f...” ASPECTS OF STRUCTJRE IN FROMM’S ffififiKEfih’G {FREEMATEGN Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY EDWARD JOHN LESSIN 1968 Int-.2913 ‘ Nltcmg» rm; Urn-u: '-‘/ { "II-i” , _ ' -- W Ask—.5 fl "3 This is to certify that the thesis entitled ASPECTS OF STRUCTURE IN FROMM'S MARKETING ORIENTATION presented by Edvard John Less in has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for _Ph_’D'___ degree in My ///€z%€/a__ Major professor Dam /%v, /2, /¢%;¢ ‘ munmc av. . ‘ Hm & SUNS' . 800K BINDERY INC. . ‘ LIBRARY BINDERS ABSTRACT ASPECTS OF STRUCTURE IN FROMM'S MARKETING ORIENTATION by Edward John Lessin The objectives of this study were to develop a paper and pencil scale whose items reflect Fromm's descrip- tion of the marketing orientation, to ascertain the struc- ture of the scale develOped, and to develop subscales which reliably measure the dimensions of the scale. The three objectives were met.. A review of the literature indicated only one pre- vious attempt at empirically measuring Fromm's marketing orientation. The reliability of the scale was not high and no attempt was made to describe the structural dimensions of the marketing orientation. On the basis of Fromm's account of the marketing orientation, components of the marketing orientation were identified and related to each other. Over 160 items were written to measure the different components of the marketing orientation. After being judged by two different panels of graduate students, 70 items re-- mained which formed the preliminary version of the marketing Edward John Lessin orientation scale. The items were scored on a six point agree-disagree continuum. Both agree and disagree items were included to compensate for positive response set. The scale was administered to a sample of 53 male and 72 female undergraduate students and to a second sample of 56 male students. The factor analysis for men appeared different from the analysis for women on the data from the first sample. Hence, the development of the marketing orientation scale was based on the combined male data from the two samples (N=109). Factor analysis failed to satisfactorily cluster the items. The criteria used were that the inter-item correlations for each cluster be positive and that the items of each cluster behave parallel across the other items of the scale. The clusters based on factor analysis failed to meet the second criterion. Clusters were then searched for directly. The clusters were obtained by first finding pairs of parallel items, then combining them into subclusters, and finally into clusters. To aid in finding parallel items, sub- clusters, and clusters, the correlation matrix was reorded several times. Six clusters were found with positive inter-item correlations. Parallelism was met for four clusters but was weak in the two largest clusters. Alpha reliability coefficients were computed for the total set of items of each cluster and for clusters Edward John Lessin with weak items deleted. The subscales based on each cluster include all the items of the cluster except when deleting items did not reduce the reliability. The reli- ability coefficients for the subscales are all above the .60 criterion level. This study suggests that Fromm's marketing orienta- tion is composed of two correlated dimensions. The first dimension includes only the cluster which reflects manip- ulation as a life style. The second dimension is tridimen- sional and includes the three following correlated clusters: other-directedness, imposed conformity, and emptiness or inner loneliness. Two other clusters which reflect quick- ness and sociability were also found. They were not con- sidered to be part of the marketing orientation since the two clusters were independent of each of the first four clusters and independent of each other. It was noted that the items of both clusters have positive connotations while the items of the other four clusters have negative connota- tions. Although Fromm describes the characteristics of the marketing orientation in strongly negative terms, he adds that its characteristics can be either positive or negative depending on the degree of productiveness in the character structure of the individual. It was concluded that it was contradictory to maintain that the negative characteristics of the marketing orientation are positive in productive peOple. They are different characteristics in productive Edward John Lessin peOple. It was suggested that Fromm's theory needed to be clarified so that only nonproductive characteristics were included in nonproductive orientations. Other implications for Fromm's character typology and suggestions for further research were discussed. ASPECTS OF STRUCTURE IN FROMM'S MARKETING ORIENTATION BY Edward John Lessin A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Psychology 1968 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to sincerely thank all those who helped him with this research. In particular he would like to thank the following members of his committee: Dr. Albert Rabin, Dr. John Hunter, Dr. Terrence Allen, and Dr. Bill Kell. Dr. Albert Rabin, his chairman, gave continued en- couragement, guidance, and help, especially in communicating ideas in clearer form. He was responsible for introducing the author to Fromm's character orientations. Dr. John Hunter suggested the