ABSTRACT

COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF FOUR INSTRUCTIONAL FIDELITY LEVELS
IN LEARNING SKILLS ASSOCIATED WITH TERMINATION OF COUNSELING CONTACT

BY

Patricia Yvonne Leonard

This study focused upon the comparison of instructional procedures
which represented various levels of fidelity of simulation and their
combination in terms of efficacy as methods for teaching the skills and
information associated with the termination of counseling contact. Fi-
delity of simulation was defined as the degree to which the instructional
mode resembled the performance required by the outcome measure; the in-
structional modes compared were prose unit, modeling, shaping, and a pro-
cedure combining prose unit, modeling, and shaping. The variables upon
which comparisons were made were acquisition (immediate knowledge and
skill), retention‘delayed knowledge and transfer of skill), and effec-
tive responses (satisfaction and confidence). For the dependent variables
for skill, the order of simulation fidelity from highest to lowest was
shaping (high), modeling (moderate), and prose unit (low); for knowledge
variables the order was reversed. The combined procedure represented
multiple levels of fidelity. A.minor aspect of the study was the inves-
tigation of the relationship between the learner's instructional pref-
erence and skill and knowledge acquisition. The experiment was a post-
test—only control group design (Campbell and Stanley, 1963).

The skill measures with respect to acquisition and retention, re-
spectively, were audio taped behavioral measures of the subject's per-

formance of termination procedures in role-played and practicum settings.

Patricia Yvonne Leonard

The knowledge measures for acquisition and retention were written tests
of the subject's knowledge of the procedure presented for the termination
of counseling. The affective measures of satisfaction with the instruc-
tional experience and confidence in one's ability to exhibit the behaviors
identified as elements of the termination process were paper-and-pencil
measures.

The subjects for the study were 62 master's degree candidates in
counseling at Michigan State University who had volunteered and had been
randomly assigned to one of the four instructional modes or to the no-
treatment control group. Duration of the instructional phase of the
study was approximately 55 minutes. During this time subjects in active
treatments either read narrative explanations of the termination process
(prose unit), viewed video tapes of model client/counselor termination
interactions (modeling), role-played counselors terminating contact with
clients and received feedback on their performance (shaping), or spent
one-third of the instructional period in each of these activities (com-
bined method). Immediately after the instructional phase subjects com-
pleted skill, knowledge, satisfaction, and confidence measures. Four-
teen weeks later all active treatment groups completed an abbreviated
version of the knowledge measure. They also submitted for rating a tape
(made 12-14 weeks after the instructional phase) of their termination of
counseling contact with a client with whom they had worked during their
practicum experience.

It was generally expected that subjects in higher fidelity procedures
for a particular outcome variable would score higher on that variable.
Hypotheses were based on this expectation unless available research in-
dicated that another order of effectiveness might be expected. High fi—

delity procedures for knowledge measures would be those emphasizing prose

Patricia Yvonne Leonard

materials. For skill measures the procedure featuring the behavioral
rehearsal was highest fidelity and that including observation of be-
havioral displays was next. Accordingly, for immediate and delayed
knowledge, it was hypothesized that the subjects in the prose unit (high-
est fidelity) experience and in the combined method experience (contain-
ing an element of the highest fidelity as well as all other levels) would
score higher than those assigned to shaping (lowest fidelity) or modeling
(moderate fidelity). For skill acquisition and transfer, it was hypoth-
esized that the subjects assigned to the combined procedure (containing
an element of the highest fidelity as well as all other levels) would
score higher than those in either the prose unit (low fidelity) group
or the modeling (moderate fidelity) group. The research reviewed sug-
gested that shaping (the highest fidelity procedure) was less effective
than modeling (moderate level) and than a combination of procedures
(multi-level approach). Accordingly, it was hypothesized that, on the
immediate measure of skill, this order of effectiveness would be re-
flected. For transfer of skill to the practicum setting it was hypoth-
esized that the subjects in the combined procedures (multi-level) and
modeling (moderate fidelity) groups would score higher than those in the
prose unit (lowest fidelity) and shaping (highest fidelity) procedures.
For the affective response of satisfaction with the instructional
experience it was hypothesized that subjects in the highest fidelity
experience for skill (shaping) would have higher scores than subjects in
all other groups. For confidence in one's ability to terminate counsel-
ing contact the subjects assigned to the highest fidelity procedure for
skill (shaping) were expected to score highest, with the order for those
in the other groups being multiple level of fidelity of experience (com—

bined procedures), moderate level (modeling), and lowest level (prose

Patricia Yvonne Leonard

unit). The data were analyzed using multivariate (‘K- .05 and also re-
ported at O(- .10) and univariate analyses (0(- .025 to 0(- .05) with
Scheffe’post hoc procedures as appropriate. An unbalanced design was
used for all analyses.

No statistically significant differences (univariate) were found
between the various levels and types of fidelity in simulation as repre-
sented by the instructional procedures on acquisition or retention of
knowledge. 0n skill measures significant between-group differences with
univariate 0(- .0039 for acquisition and ag- .00001 for retention were
found. Scheffé’post hoc procedures for skill acquisition hypotheses
failed to support the hypotheses for that variable. Scheffe’analyses
of the skill retention measure revealed that retention of skill was sig-
nificantly greater for subjects assigned to moderate fidelity (modeling)
and multi-level (combined) procedures than for those in the low fidelity
procedure (prose unit). No significant differences were found between
groups (univariate alpha) for subjects in terms of their satisfaction
with the instructional experience or their confidence in their ability to
terminate counseling contact.

A minor focus of the study was the relationship between subject at-
titude toward an instructional procedure as assessed by paper-and-pencil
measures completed prior to the instructional phase and performance on
immediate skill and knowledge measures. It was hypothesized that no sig-
nificant relationships would be found between preference for the instruc-
tional method experienced and knowledge and skill acquisition. Using
Pearson correlations it was found that there were no significant relation-
ship between instructional preference and knowledge and skill for sub-
jects in the modeling and prose unit groups. In the shaping groups the

relationships between preference and skill and knowledge were significant

at 4- .05 and C"- .10, respectively.

COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF FOUR INSTRUCTIONAL
FIDELITY LEVELS IN LEARNING SKILLS
ASSOCIATED WITH TERMINATION OF
COUNSELING CONTACT

BY

Patricia Yvonne Leonard

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling, Personnel Services
and Educational Psychology

1976

To
my Mother and Father
and
all the rest of my family,

especially Grace and George

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writer wishes to recognize and express appreciation to those
whose help and understanding have made this study possible:

To Norman R. Stewart who provided me with invaluable assistance
and direction on this study and my professional training.

To my committee, Dr. Robert C. Craig, Dr. Thomas S. Gunnings,
Dr. William C. Hinds, and Dr. Stephen Yalon.

To Dr. Bob B. Winborn who encouraged me to pursue a doctoral
degree in the field of counselor education.

To the Human Development Counseling Program faculty at Sangamon
State University who provided encouragement and assistance.

To my friends at Sangamon State University whose concern and
kindness has meant a great deal to me.

To my family whose love and support have been extremely important
to me.

To my fellow students who took time from their own work to
assist me in the execution of the study and to the students who
participated in the study. Without your help it would not have

been possible.

111

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter

I. RATIONALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . .
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Review of Theory and Research . . . . . . .
Simulation in Counselor Training . . . . .
Observational Learning . . . . .
The Effects of Shaping, Feedback, and Practice
in Learning . . . . . . . . . . .
Application of Modeling, Shaping, Practice,
and written Instruction to Training . . .
Procedure for Termination of Counseling Contact
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

I I O momLmY O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Subjects . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sample . . . . . . . . . . . .
Subject Assignment . . . . . . . . .
Treatment Supervisors . . . . . . . . .
Presentation of Instruction . . . . . . .
Treatment Groups . . . . . . . . . . .
Control Group (C) . . . . . . . . . .
Combined Methods Group (Cb) . . . . . . .
Shaping Group (S) . . . . . . . . . .
Modeling Group (M). . . . . . . . .
Prose Learning Unit Group (P) . . . . . .
Facilities and Equipment . . . . . . . .
Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Instructional Preference Scale (IP) . . . .
Immediate Knowledge (IR) . . . . . . . .
Affective Measures . . . . . . . . .
Immediate Skill (18) . . . . . . . . .
Delayed Knowledge (DR) . . . . . . . .
Transfer Skill (TS) . . . . . . . . .

iv

Page

vii

H

uNNU‘l-J

Chapter

Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . .
Immediate Skill (IS) . . . . . . .
Immediate Knowledge (IK) . . . . . .
Transfer Skill (TS) . . . . . . . .
Delayed Knowledge (DK) . . . . . . .
Affective Measure . . . . . . .
Instructional Preference (IP) . . . .

Experimental Design . . . . . . . .

Analysis of the Data . . . . . .

III. RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Tests for Main Effects and Interactions .

Results for Skill and Knowledge Acquisition

Hypotheses . . . . . . . . .
Immediate Skill (IS) . . . . . . .
Immediate Knowledge (IK) . . . . . .

Results for the Transfer Skil l and Delayed Knowledge

Hypotheses . . . . - . . . . . .
Transfer Skill (TS) . . . . . . . .

Delayed Knowledge (DK) L . . . . .

Results for the Affective Measures Hypotheses .

Instructional Preference Hypotheses . . .
Status of the Research Hypotheses . .
Immediate Skill . . . . . . . . .
Immediate Knowledge . .
Transfer Skill . . . .
Delayed Knowledge . .
Affective Measures . .
Instructional Preference . . . . . .

IV. DISCUSSION . . . . . .

Overview . . . . . . . . .
Limitations . . . . . . . .
Design . . . . . . . .

Sample . . . .
Measures . . .
Termination . .
Procedure . . . .
Methods . . . . . .
Conclusions and Implications . . .
Suggestions for Future Research . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . .

LIST OF REFERENCES . . . . . . . .

APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A. SYSTEMATIC COUNSELING: A GENERAL INTRODUCTION .

Page

80
82
82
82
83
83
83
84
84

87
9O

91
91
96

97

97
100
100
102
107
107
108
108
109
109
110

. 112

112
116
116
117
117
118
118
119
119

. 125
. 125

127

136

. 136

Chapter

PROCEDURE FOR THE TERMINATION OF COUNSELING CONTACT . .
MATERIALS AND INSTRUCTIONS FOR TREATMENT SUPERVISORS . .
SCRIPT OF THE MODELING GROUP VIDEOTAPE . . . . . .
TERMINATE COUNSELING 9.0 . . . . . . . .

ROLES FOR ROLE-PLAY PROCEDURES IN THE SHAPING AND
COMBINED PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . .

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR THE COMBINED METHOD GROUP

SCHEDULE AND ROOM ASSIGNMENT FOR INSTRUCTION AND

TESTING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
INSTRUCTIONAL PREFERENCE MEASURE (IP) . . . . . . .
IMMEDIATE KNOWLEDGE MEASURE (IK) . . . . . . . .
AFFECTIVE MEASURES OF SATISFACTION (S) AND CONFIDENCE (C)
DELAYED KNOWLEDGE MEASURE (DK) . . . . . . . . .
IMMEDIATE SKILL ROLE-PLAY MEASURE . . . . . . . .

RATING OF AUDIOTAPED PERFORMANCES OF THE TERMINATION
OF COUNSELING CONTACT . . . . . . . . . . .

INFORMATION PROVIDED PROSPECTIVE SUBJECTS IN ED 819D . .

PROSE UNIT PILOT TEST DATA . . . . . . . . . .

vi

Page
142
148

157

. 176

186

192

204
207
215
218
224

226

231
236

238

Table

2.1.

2.2.

2.3.

2.4.

2.5.

2.6.

2.7.

3.1.

3.2.

3.3.

3.4.

3.5.

3.6.

LIST OF TABLES

Summary of Personal and Demographic Characteristics
of the Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Summary of Subjects Assigned and Completing Measures
by Treatment Group . . . . . . . . . . .

Hoyt Reliabilities for Preference Scale . . . .
Means and Standard Deviations for Preference Scale .

Relation of Subject Responses to Adjective Pairs to
Instructional Preference Measure Subscale and
Overall Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Reliabilities for Subscale and Total Scores on
Immediate and Transfer Skill Measures . . . . .

Means and Standard Deviations for Subscale and Total
Scores on Immediate and Transfer Skill Measures . .

Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Acquisition,
Retention, and Affective Measures by Group and Class

Group Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Across-
Class Acquisition and Retention Measures . . . .

Multivariate and Univariate F Values and Significance
Levels for Acquisition Measures of Knowledge (IK)
md Skil 1 (IS) 0 O O I O O O O O O I O O

Multivariate and Univariate F Values and Significance
Levels for Retention Measures of Delayed Knowledge
(DK) and Transfer Skill (TS) . . . . . . . .

Multivariate and Univariate F Values and Significance
Levels for Affective Measures of Satisfaction (S)
m confidence (C) O O O O O O O O O O 0

Pearson Correlation Between Instructional Preference
and Immediate Skill and Knowledge . . . . . .

vii

Page

52

54

72

72

74

79

79

88

89

92

93

94

106

Table

P-l o

P-z e

Page

Summary of Reading Time and Level of Comprehension
for the Pilot Test of the Full Length Prose
Learning unit 0 O O O O O I O O O O O O 238

Summary of Reading Time and Level of Comprehension

for Pilot Test of the Abbrievated Prose Learning
unit 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O 238

viii

Figures

1.1.

2.1.

2.2.

3.1.

3.2.

LIST OF FIGURES

Relationship of Level of Simulation, Trainee
Behavior, and General Purpose of Instructional
Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Semantic Differential (SD) Space . . . . .

Design with Five Measures and Five Experimental
Groups 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Graph of the Interaction Between a Dependent
Variable (Satisfaction) and Two Independent
Variables (Treatment and Class) . . . . . .
Graph of the Interaction Between a Dependent
Variable (Confidence) and Two Independent Variables
(Treatment and Class) . . . . . . . . . .

Systematic Counseling . . . . . . . . . .

ix

Page

66

85

103

104

141

Chapter I
Rationale

Introduction

The past few years have been characterized by a push for account-
ability in all phases of education. This focus on accountablility has
particular meaning in the areas of counseling and counselor education
and has been reflected in increased attention to the objectives,
processes, and outcomes of counselor training programs. Whiteley (1969)
indicates that since the development of the counseling profession has
neither been systematic nor uniform, counselor educators are faced
with many unresolved issues and problems. Perhaps at the crux of the
problems confronting counselor training professionals in terms of
selection of trainees, specification of counselor roles, and program
curriculum is the lack of agreement as to what counselors are to be
trained to do and how they are to do it. The lack of specificity
with respect to counseling goals has been reflected in equally vague
objectives and critera for counselor training programs. In recent
years, however, there has been a trend toward increasing the specificity
in goals and outcome criteria of counselor training programs. In
addition to the general push for accountability, research on the
helping professions has also served as a catalyst. Evidence that
training in the helping professions may in fact decrease the level of
trainee functioning (Carkhuff, 1969) has been a source of pressure
for monitoring outcomes of training programs. In addition, the
increasing body of data indicating that non—professional personnel

with minimal training can develop the primary conditions of effective

treatment (Carkhuff, 1966) has also prompted counselor educators to
look more carefully at their programs and objectives.

If counselor training is to advance and to meet the challenge
of accountability, counselor educators must focus upon the identifi-
cation and documentation of training goals and procedures in terms of
their efficiency and economy. One response to this pressure for
accountability and for generating a body of research and theory useful
to the emerging profession of counselor education has been the recent
increased focus upon skills. Consideration and conceptualization of
the counseling process as based upon a number of facilitative skills
has surfaced on many fronts. The works of Hoffman (1959), Miller
(1967), Truax and Carkhuff (1967), Benjamin (1969), and others have
focused upon the identification and description of specific behaviors
essential to the therapeutic process. Krumboltz (1967) suggests that
counselor training programs should focus upon the development of
various essential skills.

Using such a skill based model for counselor training, the
skills identified as essential to positive counseling outcomes as
well as the degree of emphasis placed upon them, vary with theoretical
orientation. However, the approach has been employed increasingly
and has served as a basis for making both trainee and trainer
accountable for specified counseling behaviors.

This trend toward the specification of training objectives is
evidenced in the ACES Standards (1967) and has been carried on by
numerous counselor educators, especially those who have advocated a
behavioral approach to counselor training. Among those advocating

such an approach are Bellucci (1972), Horan (1972), Jakubowski-Spector,

Dustin and George (1971), and Winborn, Hinds, and Stewart
(1971). Winborn, et al., (1971) suggest that the utilization of
performance objectives for counselor trainees fosters movement of
training programs from traditional lecture-recite orientations to
the performance-centered models. Many view this transition to
performance or skill-based models as an advance in the field of
counselor education. The importance of performance centered approaches
is substantiated by Carkhuff (1969) who comments:

The fact that discrimination does not translate itself

readily into functioning in the helping role in conjunc-

tion with the fact that there is no evidence to relate

discrimination to client or patient benefits in any

way has implications for a behavioristic approach to

training. (p. 243)
Horan's (1972) discussion of the application of behavioral goals
and of a systems approach to counselor education cites the important
contributions of Thoresen (1969, 1971), Hosford and Ryan (1970),
and Yelon (1969). Emphasizing the "mission-oriented" approaches of
systematic counselor education programs (Thoreson, 1969) Horan
reflects that, "once the training goals are identified, the systematic
counselor educator strives to achieve the most efficient blending
of men, methods, materials, and machines necessary for goal
attainment." (p. 163)

The nature of this optimal mix is a fertile area for future
research. Stone (1972) suggests that the training of counselors
has been a matter of personal conviction with little valid research
to demonstrate the comparative effectiveness of the various training

procedures. The situation is analogous to that of the training of

psychotherapists about which Matarazzo, Wiens, and Saslow (1966) conclude:

From the studies cited and from our review of the
literature, we have concluded that there is essentially

no published research regarding the teaching of psy—
chotherapy, the supervisory process, how effective
psychotherapy takes place, and how to teach psycho-
therapy efficiently. Many reports of training programs
are available and it is evident that many psychotherapists
talk about teaching, but few report systematic innovations,
comparisons of methods, and/or student skill before and
after a course of instruction. (p. 608)

Hansen and Warner (1971) conclude that previous research has yeilded
little relevant information in critical areas such as the role
expected of supervisors and its effect on counselor trainees, new
methods used in counselor preparation, and counselor changes during
the training process. Though there are notable exceptions which
will be discussed later, generally studies documenting the impact of
counselor training procedures have not focused upon comparisons of
training methods. Stone (1972) suggests:

Recent studies in counselor education have been

based upon personal conviction and research strategies
(i.e., treatment, no treatment model) which perpetuate
distinctions between training programs by maximizing
the occurrence of "positive" outcomes (Blocher, 1967;
Paul, 1967; Thoresen, 1969). These studies completely
neglect the question of comparative effectiveness or,
as some call it, the "challenge of accountability"
(Horan, l972)-~what works, with whom, and under what
conditions. (p. 3)

Thus, the need for careful, comparative research on methods and outcomes
in counselor training is clear. It is reiterated by Whiteley (1969)
and also by Bellucci (1972), who concludes:

Counselor educators are constantly seeking more effec-
tive methods relevant to the training and education of
school counselors. However, evidence regarding counselor
educators' relative effectiveness when employing various
training methodologies and procedures is, at best, contra-
dictory and confusing. (p. 88)

For this study the steps for terminating counseling contact
specified in the Michigan State University Systematic Counseling
Process (Appendix A) and readings on considerations and objectives
for the termination of clients in therapeutic settings provided the
basis for the specification of behaviors and skills essential to
the termination process. Using the behaviors identified as criteria,
the research systematically compared instructional procedures that
ranged in their level of simulation from reading (prose unit) to

learning through doing (shaping).

Purpose

This study investigates the relative effectiveness of four
instructional approaches, located at various points along a
sflmflation heirarchy, in teaching counselor trainees the procedures,
skills, and insights necessary to terminate counseling contact
according to a procedure based on the Michigan State University
Systematic Counseling model. Demonstration examples of prose unit,
modeling, shaping, and a combination of the three were developed,
presented to trainees, and instructional outcomes assessed in terms
of their immediate and long-term impact on the knowledge and counseling
performance of master's level counselor trainees. Immediate measures,
taken upon completion of the instructional (treatment) phase, were:

1. a satisfaction and confidence measure

2. an informational test

3. a performance test
In order to assess the transfer of acquired skills to the counseling

situation and trainee retention of relevant concepts, two follow-up

measures were used. A performance evaluation of an audiotape of
the temmination phase of a counseling contact from the trainees'
practicum experience was used to assess transfer of skills to the
counseling setting. A short informational test on conceptual
material associated with the termination process was completed
14 weeks after the instructional phase to compare knowledge retention
associated with the various instructional treatments.

The general objectives of the study were:

1. To determine whether the levels of simulation
represented by modeling, shaping, prose text, and
a procedure combining modeling, shaping, and prose
text are differentially effective in terms of
immediate recall of the information and per-
formance of the procedures associated with the
termination of counseling contact.

2. To determine whether the levels of simulation
represented by modeling, shaping, prose text,
and a procedure which combines modeling,
shaping, and prose text are differentially
effective as instructional treatments in
terms of long;term retention of information
on termination procedures and transfer of
skills associated with termination to the
actual counseling setting.

 

3. To determine whether trainees react more favorably
and/or have greater confidence as a result of
exposure to the different levels of simulation
fidelity represented by modeling, shaping, prose
text, or their combination.

4. To determine whether learner attitude toward an
instructional procedure has an impact upon the
level of acquisition of the information and skills
presented via that mode.
The study compared the effectiveness of the selected levels of
fidelity in simulation for teaching the information and procedures
associated with the termination of counseling contact as defined in

Systematic Counseling in terms of level of information and skill

acquired. It also analyzed the relationship between subjects'
preference for the assigned instructional treatment and resultant
learning as measured by performance on written and behavioral measures.
Finally, it explored trainee reactions to the instructional method

in terms of their satisfaction and confidence.

Review of Theory and Research

 

Though literature on counselor training and learning in general
was reviewed as background, the theory and research considered
particularly relevant to this study includes:

1. simulation in counselor training

2. observational learning

3. effects of shaping, feedback, and practice in learning

4. application of modeling, shaping, practice, and
written instruction to counseling training

5. procedures for termination of counseling contact
In this section this information will be reviewed and related to the
various aspects of the study.

Simulation in Counselor Training.

The recent thrust in counselor education toward skill-based,
performance-centered training models has seen the development of
several new approaches to teaching counseling skills. Many of these
approaches rely upon various types or levels of simulation.
Simulation has been defined by Bandura (1969) and Eisenberg and
Delaney (1970) as that which assumes the appearance of something
which it is not in reality. The concept of fidelity is suggested

as central to the consideration of variation in simulated experiences.

8

Fidelity has been defined as a range or continuum along which
experiences can be located in terms of the extent to which they
include the elements of the actual experience. In training, the
higher the level of simulation the greater the correspondence between
the training and the "real" experience. Gagne (1962) proposes that
the degree of simulation be assessed in terms of the amount of
transfer of training from the simulator to the real situation. He
identifies simulation as valuable in training and in skill consolida-
tion and maintenance. Gagne suggests (1965) two types of transfer of
learning which may be fostered by simulation experiences:

1. lateral transfer of training--generalizability to
different situations at the same level of complexity

2. vertical transfer of training—-capacity to acquire

new higher level capabilities which require or are

based on those of the lower level
Transfer of training (lateral) is said to be facilitated by exposing
the learner to a variety of relevant situations; mastery of subordinate
capabilities is felt to be most critical to vertical transfer. It
seems that both types of transfer and training are important in
counselor education programs since it is necessary for counselors to
be able to handle a variety of concerns which vary in degree of
complexity.

Stewart and Hinds (1970) have characterized teaching techniques
in terms of a fidelity continuum based on the correspondence of the
performance modes associated with the method with those required for
actual performance of the skill in a counseling interview (Figure 1.1).

According to these authors, written descriptive materials in the form

of texts, manuals, and learning units used as components in most

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counselor training programs represent the lowest levels of fidelity,
having few of the elements or conditions of an actual counseling

session. As Stone (1972) suggests, this level of simulation is typically
used to provide direction or a conceptual framework, and in combina-

tion with other methods. Ivey's microcounseling technique (1971)

and the Michigan State and Stanford University systematic approaches

to counselor education are examples of programs which integrate

written instructional materials into the training procedure.

Little research has been conducted on the use of manuals or
other written materials independent of other elements of the training
procedures. In most comparative studies involving exposure to
manuals or other written materials (typically as a control condition),
the content of the materials is not carefully described and thus
the comparability of these approaches to the other (active) procedures
can not be determined. Scherman (1972) compared prose manuals with
programmed texts. In this study content was controlled to insure
comparability and no significant overall treatment differences were
observed, but the study compares two forms of the lowest level of
fidelity of simulation. Data comparing various levels of simulation
(as discussed by Stewart and Hinds) or comparing instructional
methods in terms of their fidelity (Gagne) is lacking.

Audiotape and, in more recent years, videotape, have become
important elements of counselor training programs in.many institutions.
It is suggested that this medium offers higher levels of fidelity
than written material. Research evaluating the impact of audiotape
models (Beaird and Standish, 1964; Carkhuff and Truax, 1965; Palmer,

Fosmire, Breger, Straughan, and Patterson, 1963) presents evidence of

11

change in the desired directions. Studies utilizing videotape or
other filmed instructional materials also generally report growth
in anticipated and desired directions.

There is considerable literature advocating the inclusion of
videotaped and filmed stimuli and models in counselor training
(Eisenberg & Delaney, 1970; Thayer, Peterson, Carr & Merz, 1972;
Panther, 1971; Ryan, 1969; Frankel, 1971; Poling 1968a, 1968b;
Higgins, Ivey, & Uhlemann, 1970; Ivey, 1971; Kagan & Schauble, 1969;
Kagan, 1971; Gysbers & Moore, 1970; Kagan, Krathwohl, & Farquhar,
1965). Though the studies may differ in the manner in which they
employ the visual stimuli, all represent the use and/or inclusion of
higher levels of fidelity than written and auditory presentations.

The data on the impact of this increase in fidelity is inconclusive.
Comparisons of the effects of audio and audiovisual training materials
and procedures have yielded mixed results. Myrick (1969) suggests that
video modeling is less effective than an audio procedure. It was
hypothesized that the plethora of cues present in the video model

may have led to confusion rather than identification and learning of
the relevant behaviors. In other studies, no significant differences
were found between audio, video, and audio-video methods of instruc-
tion (English & Jelenevsky, 1971; Ward, Kagan 8 Krathwohl, 1972;
Markey, Fredrickson, Johnson & Julius, 1970). Data on the value of
audio versus audio-visual methods for supervisory or feedback purposes
is also difficult to interpret. Poling (1968a) offers theoretical
support for the superiority of videotape over audiotape. Yenawine

and Arbuckle (1971) found practicum students initially more threatened

12

by videotaping than by audiotaping for feedback. But Stone's
(1972) review of this study cites small sample size and confounding
due to trainee setting, supervision, possible non—equivalence of
groups, and questionnaire design as weaknesses.

Stone (1972) concludes that there is little careful and complete
research substantiating the superiority of the degree of fidelity in
simulation associated with audio and/or audiovisual methods in
counselor training over other levels of fidelity. According to Stone,
research has typically been lacking or ambiguous due to the use of
inappropriate or incomplete research designs. Another problem in the
evaluation of the impact of specific techniques or level of simulation
is that alluded to earlier--the fact that they are typically presented
in conjunction with other instructional methods or levels of fidelity
which confound the results and make interpretation impossible. Some
studies have suggested that the value of audio and audiovisual methods
(middle range levels of fidelity) is increased when used with supple-
mentary training procedures (McDonald, Allen, & Orme, 1966;

Eisenberg & Delaney, 1970; Frankel, 1971). However, there is
considerable evidence from theories on observational learning and from
research (Bandura, 1969; Bandura & Walters, 1963; Kanfer-&

Phillips, 1970) that new behaviors can be successfully acquired
exclusively by middle range levels of fidelity such as modeling. The
studies of Frankel (1971) and Eisenberg and Delaney (1970), attest

to considerable growth in trainees exposed exclusively to models,

and raise the question of the magnitude of the increments associated
with additional training experiences (levels of simulation) and their

significance in terms of trainee functioning.

13

In an age when accountability and cost effectiveness are of
great concern, the justification of practices in counselor training
should be in terms of increments in trainee growth associated with the
additional expenditure of resources. Assuming that the cost and
effect of instruction may vary with or be related to level of simula-
tion, it becomes increasingly important to collect and interpret
data which quantifies differences and similarities in the impact of
instructional methods and degrees of fidelity. This study compares
a low fidelity method (prose text), two increasingly higher levels
(modeling and shaping, respectively), and a combination of the three
levels (prose text, modeling, and shaping).

Observational Learning.

Numerous theoretical accounts of observational learning have
been advanced. Early explanations (Tarde, 1903; Morgan, 1896; and
McDougall, 1908) described the phenomenon as an instinctual charac-
teristic (Bandura, 1969). In his review of observation learning,
Bandura (1969) groups other explanations into the following categories:

1. associative and classical conditioning theories

2. reinforcement theories

3. affective feedback theories

4. continguity~mediational theories

Associative and classical conditioning theory proponents such
as Humphrey (1921), Allport (1924),and Holt (1931) suggest that the
continguity between the modeling stimuli and the imitator's behavior
established sufficient conditions for the occurrence of imitation.

Holt (1931) feels that the coincidental imitation of a modeled

14

response increases the probability of the model repeating the stimulus,
which in turn enhances the imitator's propensity for further copying.
Allport (1924) views imitative behavior as classically conditioned
response to social stimuli with which they have previously been
continuously associated.

Reinforcement theory views imitative behavior as the acquisition
of instrumental responses based on the reinforcement value of
imitation. The Miller and Dollard (1941) presentation of this theory
suggests that imitative behavior results from positive reinforcement
associated with correctly matching initially random responses. Their
experiments on this type of imitative, "matched-dependent behavior,"
indicate that subjects, having learned to imitate a response in a
particular situation, readily generalize imitative behavior to other
situations, responses, and models. The Skinnerian reinforcement
view (Skinner, 1953) maintains that the imitator learns to match
stimulus patterns generated by his responses to the cues of the model
through differential reinforcement. While the intrinsic reward in
generalized imitation has been hypothesized by some as an explanation
for imitative behavior (Baer & Shuman, 1964) others maintain that,
since such behavior is neither constant nor indiscriminant, it must
be governed by its utilitarian value rather than by inherent
reinforcement derived from response similarity per se. The Skinnerian
paradigm (Sdé R9 8") is posited as the reinforcement for imitation
of the modeled behavior.

As a representative of the affective feedback theorist, Mowrer

(1960) suggests that when imitative responses are positively

15

reinforced, the stimuli (model's behavior), via a classical conditioning
process, take on positive value which by the process of generalization
may give rise to self-reward for imitative behavior. In "empathetic"
imitative learning, also described by Mowrer (1960), the imitator,
watching the modeled behavior and its consequences to the model,
empathetically experiences the reinforcement and becomes predisposed
to imitate as a function of anticipated sensory feedback.

Bandura (1969) criticizes the associative and classical conditioning
model and reinforcement models as not providing adequate explanations
of the acquisition of novel responses. He also criticizes reinforcement
theory as being limited to the explanation of a special case for
which the model provides discriminative stimuli for responses already
in the imitator's behavioral repertoire. Since reinforcement theory
depends on the imitator having performed the task before he learns
to imitate it, Bandura suggests this accounts more adequately for the
performance than the acquisition of matching responses. The affective
(sensory) feedback theories such as that advanced by Mowrer are
challenged (according to Bandura, 1969) by evidence that peripheral
sensory feedback is not necessary for the acquisition, facilitation,
nor inhibition of modeled responses. These theories may also be
criticized for not adequately explaining the acquisition of imitative
responses where the learner is not involved in direct or vicarious
reinforcement.

Bandura (1969) contends that an adequate account of observational
learning must distinguish between the acquisition (learning) and

performance of the modeled behavior. Performance, according to

16

Bandura, is primarily a function of anticipated reinforcement owing

in part to similarity between the new situation and one in the past
in.which the behavior was reinforced. The learning of modeled
behavior results primarily from stimulus contiguity and associated
symbolic processes. The study of the reproduction and inhibition of
aggressive responses in children observing and experiencing positive
and negative consequences supports the notion that, though performance
be under the control of observed and anticipated consequences, the
same is not necessarily true of acquisition (Bandura, 1969). Studying
birds with no previous history of reinforcement for imitative
behavior, Foss (1964) found that they reproduced sound patterns
without incentive.

Observational learning as described by Bandura (1965) includes
those instances in which the subject acquires a new stimulus-response
association (an instrumental response) without explicit knowledge
that he will be asked to repeat the observed behavior or that such
imitation will be rewarded. Such learning must occur with no explicit
opportunity or evidence of rehearsal. A series of studies by Bandura,
Ross,and Ross on the impact of adult modeling of aggressive behavior
(Kanfer & Phillips, 1970) established that children imitated the
modeled behavior; that observation of negative consequences to the
model has an inhibiting effect on the exhibition of modeled behaviors;
and that observed positive consequences as well as high model power
and status enhanced tendencies to imitate observed behavior. Hicks
(Kanfer 6 Phillips, 1970), replicating Bandura's work, found that
residual effects of observational learning were evidenced six months

after the initial experience.

17

As a more comprehensive explanation of observation learning,
Bandura (1969) suggests the contiguitydmediational explanation of the
acquisition of model responses without practice or responding trials
("no trial learning"-Bandura, 1965). According to this formulation
verbal and imaginal representations of the modeled behavior serve
as mediators for subsequent imitation. Studies by Conant (1964),
Ellson (1941), and Leuba (1940) indicate that constituent stimuli
can evoke images of previous events. According to Bandura (1969):

The findings of the studies cited above indicate that,

in the course of observation, transitory perceptual

phenomena produce relatively enduring, retrievable

images of modeled sequences of behavior. Later

reinstatement of imaginal mediators serves as a guide

for reproduction of matching responses. (p. 133)

Verbal coding or representation of modeled events is thought
to account for the rapid acquisition and long term retention of
the response. The Bandura, Grusec, and Menlove study (1966)
established that verbal coding of stimulus events significantly
increased the level of imitative behavior in children and that levels
Of the accurate imitation were lowest in the group that engaged in
tasks which involved competing symbolization. Geist (1969) found
that concise labeling, imaginal coding, and verbal description forms
Of mediation facilitated imitation and that the concise labeling
procedure proved best for memory representation producing the highest
level of imitation in retention tests.

Factors identified by Bandura (1969) as relevant to the observa-
tional learning process are attentional processes, discrimination

Processes, retention processes, motor reproduction processes, and

incentive and motivational processes. Discriminative observation

18

which focuses the learner's attention on the relevant features of
the modeled sequence must be coupled with the repeated contiguous
stimulation in order for new matching behavior to be established.
Observer characteristics, incentive conditions, and the cues influence
the attending behavior of the learners. Physical properties of the
modeling stimuli and model attributes affect the learner's propensity
to imitate. According to Bandura (1969) models demonstrating high
levels of competence, experts or celebrities, and those possessing
status conferring symbols tend to be more influential than those
without such attributes. Age, sex, social power, and ethnic status
which are correlated with differential probabilities of reinforcement
also affect the learner's tendencies to emulate. Attending behavior
may be affected by affective valance and other qualities of the model,
and may also be influenced by observer characteristics and previous
experiences. Research indicated that the observer's level of competence,
self-esteem, dependency, sex, and socio-economic and racial status
can be relevant in predicting the effects of model stimuli. Previous
reward for imitation as well as motivational variables and transitory
states of emotional arousal may, by altering perceptual threshold
and other means, facilitate or impede observer responses. These and
other observer variables may be associated with differences in learning
or merely in.willingness to perform. The works of Bandura, Grusec
and Menlove (1966), Grusec and Bunker (1969), and Maccoby and Wilson
(1957) are cited (Bandura, 1969) as indicating that observer charac-
teristics may serve as determinants of observational learning.

Bandura (1969) has identified several elements as important in

discriminating observational learning. He has suggested that rate

19

of presentation, level of complexity, and frequency of repetition must
correspond to the observer's capacity to process and assimilate
information in order for no trial learning to occur. Thus, the
discriminability of the target responses in terms of the amount of
abstraction required to identify the relevant responses is very
important. Studies (Bandura, 1969) show that complex patterns of
behavior such as linguistic structures can be learned observationally
if modeling cues are combined with techniques designed to increase
syntactic discernability (Bandura & Harris, 1960; Lovaas, 1966;

Odom, Liebert, 8 Hill, 1968). A study by Winetz and Prusler

(Bandura, 1969) documents the utility of discrimination pre-training
in improving acquisition in subjects with deficiencies in relevant
cognitive skills. Another interesting study concerning optimal
modeling conditions for the facilitation of imitative responses was
done by Panman, Arenson, and Rosenbaum (Kanfer & Phillips, 1970)-

This research indicated that observation improved maze performance,
but that the increment was maximized after two observations. In
addition it was shown that initial observation of an error-free model
did not facilitate correct performance any more than did exposure to
a.model who made mistakes. Subjects seeing models making errors on
the second demonstration sequence performed significantly better than
those viewing an error-free model at this time. Contradictory findings
are those of Van Wagener and Travers (1963) cited by Travers, Van
wegener, Haygood, and McCormick in Anderson, Faust, Roderick, Cunningham,
and Andre (1969). This study on the acquisition of German vocabulary

found that vicarious learners benefited more by observation of correct

20

than incorrect responses. It seems likely that the relationship
between accuracy of model behavior and observer learning is a function
of the number of possible correct and incorrect alternative (i.e.,
nondmodeled) behaviors and of their availability in the learner's
response repertory.

