. and Y.M.C.A. 8.4.

The most significant fact for the present purpose.

however. is that in every one of the eight activities

except Bridge the percentage of superior Michigan

teachers who act as officers. teachers. and sponsors

is greater than that for members of the national1

sample."2

This approach to the identification of significant experiences
teachers have had that may have helped them to become better community
participants is somewhat weak. This is so because of the nature of
the kinds Of experiences reported and also because it is illustrative
of efforts that base themselves on the status quo. One might also
suggest that the manner of identifying the teachers who were to be
surveyed is Open to question. The teachers whom administrators in
present schools select as outstanding and those who would be selected
by an impartial Observer would not necessarily be the same ones.

One other comment on the study should be made. The question
.may be raised as to whether or not these teachers were good teachers
'because of their participation in community affairs or did they par-
ticipate in these activities because they were already good teachers.

John J. DeBoer. writing in the Fourth Yearbook of the John Dewey

Society provides another list of canpetencies. He approaches it from

 

1The National Sample to which reference is made here is:
iFlorence Greenhoe. Community Contacts and Participation of Teachers.
tflashington. D.C.: .American Council on Public Affairs. 1941. pp. 91.

2Trout. Op. cit. p. 76.

 

36
the point of view of the purposes of teacher education.and expressed
his competencies in terms of outcomes.

”What are the objectives of the program for the
education of teachers for democracy's schools? Though
no final and authoritative answer can be given to this
question. certain broad purposes emerge from a study
of the responsibilities of the school in modern American
society. In the following generalizations these purposes
are stated as outcomes which are proposed as measures of
the success Of the program: The professionally well-
prepared teacher (1) is a careful student of childhood.
(2) is a careful student of the community and its effects
upon the child. (3) sets up objectives for teaching by
studying his pupils‘ present needs from the standpoint of
the requirements of life in a democratic society. (4)
organizes his instruction with a view to the achievement
Of well-defined objectives. and shares with pupils the
responsibility of planning the work of the school. (5)
evaluates pupil growth in terms of these objectives. (6)
participates intelligently in school management. and (7)
understands the broader problems of his profession and
Of the relation between school and society."1

These outcomes of a teacher education program appear to be some-
what closer to a similar set of outcomes that might be suggested for
community school teachers. They serve a purpose here in showing the
trend in thinking that began to gain momentum at approximately this
time. The interest in the teacher being a student of the community
and of its impact upon the child are significant. There is also a
reference to the qualifications of the teacher in terms of his ability
to understand and use that which is available concerning how children
grow and develop.

In writing a chapter fer the same yearbook entitled "Abilities

of Teachers." G. Robert KOOpman includes still more Of the elements

 

1George E. Axtelle and William w. Wattenberg. (Editors).
Teachers for Democracy. Fourth Yearbook of the John Dewey Society.
New York: D. Appleton-Century Company. 1940. p. 263.

37

implied by the community school concept. He refers to his list as

the ”Basic Components of Professional Proficiency." and lists them

as follows:

1.

3.

4.

5.

6.

"Every teacher should gain proficiency:

In participating in group thinking situations and in
contributing to the leadership of such situations.

In surveying and analyzing the natural and cultural
landscapes with particular reference to community
processes and in utilizing the data in developing
an improved educational program.

In.Observing the individual learner and in organizing
such Observations into meaningful interpretations of
the growth processes Of the learner to be used in
guiding learning and growth.

In participating with learners in the derivation of
effective teacher-learning policies. procedures. and
units of instruction.

In evaluating educational prOgrams and the specific
outcomes of learning experiences of individual learners.

In interpreting the educational program to the public."1

Koopman admits that he has not included in the above list of

competencies any that refer to the ability of the teacher to function

as a member of a social group. These competencies are assumed for

.any teacher. he points out. prior to his gaining professional com-

petencies.

It would appear that the above list of competencies approaches

can understanding of the needs for a teacher in a community school to

some extent. Certainly the competencies dealing with child needs.

ciemocratic teacher-pupil relationships. surveying and analyzing

 

libid. p. as.

38
social climates in communities. and the processes Of group thinking
and problem-solving are all there.

Another statement that adds to the picture of the development
Of teacher competencies more and more in terms of the needs of the
community school is offered in the concluding portion of the report
of the Commission on Teacher Education. Of the American Council on
Education. in 1944. In discussing the "Elements Of Teacher Edu-
cation.” the report contains a significant statement dealing with
the ”teacher of tomorrow.”

"More specifically. we believe that the teacher Of
tomorrow will need to do more than master a given subject
matter and direct the learning of a specific group of young
people. He will have to be prepared for work with other
teachers in the same building or in the same school system
to the end that the children of the community may be given
the richest educational experience permitted by local re-
sources. He will also need the ability to work effectively
with other community agencies and organizations in devising
and carrying out prOgrams that will tend to raise the quality
Of living in that community. He‘will very much.need to de-
velop the capacity to see things whole-~whether it be the
growing child. his own system of values. his field of con-
centration. the curriculum. the school unit. or the social
environment of which the school is a part."1
The emphasis upon.wholes is interesting since it is clearly a

desirable competency for teachers in the community school. The
emerging tendency to get away from narrow specializations and to
achieve insights into the total functioning of the community are
significant. It should also be noted that the last reference makes
mention of the need for the school to take an active part in raising

the quality of living in the community. It is regrettable that this

 

1w. Earl Armstrong. Ernest v. Hollis. and Helen E. Davis. The
College and Teacher Education. The Commission on Teacher Education.
Washington. D.C.: American Council on Education. 1944. p. 302.

 

39
particular report did not take the next step and suggest that the
process Of solving community problems and of raising the quality of
living in the community were media for instruction in many other
things. that they could well be the core of the curriculum.

Another treatment of teacher competencies that emphasizes the
abilities and understandings needed by teachers is offered by Lammel.l
She emphasizes the societal role of the educator and the values and
role expectations the teacher needs. She points out that the creative
aspects of teaching require points of view and personality traits on
the part of the teacher that are characterized by wide flexibility
and ability to adapt to various situations with quick insight and
purposive adjustment behavior. She emphasizes knowledge. particularly
Jknowledge of child growth research. Her summary statement on abilities
points up generalized abilities that are detailed later.

"A teacher needs the abilities and the inclination

to be a participating. creative. cooperating. respon-

sible member of our democratic society."2

Brief mention has already been made to the core curriculum. It
is. of course. a curriculum organization technique that has become a
Imurt of the secondary school prOgram during recent years. Admittedly
it is loosely defined. Many programs that are called "core" progress
pnnobably should be labeled with some other term such as "unified

stuniies." or "broad fields." Nevertheless. to some extent. the core

(nirriculum movement is related to the community school movement inasmuch

 

1Rose Lammel. "Some Midcentury Challenges to Teacher Education."
Educational Leadership. IX (March. 1952). pp. 343—347.

 

 

\" a”

 

 

40
as theoretically it is designed to make the heart of the curriculum
the social and personal problems of the learners. By this is meant
that the core class is oriented around the problems of living of the
class members. These problems may be. and frequently are. problems
of the community. As Faunce and Bossing define it:

"The 'core curriculum‘ designates those learning
experiences that are fundamental for all learners be- /’
cause they derive from (1) our common. individual drives
or needs. and (2) our civic and social nfeds as partici—
pating members of a democratic society."

An interesting list of teacher competencies for core teachers is
suggestive Of competencies for teachers in community schools. Since
the philosophy of the two movements have kindred elements in them. it
follows that such a list may provide further insights into the needs
of community school teachers.

"The core teacher should know the important concepts
and development in the field of general education of sec- “"
endary education and should be able to select and utilize
them in develOping and improving the core program.

The core teacher should be able to interpret present-
day events and movements as they relate to the learning
activities of the core.

The core teacher should understand the processes of
growth and maturation in children and adolescents for the /’
purpose of identifying common basic needs and interests
at various levels Of development.

The core teacher should have the ability to utilize
the contributions of various fields Of knowledge in clarify-
ing the major controversial issues in contemporary society
and to utilize suitable techniques for dealing with them
in the core class.

 

lRoland C. Faunce and Nelson L. Bossing. Developing the Core
(Burriculum. New York: Prentice-Hall. Incorporated. 1951. p. 4.

 

41

The core teacher should have the ability to work co- ,/
Operatively with others in setting up broad problem areas
based on common problems, needs. and interests of adoles-
cents and to utilize them in developing learning activities
of the core program.

The core teacher should have the ability to work
COOperatively with others in the development of resource
units based on broad problem areas and to utilize them in
planning learning units with pupils.

The core teacher in cooperation with students and
colleagues should be able to develop learning units from
broad problem areas for the purpose of improving human
relations.

The core teacher should be able to draw upon major
fields of knowledge (e.g-. humanities. social studies.
science, and the arts) in helping youth meet their common
needs and solve their problems.

The core teacher should have the ability to select /
and utilize resources of the immediate and wider coma
munity which will contribute to the solution of problems
dealt with in the core.

The core teacher should know how to utilize and guide
student activities (e.g.. student councils. assemblies.
publications. social clubs, parties, and sports) which
grow out of or are closely related to the learning activi-
ties in the core prOgram.

The core teacher should have the ability to select
and utilize suitable guidance and counseling techniques
and services in the development of learning activities
which deal with personal-social problems of the adoles-
cent.

The core teacher should have the ability to utilize
techniques of cooperative planning in working with col-
leagues in the coordination of all learning activities of
the core pro gram.

The core teacher should have the ability to cooperate
with teachers. parents. and other laymen in developing and

/"

improving the core program and relating it to the-community.

The core teacher should have the ability to evaluate
individual and group progress toward the objectives of the
core program.

The core teacher should have the ability to utilize
group dynamics in carrying on the learning activities of
the core class.

The core teacher should be able to evaluate edu-
cational programs which emphasize the core program and
to utilize their contributions in the develOpment and
improvement of his own program.

The core teacher should have the ability to carry on
individual and cooperative action research in the devel-
Opment and improvement of the core program."1
The above references to the literature have demonstrated in a

brief manner that the literature on teacher education and, indeed.
general education, has for some time considered teacher education
in terms of competencies to be developed. This is not a new idea.
The references have served. it is hoped. to indicate to some extent
the evolution of thinking during recent years with regard to the
role of the teacher and the kinds of competencies he needs. The
trend, as demonstrated by the references used, clearly indicates a

movement in thinking toward some of the component parts of the com—

munity school concept.

Contributions From Community School Literature

 

Muntyan deals with teacher competencies primarily in terms of
the ”expertness" of the teacher. He suggests five requirements in
terms of teacher expert status:

“If the definition of the community-school concept
offered in this volume is acceptable, and if the analysis
of the community and of authority is valid, it would
appear that the teacher's expert status would need to
be defined in some such fashion as that which follows.

*—

1From a Questionnaire used by Carolyn Newsom, Department of
Exhication, Ohio State University, Columbus. Ohio

 

43

First, mastery of an area of knowledge would remain a
significant part of teacher competence. However, it
would be essential that such knowledge be oriented toward
the functional community rather than being allowed to .
maintain its present orientation toward the specialist '
association it now represents. Second. what is commonly
referred to as teaching skill would need to be recon—
structed in terms of group methods and group processes.
Furthermore. such skills would need to be extended to

lay groups in the community, if the school is to genu-
inely serve a community function. Third. the teacher
would need a certain expertness in the knowledge and ./’
application of philosophy, sociology, and the biological
sciences as they underlie the educative process. It
would be crucial, however. that such knowledge and appli—
cation be oriented toward the functional educational and
social community. It would not be, as it is at present,
defined in terms of the special disciplines themselves.
For example, many teachers now have some acquaintance with
the field of sociology. Too often, however, such knowledge
as they possess is relatively abstract. If it is to be-
come significant for the function of a community school.
its implications for social organization and integration
must become a part of their ‘working' knowledge rather
than remain a part of their non-functional, Fprofessional'
knowledge. Fourth, a major element in the teacher's
expertness must be that of helping pupils develOp their
abilities to carry on the judgmental process. i.e.. the
ability to critically evaluate themselves and the going
social process. Finally. the teacher needs an expertness
in the ability to understand.and interpret the society /y
in which he functions, an expertness which is obviously
the first qualification of the teacher in the community
school."1

This reducing the teacher's competencies to five serves to

combine and reduce to a point which is probably the bare minimum.

Certainly this concise statement gives a quick and thorough picture

of the professional needs of the teacher who would teach in a com-

munity school.

Muntyan's distinction with regard to the teacher's expert status

 

lFifty-second Yearbook. Op. cit. pp. 43—44.

44
in a specialist area - a subject matter area — raises the question
of the place of subject specialties in teacher education. Whether
or not there is a place for teachers with specialties in the com-
munity school seems to be a question over which there should be no
argument providing, as Muntyan points out, the specialty is oriented
toward the community. As a matter of fact, it is quite possible
that there would be some specialist areas in the community school
that would still have to be preserved as such. The school would con-
tinue to have a responsibility in the area of preparing youth for
vocational pursuits. As the youth matured and approached adult status.
there would be a real need in the complex society for preparation
for a vocation. This would not require that the specialist teacher
be at all estranged from the more general members of the faculty. On
the contrary, he would have certain responsibility to share with them
in the total community school effort. The particular vocational
learnings offered. the needs of the youth in the particular community.
the needs of the industrial and economic supports in the community
would have to be identified and analyzed in the same fashion as the
other needs for which the school accepted responsibility.

Another factor with regard to specialties grows out of the co-
operative relationship which exists among members of a community school
staff. Each staff member's singular interests and specialties are
considered as resources by the rest of the staff. The literature
describing certain community school experiments points up examples

of this kind of working arrangement.

 

lClapp, Olson, and Naslund. Op. cit.