criterion of parallelism and without his help the reordered correlation matrix would not have been accomplished. Dr. Terrence Allen was especially help- ful on problems of research design and is largely respon- sible for awakening the author's interest in psychological measurement. Dr. Bill Kell helped in many ways but was especially helpful by listening and clarifying the author's thoughts and feelings in times of stress and crisis. Thanks also to the following graduate student friends for helping with the rankings: Mr. John Mullen, Mrs. Mary Sue Larsen, Mr. Joshua Hull, Miss Kaye Bradley, Mr. Paul Wheeler, and Mrs. Sheri Lessin. ii Acknowledgment of financial support is given to the National Institute of Mental Health for granting a predoctoral research fellowship. Use of the Michigan State University computing facilities was made possible through support, in part, from the National Science Foundation. The author wishes to thank the consulting staff of the Computer Institute for Social Science Research. Mr. Robert Zerby and Mr. Stan Cohen were especially helpful. Finally, and most important, I want to thank my wife, Sheri, for understanding, patience, and help. With- out her love, the research would not have been completed. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O O 0 LIST OF TABLES AND CHARTS . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF APPENDICES O O O O O O O O O C O O C O . INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Fromm's Character Orientations . . . . . . . . Description of the Marketing Orientation . . . Research Related to the Marketing Orientation . STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES . . . . . . . . . . . . . DEVELOPMENT AND ADMINISTRATION OF THE MARKETING ORIENTATION SCALE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . DevelOpment of the Marketing Orientation Scale Subjects and Administration of the Scale . . . THE STRUCTURE OF THE MARKETING ORIENTATION SCALE Factor Analysis . . . . . . .‘. . . . Reordered Correlation Matrix . . . . Cluster OD = Other-directedness . . . Cluster CON = Imposed Conformity . . . . Cluster EMP = Emptiness or Inner Loneliness Cluster MAN = Manipulation as a Life Style Pair 97 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cluster QIK Quickness . . . . . . . . Cluster SOC Sociability . . . . . . . The Reliability of the Cluster Scales . DISCUSSION 0 O O O O O O 0 I O O O O O O O O O O Adequacy of Items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Implications for Fromm' s Conception of the Marketing Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv Page ii vi vii 17 19 19 23 26 26 29 34 37 38 41 43 46 47 48 52 52 53 Page Relationship Between Other-directedness and Emptines S O O O O O O O O I O O O O C O O O O O I 5 8 Reliability of Subscales . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Further Research Needed . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 SUMRY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 6 3 “FERENCES O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O 6 7 LIST OF TABLES AND CHARTS Table Page 1. Components of the pairs, subclusters, and Clusters O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 31 2. Subcluster and cluster correlation matrix for combined sample of 109 men . . . . . . 32 3. Cluster OD correlation matrix for combined sample of 109 men . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 4. Cluster CON correlation matrix for combined sample of 109 men . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 5. Cluster EMP correlation matrix for combined sample of 109 men . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 6. Cluster MAN correlation matrix for combined sample of 109 men . . . . . . . . . . . . . p 45 7. Cluster QIK correlation matrix for combined sample of 109 men . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 8. Cluster SOC correlation matrix for combined sample of 109 men . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 9. Alpha reliability coefficients for the clusters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 Chart 1. Marketing orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 2. The correlations between clusters of the marketing orientation scale . . . . . . . . 54 vi LI ST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page I. Preliminary version of the marketing orientation scale . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 II. Reordered correlation matrix . . . . . . . 74 III. Subscales of the preliminary version of the marketing orientation scale . . . . . 