The phenomenon of retention in observational learning is another
critical aspect of observational learning. Bandura (1969) identifies
two factors as instrumental in the process by which learners retain
or remember behavior. These are practice and symbolic coding. The
discussion of theory and research regarding the role of practice
(overt and covert) in retention phenomena will be presented later in
this section. The other factor--symbolic coding operations--is
reported by Bandura (1969) to be more effective than practice in
fostering retention.

During exposure to stimulus sequences observers are

inclined to code, classify, and reorganize elements

into familiar and more easily remembered schemes (Bower,

1969; Mandler, 1968; Paivio, 1969; Tulving, 1968).

These coding devices may take various forms, such as

representing stimulus elements in word imagery,

translating action sequences into abbreviated

verbal systems, and grouping constituent patterns

of behavior into larger integrated units. The

benefits accruing from rehearsal may, in fact, be

largely attributable not to associative strengthening

effects of repetition, but rather to coding and

organizational processes operating during repeated

enactments. (p. 140-41) '

Decrements in retention are considered possible functions of inter-
ference from previous or subsequent inputs or from non-critical
aspects of the model sequence. Rate, temporal distribution, and

serial organization of stimulus inputs are deemed the most critical

variables in controlling interference. A study by Bandura, Grusec, and

21

Menlove (1968) is cited by Bandura (1969) as illustrative of the
decremental effect of interpattern (sequence) intrusion. Bandura
suggests that degree of similarity of behavioral elements in the

modeled sequences affects the amount of associative interference

that may occur. The utilization of smaller units at spaced intervals

is one way of decreasing loss of retention when interserial interference
is plausible.

A third major element of the modeling phenomenon as presented
by Bandura (1969) is that of calling upon the symbolic representations
of the previously modeled behavioral sequence to guide current
performance. Imaginal and verbal representation of the modeled
sequence replace the external cues which guide imitation when the
model is present. The observer's ability to learn and retain a
complex modeled sequence is partly also a function of his mastery of
the various elements of the sequence. Often, accurate imitation
can only be established by mastery and combination of the various
constituent elements of desired sequence.

Incentive and motivational processes alluded to earlier, comprise
another important element of modeling or observational learning.
Bandura (1969) reports:

Incentive variables not only regulate the overt

expression of matching behavior, but they also

affect observational learning by exerting selec-

tive control over the modeling cues to which a

person is most likely to be attentive. Further,

they facilitate selective retention by activating

deliberate coding and rehearsal of modeled

responses that have high utilitarian value.

(p. 142)

Incentive is augmented when observers are aware that they will be rewarded

for the degree of imitative behavior. Bandura (1969) reports:

22

The facilitative influence of incentive set on

observational learning will be most operative

under exposure to multiple models requiring

selective attentiveness to conflicting cues.

Indeed, incentive control of observing behavior

can, in most instances, override the effects of

variations in observer characteristics and model

attributes. (p. 137)
He continues:

It should be noted, however, that in the present

theory reinforcement variables, to the extent

that they influence the acquisition process, do

so principally by augmenting and sustaining

attentiveness to modeling cues. (p. 138)

The precise impact of vicarious and direct reinforcement as
incentives in the acquisition of behavior by observation has also
been studied. Kanfer and Phillips (1970), and Kanfer and Marston
(1963b), found that in a verbal learning task, the significant
increments in learning associated with the exposure to a model whose
responses were positively reinforced were not further augmented by
direct reinforcement to the learner for correct responses. They also
found that the subjects did not imitate unreinforced models' verbaliza-
tions. Another study by the same authors (1963a) resulted in the same
conclusion--that the addition of direct to vicarious reinforcement
did not significantly increase learning. Marlatt and Hillix and
Marx are cited (Kanfer & Phillips, 1970) as having documented the
distracting effects of direct reinforcement on performance. Marlatt
stresses the need for separation of acquisition from performance phases
in order to produce research which will explicate the information and
incentive components of reinforcement.

To summarize, research on observational learning suggests that

complex behaviors can be learned without overt rehearsal and in the

23

absence of observed or implied reinforcement and/or prior experiences
of direct or vicarious reinforcement for accurate imitation.

Bandura (1969) and Marlatt (cited in Kanfer & Phillips, 1970)
emphasize the distinction between the acquisition of behaviors and
their performance. Attentional variables are cited as affecting the
acquisition of behavior which is primarily a function of stimulus
contiguity and symbolic processes. Identified attentional factors
include model variables such as power, status, reinforcement history,
prestige, and demonstrated competence. Observer characteristics
identified as affecting the probable acquisition of modeled behavior
are level of learner competence, self-esteem, dependency, previous
reinforcement history, emotional state, and other. Such factors
affect the subjects' perceptual threshold, facilitating or impeding
learning.

Discriminability of the behavior to be learned is related to
variables in the presentation of the modeled behavior. Retention,
which is related to the level of interference from non-relevant
elements of the modeled sequence, is said to be facilitated by
clarity of presentation and by verbal and/or imaginal coding of the
sequence for reproduction at a later time. Finally, learner incentive
which affects attention during the acquisition phase and also
subsequent performance, is identified as a function of expected and
observed reinforcement. Though the exact relationship between the
mode of reinforcement and behavioral acquisition is still under
investigation, there is some evidence that direct reinforcement

during the acquisition phase may impede rather than facilitate learning.

24

The literature and research on observational learning also
address the issue of models with lower levels of fidelity. Bandura
and Mischel (1965) conclude that explicit verbal models have effects
which correspond closely to those resulting from behavioral displays.
Once the learner has developed the ability to use language, verbally
symbolized models which sufficiently specify the desired behavioral
responses have effects similar to corresponding behavioral displays.
Thus written and verbal instructions are low-fidelity models. In the
study the prose text was used as the low-fidelity model. Care was
taken to insure that this prose model was precise and explicit in
its presentation of the termination process and that the information
presented corresponded to that included in the videotaped behavioral
display model.

The Effects of Shaping, Feedback, and Practice in Learning.

 

Bandura's (1969) account of the effects of practice in learning
suggest that it is relevant to the phenomenon of retention. Studies
by Margolius and Sheffield (1961) and Michael and Maccoby (1969)
establish, respectively that overt rehearsal and covert rehearsal
enhance the retention of imitative responses. Data on the types of
imitative behaviors most effectively facilitated by covert rehearsal
are meager. Bandura reports that tasks relying heavily upon symbolic
functions are most improved by covert practice. The research of
Morrisett (1956); Perry (1939); Twining (1949); and Vandell, Davis,
and Clugston (1943) is cited by Bandura as having led to this
conclusion. In a study by Berger (1966) it was noted that the

majority of observers engaged in covert rehearsal and that subsequent

25
retention was a function of the magnitude of this practice. There
was also evidence that subjects practiced covertly even when informed
that they would not be required to reproduce the model's behavior.
Covert rehearsal of modeled stimuli play an important part in
Maccoby's (1959) account of the identification process. Covert
rehearsal of the behavior of those with reinforcement power (parents)
over a period of time allows the learner (child) to anticipate model
responses and guide his behavior accordingly. However, the establishment
of complimentary role relations as described by Maccoby is not crucial
to the establishment of observational learning nor to the process of
covert and overt role rehearsal. The assumption, according to
Bandura (1969), is that an active mediational process rather than
sheer repetition in response rehearsal accounts for the facilitative
effects of practice. McGuire (1961) concludes that practice focuses
learner's attention on elements of the behavior which he has failed
to master. Margolius and Sheffield (1961) report that rehearsal
decreases loss attributable to intra-serial interference from non-
relevant elements of the modeled sequence. Hovland, Lumsdaine, and
Sheffield (1949) and Maccoby, Michael, and Levine (1969) show that
interspersed practice elicits and sustains greater attending to model
stimuli than does passive observation. Bandura's account of practice
and its role in learning seems to be focused upon covert and overt
practice of an observed modeled sequence of behavior. One question
considered in the study is that of whether the same principles apply
to learning and retention when the model has not been observed but
rather when the desired performance has been conveyed in symbolic

form--through written or verbal instructions.

26

Luchins and Luchins (1966) indicate trial and error learning
or shaping procedures are often not equally as effective nor nearly
so efficient as modeling for the establishment of new role behaviors.
They found that the subjects exposed to reinforced models quickly
learned the role behaviors which their trial and error counterparts
never completely mastered. Numerous studies with primates and other
animals are cited by Bandura (1969) as indications that complex
responses have been acquired by animals more rapidly observationally
than by trial and error or response shaping procedures. Bandura (1969)
suggests that in the natural environment a great deal of learning is
derived from'models rather than by trial and error experimentation
based on a differential reinforcement. Eisenberg and Delaney (1970)
found that reinforcement of correct responses alone was not as
effective as modeling and reinforcement or modeling alone in fostering
the acquisition of specific verbal behaviors. However, the authors
suggest that the reinforcement condition was not a shaping procedure
and that had it been designed to provide more specific feedback on
improving trainee responses rather than just feedback on response
accuracy, the procedure might have been more effective. Thus, though
some evidence exists that pure differential reinforcement and shaping
procedures are not as efficient nor effective as modeling or procedures
which combine modeling and reinforced practice, more careful
documentation relating to counselor training is needed.

In consideration of the theory, research, and unanswered questions
regarding practice, shaping, and the use of explicit verbal models

in response acquisition, this study provided comparisons between

27

shaping, written.mode1, and behavioral models for teaching the
procedure for termination of client contact in counseling.
Application of Modeling, Shaping, Practice, and Written Instruction
to Training

Carkhuff (1960c) speaks of the importance of counselor educators
systematically working to "integrate the critical sources of learning--
the didactic, the experiential and the modeling" (p. 238). Implicit
in Carkhuff's analysis which identifies levels of trainer functioning
and type of program as critical variables in the impact of counselor
training is the notion of the counselor educator and the training
process as models. Programs shown to have positive impact on trainees
were identified as eclectic, focusing upon core conditions shared
by all interview-oriented procedures and on the integration of the
critical sources of learning suggested above. Carkhuff concludes:

While there is empirical as well as experiential

evidence to indicate that high-level-functioning

people can generalize from one learning experience to

another (as, e.g., from discrimination to communica-

tion), the inability of low-level persons to do like-

wise has implications for training . . . If one wants

trainees to function effectively in the helping role,

then they must be given plenty of practice in the

helping role. If one wants the trainees to learn

to communicate effectively, they must be given

practice in communications. (p. 243)
As Carkhuff reinforces the generally accepted notion that practice
is useful and/or necessary to the development of counseling skills,
Bellucci (1972) speaks to the use of modeling in counselor training.
Though considerable research has been done on the role of modeling

in the development or modification of selected client interview

behaviors considered facilitative to the therapeutic process (Kanfer

28

& Phillips, 1970), and on the counselor as a model for client
change (Bellucci, 1972), less attention has been directed to the use
of modeling in counselor training.

Current movement in the field toward the analysis of therapeutic
interactions in terms of constituent facilitative counselor skills
and processes which can be behaviorally specified, increase the
potential efficacy of the modeling approach. Ivey's microcounseling
paradigm for counselor training has generated considerable research
which has been reviewed in his book‘Microcounseling; Innovations in
Interviewing;Training. The microcounseling paradigm, which adapts
the principles and procedures of microteaching developed by McDonald
and Allen (1967), has been applied to the teaching of the counseling
skills of attending, reflection, and summarization of affect (Ivey,
Normington, Miller, Morrill, & Haase, 1968). The interpretation
of Standardized test results has also been studied (Miller, Morrill,
& Uhlemann, 1970 and Miller, Morrill, Ivey, Normington, &
Uhlemann, 1973). The general model incorporates modeling, feedback
(reinforcement), written instruction, practice, self analysis,
supervision, and performance. These are arranged in a series of
stages with the total length of time and time devoted to each
stage varying. A typical process might include:

1. baseline interview (five minutes).

2. reading of instruction manual.

3. observation of videotape models (positive and negative
examples).

4. discussion of the videotape and of baseline interview
behavior.

29

5. brief role-play practice with critique (supervisor
as client).

6. second five minute interview.

7. review and critique of second interview by counselor
and supervisor. ‘

8. final five minute interview.

9. review and critique of final interview by counselor
and supervisor.

A multimethod and very versatile model, microcounseling has been shown
to be effective in the teaching of counseling skills (Ivey et. al.,
1965; Miller et. al., 1973; Saltmarsh & Hubele, 1974; Miller et. al.,
1970; and Elsenrath & Coker, 1972). According to Ivey (1972)
there is also evidence that increments attributable to the training
process are maintained at levels above the baseline interview
(Haase, DiMattin, & Guttman, 1972) and that more substantial
levels of retention may be associated with longer training programs
(Moreland, Phillips, Ivey & Lockhart, 1970). The approach pulls
together a number of processes and resources at the disposal of the
counselor educator.

Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR) (Kagan 8 Krathwohl, 1967)
and affect simulation (Kagan & Schauble, 1969) have also generated
considerable research in the training of helping personnel and in
general interpersonal communication. Winborn et. a1. (1971)
cite the contributions of Landsman and Lane (1963), Walz and Johnson
(1963), Dunlap (1968), and Poling (1968) in the utilization of new
media, primarily videotape, in counselor training. Numerous studies
have been based.upon the utilization of media, modeling and other types

of simulation to teach counselors relevant skills and behaviors but

30

results, as Bellucci has indicated, are inconclusive. Her suggestion
that a behavioral model for counselor education which incorporates
aspects of the microcounseling paradigm and principles of imitative
learning may be a productive avenue for counselor training provides
impetus for this study. While not focusing upon the microcounseling
procedure, the study compares the impact of several of its components,
modeling, shaping, practice, and written instructions on the teaching
of a specific counseling function--termination.

Several other recent studies have explored and compared various
techniques for teaching specific counseling behaviors. Frankel
(1971), in a study of counselor attention to client expressed feelings,
considered the effects of modeling and self-evaluation of counseling
behavior on the production of the desired counselor behavior.
Initially all subjects were supplied with written materials concerning
focusing on client feelings. Exposure to further written.materials,
an experienced model therapist, and self-evaluation of taped
trainee/client interviews were manipulated for the 25-30 minute
training (treatment) period. It was found that trainees initially
exposed to models and then to the self-evaluative feedback condition
showed the greatest improvement in affective focusing. A single
modeling exposure (approximately 12 minutes) proved superior to
two reading sessions (25-30 minutes) and resulted in statistically
significant trainee growth. Feedback alone also netted greater
trainee progress than reading but the increments based on one playback
(feedback) were not significant. The treatments combining modeling

and feedback were both significantly more effective than the reading

31

control condition in increasing affective focusing. The superiority
of modeling in combination with self-evaluative practice over all the
other treatments investigated and of modeling over written materials
in the Frankel study contributed to this study's prediction of the
superiority of the combined procedure and modeling treatments over
the others included in it (prose text, shaping, and inactive control).
The Eisenberg and Delaney study (1970) which focused upon a
comparison of techniques for teaching trainees to use appropriate
CTRLs (Counselor Tacting Response Leads) in interview settings was
also important in the conceptualization of the present study.
Training in the use of CTRLs (counselor responses which evoke client
description of particular abstract concepts in more operational
terms or elicit specific examples of what the client is trying to
communicate) was presented via videotaped stimuli. The study compared
modeling and reinforcement, modeling, reinforcement, treatment control,
and untreated control groups. In the modeling condition the model
was presented (frames 1-20), then trainees practiced emitting CTRLs
(frames 21-40). In the reinforcement condition trainees were to
emit CTRLs to videotaped stimuli; initial responses (frames 1-20)
were reinforced, later responses (frames 21-40) were not. In the
combined modeling/reinforcement condition, frames 1-10 were modeling
of CTRLs, 11-20 provided experimenter reinforcement of trainee
responses, and frames 21—40 were non-reinforced practice as in the
other treatments. The treatment control group practiced CTRLs throughout,
but never received any feedback and the other controls received no

treatment. It was found that the modeling and reinforcement treatments

32

and the modeling-only treatment fostered significantly higher levels
of CTRL emission than the other treatments. There were no significant
differences between trainees who were reinforced (reinforcement
condition) and those who were not (treatment controls). The combination
of reinforced practice and modeling did not prove significantly more
effective than modeling alone but the modeling and reinforced practice
group did perform at a higher level than the group using only
reinforced practice. The findings of this study suggest that practice
may not significantly augment acquisition of this skill beyond the
level effected by modeling alone. All treatments, however, did include
an unreinforced practice phase which may have interacted with the
primary training mode. The present study eliminated the practice
phase and studied the impact of training via various modes with
practice deleted as a common variable.

A statistical analysis of the transfer of CTRL behavior
associated with simulated clients to live interview situations was not
possible in the Eisenberg and Delaney study due to the small number
of CTRLs in the fivedminute test segments. The experimenters suggest
that the low level of CTRL emission in the transfer interview may
have been partially a function of the fact that the tests were made on
an initial interview session with the client and that previous training
had identified the use of CTRLs with the goal setting phase of
counseling. Since trainees had been taught that goal setting was not
generally appropriate in an initial interview, they may have avoided the
use of CTRLs. Thus Eisenberg and Delaney concluded that videotaped

models significantly influenced trainee response to videotaped

33

clients but could not demonstrate any transfer to live clients.
They further suggest that in establishing new trainee behaviors,feedback
which did not incorporate shaping of responses or very low levels of
the emission of the desired response may have made the exclusive use
of reinforcement or operant-conditioning procedures an ineffective
approach given the time constraints. Bellucci (1972) interprets
this study as establishing that:

. . . the use of modeling procedures seemed more

effective in establishing responses than operant-

conditioning procedures. And finally, the verbal

reinforcement of counselor tacting response leads

was not instrumental in shaping appropriate counselor

behavior. (p. 94)
The Eisenberg and Delaney study lent credence to one of the hypotheses
of the present study-that modeling would be more effective than
shaping (operant conditioning procedures) in establishing new
trainee behavior given time constraints.

A pertinent study by Whalen (1969), using a 2 x 2 design to
compare the use of minimal or detailed instruction with a filmed
model or no-model experimental conditions, suggests the superiority
of combined methods over pure modeling or detailed description. The
study concerned the use of a complete verbal class—-interpersonal
openness. Findings indicated that the filmed model preceded by
detailed exhortative and descriptive instructions facilitated the
desired behaviors while exposure to only the film, detailed instructions,
or the film with minimal instructions did not greatly alter performance

from the level of the controls who had neither model nor instructions.

Whalen discusses the findings in terms of the potential relevance of

34

cognitive factors (attention and understanding) in the explanation
of imitative learning of complex verbal response classes.

LeFleur's study on the teaching of vocational information seeking
behavior (1970) substantiates the findings of Whalen (1969) and of
Eisenberg and Delaney (1970) on the impact of attentional factors and
reinforcement as adjuncts to modeling. The finding indicates that the
use of preorganizers (or attentional factors) was more effective
than that of reinforcement in response acquisition. The treamments
of the present study were designed after consideration of these
findings. The combined procedure group preceded exposure to modeled
stimuli with reading, which could direct trainee attention to relevant
aspect of the modeled sequence rather than focusing upon the impact
of reinforcement as an adjunct to modeling. Higgins, Ivey, and
Uhlemann (1970) suggest the superiority of combining various levels
of simulation in instructional methods and is therefore relevant to
the aims of this study. The authors conclude that dyads exposed to
full media therapy (three interviews, video modeling, programmed
text, live modeling, feedback and supervision) evidenced greater
improvement in direct, mutual communication than those exposed to
modeling and programmed text and than those only exposed to written
material on the topic. However, the authors' suggestion that the
amount of change observed in the modeling/programmed text treatment
was sufficient to make further investigation of this use of these
methods advisable indicates that comparison of various pure and
combined elements of the microcounseling procedure in the interest of

identifying the most effective and efficient mode of training is a

35

worthwhile pursuit. The present study considered a procedure combining
levels of simulation and also examined the impact of procedures which
represented single levels of fidelity.

Two of the procedures considered singly in the study are moderate
and high fidelity procedures; research indicates that both levels may
be used to establish new responses. Studies previously reviewed as
well as the work of Engler (1972) and Bandura (1969) support one of
this study's hypotheses--the superiority of modeling over shaping
procedures in skill and knowledge acquisition. The literature
suggests that not only is observational (no-trial) learning a viable
procedure for the development of new behaviors, but also that it may
be more efficacious than procedures involving differential reinforcement.
Bandura (1969) maintains that even when (a) the constituent elements
of the response are within the learners repertoire, (b) the stimuli
necessary to elicit responses resembling those desired are present,
(c) the errors will not be prohibitively injurious, and (d) the
learner has sufficient endurance, response acquisition can often be
considerably accelerated by the provision of an appropriate model.

Sufficiently explicit prose materials though representing lower
levels of fidelity in simulation, may also serve as models and accord-
ingly promote desired learning. Systematic research on the use of
non-programmed written instructional materials is scarce and thus the
evaluation of prose materials as an instructional mode is difficult.
When used in comparative studies written materials are typically
treated as a control condition whose content and structure is .

inadequately described. In such studies the non-programmed materials

36

are less effective than the more "active" treatments with which they
are compared (Frankel, 1971; Higgins, Ivey, 8 Uhlemann, 1970). But
the validity of prose materials as an instructional procedure is far
from resolved. Scherman (1972) suggests that the impact of prose
texts is not significantly different from that obtained from branching or
linear programming with identical content. The present study attempts
to discern whether the observed differential impact of prose texts

and other instructional modes is attributable to content dissimilarity
or whether it is a function of the mode itself. It investigated the
prose text as a written.mode1 of termination behavior and compares it
with an audiovisual model, a shaping approach, (higher levels of
fidelity), and a combination of prose text, behavioral modeling, and
practice. The data netted by the many studies reviewed is difficult
to synthesize and in some cases contradictory. It is generally
accepted and documented (Bandura, 1969) that practicing newly

acquired skills will strengthen them and enhance retention.
Accordingly, it is an important component of learning experiences.
There are indications (Frankel, 1971) that modeling and practice
(self-evaluative feedback) is more effective than modeling alone.
However, Eisenberg and Delaney (1970) reported no significant
differences in growth of trainees exposed to modeling only and those
exposed to modeling with reinforcement feedback on their performance,
suggesting that practice of modeled responses does not enhance
immediate performance of the responses. Its effect on retention
cannot be evaluated from the Eisenberg and Delaney study. Engler

(1972) and Bandura (1969) maintain the superiority of models (verbal

37

and behavioral) over procedures involving learning by successive
approximations. The findings of Kelly (1972) concur.

Guided by the findings of the studies cited, this study explored
issues and questions concerning the comparative impact of the instruc-
tional methods discussed——modeling, shaping, and non-programmed
written material. Specifically, it focused upon comparisons of
prose unit, modeling, and shaping, (low, moderate, and high levels
of fidelity for performance) in the acquisition and retention of
complex verbal behaviors associated with the termination phase of
counseling. It included practice with feedback in its combined
methods procedure but was not intended to ascertain or compare the
specific impact of this component in isolation.

Procedure for Termination of Counseligg:Contact

The detailed analysis of, and procedure for, termination of
therapy presented by Wolberg (1967) has relevance to counseling.
Wolberg suggests five conditions for which termination of therapeutic
contact is appropriate:

1. achievement by the patient of the planned treatment goals

2. decision by the patient or therapist based on failure
to reach goals

3. reaching of an.impasse or resistance in therapy which
cannot be resolved

4. counter-transference which the therapist is unable to
control

5. physical reasons such as patient or therapist relocating
If goals have been achieved, Wolberg suggests that termination is
effected by discussing it, handling resistance that may arise, warning

of possibility of relapses, inviting the client to return for further

38

sessions when needed, and encouraging the client to continue
therapeutic work with himself. In discussing termination it is
suggested that clients be advised well in advance that the therapy
will be concluded. A tapering off period during which resistances
can be handled is advised for most cases.

Wolberg indicates that resistance is typically less of a problem
when clients have been participating fully and when the therapist
has assumed a non-directive role. In cases in which the client has
come to depend on the therapist as a primary source of support and
as an authority, resistance is likely to be greater. Increasingly
non-directive behavior on the part of the therapist will encourage
the patient or client to establish his own goals and values and to
become more assertive in facing his future. Resistance to the
acceptance of independence may take the form of fear, helplessness,
and relapses. Such reactions, Wolberg belives, should be countered
by an explanation of how dependency has hampered the client's efforts
toward self-growth and how only by assuming responsibility for his
own life will he continue to develop. At this point, therapist
support and encouragement of assertive behavior is crucial in developing
the client's confidence in his ability to function independently.
Fostering a feeling of equality and competence is important in
terminal phases of therapy while overprotective or domineering
therapists may retard patient growth.

Because it is impossible to assure that therapeutic gains will
be maintained or that clients will not encounter other similar

problems, Wolberg (1967) suggests that perhaps patients should be

39

warned to expect at least one relapse. With this expectation they
will be more likely to maintain confidence in themselves and their
therapy and will thus be better able to analyze and understand new
situations. Realizing that clients may need additional or periodic
help with the initial or other concerns, an open invitation to return
to therapy if necessary should be extended. If such an invitation

is abused, the reasons for the patient's inability to apply what he
has learned and to cope with his problems independently should be
explored. A final element in the termination of "successful"

therapy is that of encouraging the client to utilize his learning

in analyzing his behavior and situation and in resisting and reversing
old "neurotic patterns".

There are occasions when therapy is terminated prior to complete
attainment of the stated goals. Unrealistic patient or therapist
expectations, inadequate or inappropriate motivation, irremedial en-
vironmental factors, or potentially more debilitating consequences
upon elimination of the "problem" may be reasons for terminating
therapy before goals have been reached. Wolberg (1967) suggests
that in these cases therapy be terminated, as if the objective
were attained, when maximum improvement has been attained or a
stalemate has been reached and a continuance of the relationship
would prove frustrating and debilitating. The therapist must explain
the rationale for termination in terms that will not engender feelings
of hopelessness in the client. Achievements, increased levels of
self-understanding and of awareness of basic problems, and any

resultant ability to analyze and cope with life situations should be

40

emphasized. Therapist and client should be aware of the possibility
of continued and, perhaps, even more dynamic growth outside therapy.
Stalemated therapy need not always result in termination. Wolberg
suggests interruptions of therapy and transfer as alternative means
of dealing with a stalemated therapeutic situation. Interruption may give
the client the opportunity to objectively assess where he stands and
provide impetus and direction for subsequent therapy or termination. If,
at some point, the therapist feels another therapist or type of
therapy will be more beneficial than that which he can offer, this
should be explained to the client and appropriate referrals made.

When therapy is terminated, Wolberg suggests that notes be
made indicating the reason for termination, the patient's condition,
areas of improvement, attitudes toward the therapist, recommendations
made to the patient, and the final diagnosis. A five-year followbup
(annual, written) is suggested as a monitoring procedure.

Wolberg's termination procedures are intended as guidelines for
the termination of psychotherapy and may therefore assume a greater
degree of client dependency and disability than is typical of most
counseling contacts. His discussion is presented in terms of
"neurotic" functioning and resistances which may not be as predominant
in counseling problems or relationships, but the rationale and steps
outlined have some general validity for counseling as well as
psychotherapy.

Benjamin (1969) focuses on closing an interview rather than specifi-
cally on termination of counseling. He identifies two basic factors

which are relevant to the conclusion of counseling contact:

41

1. Both partners in the interview should be aware of the

fact that closing is taking place and accept this
fact.

2. During the closing phase, no new material should be

introduced or at any rate discussed, for closing

concerns that which has already taken place. If

there is more new material, another interview will

have to be scheduled. (p. 30)
Benjamin suggests closings which are "short and to the point" but
also suggests that for some closings it is appropriate to refer back
to the context of the interview or to summarize and review to make
sure of complete understanding. Other approaches include having the
client summarize and recap points or plans made during the interview.
Allotting ample time for closing is important in order to avoid
making the client feel as if he has been evicted. Joint reviews or
' summations which are not hastily executed are identified as most
effective. The points made by Benjamin seem applicable to the
termination of counseling contact.

Like Benjamin (1969), Hackney and Nye (1973) limit the discussion
of termination to that of closing single interviews. As a result,
they also do not advance a step-by—step procedure nor focus upon
fostering client independence and functioning outside the therapeutic
setting as did Wolberg (1967). Nevertheless, the notions of allotting
ample time, summarizing, reviewing, and involving the client in the
process are certainly as valid for termination of counseling as for
termination of a single interview.

Stewart, Winborn, Johnson, Burks, and Engelkes (1973) have outlined

a four-step process for the termination of counseling when objectives

have been attained:

42

1. Explain termination rationale and procedures.

2. Manage client/counselor resistance.

3. Conduct transfer of learning.

4. Plan monitoring of client performance.

When counseling is terminated prior to attainment of objectives, the
procedure focuses upon the first two steps. Their systematic
approach has many points in common with that outlined by Wolberg,
including preparing the client for termination, acknowledging and
handling resistance, focusing upon learnings and their application,
and planning for follow-up.

The procedure for the termination of counseling develOped for
this study was based upon the four-step procedure outlined by Stewart,
Winborn, Johnson, Burks, and Engelkes (1973). It incorporated
suggestions and considerations raised by Wolberg (1967), Benjamin
(1969), and Hackney and Nye (1973). This procedure is outlined in

Appendix B.

Summary

The review of research comparing the effectiveness of differing
levels of simulation in counselor training failed to clearly establish
the superiority of one level over that of another. Many instructional
method studies use low levels of fidelity (prose materials) as
control conditions or in combination with other higher fidelity
methods. The former type of study has typically failed to yield
interpretable conclusions with respect to the efficacy of low fidelity
procedures because the content comparability between the low fidelity

procedure (prose text) and the higher fidelity procedure cannot be

43

documented. The problem associated with drawing conclusions on the
relative efficacy of differing levels of fidelity from many instructional
methods studies is that instructional procedures frequently combine
levels of simulation resulting in confounding which makes the systematic
investigation of the impact of each level impossible. Moreover,

studies comparing procedures with varying levels of fidelity appear

to yield conflicting results.

Research on observational learning (moderate fidelity of simula-
tion) indicates that it is possible for subjects to acquire novel
responses by viewing the behavior of a model. This response
acquisition may be enhanced by, but is not dependent upon, overt
rehearsal,observation of model reinforcement, and direct or anticipated
learner reinforcement. The acquisition of complex behaviors is
facilitated by presenting models of the separate components of the
desired response. Model variables (power, status, reinforcement
history, prestige,and competence) and observer characteristics
(competence, self-esteem, reinforcement history, emotional states,
etc.) affect the learner's perceptual threshold and may accordingly
facilitate or impede learning. The discernability, another factor
affecting acquisition of a modeled sequence, is believed to be
increased as the number of non-relevant and distracting elements is
reduced. There was some evidence that interpersed direct reinforcement
may distract learners thereby interferring with, rather than augmenting,
observer attention to the behavior display and learning. Observational
learning data also suggests that new responses can be acquired via

lower fidelity written and verbal models. Research available on the

44

effects of overt and covert rehearsal suggest that retention is
enhanced by practice.

Studies comparing the relative impact of observational (moderate
fidelity) and operant conditioning (higher fidelity) procedures seem
to indicate that the lower fidelity procedure is more effective for
the acquisition of responses in counselor trainees. There was no
evidence of differential efficacy of levels in the retention or
transfer of skills. Other studies suggest the superiority of
procedures combining various levels of fidelity over those involving
a single level.

The review of literature on the termination of counseling
contact. suggests that the process involves several steps performed
as appropriate to facilitate client understanding and acceptance of
the termination and ability to function independently in the future.
Such a procedure involves discussing and handling any resistance
to the termination using references to the initial conditions of
therapy where appropriate. This may involve the utilization of
techniques and strategies designed to gradually decrease contact.
Emphasis of client progress and new abilities is also deemed appropriate,
although it should be made clear that the counselor is available if
problems should arise once regular contact is terminated.

The present study investigated the comparative effectiveness of
several levels of simulation represented by prose unit, modeling,
shaping, and a procedure combining the three on the acquisition,

retention, and transfer of skills and information associated with the

45

termination of counseling contact in accordance with the Michigan
State University Systematic Counseling Process. Instructional
procedures, measures, hypotheses and other aspects of the study's

methodology are described in greater detail in Chapter II.

Chapter II

Methodology

Overview

The major purpose of this study was to investigate the effective-
ness of level of instructional simulation on the teaching of a counseling
procedure--the termination of counseling contact as defined by the
Michigan State University Systematic Counseling Process. The levels
of instructional simulation compared were prose unit, modeling,
shaping, and a combination of prose unit, modeling, and shaping. The
study also included a no-treatment control group. Training packages
with identical informational content were developed for the instructional
procedures representing the different levels. The major dependent
variables of the study were:

1. trainee attitude toward the instruction

2. immediate trainee skill in performance of termination
procedures

3. immediate trainee knowledge of termination procedures

4. transfer of skill in termination to practicum setting

5. retention of information on termination procedures
The independent variable was level of instructional simulation--prose
text, modeling, shaping, the combination of prose text, modeling,
and shaping, and the no-treatment control.

A measure of trainee's expressed preference for written,
modeling, or experiential instructional procedure taken three weeks
prior to the instructional experience was used to relate instructional

preference to subject performance on selected measures in the study.

46

47

Immediately following the one-hour instructional experience, trainees
in the four active treatment groups completed evaluative, immediate
skill (assessed by supervisor ratings), and immediate knowledge
measures. Fourteen weeks after the instructional experience and
immediate measures, the measure of knowledge retention, an abbreviated
form of the immediate knowledge measure, was completed. An evaluation
of transfer of training as evidenced by skill in the termination
segment of the trainees' first completed practicum case comprised the
final measure of the study. The practicum tapes used to assess
transfer of termination skills were made between May 20 and June 7,
1975. The outcome variables were preinstruction, immediate, and
delayed measures.

The instructional procedures and measures utilized in the study
reflected differing levels of simulation. Simulation is described in
terms of the degree of its similarity to the actual experience or
situation (Bandura, 1969; Eisenberg & Delaney, 1970). The concept
of fidelity of simulation in training experiences (Stewart 5 Hinds,
1970) is based upon the correspondence of performance modes associated
with the training with these modes of performance required by the
actual experience (Figure 1.1). As Stone (1972) indicated, few
studies have researched and compared the impact of various levels to
simulation in training experiences on skill acquisition and retention.
Studies in counselor education have tended to focus on lowest levels
of simulation in combination with other methods or as control
conditions without sufficient documentation of content comparability

to provide data on the effects of various levels of simulation on the

48

subjects' learning. This study compared the short- and long—term
impact of various levels of fidelity of simulation when the content
variable is held constant. For these comparisons, the levels of
simulation fidelity were considered independent variables. The
immediate dependent variables of written and performance measures
were low and high fidelity tests of subject learning. The fidelity
of the instructional procedures varied with the dependent variable
being considered. For example, with regard to the skill dependent
variables, the shaping procedure, which involved simulated termination
of counseling contact by the subject, was deemed to represent the
highest level of fidelity. The videotaped behavioral model was
considered to be next highest on the fidelity continuum, and the
prose verbal instruction model the lowest level for skill. With
respect to knowledge as measured by a written test, the order of
fidelity for the three approaches could be considered to be reversed.
The combined procedure represented all three selected levels of
fidelity.

The study was conducted with 62 of the 87 master's degree
candidates enrolled in the Systematic Counseling program at Michigan
State University during the winter term of 1975. Subjects (§s)*
volunteered to participate in the study and'were randomly assigned to
one of the five experimental conditions. Fourteen supervisors, who
were either doctoral-level students at Michigan State University or

had completed M; A. degrees in the Systematic Counseling program,

 

#Ss will be used for "subjects"; §_will be used to refer to an
individual subject.

49

assisted in the administration of the various experimental conditions
‘Multivariate analysis of variance with apprOpriate post hoc procedures
were utilized in testing hypotheses comparing the impact of the
treatment procedures. Pearson correlations were used to analyze the
relationship between subject instructional preference and performance.
For tape ratings used in the assessment of immediate and transfer
skill, three raters were used. Interrater reliability was analyzed
through the Hoyt reliability coefficient (Hoyt, 1941). The critical
level of significance for hypothesis tests was set a priori at

at - .05 but significant data is also reported at CC. - .10. The
rationale for the utilization of significance data at the higher
level (0‘ I .10) is a function of:

l. the experimenter's belief that the ramifications of increasing
the probability of a type I error (concluding that there is
difference between the instructional methods when there
actually is not) and thus selecting an instruction procedure
on the basis of falsely assumed superiority are critical
when the costs associated with the utilization of the
various methods is significantly different. With respect
to the instructional methods compared, the differential cost
was not seen to be of the magnitude that it should outweigh
the moderate risk or error suggested in identifying and
using what was believed to be the more effective procedure.

2. the experimenter's belief that the use of less effective
instructional methods because of falsely assumed equivalence

of procedures (Type II error--the assumption of no difference

50

between methods when there is) would be a more serious

error than that of choosing a method which in fact was

really no more effective than the other options.