45
The Fifty-second Yearbook reserves a chapter for a discussion
of the personnel of the community school. It considers all the indi-
viduals who would participate in the program of the community school.
In doing so it obviously must consider the entire community. The use
of all the resources and expertnesses in the community requires that
in a sense all human resources used be considered part of the personnel
of the school. Drummond does make special mention, however, of the
"professional staff." His only attempt at delineating specific com—
petencies is when he does so for the entire staff as a whole. He
lists ten.
"A. A point of view which merges living and learning.
B. Sensitivity to social problems and trends.
C. Ability to live and work with others.

D. Knowledge of the community and of techniques for
studying the community.

E. Breadth of interest and educational preparation.

F. Physical health and emotional stability.

G. Ability to apply what is known.

B. Knowledge of children and youth.

I. Flexibility.

J. Faith in people."1
One might well raise the question as to whether or not all of

the above are "competencies." Although in the explanation that suc~

ceeds each of the above headings Drummond relieves the bareness of

 

lFifty~second Yearbook. Op. cit. pp. 106—109.

46
his list somewhat, nevertheless the list is rather barren and is.
with some exceptions, a good example of the manner in which teacher
competencies seem to be treated generally in the literature dealing
with the community school.

' Smith. Stanley, and Shores reduce the leadership function of
the teaching profession to four areas. Concerning these, they say:

"The leadership function of the profession is
limited to four spheres of knowledge and skill: techr
nical skills and knowledge of education, knowledge of
intellectual disciplines. knowledge of social and edu-
cational values, and knowledge and skill in educational
engineering. As professionally trained persons. members
of the teaching profession possess. or should possess.
knowledges and skills of educational processes and pro—
cedures over and beyond those possessed by the laymen."

And later:

”The two spheres of professional competence and
leadership just discussed have long been recognized by
the great bulk of the profession. However, comparable
status of the profession with respect to the other two
realms -- social and educational values, and educational
engineering - has neither been claimed nor sought until
quite recently. Even yet the competence of the profes-
sion in these two areas is woefully lacking —- a fact
that goes a long way toward er laining the failure of
so many curriculum ventures."“

The two spheres these writers emphasize as being the neglected
areas in teacher education are in striking agreement with the impli—
cations of this study. These are the areas that are most significant
in terms of the community school concept and its successful operation.
Yet. they represent areas in which teachers often feel most insecure

and are least capable of functioning.

 

1B. O. Smith, William 0. Stanley. and J. Harlan Shores.
Op. cit. p. 651. -

21bid. p. 652.

47

The literature that has been cited serves to give background to
the subsequent develOpment of competencies for community school
teaching. It also illustrates the rather generalized nature of the
current literature. For purposes of this study it appears to be
necessary to analyze competencies much more in detail with particular
emphasis upon those that are essential for community school teachers
and that are also capable of being refined and further develOped by

means of student teaching and related experiences.

CHKPTER V 48
THE CO;-'il~.Ul\TI’I‘Y SCHOOL AND TEACHER COMPETEIHCIES

As stated in Chapter I. the main origin or source of the com-
petencies to be considered will be the community school concept as
defined. The definitive statement in effect describes an active. OD?
going enterprise in which peOple, through their behavior. are exercis—
ing competencies. The definition of the enterprise provides infer-
ences. then, with regard to the skills and abilities required by the
professional staff if they are to satisfy the behavioral expectations
contained in the definition.

A large number of the day to day competencies needed by community
school teachers will be competencies that good teachers use in conven-
tional schools.1 Put the other way, many competencies that regular
teachers need are also needed by community school teachers. In fact.
even those competencies which will be identified as being particularly
essential for community school teachers could be used. and probably are
frequently used, by teachers in conventional schools. The difference
lies not just in the skill or ability itself. but rather in the frame of ’
reference in which it is used. Such factors as the purposes for which
the competency is exercised. the manner in which it is carried out, and
the relationship of the activity in which it is exercised to prior and
subsequent activities all are significant in establishing the essential
nature of some competencies for community school teaching. while they

may be merely desirable or acceptable in a non-community school.

 

1The term "conventional school" is used in this study to indicate
what might be called the average, normal kind of school - the non-com-
munity school. so to speak.

49
Furthermore. even though a teacher might have certain competencies
that are clearly needed in a community school, if he teaches in a
conventional school the curriculum and structure of the school pro-
gram would not provide him with opportunities to practice these
competencies.

There are other delimitations that should be emphasized before
going into the matter of actually identifying the competencies needed
by a community school teacher. One of these is the fact that the study
is confined to a consideration of competencies that can be developed or
improved by means of the student teaching program and its related acti-
vities. This, in a sense. assumes that other experiences in the way
of course work and general education requirements. carried on either
prior to student teaching or parallel with it. have developed know-
ledge and understandings the application of which will be demonstrated
in the skills and abilities that Operate during the student teaching
experience. What this says. then, is that the competencies to be
emphasized in student teaching have been made familiar to the student
or are being introduced to the student outside the actual student
teaching experience, and that the theoretical bases and the research
that supports the behavioral procedures which characterize community
school teaching have been or are being learned. Still another way of
stating the same thing is to say that the emphasis of the study will
be upon the overt manifestations of competencies with the understanding
throughout the discussion being that the background and understandings
for this behavior will have been, or are being achieved by means of

other phases of the teacher education program.

 

EC.-

 

".-

 

50
The definition of the community school at the end of Chapter III
suggests certain characteristics of community school teaching which
can be briefly listed in terms of teacher abilities. Such a list
would include:

1. The ability to identify realistic problems on all
levels of community.

2. The ability to work with and exercise teaching skill
with any age group.

3. The ability to apply problem-solving methods to social
problems.

4. The ability to operate in accordance with the demo-
cratic ideology.

5. The ability to utilize resources. human and material,
from the entire community.

6. The ability to teach the "fundamentals" as tools.

The mere listing of a competency is inadequate inasmuch as it is
not possible to include in one item of a brief listing all the nuances
of meaning. To neglect a more complete explanation is to make misinter-
pretation practically certain. Consequently. the competencies listed
above are discussed briefly in order to establish more precisely the
meaning assumed for them and to show more clearly their relationship
to the community school.

The Ability to Identify Realistic
Problems on all Levels of Community

 

Community is not limited to the local area. The community school
concept recognizes "broader communities." These include areas beyond

the local community, such as the state. the nation, or the world.

51
No educational program can ignbre the increasing significance to the
local community of problems originating in broader communities.

The ability to identify problems and conflict situations is
essential if these situations are to comprise the core of the com-
munity school curriculum. Not only problems of a community nature,
but the very structure and processes of individual communities con-
stitute the core and foundation of the community school curriculum.
Olson includes this characteristic of the community school as one of
his five "viewpoints" or conceptions of what the community school
does. His third viewpoint states:

"The school should center its curriculum in a study of
community structure,_processes and problems. Every community
is a microcosm of human experience. since within it go on
the basic processes and related problems of making a living,
sharing in citizenship, exchanging ideas. securing education,
adjusting to people. maintaining life and health, enjoying
beauty. meeting religious needs. engaging in recreation, and
the like. The core curriculum should therefore be organized
around a direct study of the local and regional community's
physical setting, organization. class and caste structure.
basic activities. climate of opinion, and needs and prob-
lems as these and similar factors affect individual and
group welfare."1
The behavior manifestations implied by Olson's statement coincide

with the ability being discussed here. Particularly do they imply
abilities in the area of understanding the community processes and
utilizing them for educative purposes. Perhaps a better way to say
it would be abilities involved in improving the educative affects of

these community processes.

To be more specific. the ability to identify realistic problems

 

loison. Op. cit. p. 18.

 

 

 

53
is demonstrated by the ability to use certain definite techniques for
problem identification. Problems may exist in a community without
being recognized at all. The use of certain kinds of sociometric
techniques would be an example of one method by which problems in human
relations may be revealed within a group. Methods of evaluating certain
community services would illustrate another approach to problem recog-
nition. For example, a sixth grade in a large elementary school surveyed
the dietary quality of the meals eaten by all the children in the school.
One fact that was revealed was that over thirty per cent of the children
in the school left home in the morning without even a minimum breakfast.
As a result of the survey, nutrition consultants and the adult education
director for the system, together with.parents in the school, planned a Jflw
series of nutrition prOgrams for the neighborhood.1

Competency in "sensing" possible problems and of rather precisely
identifying them. represents then, one of the fundamental skills for
a community school teacher.

A competency regarding the refining and stating of problems is
closely related to the one above. It recognizes the fact that the mere
identification of’a problem is only the beginning in the process of
using community problems as the core of the curriculum. The ability to
refine a problem and to state it so that it reflects rather precisely
the direction in which solutions must take is oftentimes difficult.

The ability of the teacher to work with a group so that they become
progressively more proficient in this task is essential to the proper

functioning of the community school. This is rather obvious, it would

 

1Illustration related to the writer during a visit to the school
concerned.

53
seem, since problems and their solution are the core of the curriculum,
and unless a problem can be properly stated and delimited, attempts to
solve it may prove extremely frustrating and may even constitute a form
of negative educative experience inasmuch as the learner or learners
may build undesirable attitudes toward the problem, problem-solving,
or even the teacher.

Ability to Work With and Exercise
Teaching Skill With any Age Group

 

 

The emphasis here is upon the ability to work with.groups on
various levels of maturity. Even though a community school teacher
might have primary responsibility for a certain age group of children,
it would not mean that the individuals in that group would be the only
ones with which the teacher would work in a teacher-learner relation-
ship.

Another point of view with regard to this competency is to consider
the role of the teacher with parent groups of various kinds. Many of
the needs of’which the teacher may become aware with regard to children
and youth will require the cooperation and education of parents. In a
sense, the nutrition problem cited above serves to illustrate this point.
The nature of parent contacts may be highly varied, but in the majority
of cases, it is reasonable to assume that the purpose of the contact
will involve educational objectives.

A.second competency having to do with meeting the needs of all
community members is the ability to adapt procedures and processes to
various maturity levels. It involves the same reasoning as the one

above. In other words, the teacher would not operate in the same

54
manner, or use group processes of various kinds in the same way witlz
a group of adults that he would use in a fourth grade class. The
amount of counsel and leadership that the teacher would need to exercise
would also vary according to the maturity level of the participants in
the process. This adaptation involves a skill, a competency, which it
would seem lends itself to development and refinement in the student
teaching process.

The Abilitygto Apply Problem-
Solving Methods to Social Problems

This general area of competencies was partially discussed under
the first heading, that dealing with.the identification of problems.
It may be argued that to separate the identification process from the
solving process is unrealistic. Hewever, the emphasis in the first
heading was primarily upon the sensitivity the teacher needs in
recognizing problems, helping learners identify problems, and, finally,
in helping learners become capable in stating problems in a precise
manner .

Here the emphasis is upon both the methods of solution and the
solution itself. In another sense, the present section refers to the
general methodology that is characteristic of the community school.
The first section was concerned more with the determination of the
content of the community school curriculum, whereas here the concern
is with the methods used in acting upon the content. The differen-
tiation tends to emphasize the fact that the community school is
equally concerned with both mgggg and ggdg, in its curriculum. While

the problem-solving methods used are aimed at the accomplishment of

55
definite ends, the solution of problems, the method itself is also so
significant in terms of community school Objectives that it becomes,
indeed, an end also. In other words, while the community school is
using community problems as the core of its curriculum, it also recog—
nizes that proficiency in the problem-solving methods being used is
also an objective, an end.

The problem—solving methods to which reference is being made here
may actually be referred to in the singular since they are largely
variations of a method. In general, the approach to problem-solving
is related to any objective, organized, and rational approach to a
problem. It utilizes, with appropriate variations depending upon
the nature of the problem, the steps of (l) identification and state-
ment of the problem, (2) collection of pertinent facts regarding it,
(3) study regarding tentative methods of solution, (4) selection of
a method, (5) application of the method, (6) evaluation of results,
(7) decision regarding need for further attack, or decision to consider
the problem at least tentatively solved. The order of these steps may
vary, and some may not be necessary, but in general some such approach
as these steps indicate comprises the problem-solving method which lends
itself to community school use.

Competency in using the method of problem-solving would include,
then, skill in the location of facts and knowledge applicable to a
given situation, skill in differentiating between pertinent and
irrelevant facts, skill in selection of method to be used from among

alternatives, and skill in evaluation of results.

 

 

w. ——.———.»

56

One of the learnings that is a part of the mggps. the problem-
solving method. and is also significant as an sad is the experience
learners have in identifying a base from which to begin the attack
on any problem. The particular base used depends upon the problem.
The base serves as a common belief or value which all accept, or it
may be a pattern of beliefs. The important factor is that individuals
who are in conflict need to begin the resolution of their conflict in
terms of common elements in the nature of beliefs or values which they
share. In the area of social conflicts and controversies, mention has
already been made of the need for "universals" which may at least serve
to unify individuals or groups for an approach to conflict resolution.
These are what Muntyan has called "the rules of the game."1 They are
the remaining democratic values which people accept. The same prine
ciple may be applied to lesser problems. For example, a group of high
school students who are about to engage a problem dealing with the
best form of city government their community should adopt would need
to establish the basic purposes of city government and the values it
should be built around. Once this is accomplished so that the group
is in agreement at least at the beginning, then the problem solving
can proceed to a consideration of various forms of government. In a
sense. the accepted base serves as a constant criterion with which
later steps are compared. Individual biases and beliefs may spring

up. but when it is shown that they are fundamentally in conflict with

 

1See Chapter III. p. 27.

57
the values and criterion the individual has accepted with the group,
they are much easier to resolve or dissipate.

The unique expertness of the community school teacher may well
reside in the general area of problem solution. The skill he exhibits
will not necessarily be actually centered in his ability to solve
problems but rather in his ability to guide those with whom he is
working in the problem-solving process. Viewed negatively, if the
teacher is to do the solving then community problems and the process
by which they are solved cannot be justified in terms of learning and
the educative process.