84 IV. Means and standard deviations for men (N=lO9) and women (N=72) arranged by CluSters O O O I O l O O O I O O O O O O 88 vii INTRODUCTION Fromm's Character Orientations Erich Fromm (1947) in Man for Himself distinguishes between behavioral traits and character traits. The former are directly observable while the latter are inferred from observed behavior. Fromm assumes that character traits are underlying motivational forces determining behavior. For example, the observable behavior of a man proposing mar- riage may be motivated by truly caring for the girl or by expecting to acquire her father's fortune. The former would suggest a productive character while the latter an exploitative one. Of course, an accurate appraisal of character cannot be based only on one or a few behavioral observations but should be based on repeated observations in several different areas since character is an underlying trait being inferred from behavior. Fromm states that a person's character is expressed by the way he relates himself to the world. The two main ways of relating, for Fromm, are by acquiring or assimilat- ing things and by interacting with people or becoming soc- ialized. Hence Fromm (1947, p. 67) defines character as the ". . . (relatively permanent) form in which human 1 energy_is canalized in the process of assimilation and socialization." It is important to emphasize the relatively permanent quality of character. Fromm states character is the human equivalent of animal instincts. It seems that Adler's (1929) concept of "life style" and Murray's (1938) notion of "unity-thema" overlap with Fromm's idea of "char- acter" in that all reflect the same underlying, and often unconscious, motivational network which accounts for much of the predictability of individual behavior in widely diverse circumstances. Fromm conceptualizes an individual's character as a composite of five orientations. The four non-productive character orientations are receptive, exploitative, hoard- ing, and marketing. The first three non-productive orien- tations are respectively similar to the following Freudian pre-genital stages: oral incorporative, oral destructive, and anal retentive. There is only one "productive orienta- tion," which is equivalent to the character possessed by Maslow's (1962) "self-actualizing person," Roger's (1961) "fully functioning person" and Freud's (1933) "genital character," that is, the person who has put ego where id was. Description of the Marketing_Orientation What is unique about Fromm's character typology is the marketing orientation. The marketing orientation is a personality correlate of modern capitalism. The characteristics or values of the larger socio-economic grouping become mirrored in the individual personalities of its members, but persons with a marketing orientation especially exemplify the characteristics of modern capitalism. Application of the term "marketing orientation," does not mean that an individual fails to possess the other four orientations. On the contrary, each person possesses each orientation or trait to some extent. When applied to a specific person, the label "marketing orientation" (or any other orientation) means that the traits comprising it predominate over the traits of the other orientations. The marketing orientation is composed of several interrelated characteristics. A brief overview may be useful here. The unifying concept of the marketing orien- tation is emptiness. Marketing emptiness is expressed in two main ways: "Self perceived as a commodity" and "Im- personal interpersonal relating." Each of these expres- sions, the second level of analysis, can be subdivided into components, the third level of analysis. The two compo- nents of "Self perceived as a commodity" are: sources of personal value are external to oneself and no persistent character trait except salability. The second expression of the marketing orientation, "Impersonal interpersonal relating," has two components: manipulation as a life style and superficial, but sociable, human relationships. Each component of the marketing personality can be sub- divided into one or more consequences, the fourth level of analysis. A summary of the analysis of the marketing personality is shown in Chart 1. The analysis or portrait of the marketing person— ality presented below is a schema for tying the diverse but interrelated characteristics of the marketer together as seen by Fromm. It does not weigh the relative importance of the different characteristics. In general, the expres- sion "Self perceived as a commodity" appears more important ‘ than the expression "Impersonal interpersonal relating." The components can be ranked in the following order of probable importance: Sources of personal value are external to oneself, manipulation as a life style, no persistent character trait except salability, and superficial, but sociable, human relationships. Emptiness The primary characteristic of the marketing orien- tation is emptiness which Fromm (1947, p. 85) defines as ". . . the lack of any specific quality which could not be subject to change." Emptiness is expressed by the way a person with a marketing orientation perceives himself and by the way he relates to other people. Fromm states that the marketer perceives himself as a commodity. The market- ing personality typically relates to others in an impersonal way. His interpersonal relations are not based on mnmnpo unsup on even uoc IlmmastOHumamH mmoao mUHo>¢ .m mumnuo mo Hm>onm lam woodculmcoam mcfimn mcflo>¢ .m maecmflum one manmwoom .H mmflnmdoflumHmH amass .mHQMAOOm use .HMHoflmummdm . mmTOOSm HON mw>HHHm .m mumnpo Ho>o cofluwcHEoc mm Hm3om .b haxowsw mmmmum can mxcflna .m muozuo mo mQOADMDUOQMo mcwmcmso on“ on o>HUHmcmm .m mumnuo nufl3 mmflnmcofiumHou cw manaxmam one manmummea .4 mumnuo mo cowamasmflcmz .m unflumfl Inmuomumzo camcauucfl no mofluflaflnm uoc .AMCOmemV muwamcomuom ma Dommm HmGOmHomnmucH can: .N maom mo cowumasmwcmz .H oahum emaa m mm coaumasmfiamz . UZHBdAHm AdzommmmmmBZH AflZOmmmmEH moaucmca -mamm mo maaaomm ocfldcom oz .v umxumfi on» no momma mcflmcmno on» no cospooammu m mm hpflamsOmHmm