3. the experimenter's belief that it is important to be aware

of even moderate differences in the impact of various

instructional procedures in order to make sound decisions

in terms of the selection of the best instructional procedures

for the investment of educational resources.
Subjects

Sample. A sample of 68 volunteers from among the 87 students

enrolled in the second term (Winter, 1975) of their master's degree
programs in counseling at Michigan State University was utilized as the
.Ss for this study. Volunteers were enrolled in both a.m. and p.m.
sections of the Counseling Process course (ED 819D). There were 30
volunteers in the a.m. section and 38 in the p.m. section. Sixty-two
of the original 68 volunteers were present the day of the instructional
phase of the study; these 62 were the §s for the study. The six
absent volunteers were drOpped. Since neither volunteers nor §s
actually participating in the study were drawn at random from a
defined population, they represented a finite sample and the generaliza-
tion of conclusions associated with this sample to others is based
upon the assumption that this group is actually a random sample from
an infinitely larger population of such samples. The validity of the
extension of the results obtained in this study to a group larger

than, but "like", those in the sample (Cornfield & Tukey, 1956) must

51

be determined by the reader. The demographic and personal data
available on the subjects included in the study are presented in
Table 2.1.

Subject assignment. The 30 a.m. volunteers were randomly assigned

 

to one of the four treatment groups or to the control group for their
section (a.m.); the same procedure was followed for the 38 p.m.
volunteers. The total number of experimental groups was ten--two for
each of the five experimental conditions. The volunteers from each
section were placed in order of ascending student number and renumbered
from 01-30 in the a.m. section and 31-68 in the p.m. section. Using
the table of random numbers in accordance with the procedure discussed
by Glass and Stanley (1970), volunteers were assigned one to each
experimental group in order (modeling; prose learning unit; shaping;
control; or combined prose unit, modeling, and shaped practice) until
all volunteers were assigned. Six volunteers assigned to experimental
groups were not in attendance the day the treatment and immediate
measures phase was completed. These were dropped from the study

and the remaining 62 (27 a.m. and 35 p.m.) constituted the S9 for the
study. Fewer §s completed the delayed knowledge and transfer of skill
measures than completed the immediate measures. Excluding the a.m.

and p.m. control groups which were not included in the affective
measure nor in the follow—up phase of the study, three So who completed
the immediate measures (skill, knowledge, and affective) were not
available to complete the delayed knowledge measure. No transfer

of skill measure (practicum performance) was obtained for 15 of the

52
Table 2.1

Summary of Personal and Demographic Characteristics of the Sample

 

 

Number Percentage
Age in Years
22 — 25 29 46.8
26 - 29 24 38.7
30 - 33 3 4.8
34 - 37 3 4.8
38 - 41 1 2.6
42 or older _2_ 3.2
TOTAL 62 100.9
Sex
Female 34 54.8
Male 28. 45.2
TOTAL 62 100.0
Identified Program of Study
Rehabilitation 36 58.1
School Counseling 23 ' 37.1
Educational Psychology _3_ 4.8
TOTAL 62 100.0
Undergraduate Degree
B. S. 21 33.9
B. A. 41_ 66.1
TOTAL 62 100.0
Undergraduate Major
Psychology 22 35.5
Education 10 16.1
Sociology 15 24.2
English 5 8.1
Other 19 16.1
TOTAL 62 100.0
Graduate Credits Earned at Time of Study (February 25, 1975)

l - 16 34 54.8
17 - 32 17 27.4
33 - 44 4 6.5
45 - 60 6 9.7
61 or more 1 2.6

 

TOTAL ' 6—2’ 100 . o

53

47 Se in active treatment groups. Subject mortality on this measure
was primarily due to gs failure to reach and complete subsystem

9.0 (termination of counseling contact) by the end of Spring term,
1975. Other reasons for the observed mortality included failure to
tape segments of 9.0 performance or failure to enroll in practicum
during Spring, 1975. Attempting to utilize all data obtained
resulted in unequal cell sizes and an unbalanced design. It was
decided that balancing the design would have resulted in the loss of
a large portion of the data collected. A summarization of §s assigned
to treatments and completing measures by experimental groups is
presented in Table 2.2.

Treatment Supervisors

 

A total of 14 supervisors were utilized in the administration
of the treatments. Twelve were doctoral candidates in counseling and
two had completed the M. A. program in Systematic Counseling at
Michigan State University. Supervisors performed differing functions
depending upon their assignment. Supervisors assigned to modelingxand
the prose unit group were responsible for monitoring gs in that
group and did not have instructional duties. Supervisors assigned to
the prose text and modeling phases of the combined treatment group
were also involved only in monitoring functions. The eight supervisors
assigned to shaping or that phase of the combined procedure were
responsible for utilizing shaping techniques to modify or reinforce
the termination behaviors exhibited by §s in a role—played termination
interaction with the supervisor. The persons assigned to supervision
in the shaping group or that phase of the combined group were trained

in shaping techniques and the termination procedures (9.0) by the

54

 

 

 

 

 

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.a.m Houuooo

 

 

moose unoaumoaa an monsoon: moduoaoaoo one moowwnmd muoonnsm mo humaaom

N.N oHnma

 

55

experimenter. Written materials (Appendix C) and individual inter-
action were used in the training. Six of the shaping procedure
supervisors were assigned a.§_from the morning and afternoon sections;
the larger number of p.m. gs made it impossible to assign an a.m.

and p.m. §_to the other two who were only utilized in the afternoon
training session. All supervisors received instruction as to the
procedures to be followed in their assigned treatment (Appendix C)

and concerning the procedures for the termination of counseling contact
(Appendix B).

Presentation of Instruction

 

The instructional materials utilized were designed by the
researcher specifically for the purpose of the study. They included
a SSHminute videotape (modeling); a prose unit with reading time
of 55 minutes (prose unit); and an l8~minute narrated videotape and
20~minute prose unit (combined).

The 55-minute videotape included an introduction, several
models of client/counselor interactions at points when termination
of counseling contact was appropriate, and a narrative review of the
steps of the termination procedure modeled with each client. In
addition, the narration outlined and identified the various occasions
for termination and the procedure to be used in each case (See
Appendix D). The videotape presented the information designated in
the Procedure for Termination of Counseling Contact (Appendix B)
including handling of client resistance to termination, termination
prior to attainment of objectives, and termination occasioned by

successful completion of counseling objectives (Appendix A).

56

With respect to the variables identified as relevant in the review
of studies and theories of observational learning, the videotape
initially presented the process of terminating client contact in small
distinct steps. Observer attention was focused upon relevant aspects
of the performance by an introduction indicating what would be modeled
and a summary after the sequence. In order to increase the probability
of maintaining observer attention during the modeled sequence, the
model used was one known to the students as a graduate assistant in
the counseling department. This individual was known to be directly
involved in both the instruction and evaluation of counselor trainees
and it was expected that the observers would therefore perceive the
model as comparatively high in relevant model variables such as
competence, reinforcement history, and status. In light of the
evidence that no overt behavioral rehearsal is necessary and direct
or vicarious reinforcement may interfere with skill acquisition,
practice and reinforcement were not included in this moderate
fidelity procedure.

The full-length prose learning unit was designed to include all
the information presented in the 55-minute videotape and specified
in the Procedure for the Termination of Counseling Contact (Appendix B).
Based upon Bandura's contention that written instructions may serve as
a low fidelity model and may therefore suffice in the acquisition of new
responses, the prose unit was developed with consideration for
applicable criteria identified as appropriate for behavioral models.

It was clearly written after elimination of non-relevant detail that

might decrease the discernability of critical information. The

57

material was divided into sections as was the behavioral display.
In order to control for the effects of variation in treatment duration,
the learning unit was developed with a reading time of approximately
one hour. After the third editing, reading times for five M; A. level
students in counseling at the University of Massachusetts in Amherst
were recorded. These students were not familiar with the procedures
discussed in the unit. They were instructed to read at a comfortable
speed, attempting to comprehend and retain the information presented.
The time reported was to reflect total time required to grasp the
material to the student's satisfaction and was to include time used
to review if a review was deemed necessary. To insure that students
had not read too quickly each of the five students completed a 24-point
comprehension test. Reading time and comprehension level are reported
in Appendix P. The levels of comprehension observed were accepted
as evidence that the reading times reported were realistic for the
acquisition of new information. Based on this data and on the compara-
bility of reading time for the learning unit with the length of the full
length videotape, this version of the prose learning unit was used in
the study (Appendix E).

The appreviated prose learning unit (Appendix G) was designed
to be used in conjunction with a videotaped model and supervised
practice; it had a reading time of about twenty minutes. Counseling
students at the University of Massachusetts at Amherst were used to
determine reading time. The procedure was identical to that used in
establishing the reading time for the longer learning unit discussed

previously. Data for the version used in the study is presented in

58

Appendix P. Considering that this unit would be augmented by other
instructional experiences, the levels of comprehension was considered
acceptable and reading times realistic estimates for the study. This
abbreviated unit was used in the study (Appendix G).

The l8-minute videotape (Appendix G) was a segment selected from
the 55nminute tape. This particular segment was selected from the full
length tape (Appendix D) because in 18 minutes (including introduction
and narrative) it provided a model of the most common occasion for
termination-termination.when objectives were attained. Also, in
conjunction with the abbreviated prose learning unit, the segment
covered the procedure for other occasions as defined in the Procedures
for Termination of Counseling Contact (Appendix B).

The Procedures for Termination of Counseling Contact was the
instructional reference for supervisors in the shaping procedure as
well as the content for all materials previously discussed. This
guide was based upon procedure for Systematic Counseling outlined by
Stewart, Winborn, Johnson, Burks, and Engelkes (1973). It incorporated
suggestions and considerations from the literature on termination of
counseling contact. This document was used by the researchers and
three raters to assess the content comparability of the instructional
material for each treatment in the study. Each rater viewed the full-
length videotape model and the shorter segment, read both the long and
abbreviated prose learning units, then compared the content of each with
that specified by the Procedure for the Termination of Counseling
Contact. Since the abbreviated prose unit and videotape segment were

to be used together in the combined method treatment groups, they were

59

rated as a unit. All three raters agreed that each of the three
instructional units (full-length videotape, full-length prose learning
unit, and abbreviated prose learning unit and videotape segment)
included the points outlined by the Procedure for the Termination
Counseling Contact.
Treatment Groups

The study included four active treatment groups and a non-active
control group. All treatment conditions, including control, were
presented on February 25, 1975, during regular class hours between
8:00 and 11:00 a.m. for the morning section and 4:15 and 7:15 p.m.
for the afternoon group. All treatments were of equal length.
The instructional phase was one hour; the next 20 minutes was allotted
to completion of the immediate knowledge measure and the affective
measure. During the final 20 minutes, So engaged in the role-played
performance measure. Once §s had completed the hour of instruction
and 40 minutes of immediate measures, they were allowed to leave. The
schedule for the treatment and testing phases appears in Appendix H.
Treatments are described in the following paragraphs:

Contr01gfiIQQP (C). The control group engaged in a review session
of subsystems 1.0-8.0 of the Systematic Counseling Process (Appendix A)
with a graduate assistant for the course who was acting as a treatment
supervisor for the study. This group engaged in questioning, role-play,
or other strategies designed to review and clarify material on the
counseling process presented up to, but not including, subsystem
9.0 (Termination of Counseling Contact). These §s were informed that

they would spend the class time reviewing subsystems 1.0-8.0 and

60

completing written and performance measures designed to determine
how“much they know about termination prior to receiving any instruction
on it. It was explained that performance on these measures would in

no way affect their grades and that they would be given instruction on
9.0 (termination) the following week,while others reviewed 1.0—8.0.
With this understanding, gs reviewed 1.0-8.0 for one hour and then
completed the immediate knowledge and skill measures on the termination
of counseling contact. Twenty minutes was alotted for each measure.
This group received instruction on termination the following week and
was not included in the analysis of knowledge retention, transfer of
skills, or affective responses to the instructional experience.

Combined methods group (ch). So in the combined methods group

 

which included all three levels of simulation met in the assigned

room and spent their first 20 minutes reading the abbreviated learning
unit (lowest level of fidelity for performance, highest for knowledge).
This was followed by the lB-minute videotape segment (moderate
fidelity for performance and knowledge) modeling and narrating the
termination procedure. It was viewed as a group in the same

room used for the reading phase. During these activities, the
discussion of concepts¢or materials was discouraged by the treatment
supervisor. From this room, gs proceeded to the counseling laboratory
room for a 20-minute session for role-played practice of termination
procedures with one of eight treatment supervisors who played a
specified client role (Appendix G) and provided the §_with feedback

on ways of improving his performance (highest fidelity for performance,

lowest for knowledge).

61

Shaping_group(S), .§§ assigned to the shaping procedure, the
highest fidelity method for performance, met individually with their
assigned treatment supervisor in counseling laboratory rooms or
other private rooms. Without prior discussion or explanation of the
termination process, §s engaged in a role-played interaction with
the supervisor who played the pre-defined role of a client to be
terminated. Following this and subsequent interactions, the supervisor
suggested ways the §_could improve the termination performance.
Supervisors focused primarily upon roles in which objectives were
attained but spent five to ten minutes each on roles which included
unattained objectives and inappropriate referrals. The shaping
procedure guided §s performance and perceptions of the termination
process toward the behaviors outlined in the Procedures for Termination
of Counseling Contact (Appendix B) through supervisor feedback on
successive performances and supervisor questions about termination
procedure which were phrased to clarify relevant concepts. In the
shaping process the supervisor's role was one of reacting to
trainee performance by indicating how it could be improved (Appendix C).
After one hour of interaction and feedback, §s completed immediate
knowledge and affective measures and moved to individual counseling
laboratory rooms for their immediate skill measure. Total time for
completing the measures was 40 minutes.

Mbdelins_sr9up Qg). .Ss assigned to the modeling group met with
the treatment supervisor in the assigned room. Their hour instructional
period was spent viewing the full-length videotape which featured

an introduction, several model counselor/client termination interviews

62

highlighting the process and procedures, and interspersed narratives

of the steps and behaviors modeled. Supervisors instructed to
discourage discussion of the material reported no problems in this area.
When the videotape was finished, §s completed immediate knowledge and
affective measures (20 minutes), and moved to the counseling laboratory
rooms for their role-played skill measure (20 minutes).

Prose learning unitggroup (P). Prose learning units were

 

distributed by the treatment supervisor to all §s assigned to that
treatment group. Students read through the units during their one-hour
instructional period. The treatment supervisor discouraged interaction
between So and distributed the immediate knowledge and affective
measures after one-hour. §s had 20 minutes to complete these measures
before they moved to the counseling laboratory rooms for their 20-
minute role-played skill test.
Facilities and Equipment

Five classroom or seminar rooms and eight small counseling
laboratory rooms in Erickson Hall at Michigan State University served
as the facilities for study and immediate measures. The training
phases for the modeling, prose learning unit, and control groups were
held in the larger rooms, as were the prose unit and modeling
segments of the combined methods group. Though all Se in a group
participated in these activities simultaneously, the dispersement of
So in the large rooms, the nature of the task and materials, and the
presence of treatment supervisors discouraging discussion were used
to control interaction between So which could have introduced group

effects into the analysis of the data. Immediate knowledge and

63

affective measures for the prose unit and modeling groups were
administered in these rooms by the treatment supervisor as soon as
the training phase was completed. One §_was assigned to each of the
small counseling laboratory rooms for the training phase in the
shaping group, and also for the practice segment of the combined
methods group. These §s completed the written measures in one of
the large rooms. Each §_ participating in the study completed the
immediate skill measure in one of the small counseling laboratory
rooms. A staggered schedule was used so that there was little delay
for Se completing the skill measure in the laboratory rooms (See
Appendix H).

Videotape equipment used in the study included two Ampex one-inch,
reel-to-reel videotape playback units borrowed from the Instructional
Resource Center. Eight cassette tape recorders rented from the
Instruction.Media Center were used to make audiotape recordings of
the role-played skill measure. All supervisors and others assigned
to treatments or tasks involving the use of equipment were provided
with instructions prior to the instructional phase.

Measures

This study measured immediate and delayed skill and knowledge
acquisition as well as preference for a particular instructional mode
and affective responses to the instructional procedures experienced
in learning to terminate counseling contact. Measurement of §_skill
in terminating counseling was achieved by rating audiotapes of a
role-played termination (immediate) and of a practicum client termina-

tion (transfer of skill). The rating scale for this purpose was

64

developed by the researcher, as were the immediate and delayed
knowledge measures. The instructional preference scale and portions
of the affective measure utilized a semantic differential approach

to attitude measurement. Osgood, Tannenbaum, and Suci developed the
semantic differential technique as a procedure for exploring the
dimensions of meaning, but, in the process, saw validity in its
application to attitude measurement. A summary of data and considera-
tions.in the selection of the procedure follows.

Despite the plethora of definitions of the term "attitude",
Osgood, et. al. (Summers, 1970), mentioned the following as properties
on which there is some agreement:

1. Attitudes are learned and implicit processes.

2. Attitudes are predispositions to respond in an evaluative
mode.

3. Attitudes can be ascribed to a bipolar continuum reflecting
direction and intensity.

Osgood, et. a1. (Summers, 1970) suggest that attitude is a part of
anticipatory mediational activity and of the semantic space in which
the "meaning" of a concept is defined (located). They report:

In terms of the operations of measurement with the semantic

differential, we have defined the meaning of a concept as

the allocation to a point in the multidimensional semantic

space. We then define attitude toward a concept as the

projection of this point onto the evaluative dimension of

that space. (p. 228)

Heise (Summers, 1970) reports that the semantic differential
(SD) measures reactions (affective responses) to stimulus words and
concepts. It is a multivariate and generalized approach which allows

comparisons of a variety of concepts. It has been found that in

rating concepts, certain bipolar adjective pairs tend to be correlated,

65

and that from a factor analysis of semantic differential scales,
factors or dimensions emerge. The three primary factors typically
produced by such an analysis have been identified as the EPA structure.
In the research of Osgood, Tannenbaum, and Suci (1957), wright (1958),
Heise (1965), DiVesta (1966), and others, the three factors--
Evaluation, Potency, and Activity--account for most of the observed
variance. Heise (Summers, 1970) reports the EPA structure as having
been verified with a variety of subjects, concepts, and scales. The
studies of Jakobovits (1966) and Osgood (1964) establish the validity
0f the EPA structure in languages other than English, lending more
credibility to the multidimensional conception of attitude structure.

According to Heise (Summers, 1970), the evaluative dimension
includes such adjective pairs as nice - awful, good - bad, and sweet -
sour; potency contrasts include strong - weak, deep - shallow, and
big - little, with the positive pole being the more powerful. Scales
identified with the activity dimensions are those such as fast - slow,
alive - dead, and noisy - quiet. Heise (Summers, 1970) depicts the
EPA dimensions as forming a three-dimensional space whose center
represents neutrality on all dimensions, as presented in Figure 2.1.
Scores on these three predominat factors determine the location of a
concept in semantic space.

The semantic differential has experienced wide use as an attitude
measure. Heise (Summers, 1970) cites a variety of studies using the
procedure including: Osgood, Tannenbaum, and Suci, 1957 (attitude

changes as a result of mass media programs); Barclay and Thumin,

1963 (attitude formation); Triandis, 1959 and Beardslee and O'Dowd,

66

 

 

Good
Slow
Powerful POTENCY Powerless

X, ca
9536 3
E":
Fast D
:13
>
a:

Bad

Figure 2.1. The Semantic Differential (SD) Space

1961 (attitudes toward jobs and occupations); and Prothre and Keehn,
1957 and Williams, 1964, 1966 (attitudes toward minorities).

With respect to validity, SD measurements have been shown to
correlate highly 'with various traditional measures. Osgood, et. al.,
(Summers, 1970) report high product-moment correlations (.74-.82)
between SD and Thurstone scales for Negro, Church, and Capital Punishment.
Test - retest reliabilities for the evaluative factor of the SD and
Thurstone scales were also very comparable for those three concepts,
with the reliability of the SD being somewhat (.OO-.03) higher. These
authors also compared the SD evaluative factor with a Guttman type
scale in a study of attitudes toward crop rotation. From this study
they conclude that the evaluative factor provides an index of the
location of an attitude object on a general evaluative continuum.

Heise (Summers, 1970) reviewed a study by Nickols and Shaw (1964)
which related SD measures to Thurstone measurements and also identified
the level of subject saliency (or actual familiarity with the concept

rated) as a variable possibly affecting SD reliability. In the Nickols

67

and Shaw study, SD evaluative factor ratings for nonsalient §s
correlated more highly (r - .71 and r - .76) with Thurstone scales

than did those of salient §s (r - .29 and r - .39). Heise has criticized
the implication that SD measurements may not be efficient for measurements
of high saliency concepts and, on the basis of an ad hoc analysis of
data summarized in his 1965 publication, concludes ". . . that in the
case of SD ratings, saliency of attitude object does not affect their
reliability. . ." (p. 246). Heise suggests that the ultimate resolution
of the issue of SD sensitivity associated with concept saliency will
require further research including rating of more than two concepts,

use of subject need for approval as a control variable, use of a third
criterion variable, and the inclusion of all three SD dimensions.
Another study cited by Heise (Summers, 1970) was that of Little and

Hill (1967) which resulted in a correlation of .62 (presumed to be
product moment correlation) between SD measurement and a Likert-type
scale using the evaluative factor score for five political activity
concepts. Though the study showed the SD measure had some capability
for estimating voting behavior, it was less effective than other

scales for this purpose. Heise considers this an important study,

but raises several serious questions concerning the SD methodology
utilized. Osgood, et. a1. (Summers, 1970), cite a study by Suci

(1952) in which the evaluative dimension was used successfully to
differentiate between high and low ethnocentrics as determined by

the E-scale of the Authoritatian Personality studies. They also

cite other studies as having demonstrated the ability of SD measures to

discriminate between shades of political preference.

68

Data on the reliability of SD measurements comes from several
sources. In addition to the test-retest data from the study cited
earlier, Osgood, et. al. (Summers, 1970) also cite a study using
135 subjects who rated six concepts (Tannenbaum, 1953) using six
evaluative scales on two occasions five weeks apart. These test -
retest coefficients ranged from .87 to .93 with a mean of .91. Heise
(Summers, 1970), cites studies by DiVesta and by Dick and Maltz which
suggests that test - retest reliabilities are lower when the §s are
younger children. Heise indicates dimensions have higher test — retest
reliabilities than do individual scales, but that increments in
stability attributable to including more than three or four scales in
a dimension are not substantial in one-month test - retest. In
the theory and research reviewed with respect to the semantic differential
procedure, several issues with relevance for this study were identified.
For some types of research semantic differential as a generalized
attitude measure may be criticized on several issues (Osgood, et. al.
in Summers, 1970). Common criticisms include:

1. Lack equivalence of meaning of scales across concepts.

2. Loss of detailed information on attitude structure.

3. Subjects' responses are to abstract symbols rather than
issue content.

4. Evidence of some low correlations between generalized and
more specific measures.

It was the opinion of the researcher that for the purpose of
this study these potential criticisms of generalized attitude measures
were outweighted by the semantic differential reliability and validity

data presented earlier and by benefits which the procedure offers in

69

terms of the comparison of concepts. The data reported in the studies
reviewed with respect to validity (correlations with traditional measures)
and reliability (primarily test - retest) of the SD were considered
acceptable by the researcher as validation of the technique's utility
as an attitude measure. The procedure affords the opportunity for
comparisons across concepts which was a requirement in establishing
Ss' instructional preference and in assessing Ss' satisfaction with the
instructional procedures. Due to the commonality of concept area
(instructional methods), the researcher deemed the probability of
lack of scale equivalence of meaning across the concepts to be minimal.
Other factors taken into consideration in the selection of this procedure
included the multivariate description of attitude offered by the
dimensional structure of the EPA. This was considered a particular
asset for the evaluation of instructional methods and training
experiences where it was suspected that §_reactions to various
characteristics of the procedure might be disparate. For example,
it seems possible that §s "like" an instructional procedure which they
did not feel was particularly "potent". The SD method was considered
more economical than developing, for each possibly relevant facet of
attitude, several items which would be equally applicable to all
concepts and procedures utilized in the study. Accordingly, the
researcher utilized the semantic differential procedure in assessing
instructional preference and §_affective response to their instruction.
These and all other instruments used in the study are described below.
Instructionalgpreference scale (IB)- The instructional preference

scale was developed by the researcher to assess §_attitude toward

70

instructional procedures or levels of fidelity featured in the study.

The measure, a 30 bipolar adjective pair, semantic differential instru-
ment, was completed for six instructional concepts or practices--daily
quizzes, written instructional materials, class discussion, learning
through doing, personal change projects, and demonstrations of counseling.
"Written instructional materials", "learning through doing", and "demon—
strations of counseling" corresponded to prose learning unit, shaping,

and modeling treatments, respectively. The other three concepts were
used as distractors.

The development of the instrument, including selection of scales
and format, was in accordance with the considerations presented by
Heise (Summers, 1970). Scale relevance and dimensional composition
were basic criteria in the construction of the instrument. From the
studies of Osgood, et. a1. (1957) and Jakobovitz (1966) adjective
pairs identified as factorially pure were selected for each of the
EPA.dimensions. These and other scales suggested by the experimenter
for their expected utility in the evaluation of instruction were rated
by three graduate students in education on the basis of relevance.

Based on these ratings and available research, the experimenter then
selected eleven evaluative (E), ten potency (P), and nine activity (A)
scales for inclusion in the preference scale. The adverbial quantifiers
"extremely", "quite", and "slightly" were presented in the instructions
to facilitate the rating of intensity on the seven-point bipolar

scale (Heise in Summers, 1970). On February 11, 1975, the preference
scale was given to all students in the class from which the study sample

was drawn (ED819D).

71

An analysis of the preference scale was performed to determine
its reliability and factorial structure. Four graduate students in
counseling and two persons with doctoral degrees in this area
categorized the 30 semantic differential items comprising the Instruc-
tional Preference Scale according to their dimensionality (evaluative,
potency, activity) and direction (positive and negative pole with
respect to instruction). Evaluative, potency, and activity subscales
emerging and pairs used in the measure were based upon the agreement
of not less than four of the six people as to dimensionality and
direction. Of the 30 original adjective pair scales 23 were used in
the computation of preference scores. Reliabilities for these subscales
on each of the three instructional methods were based upon 59 of the §s
in the study sample. These reliabilities and means and standard
deviations for the scale are given in Tables 2.3 and 2.4, respectively.
The subscale and overall preference scores reported for the
Instructional Preference Scale are (respectively) the sums of the
points (1-7 points) on each of the adjective pairs for that subscale
and the sum of the scores for 23 adjective pairs. The ranges for

means on these variables are as follows:

Evaluative Subscale 14 to 98 points
Potency Subscale 4 to 28 points
Activity Subscale - 5 to 35 points

Overall Preference - 23 to 161 points

The higher the point value, the more favorable the response to the
instructional procedure (written instructional material, learning
through doing, and demonstrations of counseling). The relationship
between subjects' responses (1-7 points) on adjective pairs used in

assessing their attitudes toward the instruction procedures and

72

Table 2.3

Hoyt Reliabilities for Preference Scale

Evaluative Subscale
(14 pairs)

Potency Subscale
(4 pairs)

Activity Subscale
(5 pairs)

OVERALL
(23 pairs)

Means and Standard

Evaluative SE

Subscale SD
(14 pairs)
Potency E
Subscale SD
(4 pairs)
Activity SE
Subscale SD
(5 pairs)
OVERALL I

(23 pairs) SD

written
Instructional
Material

.95

.85

.77

.95

Table 2.4

Deviations for Preference Scale

Written
Instructional
Material

65.46
15.14

18.80
4.68

20.14
5.48

104.39
24.09

Learning
Through
Doing

.91

.78

.49

.91

Learning
Through
Doing

85.70
9.28

23.63
3.48

27.36
4.02

136.68
15.03

Demonstrations
of
Counseling

.96

.87

.80

.97

Demonstrations
of
Counseling

77.37
15.70

20.83
5.02

24.36
6.10

122.56
25.86

73
the subscale and overall means is presented in Table 2.5. The
Instructional Preference Scale used in assessing attitudes toward the
three procedures (prose unit, shaping, and modeling) and the
dimension (Evaluative, Potency, or Activity) and directional designa-
tions for the adjective pairs appear in Appendix 1.

Immediate knowledge (1K). This 17 item cognitive measure was
developed by the researcher to assess the level of acquisition of
information on termination procedures; it featured two true and false,
three multiple choice, and twelve production items. Information for
the items was taken from the outlined Procedures for the Termination
of Counseling Contact (Appendix B) and corresponded to specific
steps of the process as defined by the outline and to the understanding
of the total termination process. The measure reflected knowledge
of general overall procedure for termination, termination rationale
and procedures, managing resistance to termination, conducting transfer
of learning, and planning the monitoring of client performace. The
Hoyt reliability for the 17 items of this scale was .78.

The Immediate Knowledge (IK) score used in the analysis of
information acquisition was the sum of the scores for the 17 knowledge
items. The range of scores was 0 to 90, with 90 being a perfect
score. Ninty percent mastery would correspond to a score of 81,

802 with a score of 72, 702 with a score of 63, etc. This instrument
is presented in Appendix J.

Affective measures. So were given about five minutes after‘

completing the immediate knowledge measure (IK) to complete the

affective measures for the study. These measures were designed by

74

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75

the researcher to assess general trainee reactions to the levels of
simulation represented by the instructional procedures and to provide
an indicator of trainees' confidence in their ability to complete the
termination process. The measures included four semantic differential
items with eight or nine bipolar adjective pairs (7-point scales) per
item and five Likert-Type scale items (5-point scale). A factor
analysis for the sample revealed that the eight or nine adjective
pairs associated with each semantic differential item constituted a
single general factor or dimension resulting in one score for each
of the four semantic differential items.

Five items were designed to measure general satisfaction with
the method (level of simulation) as an instructional procedure. These
five items constituted the Satisfaction subscale (8) whose Hoyt
reliability based upon the study sample was .82. Two items
comprised the Confidence subscale (C); the Pearson correlation
coefficient for this subscale was .65. Two items designed to measure
the subjects' assessment of the amount of learning gained from the
instructional experience (Knowledge scale (K)) were deleted from the
analysis due to the low correlation (Pearson correlation - .30).
The scores on the affective measures of Satisfaction (S) and Confidence
(C) as used in the study were derived by summing §s responses for the
items included in the scale. The S score ranged from 27 to 185 with
the higher value representing a very high degree of satisfaction and
the lower indicating absolute dissatisfaction. A score of 108 is
indicative of an ambivalent or essentially neutral response. For

Confidence (C) the range was 9 to 61 with the lower value indicating

76

absolute lack of confidence, the higher value representing extreme
confidence, and 35 indicate ambivalent feelings. The affective
measures of Satisfaction (S) and Confidence (C) appear in Appendix K.

Immediate skill (132- The immediate skill measure (IS) was a

 

rating of each §s performance of the termination function as specified
by the procedure taught during the instructional phase (Appendix B).
The performance task evaluated was that of the st role-played
termination as counselor of a coached client performing one of two
roles developed and provided by the experimenter (Appendix M). The
coached clients were paid by the researcher for their participation

in the study. Four males and four females were used. All reported
having some acting experience at the high school or college level

and indicated a willingness to tape-record their interaction with

the Sc. Initially the researcher interviewed each role-player for
suitability and then met them as a group. At this meeting the

general purpose of the study and of the role-playing procedure were
presented, the role-players reviewed the morning and afternoon roles
they were to play, restrictions and suggestions for role performance
were discussed. In addition the researcher engaged in a demonstration
termination for each role with one of the group and questions concerning
roles and the taping procedures were answered. On the day of the
study, the researcher met briefly with the role-players again to
answer questions and give more specific instructions on the operation
of the tape-recorder and schedules and assignments for the counseling
lab rooms (Appendix H). The role-players taped the performance

interactions of all Ss.

77

Three raters (two doctoral candidates and one Ph.D. in counseling)
rated the role-play tapes of Se using an eight-point scale which
ranged from extremely inadequate to exceptionally adequate performance.
Nineteen behaviors identified in the instructional materials as
appropriate to the termination of counseling contact were rated
(Appendix N). Interrater reliability coefficients for four subscales
comprised of the behaviors appropriate to each of the four steps of
termination were calculated. These interrater reliabilities ranged
from .98 to .99. Ratings of the three raters on the behaviorS‘were
combined for the four subscale scores and an overall skill score.
Reliabilities for subscales and total score appear in Table 2.6.
MANOVA of IS scores revealed no significant role-player effect or
role-player X method interactions.

The Immediate Skill score used in the analysis was the overall
score or the sum over the three raters of the subjects'score on
the 19 behaviors. With 19 behaviors and a possible score of 1-8
points from each of three raters, the range of scores for IS was
from 57 to 456 points. Quality of performance on each of the 19
behaviors relates to total skill scores as follows:

Average Performance Quality for

 

 

Each Behavior Total Skill Score
Extremely Inadequate 57
Very Inadequate 108
Inadequate 171
Somewhat Inadequate 228
Somewhat Adequate 285
Adequate 342
Very Adequate 399

Exceptionally Adequate 456

78

Delayed knowledge (DK). The delayed knowledge measure, given to Sub-

 

jects 14 weeks after the instructional and immediate measures phases,
was administered in a class setting. The 14 items in this measure
were selected by the researcher from those in the immediate knowledge
(IK) instrument. The items selected for DK measures were chosen
because they were judged by the researcher to provide the most
comprehensive test of the information presented in the instructional
phase. The overall reliability for the scale, based upon the sample,
was .67.

The Delayed Knowledge (DK) score used in the analysis was the
average of the sum of subject scores on each of the 11 items. The range
was from 0 (no correct responses) to 48 points. Scores for levels
of mastery are 90% = 41.2, 80% = 38.4, 70% = 33.6, 50% = 24.0, etc.
The measure appears in Appendix L.

Transfer skill (TS). The rating scales for the transfer skill

 

measure (TS) were identical to those used for the immediate skill
rating (18). The tape-recording of each §fs first termination Of
counseling contact during the Spring 1975 practicum, was used in this
measure of skill transfer to the actual counseling setting. All tapes
were made 12-14 weeks after the instructional phase. Behaviors were
rated on the eight-point scale described previously for rating
Immediate Skill. Scoring and ranges were identical for IS and TS.

The omission of behaviors judged to be inappropriate or unnecessary
for the termination of the practicum client was rated as "adequate"
performance on the rating scale. Interrater reliabilities for the
subscales on this measure were high (.96 to .98). Scale reliability and

means and standard deviations appear in Tables 2.6 and 2.7, respectively.

79

Table 2.6

Reliabilities for Subscale and Total Scores on
Immediate and Transfer Skill Measures

 

 

IMMEDIATE SKILL

TRANSFER SKILL

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(18) (T5)
Subscale 1
Explain Rationale and
Procedure .68 .83
Subscale 2
Manage Client/Counselor
Resistance .81 .73
Subscale 3
Conduct Transfer
of Learning .85 .80
Subscale 4
Plan Monitoring of
Client Performance .84 .83
Overall .88 .88
Table 2.7
Means and Standard Deviations for subscale and Total
Scores on Immediate and Transfer Skill Measures
’ IMMEDIATE SKILL TRANSFER SKILL
(IS) (TS)
Subscale l __
Explain Rationale x 64.17 67.36
and Procedure SD 15.06 20.75
Subscale 2 __
Manage Client/Counselon x 48.31 53.71
Resistance SD 13.98 10.71
Subscale 3 __
Conduct Transfer x 73.15 101.58
of Learning SD 31.65 23.88
Subscale 4 __
Plan Monitoring of x 64.81 65.13
Client Performance SD 16.55 16.92
Overall 3? 250.44 287.77
1 30 57.76 54.82

 

 

 

 

 

80

Hypotheses

This study was designed to compare the effectiveness of modeling,
shaping, prose texts, and the combination of those methods as levels
and combinations of levels of fidelity in simulation on the acquisi—
tion and retention of skill and information associated with the
termination of counseling contact. A secondary objective of the
study was the investigation of the impact of st instructional
preference on skill and knowledge acquisition. The variables
considered in the analysis were overall scores on immediate skill
(18), immediate knowledge (IK), transfer skill (TS), delayed knowledge
(DK), satisfaction (S), confidence (C), and instructional preference (IP).

Since the four instructional methods compared represent pure and
combined levels of fidelity in simulation, the predictions of their
differential impact was based in part upon the degree of similarity
between the method and the particular criterion variable considered.
When substantive data for predicting the differential impact for the
methods or levels was not available, it was predicted that the methods
incorporating training elements most similar to the criterion measure
would be superior. Based on the studies of Frankel (1971), Whalen
(1969), and Higgins, Ivey, and Uhleman (1970), the procedure combining
various levels of fidelity was expected to be superior to single
level methods. The work of Engler (1972), Bandura (1969), and
Belluci (1972) suggest that a lower fidelity method (modeling) may be
more effective in teaching skills than a higher level (operant
procedures such as shaping). Based on this data modeling was expected

to be more effective even though its level of fidelity for performance

81

measures was lower. Predictions of the relative efficacy of the

prose unit for skill and knowledge acquisition were based upon the
research findings (Frankel, 1971; Higgins, Ivey & Uhleman, 1970) which
suggest that this lowest level is least effective in skill acquisition.
With relatively little systematic research on knowledge acquisition
and prose methods, efficacy predictions on knowledge measures for

the prose unit were based on the assumption that the high degree of
fidelity between the method and the criterion variable would result

in higher scores on knowledge measures for §s exposed to methods

which included prose units.

In terms of §s affective response of satisfaction with the
instruction (8) it was felt that level of personal involvement and
involvement with teaching personnel would be important variables.

It was expected that §s would respond most positively to the methods
in which they were most directly involved and which brought them into
greatest contact with instructors that provided feedback on their
performance. It was expected that confidence (C) in one's ability

to perform termination functions would be higher in gs exposed

to methods of high fidelity for performance. Further, it was expected
that the more extensive this exposure and the greater amount of
feedback available to the learner, the higher the sense of confidence.