The Ability to Operate in
Accordance with the Democratic Ideology

 

Democracy and its application in human living is the basic orienta-//”
tion of the community school. The methods used and the human relation-
ships which exist in the community school are consistent with the demo-
cratic ideology.'

Dewey has identified two all-important “elements" in democratic
living. These two factors help to give a better understanding of what
constitutes the democratic ideology.

"The first signifies not only more numerous and more
varied points of shared common interest, but greater re-
liance upon the rec0gnition of mutual interests as a
factor in social control. The second means not only freer
interaction between social groups (once isolated so far as
intention could keep up a separation) but change in social

habit ~ its continuous readjustment through meeting the
new situations produced by varied intercourse. And these

AV! ’7

 

1Other examples of the resolution of conflict by starting from
agreed upon bases may be found in: Kurt Lewin. Resolving Social
Conflicts. Eew York: Harper and Brothers. 1948. pp. XVIII + 230.

 

two traits are precisely what characterize the democrat-
ically constituted society."1

The "rec0gnition of mutual interests," "freer interaction" and

"change in social habit" indicate that the democratic society seeks

its values and derives its objectives from what is good for both the

group and the individuals in it. It is a dynamic society inasmuch

as it changes and readjusts itself continuously in order to better

serve its members.

Another brief reference that is helpful in identifying the

meaning of democracy is a digest of the parts of the democratic

value system as presented by Smith. Stanley and Shores and taken

from Merriam:

"l.

2.

5.

The dignity of man and the importance of treating ./
personalities upon a fraternal rather than upon a
differential basis.

The perfectibility of man or confidence in the
develOpment more fully as time goes on of the pos- -
sibilities latent in human personality, as over
against the doctrine of fixed caste. class, and

slave systems.

The gains of civilization and of nations viewed as
essentially mass gains - the product of national
effort either in war or in time of peace rather than
the efforts of the few.

Confidence in the value of the consent of the governed
expressed in institutional forms. understandings. and
practices as the basis of order, liberty, justice.

The value of decisions arrived at by rational processes. /
by common counsel, with the implications, normally, of
tolerance and freedom of discussion rather than violence
and brutality."2

 

1John Dewey, Democracy and Education. New York: The MacMillan

Company.

 

1925. p. 100.

2Smith, Stanley, and Shores. Op. cit. p. 264. From Charles E.
Iierriam, What is Democracy? Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

1941. p.

 

8.

59
These references provide some basis for a statement on democracy
that is adapted to the needs of this study. It is submitted that a
community school that is operating in accordance with the democratic
ideology will exhibit the following behavior on the part of its
professional staff and students:

1. .All individuals affected by decisions will have a part x”“
in the deliberations preceding the decisions and a
voice in the decisions themselves.

2. The relationships between.all individuals in the school
and others outside the school who at times become in-
volved should be characterized by sensitivity to human
dignity and self-respect.

3. The product of sincere effort on the part of either
groups or individuals is accepted as a demonstration
of creativity even though it may differ from what is
expected.

4. Recognition is constantly given to the fact that
individuals perceive and act on the basis of their
unique past experiences.

5. When at all possible. criticisms and evaluations of /
human performance are made positively and construc-
tively.

6. Planning on all levels, from the total administrativej‘
level to the classroom level, is done COOperatively ”
by all concerned.

There may be gaps in the above summary. However, it serves to

provide an adequate indication of what is meant here by the democratic

ide010gy, at least as it is demonstrated by the behavior of the human

beings working together in the community school.

Ability to Utilize Resources. Human
and Material, from the Entire Community

 

 

Skill in using the community as an integral part of the school

is singularly a community school competency. It is a skill that would

 

 

 

5.3 is:

 

 

6O
seem to require keen insight on the part of the teacher regarding com-
munity processes and functions. Certainly it would require an aware-
ness of the educative effects of the total environment. This com-

petency, in another sense, represents the highest level operation of

l
the "school-centered" community.

Another way of looking at this school—community relationship is
to consider the school and the teachers in it as leadership resources
that serve to coordinate and make more effective all educative forces
in the community. Olson expresses it in a somewhat narrower sense
when he includes as his last "viewpoint,"

"The school should lead in coordinatingthe educative //'
efforts of the community. Since all life is educative. the
role of the school in the total educational process is pri-
marily a coordinating and a residual one. The school.
therefore, should lead all the educational agencies of the
community into an organized and cooperative program for
the more effective education of youth and adults in school
and out. and should itself provide only those aspects of
a desirable education which people in such a program do not
obtain elsewhere, or receive in insufficient degree.

 

The purpose of this discussion is not to go further into the role
of the school, but to clarify the set of skills having to do with this
particular function of the school. The implications here would seem
to indicate that the teacher in the community school would need more
than skill in conducting field trips and excursions, or in bringing
into the school resources from the community to "enrich" the program.

A more significant skill is involved. It is the skill the teacher \,
demonstrates when he harnesses the everyday environments of the learners

to the learning process. when he takes advantage of the home, the

 

15mm, Stanley, and Shores. Op. cit. p. 534.
2Olson. Op. cit. p. 18.

61
neighborhood, the peer group, the clubs, the recreational activities,
the economic activities, and a myriad of other ongoing processes.
This sensitivity to the educative effects of continuous community
processes was expressed by hart:

"Yet boys and girls play, as Of old, wherever they ./
can find or make a corner of freedom. -hey follow up
such industries as the community has not completely
hidden from them. They look in at the Open doors (there
are not many!) of shops and stores and factories and
offices. They listen in on conversations. They take
courses of instruction with hired men and chauffeurs.
street-car conductors and policemen, alley cats and
society poodles. They do not wait until the school bell
rings to begin their inquiries into the nature of life and
they do not stop getting an education at four p.m. They
are fed by the streets and the movies, by the filth and the
folly as well as by the beauty of city and country. They
are parts of all that they have met - "

One of the basic assumptions Of this study is that the total
environment exercises an educative impact upon the individual. What
is being said here is that one of the highest skills of the community
school teacher is the ability to go out into that environment and to .
a degree make of it a more consciously directed educative force. This
role of the community school teacher was also sensed by Bart when.he
compared it with the role Of the ancient pedagogue:

"The pedagogue led the Athenian through the streets of
the growing city, and helped him to get something of the
city as a whole. With the help Of the pedagogue, the child
saw homes. industries. religious edifices and ceremonials.
government at work. He came to see the city. He rose above
the houses and the streets. the temples and the courts:
these did not stand in his way. In.spite of them all, by -/’
means of them all. with the help of the pedagogue, he found
the city - the community as a whole. And in such seeing
and finding he escaped the fragmentariness that would other-
wise have been his fate."2

 

1Hart. Op. cit. pp. 23-24.
31bid. p. 45.

The Ability to Teach the "Fundamentals" as Tools

 

The "fundamentals," the elementary skills of reading, writing,
and arithmetical computation continue to be basic to the extended
growth of the individual. They are tools which help the individual
accomplish his objectives in many areas. The community school as
defined conceives of these areas Of learning as both means and ends.’
That is to say, these skills are introduced to the learner as he faces
problems in the curriculum that are more easily solved by the learner
if he is able to utilize one or more of these tools. The introduction
of the fundamental skills is, therefore, done with two purposes in
mind. First, the skills will be learned and used as tools, as means
for better attacking problems which make up the curriculum. Second,
the learning Of these skills, to a degree of mastery consistent with
the learner's potential for learning, will continue to represent a
goal, an end.

The community school teacher will need to have skill in knowing
when to introduce these fundamental skills and when to introduce in-
creasingly difficult uses Of the skills. Part of this skill will be
grounded in the teacher's knowledge of child psycholOgy and child de-
velopment, and part of it will come from the teacher's ability to
observe children, to become aware of their interests, and to be able
to interpret to children the advantages with.which acquisition of the
fundamentals will provide them in terms of more effective problem

solving ability.

63

The Improvement of Human Living is 3 Continuing
Over-all Aim and Skill that is Characteristic of
the Community School

 

 

 

The teacher in the community school can never forget that the com—
munity school, by definition, is directed toward the improvement of the
quality of living in the community. This improvement means more than
the immediate effects of school-community projects. valuable as some
may be. The improvement factor is frequently a long term goal. It
may manifest its most significant qualitative gains many years later.
This is so because the methodology of the community school is based on
problem-solving methods. Two fundamental assumptions underlie this
basis. First, in the course of solving community problems, community
living will be improved because of the unifying and "community" pro-
viding outcomes that problem solutions and conflict resolutions will
have. Second, participation throughout the school years in continuous
problem-solving experiences may result in a generation of adults who
will be extremely competent in community analysis, problem definition,
and problem solving. In this sense, then, the quality of living will
improve because of the increased ability of the community to take
intelligent and effective action in the fact of disunifying conflicts
and disrupting social problems.

This aspect of community improvement poses an over-all skill that
the community school teacher must exhibit. He should be able to
exercise leadership and counseling efforts to the end that the under-
lying motivation for most of the community-school efforts is improve-

ment of living in terms of both possibilities as discussed above.

CEAPTER.VI 64

CURRLKT PRACTICES INVOLVING CCanNITY SCHOOL FACTORS

The delimitations of the present study confine it to a particular
emphasis upon the student teaching aspects of the professional edu-
cation program. By student teaching is meant that portion of the
professional education prOgram in which the teacher candidate has
experiences as a teacher with children, youth, or adults. It includes
all parallel experiences the teacher candidate has that are directly
connected to or associated with the classroom experience. The term

student teaching is used advisedly, because the emphasis is to be

 

placed primarily upon the teaching process. The position is taken

that to refer to the experiences as laboratory experiences would have

 

interfered somewhat with this emphasis. Actually, a total laboratory
experience will be what is considered, but since the first emphasis
will be upon student teaching, with secondary emphasis being allotted
to the parallel laboratory experiences, it is considered best, for
reasons of clarity, to use the term suggested.

Certain assumptions will be made regarding experiences the teacher
candidate should have had prior to or should have at the same time as.
his student teaching. It is assumed:

1. That the student teacher has had some professional

courses and has engaged in some controlled observa-
tions of, or experiences with, children in a non-
teaching capacity.

2. That the student teacher has had some introduction

to the societal situation that provides motivation
for the postulating of the community school concept.

3. That the student teacher has had some theoretical
interpretation of the community school concept.

4. That the student teachers will be engaging in a
parallel group experience during their student
teaching in.which their activities, problems,
planning, and the evaluation of their performance
will be carried on under the supervision of an ”
institutional faculty member who understands, and
is competent to interpret, the community school
concept.

5. That the regular classroom teacher in charge of
the learners with.whom the candidate works will be
at least a flexible, mature person who will allow
the student Opportunities to plan and Operate
independently providing his plans and work are
reasonably soundly based and have been accomplished
through consultation with the regular teacher.

The particular method to be used to suggest the kinds of expe—
riences the student teacher should have will be based primarily upon
the use of illustrations. .A number of descriptions of teaching in
the way of units, projects. or community Operations will be presented.
These will be actual teaching situations that have been reported.

Each illustration will be analyzed briefly and the possibilities
for growth that participation as a student teacher in the situation
would provide will be stated in terms of skills that are particularly
essential for community school teachers. The illustrations are not
necessarily examples of good teaching, although many of them may be
excellent. Qpalitative analysis and evaluation is not the purpose
here. Instead, each example will illustrate a teaching situation which
would give a student teacher an Opportunity to practice a skill that is
a community school skill. The brief discussion after each example will

consist primarily of pointing out the skills involved.

This method of suggesting experiences for the student teaching

 

 

‘3‘.

 

 

66
prOgram is used because it offers in a concrete manner the kinds of
teaching processes and relationships with children and community
members that are consistent with the community school concept. The
illustrations cited are not intended to be the kind that could be found
all in one school or community. Rather, they are intended to show the
képdg_of processes and experiences in which student teachers can engage
even in schools that are not community schools. Since the community
school concept is not a common orientation as yet for the bulk of the
school systems in the country, the preparation of teachers who £22

Operate in a community school or who can be effective in developing

 

community school practices in schools where they teach, must depend
upon rather discrete experiences here and there which qualify as com-
munity school practices.

It is also submitted that the illustrations may serve as clues
and suggestions to persons participating in the planning and operation
of student teaching prOgrams. In other words, these are examples of
experiences student teachers may have in conventional schools that will
give them practice in community school teaching competencies.

Finally, the illustrations1 will provide significant implications

for the conclusions of the study.

 

1All the illustrations in Part I are taken from a survey made
among approximately 500 Michigan teachers by the Michigan State Advisory
Committee on the Instructional PrOgram of the Community School in 1953.
Teachers were asked to describe one instructional project they had done
that had community associations. In some cases the instruction is
quoted from the teacher's report, in other cases it is digested.

Illustrations and Analyses of TeaChing Situations Which
Contain Educative Experiences for a Student Teacher in
Terms of Community School Teaching Skills

PART I

An Eighth Grade Approach to Soil Erosion

 

"The children spoke of a land slide where a tree and
part of the highway had loosened and tOppled into a stream,
a tributary of Pine River. We discussed erosion, the cost
of repair and how this might have been prevented.

"We then began to read and find anything and every-
thing we could about soil erosion. Children brought in
clippings and even a local picture of the high water along
St. Clair River and Lake Huron. We planned a field trip

along Pine River not only for soil erosion but for flowers.

 

bird nests, miniature islands, peninsulas. capes and other

things.

"I feel this was a valuable learning experience for

members of the class, for unless these peOple along Pine

River realize by cutting their timber they are losing their

farms, McCormick district will be a lot poorer district than

it is. I hgpgd this lesson might be carried into the home."