G30 .m muwusoomcH .N movsuwuum mo muaaanwmmcmso .H auHHflQMHMm ammoxo Damn“ Houom lumno ucmpmflmumm 02 _ maom ou cmflam mm mnm3om G30 .m osHm> omcmsoxm mm msam> wamm .N mOADmflHouomnmno Damcfiuucw osam> op muuaflmm .H * . maom none on documpxm mum osam> Hmcom Imam mo moonsom . NBHQOZSOU fl md Qm>HmUmmm hqmm =.omcmso ou uoonnsm on no: canon nows3 muflamov owmaoomm has no xoma=llmmmzHBmzm coaumucmwuo mcwumxumzll.a BMde respecting the human uniqueness of others or himself but on viewing himself and others as objects to be bought and sold. To use Martin Buber's (1937) terminology, the marketing personality relates to his fellow men on an EZEE rather than an I-Thou basis. These two main expressions of the emptiness of the marketing orientation are not clearly distinct but involve some overlap since the way a person perceives himself influences the way he relates to others and vice versa. Self Perceived as a Commodity The marketing personality perceives himself as a commodity. This self-concept has two main components: he sees the sources of his personal value as external to him- self and he lacks any persistent character trait except salability. If the sources of a person's value are pri- marily external to himself, then he values himself for what other peOple think of him rather than for who he is. He does not value his intrinsic characteristics. The failure to value his intrinsic characteristics is closely related to the marketing personality's perception of his value as a person as being equivalent to his exchange value--how other people perceive him as being able to satisfy their needs. Exchange value implies that what is important is not who you are but what you can do to satisfy what others want. Fromm's conception of exchange value cannot be fully understood except as a perversion of his conception of man. Fromm assumes that man has a human nature which is essentially healthy. One of the main features of Fromm's view of human nature is that a human characteristic cannot be exchanged for another one or for something non-human. A human quality such as love cannot be bartered for some- thing else, e.g., security. Of course, there still may be a very close relationship between love and security. Karl Marx (1966, p. 168) aptly expressed Fromm's conception of the non-exchangeable quality of human characteristics as follows: Let us assume man to be man, and his relation to the world to be a Hfiman one.—_Then love can only be ex- changed for love, trust for trust, etc. . . . If you love without evoking love in return, i.e., if you are not able, by the manifestation of yourself as a loving person, to make yourself a beloved person, then your love is impotent and a misfortune. The marketer is empty because he applies the principles of the market to his own being and to his relationships with his fellow men. One of the principles of the market is that anything is exchangeable for anything else via the medium of money. Love can be exchanged for money, then trust or anything else. But on a human level, this prin- ciple is not valid. When the marketer does try to exchange love, it indeed becomes "impotent and a misfortune," or using Fromm's word, "empty." The responsibility does not lie with the marketer alone. Modern bureaucracies make the assumption that the role in the organization is what is unique and any person with a minimum of qualifications can fulfill it as well as anyone else with similar qualifications. One of the ef- fects of bureaucratization is that the persons who fill the roles tend to view themselves as commodities. The third consequence of viewing the source of personal value as external to the self is becoming alienated from some of one's own powers. For example, if a marketing personality is a skilled blacksmith and the society does not value blacksmiths--if the exchange value of black- smithing is low or ni1--then the skill of blacksmithing becomes an alien part of the self since it is not rewarded by others. More than the average person, the marketer values those characteristics which the culture values. Those skills or powers which he has which the culture does not value become alien to him since they are unrewarded. Alienation is also related to the previous discussion of exchange value in that the human characteristics which the marketer tries to exchange become alienated from him. The second component of perceiving oneself as a commodity is that the marketing personality does not have any persistent character trait except salability since he must change as the requirements of the market change. A consequence of lacking any persistent character traits is that the marketing person's attitudes are readily change- able. If he is to meet the demands of the market he must change his attitudes as the demands of market change. One result of having to appear to change character is insecu— rity. Fromm states that one's self-esteem or security is bound to be shaky and in constant need of confirmation by others when the criteria of success varies with the demands of the market. The third consequence of the marketer's relative lack of persistent character traits is that his own per- sonality becomes a reflection of the perceived changing needs of the market. If the market values industriousness, the marketer acts industrious so as to be quickly bought at a high price. If industriousness