For the prediction of the impact of instructional preference (IP)
on skill and knowledge acquisition, it was assumed that at the graduate
level personal motivational factors would be more important than the
§fs degree of enthusiasm for the particular instructional method

experienced.

82

Based on these findings and rationales, the following hypotheses

were advanced:

Immediate Skill (18)

 

H1:

H :

3:

H4:

§s instructed by the combined method, modeling, shaping,
and prose learning unit will score higher than those in
the control group on the IS measure.

§s in the combined methods group will score higher than
those instructed by modeling, shaping, and the prose
learning unit on the IS measure.

§s in the modeling group will score higher than those
exposed to the shaping or prose unit procedures on the
IS measure.

§s instructed through prose learning unit or shaping
procedures will not have significantly different scores
on the IS measure.

Immediate Knowledge (IK)

 

H5:

H8:

gs exposed to the combined method, modeling, shaping,
or prose learning unit will score higher than those in
the control condition on the IR measure.

There will be no difference in the IK scores of §s
in the combined group and those in the prose learning
unit group.

There will be no difference in the IK scores of §s

instructed through the shaping and the modeling
procedures.

§s in the combined and prose learning unit will score
higher than those in the shaping and modeling groups
on the IK measure.

Transfer Skill Q‘S) (No control group S3 included)

H9:

m

H11:

There will be no difference in the TS scores of Se
exposed to the combined method and those exposed to
modeling instructional procedure.

There will be no difference in the TS scores of §s
exposed to the shaping and the prose learning unit.

Se in the modeling and combined procedures will score
higher than those in the shaping and prose learning
unit groups on the TS measure.

Delayed Knowledge (DK)

83

(No control group §s included)

 

H12:

H13:

H14:

Affective Measure

There will be no difference in the DK scores of §s
in the prose and combined instructional groups.

There will be no difference in the DK scores of gs
in the shaping and modeling instructional groups.

§s in the prose learning unit and combined groups will
score higher than §s in shaping and modeling groups on

the DK measure.

(No control group §s included)

 

H15:

Instructional Preference (IP)

m

19

H
22

23°

§s in the shaping procedure will have higher scores in
satisfaction (S) and confidence (C) than those in the
modeling, prose learning unit, and combined groups.

‘Ss experiencing the combined method of the modeling
method of instruction will score higher than those
instructed with prose learning unit on satisfaction (S).

There will be no difference in the scores of §s in the
combined method and modeling groups on satisfaction (8).

g; in the combined method will have higher confidence
(C) scores than those in modeling and prose learning
unit groups.

(No control or combined group
§s included)

No significant relationship will be
measure of immediate knowledge (IK)
preference for prose learning.

found between the
and the degree of

found between the
and the degree

No significant relationship will be
measure of immediate knowledge (IK)
of preference for modeling.

found between the
and the degree of

No significant relationship will be
measure of immediate knowledge (IK)
preference for shaping.

found between the
the degree of

No significant relationship will be
measure of immediate skill (IS) and
preference for prose learning.

found between the
the degree of

No significant relationship will be
measure of immediate skill (IS) and
preference for modeling.

84

H No significant relationship will be found between the
measure of immediate skill (IS) and the degree of

preference for shaping.

24‘

Experimental Design

 

This study involved multiple measures in an unbalanced post-test
only control group design (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). This design
is presented in Figure 2.2. Subjects were randomly assigned to one
of the four active treatment groups or to the control group for
both the morning and afternoon class sections (Table 2.2). Control
§s were not included in delayed, transfer, or affective measures.
This design was selected over a pretest design due to both the
experimenter's belief that pretest measurements would be reactive
and the lack of available pre-treatment measures which seemed
appropriate for use as blocking variables and covariates. The logic

of the treatment (X) and post-test (02, 0 04) package, the

3.
awkwardness of including written or behavioral pretest within the
existing schedule of the course from which the subjects were drawn,
and reactivity potentially introduced by pretest measures were the
basis for the use of the post-test only design.
Analysis of the Data

Data were keypunched by the experimenter. The statistical
analyses were calculated on a Control Data 6500 computer in the
Michigan State University Computer Center. Dimension reliabilities
on the Instructional Preference Measure were analyzed through an
analysis of variance techniques developed by Hoyt (1941). The

Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to

calculate interrater reliabilities and subscale reliabilities

85

 

 

01 R X1 02 04
01 R X2 020304 02' 05
01 R X3 020304 02' 05
01 R X4 020304 02' 05
01 R XS 020304 02' 05
Legend:
X = Treatment 0 = Measures
X1 = Control 01 = Instructional Preference
(IP)
X2 = Combined Methods
02 = Immediate Knowledge (IK)
X3 = Shaping
03 = Affective Measure
X4 8 Modeling Satisfaction (8)
Confidence (C)
X5 = Prose Unit

04 Immediate Skill (IS)
02' = Delayed Knowledge (DK)

0 = Transfer Skill (TS)

5

Figure 2.2. Design with Five Measures and Five Experimental Groups

86
when scales were-composed of three or more items. Pearson Correlation
were used for subscales involving two items and for all correlation
analyses.

Multivariate and univariate analysis of variance and Scheffe’
post hoc procedures were performed to test the hypotheses. Main
effects and interactions were examined. The critical level of
significance was set a priori at 6K”: .05 with results also reported
with the higher significance level 0(= .10.

The results of the analyses to test hypotheses as well as more
detailed reporting of the statistical tests used are presented in

Chapter III.

Chapter III
ReSults

The results of this study were based on six posttest measures--
immediate knowledge (IK), immediate skill (IS), satisfaction (S),
confidence (C), delayed knowledge (DK), and transfer skill (TS).
Analyses of variance were conducted with multivariate and univariate
F values computed for comparisons on the dependent variables.
Specific hypotheses were tested by Scheffefpost hoc procedures using
a 952 confidence interval. Pearson correlation coefficients were
computed to assess the relationship between st preference for the
instructional procedure experienced and the immediate dependent
variables of skill and knowledge (IS and IK). The cell and group
means and standard deviations for all measures are reported in
Tables 3.1 and 3.2, respectively. Both multivariate and univariate
F values were calculated using a MANOVA procedure to test for main
effects and interactions. Type I error level (alpha) for the multi-
variate tests was set a priori at .d = .05 and, for reasons presented
in Chapter II, reported at 0(= .10 as well. The actual alpha
levels for the univariate tests was dependent upon the number of
varibles being compared. The design was unbalanced with cell sizes
ranging from n - 5 to n = 8 on all immediate measures (1K, IS, S, and C),
from n - 3, to n - 5 on transfer skill (TS), and n = 5 to n - 7 on
delayed knowledge (DK) (Table 2.2). Only §fs having complete data
for the variable being compared were included in the analysis.

In discussing the results of the study, the analyses of main

effects and interactions for acquisition, retention, and affect will

87

88

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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89

Table 3.2

Group Mean Scores and Standard Deviations for Across-Class

Combined

Shaping

Modeling

Prose Unit

Control

SD

XI

SD

XI

SD

XI

SD

XI

SD

Acquisition
Immediate Immediate
Knowledge Skills

(IK) (13)

70.90 302.90
14.13 28.69
59.85 259.70
19.14 59.25
59.54 258.60
13.99 47.23
58.77 227.50
24.13 62.14
61.21 220.50
8.20 42.64

Acquisition and Retention Measures

Retention
Delayed Transfer
Knowledge Skill
(DK) (TS)
31.00 332.50
7.04 51.27
29.67 299.38
8.68 34.44
23.16 310.86
12.01 32.48
29.67 221.25
6.57 25.96

90

be presented first. For variables for which significant univariate
treatment effects were observed, the results of Scheffe’post hoc
tests for the specific hypothesis advanced will be reported.

Tests for Main Effects and Interactions

 

Tests for main effects and interactions on the six measures
were based upon 5 x 2 or 4 x 2 design, depending on whether the
control group was included in the measurement. Tests were for the
main effects of group (T1 - T5) and class (a.m. or p.m.) and for
possible interactions between treatment group and class.

Multivariate tests were conducted for acquisition, retention,
and for affective responses. The multivariate significance level
for these tests was .05, with significance at .10 also indicated.
The rationale for the inclusion of results in terms of this higher
alpha level ( 5‘ = .10) is presented in Chapter II. The multivariate
test for acquisition was conducted on IS and IK scores. The multi-
variate test for retention included DK and TS, and the affective
response test included the variables of S and C. When the group main
effects were significant on the multivariate test, univariate tests
on the two variables involved were conducted. In order not to exceed
the overall probability of Type I error deemed appropriate for the
study, the alpha ( "B .05 and .10) was partitioned for the univariate
tests resulting in univariate ‘2 .025 (for ‘- .05) and ‘1' .05
(for d- .10).

The multivariate analysis for acquisition measures for skill (IS)
and knowledge (IK) resulted in significant main effects for group

(F - 2.1464, p > .0386, df 8,96). Next, univariate tests were run

91

to determine which of the measures was contributing to the significant
main effects for group. The univariate F for immediate skill (IS)

was found to be statistically significant (univariate “I .025),
while the immediate knowledge (IK) was not. Scheffe'post hoc analysis
were used to test the hypotheses relating to immediate skill (IS). The
main effects of class and the interaction of class and group were

not significant at 9‘= .05 or O‘= .10.

The multivariate anlaysis of affective responses on the variables

of satisfaction (S) and confidence (C) resulted in no significant
main effects for groups or class. The interactions of class and
treatment group were significant (F = 2.9070, p <:.0133, df 6,76)-
The multivariate and univariate F values and significance levels for
the acquisition, retention, and affective measures are presented in
Tables 3.3, 3.4, and 3.5, respectively. The next sections cover the
specific findings of the various tests.

Results for Skill and Knowledge Acquisition Hypotheses

 

Immediate skill (IS). The univariate F for group effects on

 

IS were significant at “=1 . 025 (F = 4.44, p < .0039, df 4).
Scheffe’post hoc tests with 95% confidence intervals were used to test
the IS hypotheses. The first four hypotheses were presented as
directional hypothese because it was believed that differences might
exist between groups in terms of their skill on the immediate
performance measure (IS).

Hypothesis 1 tested whether §s assigned to modeling, shaping,
prose unit, and combined procedure would score higher on the immediate

/
skill measure than those in the control group. The Scheffe post

92

Table 3.3

Multivariate and Univariate F Values and Significance Levels for

Acquisition Measures of Knowledge (IK) and Skill (IS)

Group Effect
Between
IS
IK
Class Effect
Between

IS
IK

Interaction
Between
IS
IK

Error

IS
IK

MS

12143.96
227.34

2334.11
119.14

3013.12
191.60

2732.70
321.51

df

49
49

Multi- Uni-

variate F variate F

2.15
4.44
.71

.44
.85
.37

.93
1.10
.60

* indicates significance at multivariate “C = .05

** indicates significance at univariate

°c = .025

P<:

.0386*
.0039**
.5910

.6458
.3600
.5456

.4952
.3660
.6673

93

Table 3.4

Multivariate and Univariate F Values and Significance Levels for
Retention.Measures of Delayed Knowledge (DK)
and Transfer Skill (TS)

Multi- Uni-
MS df variate F variate F P<

Group Effect

Between 6,44 4.55 .0012*

TS 16619.06 3 12.16 .0001**

DK 23.63 3 .32 .8087
Class Effect

BetWeen 2,11 .72 .4984

TS 435.00 1 .32 .5782

DK 103.19 1 1.41 .2470
Interaction

Between 6,44 1.66 .1539

TS 3803.02 3 2.78 .0639

DK 56.33 3 .77 .5225
Error

TS 1367.31 23

DK 73.13 23

* indicates significance at multivariate 0°C - .05

** indicates significance at univariate QC: .025

94

Table 3.5

Multivariate and Univariate F Values and Significance Levels for

Affective Measures of Satisfaction (S) and Confidence (C)

Multi- Uni-
MS df variate F variate F P 4

Group Effect

Between 6,76 1.71 .1297

S 2359.20 3 2.62 .0642

C 201.78 3 1.57 .2129
Class Effect

Between 2,38 .28 .7565

S 115.21 1 .13 .7224

C 8.34 l .07 .8005
Interaction

Between 6,76 2.91 .0133*

S 2586.47 3 2.8752 .0484**

C 245.25 3 1.9044 .1449
Error

8 899.59 39

C 128.78 39

* indicates significance at multivariate 0C = . 05
** indicates significance at univariate cc 8 .05

multivariate 9‘ B .10

95

hoc test indicated that the gs in the four active treatment groups did
score significantly higher than those in the control groups.

The order of effectiveness of the four treatment groups was
predicted by Hypotheses 2, 3, and 4. Hypothesis 2 was developed to
test whether or not the combined procedure, which included all three
levels of simulation fidelity, would be more effective in terms of
IS scores than any of the other procedures. The studies of Frankel
(1971), Higgins, Ivey, and Uhlemann (1970), and Whalen (1969), which
found the combinations of modeling and self-evaluation and modeling
and descriptive materials more effective than modeling, reading, or
feedback alone, had guided this prediction. The findings of Eisenberg
and Delaney (1970) also influenced the direction of this and
Hypothesis 3. This third hypothesis was included to determine whether
Se in the modeling group would score higher on immediate skill than
those in the shaping or prose unit groups. This prediction was based
in part upon research by Engler (1972), Bandura (1969), Kanfer and
Phillips (1970), Frankel (1971), and Eisenberg and Delaney (1970) which,
not only identified modeling as a viable means for acquiring new
behaviors, but also, argues its superiority over operant conditioning
procedures which represent a higher level of simulation fidelity. From
post hoc tests for Hypotheses 2 and 3 it was determined that no
significant differences existed between the combined group and the
modeling, shaping, and prose unit groups. There was also no difference
between modeling and the shaping and prose unit groups. The fourth
immediate skill hypothesis, was non—directional and was used to test

for the similarity of the scores 0f.§$ in the prose unit (lowest

96

level of fidelity) and shaping (highest level) groups. The predicted
sindlarity of scores for the groups in this comparison was a function
of the lack of data supporting a direction for the hypothesis. Post hoc
results indicated that the difference between the two groups was not
statistically significant. The cell means for Se in the shaping
procedure were somewhat higher but the difference, as predicted, was

not great between these two procedures.

Immediate knowledge (IK). Hypotheses 5—8 were formulated to

 

assess group differences on immediate knowledge acquisition (IK).
Hypothesis 5 was used to compare the four active treatment groups

to the control. It tested whether Se in shaping, modeling, prose
unit, and combined method scored higher on IK than the control group
Se. Hypotheses 6-8 were used to test the assumption that the greater
the degree of similarity between the learning situation and the test
behavior required, the greater the probability of accurate responses.
For knowledge measures treatments including written elements were
considered to be higher in fidelity than those lacking prose components.
It was expected that §s reading information (prose unit and written
portion of the combined procedure) would be more able to respond
accurately on a.written informational measures than those whose
instruction did not include the written element. As discussed in
Chapter I, there are few comparative studies including prose.materials
as an active treatment group and therefore very little experimental
data upon which to base hypotheses concerning the relative effect of
the procedure. Hypothesis 6 was developed to test the equivalence

of the IR scores of Se in the prose unit and combined method group.

97

The seventh hypothesis was formulated to assess the equivalence of

the scores of §s in shaping and modeling groups. The final immediate
knowledge hypothesis was directional and was included to test whether
§s exposed to the prose unit or the combined method procedure (higher
fidelity for knowledge test) would score higher than those exposed to
modeling or shaping (low fidelity procedures for the written knowledge
test).

The univariate F value for immediate knowledge (IK) was not
significant (F = .71, p'< . 5910, df 4). Based upon this lack of
significance difference between groups on the knowledge measure,
Hypotheses 5 - 8 were not supported.

Results for Transfer Skill and Delayed Knowledge Hypotheses

The multivariate tests for knowledge retention and transfer
skill indicated significant group overall effects (F - 4.55,

p < .0012, df 6,44). The subsequent univariate tests on DK and TS
revealed that the univariate F for group differences on delayed
knowledge (DK) was not significant (F = .32, p < .8087, df 6,44).
The univariate F for transfer skill (TS) was highly significant (F 8
12.16, p < .0001, df 6,44). The TS hypotheses were tested by
Scheffe’post hoc procedures. The delayed knowledge and transfer
skill hypothesis are discussed separately.

Transfer skill.(TS). A major concern of the study was whether or

 

not the skills developed during the treatment phase could be transferred
by the trainees into practice during the practicum.experience. Three
hypotheses were developed. Each was concerned with the differential

impact of the four treatment groups over time and in a more natural

98

setting. It was predicted (Hypothesis 9) that no significant difference
would be found between the transfer skill of Se in the combined and
modeling groups. This prediction is based upon the idea that initial
between-group differences would be minimized because of the number

of possible confounding effects between the treatment and the
transfer skill measures. Next, it was predicted (Hypothesis 10) that
no difference would be found between the performance of the shaping
(highest fidelity for skill performance) and prose unit (lowest
fidelity for skill) groups on the transfer skill measures. Finally,
it was predicted (Hypothesis 11) that the Se in the combined and
modeling procedures would demonstrate greater transfer skill than.§s
who had completed the prose unit and shaping treatments. This
prediction was based upon research previously cited in support of
Hypotheses 2 and 3, which suggest that modeling and various combined
procedures are significantly more potent than prose materials or
shaping. The hypothesis assumed that this superiority was of a
magnitude great enough to be significant in spite of the time lapse
and the possible intervening variables which might dilute treatment
effects.

Scheffefpost hoc procedures using a 95% confidence interval with
df 3,23 were used to test these transfer skill hypotheses. As
predicted (Hypotheses 9) the test revealed no significant difference
between the TS scores of the combined and modeling group S9.

The difference in the transfer of Ss skill in these two groups to
the more natural practicum.was not statistically significant. The

Scheffe’test of the equivance of the TS scores of gs in the shaping

99

and prose unit group (Hypothesis 10) revealed that there were in fact
significant differences between the two. This tenth hypothesis was
thus not supported because the scores of the gs experiencing the shaping
process were considerably higher than those of §§ who were instructed
by the prose unit method. Modeling proved to be significantly more
effective than the prose unit as indicated by higher TS scores for the
modeling §s (Hypothesis 11). Se in the combined method obtained

higher TS scores than did those instructed through the prose unit
(Hypothesis 11). This support of the hypothesized superiority of the
scores of modeling and combined method §s over those in the prose

unit group reflects the predicted greater potency (with respect to the
transfer skill) of these two higher levels of simulation. The Scheffe’
tests for the superiority of the scores of Se in the modeling procedure
over those of Se in the shaping groups (Hypothesis 11) was not supported
due to the lack of statistically significant difference between the
scores of Se in the two groups. Tests of the final contrast for
Hypothesis 11 found a lack of statistical significance for the
difference between the TS scores of those exposed to combined method
and shaping procedure. The prediction of higher TS scores for Se

in the modeling and combined procedures than for those in the shaping
experience (Hypothesis 11) was not supported by Scheffe’post hoc tests.
However, an examination of cell means revealed that the scores of gs

in modeling and combined procedures were higher than those of Se in

the shaping treatment. The magnitude of these differences was not

great enough to be significant in the post hoc analyses.

100

Delayed knowledge (DK). Another focus of the study was that of
determining if shaping, modeling, prose unit, and the combined
method were differentially effective in fostering the retention of
information on the termination process. Based on a relative lack of
information on retention for the methods compared, the same order of
treatment effectiveness expected on the immediate knowledge measure
was expected for the DK scores of the four active treatment groups.
Hypotheses 12 - 14 were developed to test this anticipated order.
There was no significant difference expected between the prose unit
and the combined method group gs on the delayed knowledge measure
(Hypothesis 12). The equivalence of the modeling group scores and
those of the shaping group was also predicted (Hypothesis 13). The
fourteenth hypothesis was formulated to test whether the scores for
the trainees exposed to the prose unit and combined method group
would be higher for DK than those in the modeling and shaping groups.
The rationale for these hypotheses was identical to that presented for
the immediate knowledge predictions. The lack of overall significance
between groups as reflected by the p value on the univariate test
of DK prohibited the Scheffe’testing of the specific hypothesis
regarding delayed knowledge. Accordingly, Hypotheses 12 - 14 were
not supported. The means of all four groups were approximately
equal with the combined and shaping Se scoring higher by a very small
margin.
Results for the Affective Measures Hypotheses

The study was designed to compare the impact of the instructional

methods in terms of trainee satisfaction and confidence, as well as in

101

terms of skill and knowledge. Trainee's satisfaction (8) with the
method experienced and of their confidence (C) in their ability were
the variables considered most relevant in terms of affective
responses. Hypotheses 15 - l8 concerned the S and C responses of

Se in the four active treatment groups--mode1ing, shaping, prose
unit, and combine method. It was expected that §s' responses

to their treatments would differ. Se in the shaping groups were
expected to have higher S and C scores than those in prose unit,
modeling, or the combined method procedure (Hypothesis 15). Hypothesis
16 was included to test whether the S and C scores of those in the
combined method and modeling procedures were higher than those of Se
assigned the prose unit. no difference was expected between the 8
scores of the combined and modeling groups (Hypothesis 17). These
hypotheses (15 - 17) were predicated on the assumptions that gs
would be most satisfied with higher fidelity proceudres, that direct
interaction with a supervisor would be valued, and that positive
reactions to the shaping component of the combined procedure would
be off—set by less favorable responses to the prose portion.

The final affective hypothesis (Hypothesis 18) was included to
test whether the c scores of combined method §s would be higher than
those of modeling and prose unit Sp. This hypothesis was based on
the expectation that performance of and feedback on the required
termination behaviors (combined method and shaping groups) would
foster greater confidence that procedures lacking the overt behavioral
component.

The affective measures of confidence (C) and satisfaction (S)

for hypothesis 15 - 18 were tested by a multivariate analysis of

102

variance. The main effects of treatment group and class were not
significant.at 0‘ .05 or .10 (multivariate p 43 .1297 and .2812,
respectively). The interaction of group and class was significant
(p < .0133). An-analysis of univariate F values for the interaction
indicated that it was not significant for S or C individually at
the alpha level of .025. The univariate tests with the higher
multivariate and univariate alphas (.10 and .05, respectively)
revealed a significant class group interaction for the S variable.
The treatment X class interaction on satisfaction (S) was significant
(p < .048) and indicated that the morning and afternoon sections
responded differently to modeling and the prose unit. The afternoon
section responded more favorably to the prose unit than to modeling;
the reverse was true of the morning group. The graph of this
interaction is presented in Figure 3.1. The graph of the non-
significant C interaction is presented in Figure 3.2. The lack of
significant group main effects in the multivariate analysis of S and
C resulted in a lack of support for the affective hypotheses (15 - 18)
at ac - .05 and .10.
Instructional Preference

A secondary purpose of the study was to investigate the nature of
the relationship between a §fs preference for the instructional
method experienced (IP) and measures of his/her acquisition of skill
and knowledge. The relationship between immediate knowledge (IK)
and immediate skill (IS) scores and instructional preference (IP)
of Se assigned to modeling, shaping, or prose unit procedures was

analyzed using the Pearson correlation coefficient. Hypotheses l9 — 24

103

165
160
155
150
145
140
135
130

125

Satisfaction (8) Score

120

115

110

 

105

 

100 44*

 

Multiple Levels High Moderate Low
of Fidelity Fidelity Fidelity Fidelity

(Combined (Shaping) (Modeling) (Prose Unit)
Method)
a.m. - designates Se in the morning section

p.ma - designates Se in the afternoon section

Figure 3.1 Graph of the Interaction Between a Dependent Variable

(Satisfaction) and Two Independent Variables (Treatment
and Class)

104

52
51
so
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
4o
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
3o

 

 

 

Multiple Levels High Moderate Low
of Fidelity Fidelity Fidelity Fidelity

(Combined (Shaping) (Modeling) (Prose Unit)
Method)

aim. - designates‘gs in the morning section

p.m. - designates Se in the afternoon section

Figure 3.2. Graph of the Interaction Between a Dependent Variable
(Confidence) and Two Independent Variables (Treatment
and Class)

105

were formulated to test the significance of the correlation between
this preference for the method experienced (IP) and IS and IK scores.
It was expected that there would be no significant relationship between
the IP socres of Se in the prose unit experience and their IK
(Hypothesis l9) and IS (Hypothesis 22) scores. Also, no significant
correlation was predicted between the IP for modeling and the IK and

IS scores of gs in that treatment (Hypotheses 20 and 23, respectively).
Finally, the lack of significant relationship between IP for shaping
and the IR and IS scores of Se in the shaping group was predicted
(Hypotheses 21 and 24, respectively).

These predictions were based on the belief that graduate level
students, regardless of preference for a specific procedure, would
due to the motivational factors associated with graduate study
perform to the best of their ability. The assumption was that students
at this level would not react strongly enough to any of the treatments
for their reactions to affect their performance.

The Pearson correlations and their significance levels are
reported in Table 3.6. These tests revealed a significant relationship
between shaping preference score (IP) and immediate skill (IS)
at 0‘ - .05 and also between IP and IR at at - .10. Other relation-
ships were not significant at either level and thus hypotheses 19, 20,
22, and 23 were supported. The significant correlations of IP for
shaping and 18 (p - .06) and IR (p - .001) for §s exposed to that
procedure were .45 and .83, respectively and reflected a positive
relationship between preference for shaping and acquisition scores (IK

and 18) associated with instruction using the procedure. Though other

106

Table 3.6

Pearson Correlation Between Instructional Preference

and Immediate Skill and Knowledge

IK
Prose Unit (n = 13) .13 (.34)
Modeling (n = 11) -.06 (.43)
Shaping (n = 13) .45 (.06)**

( ) indicates level of significance
* indicates significance at 0‘ - .05

** indicates significance at 9‘ - .10

IS

.16 (.31)

.30 (.19)

. 83 (.001)*

107

correlations were not significant all of them, with the exception of
that between modeling IP and IK, were positive correlations indicating
higher preference tended to be related to higher IR and IS scores. For
IP modeling and IK, high scores on one measure were related to low
scores on the other. It should be noted that the correlations between
IP prose and IS and IX and between IP modeling and IS and IR are too
low to support the existence of significant relationship between
preference and skill and knowledge acquisition.

Status of the Research Hypotheses

 

The findings of this study are restated by hypothesis:

Immediate Skill

 

1. Se instructed by the combined method, modeling, shaping,
and prose learning unit will score higher than those in
the control group on the immediate skill (IS) measure.

Cb, M, P, S > Control: Supported

2. Se in the combined methods group will score higher than
those instructed by modeling, shaping, and prose learning
unit on the immediate skill (IS) measure.

Combined > Modeling: Not Supported
Combined > Shaping: Not Supported
Combined >’ Prose Unit: Not Supported

3. Se in the modeling group will score higher than those
exposed to shaping or prose unit procedures on the
immediate skill (18) measure.

Modeling > Shaping: Not Supported
Modeling > Prose Unit: Not Supported

4. §s experiencing prose learning unit and shaping procedures
will not have significantly different scores on the
immediate skill (IS) measure.

Prose Unit - Shaping: Supported

108

Immediate Knowledge (IK)

5.

Transfer

9.

10.

11.

Se exposed to the combined method, modeling, shaping, and
prose learning unit will score higher than those in the
control condition on the immediate knowledge (IK) measure.
Cb, M, S, P > Control: Not Supported
There will be no difference in the immediate knowledge (IK)
scores of gs in the combined group and those in the prose
learning unit group.
Combined a Prose Unit: --Not Supported

There will be no difference in the immediate knowledge (IK)
scores of Se experiencing the shaping and modeling procedures.

Shaping - Modeling: Not Supported
Se in the combined and prose learning unit groups will
score higher than those in the shaping and modeling
groups.

Combined .> Shaping: Not Supported

Combined, > Modeling: Not Supported

Prose Unit >» Shaping: Not Supported

Prose Unit >' Modeling: Not Supported
Skill (TS)
There will be no difference in the Transfer Skill (TS)
scores of Se exposed to the combined method and those
exposed to modeling instructional procedure.

Mbdeling a Combined: Supported

There will be no difference in the scores of g; exposed to
the shaping and the prose instruction.

Shaping - Prose Unit: Not Supported

‘Ss in the modeling and combined procedures will score
higher than those in the shaping and prose unit groups.

Modeling .> Shaping: Not Supported
Modeling > Prose Unit: Supported
Combined > Shaping: Not Supported

Combined > Prose Unit: Supported

Delayed

12.

13.

14.

109

Knowledgg_(DK) (no control group included)

There will be no difference in the scores of §P in the
prose unit and combined instructional groups.

Prose - Combined: Not Supported

There will be no difference in the scores of §s in the
shaping and modeling instructional groups.

Shaping - Modeling: Not Supported

Se in the prose unit and combined group will score
higher than.§s in Shaping and modeling groups.

Prose Unit 5 Shaping: Not Supported
Prose Unit )' Modeling: Not Supported
Combined > Shaping: . Not Supported

Combined > Modeling: Not Supported

Affective Measure (no control group included)

15.

16.

Se in the shaping procedure will have higher scores in
satisfaction (S) and confidence (C) than those in the
modeling, prose unit, and combined groups.

Satisfaction (S)

Shaping > Modeling: Not Supported
Shaping ). Prose Unit: Not Supported
Shaping .> Combined: Not Supported

Confidence (C)

Shaping > Modeling: Not Supported
Shaping > Prose Unit: Not Supported
Shaping .> Combined: Not Supported

§s experiencing the combined method and the modeling

method of instruction will score higher than those

instructed with prose unit on satisfaction (S).
Combined > Prose Unit: Not Supported

Modeling > Prose Unit: Not Supported

110

17. There will be no difference in the scores of Se in the
combined method and modeling groups on satisfaction (S).

Combined - Modeling: Not Supported

18. Se in the combined method will have higher confidence (C)
scores than those in modeling and prose unit groups.

Combined > Modeling: Not Supported
Combined > Prose Unit: Not Supported

Instructional Preference

 

Immediate Knowledge (IK)

19. No significant relationship will be found between the
measure of immediate knowledge (IK) and the degree of
preference for prose learning.

Relationship between IP and IR for prose
learning not significant: Supported

20. No significant relationship will be found between the
measure of immediate knowledge (IK) and the degree of
preference for modeling.

Relationship of IP and IK for modeling not
significant: Supported

21. No significant relationship will be found between
the measure of immediate knowledge (IK) and the degree
of preference for shaping.

Relationship of IP and IK for shaping not
significant: Not Supported 0‘ - .05
Supported 04 - .10

Immediate Skill (IS)

22. No significant relationship will be found between the
measure of immediate skill (18) and the degree of preference
for prose learning.

Relationship of IP and IS for prose learning
not significant: Supported

23. No significant relationship will be found between the
measure of immediate skill (IS) and the degree of
preference for modeling.

Relationship of IP and IS for modeling not
-significant: Supported

111
24. No significant relationship will be found between the
measure of immediate skill (18) and the degree of pre-
ference for shaping.

Relationship of IP and 18 for shaping not
significant: Not Supported

The results of multivariate, univariate, and Scheffe/post hoc
procedures have been reported in this chapter. Significant between-
group differences (main effects) were found for both acquisition and
retention of knowledge and skill. Univariate tests with partitioned
alphas revealed that the differences between groups in terms of skill
(IS and TS) were significant. Subsequent Scheffé’post hoc tests indi-
cate that immediate skill scores (IS) of the four active treatment
groups are significantly greater than those of the controls. It was
also found that there was no significant difference between prose unit
and shaping IS scores nor between modeling and combined method TS scores.
Se in modeling and combined procedures scored higher on TS than did Se
in the prose group. The interaction between class and group was signi-
ficant for the affective measure multivariate test. With a univariate
0‘ of .05, the interaction was significant for the 3 variable. 0f the
correlation between Ss' preference for the instructional method exper-
ienced and the IS and IR scores, only the correlation between I? shaping
and IS and IK.were significant (p - .001 and .06, respectively). The
final chapter of this study, Chapter IV, will discuss these results and
their implications for counselor training and for future research in the

area 0

Chapter IV
Discussion

Overview

This experiment compared the effectiveness of various instruc-
tional methods on the teaching of the skills and procedures associated
with the termination of counseling contact. The instructional procedures
contrasted were modeling, shaping, prose learning unit, and a pro-
cedure which was a combination of the three previously mentioned
instructional modes. The modeling method consisted of a narrated
videotape of a counselor terminating formal contact with clients under
conditions in which the objectives for counseling had been attained
and also when they had not. The videotape unit identified various
occasions for termination and modeled the procedure appropriate for
each based upon the Michigan State University model for Systematic
Counseling. The shaping procedure utilized graduate-level trainees
interacting with the subjects individually to shape their initial
performance of the termination process into one which corresponded
to the procedure specified by the Systematic Counseling model. The
prose learning unit presented the termination procedure in a learning
unit. In the combined method procedure §s read a 20dmdnute unit
covering termination procedures, saw a 20dminute videotape of a
counselor terminating a client, and finally engaged in a role-played
termination with graduate-level trainees who used the shaping procedure
to make trainee behaviors more congruent with the Systematic Counseling
model. All methods presented identical information and were

approximately one hour in duration. A control group which received

112

113

no instruction concerning the process for termination of counseling
contact was also included in the analysis of skill and knowledge
acquisition.

The termination process taught the subjects in the study was a
four-step process:

1. Explain the rationale and procedure for termination.

2. Manage client/counselor resistance to termination.

3. Conduct transfer of learning.

4. Plan monitoring of client performance.

These steps involved the performance of 19 behaviors (Appendix N)-
Since the relevance and content of some of the required behaviors

were dependent upon the reason for and circumstances of the termination,
the instructional materials included procedures for termination under
conditions of attained and unattained counseling objectives.

The termination procedure was presented in a one-hour instructional
period which was immediately followed by an evaluation of the
experience and written and performance tests. During the instructional
hour Se in the control condition reviewed material concerning other
aspects of the counseling process, but did not cover the termination
phase. Following their hour review session, control Sp completed
the same l7-item knowledge and role-played performance tests as g;
assigned to the four active treatment conditions. Retention of knowb
ledge of the termination procedure and transfer of skill in termination
to actual counseling settings were measured for Se in the active
treatment groups. The measure of knowledge retention was an ll-item

paper-and-pencil followhup test given 14 weeks after the instructional

114

phase. Transfer of skill to an actual counseling setting was measured
by ratings of an audiotape of the termination session for the first
client terminated during the Ss' practicum, These tapes were made

12 to 14 weeks after the instruction concerning termination.

Se in the study were master's degree candidates in counseling at
Michigan State University. They had volunteered to participate in
the study and were aware that its purpose was to compare methods for
teaching a counseling skill, but did not know which methods were to
be compared. The original 68 volunteers were randomly assigned to
one of the active treatments or to the control condition one week
prior to the study. They were not told what method they would
experience. On the day of the study 62 of the 68 were present. These
§s were the sample for the study.

The criterion measures for the study were formulated to examine
the impact of the various instructional methods representing differential
levels of fidelity in simulation in terms of knowledge and skill
acquisition, satisfaction with the instructional experience, confidence
in one's ability to execute the specified behaviors, retention of
information, and transfer of skill to the actual counseling setting.
Skill scores (immediate and transfer) were based on the ratings of
three independent raters with interrater reliabilities of .99 and .98
an.immediate and transfer skill measures, respectively. The knowb
ledge acquisition and retention measures were paper-and-pencil tests
covering information on termination procedures and rationale. The
‘measures of satisfaction with the instructional.experience and

confidence in one's ability to terminate counseling contact were

115

pencil-and-paper measures of combinations of semantic differential
and Likert-type items. Affective, transfer, and retention measures
were not given to Se in the control condition. The last measure

for the study, instruction preference, was completed prior to the
study. All students in ED 819D were asked to respond to six concepts
in terms of their reaction to them as instructional procedures in
counselor education. Three of the six concepts rated corresponded

to the prose learning unit, modeling, and shaping procedures included
in the study. At the time §s completed this preference measure they
were unaware that they would later be asked to participate in a study
on instructional methods and Ss' expressed preference in no way
affected their assignment to treatment or control groups. Preference
score for the instructional procedure experienced (prose unit, modeling,
or shaping) were correlated with scores of knowledge and skill
acquisition.

It was hypothesized that gs in the active treatment groups would
have higher scores on knowledge and skill acquisition than those in
the control group. It was further hypothesized that §§_who read
information on termination (prose unit and combined groups) would
score higher on the knowledge measures than those who were not
exposed to written material. .Ss who observed (modeling), experienced
(shaping), or observed and experienced (combined methods) the termina-
tion process would score higher on skill acquisition measures and
would express greater confidence in their ability to terminate
clients. In terms of knowledge retention, the same order of effectiveness

expected for the acquisition phase was predicted. The continued

116

superiority of combined and modeling methods over prose unit and
shaping was expected for transfer skill measures.

Correlations between the preference scores for the instructional
method experienced and their levels of knowledge and skill acquisition
were expected to be non-significant at °‘-= .05 and at at = .10.

The design was an unbalanced posttest-only design. The data were
anlayzed using MANOVA with multivariate and univariate F-values
reported. Scheffe’post hoc procedures were used to test specific
hypotheses where significant univariate overall group effects were
detected. Multivariate alpha levels were set a priori at Ok-I.05 and
reported at d- .10 as well. In order not to exceed these
significant levels, the multivariate alpha was partitioned for the
univariate test for the various individual measures. The univariate
alpha level for all measures was .025 or .05, depending upon.multi-
variate level 0‘- .05 or at- .10.