A student teacher working with this group would have been able to
work with children in identifying a local problem and refining it for
study purposes. Much cooperative planning seems to have been possible.
The opportunities for the integration of the fundamentals with the

activity were many. For example, reading for a purpose, writing

 

 

. nu

[v 1

 

 

68
acceptable records of the project, and.writing letters to various
resources all were realistic and meaningful methods in which the
children would have had practice in fundamentals. During the plane
ning and the field trips democratic human relations could have been

an objective for the student teacher.

Becoming Acquainted With a Community Agency

 

A senior sociolOgy class became interested in juvenile delin—
quency and what their community did about it. They decided to study
the Operation of the regional child guidance clinic.

"The director of the Center visited the class twice.

A committee visited the Center and reported its work to

the class.

"Plans were made for getting the information to other
students and throughout the community."

Here the student teacher could have helped the group determine
the nature of the problem. Instead of solving it themselves, this
group studied how its community attempted to solve it. The student
teacher would have had an Opportunity to grow in his understanding of
community agencies. I

The apprOpriate use of resources. the clinic, its staff, the
police, and possibly the probation officer, would have been another
area of skills that may have helped the student teacher be a better

community school teacher.

An Eighth Grade Studies a Community Problem

"We always deal with community sanitation in the

eighth grade general science class. Sewage disposal is
one of the subjects always studied intensely because of the
number of rural students who must furnish their own methods
of disposal and also the large number of town students re-
quiring city facilities. This is a particularly pertinent
subject now as Saline is under state order to install a
sewage treatment plant before 1955. The subject was ap-
proached from the standpoint of proper sewage treatment for
community health. Since we had already studied the importance
of a healthy supply of’water for a community it was an easy
transition from there to sewage disposal.

"First, we studied rural methods of sewage disposal
and constructed models of septic tanks and case pools and
studied the advantages and disadvantages of both. Then we
approached the problem of sewage disposal for a large number
of peOple in a small area as in a city. We studied the dif-
ferent methods of disposal used in many areas. Each of our!
students wrote to some community and asked what method of
sewage disposal was used there. From this we compiled a
notebook of sewage disposal methods in over 45 cities in the
United States and Canada. Saline is dumping untreated sewage
into the Saline River. We went down to the city dump at the
spot where the sewage is dumped into the river and inspected
what it was doing to the vegetation in the area. Then.we went
to Universal Die Casting and saw where they were dumping waste

materials into the river. From there we went to the slaughter

70
house and saw where they dumped materials into the river.
It was not a pleasant trip at best but was an eye opener
to the future adults of Saline. After this. we visited
the.Ann.Arbor Sewage Treatment Plant and saw what could
be done as far as community sanitation is concerned. By
contrast, the system was wonderful. The students felt
ashamed.for Saline after they had left the treatment center.
From there we discussed other methods than the activated
sludge method used by Ann.Arbor and discussed what was best
for Saline.

"The members of the group felt the urgent need for a
sewage disposal plant for their own community. They saw how
bad the conditions were in their own community and how they
endangered the health of the people in the community. Then
they saw how nicely the problem could be handled. They no
longer felt that the state was imposing a needless burden
upon the citizens of Saline but was trying to protect them.
The shame they had for their own community showed that they
had learned that Saline was not handling the problem ade-
quately. They in turn.went home and helped in the education
of their parents on this problem. The rural youngsters went
home with a new understanding on the importance of protect-
ing their water supply from sewage contamination and how it
could be achieved. Because of the visual aids used, I think

these students have learned a lesson they will never forget.”

 

 

 

71

This teaching situation appears to be particularly rich in pro-
viding opportunities for the student teacher to practice the skills
of a community school teacher. The identification of a pressing local
problem and the analysis of the problem in terms of its many sub—
problems appears to involve much cooperate planning, use of resources.
and knowledge of appropriate local and state agencies. Here, too, it
is possible that the student teacher would have an opportunity to help
the learners establish a common value base such as the importance of
community health and sanitation, the value of pure streams. or the
basic right of the community to control the behavior of some members
in the interest of all.

Much cooPerative planning and many democratic procedures could
take place in preparing for the various visits.

Integration of the fundamentals in.a functional manner could have
been provided in the course of writing letters to agencies concerning
the problem. making arrangements for visits. and in preparing a con-
tinuing record of their experience.

The possibilities for further utilization of this project in
terms of community involvement seem rather obvious. Parents could
have been brought in easily without interfering with the learning
process. They could have accompanied the students on their trips
and could even have sat in on some of the discussion.

It is possible to guess that there was not complete agreement in
the community regarding the civil actions taken by the state in forc-
ing the community to build a sewage disposal plant. This potential

conflict situation.would have provided the student teacher with not

72
only practice in helping groups establish a common beginning value,
but also practice in behavior which leaves him free to guide but
does not generate undue resentments against the teacher for getting
a class involved in a "controversial issue.”

A GroupABecomes More
Conscious of a "Broader Community"

 

"The arrival of an album from a Japanese school.
which was an exchange for the one we sent to their school
last year.

"We promised to send one directly to their school
letting them know all about our city. state and country.
but mostly about our city and school. We gained infor-
mation we could about industries. the Blue Water Bridge.
etc. Then illustrated the album. using drawn pictures of
our school, homes. stores. churches. and other places of
interest. Also wrote stories describing the drawings.

”We took a trip through the Mueller Brass Company
for more accurate information on our city's largest
factory. We were given pamphlets to cut pictures from
and other pieces of information to send in our album.

"It made the children more conscious of their city.
how important our factories. homes. stores and schools
were to each other. ‘Also, in this particular project. it
made the children appreciate their community to the extent
they were overly anxious to tell about it to these children

in Japan.”

73

A student teacher involved in this situation would have had
many opportunities to practice COOperative planning with the children.
The planning for the scrap book, the planning for the visit to the
factory, the evaluation of each of these, and the discussions con—
cerning the book from Japan all would have provided Opportunities
for the student teacher to develop a democratic social environment
and democratic group procedures. The consideration of the similar—
ities between the Japanese and American people would have been
worthwhile in terms of human values and an increased understanding

of peOple in the world community.

A Senior Class Studies Religions

 

"This unit on religions grew out of a need and an
interest of the class for more authoritative knowledge
and information about the various religions of the
Western World. We were in a unit on marriage and during
that unit a discussion on mixed religious marriages
brought out many misconceptions on the part of the stu-
dents. They stated these misconceptions as facts which
we knew had to be clarified. The springboard question
was one on a Catholic—Protestant marriage contract. The
student asked, "Why do Catholics believe that people who
are not Catholics will not go to heaven?" The teacher-
(student teacher) then skillfully brought out many other
misconceptions of the group from this one question and a

list was made of them. The assignment for the next day

K 4-“
«a. “Janna"

74
was to bring in any questions they might have about any
religion of the Western World. we had planned to only
spend two or three weeks at most on the unit but it went
for the remaining five weeks of the semester.

"we discovered in tabulating the questions of the
students that we had questions about the Catholic. the
Jewish. the Quaker and some of the major Protestant and
minor Protestant religious groups as well as the spiritu-
alists and the atheists (covered only as the artithesis
of religions in general).

"We then had individuals study from the questions
asked plus a comparative outline that they were to fol--
low to acquire information on the religions listed. This
was followed by class discussions. and further questions.
Individuals where they were able brought in ministers of
their particular religious group to give further informa-
tion.and clarify points of misunderstanding on the part of
students. Continually we made a comparison of the religious
groups to note similarities and differences.

"Resource people were a Catholic priest. a Jewish
Rabbi. and an EpiscOpalian minister. We found that our
libraries were limited in information in this area so that
it meant that our students had to either discuss the prob-
lems with their parents. or their own minister or the one

related to the religious group being studied.

75
"This was a valuable learning experience for the

members of the group because it clarified their many

misconceptions of religious groups per se. The stur

dents felt this was one of the most valuable, from a

personal standpoint, of units covered during the entire

semester. They felt that they are at the point of their

lives when they are in search of what is a religion and

what can they offer me. This objective study and a com—

parative study did answer that for many of the students.

I have had few units that have carried the interest of

the class with such enthusiasm."

This project was carried on primarily by a student teacher. The
values the student teacher would.receive from this experience are many.
Involved is practice in planning with children, in develOping a common
value (role of religion in the abstract in man's life), in helping
define problems, in locating resources and using them, in integrating
fundamentals, and in fostering democratic values. The last one would
seem to be a particularly rich opportunity since the student teacher
could utilize it to help the members of the class become better ac—
quainted with various religions. Such.knowledge might serve at least
to erase common ignorance as a cause of undemocratic human relation-
ships and prejudice.

.A Fifth Grade Debates
Statehood for Hawaii and Alaska

 

"The fifth grade social studies deals with the

United States. When the class came to Hawaii and

76
Alaska in the unit on territories and possessions. I
raised the question of statehood for these two territ-
ories. The sentiment of the class was for statehood.
However. there was not much critical thinking involved.
Since the class had had a debate on the tidelands oil
problem about a month ago as part of the unit on the
South. it was decided that we would hold two separate
debates on Alaska and Hawaii.

"The class was divided into two separate groups -
the Alaskan and the Hawaiian. Everyone had a responsi-
bility. either as a debater. a timekeeper. chairman. map
expert. etc. It was also decided to present these two
debates at an upper grade assembly. Since the pupils felt
they knew a lot more about the problem after studying the
subject. they became interested in knowing what others
thought. They decided to poll their audience. Boxes
labeled "Hawaii“ and "Alaska" were placed at the exit
doors of the auditorium so that the student body could
drop their "yes“ or ”no" after hearing both sides.

"The class wrote to Senator Potter following the
tidelands oil debate. and stated the position of the
majority. The boys and girls received a letter from the
Senator commending the class on the interest shown in
national affairs. Inspired by this. Beverly. one of the

Alaskan debaters. wrote to both Senator Potter and Senator

77

Ferguson for material that would help with the debate on

Alaska. The response was prompt and gratifying. Seeing

this. Sandra of the Hawaiian team. also wrote to both

Senators. Material was sent to her. too. Besides this.

the school and public libraries helped out with available

articles.

"The class had to do some critical thinking on the

subject. They learned that some problems cannot be an?

swered by a quick “yes" or "no.” The question of Hawaii

especially brought out the need for understanding the role

of the United States in world affairs. Terms such.as

"Congress." "Senators." "Representatives." etc. are more

meaningful now. The fine response of both Senators impres-

sed them with.the idea that the members of Congress are our

representatives."

The student teacher who might have been participating in this
project would have had an Opportunity to help children find sources
of material. become aware of a problem on the national community level.
find evidence of all kinds. and. as the teacher says. help the class
do "critical thinking."

The previous project dealingwwith the tidelands oil issue would
have provided many opportunities also. These two issues represent
the kinds of issues about which emotions may become aroused and which
involve vested interest factors. Whether or not fifth grade children

can understand all the issues and factors involved may be argued.

78

However. as an example of a problem for a student teacher and a class
to handle. it serves as an excellent illustration of a vital social
problem that can provide learners with many concomitant insights and
understandings. The teacher has apparently sensed most of these in
her last paragraph.

Practically all five of the skills for community school teachers
are involved here. Their relationship to the instructional unit may

be established briefly as follows:

Identifying problems: Why are there people opposed to
the entrance of Hawaii and Alaska?
What other issues are involved
with the primary issue of state-
hood?

Use of problem-solving methods: Preparing for debate. Location of
data. Reaching conclusions.

Democratic ideolOgy: Fundamental issues at stake.
Rights of people in Hawaii and
Alaska. Cooperative planning.
Use of resources: Letters to senators. Libraries.
Fundamentals: Functional use of“writing. read-
ing. and geography.
Fourth Grade Children Learn
About Their City Government
"After a social studies discussion on the work of
our community helpers. our fourth graders visited.Mt.
Pleasant's new Municipal Building. This resulted in
the children's decision to name their classroom "Citizen

City." They elected their city officers whose jobs were

similar to those of Mt. Pleasant‘s officers.

 

 

 

 

79

"Their City Manager and five City Commissioners met
weekly to discuss problems which had arisen during the
week. Their Street Commissioner's duty was to see that
our city streets were kept clean. Their Treasurer sold
Defense Stamps. (This was to take the place of collect-
ing taxes!) The city Offices were located in the center
of the room. with the officer's titles placarded on the
front of their desks. On the door of the room was a sign
"Citizen City." Population 35. Terms were short so that
every child got a chance to hold office. Other officers
were Sanitation Engineer. Engineer. and Clerk.

"Our Citizen City project has done this for our
fourth graders:

l. Taught them in a personal way how a city govern-
ment is elected and organized.

2. It taught them that a smoothly-running organiza-
tion depends on its members working together in
harmony.
3. They learned the valuable lesson of thrift thromgh
their savings. It taught them the responsibility
of handling money belonging to others.“
There is a great deal of substitution involved in this unit. In
spite of this. there may be Opportunities here for a student teacher
to practice community teaching skills. He could have utilized cooper-

ative planning procedures. and there were chances here for the inte-

gration of fundamentals. particularly arithmetic.

 

 

80

A Ninth Grade Civics
Class Studies Minority Groups

 

“The unit taught dealt with minority groups in

America (racial). The purpose was to discuss origins

or prejudice and the race myth with the goal of objec-

tive thinking -- basing views on facts and logic -- not

on conditioning.

"Current articles on inter-racial understandings

were assigned after a general overview Of the problem.

Testing to determine ranks of prejudice were used and

the results were used as a basis for a panel discussion.

"It was a problem concerning.all and created free

and Open debate. New ideas and views were aired and if

nothing else. it opened the pupils' eyes to the problem

in all its aspects."

Providing the problem of minority groups and prejudice were real
interests of these students. this represents an Opportunity for the
student teacher to practice certain community school teaching skills.
It would appear that the student teacher could have helped the class
members clearly define the problem or problems. Although resources
used appear to be few. the situation lends itself to the use of many.
Members of minority groups could become involved. Movies dealing with
the problem could be shown and discussed. Positive steps toward al-
leviating the problem in the community (if it exists) could be devel-
oped. All of these would engage the student teacher in the practice

of many skills. Cooperative planning. problem-solving. use of resources.