is no longer highly valued, he no longer acts industrious. For the marketing personality, the sum of the roles one plays which the market values defines who one is. The validity of role theory is not being questioned here. The productive person may also be viewed as playing a series of roles, but the roles he plays reflect his attempt at realizing his poten- tial rather than the demands of others. The fourth consequence of the lack of persistent character traits is that the marketer does not have any genuine feeling of self-identity. Genuine self-identity implies intrinsic self-value, and a stable central core of potencies or valued traits. The marketer is dependent on how others perceive him rather than on his inner self. 10 Impersonal Interpersonal Relating The second main expression of marketing emptiness is impersonal interpersonal relations. The impersonal in— terpersonal relating of the marketing personality has two main components: manipulation as a life style and super- ficial, but sociable, human relationships. The marketing personality does not actively manip- ulate others like the sociopath does. Instead he tries to please them. Since he does not perceive his true self (if it is perceived at all) as rewardable, he adopts a marketing personality which is rewarded. Other persons reward him not for who he is but for the image he creates. The mar- keter manipulates both himself and others, although he typically is not conscious of this. The marketer manip- ulates himself in that he loses touch with his true self and becomes what the market wants. Fromm (1947, p. 80) stated that the motto of the marketing personality is: "I am as you desire me." Perhaps a necessary consequence of always trying to please others is that the marketing per- sonality becomes unwittingly caught in the game of being pleasing and loses track of the "I" that wants to please. In Jungian terms the marketer's ego identifies with the persona or the mask worn in public. Jung (1946, p. 268) states that, "the persona expresses the personality as it appears to oneself and one's world; but not what one ii' . ." He adds that the man dominated by the persona (the marketing ' ll personality) not only deceives others but also deceives himself in becoming dissociated from his inner life or his intrinsic abilities and characteristics. The marketer also manipulates others by giving a misleading impression of himself in order to appear pleas- ing. He pleases others because he feels empty without their rewards. He sees value and worth as outside himself and tries to please others in the hope that they will give him something of value. The receptive and exploitative personalities also see value as external to their selves but the receptive personality expects others to give to him without having to do anything while the exploitative per- sonality takes from others without giving in return. The marketer does not please by providing something of value but by seeming to be the type of person his companion likes. Many good salesmen first "sell their personality" and then the sale of the product becomes easy.' They try to sell themselves because the customer often isn't highly moti- vated toward the product. But isn't the customer manip- ulated or tricked into valuing the personality above the product? Isn't the customer also tricked in that often the personality of the salesman isn't his genuine personality but a projection of the characteristics which he thinks will please the customer?A Paradoxically, the marketer manipulates others by hiding his intrinsic characteristics and abilities. 12 Positive qualities of interpersonally relating are also part of the marketing personality's manipulative life style. For example, the successful marketer must be adapt- able and flexible in his relationships with others. He must also be extremely sensitive to the changing expecta— tions of others. This involves the ability to think and grasp things quickly rather than ponder over them while somebody quicker gets the rewards. What makes these positive qualities not so positive in the marketing personality is the use to which they are aimed--manipulation rather than productively relating to oneself and to others. Fromm's (1941) discussion of power is appropriate here. He distinguishes between a productive meaning of power involving potency or the ability to realize one's potentialities on the basis of freedom and integrity of the self and of others. Power for the marketer or any non-productive person, however, means power over somebody or the ability to dominate them. Fromm (1941, p. 184) succintly states that, "Power, in the sense of domination, is the perversion of potency, just as sexual sadism is the perversion of sexual love." The last consequence of the marketer's manipulation as a life style is a constant striving for success. The rules of the market assume that there is a limited supply of rewards, so that what one's neighbor gets, the marketer loses., Since the rewards of the market do not satisfy 13 basic human needs, the marketing personality may be rich in material rewards and the acclaim of others but psycholog- ically empty in not having a genuine feeling of achievement. By only valuing the rewards of the market, he strives harder to gain the limited rewards which it offers, even at the price of manipulating himself and