Limitations

Before suggesting conclusions that could be drawn from this
experiment, certain limitations should be noted. Each has implications
for the interpretation of the results and conclusions of this study
and for the development of future related research.

Desigg. The experimental design was a posttest-only model with
a follow—up to assess retention of knowledge and transfer of skill.
The followbup was considered a strength in that it made it possible
to consider the differential long term impact of instructional
methods in these two very important areas (knowledge and skill).

However, the introduction of the delayed measures into the design

117

presented the possibility of confounding due to §_mortality. For

the knowledge measure where attrition was low (three gs), the
probability that the group completing the delayed measure (DK)

was in reality very different from that completing the initial
measure (IK) is not great. With the transfer of skill measure (T8)
for which 17 Se were deleted because of failure to reach the point

of termination during their practicum, the notion of confounding due
to mortality is more tenable. Though attrition seemed to be spread
over all treatment groups, it is not unreasonable to believe that

§s completing the transfer of skill measure differed from those who
did not. Some possible areas of difference are those of skill and/or
motivation. The effects of history must also be considered as possibly
confounding the two follow-up measures.

Sample. The use of a sample of volunteers from one state university
rather than a sample randomly selected from the general population of
master's level counseling students technically limits the generalization
of study conclusions. This limitation to external validity is tempered
by the Cornfield and Tukey (1956) argument for the generalization of
results from such studies to similar populations. For purposes of
generalization a summary of demographic information was included in
Chapter II. The extent to which such generalization is appropriate
must be determined by the reader.

Measures. The immediate and delayed knowledge measures were
intended to cover each of the four steps of the termination process
and also to assess overall understanding of the total process. Total

scale reliabilities were adequate (.78 and .67 for IR and DK,

118

respectively). However, multivariate analyses indicated that the total
scores were not effective in discriminating between groups. Subsequent
analyses of individual items and subscales (IK and DK) resulted in
discrimdnation between groups for the MANOVA with individual items on
(IK). No discrimination was possible on IK or DK using subscales
scores. The univariate values for the IR items indicated that the
between-group differences on only one item (item four) were statistically
significant at adjusted multivariate ¢K== .05 or .10. Reliabilities
of subscales were very low (.04 to .39 for DR; .26 to .64 for IK)

and the subscales were therefore not used in the analysis. Based on
this information and the consideration of item means and standard
deviations, there may well be question as to the sensitivity of these
measures for making precise discriminations between Se in terms of
knowledge level.

Termination. The experiment focused upon the teaching of

 

termination skills and procedures. This process involves numerous
rather concise behaviors which were relatively easy to identify and
rate. The results of this experiment may be related to characteristics
of this particular concept and may not be generalizable to less
specific or concrete processes.

Procedure. The instructional and immediate testing time for
each S was approximately one hour and forty minutes. Staggered
scheduling was used to alleviate waiting for skill tests, but at
several points role players were behind and Se had to wait several
minutes before their skill measure. In addition, a number of Se did

not bring their room and time assignment sheets and were confused as

119

to where they should be. Both of these factors may have resulted
in frustration and confusion for some gs.

Methods. The instructional procedures compared in this study
were examples but not necessarily exemplary instances of prose units,
modeling, shaping, and their combination. Primarily, the procedures
represented differing levels of fidelity in simulation. The
insurance of content and length comparability across treatments made
the development of pure exemplars more difficult. Accordingly, it
is suggested that the reader review the materials and procedures in
order to assess the degree to which they are exemplars of the
methods considered.

Conclusions and Implications

This experiment was designed to compare prose unit, modeling,
shaping, and a combination of the three as levels of fidelity in
simulation in counselor education. The MANOVAs showed significant
differences between groups an.immediate and transfer skill but not
on measures of knowledge acquisition and retention, satisfaction with
the procedure, or confidence in the performance of termination
(the skill taught). Post hoc tests of the immediate skill hypothesis
did not support the existence of statistically significant differences
between the treatment groups in this study. The lack of significant
difference between lowest (prose unit) and high fidelity (shaping)
procedures was supported. Post hoc tests for transfer skill supported
the predicted superiority of the combined procedure (multiple levels
of fidelity) and modeling (moderate level) over the prose unit (low

level). From these results the moderate level of fidelity (modeling)

120

and combination of levels (modeling, prose unit, and shaping) are

not significantly different and are the most effective of the procedures
considered for the transfer of termination skill to the practicum
setting.

Though between group differences were not satistically significant
for immediate skill acquisition, an examination of group means reveals
the largest mean score for Se in the procedure combining all three
levels of fidelity (combined). The moderate (modeling) and high
level (shaping) procedures have very close mean scores on this
variable. The lowest level of simulation fidelity (prose unit)
had the lowest scores on skill and knowledge acquisition and transfer
and retention.

Considering the study results in terms of levels of simulation,
the prose unit which was the lowest level of fidelity for skill and
highest for knowledge, proved least effective on both criterion
measures. It was inferior not only in teaching behaviors (IS and
TS), which represented a mode quite different from that of the method
(prose unit), but also in knowledge acquisition (IK) and retention
(DK) for which the tests and instructional modalities were quite
similar. The differences between the highest level (shaping),
an intermediate level (modeling), and the combination of levels were
not significant. However, examining group means, the method combining
various levels of fidelity proved most effective on information and
skill measures. This result was anticipated from the research
reviewed in Chapter I and cited in support of the hypothesis in the

third chapter. It is probable that the modes reinforce and/or

121

augment each other. Accordingly, the prose unit section directed §s
attention to relevant information (acting much as a preorganizer);

the modeling segment demonstrated procedures and focused attention

on relevant behaviors; and the shaping phase provided an opportunity
to integrate the learnings of the previous stages. During this final
phase §s could identify weak elements of their performance and review
(mentally or overtly) the appropriate behaviors. While it might have
been expected that this procedure would be superior to that of shaping
because the latter does not present the information as systematically,
§s are not aware of the expectations, and perfection of performance
takes longer when one must also determine what behaviors are appropriate,
the superiority was not verified. The benefit 0f Practice or received
feedback for acquisition or retention of skill was not demonstrated.

With respect to skill acquisition and retention, it does not appear
that the incorporation of multiple levels of fidelity into the instruction
adds significantly to its impact as compared to a moderate level. This
study cannot support the differential efficacy of high fidelity procedures
(shaping) and moderate level approaches (modeling) in the acquisition
of termination skills. The findings do indicate that the multi—level
procedure (combined) and the moderate level approach (modeling) may
foster greater skill retention than the lowest level method (prose
unit) though acquisition levels do not differ significantly in a
statistical sense. This difference between the groups for retention
may be a function of either increases in skill in the multi-level and
modeling groups over time, decreases in the skill of the prose
groupyor both. In any case it appears that a procedure including

moderate or various levels of fidelity is superior to one using only

122

the lowest of the levels for retention and transfer of skill. Further,
since the modeling component is the common element between these two
superior procedures, it may play a very significant role in retention

or augmentation of skills. It may be that the superiority of a behavioral
model over a lower fidelity written model is in terms of retention

and transfer of behaviors rather than in acquisition.

In terms of statistical significance, there is no evidence that
level of fidelity has any bearing upon knowledge acquisition or
retention. An examination of group means indicates that on the
knowledge measures the highest fidelity procedure resulted in lowest
scores. However, the differences between the means for the procedures
for all levels of fidelity were so small that there is no indication
that lower fidelity methods are more effective.

The findings on the affective measures of satisfaction and
confidence are difficult to summarize due to the treatment X group
interaction. 0n satisfaction (8) and confidence (C) the shaping
method (high fidelity) was rated more positively than the combined
method (multilevel) treatment by both a.m. and p.m. sections. It is
suspected that §s may have enjoyed the prolonged contact with their
supervisor and extensive feedback on their performance (shaping) and
that in the combined procedure the necessity of switching instructional
modes and locations after relatively brief instructional phases (20
minutes) may have been disruptive and/or frustrating to some gs.

Comparing the costs (initial and ongoing) associated with the
four instructional methods from.most- to least-expensive for counselor
education programs, the order would be shaping, combined, modeling,

and prose unit. Given the lack of statistically significant difference

123

between the shaping, combined, and modeling groups and the long term
superiority of the combined and modeling procedures over the prose unit,
the use of combined and/or modeling procedures in counselor training
is indicated.

The provision of supervisors for the shaping or practice phase
of the combined procedures would be a continuous expense for training
programs. In view of the low supervisor to student ratio possible for
this costly phase of the instruction, it is believed that the
continuous cost of the combined procedure would be far greater than
those involved in the maintenance of the videotapes and equipment
involved in the modeling procedure. Initial costs for the modeling
methods would include the development of videotape models; cost for the
combined procedure would include development of a prose unit as well
as the model tape. In view of the lack of significantly differential
impact on acquisition and retention it appears that, as the procedures
were utilized in this study, modeling (moderate level of fidelity in
simulation) is more economical for the training institution than a
procedure which combines the various levels of fidelity.

It was expected that the correlation between §fs preference
for the method experienced and skill (IS) and knowledge (IK)
acquisition scores would not be significant. This was found to be true
for prose unit and modeling, but not for shaping. This finding may have
been related to the differential level of involvement required by
the procedures. Prose unit and modeling were passive instructional
procedures involving little overt activity and in all probability
little anxiety. By contrast, the shaping method required the Ss'

active participation and would be expected to generate considerable

124

anxiety especially during the initial interaction or exposure. In
light of these differences one might hypothesize that when the
instructional method requires minimal student involvement affective
responses to the procedure are not particularly related to knowledge
or skill acquisition. However, when Se are asked to become actively
involved in the learning experience, their affective response to the
procedure is directly related to the resultant learning. It seems
logical to assume that predispositions for liking or disliking an
experience are most likely to affect the outcomes of the experience
if one is required to act. The activity requirement brings attitudes
and preferences into a focus or awareness which could impede or
facilitate learning depending upon the direction of the attitude.

The statistically significant findings of this study, as well as
the observed direction of other contrasts which were not significant
in a statistical sense, yield the following conclusions:

1. Moderate (modeling), high (shaping), and multi-level
procedures (combined method) may all be considered more
viable means of teaching counselor trainees the skills
associated with termination than lowest fidelity procedures
(prose unit), if retention of skill is the variable deemed
important.

2. Due to the lack of statistical significance between multi-
level (combined), high (shaping), and moderate level
(modeling) procedures in terms of skill, knowledge, or
affective measures, the choice of instructional method
could be based upon cost-effectiveness assessments.

3. The various levels of fidelity in simulation and the
combination of levels are not significantly different in
the acquisition and retention of knowledge.

4. When So are to be actively involved in an instructional

procedure, consideration of their attitude toward that
procedure may be a variable worthy of consideration.

125

Suggestions for Future Research

Various areas for future investigation can be generated from this

study.

1.

Some of the possibilities are listed below:

This experiment focused upon high, moderate, and low levels
of fidelity in simulation and their combinations in terms of
their impact on acquisition and retention of termination
information and procedures. Future research might relate
acquisition and retention rates and investigate differential
loss or gain associated with these four variations of the
fidelity variable. Such additional information could be
very useful in predicting transfer and retention effects.

'Further exploration of the relationship between instructional

preference, outcome measures, and characteristics of the
instructional procedure is a fertile area for future research.
Future research could further pursue the possibility that
degree of §_involvement in an instructional experience

may interact with instructional preference to affect learning.
The effect on retention could also be studied.

The comparison of the impact of the various levels of fidelity
(prose unit, modeling, shaping, and their combination) should
be replicated with termination and other specific skills and
types of material. It is possible that there may be an
interaction between method and material taught such that the
fidelity of instructional experience may be more or less
relevant for acquisition and/or retention of knowledge and
skill depending on the type of material presented.

Further research on the affective responses of satisfaction with
an instructional procedure and confidence in one's ability to
perform the specified behaviors would be useful. Such research
could explore and relate facets of Ss' satisfaction with
instruction and confidence in their ability to perform to
acquisition and retention on performance and knowledge variables.

Additional studies which compare low, moderate, and high fidelity
procedures and their various combinations could be used to
verify the conclusions of this study and to isolate what
particular level(s) or procedure(s) facilitate(s) greatest
acquisition and retention.

Conclusion

 

The writer believes that the study has provided data on the

differential efficacy of the levels of fidelity in simulation represented

by modeling, shaping, prose unit, and their combination. Efficacy

was measured in terms of acquisition and retention of the skills and

126

information associated with the termination of counseling contact.
It is hoped that conclusions of this study will serve as an impetus
for further research on levels of simulation in instructional
procedures and on the relationship of learner attitude toward
instruction to learning. Research which replicates and builds upon
this study can contribute significantly to the increasing body of
counselor education research which attempts to identify the most
efficient and cost-effective means of training people for the

helping professions.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

SYSTEMATIC COUNSELING: A GENERAL INTRODUCTION

APPENDIX A

SYSTEMATIC COUNSELING: A GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Norman R. Stewart
Bob B. Winborn
Richard G. Johnson
Herbert M. Burks, Jr.
James R. Engelkes

Counseling Systems Research Project
Department of Counseling, Personnel Services,
and Educational Psychology
College of Education

Michigan State University

January, 1973

136

137

SYSTEMATIC COUNSELING

In 1967 the counselor education faculty at Michigan State University
made an evaluation of the master's degree program in counseling. From
this study, which revealed a number of weaknesses in the existing
program, a new model was developed for counselor preparation. This
model was entitled "Systematic Counseling." The purpose of this

brief paper is to provide an introduction to this approach. Systematic
Counseling will be defined, its scientific bases will be specified,

and its distinguishing features will be outlined. Finally, a brief
overview of the major steps in the Systematic Counseling process

will be presented .

I. Definition

Systematic Counseling is an approach in which the various
{BBPBCES of the counseling process are clearly identified and organized
‘1nto a sequence designed to resolve the client's concerns efficiently
as well as effectively.

II. Scientific Bases

Systematic Counseling represents a synthesis of three scientific
approaches--learning theory, systems analysis, and educational
'teohnology. Learning theory and the principles of behavior modifica-
tion provide the theoretical and experimental base. Systems analysis
jprovides the organizational framework, and educational technology is
‘the source of methods and materials.

3111. Distinguishipg1Features

There are several features of this approach which, when taken in
combination, serve to distinguish it from other approaches to counseling:

A. Counselor and client establish a mutually agreed-upon
objective for counseling and then work toward the attain-

ment of that objective.

B. The objective is stated in terms of specific observable
behaviors.

C. The counselor directs specific learning experiences designed
to help the client attain his objective.

D. As suggested in the proposed definition, an attempt has
been.made to identify the elements of the counseling process
and to place them into an optimal sequence. It should be
stressed, however, that while this sequence is considered

138

ideal for most situations, flexibility is provided for
situations which deviate from the usual.

E. In this approach, counseling is viewed as a learnigg
proces . Through counseling, the client learns new ways of
obtaining information, new ways of making decisions, and new
ways of responding to his environment. Moreover, he learns
how to apply these learnings to other situations beyond
those concerning the problem which brought him.in for
counseling.

F. The counselor uses a wide variety of resources in terms of
both techniques and people in helping the client to attain
his objective for counseling. Besides such "standard"
counseling techniques as listening, reflecting, clarifying,
asking questions, summarizing, and furnishing information--
nearly all of which are strictly verbal in nature--the coun-
selor uses a number of additional techniques or procedures
as well. For example, he may arrange for the client to
observe a model of the desired behavior, whether live,
audio-taped, or video-taped; he may arrange for a client
to visit a place of business; he may set up behavior contracts
or use other forms of contingency management; he may use
counter-conditioning or role-playing. Most of the latter
procedures are not limited to the verbal medium. The counselor
also frequently involves significant others in the client's
environment (e.g., teachers, parents, and peers) to observe
client behavior and dispense reinforcement for appropriate
client behaviors.

G. Monitoring and evaluation of both client and counselor
performance are built-in aspects of this approach to counseling.

H. Finally, systematic counseling incorporates a self-corrective
mechanism by which results from evaluating the counselor's
behavior are fed back to the counselor to help him in working
with other clients.

IV. Major Steps in Systematic Counseling

Attached is a simplified flowchart of the major aspects of the
Systematic Counseling process. A flowchart is merely a graphic,
sequential description of the functions and decisions involved in
the counseling process. You will note that each element, or function,
of counseling is enclosed in a box and is labeled by a verbal
statement, or descriptor. The arrows indicate the order in which the
various functions are to be performed, starting at the upper left
corner and proceeding in counter-clockwise direction. Let us now
look.more closely at certain sections of the flowchart:

139

Function l;9." In Systematic Counseling, as in other approaches,
we start with the counselor as the main functionary.
Succeeding aspects of the flowchart will show what the
counselor does.

Function 249.“ The first specific function with which the counselor
is concerned is that of processing the client referral.
The referral may originate in a number of ways. It may
be based on counselor observation; or the case may be
called to the counselor's attention by others, such as
teachers or other school personnel, by individuals or
agencies in the community at large, or by parents or other
members of the client's family. Or, the client may be a
self-referral. If he decides that this is not an appropriate
case for him to handle, he will help the client find appropriate
assistance from other sources.

Function 3.0 -- If the counselor accepts the referral, he then
prepares for the interview. This involves arranging for
an appointment and reviewing any available data on the client.

Function £19." During the first interview, the counselor explains
the counseling relationship to the client. This involves
explaining briefly the purpose of counseling, the respective
responsibilities of counselor and client, the kinds of
things focused on in counseling, and the limits under which
counseling is conducted.

Function 219." The counselor then proceeds to construct a model
of the client's concerns, i.e., he engages the client in
conversation about the difficulty so as to understand the
problem in all relevant aspects. He then verifies or checks
his picture of the client's concerns with the client himself.

Function 6.0 -- Next, counselor and client decide upon a mutually
acceptable goal and specific learning objective for counseling.

Function Z;9." The next major phase is to determine and implement
a strategy for attaining the client's learning objective.
Major strategies include information-seeking, decision-making,
and behavior modification. Examples of behavior modification
procedures commonly used are modeling, simulation, reinforce-
ment, and extinction. A plan of attack including intermediate
objectives and specific steps to be taken by client and
counselor is decided upon, and these steps are then carried out.

Function _8_._8 -- In this phase, client performance is evaluated,
both in terms of improvement over the initial, presenting
level of problem behavior and in terms of whether the learning
objective has been attained. If the objective has not been
attained, it is then necessary for counselor and client to
"recycle" through (repeat) Function 7.0, "Implement

140

Strategy,‘ after which client performance is again

evaluated.

Function 2;9." After the objective has been attained and there
is no apparent need for further counseling, the counselor
proceeds to terminate regular contact with the client. He
begins by explaining the rationale and procedures for
termination and resolves any client or counselor resistance
to termination. Next, he conducts transfer of learning,
emphasizing how the strategies and skills learned during the
counseling process can be applied by the client to future
problems. Finally, he establishes a plan for monitoring
the client's performance for a reasonable period of time
after the termination of counseling.

Function 10.0 -- In this phase the counselor follows up or
monitors the client's performance. This procedure usually
involves one or more of the following: (a) observing the
client's behavior directly; (b) asking the client how he is
progressing, usually in brief checkup interviews; (c) request-
ing information from others in the client's environment who
are familiar with his performance; and (d) examining records
and other written data concerning the client's behavior. If
the client encounters difficulty, provision is made for
further counseling.

Function 11.0 -- If the client has demonstrated successful
performance during the follow-up period, the counselor
proceeds to close the case. As part of this process, he
invites the client to return if new problems should develop
and then completes his interview notes and other records
concerning the case.

Function 12.0 -- The next phase involves an evaluation of the
counselor's performance. Here, the counselor may engage in
introspection and may also seek the help of others in evaluat-
ing his performance, including the client, fellow counselors,
teachers, supervisors, and others who are familiar with his
work with a particular client.

In the next and concluding step, the information resulting
from the evaluation of the counselor's performance is transmitted
or "fed back" (as indicated by the symbol "F") to the counselor
to help him adapt his methods so as to be more effective and
efficient with the next client. This closes the loop and
completes the cycle, thus emphasizing the self-corrective
nature of the Systematic Counseling process.

1/73/g/HMB

Figure A-l. Systematic Counseling

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APPENDIX B

PROCEDURE FOR THE TERMINATION OF COUNSELING CONTACT

APPENDIX B

PROCEDURE FOR THE TERMINATION OF COUNSELING CONTACT

I. INTRODUCTION

A. Termination procedure varies with different occasions and
circumstances

B. Occasions for termination

1.

Termination when objectives have been attained

a. Client has attained initial objective and doesn't
wish to continue
b. Client has attained all objectives identified

Inappropriate referral

a. Beyond counselor capabilities

b. More appropriately handled by another agency

c. Concern not within the normal range, therefore
not congruent with counselor role

Termination when objectives have not been attained

a. Lack of sufficient motivation

b. Lack of identification of and commitment to goals
and objectives

c. Counselor lacks skills necessary to deal with
concern

d. Concern more appropriately handled by another agency
or agent

II. TERMINATION UPON ATTAINMENT OF OBJECTIVES

A. Occasions

1.

Counseling is terminated when client's behavior has
reached specified level under the conditions designed
by the learning objective (6.4) 828_no further work is
needed on that or another concern

Ground work for termination for this case should have

been laid in the explanation of the counseling process
focus (4.3.3) and limits (4.3.4)

142

B.

Steps

1.

143

Explain termination rationale and procedures

a. Explain that counseling is of limited duration,
designed to assist client in dealing with a specific
concern, the resolution of that problem makes
the conclusion of contact appropriate

b. Prior to ending the counselor will

1)

2)

3)

Identify learnings and discuss how they can be
related to other concerns

Discuss rationale, process, and means for the
monitoring of client performance (if monitoring
is deemed appropriate)

Encourage the client to view termination as the
natural end of a successful change project

Manage client/counselor resistance

a. Client resistance

1)

2)

3)

4)

Expressed in terms of reluctance toward or fear

of ending counseling

Function of client's feeling of inability to

function without counselor's aid and approval,

support, etc. (dependency)

Manifestations

a) Client indications that there are other
things that he would like to discuss while
unable to specify a particular concern

b) Client asking counselor if they can continue
to be "friends" or to see each other
socially

c) Showing hesitance or distress at the prospect
of discontinuance of the regular contacts

d) Asking the counselor if he can call and come
in any time that problems arise or he feels
unhappy, insecure, etc.

Counselor must discourage dependency and encourage

self-confidence

a) Emphasize the client's role in the successful
achievement of the objective

b) Communicate belief that client is able to
function independently

c) Focus upon the things that the client has
learned and done in counseling that will have
value in effectively handling situations that
might previously have given the client problems

d) Use a tapering off period if necessary so
that frequency, length, and direct contact
with the client are gradually reduced

144

b. Counselor resistance

1)

2)

3)

4)

Client has come to fill counselor personality

need (e.g., power, success, admiration,

gratitude, etc.)

Client has been a "good" client (e.g., coopera-

tive, capable, successful, conscientious,

etc.)

Results of counselor dependency and attachment

a) Counselor may unwittingly encourage client
dependence and prolong contact

b) Weakening of counseling relationship,
often resulting in contact which is more
social than professional

Resolution

a) Counselor must examine vested interest in
prolonging the counseling relationship to
identify reasons for reluctance

b) Counselor must deal with own reluctance
and terminate contact

3. Conduct transfer of learning

a. Counselor's goal is to provide client with coping
skills which will make it possible for him to
function independently in a variety of situations

b. Steps

1)
2)
3)
4)

5)

Identify skills, behaviors, and strategies

learned in the counseling process

Focus on how these were used and with what

consequences

Identify other situations in which these skills,

behaviors, and strategies may be useful

Identify ways learnings can be used to secure

reinforcement from the environment

Highlight the problem solving process

a) Defining the problem carefully and
specifically

b) Identifying relevant variables and informa-
tion

c) Determining the desired change or resolution

d) Developing specific objectives

e) Planning and implementing strategies

f) Evaluating performance

4. Plan monitoring of client performance

a. Occasion

1)

Though the expectation is that change effected
during counseling will be maintained, relapses
do occur

145

2) Monitoring detects problems encountered in
maintaining changes and provides data if
further intervention is needed

3) Monitoring is not always appropriate, but is
appropriate in cases in which the behavior
changed is ongoing or repeated rather than a
one-shot act or some of very limited duration

b. Steps

1) Decide if monitoring is appropriate

2)’ Decide what data is necessary to monitor
performance and how and by whom such data is
to be collected

3) Explain the rationale and procedure for
monitoring to the client

4) Secure client agreement

5) Determine the duration of the follow-up
period, the frequency of checks, and the amount
of time (counselor, client, and other) to be
devoted to the follow-up activities

6) As a result of monitoring (10.0) the counselor

will either close the case (11.0) or do more
work with the client to effect the maintainence
of the desired behavior at an acceptable level

III. INAPPROPRIATE REFERRAL

A.

B.

Occasions

1.

2.

Most are detected early (2.2.3) on the basis of an
analysis of available data (2.2.2)

Reasons

a. Beyond counselor capabilities

b. More appropriately handled by another agency or agent

c. Concern not within the normal range; therefore not
congruent with counselor role

Steps

1.

Explain

rationale for termination in terms of 4.3

a. Does not consider the problem within the range of
normal concerns

b. Institutional guidelines or restrictions with
respect to its counseling services exclude problem

c. Counselor's experience with concerns such as that
of the client is limited and therefore another
counselor or agency would be more helpful to the
client

4.

146

d. Counselor does not feel that he has at his disposal
the resources necessary to help the client

Manage client/counselor resistance

a. Client resistance
1) Recognize that client may resent counselor
reluctance or refusal to handle case and may
consider it a personal rejection
2) Assure client that the assistance which the
counselor proposes will be more beneficial to the
client and that the referral is not a personal
rejection
b. Counselor resistance
1) Recognize that counselor may be reluctant to
give up a challenging case, one in which he has
some personal interest, or what seems to be a
good client
2) Resolve resistance and prepare for termination

Locate appropriate assistance

a. Make appropriate referral

b. Report referral to initial referral agent (if
possible without violation of confidence)

Close case

IV. TERMINATION WHEN THE OBJECTIVE HAS NOT BEEN ATTAINED

A.

Occasions

1. Departure of client or counselor

2. Lack of sufficient motivation to work on the concern

3. Inability or unwillingness to specify goals and objec-
tives for counseling

4. Awareness that effecting the desired change will have
negative consequences with which client is unable or
unwilling to cope

5. Unrealistic objectives which client refuses to modify
but cannot attain

Steps

1. Communicate with the client without displaying anger or

rejection that would inhibit the client's return to

147

counseling at such time that chances for success would
be greater

Explain the rationale for the termination based on
the explanation of the counseling process (4.3) or
other factors

a.

That the client is responsible for carrying out
assignments associated with the strategies selected
to foster the desired changes

That the counseling process involves setting goals
and working toward them

That changes in circumstances since the beginning of
counseling make the continuation of counseling
impossible

That the duration of counseling and the counselor's
resources are limited and that since the attainment
of the objective is impossible or improbable,
further expenditures on that objective seem ill
advised

Manage client/counselor resistance

a.

b.

Encourage the return of the client at such time as
he feels it would be beneficial

Encourage the client to work independently, if
appropriate '

Close the case (11.0)

APPENDIX C

MATERIALS AND INSTRUCTIONS FOR
‘ TREATMENT SUPERVISORS

APPENDIX C

MATERIALS AND INSTRUCTIONS FOR TREATMENT SUPERVISORS

ITEM 1 - General Information for Supervisors

This information is intended to provide an overview of the study and
your role. You will also have detailed instructions for the method
you will be working with. I have also included for your information
an outline and narrative of 9.0 - Terminate Counseling.

The study is a comparison of the following instructional methods:

Shaping

Modeling

Written Materials

Combined Procedures (written, modeling, shaped practice)
Control (no treatment)

The phases and time table are:

February 25: Instruction 60 minutes
Evaluation
a) cognitive measure 10 minutes
b) reactions to method 10 minutes
c) performance test
(role-play) 20 minutes

Spring Term: Cognitive measure
Performance evaluation of practicum
tape of 9.0

Trainees are allowed to take notes if they wish but should not be
encouraged to do so. Since other groups will receive no materials
to take home to study and review prior to the spring follow-up,

the groups exposed to the written materials will be asked to

leave them with the supervisor. It was felt that if these trainees
kept the materials, they would be shared with trainees from other
groups and possible between group differences that may have been
evident at the spring testing of knowledge and performance would be
reduced or eliminated.

To decrease the likelihood of interaction during the instruction, it
is desirable for trainees to be seated throughout the space available
in the room. It is also preferable for them to stay in the rooms
until 3 - 5 minutes before the scheduled period of time has elapsed

so as to reduce interaction with member from other groups. The
schedule is staggered but due to space limitations usually one group
will be entering a room as another leaves. Supervisors must also move
from one location to another in some cases. There is no time

148

149

specifically allotted to changing rooms so it is expected that a few
minutes be cut off the end of a phase when trainees must change rooms
for their next phase.

The times on your schedule are student arrival times. I will try
to have everything set, but if you could get to your room a few
minutes before the scheduled time to check things out and read
any last minute notes from me, etc., I'd rest easier.

I also want to let you know how much I appreciate your help; without
it the study would certainly not be possible. If at any time in the
future there is anything I can do to help you with your research or
other projects, please let me know.

ATTACHMENTS: Procedure for the Termination of Counseling Contact
(Appendix B)

Instructional Unit for the Prose Group (Appendix E)

ITEM 2 - Instructions for Modeling Group Supervisors

Your role is essentially that of monitor and operator of the videotape
playback unit. The modeling is presented on a videotape which lasts
approximately 55 minutes; the instructional period is 60 minutes

so there is little extra time. Since the study is designed to assess
and compare the impact of modeling and other instructional methods,

it is important to control other potentially confounding variables.
For this reason, I ask that you discourage discussion of the materials
and inform me of any events or circumstances which you feel mdght
cause or affect group reaction to the materials. Questions should be
discouraged.

Prior to beginning the videotape (which will be set up for you) you
should explain that they will be seeing models of Terminate Counseling
9.0 and that after the videotape they will evaluate the experience
and finally move to another room for the role-playing experience
which will assess their mastery of the material.

150

ITEM 3 - Instructions for Prose Unit Group Supervisors

Your function is essentially that of monitor. The prose unit is
designed to last approximately 60 minutes; but, of course, reading
time will vary. Since the study is designed to evaluate and compare
the impact of the instructional methods, it is important to control
other potentially confounding variables. For this reason I ask that
you discourage discussion of the materials and also that you inform
me of any events or circumstances which you feel might cause or
affect the group reaction to the materials. You might suggest that
trainees who finish early review the materials. They are 22£.t° take
the units with them and all units should be collected as the trainees
leave. Questions on the material should be discouraged and trainees
instructed to reread or think about the point raised.

After the instructional period, the trainees are to complete the
evaluation and finally to go to the locations scheduled for their
performance test. Both supervisors and trainees will have copies
of the room assignments for the evaluation and performance test.

Before distributing the learning units you should explain what the
trainees will be doing and indicate that the evaluation and performance
phase will follow the instructional period.

ITEM 4 - Information for Control Group Supervisor

The control group will participate in a 60 minute "debugging"

clinic on 1.0 - 8.0, the functions covered prior to February 25,
1975. The clinic will include information, questions, answers,
models, role play, etc. as deemed appropriate to the needs of the
group. It should 228 cover Terminate Counseling (9.0) or any of the
functions involved in this phase of the counseling process.

After the "debugging" period, trainees in the group will take a short
test (written test - 10 minutes) on the procedures for Terminate
Counseling (9.0) and will participate as counselors in a taped role-
played rehearsal of the Terminate Counseling function.

A brief explanation of the rationale for the control group and their
testing prior to receiving instruction should be offered and might
be as follows:

151

"As indicated in the information distributed on the study
at the time you signed up, four groups would be instructed
in 9.0 today and one group of students would have their
9.0 instruction delayed for one week, until March 4.
Students who were randomly assigned to this group will
cover the 9.0 material next week. The "pre-testing" is
designed to determine how much trainees know about termina-
tion prior to receiving any instruction. It will be used
to attempt to identify a baseline that can be used in the
subsequent development and presentation of instruction on
9.0, Terminate Counseling. Since performance is ungraded,
the pretested can in no way influence your grades but it
will probably sensitize you to the demands associated with
termination, so that you may get more from the instruction
next week."

Activities should be structured so as to reduce the time available for
discussion or brainstorming on 9.0 and the supervisor should attempt
to downplay the "test" aspect of the role-play in order to keep
anxiety levels as low as possible.

ITEM 5 - Instructions for Supervisors of the Combined Group

This group of trainees have a 60 minute instructional period divided
as follows:

Written Material 20 minutes
Model (Videotape) 20 minutes
Role-played shaped practice 20 minutes

The first two parts will occur in the same room and then trainees
will move on for their shaped role-play. After this practice, they
will evaluate the experience and participate in a final role-play
which is their performance test.

Essentially your function will be that of monitor if you are assigned

to the written and modeling_phase. The videotape machine will be
threaded and ready to start. Since it is the purpose of the study

to assess and compare the impact of instructional methods, it is
important to keep content constant and to control potentially con-
founding variables. For this reason, I ask that you discourage
discussion of the materials and inform me of any events or circumstances
which you feel might cause or affect group reaction to the material.

152

Trainees who finish the written materials early might wish to review
the unit since they cannot take these materials with them. When
the model is finished students should move to their assigned room
for the shaped practice phase of the instruction.

If you are supervising the shaped practice phase, you will first play
a client role for a termination when objectives have been attained.
If time remains, you or the trainee may choose another role for
attained objectives, pick an inappropriate referral role, or pick

one for unattained objectives. You should provide trainees with
feedback on their performance in accordance with the directions
attached for the shaping procedure. You should ppt_show trainees

how to perform nor tell them except in the form of suggestions

for improvement or questions designed to focus their attention to

a particular area of behavior which is weak. After this practice
trainees will evaluate the total instructional experience and proceed
to the location of their performance test. Students and supervisors
will have a schedule indicating the location of each.

 

ATTACHMENT: Instructions for Shaping Group Supervisors (Item 6,
Appendix C)

ITEM 6 - Instructions for Shaping Group Supervisors
Overview

This study is designed to compare several pure and combined methods
for teaching the skills and procedures associated with Terminate
Counseling 9.0. Shaping, one of the methods, is a procedure for
establishing a response by a process of successive approximations

and reinforcements. The Shaping Group is intended to be as pure

a representation of this process as possible. Since the study is to
assess and compare the impact of this procedure with that of the
other instructional methods, it is very important that trainees pp;
receive instruction on termination skill and procedures prior to
beginning their role-playing interaction with you. Any modeling or
"briefing" on what is expected to be covered in Terminate Counseling
or how the trainee should proceed provided prior to the role-play
will decrease the difference between the instructional methods. If
students are given prior termination information the accurate evalua-
tion and comparisons of the impact of shaping as a procedure for the
establishment of selected counseling responses will be impossible.
The probability of obtaining significant differences between treat-
ments reduced. Thus, it is very important that p11_information given
trainees in the treatment be given as specific feedback on their
performance and as teaching suggestions for its improvement.

153

However, since the desired comparisions are of instructional methods,
the content (information) presented via the methods must be comparable.
For this reason it is important that you incorporate 811 information
in the outline, prose material, or checklist in your comments, feed-
back, and responses. (The material in these documents is identical
and is attached.)

Objectives of Shaping Treatment Group

 

1. To use a shaping procedure to develop trainee skills with
respect to the procedures associated with the performance
of Terminate Counseling (9.0):
Explain termination rationale and procedures (9.1)
Handle client/counselor resistance (9.2)
Conduct transfer of learning (9.3)
Plan monitoring of client performance (9.4)

2. To shape trainee behavior in termination of:
a) clients who have attained their learning
objectives
b) clients who have failed to attain their learning
objectives
c) inappropriate referrals

3. To increase trainee ability to explain the rationale for
and content of the steps:
Explain termination rationale and procedures (9.1)
Handle client/counselor resistance (9.2)
Conduct transfer of learning (9.3)
Plan monitoring of client performance (9.4)

Procedure

Supervisors will interact with trainees individually for 60 minutes.
Trainees will have no prior knowledge of, or exposure to, materials
or procedures associated with the performance of Terminate Counseling
(9.0). Each supervisor will work with one trainee in the morning

and another in the afternoon.

1. Supervisors should offer trainees a very brief explanation of the
procedure. The following is an example:

 

"There are those that contend that counseling and other
helping relationships are partially a matter of intuition,
common sense, and/or 'instinct'. If this is so, it may
be expected that students already have some ideas on how
one might terminate counseling and that instructional
time could better be spent building on this knowledge
than on starting out with instruction that assumes no
facility. In this procedure I will assume a client role

154

and you will terminate counseling with me. I'll give

you feedback and suggestions based on the systems approach
procedure for termination. we'll do several role-plays to
improve and practice your skills for terminating counseling
under different circumstances and I may ask some questions
designed to clarify your understanding of the functions for
Terminate Counseling (9.0). After this practice, you will
move to the room designated on your assignment sheet to
complete an evaluation and from there to the room designated
for your role-playing performance measure."

The initial role-play should be begun without providing trainees
with information on 9.0. The trainee should be encouraged to
try out his own ideas. Trainees should be given the counselor
data sheet on the role you will be playing before they begin

the interaction.