81
develOpment Of positive solutions. integration of fundamentals. and
association with many different age groups are all possibilities.
The latter would indicate that the class might take its problem out
into the community and involve many different individuals in its
solution.

A Project Geared to the
Main Economy of the Community

 

 

"Science is a big part of the environment Of our
students because of Dow and Dow-Corning. We have a big
project that is the Science Fair which is sponsored by
the two chemical companies. The Midland Daily News. and
the Midland Chapter Of the American Chemical Society.

The purpose of the fair is to give an Opportunity for
young people to do work in science and to become inter-
ested in science. This Offers much assistance in the
classroom and helps to get children going into science
by the way of projects. Some projects grow out of class-
room activities. Others as individual interests. It is
not a particular teaching situation but cuts across the
entire school year.

”Work for the projects is done in class if the project
is appropriate for the unit. Also a science club facilitates
those who are not in regular science classes. and for those
projects which do not fit the regular classroom work. The

balance of time needed is done by students at home.

"In the planning for the fair. teachers and men
from the factories work together with ideas from the
students. In our future plans we want to have students
as members of the working committees.

"We have had our third fair. The enthusiasm is
growing and the quality of scientific work on the part
of students is getting better. Those who participate
are beginning a: see the need for science. the problems
of science. and seeing a group of people from Education
and Industry on the high school here teaming together to
help solve the shortage Of scientists by getting people
started at an early age."

Assuming that the student teacher would be doing his teaching as

a science teacher in this high school. the Opportunities to practice

community school skills would center around the interaction of the

students. the company representatives and parents. Many possibilities

would be here for delving into the processes of the community. and the

extent to which the large corporations control these processes.

The planning for the fair and the Operation Of it could involve

much cooperative planning among students. teachers. and company indi-

viduals.

A Seventh Grade Class
Attacks a Group Problem

 

 

"A few of the boys in our class were drawing Obscene

pictures. hrs. Jardine found out about it and we had a

83
discussion Of what we should do. She then asked our

Opinion on having a woman from the Muskegon Child Guid-

ance Clinic to speak to us on boy and girl relationships.

The majority Of the class thought it would be a good idea.

We then had to get our parents' approval. The secretary

of the class invited Miss Half to come and speak to us.

"Mrs. Jardine had the pupils in our class write

questions Of which we were curious about. She then gave

them to Miss Half. Very few were left unanswered. She

stayed for an hour. She started out talking on dates and

boys and girls in general. She ended up talking about

marriage and married life. She then asked if there were

any other topics we were interested in. No one had any

further questions.

"We feel this was a valuable learning because it

prepares us for the future. It is better to get it

straight from someone who knows rather than get the

wrong impression from other sources. The discussion

ended all pictures and we felt free to talk Over problems

with our teacher."

This report was written by three members of the class. The prob-
lem of sex adjustment and information revealed by the drawing Of
Obscene pictures is one often found at this age level. The fact that
the pictures served as a clue to the real problem would have been a
learning experience to the student teacher. Following the recognition

of the real problem - the need for sex information - the situation

84
would have provided opportunities for the student teacher to plan
with the children regarding how they might find the answers they
needed. how to determine their questions (the student question-
naire), and what resources to use.

The contact with parents could easily have matured into a
worthwhile parent education project. The use of the child guidance
staff member was an example of resource use.

A Sixth Grade Class Helps Parents Understand
the Issues Involved in a School Bond Election

A sixth grade became interested in the local campaign for a bond
issue to finance new schools. They began their project by determining
what they needed to know: how much it would cost, how would it be
repaid, who could vote, and why the new buildings were needed.

The children prepared materials answering questions such as those
above. They involved parents and presented their material at a P.T.A.
meeting. In summarizing, the teacher reported:

"Children felt the urgency of informing the voting

populace on a vital issue. DeveIOped close relationship of

parent-child and better understanding of other school groups.

They also saw how important it is to have flexibility in long

range planning (schools which had once fit needs did not now.

and conditions will continue to fluctuate)."

As a result of experience in this teaching, the student teacher
would have had practice in helping learners gain a better understand-
ing and appreciation of such civic responsibilities as keeping informed

regarding the facts pertaining to public issues, the sources of

85
community revenue. and the need for individual participation in
ventures of this kind. He would have had many opportunities to work
closely with parents. If possible. it would have beenuwell if he
could have worked with the children in an attempt to determine what
reasons people had for being opposed to the bond issue. From this,
it would have been still more desirable if the student teacher could
have had some actual experience as a member of a campaign committee
where he might have been able to participate in attempts to reconcile
Opposing positions regarding the bond issue. Ideally, a common value
base would have been sought. In this particular case such a community
of values might have been oriented around the need for public edu-
cation and the needs of youth. Whatever the outcome. the experience,
it would seem. would have been one in which the student teacher would
have had a chance to practice one of the fundamental and unique skills
of the community teacher. that of reducing conflict and helping various
factions approach a resolution of their conflict by starting with the

values they still share.

A Student Council

 

"The Student Council was organized several years
ago by the principal. Two pupils. a boy and girl from
each room, are elected by each room. to represent that
room on the council. The council elects its president
and secretary from its members.

."Luncheon meetings are held the third Thursday of

each month. Special meetings are called when necessary.

86

The business is carried on by the council.

"All playground rules, building rules, etc. are
made by the student body through the council. The
council is the clearing house for any school trouble.

"The children learn to govern themselves. It

makes for uniform building rules and regulations and

less friction between grades."

A student teacher should have many Opportunities to participate
in ongoing activities in the school outside his particular area of
teaching. In this example the student teacher could have the expe-
rience Of serving as advisor to the council. As reported. there are
several possibilities for effort on the part of the student teacher
which.would provide him with practice in the skills Of a community
school teacher. He might help the council evaluate itself in terms
of how much influence it really has. the degree of interest there is
in the council, the amount of participation it enjoys. the reflection
of social status of families on the council. and finally, how the
council could become a better example Of democratic government. Here
the student teacher and the students would be attempting to identify

problems. They would be evaluating in terms Of functioning democracy.

A School-Neighborhood Problem

 

"Children at Sugnet School were quite concerned
about our school lawns as well as neighbors. Reports
were coming to our principal as well as to the Council
and individual students that children were cutting across

lawns. Our neighborhood is a new area Of Midland. and

87

many people are starting new lawns. Thus, the problem

is even more severe. The boys and girls said they wanted

to do something about it.

"The president Of the student council, a sixth grade

boy, asked the group for suggestions as to what could be

done to improve the situation. Children responded freely

and these ideas were forthcoming:

l.
2.

3.

4.

5.

8.

9.

10.

Organize committees.
Make posters.

Younger children could write stories about
lawns and care of them.

Make lapel pins and slogans.
Produce a marionette show.
Give talks in each room.

Have the conservation man (at high school)
come and talk with the groups.

Make pictures for the Opaque projector to be
shown to each group.

Have a campaign for two weeks.
Give an assembly during the campaign to tell

what boys and girls have been doing to help
promote the care of lawns.

"We feel this was a valuable learning experience for

the members of the group because the following Objects and

aims were set up:

1.

2.

To teach boys and girls that lawns should
be beautiful.

To always use sidewalks.

88

3. To help keep the lawns in our community and
city looking as nice as possible.

4. To be more conscious Of keeping lawns nice all
year."

Here is represented an Opportunity for a student teacher to have
helped children solve a felt problem. The significant factor in this
situation. it would seem, is the nature of the problem and its re-
lationship to one Of the distinguishing values Of our culture: the
sanctity Of property rights. At the same time. the student teacher
should be familiar with.the maturity level and ability to assume
responsibility Of the average youngster in an elementary school. The
problem as presented represents a conflict situation which could
seriously disrupt the school-community relationship.

The student teacher. if he had a chance to work'with these chil-
dren on this problem. could help them to determine some values that
were ghild values and.were sufficiently common that they could be used
as a starting point in attempting to reach a satisfactory solution.
Possibly such values would lie in the home lawn situation. By this
is meant that discussions could begin by considering only the chil-
dren's individual lawns. From this beginning it might have been pos-
sible for the children to have develOped broader values Of a higher
order than those reflected merely in "rules."

.A Senior Government
Class Sees Governing Being Done

 

"One Of the activities of our American govern-
ment class this year was a visit to the City Hall to

Observe a council meeting of the aldermen of.Ann.Arbor.

89
The class voted for this activity and thus it was made
a class activity in connection with a unit on city
government which.we were studying.

"In way Of preparing for this trip, we read about
the functions. powers and duties of councilmen, how they
are elected to Office. who they are responsible tO and
what compensation they receive.

"Next we had a councilman come into the classroom
and speak to the group about his own personal experiences.
The council meeting was held in the evening. The students
were able to identify the principal members Of the council
by name and they were also familiar with their Own ward
representatives. The day after the meeting we discussed
the activities of the council meeting we had Observed.
bringing out important points.

"In our reading of the duties Of the councilmen we
used the booklet put out by The Ann Arbor League Of ”Omen

Voters entitled. Ann.Arbor City Government.

 

”Next. we made use of the booklet compiled by Luella

Smith entitled State-County-City Township and Village

 

Officers Of washtenaw County Michigan. which lists the
names Of men currently serving on the council.

"Through preparation and finally the trip. the stu-
dents learned Of the actual working Of the legislative
branch Of their city government. They came to know the

part they will eventually play in local government, and

 

T.- Ill’lll}. .

 

90

also become familiar with the people who are serving

their community."

The project as reported would have provided a student teacher
with practice in helping a group plan democratically and effectively.

In terms Of community school theory, the activity suggests that
the student teacher in such a situation could have attempted to work
with the group in such a way that the work of the council was evaluated
in terms of certain pressing community problems. Possible problems
might have been parking facilities, housing facilities for juvenile
Offenders. public housing, or tax appraisals. The experience then
would have had a chance to penetrate deeply into such community
phenomena as inrgroup control tactics. favoritism, social status
structure and its effects. and the use of compromise decisions. By
doing this the class would have been led to examine the more serious
disunifying conflicts within the community. This is a use Of community
processes that is typically related to the community school concept.
Such deep probing is seldom discovered in a non-community school.

A School Newspaper is
Produced by Sixth Grade Class

 

"The larger part Of my group is composed Of chil-
dren transported from a township school. In a general
discussion during a planning time, the children commented
on the fact that in a school as large as this one, it is
difficult to know what is going on in other rooms. It was

true that except for art displays. we did not know about

91
interesting activities being carried out with different
units Of work. .A day later. a group suggested that a
school newspaper would make a connecting link and in the
next breath suggested we publish one. Some time was
spent discussing what we might need tO know. etc. A
committee was delegated to approach our principal on the
subject. We have had the fullest cooperation from both
the principal and our school secretary throughout this
unit.

."Editors were selected and plans were made for our
first edition. A committee of editors was selected to
make a tour of the rooms giving short talks explaining
our plans and asking for their cooperation. The rooms
were asked to each select a reporter and to save original
stories or poems for our paper. Our group set up stan-
dards which we felt we should hold. Punctuation. capital-
ization. sentence structure and paragraphing "came alive”
as immediate use for such.became necessary. There was
purposeful language activity in the gathering. selecting
and rewriting. NO "copy" desk could have been busier than
our library table cleared for the purpose. Paper was ruled
in columns and careful rewriting was emphasized after the
organization.was planned. Grade news. Student Council,
Junior Red Cross. Safety News as well as a Story and
Poetry section came into being. Our first edition was

simple and we invited criticism. Some children volunteered

92
and some were selected by the committee. Almost every
child participated. for there was work down to cover-
making. stapling and delivery.

"We planned a trip to the Saginaw News where we
were graciously received and shown the various depart-
ments in our modern city newspaper. Through this tour.
the children gained much understanding and appreciation
Of the great amount Of work necessary to carry on a big
newspaper and its services to the community. Samples of
type. matrix and the newspaper we saw composed and printed
were given us. We had been prepared for this trip by
research in early printing. paper making. kinds Of type
and machines. We used the Encyclopedia. supplementary
readers. pamphlets and all the materials we cOuld.

"We enjoyed the movies "Printing Through the Ages,"
"Making Books." "Paper Making." We have a bulletin board
and exhibit of materials which.we have collected. We are
now engaged in an experiment in making paper from rags.
Our second edition has been made complete with riddles.
jokes. puzzles and cartoons. A third and final edition is
being planned.

"I feel that this has been a valuable teaching expe—
‘rience for the following reasons:

(a) The children have had the Opportunity to gain

a knowledge Of community services and have be-

come acquainted with.various workers as well as

an awareness of materials necessary to the pro-
duction of a newspaper.

93
(b) This has been a motivating experience for the
language arts including usage. punctuation.
capitalization and spelling.
(c) The children have been given the Opportunity to
serve the school and have developed a sense of
“belonging."

(d) Research has been motivated--many "extra" things
learned.

(e) The room has had the experience of working "to—
gether” as a group with genuine eagerness."

Two elements here have significance for the student teacher who
might have been in this room. First. the project grew out Of felt
need in the school community and it was attacked and solved. The
planning and problem-solving involved would have provided a great
deal Of experience in democratic planning and appropriate use of
problem-solving methods.

Second. the project involved rather widespread use Of the funda-
mentals in an integrated manner. Children were writing and reading.
criticizing and being criticized for real purposes.

”The camping program. here in Dearborn. is as much

a part of the curriculum as Arithmetic. Reading. Writing.

and all the other vitally important parts of the school

program. Camping involves a wide variety of learning.

therefore it was a simple matter to integrate camping in

all Of our regular studies. Since all phases of the pro-

gram could be related tO camping. we began this integration

approximately six weeks before our camping date.