After this initial role play trainees should be reinforced for
positive aspects of their performance. Supervisors should talk
with trainees about the interview and focus upon improving their
performance. A suggested sequence for covering the information
would include:

a. Inclusion of all required elements of Terminate Counseling
(9.0) when objective attained:
Explain termination rationale and procedures (9.1)
Manage client/counselor resistance (9.2)
Conduct transfer of learning (9.3)
Plan monitoring of client performance (9.4)

Presentation of the rationale and need for each of these sub-
function would be appropriate at this point. An example of
what you might say about omitted steps follows and the

data to be included in these explanations is presented in
outline and prose form (attached).

Manage Client/Counselor Resistance:

"I noticed that in our role play you didn't really focus
on the fact that I was reluctant to terminate counseling,
even though my objective was attained. Often reluctance
is a manifestation of client dependence on the counselor
and it is necessary to confront this and encourage the
client to become more independent. Focusing upon
accomplishments in counseling, the new coping skills
learned, the responsibility assumed in attaining the
objective, and counselor's confidence in the client's
ability may be helpful."

155

b. Identification of various circumstances in which termination
can occur and the logical procedure for each:

Inappropriate referral
Explain rationale and procedures
Manage client/counselor resistance
Locate appropriate assistance

When objectives are not attained
Explain rationale and procedures
Manage client/counselor resistance

When objectives are obtained
Explain termination rationale and procedures
Manage client/counselor resistance
Conduct transfer of learning
Plan monitoring of client performance

c. Inclusion of appropriate details and information for the
functions (see outline, prose material, or check list).

Supervisors should use several role plays and present the information
to be covered in 9.0 in the form of feedback rather than as a
"lecturette". The process should be a series of performance/
feedback/performance cycles covering as much of the information
presented in the outline, prose materials or check list as possible.
Though the focus should be on termination when objectives have been
attained, inappropriate referrals and unattained objectives should be
included in at least one brief role play (5 - 10 minutes each).

You may also get information across by asking trainees questions

and shaping their verbal response. The following is an example

of how this could be done.

Question: "Under what circumstances in counseling would it be
necessary or appropriate to terminate counseling?"

Answer: "When the client has reached the objectives."

Supervisor Response: "Yes, and what about if the client and
counselor agree that the client has not and
will not be achieving the objectives or
when the referral was inappropriate?"

For the shaping procedure some important points to remember are:

1. The "counselor" (student) must perform initially without
you providing any information on termination.

2. Reinforce all appropriate behavior and encourage modification or
new behaviors through feedback and dialog designed to make the
counselor aware of weakness in the initial or subsequent
performances.

156

3. Use feedback to encourage the client to figure out how to
improve the performance. Initiate additional role-plays
from those provided to practice and reinforce changes.

4. Avoid lecturing on how termination should be done.

5. Do not model the counselor role.

ATTACHMENTS: Procedure for the Termination of Counseling Contact
(Appendix B)

Terminate Counseling 9.0 (Appendix E)

APPENDIX D

SCRIPT OF THE MODELING GROUP VIDEOTAPE

APPENDIX D

SCRIPT OF THE MODELING GROUP VIDEOTAPE

Terminate Counseling 9.0

The evaluation of client performance in 8.0 compared the client's
performance with his baseline and learning objectives. 0n the basis
of the attainment of the objectives, and assuming no need for
discussion of other concerns, the client and counselor make a decision
that it is now time to terminate counseling. At this point they move
into 9.0 (the function called Terminate Counseling). The steps
involved in the termination of counseling differ depending upon the
circumstances. Three main types of termination are most common.
Termination on the basis of inappropriate referral is usually
accomplished before the objectives have been set. In the other two
cases the objectives have been set. In one case they were not
attained but the decision was made that no further counseling would
be useful at this time. The second case of termination objectives
were set is when the objectives have been attained. This is the type
that is most common in counseling. For this case there is a four
step process which involves the explanation of rationale and
procedures for termination. The rationale is based on 4.0, the explana-
tion of the counseling process, its purposes, responsibilities, focus
and limits. The second step in this process is management of client
and counselor resistance. Following this, transfer of learning is
conducted. This involves showing the applicability of the learnings
of counseling to problems other than the one considered in counseling.
The monitoring of client performance is the fourth step. It is
designed to insure the maintenance of behavior change. When an in-
appropriate referral is received, the transfer of learning and the
planning of monitoring are generally not appropriate. Instead, the
counselor locates appropriate assistance, closes the case, and
evaluates the contact. When the objectives have not been attained,
it is also not appropriate to conduct transfer of learning or to plan
monitoring. In this case, once resistance has been handled, the
counselor closes the case and once again evaluates the process. The
final steps of counseling are the monitoring process performed in
10-0, C1081DS the case in 11.0, and evaluation, which is performed

in 12.0. The following role play will depict the termination of

a counseling case when the concern is not appropriate based upon

the limitations of the setting.

Client: My main problem now is my husband resenting me having
a job. He has stopped talking to me and things have been
really tense and unpleasant at home. We argue about my
working.

157

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

158

I guess that must bother you quite a bit. You thought
he'd be pleased about your helping out. Are you pretty
certain that it's due to your job?

Yes. He's asked me for a divorce; he says I don't act
like his wife anymore.

We will try to get you some help with this but I may
not be the best person to talk with about it. When I
talked with you earlier about the job seeking, I
explained the kinds of things that we did here at the
Employment Securities Office. I gave you an idea of
what things we dealt with as counselors and how we
went about it. One thing that I mentioned is that we
have certain restrictions because of our setting. I
think for the particular concern that you're talking
about now, I would probably do better in helping you
locate another counselor that's more experienced with
family counseling. That kind of counselor could give
you a little more assistance in working with a marital
problem. I would like to refer you to someone at the
Counseling Center on campus. You are still a student
there, aren't you?

Yes, I am. I hadn't really thought of going there but
some friends of ours did.

All right then--I think that will be the best thing
for you to do. I suggest that you call and make an
appointment with Mrs. Johnson; she's good. I can call
her and let her know that you are going to be coming
and will be calling for an appointment. Is that.
alright?

Yes, I can make it for Thursday. I don't have classes
then and only work two hours.

I think she'll be able to help you work on the problem
with your job, husband, and the conflict.

OK and thank you.

Alright. Let me know how things work out.~

In this case, counseling was terminated because it was an inappropriate
case for the counselor to handle. It was not consistent with the
objectives of that setting. The next example is a case of a termina-
tion which was also inappropriate but for a slightly different reason.

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

159

Hi, how are you doing?
All right.

When I talked with you on the phone yesterday you seemed
very upset. I was anxious to talk with you. Are you
more comfortable now?

Not really. I can't get it together.
What was it that was bothering you?

It's these dreams I keep having. I don't know why
but I'm just . . . I don't know what to do. I don't
really know where the source of the problem is. It's
just that I've been having these dreams and images of
jumping off bridges or something like that. Really
freaky!

That must be very frightening. How long has this been
going on?

At least a month, maybe longer.

Have you noticed anything about your mood? You seem
to have been very depressed lately. Tell me more about
how you have been feeling.

Yes, I have been depressed. I just don't feel like

I want to be bothered or talk to anybody. I've lost all
my friends and everything. It's like my head will explode
and my body has died. You've got to help me; I'm going
crazy.

To be honest, I don't really feel like I have the training
or skills that you need. When we talked last week you
weren't really ready to get into your problem or sure

that counseling would help so we talked about what we

do in counseling--how it was not long term and how some
problems were resolved by more intensive work and a

more experienced therapist. I mentioned that if you or

I didn't feel I could help you, I'd find someone who
could.

I hate to go to anyone else; I'll have to start all over.
I don't think I can take the hassel. It takes weeks to
get in anywhere. I need help, now!

I certainly understand how panicked you feel. Those
dreams and feelings must terrify you. And I'd like to
help but I think that there are some other people who are

160

working at Ingham County Mental Health that could help
you more than I could. I want to refer you to someone
there. I can probably get someone there to see you
today. There are some very qualified people down there
and I know several of them personally. I could make a
referral to one of them or you could go on your own and
they would assign you to a counselor. You may have to
"start over" in a sense but this is only our second
meeting. From the information you've given me about
your dreams and feelings, I think that a psychologist

I know there probably would be more helpful than I
could. I think she's had more experience and would be
able to give you more assistance. Would you like for
me to refer you to her?

Client: If you say he can help, alright, then I guess I'll try.
But I doubt if they can really help me.

Counselor: I think that they probably will be able to help you.
I'd like for you at least to give them a chance; talk
with them and then make a decision on that.

Client: 0K. Well, I'll try because I need to talk to somebody.
I can't keep on like this.
Counselor: Let me call and check with Betty Randall to see if she
can talk with you say in a couple of hours.
Client: Yeah, that's OK.
Counselor: OK, do you want me to call?
Client: Yeah.

Counselor: You're to see her at 2:00; here is the address and
office number.

Client: Yeah, I'll call when I get home.

Counselor: I think you'll be able to work with her.

Client: Thanks for talking to me. I'll give it a try.

Counselor: OK. I'll hear from you later.

In this case counseling was also terminated due to the inappropriateness
of the case. The counselor did not feel that she possessed the skills
necessary to deal with the client. It was not within.what might be
considered the "normal range" of concerns. In both models, the
rationale was explained and resistance to termination handled.

Another type of termination is a termination based on the client having

161

not attained the objectives once they were set. We'll show you now a
brief model of this situation.

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

How are you?
Fine, thanks.

I guess when you were in the last time we discussed the
fact that you had been working for a couple of months
on some changes that you wanted to make and that you
haven't been able to make these changes. We had been
working on your lateness to work and over the past
months have made suggestions for strategies and things
that you might try to change this habit. But nothing
seems to be working. How do you feel about the objec-
tives that we set?

Well, it was something that I wanted at the time and
now that I've tried changing myself I'm not sure
it's worth it. I know that I'm still late sometimes
but it doesn't even seem to matter to my boss. It
doesn't make any difference if I come in on time or
not so I'm not really very motivated to get in there
at 8:00. It's just like I don't care anymore; I
can't see any benefit.

OK. I had picked that up in a couple of our interviews.
There don't really seem to be any negative consequences
to your not coming to work on time. It is pretty hard
to see any reason or to get really motivated to change
without some kind of reinforcement for your effort.

I think I need something like that and it's not there.

I feel hopeless and frustrated. If they don't care then
I don't care either, really. I'll just keep on like I
was. No use busting my brains if no one else does.

OK. When I initially started talking with you we
talked about the importance of goals in counseling and
how we would work toward a goal in trying to resolve
your problem. I think that in your case we had a goal
that we were working toward but there wasn't really
enough motivation for you to perform each of the little
tasks involved or to make the changes in your schedule
that were needed to get there on time. This is probably
why we haven't succeeded in your becoming more
punctual. Since you don't really feel like making any
changes at this point, it isn't really beneficial for
us to continue seeing each other until circumstances
change in some way so that you might feel that there
was more reason for you to change your behavior.

162

Client: Yeah, I see. I'm really not into it right now.

Counselor: I don't think that at this point there is really any
point in continuing counseling or trying to change your
habit of being late for work.

Client: Yeah. Well, I think its up to me and I don't really
want to do it bad enough. Should the situation at
work change whereas I'm going to start getting penalized,
then I'll want to shape up and get myself out of bed on
time. But if he doesn't care then I don't have any
reason to rush about coming in on time or to worry
about it as much as I have been. I felt guilty and
scared when I first got the job, now I don't.

Counselor: Why don't we stop seeing each other for a while and
if things change and you decide at some point that
you'd like to work again on tardiness, you can always
come back in. We can start over again maybe with that
objective or a new one.

Client: Yeah. I'll come back if I have to.
Counselor: OK.
Client: Thanks.

Counselor: Good luck.

The counselor did not communicate rejection or displeasure at the
client's failure to meet the agreed objectives. An invitation to
return later if circumstances changed was extended. In most cases,
counseling is terminated after the attainment of the objective. The
following role play will be an illustration of the rationale and
procedures provided in the case of a termination when objectives

are attained.

Counselor: Well, I guess we've been working together for quite a
while and it's about time to end for today. How do
you feel about the progress that you've made?

Client: Great! I met our objective. I got through three weeks
. . . a week more than we planned . . . of being able
to just drink twice a day or less.

Counselor: OK. Is it working out pretty well for you?
Client: Yeah. Some nights its kind of hard but I have friends

helping me and I pull through. I don't seem to really
need alcohol if I put my mind to it.

163

Counselor: Is there any other concern or anything that you feel
you need counseling help on right now?

Client: th that I can think of. If I can keep up what I'm
doing, I'll be OK.

Counselor: That's great! When we first started talking about
counseling, we talked about how we worked toward
objectives. I mentioned that when we had accomplished
them, it was time for counseling to be over unless you
wanted to work on some other concern. Now I see us at
the point where you are ready to go out on your own and
work independently to maintain the behaviors that you've
established. You will focus on keeping your drinking
down if that's what you want to do.

What we're going to do in the next interview and maYbe
another one after that is wrap things up. I'd like to
explain a little bit to you about using the things

that you've learned in counseling. ‘Maybe we'll review
what kind of processes we went through and try to
explain how what you've learned this time in counseling
can be applied to other concerns that you're having.
Another thing that I wanted to focus on was being able
to maintain your behavior and some ways that we might
work on a limited basis so that if you are having troubles
I can help you get started on the right road again. OK?

Client: Yeah, I won't really be coming back anymore, huh?

Counselor: No probably not. But we can talk about that next week.
Thank you for coming today. I'll be seeing you at the
same time next week?

After having explained the rationale for the termination, the counselor
went on to explain how counseling was intended to have broader applica-
tions--the transfer of learnings. Transfer of learning concerns how the
learnings of counseling could be applied to other situations. Once

this explanation of why counseling is being concluded and what they

will talk about in the final interview(s) has been covered, the counselor
moves into handling resistance which the client or counselor may have

to the termination of counseling. This resistance must be handled before
the counselor can expect the client to focus on ways to utilize his
learnings or make plans for following-up changes. The following model
presents a counselor dealing with client resistance to termination.

Counselor: How are you, Mr. Barnett?

Client: Pretty good.

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

164

I talked with you last time about the fact that we had
attained our objective and you asked that we have just
another session to kind of wrap things up. I guess
that's what we're trying to do now. we talked about
how you'd met your objectives and we had begun talking
about ways that you could work on maintaining your
behavior by yourself and working independently from
now on.

I feel like you are rushing me away or dropping me.

No, I'm not trying to drop you but, as I mentioned last
week, when we were talking initially about counseling
and how it works, I mentioned that we worked toward an
objective. I also said that because of limitations in
time and resources it's not really possible for me to
continue seeing people once they'd met their objectives.
Do you have anything else that you wanted to work on?

Well, just that I had a fight with my girl friend because
of you.

I'm.not sure I understand.

She said I'd just come to depend on you and your
counseling too much. I told her that she was just
angry because I'd found somebody else I could talk to
about serious stuff. She hasn't called for two days.
I don't really care; we were breaking up for a long
time.

I guess when people work together for a period of time
it's sort of natural for one to depend on the other.
The way we've been working in counseling we've had
certain things for you to do and each week we'd work
together on what might be the best way for you to
proceed with your problem. You've done very well I
think. You've been doing most of the work on your own.
When you think back, I've offered some advice and
suggestions now and then, but most of the work you've
done by yourself. Are you feeling that maybe you're
not really able to handle some problems that you may be
meeting in the future?

Well, as long as I can rely on you, I think I can manage.
You help me figure out what to do.

I think that in counseling what we really have to do is
work on trying to give the skills that they'll need to
be able to function independently. In your case, I
think that you have those skills. We worked on your

165

problems in decision making and I think you've pretty
well gotten that process down. You seem to be doing
much better in terms of making decisions and its
really not necessary for you to come back regularly.
We should be reviewing the steps you go through in
making a decision or handling a problem.

Client: Can we see each other from time to time? Maybe a date
or something like that-getting together.

Counselor: Well, I really don't think that I'd be able to see you
in a social or dating situation. What we can do,
however, is set up some way that periodically I can
check on your progress to see how things are going.

If you have any problems in the future you can always
come back and can work through the counseling process
again. OK?

Client: I guess so.

Counselor: I think you'll find that in a couple of weeks you'll be
doing very well and that you'll get a lot of satisfaction

from.working and being able to maintain things on your
own.

Client: I'll try. I can do it but I do like having your ideas
and support.

Counselor: I think next we'll talk about what you actually learned
from counseling and then about some ways that we can
set up for checking on your progress. Since we're
short of time why don't we do that next week. All
right?

Client: OK.

At this point the client was resistant to the termination of counseling.
The counselor explained termination in terms of the fact that there

was a limitation in resources, that the objectives had been attained
and that it was therefore not appropriate to continue counseling.
Following this, the counselor would conduct transfer of learning and
work with the client on a plan for monitoring performance.

In termininating counseling, there are four major steps. We have seen
two-exp1aining rationale and procedures and managing resistance. The
next role play is going to illustrate these two and the final two steps.
The first step will again be explaining the procedures and the rationale
for termination (9.1). This interaction is going to be based on a person
who has attained their counseling objectives and who had identified no
other concern. The client will show slight resistance to termination
and this will be handled (9.2) by encouraging the client, expressing

166

the counselor's beliefs that the client is able to function independently,
emphasizing the job that the client has done on attaining the objectives,
and indicating that there are many things that the client has learned

in counseling that can be applied to other situations so that he/she
will be able to handle them.independently. After this, the transfer of
learning phase (9.3) will begin. This phase has to do with teaching

the client how the behaviors that are learned in counseling might be
used in other situations. It includes explaining the problem solving
processes as one that may be applicable to the resolution of a number
concerns. The final state in terminating counseling is arranging

the monitoring of client performance (9.4). During this step the

client should be provided with the rationale for monitoring his or

her performance. The counselor should also get client's response as

to whether this is something that he/she would like to do. A plan has

to be developed which includes how often the monitoring is going to

be done, what type of contact is going to be used for monitoring, and
what kind of data is most appropriate. During planning for the monitor-
ing, it's explained to the client that they can come back if further
counseling is needed. One of the reasons for monitoring is to help if
there are any additional concerns or if problems arise in maintaining
the change that has been made. If the monitoring reveals no problem with
the behavior change, the case is closed in 12.0.

Counselor: Mrs. Janis, when you were in, I guess last week, we
were talking about your objectives and it seemed that
things were going pretty well. Is this still true?

Client: Yeah, I've continued this week doing really well.

Counselor: OK. I guess what we had set up was that you.were going
to keep on the schedule you'd set up for a couple of
weeks before ending counseling. It's been three weeks
at least now that you have been on the schedule. We
agreed that you were allowed two deviations each week;
you've been able to keep within that range. This shows
some marked improvement for you.

Client: Yes, pretty much. I'm pleased; it's helped me a lot.
I get most everything done these days and seem to have
time for some extras even.

Counselor: I'm glad that its working out for you. Are there any
other things right now that are bothering you that you
think counseling would help you resolve?

Client: No, not any other problems. But . . . I‘m wondering
about this . . . if I try to do it all by myself, I‘m
wondering if I can keep it up because I'm not . . . I
need encouragement from people. I don't know if I can
do it by myself. I could try but I‘m just wondering if
it would work. My husband isn't very verbal about
supporting me.

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

167

I guess that's a problem with a lot of people when
they're at or nearing the end of counseling. They
start wondering, "well, am I going to be able to keep
it up? If not, what was the purpose of changing to
begin with?" What I've found is that most people, by
working the way we did with you very involved in each
step of the counseling and change process, are able to
keep going on their own. You really set up your own
objectives and did most of the work involved in changing
on your own. You made your own schedule and decided
how much time you could allot to different things.
Though we talked and I maybe helped you clarify what
kind of things were involved in your problem, for most
of the major steps in the process you had the more active
part. You carried out all the things that we agreed
on by yourself at home. I feel that this is one thing
that will make the transition much easier. The fact
that you have been working with me but really doing
most of the work independently shows that you are able
to handle the hardest part alone. We will talk about
the things you've learned and that I've helped with

to make sure that you have a clear idea of the process
that we went through for the problem solving.

I think you'll find that knowing the process we used
to analyze and solve this scheduling problem‘will help
you see how to handle other things. Knowing that you
know how to tackle a problem will give you more self-
confidence. I also want to cover how specific things
that you learned in connection with this problem will
be useful to you in other ways. We will talk about
that a little in a couple of minutes and also just
about solving problems in general and the steps that
we used. Maybe talking about them'will help you see
how'much you have gained in terms of your ability to
deal with things and make the kind of changes that you
want.

I could use that, yeah. I have done a lot by myself;
I only see you once a week and by that time I have
really kept myself going. I just don't think of it
that way, I guess.

OK, maybe we could go on and talk about that now. What
kind of things do you think you've learned? Do you see
any way that you can really apply what you've learned
in putting yourself on the schedule to any other kind
of problems?

Well, I see that it helps to plan things, I mean, if you
want to get things done, be it your school work or
whatever. Planning it makes you face these things on

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

168

paper and see exactly what you have to get done instead
of leaving things out, forgetting to do them, and
postponing them and that. I suppose that I could apply
that to a lot of different aspects of life besides

just schoolwork and home responsibilities. It's kind
of a reward system. I realized that it's best for me
if I get rid of the hard stuff first when I get up each
day. Then the easy and more entertaining sort of
things come later i£_I get the other things finished.
So I suppose I can apply that to anything--using things
I enjoy as a reward for doing the stuff that I don't
like.

I think that that's something useful to have discovered-—
how to reinforce yourself.

Do you have any other ideas?

Let me see. We set up a schedule and we plotted things
out. You mentioned that we made fun things contingent
on getting the other things done. I'm trying to think
of other steps that we took. I guess one that has to
do with the problem solving approach is that you worked
through a whole process; you didn't solve things in one
step. We first spent what maybe seemed like a quite a
bit of time getting specific information about how you
were spending your time when you first came in. You
remember that I asked you to bring in a lot of data about
what you did each day and how much time you spent at
it? I think one important aspect of problem solving of
any kind is that you have a clear idea of what the
problem is. Then from there you can go on to find out
what variables are involved in it. You must look at
what's affecting your behavior one way or the other

and then decide what you really want.

We also talked a long time about how you wanted your
schedule, what things you wanted to include, and how

you could go about getting time to do everything you
wanted to do. Setting your goals or your objectives

so that you know what you're working toward was a

major step. From there we developed some strategies

for working on the goals and made plans as to how we
were going to do it. The point that we're at now is one
that I think is useful no matter what problems you're
working on. It is really seeing how far you've come,
evaluating what you've done. When you've decided if you
have gotten where you wanted to be in terms of the

goals that you'd set then you can decide whether you
need to do anything else. I think if you're confronted
with a problem or with something new you're not sure
how to deal with, it will be helpful just knowing this
process for working on problems.

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

169

I can see how it would apply, yeah, to a lot of things.
The hardest part for me was trying to define the
problemr-exactly where I was and why I wasn't getting
much done--trying to pinpoint it. Once I look at

how I really spent my time and how much I wasted, I
could get going on changing that around.

Quite often a problem that people have is that they know
there's a problem but they don't collect specific

enough information to know exactly what it is. Without
a clear idea, it's hard to set goals or make plans for
change.

You were talking earlier about not knowing whether you
were going to be able to keep things going the way they
were and keep your behavior up once we stopped meeting.
One thing I thought that might be useful is a kind of
tappering off period to counseling. You wouldn't come
and see me regularly like you have been but maybe we
would be in contact by phone just to see how things
were going. You could keep recording the information
on your schedule--whether you're on or off and that kind
of information for a couple of weeks or a month. You
could report to me periodically, maybe twice a month.
The reason for setting up something like this is that
quite often people expect they're not going to have
any problems maintaining their behavior and keeping
the changes going but then they do sort of get off.
They may run into new problems or just need some
periodic support to keep up their motivation. By
keeping in contact at least for a couple of weeks we
can make sure that what you've established is really
solid and that you're going to be able to stay on

that schedule for as long as you want. So . . .

That would be good for my case, I think. I need a
little support from somebody else for a while until
I can make sure I can and will do it on my own.

OK then, we can set that up. I guess in terms of the
information we need to check your progress and the type
of data that you've been collecting so far will do
fine. Things like how many hours you spend on each
activity so that we can compare that with what you
wanted to do is about all we need. Do you think it
would be necessary for you to come in or would a call
be sufficient?

A call would be enough. I'll try that and see how it
works.

How about in two weeks?

170

Client: Yeah, fine.

Counselor: We'll do that for a couple of times and if you're still
going fine after a month then I think that we can end
things up.

Client: Good.

Counselor: OK, then. It was nice working with you and I'll look

forward to hearing from you.
Client: OK, I'll call.
Counselor: All right, good—bye.

The final role play will be another incident of termination of
counseling when the objectives have been obtained. The four steps--
explain the rationale and procedures of termination, manage client
and counselor resistance, conduct transfer of learning and plan
monitoring of client performance-dwill be performed.

Client: Hi.

Counselor: Hi, how are things going?

Client: A lot better all around.

Counselor: Tell me a little about how things have gone with your
roommate.

Client: Oh, a lot better than the last time we talked.

Counselor: Good. We've been working together about how long, now?
A couple months?

Client: I think so; about one and a half.

Counselor: How do you feel about the progress you've made in
developing your relationship?

Client: Well, some of the things that we were having problems with
like not being able to get a schedule together or to
cooperate with each other are really improved. We
assigned the tasks and have more respect for each other.
There's a lot more give and take now but we've both
been following through on most of our parts of the
bargain.

Counselor: I know you were having trouble with a lot of arguing and

hostility. We had set up in our objective that you

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

171

were going to cut your arguing down to where you were
only arguing about once a week or so. We decided that
this was a pretty normal level for roommates. Do

you think you've got that going now?

Yeah, we both seem to be enjoying, you know, living
in the same place together. Once we started trying to
be fair to each other we had more in common.

The other part of your objective was to do more things
together to try to strengthen your relationship and
make it less superficial. You decided that three times
a week you were supposed . to arrange to spend at least
an hour together doing something, is that right?

Yeah, we started bowling. We both bowl . . . joined
a bowling team and we . . . I enjoy that and it gives
us something extra to talk about once we're alone in
that apartment together.

Are you pretty well satisfied? How do you think we
stand in terms of your objective?

I suppose that we did what I started out to do but I
still would like to continue with counseling.

Well, what other concerns do you have that you wanted
to work on?

Well, nothing that I can pin point right now. It's
just that I'd like to keep this channel open for further
things that might pop up.

Many clients feel that way at first but quite a while
ago when we first started counseling I explained to
you some things about what the purposes of counseling
were and our responsibilities and things like that. At
that time we talked about setting specific objectives
and working toward them. In that way we would know
when we had really completed the task that we were
attacking in counseling. I guess that right now we're
at that point; you have achieved your objectives and

I really feel that, unless you have another concern
that we need to pursue, this might be a good time tO'
talk about ending counseling. We need to discuss how
some of the things you learned in counseling on this
concern can be related to other problems you may
encounter. I'd also like to figure out how we might
work on making sure that the changes that you've made
with your roommate and the things that you've set up
don't fall by the wayside. How does that sound to you?

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

172

It sounds pretty good. Are you saying that what I
learned from the objectives that have been accomplished
in the past can carry over in some other areas?

Yes, I think you've learned quite a few things which
have wider application than this one relationship or
problem. One of the things that I feel is worth
remembering is how you went about working on solving

the problem with your roommate--the steps that you
followed. I know one of the first things you did was to
try and get a clear picture of what the problem was.

Do you remember how we did that?

Well, . . .

Remember when I had you doing what I called the baseline
and you were suppose to write down the kind of arguments
you had and information like that. You were recording
what then? The number of arguments?

The number of arguments, and the particular situations
when the arguments took place. And then I worked on
finding ways to minimize or to eliminate those situations
so that the arguments would diminish.

Can you see any other ways that you could use the ideas
of carefully defining the concern and the things that
you've learned about taking a baseline on a problem

to any other kind of situation?

Well, I think that some of the same types of argument
things have come about with my girlfriend. I took
note of how much we were beginning to argue and took
steps to cut it down. I find myself thinking things
through before flying off the handle now because I
found myself doing that a lot. Another thing is
having both of us really talk about what the problem
is instead of just going off on different tangents
with no communication.

I'm trying to remember what other things we had you work
on. I guess we worked out scheduling kinds of things
and the idea of the behavioral contract where you

and Fred agreed on specific responsibilities and
punishments or rewards.

I washed his car for not doing my part of the cleaning
before his company got in town.

Did you have to do it often?

No. But it seemed like the one time I did do it it was rain—
ing so it helped me remember to plan so that I had my

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

173

responsibilities covered. That whole planning thing is
really important, I never really planned how I'd act

or what I'd do. You seem to have more control if

you plan and make good plans.

You seem to have learned that when you're having a
problem with a person, agreeing on what each of you
could do to resolve the problem and then setting up
some kind of contract by which you systematically work
at doing those things is an effective method. You

may also have found that including some sort of
consequences or reward system can act to motivate
those involved. I guess another thing we looked at

is a general kind of process for dealing with problems.
One of the things that you learned in counseling that
I hope you will be able to use is a problem solving
process. That's really what we've been talking about.

When you try to get a clear idea of the problem,
identify all the variables, and see what their various
effects are, you are really better able to figure out
what you want to do than if you don't really analyze
the problem. I know that when you came in you seemed
confused as to whether you wanted maybe to get a new
roommate or work out the problems. Really finding out
what your goals are is one step. Werking out the
strategies for doing it and actually implementing them
are two more. A final step might be what we're doing
nowb—evaluating your change project. In your case I
feel it's come out very well and I think that you'll
be able to keep the behaviors that you've developed
going. I know you've done it for a couple of weeks
now and things seem to be getting better. Do you
think you're going to be able to keep it up?

Oh, yeah. I think I can and its . . . it seems like
it‘s more of a creative process whereby I'm learning
quite a bit. I feel like both Fred and I are having

a shared type of involvement in the maintenance of

the apartment and personally we're getting along
because we both recognize that its a mutual thing. We
learned to talk about things before they build to a
blowhup.

If you think it would be helpful in terms of keeping
the changes you've made up and in handling any problems
that you may have in the near future, we could set up
a sort of monitoring system. You wouldn't any longer
come in every week because I think you're pretty well
beyond that point. You're able to handle things on
your own now but maybe every couple of weeks or
something like that you can call and just let me know

174

how you're doing and whether any problems have come up.
After you've done that maybe for a month or so if things
are still going all right, I don't see any need to
continue the monitoring. Does that sound like something
that would be helpful to you?

Client: Well, I'd like to give it a try. I think I'd be able
to work things out without it but talking to you from
time to time can't hurt anything.

Counselor: Keep a tally like we did at the beginning when you were
noting the number and situation of arguments or
hostility. You could call me in three weeks and we
could talk about how things are working out. I think
that should probably do it. I don't even think we'll
need to make an appointment; why don't you just call
me and that will save both of us a little time. OK?

Client: That's fine.

Counselor: All right, then. I'll be hearing from you in about
three weeks. Thanks for coming and good luck.

In this final role play, all the steps appropriate to the termination of
counseling when the objectives have been attained were performed.

The first step of this process was the explanation of the rationale and
procedures for termination. In the case of an appropriate referral
where the objectives have been attained, this is usually based on the
fact that there is no further need for counseling. In an inappropriate
referral the role of the counselor in a particular situation or
inexperience of the counselor in a particular area might all be

reasons for the termination. In the case where the counseling is
terminated prior to achieving the objective often insufficient motivation,
unrealistic objectives, or some like problem are cited as reasons.

After the counselors explained that counseling would be terminated, she
moved on to managing client resistance. In this particular case there
was very little client resistance; the client readily accepted the

fact that counseling was over. Had there been resistance, the counselor
would have tried to focus on the fact that the client was now able

to function independently. She would also emphasize the fact that some
of the purposes of counseling are to promote independence, to show
clients how to resolve their own problems, and to give them the skills
to do so. Counselor resistance to termination may also be a problem.
It is often a function of the client having come to meet certain
counselor personality needs such as that for admiration, control,
success, etc. The counselor must consider reasons for inappropriate
reluctance to terminate a client and must work through this in order

to prevent the degeneration of the relationship into one of mutual
dependence or social contact. Once client and/or counselor resistance
has been handled, the counselor moves on to the next step.

175

As in any case where the objectives have been met, the counselor moved
on to the transfer of learning step. If the case had been one where
the objective was not attained, transfer of learning would not be
possible or appropriate. Thus, the inappropriate referral does not
have this step either; instead it is ended by locating appropriate
assistance for the client and closing the case. Evaluating the
counseling case and process follow.

In the case of the client who set but did not attain objectives, transfer
of learning is not performed or is rather limited. The case is closed
when resistance and the transfer of learning (if appropriate) is
completed.

The model case just viewed required the transfer of learning because
the objective had been met and it was necessary to show the client

how the behaviors and processes learned in counseling could be applied
to other areas. This was done by focusing on the steps utilized, the
consequences of different strategies that were used, and how they
might be applied to other situations. An outline of the general
problem solving process was also supplied and is appropriate to help
the client realize what the steps of counseling have been. The

final step in the process involves planning to monitor client behavior.

Monitoring is not appropriate in all cases. In cases where there is no
real necessity to maintain the behavior or where the frequency of the
behavior is so low that monitoring would be very difficult or impossible,
monitoring may not be performed. In a case such as this, where the
desire would be to maintain the behavior, monitoring is often helpful.
It's designed to pick up problems that the client may be having and to
develop interventions that will assist the client in maintaining the
behavior change. In monitoring and planning to monitor client
performance, the counselor should decide, with the client, what will
be the frequency of the monitoring, who will perform it, what type of
data will be collected, and how it will be analyzed. Once this is
done, the client will begin the phase during which the monitoring is
done; monitoring is the 10.0 function on the flow chart. After
monitoring, if the behavior has been maintained at an acceptable
level, the case is closed in 11.0 and in 12.0 the counselor will
evaluate the entire counseling process including his performance.
Generally, termination is appropriate in the three cases that we've
covered in this videotape. The inappropriate referral, the case in
which an objective was set but for one reason or another not attained,
and finally in the case which will be most common-dwhen objectives for
counseling have been attained and the client feels no further need

for counseling.

APPENDIX E

TERMINATE COUNSELING 9.0

APPENDIX E

TERMINATE COUNSELING 9.0

The process of terminating counseling may vary depending on the parti-
cular circumstances of the case and the point in the counseling
process at which the termination is made. Inappropriate referrals
(2.2.3) are sometimes recognized very early in the counseling process
from an initial review and analysis of the data. In such cases the
counselor assists client or referral source in locating appropriate
assistance (2.2.5) and proceeds to explain the rationale and procedures
for termination (9.1), to handle any resistance that might exist

(9.2), and to close the case (11.0). More frequently counseling

is terminated later in the process either prior to or upon attainment
of the objectives. In either case, in order to terminate counseling
smoothly the counselor must be aware of potentially relevant dynamics
associated with counselor and client needs, concerns, and expectations.
He must select the appropriate time, prepare the client and himself
for closure, make necessary plans and checks, and finally close the
case.

Occasions for Termination

In addition to very early termination due to the inappropriatness of
the referral, counseling may be terminated prior to attainment of
objectives or upon achievement of the desired change.

Termination Upon Attainment of Objective

Ideally counseling contact is to be terminated after the client's
learning objective has been attained. Typically the counselor and
client have developed strategies and the requisite intermediate
objectives for reaching the mutually agreed upon criteria, under the
conditions specified as appropriate for the desired change.

Counseling then is terminated on the basis of the attainment of
objectives when the client's change in behavior has reached the
specified level or criteria under the designated conditions (8.1 and
8.2 respectively). Once a determination has been made that the
objective was attained a decision must be made as to whether to
terminate or continue counseling focusing on another aspect of the
same concern or a new concern (8.3). If it is decided that there

is no further need for counseling (8.3) or that further counseling
regarding a new concern or new aspect of the same concern is for some
reason inappropriate (6.3), the counselor must proceed with termination.
If the expectation that counseling will end when the desired changes
are made has been established during structuring (4.3.3 and 4.3.4) and
reinforced during the course of counseling, termination is likely to
proceed more smoothly than if these have not occurred. It is thus

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177

important that the client and counselor not lose sight of the fact
that counseling is a goal oriented process which is to end when the
client has made the desired changes. The termination of counseling
under these circumstances involves four steps:

Explain Termination Rationale and Procedures (9.1)
Manage Client/Counselor Resistance (9.2)

Conduct Transfer of Learning (9.3)

Plan Menitoring of Client Performance (9.4)

Explain Termination Rationale and Procedures (9.1)

The groundwork for the termination of counseling is laid very early
in the counseling process. If the counseling process has been carefully
and completely described (4.3), the client should be aware that:

1. counseling is typically of relatively limited duration

2. that it is designed to assist the client in making desired
changes and in learning how to relate skills acquired in the
process to other aspects of his life

3. that objectives are set to describe the desired change and

4. that attainment of the stated objective signals the probable
ending of counseling with respect to that concern.

The counselor explains that since the client has made the desired
changes and has thus achieved his objective, it is appropriate to
conclude regular counseling contact. It should be explained that
prior to ending regular sessions the counselor and client will discuss
learnings from the counseling experience and how they may be related
to other aspects of the client's life or other concerns that might
arise. In addition, they will discuss ways of monitoring the client's
progress. The process and rationale for termination must be explained
in such a manner that the client will view it not as rejection, but
rather as the natural end of a successful change project. Reinforce-
ment for a job well done may help the client view the fact that he is
ready to conclude regular counseling contact as a success and a positive
indicator of his ability to function independently.

Manage Client/Counselor Resistance (9.2)

Either client, counselor, or both may be resistant to the termination
of counseling. In such cases, the relationship has typically come to
provide substantial reinforcement to either or both parties and
accordingly they are reluctant to end it.

178

Client resistance is often expressed in terms of reluctance toward or
fear of the ending of counseling. Often, especially when the counselor]
client relationship has been a very close one, the client does not

feel able to function without the counselor's aid, approval and

support. The counselor is seen by the client as a person he can and
must depend upon when facing and working through even relatively minor
problems that he may encounter. In such cases, the client has come to
depend upon the counselor for support, advice, and reinforcement which
may or may not also be available in the client's environment.
Manifestations of resistance to termination may include the client:

1. saying there are other areas he'd like to discuss but being
unable to express a particular concern

2. asking the counselor if they can continue to "be friends"
or to see each other socially from time to time

3. asking the counselor if he may call or come in if problems
arise

4. showing distress or hesitance at the prospect of discontinuance
of the regular contacts

The counselor should recognize and acknowledge the client's feelings,
but must not encourage the dependency. Instead he should focus upon
fostering the client's confidence by:

l. emphasizing the client's role in the successful achieve-
ment of the objective

2. communicating his belief that the client is able to function
independently

3. focusing upon things the client has learned and done in
counseling that will have value in effectively handling
other situations (9.3)

In some cases it may be advisable to utilize a tapering off period
during which the client would be assisted in gradually functioning
‘more independently. This may be accomplished in conjunction with the
‘monitoring of client performance (10.0) when a more gradual closing
is deemed appropriate. With the tapering off period the counselor
'might see the client less and less frequently; he might use phone
rather than direct contact with the client; or he may arrange for
them to meet only at some appropriate point in the future to discuss
how things are going.

The counselor may also be inappropriately reluctant to terminate
counseling. The reasons may vary but might be expected to center
around that dependencies or attachments that the counselor has with
respect to the client. These may be associated with the fact that

179

the individual has been a "good client", dutifully carrying out
assignments and generally meeting the counselor's expectations of the
ideal client. The interaction of client/counselor personality (need/
desire for control, success, appreciation, etc.) may be such that the
client's behaviors (dependency, praise, successful performance,
enthusiasm, etc.) are reinforcing to the counselor and thus unwittingly
contribute to the counselor's reluctance to sever the contact.

A danger somewhat more specific with respect to counselor than to
client resistance to termination, is that since the client is typically
less sophisticated than the counselor, his (the counselor's)

behavior may unwittingly influence the client to prolong contact.

When this occurs the counseling relationship, weakened by mutual
dependency, may degenerate into one which is more social than
professional or helping. The counselor who finds himself reluctant

to see a client complete counseling or who does not feel the client

is "ready" though the objective has been attained, should analyze

his vested interest in maintaining the helping relationship with that
client. In effect he must determine what the maintaining reinforcers
might be for his (the counselor's) continuing the counseling relation-
ship.

Conduct Transfer of Learning_(9,3)

It has been said that the counselor's main responsibility is to work
himself out of a job--that is, to develop in his counselee the ability
to handle future concerns in a relatively independent fashion.
Counseling being a learning process, it is expected that clients

will acquire skills and ideas which will be applicable to a wider
range of concerns than that initially presented and which accordingly
will enable the client to assume increased independence in coping with
new problems in his environment. The counselor must be able not only
to successfully assist the client in the resolution of the presenting
concern, but he must also be able to make him aware of the learnings
associated with the process. In order to use the learnings of the
counseling process to assist the client in functioning more independ-
ently in the future, the counselor should emphasize: (l) the applica-
tion of the learned behaviors to other situations and people in the
environment, (2) how to use the new behaviors to obtain reinforcement
from the environment.

The client may not be readily able to specify how his newly acquired
behaviors and skills can be applied to other situations. The counselor
should then assist the client in identifying the behaviors, strategies,
and skills he has exhibited in the resolution of his concern and in
specifying the various effects of each. The counselee should be
actively involved in this process.

A few examples of how the skills would be applicable in other situations
may get the client started thinking of ways to utilize his new skills

180

most effectively. Ultimately the purpose of conducting transfer of
learning is to provide for maximum transfer of new behavior and
insights from the counseling situation to the client's everyday
situation. The process should include:

1. identification of skills, behaviors, and strategies
learned in the process

2. focusing upon how these were used and with what consequences

3. identification of other situations in which they may be
useful and

4. identification of ways in which they may be used to secure
reinforcement for the client from the environment

The counselor should also be certain that the client is aware of the
potential relevance and utility of aspects of this process in any
problem solving situation:

1. defining the problem carefully and specificially
2. identifying relevant variables and information
3. determining desired change or resolution

4. developing specific objectives

5. planning and implementing a strategy

6. evaluating performance

The counselor should consider the transfer of learning phase to be
an important one which provides the client with a broader more
expansive context for viewing and evaluating the counseling experience.

Plan Monitoringfof Client Performance (9.4)

Perhaps all clients who have attained their counseling objectives
believe they will maintain their performance after regular counseling
has terminated. The fact remains, however, that in some cases clients
do not maintain their improved performance, but rather revert to their
old ineffectual behaviors. There are many possible causes for
difficulties. During termination, it may be appropriate for the
counselor to indicate that though he expects the changes to persist,

it is possible that the client may initially experience some difficulty
in maintaining the behavior for an extended period. Some clients may
not be able to sustain the necessary motivation while others may
encounter unforeseen problems which they cannot handle without further
help. It is therefore advisable, at least in most cases, for counselor
and client to establish a plan for following up or monitoring the

 

 

 

 

181

client's performance for a reasonable period of time after formal
counseling has terminated to assure that changes are maintained or
to determine if further assistance is needed.

It is conceivable that in some instances it will not be appropriate
to monitor client performance, and therefore plans for monitoring
should not be made. If, for example, the client's objective has been
to make a choice between two courses of study, and the choice has
been made and implemented, there may be no need for follow-up. In
such cases, after conducting transfer of learning, counselor and
client can move directly to 11.0 and close the case. Monitoring is
most appropriate when the changed or acquired behavior is one which
is to be exhibited on a repeated or ongoing basis rather than one
which is a one-shot behavior or one of very limited duration.
Typically follow-up will be appropriate and plans must therefore be
made.

Where monitoring is considered appropriate, it is important that the
client be informed and agree that his progress will be monitored.

He should also understand why and how this monitoring will be done.
This knowledge may in itself provide a strong incentive for continued
progress, since for most clients the counselor's interest and attention
are powerful reinforcers.

One of the first considerations to be resolved is the exact nature

of the follow-up activity. In most cases, brief checkup interviews

by phone with the client will be the best means of monitoring progress.
On the other hand, if the client's progress can be readily ascertained
through examination of records of through reports from others, it may
not be necessary for the counselor to have checkup interviews with

the client. Instead, the counselor may simply examine attendance
records and written grade reports or ask the client's teacher how he
is progressing. Then, at the end of the follow-up period, assuming
client progress has been satisfactory, the counselor may simply make
an appropriate notation in his files and discontinue the monitoring
process. If such indicators suggest the need for further client
contact, however, he will contact the client and invite him to come
in for further counseling.

Assuming that checkup interviews are deemed necessary, several
considerations must be taken into account. First, the length of the
followbup period must be decided upon. This may be determined in

part by the nature of the problem and the setting in which the counselor
is employed. In a school situation, for example, if the client has
met his objective of raising his grade-point average to a certain level
at the end of the current marking period, the follow-up period may be
designated as the remainder of the semester, or perhaps the rest of
the school year. The length of the follow-up period will also depend
in part on the counselor's judgement of the client's ability to
sustain his improved performance over time. For clients who are
highly motivated or who are working on comparatively discrete and
uncomplicated behaviors, a brief follow-up period may be sufficient.

 

182

For those who have less motivation or who are trying to sustain a
complex pattern of newly acquired behaviors, more feedback and
encouragement may be needed. Consequently, a longer period of time may
be necessary for appropriate monitoring.

The frequency of checkup interviews is another factor to be considered.
In rare instances, it may be advisable to have checkrup sessions every
day, as when the client is trying to eliminate severely disruptive or
aggressive classroom behaviors. In other cases, weekly or monthly
checkups may be sufficient. As in chasing the overall length of the
followbup period, the frequency of checkups should be determined with
due consideration for the client's ability to proceed in relatively

independent fashion, as opposed to his need for more immediate
feedback and reinforcement.

A related consideration is the amount of time to be devoted to each
interview. In most cases, five minutes will perhaps be sufficient,
‘with the understanding that more time will be allotted if necessary.

In planning for monitoring client performance, the counselor must:
I. decide if monitoring is appropriate

2. decide what data is necessary and how and by whom it will be
collected

3. explain the rationale and procedures to the client
4. secure client agreement

5. determine the duration of the follow-up period, the frequency
of checks, and the amount of time (counselor, client, others)
to be devoted to the followbup activities

Having made these decisions and established a plan, the monitoring

phase (10.0) is begun. Depending upon whether the behavior is maintained
or not, the counselor will either close the case (11.0) or begin

working with the client to assure that the changes effected in counseling

are maintained. Finally, the counselor would evaluate his performance
in 12.0.

Termination When the Objective Has Not Been Attained

Occasionally in counseling a client whose concern was appropriate for
the counselor to handle is terminated at some point prior to the
completion of his objective. The reasons are varied but might include
the departure of either client or counselor, lack of client motivation
to work on the concern, inability or unwillingness to specify goals and
objectives for counseling, awareness that affecting the desired change
will have negative consequences with which the client is unwilling to

 

183

or unable to cope, unrealistic objectives, and others. Whatever the
reason for the termination prior to the attainment of the objective,
the counselor should take care not to convey feelings of anger or
rejection toward the client since these may inhibit his return to
counseling at a time when counseling might be more successful.

Explain Termination Rationale and Procedures (9.1)

The rationale for termination should be given to the client and should
be based on the description of the counseling process (4.3) or on

other factors specific to the particular case. Termination may be
due to the fact that:

l. the client has failed to meet his responsibility for carrying
out assignments associated with strategies selected to effect
the desired changes

2.

the client has failed to set the goals and objectives
required for the counseling process

3. the objectives are not viewed as realistic nor desirable

limitations in the duration of counseling and the counselor's
resources make the additional expenditures on objectives
whose attainment is improbable inadvisable

Manage Client/Counselor Resistance (9.2)

The counselor should work through any client or counselor resistance

to termination. The reasons for the reluctance and its manifestations
may not be very different from.those encountered in cases where the
objective has been attained. The handling of resistance on the

client's part should be related to the rationale presented for terminar
tion. The client should be encouraged to come back for counseling if
he feels it would be beneficial at some later point and to work on

the concern independently, if appropriate. After this the case is

then to be closed (11.0) and the counselor evaluates the process (12.0).

Termination Due to Inappropriateness of the Referral

The counselor, in reviewing data or talking with the referral source
or client, determines that the client's concern is not one which is

appropriate for him to handle. Some reasons for such a decision may
include:

1. the counselor's judgement that the problem is beyond his

capabilities and resources

 

184

2. the counselor's belief that the concern could be more
appropriately handled by another agency

3. the counselor's judgement that the concern is not within
the range of "normal" concerns and is therefore not
congruent with the role of counselor (4.3.1)

Explain Rationale for Termination (9.1)

If, after careful consideration of the data, the counselor feels that
the referral is inappropriate he begins the termination process.

In this case, the counselor assists the client and/or his referral
source in locating appropriate assistance and explains the rationale
and procedures for the termination. He handles any resistance to
termination on his part or that of the client (9.2) and then closes the
case (11.0). To prepare the client, the counselor may:

1. explain the purposes of counseling emphasizing the focus
upon normal concerns

2. explain institutional guidelines or restrictions with
respect to counseling services

3. explain that his experience with concerns such as that of
the client is limited and that another counselor or agency
would be more helpful to the client

4. explain that he does not feel that he has at his disposal
the resources necessary to help the client

Manage Client/Counselor Resistance (9.2)

After offering an explanation of the reasons for the referral and
termination, the counselor must handle any resistances to the termina—
tion. In such cases, the client may be reluctant to be "referred"
because he has specific reasons for wanting that particular counselor.
He may resent the counselor's reluctance to treat him, viewing the
termination as a personal rejection. He may simply not want to be
"shuffled off" to another agency or person and may feel that he is
being given a "run around". The counselor must be aware of these

and other possible client reactions and must work through them.to
facilitate client acceptance of the termination. The counselor must
also be aware of the possibility that he may also be somewhat reluctant
to»terminate some inappropriate cases, especially those which seem
particularly challenging or which the counselor perceives as likely

"successes" or "good clients". If such feelings arise, they must
also be handled.

 

185

When the referral has been made (2.2.3), the rationale for the
termination presented (9.1), and resistances handled (9.2), the case
should be closed (11.0).

Generally if the client was other than a
self-referral, the counselor should, without violating confidence,

inform the initial referral source that he has made another referral
and has terminated the case.
(12.0).

Finally he would evaluate his performance

 

 

APPENDIX F

ROLES FOR ROLE-PLAY PROCEDURES IN THE SHAPING
AND COMBINED PROCEDURES

APPENDIX F

ROLES FOR ROLE-PLAY PROCEDURES IN THE SHAPING AND COMBINED PROCEDURES

Item1 l - Information Provided Supervisors

OBJECTIVE ATTAINED

GOAL:

OBJECTIVE :

STRATEGY:

DATA:

ROLE 1
Get more done; more productive use of time

By February 15 client will have developed a schedule and
used it successfully for at least two weeks. Successful
use is defined as not skipping more than two hours per
week from each category of this daily schedule.

Sleep 7 hours
Study 3 hours
Relaxation 2 hours
Exercise 1 hour
Housework 2 hours
Personal 1 hour

Planned activity schedule based on client's needs and
interests. Used relaxation period as reinforcer for
sticking to schedule.

Objective was attained. Client has not skipped more than
two hours in any of the categories for three weeks.

FOR.YOUR INFORMATION ONLY

Client expresses reluctance to terminate. Feels that lack of discipline
will make it impossible to maintain changes. Fears project and

changes will fall apart and effort will be wasted. Needs reinforcement
from others to stick to things.

GOAL:

OBJECTIVE:

SHUHTGY:

ROLE 2
To improve relationship with roommate.

By the end of ten weeks the client will have no more than
two arguments per week with roommate for a four week

period. Client will also have initiated two joint activities
of one hour or more each week for the four week period.

Collected data necessary to specify sources of conflict.
Discussed with roommate changes desired by each. WOrked

out a contract with punishments and reinforcers. Reinforced
self for initiating activities.

186

 

187

DATA: Client reports having gone out about ten times in the past
four weeks. Twa of these were in the past two weeks and
were double dates to campus events. Reports that is
beginning to like roomate better and to enjoy doing
things together. Have had only one argument in the four

week period, but they have gotten angry four or five
times.

FOR YOUR INFORMATION ONLY

Client is reluctant to terminate counseling. Says that still needs
help but is unable to specify a concern.

ROLE 3

GOAL: Control or stop drinking because is not able to handle
alcohol well.

OBJECTIVE: By the end of twelve weeks the client will have reduced
drinking in public and at home to not more than two drinks
per day. This limit is to be maintained for a period of
not less than three weeks.

STRATEGY: Made contract to reduce drinking gradually at home and
in public. Used reinforcement for not exceeding limits
($1.00 per drink under the limit at the end of the day)
and a punishment of $3.00 per drink when limits were
exceeded. Money was given to campanion at the time of
the violation or to a charity if it occurred when alone.

DATA: Client has been drinking less than two drinks per day for
about the last four weeks. On some evenings client does
not drink at all. Finds that must avoid bars or take
small sips to make the drinks last. Reports that it is
still very hard.

FOR YOUR INFORMATION ONLY

Client has come to look upon counselor as personal friend and wants
to come in from time to time to chat. Indicates that she/he and
counselor seem to be able to coununicate well and expresses desire
to talk about some things. Client cannot specify a particular

area of concern; suggests that something important will surely come
to mind if they continue meeting regularly.

OBJECTIVE NOT ATTAINED

ROLE 4

GOAL: To get to work on time; never be late again.

188

OBJECTIVE: To get to work in the morning and after lunch on time
(8:00 a.m. and 1:15 p.m.). Objective will be attained
when client has not been late at either time for a period
of two weeks.

STRATEGIES: Initial strategy was to make a schedule allowing plenty
time to complete morning activities and still get to work
on time. Client was to reinforce self with dessert or
beer if on time in the morning and with 50¢ if on time
after lunch. The money went into the client's entertainment
budget. Second strategy was for client to dock self
$1.00 for each ten minutes late in the morning or after
lunch.

DATA: Client after 12 weeks has not met objective. Has never been
on time in the morning more than three days in a row and
has been on time after lunch about half the time. This
is only a very slight improvement over the baseline.
Client reports that rewards seem childish and that she/he
has not been able to use them consistently. Points out
that she doesn't really care if she's late or not.

FOR YOUR INFORMATION ONLY

Client lacks sufficient motivation. Others are also chronically late
to work with no negative consequences. Boss does not reward or notice
punctuality. Client no longer feels very anxious about job security
and sees little advantage in changing late behavior. Displays some
reluctance to termination indicating that it is nice to have someone
to talk with about life and things like that.

INAPPROPRIATE REFERRAL

ROLE 5
CONCERN: Possibly suicidal client
DATA: Client very depressed and moody. Self-referral. Frightened

because keeps dreaming of jumping out of windows, walking
in front of moving cars, etc. Client is unable to identify
cause of depression. Reports fear of strangers and dark
places.

FOR YOUR INFORMATION ONLY

Counselor lacks skills and concern is not within normal range of
concerns. Client behaves in very agitated manner.

189

Item 2 —- Information Provided Subjects

OBJECT IVE ATTAINED

(SOAJ.:

OBJECTIVE:

STRATEGY:

DATA:

GOAL:

OBJECTIVE:

STRATEGY:

DATA:

ROLE 1
Get more done; more productive use of time.

By February 15 client will have developed a schedule and
used it successfully for at least two weeks. Successful
use is defined as not skipping more than two hours per
week from each category of this daily schedule.

Sleep 7 hours
Study 3 hours
Relaxation 2 hours
Exercise 1 hour
Housework 2 hours
Personal 1 hour

Planned activity schedule based on client's needs and
interests. Used relaxation period as reinforcer for
sticking to schedule.

Objective was attained. Client has not skipped more than
two hours in any of the categories for three weeks.

ROLE 2
To improve relationship with roommate.

By the end of ten weeks the client will have no more than
two arguments per week with roommate for a four week period.
Client will also have initiated two joint activities of

one hour or more each week for the four week period.

Collected data necessary to specify sources of conflict.
Discussed with roommate changes desired by each. Wbrked

out a contract with punishments and reinforcers. Reinforced
self for initiating activities.

Client reports having gone out about ten times in the past
four weeks. Two of these were in the past two weeks and
were double dates to campus events. Reports that is
beginning to like roommate better and to enjoy doing
things together. Have had only one argument in the four
week period, but they have gotten angry four or five times.

 

I‘d”

FF

Gouu;:

OBJECTIVE:

SITUNIEGY:

DATA:

190

ROLE 3

Control or stop drinking because is not able to handle
alcohol well.

By the end of twelve weeks the client will have reduced
drinking in public and at home to not more than two drinks
per day. This limit is to be maintained for a period of
not less than three weeks.

Made contract to reduce drinking gradually at home and in
public. Used reinforcement for not exceeding limits ($1.00
per drink under the limit at the end of the day) and a
punishment of $3.00 per drink when limits were exceeded.
Money was given to campanion at the time of the violation
or to a charity if it occurred when alone.

Client has been drinking less than two drinks per day for
about the last four weeks. On some evenings client does
not drink at all. Finds that must avoid bars or take
small sips to make the drinks last. Reports that it is
still very hard.

OBJECTIVE NOT ATTAINED

GOAL:

OBJECTIVE:

STRATEGIES:

DATA:

ROLE 4
To get to work on time; never be late again

To get to work in the morning and after lunch on time
(8:00 a.m. and 1:15 p.m.). Objective will be attained
when client had not been late at either time for a period
of two weeks.

Initial strategy was to make a schedule allowing plenty
time to complete morning activities and still get to work
on time. Client was to reinforce self with dessert or

beer if on time in the morning and with 50¢ if on time after
lunch. The money went into the clients entertainment
budget. Second strategy was for client to dock self

$1.00 for each ten minutes late in the morning or after
lunch.

Client after 12 weeks has not met objective. Has never
been on time in the morning more than three days in a row
and has been on time after lunch about half the time.
This is only a very slight improvement over the baseline.
Client reports that rewards seem childish and that she/he
has not been able to use them consistently. Points out
that she doesn't really care if she's late or not.

 

191

'l. NAPP ROPR IATE REFERRAL

CONCERN :

IMYTA;

ROLE 5
Possibly suicidal client

Client very depressed and moody. Self-referral.
Frightened because keeps dreaming of jumping out of
windows, walking in front of moving cars, etc. Client
is unable to identify cause of depression. Reports
fear of strangers and dark places.

 

APPENDIX C

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR THE COMBINED METHOD GROUP

 

APPENDIX C
INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR THE COMBINED METHOD GROUP
ITEM 1 -— Prose Segment - Terminate Counseling 9.0

The process of terminating counseling may vary depending on the parti-

cular circumstances of the case and the point in the counseling process
at which the termination is made.

Termination Upon Attainment of Objectives

Counseling is most frequently terminated on the basis of the attainment
of objectives, when the client's change in behavior has reached
specified level (criteria) under the designated conditions (8.1 and
8.2). If it is decided that there are no other concerns (8.3) or that
further counseling regarding a new concern or new aspect of the same

concern is for some reason inappropriate (6.3), the counselor must
proceed with termination.

If the expectation that counseling will end when the desired changes
are made has been established during structuring (4.3.3 and 4.3.4) and
reinforced during the course of counseling, termination is likely to
proceed more smoothly than if these have not occurred. It is thus
important that the client and counselor not lose sight of the fact that
counseling is a goal oriented process which is to end when the client

has made the desired changes. The termination of counseling under
these circumstances involves four steps:

Explain Termination Rationale and Procedures (9.1)
Manage Client/Counselor Resistance (9.2)
Conduct Transfer of Learning (9.3)

Plan Monitoring of Client Performance (9.4)

Explain Termination Rationale and Procedures @1)

The groundwork for the termination of counseling is laid very early in
the counseling process. If the counseling process has been carefully
and completely described (4.3), the client should be aware that:

1. counseling is typically of relatively limited duration

2. that it is designed to assist the client in making desired
changes and in learning how to relate skills acquired in
the process to other aspects of his life

3. that objectives are set to describe the desired change and

4.

that attainment of the stated objective signals the probable
ending of counseling with respect to that particular concern.

192

 

193

The counselor explains that since the client has made the desired
changes and has achieved his objective, it is appropriate to: conclude
regular counseling contact. It should be explained that prior to
ending regular sessions the counselor and client will discuss learnings
from the counseling experience and how they may be related to other
aspects of the client's life or the other concerns that might arise.

In addition, they will discuss ways of monitoring the client's progress.
The process and rationale for termination must be explained in such a

manner that the client will view it not as rejection but rather as the
natural end of a successful change project.

Manage Client/Counselor Resistance (9.2)

Either client, counselor, or both may be resistant to the termination

of counseling. In such cases, the relationship has typically come to
provide substantial reinforcement to either or both parties and
accordingly they are reluctant to end it.

 

Client resistance is often expressed in terms of reluctance toward or
fear of ending counseling. The counselor is seen by the client as a
person he can and must depend upon in facing and working through

even relatively minor problems that he may encounter and for reinforce-
ment. Manifestations of resistance to termination may include the
client:

1. saying there are other areas he'd like to discuss but

being unable to express a particular concern

2. asking the counselor if they can continue to "be friends"

or to see each other socially from time to time

3.

asking the counselor if he may call or come in if problems
arise

4. showing distress or hesitance at the prospect of dis-

continuance of the regular contacts

The counselor should recognize and acknowledge the client's feelings,
but must not encourage the dependency.

Instead he should focus upon
fostering the client's confidence by:

1" emphasizing the client's role in the successful achieve-
ment of the objectives

2. communicating his belief that the client is able to
function independently

3.

focusing upon things the client has learned and done in

counseling that will have value in effectively handling
other situations (9.3).

194

In some cases it may be advisable to utilize a tapering off period
during which the client would be assisted in gradually functioning
more independently. This may be accomplished in conjunction with

the monitoring of client performance (10.0) when a more gradual
closing is deemed appropriate.

'The counselor may also be inappropriately reluctant to terminate
counseling. The reasons may vary but might be expected to center
around the dependencies or attachments that the counselor has with
respect to the client. These may be associated with the fact that
the individual has been a "good client" dutifully carrying out
assignments and generally meeting the counselor's expectations of the
ideal client. Since the client is typically less sophisticated, the
counselor's behavior may unwittingly influence the client to prolong
contact. When this occurs, the counseling relationship, weakened

by mutual dependence, may degenerate into one which is more social

than professional or helping. Before proceeding, both client and
counselor resistance must be confronted.

Conduct Transfer of Learning (9.3)

It has been said that a counselor's main responsibility is to work
himself out of a job--that is, to develop in his counselee the ability
to handle future concerns in a relatively independent fashion.
Counseling being a learning process, it is expected that clients will
acquire skills and ideas which will be applicable to a wider range of
concerns than that initially presented and which accordingly will
enable the client to assume increased independence in coping with new
problems in his environment. The counselor must be able not only to
successfully assist the client in the resolution of the presenting
concern, but he must also be able to make him aware of the learnings
associated with the process. In order to use the learnings of the
counseling process to assist the client in functioning more indepen-
dently in the future, the counselor should emphasize: (l) the
application of the learned behaviors to other situations and people

in the environment, and (2) how to use the new behaviors to obtain
reinforcement from the environment.

Ultimately the purpose of conducting transfer of learning is to provide
for maximum transfer of new behaviors and insights from the counseling

situation to the client's usual everyday situation. The process
should include:

1. identification of skills, behaviors, and strategies
learned in the process

focusing upon how these were used and with what consequences

3. identification of other situations in which they may be
useful

 

195

4. identification of ways in which they may be used to secure
reinforcements for the client from the environment

The counselor should also be certain that the client is aware of the
potential relevance and utility of aspects of counseling process in

any problem-solving situation:

1. defining the problem carefully and specifically
2. identifying relevant variables and information
3. determining desired change or resolution

4. developing specific objectives

5. planning and implementing a strategy

6. evaluating performance

The counselor should consider the transfer of learning phase to be an
important one which provides the client with a broader more expansive
context for viewing and evaluating the counseling experience.

Plan,Monitoring;of Client Performance (9.4)

During termination it may be appropriate for the counselor to indicate
that though he expects the changes to persist, it is possible that the
client may initially experience some difficulty in maintaining the
behavior for an extended period. Some clients may not be able to
sustain the necessary motivation while others may encounter unforeseen
problems which they cannot handle without further help. It is therefore
advisable, at least in most cases, for counselor and client to
establish a plan for following up or monitoring the client's performance
for a reasonable period of time after formal counseling has terminated
to assure that changes are maintained or to determine if further
assistance is needed. It is conceivable that in some instances it

‘will not be appropriate to monitor client performance, and therefore
plans for monitoring should not be made. Monitoring is most appropriate
when the changed or acquired behavior is one which is to be exhibited
on a repeated or ongoing basis rather than one which is a one-shot
behavior or one of very limited duration. Typically follow-up will

be appropriate and plans must therefore be made.

Where monitoring is considered appropriate, it is important that the
client be informed and agree that his progress will be monitored.

He should also understand why and how this monitoring will be done.

This knowledge may in itself provide a strong incentive for continued
progress, since for most clients the counselor's interest and attention
are powerful reinforcers. In planning for monitoring client performance

the counselor must:

196

1. decide if monitoring is appropriate
2. decide what data is necessary and plan collection

3. explain the rationale and procedures to the client

4. secure client agreement

5. determine the duration of the follow—up period, the frequency
of checks, and the amount of time (counselor, client, others)

to be devoted to the followbup activities.

Having made these decisions and established a plan, the monitoring

phase (10.0) is begun. Depending upon whether the behavior is maintained
at an acceptable level during the followbup period or not, the counselor
will either close the case (11.0) and move on to evaluate the contact
(12.0) or begin working with the client to assure that the changes

effected in counseling are maintained.
Termination When the Objective Has Not Been Attained

Occasionally in counseling a client whose concern was appropriate for
the counselor to handle is terminated at some point prior to the
completion of his objective. The reasons are varied, but might
include the departure of either client or counselor, lack of client
motivation to work on the concern, inability or unwillingness to
specify goals and objectives for counseling, awareness that effecting
the desired change will have negative consequences with which the
client is unwilling or unable to cope, unrealistic objectives, and

others.

The rationale for such termination (9.1) may be presented in terms of
the following, based upon the purposes, focus, limits, and responsibi-

lities of counseling (4.3):

l. the client has failed to meet his responsibility for carrying
out assignments associated with strategies selected to effect

the desired changes

2. the client has failed to set the goals and objectives
required for the counseling process

3. limitations in the duration of counseling and the counselor's
resources make the additional expenditures on objectives
whose attainment is improbable inadvisable.

Client/counselor resistance to termination (9.2) may be similar to that
encounter when objectives were attained, but may be handled in a
somewhat different manner depending on the reason for the termination.
The client should be encouraged to come back for counseling if he feels
it would be beneficial at some later point and to work on the concern
independently, if appropriate. After this explanation the case is
then to be closed (11.0) and the contact evaluated (12.0).

197

Termination Due to Inappropriateness of Referral

If, after careful consideration of the data the counselor feels that
the referral (self or other) is inappropriate (2.2.3), he begins

the termination process. In this case the counselor assists the
client and/or referral source in locating appropriate assistance
(2.2.5), explains the rationale and procedures for the termination
(9.1), manages any client or counselor resistance (9.2), closes the
case (11.0), and evaluates the contact (12.0).

To prepare the client, the counselor may:

1. explain the purposes of counseling emphasizing the focus
upon normal concerns

2. explain institutional guidelines or restrictions with
respect to counseling services

3. explain that his experience with concerns such as that of the
client is limited and that another counselor or agency
would be more helpful to the client

4. explain that he does not feel that he has at his disposal
the resources necessary to help the client

After offering an explanation of the reasons for the referral and
termination, the counselor must handle any resistance to the termina-
tion. Client reluctance to be terminated and referred may relate to
wanting that particular counselor, resenting the reluctance to treat
her/him, viewing the termination as a personal rejection, feelings or
being given the "run around", etc. The counselor must also be aware

of the possibility that he may be somewhat reluctant to terminant
inappropriate cases, especially those which are particularly challenging
or which the counselor perceives as likely "successes" or "good"
clients. If such feelings arise, they must also be handled.

When the rationale and procedures have been explained, resistance
handled, and appropriate assistance located, the case is closed and the

contact evaluated.

198

ITTni 2 - Script of the Videotape Modeling Segment for the Combined
Method Group

The following videotape segment presents a model of the procedure
for terminating counseling contact when the client's counseling
objectives have been attained. In the model interview the four
steps of this type of termination are covered. These steps are:

Explain the rationale and procedure for termination
Manage client/counselor resistance

Conduct transfer of learning

Plan.monitoring of client performance

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Hi.
Hi, how are things going?
A lot better all around.

Tell me a little about how things have gone with your
roommate.

0h, a lot better than the last time we talked.

Good. We've been working together about how long, now?
A couple months?

I think so; about one and a half.

How do you feel about the progress you've made in
developing your relationship?

Well, some of the things that we were having problems
with like not being able to get a schedule together or
to cooperate with each other are really improved. We
assigned the tasks and have more respect for each other.
There's a lot more give and take now but we've both been
following through on most of our parts of the bargain.

I know you were having trouble with a lot of arguing and
hostility. We have set up in our objective that you were
going to cut your arguing down to where you were only
arguing about once a week or so. We decided that this
was a pretty normal level for roommates. Do you think
you've got that going now?

Yeah, we both seem to be enjoying, you know, living in
the same place together. Once we started trying to be
fair to each other we had more in common.

 

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

199

The other part of your objective was to do more things
together to try to strengthen your relationship and make
it less superficial. You decided that three times a week
you were suppose to arrange to spend at least an

hour together doing something, is that right?

Yeah, we started bowling. We both bowl . . . joined a
bowling team and we . . . I enjoy that and it gives us
something extra to talk about once we're alone in that
apartment together.

Are you pretty well satisfied? How do you think we
stand in terms of your objective?

I suppose that we did what I started out to do but I
still would like to continue with counseling.

Well, what other concerns do you have that you wanted
to work on?

Well, nothing that I can pinpoint right now. It's just
that I'd like to keep this channel open for further
things that might pop up.

Many clients feel that way at first but quite a while
ago when we first started counseling I explained to you
some things about what the purposes of counseling were
and our responsibilities and things like that.

At that time we talked about setting specific objectives
and working toward them. In that way we would know
when we had really completed the task that we were
attacking in counseling. I guess that right now we're at
that point; you have achieved your objectives and I
really feel that, unless you have another concern that
we need to pursue, this might be a good time to talk
about ending counseling. We need to discuss how some of
the things you learned in counseling on this concern can
be related to other problems you may encounter. I'd
also like to figure out how we might work on making sure
that the changes that you've made with your roommate

and the things that you've set up don't fall by the
wayside. How does that sound to you?

It sounds pretty good. Are you saying that what I learned
from the objectives that have been accomplished in the
past can carry over in some other area?

Yes, I think you've learned quite a few things which have
wider application than this one relationship or problem.
One of the things that I feel is worth remembering is
how you went about working on solving the problem with
your roommate--the steps that you followed. I know one
of the first things you did was to try and get a clear

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

200

picture of what the problem was. Do you remember
how we did that?

Well, . . .

Remember when I had you doing what I called the baseline
and you were suppose to write down the kind of arguments
you had and information like that. You were recording
what then? The number of arguments?

The number of arguments and the particular situations
when the arguments took place. And then I worked on
finding ways to minimize or to eliminate those situations
so that the arguments would diminish.

Can you see any other ways that you could use the ideas
of carefully defining the concern and the things that
you've learned about taking a baseline on a problem to
any other kind of situation?

Well, I think that some of the same types of argument
things have come abcut with my girlfriend. I took note

of how much we were beginning to argue and took steps to
cut it down. I find myself thinking things through before
flying off the handle now because I found myself doing
that a lot. Another thing is having both of us really
talk about what the problem is instead of just going off
on different tangents with no communication.

I'm trying to remember what other things we had you work
on. I guess we worked out scheduling kinds of things
and the idea of the behavioral contract where you and
Fred agreed on specific responsibilities and punishments
or rewards.

I washed his car for not doing my part of the cleaning
before his company got in town.

Did you have to do it often?

No. But it seemed like the one time I did do it it was
raining so it helped me remember to plan so that I had
my responsibilities covered. That whole planning thing
is really important, I never really planned how I'd act
or what I'd do. You seem to have more control if you
plan and make good plans.

You seem to have learned that when you're having a problem
with a person, agreeing on what each of you could do to
resolve the problem and then setting up some kind of
contract by which you systematically work at doing those
things is an effective method. You may also have found
that including some sort of consequences or reward system

Client:

Counselor:

Client:

Counselor:

201

can act to motivate those involved. I guess another thing
we looked at is a general kind of process for dealing with
problems. One of the things that you learned in counseling
that I hope you will be able to use is a problem solving
process. That's really what we've been talking about.

When you try to get a clear idea of the problem, identify
all the variables, and see what their various effects
are, you are really better able to figure out what you
want to do than if you don't really analyze the problem.
I know that when you came in you seemed confused as to
whether you wanted maybe to get a new roommate or work
out the problems. Really finding out what your goals are
is one step. Working out the strategies for doing it and
actually implementing them are two more. A final step
might be what we're doing now-~evaluating your change
project. In your case I feel it's come out very well

and I think that you'll be able to keep the behaviors that
you've developed going. I know you've done it for a
couple of weeks now and things seem to be getting better.
Do you think you're going to be able to keep it up?

Oh, yeah. I think I can and its . . . it seems like it's
more of a creative process whereby I'm learning quite a

bit. I feel like both Fred and I are having a shared

type of involvement in the maintenance of the apartment

and personally we're getting along because we both recognize
that it's a mutual thing. We learned to talk about

things before they build to a blow-up.

If you think it would be helpful in terms of keeping

the changes you've made up and in handling any problems
that you may have in the near future, we could set up

a sort of monitoring system. You wouldn't any longer
come in every week because I think you're pretty well
beyond that point. You're able to handle things on your
own now but maybe every couple of weeks or something like
that you can call and just let me know how you're doing
and whether any problems have come up. After you've done
that maybe for a month or so if things are still going
alright, I dont' see any need to continue the monitoring.
Does that sound like something that would be helpful to
you?

Well, I'd like to give it a try. I think I'd be able
to work things out without it but talking to you from
time to time can't hurt anything.

Keep a tally like we did at the beginning when you were
noting the number and situation of arguments or hostility.
You could call me in three weeks and we could talk

about how things are working out. I think that should

202

probably do it. I don't even think we'll need to make

an appointment; why don't you just call me and that will
save both of us a little time. OK?

Client: That's fine.

Counselor: Alright , then .

I'll be hearing from you in about three
weeks.

Thanks for coming and good luck.