"Using science as the core Of the entire learning

94
experience. we became interested in the out-Of-doors in
relation to man. Conservation was the main thing under
study and all of our work pointed toward this. Aside
from it becoming a part of the regular class work. we
also encouraged bringing in certain plant specimens and
later on some animal life such as crayfish. This was
carried on at camp and we came back with several plant
specimens. some frogs. and crayfish. These animals have
since died and this proved to be a valuable learning
experience in itself.

"The children were without parental protection. For

many this was an entirely new situation. They learned the

importance of group processes and became aware Of the con-

cept of cooperation and how it actually operated. They

became familiar with the out-Of-doors in a way which is

only possible in a camp-type situation."

This activity would provide the student teacher with experience
in helping children plan democratically. Although the emphasis in the
activity as reported seemed to be largely on the science and nature
study aspects of camping. the emphasis could have been placed upon
how people live tOgether and the skills and responsibilities that are
involved in satisfactory group living.' The development Of democratic
inter-personal relationships at camp would have been a possible area
in which the student teacher could have had practice.

The teaching illustrations in Part I have all been classroom

teaching situations in more or less conventional schools. The

95
activities described and briefly analyzed. however. have been activ-
ities that either did possess or could have possessed acceptable
opportunities for a student teacher to practice skills that are
particularly a part of the general competency Of a community school
teacher. The Observations regarding each attempted to point out what
appeared to be the more Obvious possibilities in terms Of the needs
of a student teacher preparing for community school service.

There are many other possibilities. however. in the existing
pattern Of conventional schools for student teachers tO have experi-
ences that are broader and more typically characteristic of the com-
munity school. Particularly would this be sO in some Of the activ-
ities that go on in communities outside the school but which have a
connection or association with the school. Part II Of the illustra—

tions will attempt to provide some of these kinds Of examples.

PART 111

A school system has several committees organized. the membership
Of which is made up Of both teachers and citizens. In some cases the
committees are system-wide and in other cases they work primarily in
a relationship to one school building. They are advisory in character.
although it is reported that the policies they suggest are. with few
exceptions. adopted by the school. It is pertinent here to consider
the titles and purposes of some of those committees and analyze the

learning opportunities each.might Offer a student teacher who might

 

1The illustrations used here are from: Birch Lodge Conference
on the Community School. An unpublished report. dated October. 1952.
Michigan Department Of Public Instruction. Lansing. Michigan

 

96
be assigned to one or more of these committees as a functioning
member during his connection with the school system.

One such committee is the "COOperative Organization for Resist-
ing Attacks on Education." It was reported that the main reason for
the organization of this committee was to have a group available that
understood the development of the school program. what its Objectives
were. the supporting data for the program. and the results being
achieved by the program.

Although this committee is in a sense a negative committee
because it has been organized primarily to be against something -
unwarranted attacks on the school program - nevertheless a student
teacher serving as a member Of this committee might conceivably have
some experiences that would be educative in terms Of community school
teacher skills. For example. it was reported that one Of the activ-
ities of the committee was to be aware of the nature and composition
of any Opposing groups. The committee apparently recognized that many
Opposing groups or individuals would be sincere people whose views and
values did not agree with the policy Of the school program. If the
student teacher had had some background in community school theory.
and if he had. while he was doing his student teaching. a parallel
Laboratory or course experience under competent faculty supervision.
he might be able to help the group work with Opposing factions in such
a manner that they would attempt to define what common values they
shared. Operating from this base Of common values that both sides
could accept. the chances of a more successful outcome to factional

strife might be enhanced. Such an experience on the part Of the

97
student teacher represents activity in a process that is part Of
the very core of the community school concept. Here. as in the many
illustrations provided in Part I. the student teacher could gain
valuable experience in practicing a community school skill in what
would be. relatively speaking. a non-community school.

Other committees Operating in this same situation would provide
similar Opportunities. One would be the "Curriculum Planning Com-
mittee." This particular committee Operates as a neighborhood com—
mittee advisory to the staff of the neighborhood elementary school.
Its membership includes both teachers and parents. It is reported
that this committee works rather intensively on details Of the school
program. Participation as a member Of this group would again provide
the student teacher with insights and understandings that are essen-
tial to a community school teacher. The curriculum Of the community
school. by definition. grows out Of the problems and conflicts exist-
ing in the local community and the broader communities. Such a cur—
riculum. it is logical tO assume. cannot be develOped in isolation
from the citizens in the community. Here. then. is a committee Of
lay people whose function it is to participate actively and realis-
tically in the development of the curriculum Of a school. The student
teacher would be able. therefore. tO make suggestions as a member Of
the committee regarding not only what should be included in the cur-
riculum but also suggestions as tO the manner Of Operation the commit-
tee should employ. As a future community school teacher he might be

able to interpret to the group the significance Of using community

problems as the core of the curriculum. the responsibility of the

98
school in the area of parent education. and the role Of the school
in not only cultural transmission but also cultural synthesis. crit—
icism. and reconstruction. He might be able to participate in many
discussions dealing with the mutuality Of ends and means in curricular
methodology. He might be able to become more sensitive. as a result
of his committee membership. to the delicate balance the community
school concept seems tO imply between conceiving subject matter as
means while at the same time admitting the use of both dialetic and
scientific methods in the achievement of growth and learning among
students.

The above discussion appears to emphasize the contributions to

 

the work Of the committee that the student teacher could make. Actue
ally. however. he would in many ways gain in understandings and com-
petency only as he attempted to contribute. His active participation
might mean oftentimes that he would find himself in untenable positions
for the moment. Such positions could be analyzed in the parallel
course or laboratory experience and the student teacher given help in
identifying his errors or the mistakes in technique he may have made
in the course of his participation. The extreme importance of constant
guidance of this kind cannot be over-emphasized.

.Another school reported a concerted effort to make of itself a ,
neighborhood center. A parent committee had been formed for the
specific purpose Of determining the needs Of the area that the school
facilities might help meet. One immediate outgrowth of this activity

was the decision to study ways of developing family types of recre-

ational activities. Program or details are lacking as to the approach

99
used or the specifics of organization or procedure. For present pur-
poses. however. it is possible to assume that if a student teacher
were to be assigned to this school and could have the experience of
participating in the work of this committee he would have an Oppor-
tunity to practice certain community school teaching skills. Partic-
ularly would it Offer him a chance to take part in planning community
surveys or other forms of social analysis procedures. This in turn
would lead to the identification Of needs on the basis Of facts. fol-
lowed by a problem-solving approach to ways by which these needs might
be met. Such experience might add to the student's skill in making
surveys and in analyzing data. It would also provide him with in-
creased knowledge regarding community needs in general.

In the process Of studying the needs of the school area. this
committee might turn up some unanticipated findings. For example,
an apparent relationship might be indicated between delinquency rates
and housing areas. Another possibility that may be projected is that
the data might reveal a serious discrepancy between the location Of
recreation facilities and population concentrations. These are merely
guesses. but they serve to illustrate the next point. This is that
if such conditions were revealed. the committee might be faced with
some rather fundamental conflicts in values. Attitudes of real estate
boards and community housing advocates are not necessarily similar.
Private recreation interests might become involved. These possibil-gp
ities all suggest that the student teacher might become involved in
experiences that touch upon conflicts and problems that are much deeper

and much more basic than the original problem that produced the committee.

100

His activities in assisting individuals to reach a community Of think-
ing with regard to basic values would be helpful practice to him in
preparing to function in this manner as a community school teacher.

Another school reported the accomplishment of three projects in
its community that are particularly valuable as examples since the
projects illustrate activities that resulted in the improvement of
community living. It was reported that the school through.its staff
and students had actively participated in each of the following
projects:

1. A project to finance. build. and equip a community
health center.

2. A project to develop an agricultural product that
could serve as the base Of the agricultural economy
of the area.

3. A project to finance. build and Operate a community
cannery.

It was reported that all three Of these projects have been suc-
cessfully completed. The significance of the projects for the purposes
Of this analysis lies in their origin and the kinds of experiences that
efforts to complete them would provide for a student teacher in the
school. The need for a health center became critically apparent when
the community lost its physician. In order to get a new doctor. it
became increasingly evident that some incentive for him to come would
have to be provided. The community found out that it is much easier
to get young beginning doctors to locate in a small community if Office
space. equipment. and clinical facilities are available. The community
committee that worked on the problem reached these conclusions after

considerable study. The relationship with the school is not clear

101
except that staff members made up part of the membership of the com-
mittee.

If a student teacher had been in the school and could have been
able to work with the committee. it is possible that he would have
gained in the skills of problem analysis and attack. He would have
been able to learn better the processes involved in attempting to
fill a community need. Participation in the various activities used
to finance the project would have involved many organizational and
planning skills.

The project to Obtain a more secure agricultural economic base
was distinctly a community-wide problem involving the entire trading
area. The land was worn and could not compete with better farm areas
with regular generalized products. Unless the Obvious impoverishing
conditions were to be changed. the community faced increasing losses
in population and values. The school. through its agriculture classes
and agriculture teacher. the county farm agent. and various farm organ-
izations had committees that worked from several angles on the prob-
lem. As a result. soil and climate conditions were found to be ideal
for growing dahlias and gladiolas. There followed efforts to get
farmers tO change their crop practices. Later. once the new crops
were established. more community efforts were initiated to secure
uniform marketing and grading agreements.

Involved here is a clear example of a community threat and the
cooperative efforts that were developed to meet it. It is reported
that much of the leadership came from the school and that boys in

the agriculture classes were particularly involved. A student

102
teacher living in the community would have had ample Opportunity to
become familiar with the critical significance of the economic base
in a community. He could have observed and participated in the
various efforts that were carried on to solve the problems.

One of the most prominent aspects of this problem is the manner
in which it typifies the community school's role in improving the
quality of living in the community. It is an example. furthermore.
of improvement both as a result of the solution of the immediate
problem but also the improvement that will be reflected much later
perhaps in the ability of a succeeding generation to solve problems
of a community nature. It may be assumed that a student teacher.
providing he would have competent parallel guidance in a laboratory
situation. could more firmly establish the many essential insights
and skills involved in this problem-solving activity.

The third project reported from this community. that of building
and operating a community cannery. was also spear—headed by the school.
Here the leadership apparently was originally exercised by the home
economics teacher. The girls in these classes and their mothers
assumed much of the work of planning for the cannery.

{A student teacher might have been able to contribute much in the
way of helping to organize the project. determine the need for the
cannery. and evaluate the cannery's contribution to human living once
it was in operation. The elements of diverse interests and conflicts
resulting from threats to certain interests was present to some extent

here. The reason for this was that many surplus and inexpensive foods

103
available in the community were to be canned cooperatively at the
cannery and used to enrich the school lunch program. People who had
traditionally sold foods to the school and to local housewives might
have felt threatened by this project. The report does not indicate
how serious this factor was.

If a student teacher had been involved in this situation. how-
ever. he could have practiced skills in resolving this kind of con-
flict. A common value might have been acceptable to all concerned.
such as agreement on the general principle that a tax-supported
enterprise like the school should obtain its supplies as inexpen-
sively as possible.

Many opportunities existed in connection with this project for
concomitant learnings on the part of people involved. Nutrition edu-
cation. budgeting for home economics. and the values of cooperative
efforts might be among such learnings.

The examples provided in Part II have primarily been illustrations
of the kinds of school-community activities that involve many members
of the community outside the school. They serve to show the possible
origins of basic conflicts and the possible role of the teacher in
such situations. Each of the illustrations could have afforded the
teachers in the school with a wealth of curriculum material. The
work of students could have been integrated with the ongoing community
projects as they were developed. Certainly the need for the projects.
the solution of problems through such projects. and the procedural
methods used among the organized groups could have been real functional

learning material for students. A student teacher would have had many

104
Opportunities to carry out such learning‘and the experiences would

have been equally valuable for him in terms of vital community school

teaching skills.

CHAPTER VII 105

TEE ImPLICATIORS OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS

FOR STUDENT TEACHIhG PROGRAMS

In order to make the argument which follows as clear as possible.
it seems desirable to restate the basic problem of the study and to
recapitulate its development up to this point. The study seeks to
orient the nature and organization of student teaching experiences
in terms of their optimum contribution to the preparation of teacher
candidates for community school teaching. The study attempts to do
this by developing from the basic concept of the community school as
defined certain imperatives for student teaching. Since the societal
situation provides the underlying basis for the community school con-
cept. the nature of the contemporary society was reviewed briefly and
the position.was accepted that the society is characterized by an in-
creasing trend toward social segmentalization. serious social cleavages.
and a decreasing fund of common values and universals. The community
school concept was then defined and its purposes established in re-
lation to the nature of the contemporary society. Some of the availa-
ble literature which.bears directly on the education of teachers for
community school service was reviewed.

The portions of the study summarized in the preceding synOpsis
are helpful in setting the stage for the rest of the study which deals
specifically with the problem of planning student teaching experiences
in such a manner that they will provide the student teacher with oppor-
tunities to practice at least some of the skills required of community

school teachers. Examples of such skills were logically deduced from

106
the community school concept as defined. Following this. a number of
actual instructional units and community projects that have been re-
ported were cited and briefly analyzed in terms of the potential pos-
sibilities they would have afforded a student teacher for practicing
skills or observing processes that would resemble skills and processes
in a school prOgram completely and consciously planned as a community
school.

The significance of the illustrations that were cited grows out
of the fact that they were carried on in school systems that are
essentially like most school systems found today. Most of them do
not consider themselves community schools. They are conventional
schools. This characteristic of "normality" on the part of these
schools suggests an assumption that has considerable import for the

concluding portions of the study. It suggests that it isgpossible to

 

/”
find.within the existing patterns of school_gperations units of instruc-

tion and occasional school-community cooperative inter-relationships
that are consistent with_practices that would be found in a communigy
school. Obviously. these units and inter-relationships are distinct-
ively a part. in most cases. of school programs not generally oriented
to the continuous use of such practices. For example. many of the
illustrations analyzed required projected suppositions in order for
them to serve present purposes. However. the fact that even a reason-
able analogy with community school practices could be established. has
a virtue here. It follows that if there are opportunities to practice

community school skills available. then the lack of community schools

107
as such need not mean that realistic experiences in community school
teaching skills are impossible. In fact. they would appear to be
eminently possible.