In this final role play, all the steps appropriate to the termination
of counseling when the objectives have been attained were performed.
The first step of this process was the explanation of the rationale
and procedures for termination. In the case of an appropriate
referral where the objectives have been attained, this is usually
based on the fact that there is no further need for counseling. In
an inappropriate referral the role of the counselor in a particular
situation or inexperience of the counselor in a particular area

might all be reasons for the termination. In the case where the
counseling is terminated prior to achieving the objective often

insufficient motivation, unrealistic objectives, or some like
problem are cited as reasons.

After the counselor explained that counseling would be terminated,
she moved on to managing client resistance. In this particular case

there was very little client resistance; the client readily accepted
the fact that counseling was over.

Had there been resistance, the
counselor would have tried to focus on the fact that the client was
now able to function independently. She would also emphasize the

fact that some of the purposes of counseling are to promote independence,

to show clients how to resolve their own problems, and to give them the
skills to do so. Counselor resistance to termination may also be a
problem. It is often a function of the client having come to meet
certain counselor personality needs such as that for admiration,
control, success, etc. The counselor must consider reasons for
inappropriate reluctance to terminate a client and must work through
this in order to prevent the degeneration of the relationship into

one of mutual dependence or social contact. Once client and/or

counselor resistance has been handled, the counselor moves on to the
next step.

As in any case where the objectives have been met, the counselor
moved on to the transfer of learning step. If the case had been one
where the objective was not attained, transfer of learning would not
be possible or appropriate. Thus, the inapprOpriate referral does

not have this step either; instead it is ended by locating appropriate
assistance for the client and closing the case.

Evaluating the
counseling case and process follow.

In the case of the client who set but did not attain objectives,
transfer of learning is not performed or is rather limited. The

case is closed when resistance and the transfer of learning (if
appropriate) is completed.

203

The model case just viewed required the transfer of learning because
the objective had been met and it was necessary to show the client
how the behaviors and processes learned in counseling could be applied
to other areas. This was done by focusing on the steps utilized,

the consequences of different strategies that were used, and how

they might be applied to other situations. An outline of the
general problem solving process was also supplied and is appropriate
to help the client realize what the steps of counseling have been.

The final step in the process involves planning to monitor client
behavior.

bknxitoring is not appropriate in all cases. In cases where there is
In) real necessity to maintain the behavior or where the frequency

‘of the behavior is so low that monitoring would be very difficult or
impossible, monitoring may not be performed. In a case such as this,
‘where the desire would be to maintain the behavior, monitoring is
ofter helpful. It's designed to pick up problems that the client
‘may be having and to develop interventions that will assist the
client in maintaining the behavior change. In monitoring and planning
to monitor client performance, the counselor should decide, with

the client, what will be the frequency of the monitoring, who will
perform it, what type of data will be collected, and how it will be
analyzed. Once this is done, the client will begin the phase during
which the monitoring is done; monitoring is the 10.0 function on the
flow chart. After monitoring, if the behavior has been maintained

at an acceptable level, the case is closed in 11.0 and in 12.0 the
counselor will evaluate the entire counseling process including his
performance. Generally, termination is appropriate in the three
cases that we've covered in this videotape. The inappropriate
referral, the case in which an objective was set but for one reason
or another not attained, and finally in the case which will be most

common--when objectives for counseling have been attained and the
client feels no further need for counseling.

ITEM 3 - Roles for Role-play Procedures in the Shaping and Combined
Procedures (Appendix F)

APPENDIX H

SCHEDULE AND ROOM ASSIGNMENT FOR INSTRUCTION AND TESTING

8:05
8:10
8:15
8:20
8:25
8:30
8:34
8:40
8:45
8:50
8:55
9:00
9:05
9:10
9:15
9:20
9:25
9:30
9:35
9:40
9:45
9:50
9:55
10:00
10:05
10:10
10:13
10:20
10:25
10:30
10:35
10:40
10:45
10:50
10:55
11:00
11:05
11:10
11:15
11:20
11:25
11:M)

APPENDIX H

SCHEDULE AND ROOM ASSIGNMENT FOR INSTRUCTION AND TESTING

 

 

MORNING CLASS

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

    
 
  

 

 

 

 

 

 
     

 

 

 

 

 

SHAPING
(244)*
(245)
(347) COMBINED
(248) Written
(249) (452)
(A) h - - -
Modeling
(452) HCONTROL
S and C Pacaczd (226)
(250) (244. 245. MODELING
‘ 247, 248, (452)
(250) 249, A)
IS S and C #
(244, 245, (250) ‘ PROSE UNIT
247, 248,‘ IR
249, A) (250) ’ (510)
(244, 245,
(244, 245,
247, 248,
249, A) (452) .
Tr—m-r—‘L
(244, 245, $510)
247, 248, IR 1
249, A) (510)
IS?
(244, 245,
247, 248,
249, A)
MEASURES
S - Satisfaction Measure

C - Confidence Measure
1K - Immediate Knowledge Measure
IS -

Immediate Skill Measure

* Parentheses designate room used in that phase of instruction

or testing

204

205

SCHEDULE AND ROOM ASSIGNMENT FOR INSTRUCTION AND TESTING

AFTERNOON CLASS

 

 

 

 

 

(MNNTROL
(319)
COMBINED
Written
(510)
P--------
Modeling WRITTEN
(510) (226)
_‘I
----------
Practice
(244, 245, 247, MODELING
248,.249, A,
IR B! 510)
(319) an C i
, , (250) (228)
247, 248, 249,. IR ’ moss
A, B, C) 250 UNIT
. . an (D)
247, 248, 249,4 (226 (E)
A, B) (401)
226 (242)
18(244, 245 S an C (243)
247, 248, ‘ (228) (319)
249, A, (401)
B, C) (228)
‘ 1 , firm—-
247, 248, (2502
249, A, B,
c) (250)
9 I
247, 248,
249, A, B, C)
MEASURES
S - Satisfaction Measure
C - Confidence Measure
IK - Immediate Knowledge Measure
IS

- Immediate Skill Measure

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

* Parentheses designate room used in that phase of instruction

or testing

206

SUBJECT ASSIGNMENT NOTICE FOR INSTRUCTIONAL METHOD STUDY

Instructional Methods Study
February 25, 1975
Terminate Counseling 9.0

Dear

The schedule for your group is given below. Since the scheduling has
to be very tight in order to accomodate all the participants within
the regularly scheduled class period, we ask that you be on time and
move from one location to the other quickly. Report directly to
your instruction rooms and bring this notice with you.

 

 

 

Instruction in Room
Evaluation in Room
Role-Playing in Room

 

 

 

A supervisor will be available in each room to distribute necessary
materials and to explain what you are to do. You should be finished
about 1 1/2 hours after the beginning of your instruction and you
will be free to leave when you.have completed your role—playing.

 

APPENDIX I

INSTRUCTIONAL PREFERENCE MEASURE (IP)

 

APPENDIX I
INSTRUCTIONAL PREFERENCE MEASURE (IP)
ITEM 1 - INSTRUCTIONAL PREFERENCE IN COUNSELOR TRAINING

Student Number

 

The purpose of this questionnaire is to measure your reaction to certain
educational techniques and concepts. In completing this instrument
please make your judgments on the basis of what the concept means to you.
Read the concept at the top of the page and quickly mark your reactions
to it on each of the scales that follow the concept.

If the concept is very closely related to either end of the scale, you
would mark as follows:

good : : . : X evil
good X : : : : : : evil

If it is quite closely related to either end of the scale, you would
mark as below:

fair : : : : : X : unfair
fair : X : : : : : unfair

For concepts only slightly related to either end of the scale mark as
follows: ‘

sad : : : : X : : happy

sad : : X : : : : happy

If the concept is neutral, both sides of the scale are equally related
to the concept, or if the scale is completely irrelevant, unrelated to
the concept, mark in the center of the scale.

open : : : X : : : closed
IMPORTANT

1. Make your mark within the spaces and not on the boundaries between
them.

2. Be sure to mark every scale for every concept in order.

3. ‘Make no more than one mark on each scale.

4. Work as quickly as possible, marking your initial impressions or
reactions to the item.

5. Do not worry about how you have rated other scales or concepts
previously. Each item should be considered a separate and inde-
pendent judgement.

207

superior
weak
slow
successful
hazy
alive
meaningless
concrete
tense
adequate
vague
interesting
negative
profound
chaotic
pleasant
shallow
varied
invalid
powerful
difficult
valuable
little
personal
unimportant
free
passive
good
useless
empirical

A I L Y

208

Q U I Z Z

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

O. O. O.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

O. O. O. O. O.

 

 

 

inferior
strong

fast
unsuccessful
clear

dead
meaningful
abstract
relaxed
inadequate
precise
boring
positive
superficial
ordered
unpleasant
deep
monotonous
valid
powerless
easy
worthless
big
impersonal
important
constrained
active

bad

useful
theoretical

 

W R I T T E N

superior

I N

S T R U C T I O N A L

 

weak
slow

209

 

successful

 

hazy

 

alive

 

meaningless

 

concrete

 

tense

 

adequate

 

vague

 

interesting

 

negative

 

profound

 

chaotic

 

pleasant

 

shallow

 

varied

 

invalid

 

powerful

 

difficult
valuable

 

little

 

personal
unimportant

 

free
passive

 

good
useless

 

empirical

 

M A T E R I A L S

inferior
strong

fast
unsuccessful
clear

dead
meaningful
abstract
relaxed
inadequate
precise
boring
positive
superficial
ordered
unpleasant
deep
monotonous
valid
powerless
easy
worthless
big
impersonal
important
constrained
active

bad

useful
theoretical

superior
weak
slow
successful
hazy
alive
meaningless
concrete
tense
adequate
vague
interesting
negative
profound
chaotic
pleasant
shallow
varied
invalid
powerful
difficult
valuable
little
personal
unimportant
free
passive
good
useless
empirical

C L A S S

210

D I S C

U S S I O N

 

 

I. O. O. I.

 

so so so so ss‘ss

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

inferior
strong

fast
unsuccessful
clear

dead
meaningful
abstract
relaxed
inadequate
precise
boring
positive
superficial
ordered
unpleasant
deep
monotonous
valid
powerless
easy
worthless
big
impersonal
important
constrained
active

bad

useful
theoretical

superior
weak

slow
successful
hazy

alive
meaningless
concrete
tense
adequate
vague
interesting
negative
profound
chaotic
pleasant
shallow
varied
invalid
powerful
difficult
valuable
little
personal
unimportant
free
passive
good
useless
empirical

L E A

N I N G

211

T H R O

U

G H

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

O. O. I. O.

 

D O I N G

inferior
strong

fast
unsuccessful
clear

dead
meaningful
abstract
relaxed
inadequate
precise
boring
positive
superficial
ordered
unpleasant
deep
monotonous
valid
powerless
easy
worthless
big
impersonal
important
constrained
active

bad

useful
theoretical

superior
weak

slow
successful
hazy

alive
meaningless
concrete
tense
adequate
vague
interesting
negative
profound
chaotic
pleasant
shallow
varied
invalid
powerful
difficult
valuable
little
personal
unimportant
free
passive
good
useless
empirical

P E R S

C H A N G

212

E

P R O J E C T S

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I. O. O.

 

 

inferior
strong

fast
unsuccessful
clear

dead
meaningful
abstract
relaxed
inadequate
precise
boring
positive
superficial
ordered
unpleasant
deep
monotonous
valid
powerless
easy
worthless
big
impersonal
important
constrained
active

bad

useful
theoretical

D E M.O N S

superior
weak

slow
successful
hazy

alive
meaningless
concrete
tense
adequate
vague
interesting
negative
profound
chaotic
pleasant
shallow
varied
invalid
powerful
difficult
valuable
little
personal
unimportant
free
passive
good
useless
empirical

T R A T I

F

C O U N S E L I N G

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

O. O. O. O. O. O.

 

inferior
strong

fast
unsuccessful
clear

dead
meaningful
abstract
relaxed
inadequate
precise
boring
positive
superficial
ordered
unpleasant
deep
monotonous
valid
powerless
easy
worthless
big
impersonal
important
constrained
active

bad

useful
theoretical

214

ITEM 2 - DIMENSIONALITY AND POLARITY OF INSTRUCTIONAL
PREFERENCE SCALE ADJECTIVE PAIRS

Scales are designated as follows based on agreement of 4 out of 6
raters as to their dimensionality:
E - Evaluative

P - Potency A - Activity

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

E superior * : : : : : : inferior

P weak : : : : : : strong

A slow : : : : : : fast

E successful * : : : : : : unsuccessful
hazy : : : : : : clear
alive : : : : : : dead

E meaningless : : : : : : meaningful

P concrete * . : : : : : abstract
tense : : : : : : relaxed

E adequate * : : : : : : inadequate
vague : : : : : : precise

E interesting * : : : : : : boring

E negative : : : : : : positive
profound : : : : : : superficial

A chaotic : : : : : : ordered

E pleasant * : : : : : : unpleasant

P shallow : : : : : : deep

A varied * : : : : : : monotonous

E invalid : : : : : : valid

P powerful * : : : : : : powerless

E difficult : : : : : : easy

E valuable * : : : : : : worthless
little : : : : : : big

E personal * : : : : : impersonal

E unimportant : : : : : . important

A free * : : : : : constrained

A passive : : : . : : active

E good * : : : : : : bad

E useless : ' : : : : useful
empirical : : : : : : theoretical

* denotes positive pole of the adjective pair

 

APPENDIX J

IMMEDIATE KNOWLEDGE MEASURE (IK)

APPENDIX J

IMMEDIATE KNOWLEDGE MEASURE (IK)

TERMINATE COUNSELING (9.0)

 

Student Number

List in logical order the four functions performed in Terminate
Counseling when the client has attained the objectives and has
no further need for counseling.

a.

b.

c.

d.

 

 

 

 

The Explanation of Termination Rationale, and Procedure is: (Circle)

a. not provided for clients who were inappropriate referrals.

b. necessary only if the client has achieved the learning objective
selected for counseling.

c. provided in all official cases of termination.

d. necessary only if the client has not achieved the learning
objective.

In the case of an inappropriate referral, the counselor should:

(Circle)

a. explain the rationale and procedures for termination and
close the case.

b. work with the client even though the concern is not congruent
with the purpose and limitations of counseling.

c. close the case after locating appropriate assistance and
notify the initial referral source.

d. explain the rationale and procedures for termination; assist
the client in locating appropriate assistance; handle resis-
tances; and notify initial referral source,if possible,before
closing the case.

Monitoring of Client Performance is appropriate for all terminated
cases? (Circle correct response)
a. True b. False

What is the rationale for terminating a client who has attained
the learning objective?

What is the procedure for the termination of a client who has
failed to attain the objective set for counseling?

215

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

216

 

 

Cite three possible reasons for the termination of counseling prior
to the attainment of the objectives.

a.

b.

c.

 

Explain the rationale for monitoring client performance citing at
least one purpose for the procedure.

Whenever a case is terminated, the counselor should explain
termination rationale and procedure. (Circle)

a. True b. False

Describe a monitoring plan for the following cases including type
of data, frequency and type (phone, interview, etc.) of contacts,
and length of monitoring.

‘ FREQUENCY AND LENGTH or

CLIENT TYPE OF DATA TYPE OF CONTACTS MONITORING

 

Sharon, a housewife
who has stopped biting
her fingernails after
20,years

 

Jay, who has reduced
his arguments with
his wife to 1 per
week

 

 

 

 

Name two things the counselor should focus on in conducting
transfer of learning.
a.

 

b.

 

Describethe problem solving process as utilized in counseling.
(You may outline steps or use narrative form.)

The purpose of conducting transfer of learning is: (Circle)

a. to determine how much of the learned behavior the client
can maintain.

b. to evaluate counselor performance.

c. to focus client attention on the applicability of the
behaviors and processes learned to other situations.

d. to provide the client with a rationale for termination.

List conditions that could be cited in the explanation of the
rationale for termination in the case of an inappropriate referral
(other or self).

a.

b.

c.

 

 

 

15.

16.

17.

217

What factor(s) is frequently at play when client or counselor
express inappropriate reluctance to end counseling contact?

List 3 approaches a counselor might utilize in managing client
resistance to termination when the objectives have been attained.
a. ‘ ‘

 

b.

 

C.

 

Cite two possible reasons for a counselor's inappropriate
resistance to termination.
a.

 

b.

 

APPENDIX K

AFFECTIVE MEASURES OF SATISFACTION (S) AND CONFIDENCE (C)

APPENDIX K

AFFECTIVE MEASURES OF SATISFACTION (S) AND CONFIDENCE (C)

ITEM - 1 - INSTRUMENT

 

Student Number

We are interested in your evaluation of the training experience which
you have just completed. The items are designed to measure various
facets of your reactions. Read the statement and quickly mark your
reactions of the scales denoted by the adjective pairs.

Scales are scored in the following manner:

If your reaction to the item is very closely related to either end of
the scale, you would mark as follows:

: X evil
: evil

good :
good X :

If it is quite closely related to either end of the scale, you would
mark as follows:

fair : :
fair : X :

: X : unfair
: unfair

If your reaction is only slightly related to either end of the scale
mark as follows:

sad : :
sad : : X

= happy
: happy

If your reaction is neutral, mark in the center of the scale.
open : : : X : : : closed
In completing the evaluation, please:

1. Make your marks within the spaces and not on the boundaries between
them.

2. Be sure to mark every scale for each of the four factors.

3. Make no more than one mark on each scale.

4. Wbrk as quickly as possible, marking your initial impressions or
reactions to the item.

5. Do not worry about how you have rated other scales or concepts
previously. Each item should be considered a separate and
independent judgement.

218

219

When considering the prospect of terminating counseling as a result
of the instructional experience, I feel:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

prepared : : : : : : unprepared
competent : : : : : ° incompetent
anxious : : : : : : comfortable
good : : : bad
apprehensive : : : : : confident
strong : : : weak
confused : : : : : : clear
positive : : : : : : negative

 

The method used to present the information for Terminate Counseling
(9.0) was:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

appropriate : : : : : : inappropriate
boring : : . interesting
bad : : : : : : good

pleasant : : : : . unpleasant
weak : : : : : strong
personal : : : : . impersonal
inferior : : : : superior
clear : : : : : : confusing

 

220

The information on termination presented in the instruction was:

meaningful
boring

clear

useful
important
weak
comprehensive
concrete

vague

 

 

 

O.

I found the instructional experience:

weak
tense
pleasant
good
clear
boring
positive

worthless

 

 

CO

 

O.

 

 

meaningless
interesting
confused
useless
unimportnat
strong
superficial
abstract

precise

strong
relaxed
unpleasant
bad

hazy
interesting
negative

valuable

221

Please indicate your reaction with respect to each item, Mark only
within spaces (not on the lines) and make only one marking per item.

1. I would self-rate my knowledge of the termination process as:

I I I I J

| inferior I I average I I superior I

2. I would self-rate my knowledge of the rationale behind the process
as:

I I I I | I

I superior I IIaverage I Iinferior ‘I

3. I would self-rate my ability to function as a counselor using this
process as:

I I I I I _I

I inferior I I average I Isuperior I

4. I would rate today's learning experiences as:

 

 

 

 

superior average inferior

 

 

 

5. For this kind of material, I would rate the instructional method
as:

I I I I J

inferior I I average I ’Isuperior I

222

ITEM 2 - SCALE AND DIRECTIONAL DESIGNATIONS FOR AFFECTIVE MEASURE OF

CONFIDENCE SCALE (C):

1.

SATISFACTION (S) AND CONFIDENCE (C)

When considering the prospect of terminating counseling as a
experience,

result of the instructional

I feel:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

prepared *
competent *
anxious

good *
apprehensive
strong *
confused
positive *

 

unprepared
incompetent
comfortable
bad
confident
weak

clear

negative

I would self-rate my ability to function as a counselor using

this process as:

I inferior I

SATISFACTION SCALE (S):

1.

The method used to present the information

(9.0) was:

I

I

average

I
I

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

appropriate *
boring

bad

pleasant *
weak

personal *
inferior

clear *

 

I I

I superior I

for Terminate Counseling

inappropriate
interesting
good
unpleasant
strong
impersonal
superior

confusing

223

2. The information on termination presented in the instruction was:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

meaningful * : : : : : : meaningless
boring : : : : : : * interesting
clear * : : : : : confused
useful * : : : : : : useless
important * : : : : : : unimportant
weak : : : : : * strong
comprehensive * : : ' superficial
concrete * : : : : : abstract
vague : : : ° ° * precise

 

3. I found the instructional experience:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

weak : : : : : : * strong
tense : : : : : : a relaxed
pleasant * : : : : : : unpleasant
good * : : : : : : bad

clear * : : : : hazy
boring : : : : : : * interesting
positive * : : . : . negative
worthless : : : : : : * valuable

 

4. I would rate today's learning experiences as:

l J I l I l

I superior I [average I Iinferiorwfil

5. For this kind of material, I would rate the instructional method as:

I I I l I I

I inferior l [average I Isuperior I

* indicates the positive pole

APPENDIX L

DELAYED KNOWLEDGE MEASURE (DK)

APPENDIX L

DELAYED KNOWLEDGE MEASURE (DK)

TERMINATE COUNSELING (9.0)

 

Student Number

List in logical order the four functions performed in Terminate
Counseling when the client has attained the objectives and has
no further need for counseling.

a.

b.

c.

d.

 

 

 

 

The Explanation of Termination Rationale and Procedure is: (Circle)

a. not provided for clients who were inappropriate referrals.

b. necessary only if the client has achieved the learning
objective selected for counseling.

c. provided in all official cases of termination.

d. necessary only if the client has not achieved the learning
objective.

In the case of an inappropriate referral, the counselor should:

(Circle)

a. explain the rationale and procedures for termination and close
the case.

b. work with the client even though the concern is not congruent
with the purpose and limitations of counseling.

c. close the case after locating appropriate assistance and notify
the initial referral source.

d. explain the rationale and procedures for termination; assist
the client in locating appropriate assistance; handle resistances;
and notify initial referral source,if possible,before closing
the case.

Monitoring of Client Performance is appropriate for all terminated
cases? (Circle correct response)
a. True b. False

What is the rationale for terminating a client who has attained
the learning objective?

Explain the rationale for monitoring client performance citing at
least one purpose for the procedure.

224

10.

11.

225

Name two things the counselor should focus on in conducting
transfer of learning.
a.

 

b.

 

Whenever a case is terminated, the counselor should explain
termination rationale and procedure. (Circle)
a. True b. False

The purpose of conducting transfer of learning is: (Circle)

a. to determine how much of the learned behavior the client can
maintain.

b. to evaluate counselor performance.

c. to focus client attention on the applicability of the
behaviors and processes learned to other situations.

d. to provide the client with a rationale for termination.

What factor(s) is frequently at play when client or counselor
express inappropriate reluctance to end counseling contact?

List 3 approaches a counselor might utilize in managing client
resistance to termination when the objectives have been attained.
a.

 

b.
c.

 

 

APPENDIX M

IMMEDIATE SKILL ROLE-PLAY MEASURE

APPENDIX M
IMMEDIATE SKILL ROLE-PLAY MEASURE
ITEM 1 - INSTRUCTIONS FOR CLIENT ROLE-PLAYERS

You will be involved in playing the role of a client (a.m. and/or p.m.)
which will be provided for you on the day of the experiment. As I
have explained previously, this study compares the effectiveness of
several instructional methods for teaching masters-level counseling
students how to end counseling contact with a client (you). The
students in the study will be your counselor and will role-play the
session in which they end formal contact with you.

You will be assigned a role-playing room in Erickson Hall on the day
of the study. When your "counselor" enters do the following:

1. Explain that you will be taping an interaction between the
two of you in which you will be the client and the student
will be a counselor.

2. Provide the ”counselor" (student) with the ROLE INFORMATION FOR
COUNSELORS sheet and allow reading time.

3. Get the student's student number and record it on the tape.
4. Turn on the tape recorder and begin the interaction.

5. Turn off the recorder when the "counselor" indicates the
interaction is completed.

6. Thank the counselors.

You have 20 minutes per "counselor". Steps 1-3 should take less than
five minutes. The "counselors" participating are not being graded for
their performance so you should not feel obligated to "help" or "go
along with them". Your performance should be consistent from one
student to the next, but should relate to what the counselor is doing.
For example, if one counselor has done an adequate job dealing with
your reluctance to end counseling, do not continue to resist throughout
the interview simply because a previous counselor never worked through
your reluctance. When counselors are finished, tell them they are
free to go home and greet the next student. Always check to see that
the equipment is working before beginning the interaction!

Our discussion about this information and your role should clarify any
questions but do not hesitate to contact me if you have any problems or
questions.

Thank you!

Pat
349-4115

226

227

ITEM 2 - ROLE INFORMATION FOR CLIENT ROLE

CONCERN:

OBJECTIVES:

STRATEGIES:

DATA:

MORNING PERFORMANCE TEST (IS)

Feels isolated; has few associates and no one that would
be considered a friend

By the end of three months client will have made two
friends (people that client calls at least two times
per week and sees one time per week for at least one
hour). Must also spend at least one hour per day in a
public place other than the library and initiate a
conversation with at least one person while there. Must
continue this behavior for three weeks.

Developed communication skills. Worked on how and where
to meet people and also on how to initiate and develop a
conversation. Used role-playing for skill development
(practice). Used self reinforcement for initiating
contact with strangers or new friends ($1.00 each toward
new guitar). Defined the term "friendship" in terms of
expected behaviors.

Client has three people that he/she calls or that call
client at least two times a week. Also has two people
in dorm that are regular meal companions. Goes out with
someone at least two times per week. Has joined guitar
class and works at crisis center. Will be attending

ski club. Goes to grill and Union and other places
according to a schedule each afternoon.

FOR YOUR INFORMATION ONLY

 

You are somewhat reluctant to end counseling. Indicate that the weekly
counseling session for reporting progress provided encouragement and
that without it you may not be able to keep things up. Indicates that
you are not sure what to do if things began to go wrong or if you met
someone who was unfriendly.

CONCERN:

OBJECTIVE:

AFTERNOON PERFORMANCE TEST (IS)

Slightly depressed; concerned that does not seem to have
any friends. Deals with everyone on a superficial level.
Wants to feel close to someone.

To develop a closer relationship with roommate as
evidenced by being able to discuss future goals,
apprehensions about finding a job, plans and misgivings
about getting married, and relationship with family.
Must complete in two months.

STRATEGY:

DATA:

228

Discussed what behaviors a close friend exhibits. Defines
"closeness" (goal) as talking comfortably about very
personal topics. Role—played several interactions‘

with the cOunselor. Developed skills in conversation

and interpersonal communication. Initiated "serious"
talks with desired friend as scheduled and rehearsed.
Chose "topics" that would indicate "closeness" if
discussed.

Client has met the objective and has discussed each of
the identified topics at least once and reports talking
of each on numerous occasions. Feels much closer to
roommate and is better able to talk about serious
matters with several others.

FOR YOUR INFORMATION ONLY

You are reluctant to end contact because you view the counselor as
one of the new people that you are able to talk with about personal
and serious matters. You indicate that you fear you may revert to
old patterns of communication without counselor reinforcement of
the new deeper communication patterns.

229

ITEM 3 - ROLE INFORMATION FOR COUNSELOR ROLE (SUBJECTS)

CONCERN:

OBJECTIVES:

STRATEGIES:

DATA:

CONCERN:

OBJECTIVE:

STRATEGY:

MORNING PERFORMANCE TEST (IS)

Feels isolated; has few associates and no one that would
be considered a friend.

By the end of three months client will have made two
friends (people that client calls at least two times
per week and sees one time per week for at least one
hour). Must also spend at least one hour per day in a
public place other than the library and initiate a
conversation with at least one person while there.
Must continue this behavior for three weeks.

Developed communication skills. Worked on how and where
to meet people and also how to initiate and develop

a conversation. Used role-playing for skill development
(practice). Used self-reinforcement for initiating
contact with strangers or new friends ($1.00 each toward
new guitar). Defined the term "friendship" in terms

of expected behaviors.

Client has three people that he/she calls or that call
client at least two times a week. Also has two people
in dorm that are regular meal companions. Goes out with
someone at least two times per week. Has joined guitar
class and works at crisis center. Will be attending

ski club. Goes to grill and Union and other places
according to a schedule each afternoon.

AFTERNOON PERFORMANCE TEST (IS)

Slightly depressed; concerned that does not seem to have
any friends. Deals with everyone on a superficial level.
wants to feel close to someone.

To develop a closer relationship with roommate as evidenced
by being able to discuss future goals, apprehensions

about finding a job, plans and misgivings about getting
married, and relationship with family. Must complete in
two months.

Discussed what behaviors a close friend exhibits. Defines
"closeness" (goal) as talking comfortably about very
personal topics. Role-played several interactions

with the counselor. Developed skills in conversation and
interpersonal communication. Initiated "serious" talks
with desired friend as scheduled and rehearsed. Select
"topics" that would indicate "closeness" if discussed.

230

DATA: Client has met the objective and has discussed each of
the identified topics at least once and reports talking
of each on numerous occasions. Feels much closer to

roommate and is better able to talk about serious matters
with several others.

APPENDIX N

RATING OF AUDIOTAPED PERFORMANCES OF THE
TERMINATION OF COUNSELING CONTACT

APPENDIX N
RATING OF AUDIOTAPED PERFORMANCES OF THE

TERMINATION OF COUNSELING CONTACT

ITEM 1 - INSTRUCTIONS FOR USE OF THE RATING FORM

The performance of the termination of counseling contact is to be rated
in terms of the behaviors specified by Behaviors Included in the
Performance of Termination Functions. The performance of the 19
specific behaviors which comprise the 4 functions or steps in the
termination process is to be rated on a scale from 1 to 8. The

scale is defined as follows:

 

L I I I I I I I I
I 1 l' 2 1’ 3 I 4 I 5 l 6 l 7 l g I
Extremely l l Somewhat I Very l
Inadequate Inadequate Adequate Adequate
Very Somewhat Adequate Exception-
Inadequate Inadequate ally Adequate

Extremely Inadequate
The trainee failed to exhibit the behavior when its exhibition was
appropriate.
The trainee's alluded to but did not exhibit the behavior when it
would have been appropriate to do so.

Very Inadequate

The trainee attempted the behavior but failed to execute it
satisfactorily due to lack of understanding of what was
expected.

The trainee attempted the behavior but failed to cover most
(2/3) of the required information.

The trainee exhibited no skill in leading into or executing the
behavior smoothly.

 

Inadequate
Trainee attempted the behavior but the level of performance was
definitely unsatisfactory.
The trainee's performance of the behavior included about half of
the required information.
The trainee's skill leading into and executing the behavior
smoothly was obviously lacking.

Somewhat Inadequate

The trainee covered most of the required information (2/3 +)
but missed some points.

231

232

The trainee's performance was borderline but more inadequate
than adequate.

The trainee exhibited limited skill in leading into and executing
the behavior.

Somewhat Adequate
The trainee covered most of the required information (2/3 +)
but missed some points.
The trainee's performance was borderline but more adequate than
inadequate.
The trainee exhibited some skill in leading into and executing
behavior.

Adequate
The trainee covered the required information or performed in a

manner acceptable for the situation, including deleting
behaviors when appropriate.

The trainee exhibited an adequate level of skill or facility
in leading into and executing behavior.

The import of the information may have been slightly lessened or
it did not really appear to flow naturally into the interview.

Very Adequate
The trainee covered all required information in a smooth and
coherent fashion. The behavior was well integrated into the
interaction but its impact may have been somewhat obscured or
lessened by the delivery.

 

ExceptionallyjAdequate
The trainee covered all required information adapting and
relating it to the specific needs and situation of the client.
The behavior was integrated very smoothly into the inter-
action and seemed extremely natural and relaxed. The impact
of the behavior was not "lost" in the process of delivery.

These descriptions are intended as guidelines for rating trainee
performance on each behavior. During the rater training session we
will discuss differences between the ratings and work together with
several tapes until raters are familiar with the information required
by each behavior and comfortable making distinctions on the scale.

233

ITEM 2 - RATING FORM FOR BEHAVIORS INCLUDED IN THE PERFORMANCE OF

TERMINATION FUNCTIONS (IS and TS)

RATING SCALE:

 

l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Extremely I Somewhat Very l
Inadequate l Inadequate Adequate Adequate

Very Somewhat Adequate Exceptionally
Inadequate Inadequate Adequate
Trainee: Section: P.M. A.M.

 

1. Function: Explain Rationale and Procedure for Termination
A. Explain Rationale for Termination
Behaviors:

1. Explain that regular counseling contact 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
is ending

2. Provide some explanation of the rationale l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
for the termination

3. Provide rationale based upon: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
previous understanding;
definition of counseling process;
upon clearly identified circumstances which
make further contact impossible or undesirable

B. Explanation of Termination Procedure
Behaviors:

4. Indicate that counselor and client will 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
discuss the learnings of counseling

5. Explain that counselor and client will 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
consider the need for further contact

234

II. Function: Manage Client/Counselor Resistance
Behaviors:

6. Discourage client dependence: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
discusses progress;
client ability;
client growth; etc.

7. Emphasize the client's role in planning 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
and attaining desired goal

8. Communicate belief in client's ability 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
to function independently

III. Function: Conduct Transfer of Learning
A. Identify Skills and Learnings
Behaviors:

9. Identify new behaviors: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
meeting people;
going out;
losing weight; etc.

10. Define or review problem solving process 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
used in counseling for dealing with
concerns:
define problem;
identify variables;
determine desired change (goal, objective);
plan and implement strategy;
evaluate performance

11. Review strategy, steps, and learnings l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
utilized in the resolution of the problem.
For example:
self-reinforcement for motivation to make
changes;
client assumption of initiative for
changes in own behavior;
the necessity of planning change

235

B. Indicated Applicability

Behaviors:

12.

13.

14.

15.

IV. Function:

Assist in the identification of other 1
situations in which specific skills
learned could be used. For example:
meeting men;
losing weight;
study habits

Indicate how general problem solving . 1
process and strategies could be applied
to other problems

Indicate how learnings can be used to l
secure reinforcement from the environ-
ment

5.:

Indicate that learnings have wider
applicability and how

Plan Monitoring of Client Performance

Behaviors:

16.

17.

18.

19.

Explain the rationale or purpose for l
monitoring performance to the client
including:
insuring that the changes are maintained;
spotting and getting help on problems
that arise;
gradual decrease of counselor support
and increase of client independence;
verification of clients ability to handle
problems independently

Explain conditions and restrictions of 1
future monitoring contact. For example:
to make sure things are going OK;
to see if client has been able to apply
skills to new area;
client is to call only if immediate help
is needed;
what will be discussed in future contacts

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Secure client agreement to monitoring 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

plan

Indicate type and date of next contact 1

2 3 4 5 6 7 8

APPENDIX 0

INFORMATION PROVIDED PROSPECTIVE SUBJECTS IN ED 819D

PURPOSE:

WHAT:

WHEN:

NOTE:

APPENDIX 0

INFORMATION PROVIDED PROSPECTIVE SUBJECTS IN ED 819D

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS STUDY

The purpose of the study is to evaluate several instructional
methods in terms of their impact on:

knowledge
acquisition of counseling skills
learner satisfaction

The rationale for the study is to learn what instructional
practices are most effective so that we can improve
teaching procedures.

The methods compared will be pure or combined forms of
procedures currently used in the program. Participants
will be randomly assigned to a teaching method. After the
instructional period, they will complete a brief ungraded
evaluation and informational assessment. Participants

will then engage in a brief taped role—played rehearsal

of the concepts presented. During spring term when students
are enrolled in practicum, they will be asked to complete a
short informational assessment on the material and to

submit their first 9.0 tape for analysis.

The study will gg£_require any additional time or work on

the part of participants, and it will be completed during

the regularly scheduled class period (8-11 a.m. or 4-7 p.m.).
Since the material being taught in the study (9.0) is 225_
included in the grading for 819D, performance on the measures
will in no way affect student evaluations or grades and will
be kept confidential.

The study will take place during regular class hours (8-11 a.m.
or 4-7 p.m.) on Tuesday, February 25. Total time for each
student should be approximate 1 1/2 - 2 hours.

It is expected that one group of students participating in the
study will have their instruction on 9.0 delayed until class
on March 4. Students not participating in the study will
report to class as usual (8:00 a.m. or 4:00 p.m.) on

February 25, and will participate in the debugging session
scheduled for March 4 at that time. The instruction on 9.0
scheduled for February 25, will be given to these students on
March 4 while other students are engaged in the debugging

236

237

clinic. A list will be circulated during class. Please sign
it if you ARE willing to participate in the study.

INSTRUCTION METHOD STUDY

I am willing to participate in the instructional methods study
described by the handout. I understand that I will be randomly

assigned to treatment group and will complete the evaluation
measure described.

NAME STUDENT NUMBER

APPENDIX P

PROSE UNIT PILOT TEST DATA

APPENDIX P

PROSE UNIT PILOT TEST DATA

Table P-l

Summary of Reading Time and Level of Comprehension
for the Pilot Test of the Full Length
Prose Learning Unit

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Students Reading Time Testing Time inI Score of Level of
in Minutes Minutes 24 Points Cogprehension (z)
81 52 8 19 79.2
$2 59 10 20 83.3
83 62 9 19 79.2
S4 54 ll 18 75.0
S5 56 ll 23 94.2
MEAN 56.6 9.8 19.5 81.3
Table P-2
Summary of Reading Time and Level of Comprehension
for the Pilot Test of the Abbreviated
Prose Learning Unit
Students Reading Time Testing Time in Score of Level of
in Minutes Minutes 24 Points Comprehension (Z)
86 15 10 19 79.2
S7 18 9 16 66.7
$8 16 12 18 75.0
$9 16 8 20 83.3
810 21 ll 16 67.7
MEAN 17.2 10.0 17.5 72.9

 

 

 

238

 

  
      

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