The analyses that have been provided and the assumption just
stated suggest some imperatives for teacher education. with particular
reference to the student teaching program. These imperatives may be
considered as strong inferences and may be stated as principles. The
inferred principles. with the interpretation to be made for each. may
serve to give direction to the planning of student teacher programs
where the provision of experiences that offer practice in community
school teaching skills represents one of the primary objectives.

The first inference or principle that may be stated is that a

teacher education institution that hopes to_prepare teachers for com- /'”“

 

munity school teaching_should identify a number of schools within its

 

pgactical service area which.have sufficient flexibilityLwithin their

 

curricular structure that teaching examples resembling community school

 

processes may frequenthy be found or developed. The number of schools

 

needed would depend upon the number of student teachers the institu-
tion needs to pLace. The examples mentioned would be the kinds of
teaching illustrated by the descriptions given in Chapter VI.

It should be emphasized that the examples provided in Chapter VI
are not part of complete community school programs. Each.may actually
represent but a small portion of a school program that is distinctly
non-community in its character. As such. the examples frequently take
on a superficial complexion. Furthermore. it is doubtful whether

schools that only establish temporary and casual contacts of this kind

108
with community processes can make of such contacts the rich. revealing.
and worthwhile educational experiences required by the needs underlying
the community school concept. The latter demands a central orientation
of the entire school program to the sociolOgical processes of which the
school itself is a vital part.

The above reservations need not detract from the usefulness of the
kinds of teaching examples cited. The qualifying remarks are intended
to establish clearly that the present study rec0gnizes the limitations

of the examples in terms of community school processes. Moreover. the

reservations make more imperative the provision of adequate faculty ,,/~

guidance for student teachers so that the limitations and artificiality
of experiences such as the examples illustrated may be interpreted to

the students. If such guidance is not present. the inexperience and
lack of background of the student may very likely prevent him from
growing beyond the limitations toward the more comprehensive concept- ’K/
ualization of the sociolOgical role of the community school.

The methods used to identify possible schools for the purpose
suggested by the above principle would depend somewhat upon the resources
of the institution. The details of the identification process need not
be developed here. However. some suggestions may be made. First. the
institution may have extensive contacts through its extension and adult
education services. As teachers and administrators are met in the field
who appear to possess philosOphical and competency backgrounds that
indicate flexibility and adaptability. their names and locations might
be referred to a central resource file. Over a period of time. certain

schools and systems might begin to show up in this file often enough

109
to indicate that they may serve as acceptable centers at which to
locate student teachers.

.Another suggestion for identifying centers might be through the
media of conferences sponsored by the institution for the purpose of
acquainting school administrators in the area with the needs of the
institution.and the kinds of centers it hopes to develop. The admins
istrators themselves might have valuable suggestions to make. The
institution personnel at the conference could watch for evidences of
particular interest and.willingness to cooperate on the part of certain
administrators.

It is possible that the contacts the institution has in the field
might include opportunities for institution staff members to serve as
consultants in various phases of school operation. This area of
service would also provide the institution with insights into the
nature of the teaching programs in many of the area schools.

In selecting school centers the criteria used would have to be
flexible. It is doubtful if all criteria would be satisfied by any
one sohool. The criteria would be oriented around the extent to which
the school being considered allows individual teachers freedom to build
the curriculum in terms of the needs of children and the community. the
extent to which individual teachers take advantage of this freedom. the
degree of cooperative interaction between the school and community. and
the extent to which the school appears to be willing to COOperate with
the institution.

One other factor should be considered. The use of a school as a

_/

student teaching center is a service that is provided by the school to

110
the institution and. therefore. the school should feel that the
service it is providing is being reciprocated in some manner. How
this is accomplished would appear to depend on many factors that are
individual and that relate to the resources of the institution and the
kinds of field services it is already making available. Financial
remuneration might be one answer. although it is suggested that a
higher level of reciprocity might be achieved if the service were re-
warded with services. This may be more clearly developed later in
the discussion concerning the functional Operation of the center.

A second inference that may be made is that the student teaching

 

experience should be accompanied by a parallel laboratory experience

 

where ggpups of student teachers may work tOgether with a faculty

 

member from the institution. Several contributing qualifications

 

regarding this laboratory experience seem to be indicated if the
student teacher is to derive the utmost benefit from it.

The laboratory experience should be both a group and individual
experience. This would have two important advantages. First. it
would allow student teachers to contribute to the solution of each
others' problems. and. second. it would give them experiences. under
competent leadership. in the very processes and methods that are at
the heart of the community school concept. By contributing to the
solution of problems encountered by fellow student teachers. each
student should grow in certain skills that are essential for a com-
munity school teacher. The ability to become sincerely concerned
with the problems of other people and to see the relationships between

the problems of colleagues and his own professional role are part of

111
the developmental process toward professional maturity that appear
to be clearly implied for the teacher candidate by the community
school concept. Another way to state this idea is to say that the
problems that arise during the course of the student teaching expe-
riences are problems that any member of the group might have sometime.
They are professional problems. The Opportunity to bring to the
attack on such problems the effectiveness of multiple intelligences
and.backgrounds represents an essential experience for community school
teachers.

The process to which reference is being made here may also be
viewed as a clinical procedure. The community school staff. tOgether
with appropriate resource individuals frequently approach profes-
sional problems as a staff. Drummond says. regarding this aspect of
community school after functioning:

"NO single individual. furthermore. is expected
to possess all the competencies which may be deemed
essential to acceptable service in a community-school
program. Through COOperative pooling of abilities.

the professional staff of the community school makes
the best possible use of each individual's capacities."

/

It is lOgical that student teaching for community school service
should include experiences in these kinds of professional functions.

It may be well to inject at this point a caution that should be
Observed. Group activity does not mean the loss of individuality nor
does it mean that all problems encountered by the members of the group
become group problems. On the contrary. many are solved by individuals

without requiring group assistance.

 

1National Society for the Study of Education. Op. cit. p. 106.

112

The number of student teachers in each laboratory should be
adjusted so that the group is small enough for the staff member to
get to know each student well and have time to work with students and
their individual classroom supervising teachers on a frequent and
continuous basis. On the other hand. the group should be sufficiently
large that it comprises an adequate group for cooperative problem-
solving purposes. The size. conditioned by these factors. would appear
to be flexible and to depend upon the abilities of the faculty member
and the degree Of geOgraphical dispersion Of the students in the group.
It would seen likely, however. that the ideal size would tend to
number about twenty students.

The laboratory experience. in order to be sufficiently integrated
with the teaching experience. should meet fairly Often. Since its
purpose would be to deal with the problems that arise during the stu-
dents' teaching. it would seem lOgical to have the laboratory meet
often enough so that problems could be handled while they are pertinent
and fresh. This suggests that ideally the laboratory experience should
meet every day or possibly three times a week.

The laboratory group should be provided with those resources that
any group seeking to work with social problems should have available.
That is to say. apprOpriate library resources. consultant services. and
at least minimum clerical services would be needed. A continuous brief
'record should be maintained with cOpies for each member. Consultant
services from staff members in many related disciplines should be
available if problems arise the solution of which could be hastened by

their assistance. The resources would need not be located at the

113
center necessarily. Adequate communication with the institution should
make it possible to secure needed resources with short notice.

An exanple of the use of resources can‘be given. If a student
teacher is working with a group of children on a project to determine
the need for a health unit in the county. the total laboratory group
could help him in his planning so he could better help the children.
However. the laboratory coordinator might be able to suggest someone
from the sociology department at the institution who had studied the
need for and growth of county health units throughout the state. He
might have bulletins and visual aids of various kinds that he could
recommend. The coordinator might also suggest resource people and
materials from the state health department. It is important to note
that in most cases these resources would.be brought to bear upon the
entire laboratory group. not just the student working on the health
unit project. The purpose here would.be to cultivate an atmosphere in
the laboratory group that would help the entire group feel a group re-
sponsibility for the problems of individuals in the group. The con- '1
tinuous participation in such a group should provide the student teachers
with experiences in.working as a staff that would be completely con-
sistent with the mode of staff operation suggested by the community
school concept.

Another aspect of the laboratory experience would be the possibility
of involving the immediate supervising teachers with whom the students
would be doing their teaching. It is rather Obvious that the coordinator

cannot ignore these individuals. They are in positions where they can

114
significantly condition the value Of the students' teaching experiences.
The coordinator could not very well consider an individual student
teacher's problems in isolation from the regular classroom teacher. As
far as it is practical. the pnablems should be considered jointly with
the student and the supervising teacher.

It should be possible to involve regularly a number of the super-
vising teachers in the laboratory experience. This would necessitate
a flexible schedule for the laboratory so that it could be adjusted to
the convenience Of the supervising teachers. Furthermore. it would
seem to follow that some laboratory sessions could be attended by
supervising teachers only. Since one of the Objectives Of the program
is to develOp the ability among the student teachers to proceed
independently. it should be possible to get the supervising teachers
tOgether in the laboratory occasionally while the student teachers
are carrying on by themselves. Such sessions could be used somewhat
in the manner of in—service training sessions for supervising teachers.
or. at times. as evaluative sessions for the purpose of appraising the
students‘ growth. the effectiveness of the program. or. indeed. as ways
of providing the student teachers with experiences more clearly con-
sistent with community school operation.

One other function Of the laboratory should be discussed. This
function grows out of the fact that the parents and other citizens in//
the community should understand the purposes and methods of the coop-
erative program between the institution and the school. As a matter
of fact. they will be persistently involved in school-community activ-

ities in which student teachers are participating. They should

115
understand the pregram and have a share in it. It would seem quite
proper. therefore. for the coordinator to involve parents in some of
the laboratory sessions. Frequently they might be brought in as re-
source persons with reference to some problem. At other times they
might be brought in.as part of various evaluation sessions. The
latter type of involvement seems particularly apprOpriate in view of
the fact that the crucial factor in any evaluation of teaching is the
degree to which learner behavior has been changed. Ideally. parents
should be able to contribute much data regarding growth manifestations
among their children. As the laboratory experiences parents might
have of this kind continue and are successful and satisfactony. it
follows that this manner of evaluating learning outcomes might become
more generally a part of the policy of the entire school.

This latter suggestion provides a partial answer to the problem
raised earlier concerning the reciprocity of services between the
institution and the school. It would appear that the best kind of
service the institution could render to the school would be in the
nature of the inrservice education by-products that would grow out of
the school-institution relationship. Thhs. in turn. tends to infer
that the in-service aspects should not be left to chance. but that they
should be planned as a definite part of the institution-school agreement.

Up to this point the argument has presented two inferences that
may be drawn from the illustrations of school and school-community acti-
vities and.projects. The first one dealing with the need for the

institution.to identify appropriate schools for use as centers. and

116
the second dealing with the parallel laboratory experiences student
teachers should.have as a part of their teaching experience. The third

inference seems equally clear. The student teachers should live in fine

 

school community during their student teaching experience.

 

The kinds of activities that were illustrated above are not activ-
ities that may be carried out by student teachers who come into the
community by bus for half of each day or even for a whole day and then
return to a college dormitory. In order to become realistic expe-
riences. these activities obviously demand some of the student's time
outside of his assigned classes. and this time needs to be spent in
the community. Such experiences might frequently require cooperation
with other staff members which would involve planning and conferences
at times other than when the bus schedule allowed the student to be
present. ‘

Another reason for this principle is that the laboratory experience
suggested above is equally obviously best carried on in the school com-
munity or at least at a place central to a group of proximate schools
or school communities. If it is to be truly a laboratory that deals
with school. community. and social problems. it would seem imperative
that it flinction in the community. Furthermore. as has been pointed
out. the Laboratory experience demands participation on the part of
community parents and resource people. It also needs to include super-
vising teachers rather frequently. This makes it mandatory that the “’
laboratory experience be located in the community.

A further and more fundamental premise that supports the inference

regarding local residence is that community analysis and study. and

117
the accomplishment of receptivity on the part of student teachers to
community processes require continuing associative relationships with
the community. .Another way to put the same idea is to say thit the
community school teacher candidate cannot adequately acquire the under-
standings. sensitivities. and skills he needs unless he becomes an
integral. functioning part of the complex social matrix from which
community emerges.

In terms of the factors that make up the ideal residence expe-
rience. the student teacher should be considered a menber of the ’/
faculty of the school. He should participate in many community affairs
and observe and participate in various group proceedings. These
participations should be more than casual visitations and courtesy
memberships. It would seem to be desirable to build in the community
feelings and attitudes of acceptance for the student teachers. even
though they might be there for a relatively short while. Moreover.
the experiences the students have in the community as residents should
also become a part of the discussions and procedures of the laboratory.
Thus the student teachers should be able to bring collectively to the
Laboratory sessions somewhat discrete items of culture. values. mores.
traditions. prejudices. myths. and evidences of class structure. power
group pressures. in-group dominations. and tensions. By means of the
Laboratory processes and the skill of the coordinator. these elements
of social phenomena could be synthesized into a more complete whole.

At the same time. the whole should be considered constantly. since to

accept the whole as being the result of its parts. without also looking

118
at the whole in its completeness is to run the risk of getting an
incomplete picture. As Kelley and Rasey say

"In the past. when we have made an approach to any

problem. our first impulse has been to take it apart. so

that we could see it better. We were able to see the

parts better. but this did not enable us to see the whole.

This is such a common practice that we are unskilled in

synthesis. most skilled in analysis. We come to see now

that we never find out what the whole is like by looking

at its parts. Part examination has led to abstraction,

based on a sort of reconstruction which does not bring rfl

back the entity we started with. We need to come to "r

learn that the whole is not the sum of its parts. but —~-

more. because it has entity of its own. This entity is

destroyed by analysis. revealed by synthesis."1

This element of synthesis. then. constitutes one of the convincing
arguments for residents in the community. The synthesis actually in-
cludes more than insights and portions of information, it includes a
synthesis of the total experience the students have in the community
both as a group and as individuals. The group synthesis will take
place largely in the laboratory. while the individual synthesis can
be an unconscious process that molds the individual and affects his
personality structure in a subtle and profound manner. Thus the
foundation will be established for what may develop into a community
school teacher after further experience together with opportunity to
grow in the skills that are particularly essential to such teachers.2

The three principles presented in this chapter point a logically

valid direction for the teacher educator. Many of'tte associated and

 

1Earl C. Kelley and Marie I. Basey. Education and Nature of Man.
New York: Harper and Brothers. 1952. p. 13.

2For a more complete discussion of the over-all impact group
situations of this kind may have see: George Sharp. Curriculum
Develgpment as Be-education of the Teacher. New York: Bureau of

Publications. Teachers College. Columbia University. 1951. pp. VIII +
132.

 

119
unanswered questions that the principles raise will probably be
answered for some time by the exigencies posed by the limits to the
resources of institutions and by the realities of the current teacher
shortage. On the other hand. ways of’achdeving the application of
these principles appear to be areas of needed research. Ideally. this
research might be action research in which hypotheses might be de-
veloped from the inferences made. The testing and validation of the
hypotheses should be done by institutions interested in determining
the best solutions to these and related problems.

Problems Related to the Implementation of
Student Teacher PrOgrams for Community School Service

The principles for student teacher programs that have been de-
veloped in this chapter represent essentials for any such program having
as its objective the preparation of community school teachers. They
also serve as a broad basis upon.which.tc plan programs of this kind.
The essential nature of the principles is apparent when any one of them
is omitted. For example. a student teaching program aimed at develop-
ing teachers for community school service would be severely handicapped w*
in the achievement of its Objectives if the teaching experience were
to be planned without the accompanying laboratory experience. This
parallel phase of the program is so significant that without it there
would be a strong likelihood that the educative impact of the kinds of
experiences suggested would.be considerably weakened if not totally
negated. This same observation can be assumed for the other principles.
They represent. then. minimum imperatives for student teaching if the

latter is to have a significant influence upon the student by

120
developing in him certain skills. attitudes. and insights necessary
for a community school teacher.

The general outlines of a student teaching prOgram were suggested
by the principles inasmuch.as three necessary organizational require-
ments were established: (1) the student teachers should be assigned - ”V
in groups to teach in selected centers; (2) the teaching should be
accompanied by a parallel laboratory experience; and (R) the student
teachers should live in the community and be active participants in
local affairs and social processes. Obviously these requirements
comprise organization structure.

The principles or imperatives and the structural framework. in-
dicated above. constitute the objectives of the present study. They
are the outcomes of the prior analyses of the study. The delimitaticns
of the study would not seen to indicate an extended discussion of the
implementation of these principles nor of the predictable problems
that may be connected with this implementation. As has been suggested.
much of the determination of desirable procedures for instituting these
student teaching programs rests with institutions and must be develOped
experimentally over a period of time. Furthermore. within the framework
suggested. there is room for considerable flexibility that should allow
for adequate integration and adjustment with the unique and singular
resources and characteristics of individual institutions and areas.

However. failure to rec0gnize these problems and the need for
coordinating the student teacher program withthe total professional
education.p1anning might leave the study open to criticism on the

grounds that it assumes a rather naive point of view by implying that

121
the student teaching aspects alone can produce qualified teachers for
community schools. Put in a more positive manner. the study should
go beyond the imperatives and point up some of the factors and prob-
lems that might develop which would have the effect of making the
implementation of the kind of student teaching program suggested above
difficult to achieve.

It would seem that most problems of this kind that might arise
grow out of two general characteristics of the situation teacher edur
cators would face today in attenpting to initiate a student teaching
plan in accordance with the principles developed above. First. the
program must be developed within the over-all organization of the
institution. Any one phase of professional education cannot be M"
developed in isolation from the total prOgram. Articulation with ““
it would appear to be absolutely necessary. Second. the particular
approach to planning student teaching programs expressed in this study
is somewhat different both in method and underlying objectives from
conventional programs. This is not to say that student teaching pro- j
grams may not be found that incorporate all three of the basic prin-

ciples. It is implied. however. that the combination of the structure

the principles outline and the purposes inherent in the community school

I '

w

concept and analyzed in terms of competencies. attitudes. and values
is not common.

These two characteristics of the situation are interrelated and
it is difficult to identify specific problems as coming from only one
or the other. The combination of the two actually create most of the

problems.

123

One of the most difficult problems teacher educators might face in
attempting to implement the principles could be the normal and expected
rigidity and inflexibility of institutional practices. These practices
are not by themselves undesirable. Colleges and universities must
plan and Operate according to policies. programs. and schedules. These
are in most cases the result of years of develOpment by the adminis-
tration and faculty. The procedures are accepted and recognized as
being part of the academic tradition. Indeed. it might be argued that
the very blocks that these characteristics of institutionalization may
present for new ideas or procedures are. in another sense. examples of
their function. The structures and patterns of habit and custom
stabilize the institution. They protect it from sudden or ill-
considered innovations.

On the other hand. this inherent conservatism of institutional
patterns may serve to frustrate and discourage change that may be
desirable. This would appear to be particularly true in a dynamic
society where the culture is characterized by confusion and disunity
and where shifting values and new cultural alternatives cause insistent
pressures for changes in social institutions.

These remarks serve to introduce more specific problems that might
require solution if the principles developed by the present study were
to be implemented.

The student teaching program that has been suggested acCepts the
position that learning takes place best when the learning process is
closely integrated with and is a realistic and functional part of

the materials and substance about which the learning is concerned.

 

123
It is partly because of the acceptance of this premise that the princ-
iples dealing with the parallel laboratory experience and student
teacher involvement in the community processes were inevitable. These
two aspects of the student teacher's experiences involve him closely
and realistically with important materials and substances of importance
to the community school teacher: the practice of group procedures
for conflict resolution. and the sociological processes of community
living. Furthermore. any student teaching program is an attempt to give
the prospective teacher an opportunity to work with the most basic
material of the profession: children and youth.

If this phase of the student teaching program is to be valuable.
then. in tenns of the purposes that underlie it. there energes the
problem of attempting to increase the number and quality of such
functional experiences in other areas of the professional education
program. In other words. it may be possible that the student teaching
program would be much more educative if the teacher candidates could
bring to the program a variety of experiences they had had. under com-
petent guidance. which involved than with.the materials and substance
of the teacher. It would seem that the professional education expe-
riences exclusive of student teaching could be integrated.with the
actual processes of teaching. This suggests parallel laboratory expe-
riences where candidates observe or work with children. field expe-
riences where candidates can assume a direct part in the carrying out
of such activities as community surveys. and other studies of various

kinds.

 

124

The kinds of activities suggested above would require flexibility
in scheduling and curriculum organization. It would be necessary to
involve departments other than the education department. These are
the kinds of prOblems that may loom forbiddingly large before the staff
seeking to develOp teacher education prOgrams that may be philos0phically
and 10gically related to the student teaching prOgram suggested by this
study.

The placing of student teachers in community centers as residents
depends upon.whether or not they can be released from the campus for
the period of time. Closely related are problems of housing expenses
for students and financial demands posed by the need for highly
qualified faculty coordinators.

The manner in which these problems are solved may vary. Surely
it would seem to be logical for institutions to develop solutions con-
sistent with their resources and the area they serve. Actually. pat-
terns may be emerging in student teaching programs now being experi-
mentally tried. Stinnett reports the apparent increase in the number
of new kinds of prOgrams of student teaching in which parallel.labora-
tory experiences and many different variations with regard to curriculum
placement are observed. 1

The expansion of these experimental programs toward greater rec0gni-
tion of community school teaching competency appears to be a lOgical

development that is consistent with the assumption stated in the

 

1T. M. Stinnett. "The Backward Look. The Forward Look.”
Improving Standards for the Teaching Profession. Report of the 1953
Series of Regional Conferences on Teacher Education and Professional
Standards. washington. D.C.: National Commission on Teacher Edu-
cation and Professional Standards. 1953. p. 5-21.

 

125
introductory portions of the study. that education has become increas—
ingly aware of the educative influence of the total environment. In-
deed. it may be said that student teaching prOgrams may be evolving
that are potentially akin to the kind suggested by this study but
which do not necessarily present themselves as being designed for the
preparation of community school teachers.

It is possible that the kinds of experiences for prospective com-
munity school teachers suggested by the principles developed.by this
study may be provided by means of some type of internship or extern-
ship program. In many ways such approaches are similar to the program
suggested by the principles. They take teacher candidates out into
communities where their teaching eXperiences may be more realistic and
where they might be able to increase their insights and understandings
regarding community processes and the societal role of education. On
the other hand. this study has persistently emphasized the two elements
of faculty guidance and peer group analysis of common problems. Pro-
viding competent and professionally mature guidance were offered by the
receiving school (or was available from the institution) and providing
frequent and well-directed group experiences in attacking the problems
student teachers face were part of the program. then the internship or
externship might result in values similar to those of the student teach-
ing center prOgram suggested by this study. In other words. the logic
of the present study attributes imperative significance to the essential
nature of the principles stated.

Perhaps the student teaching experience in a community center could

be followed by an internship period. Such a pattern would appear to

 

Ls!“

126
allow teacher education institutions a procedure for making less abrupt
the transition for the student from the rather closely guided center
experience to full teaching responsibility.

Another area that cannot be ignored and which influences profes-
sional education programs is the general area of legal teacher certif-
ication requirements. These state licensing standards may make demands
upon the institutions in the way of courses. sequences and length of
training period. Deviations from the established pattern for meeting
these requirements in any given state may be difficult due to a certain
amount of inflexibility imposed by the certification standards.

Institutional accreditation by various professional groups may
also influence the degree to which institutions may adapt their programs
to the emerging need for preparing community school teachers. This is
not to say that accreditation policies are necessarily opposed to
changes. On the contrary. they may exert strong pressures for the
improvement of teacher education programs. The point is. however.
that at any given time. the standards for accreditation may not provide
for SOme of the innovations an institution may wish to develop. During
the period that would elapse during which the accreditation agency came
to rec0gnize the apprOpriateness of the changes the institution might
possibly feel certain restricting effects of accreditation sanctions.
For example. it is interesting to note that the evaluation of student
teaching experiences by certain accrediting agencies treat the community
aspects of both student teaching and teacher education rather casually.
The evaluative criteria used currently by the American.Association of

Colleges for Teacher Education devotes only one item of one section

127
to experiences that have some identity with the kind of teacher-
community relationship suggested by the community school concept. The
seven criteria under this item refer to such community participation
activities as Boy and Girl Scout work, Parent Teacher Association
activities. and the work of the local professional education unit.
One criterion alone can be interpreted as touching a community school
activity:

"Sharing in studies of the community to understand

better learner needs and backgrounds and how the school

may contribute to and work with the community."

The possible blocks and problems briefly suggested above require
much more intensive study than.they have received here. They have been
mentioned in order to give proper recognition to the magnitude of the
task teacher educators face in adjusting teacher education prOgrams.
particularly the student teaching phases. to the needs of the schools
and the society. It is possible that one significant hypothesis that
can be drawn from these problems is that the student teaching program
is an area of teacher education which lends itself well to experimen-
tation for improving the preparation of community school teachers.
Providing the total prOgram can be adjusted so that students may be
released to live in the community centers as residents for the duration
of their assignment. the actual Operation of the student teaching activ-
ities in the center should be able to reflect any degree of creative
experimentally inclined planning. Moreover. the close relationship

that would be established between the institution and the center schools

 

lRecommended Standards Governing Professional Laboratory Expe-
riences and Student Teaching and Evaluative Criteria. American Associa-
tion of Colleges for Teacher Education. 1949. p. 23.

128
would offer a means by which the institution could have a significant
impact upon the teaching practices prevailing there. When the number
_ of student teachers who would be going into centers each year is con-
sidered. the full significance of this approach becomes greater. Many
centers would be required in each state. These centers could serve as
focus points for demonstration projects of many kinds. Curriculum
study and improvement would actually be a part of the expected activ-
ities of the student teachers and their supervising teachers. It
would seem that the limits for such activities are impossible to
identify.

The increasing involvement of local schools throughout a state in
an important phase of professional preparation could serve to make
teachers in service become more aware of the responsibility a profes-
sion should assume for the education of highly qualified members. The
institutions. certificating agencies of the state. and accreditation
organizations now share such responsibility. The suggestion may be
apprOpriate that teacher education is an area of effort in which the
profession, both through its individual members and its professional
organizations. should participate more actively. It is possible that
this could be another outcome of the wide use of community-centered
student teacher programs.

The factors. problems. and suggestions that have comprised this
section have been included in the study in order to imply during their
discussion the many areas of needed research that exist. Furthermore.

it is hoped that the discussion has served to show the possibilities

129
for vision and creative develOpment that exist for teacher educators. ,//
particularly those involved in student teaching prOgrams. The char-
acteristics of teacher education in the future may be quite different
from those observed in current prOgrams. Indeed. the encouragement of
experimental prOgrams and improvements in evaluation techniques could
result in the professional education of teachers assuming drastically
different methods that may more closely represent a kind of professional
education designed especially for the unique needs of teachers in
schools that seek and find their purposes and much of their method in //
the social situation obtaining in the communities of which their stu-

dents are a part.

5.

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