others. Superficial, but sociable, human relationships, the second component of the marketing personality's impersonal interpersonal ways of relating, indicate both positive and negative aspects of the marketing orientation. Again, the specific quality, sociability, is positive but cannot be humanly expressed because the personality or character of the marketer is empty. The marketer may be a friendly and sociable person but these qualities appear flat because they are oriented to the needs of the market rather than being an expression of his inner being or his human unique- ness. Since he is detached from his inner self, the mar- keter-dreads being alone. He needs other peOple. Yet he is afraid of becoming close or intimate with others. To do so would not be safe since anxiety over being alienated from oneself would rise. It also isn't safe since close- ness involves trust, and trust is a human quality which cannot be authentically exchanged by the rules of the market. The marketing personality is left in the position of needing other people, but at a distance. He says in effect: "let's dance but not touch." The marketer is especially comfortable at a cocktail party. 14 The above portrait of the marketer, on the whole, is not very flattering but is congruent with Fromm's de- scription. It is worth emphasizing that the marketer is an ideal type, a caricature. No one person only possesses marketing traits as the above portrait suggests. Even those who appear to have an overabundance of marketing traits also have some productive traits. Research Related to the Marketing Orientation Fromm's (1947) study of character orientations has not given rise to much empirical research. The first step in empirically studying the character orientations is to reliably measure them. The only study found attempting to measure Fromm's orientations is by Domhoff (1964). He constructed a paper and pencil attitude scale by rewording Fromm's statements or by making his suggestions explicit. This procedure appears weak since Fromm's uncomplementary way of describing the marketing orientation leads to items of low social desirability. The intercorrelations among the five scales do not differ significantly from zero at the .05 level except for an intercorrelation of .25 between hoarding and marketing and of -.23 between marketing and productive. The reliabilities are: .52 (receptive), .63 (exploitative), .19 (hoarding), .58 (marketing), and .57 (productive). Domhoff states that these reliabilities are not adequate for group testing. 15 On a literary level, Riesman (1961, p. 22) states that his conception of the other-directed type ". . . has been stimulated by, and deve10ped from Erich Fromm's dis- cussion of the 'marketing orientation.'" 'Riesman views the other-directed type as a social character resulting from changes in population growth patterns. Fromm does not make this assumption. None of his orientations is a necessary outgrowth of any other while according to Riesman the inner- directed type is a change from the tradition-directed type, and the other-directed type is a change from the inner- directed type. Riesman's study of the other-directed type is more complete than Fromm's description of the marketing personality in that Riesman explores child rearing prac- tices, peer group relationships, the effects of the mass media, sexual behavior, and politics. The central charac- teristic of the marketing personality is emptiness while the central characteristic of the other-directed type is perceiving contemporaries as the source of direction for the individual. In terms of the previous portrait of the marketing personality, Riesman would view "Sources of per— sonal value are external to oneself" as the central char- acteristic. Fromm has described the marketing personality as alienated since there is a lack of contact between the individual's conscious self and his productive potential. Fromm's is not the only way in which the term "alienation" 16 is used. Keniston (1965) studied intensively 12 young men alienated from American culture. Although they showed some signs of self-alienation, these men felt that they had to reject American culture in order to maintain their per- sonal integrity. What is the relationship between the alienated marketing personality and the alienated or un- committed young men? In his study of the families of the uncommitted, Keniston found that the fathers of the young men were all perceived as empty and the uncommitted were repulsed at the idea of modeling themselves after them. Keniston's descriptions of how the young men view their fathers fit the marketing personality while the grand- fathers were largely perceived as inner-directed types. It is intriguing to speculate that cultural alienation among the young may be in part a response to seeing their fathers sacrifice their productiveness inorder to achieve the "empty" rewards of a marketing culture. STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES Since to the knowledge of the author, there has been only one empirical study of Fromm's marketing orien- tation, the purpose of this study is to continue the em- pirical investigation of Fromm's concepts. Briefly stated, the three main objectives are: 1. To develop a paper and pencil scale reflecting the characteristics of the marketing orientation. 2. To ascertain the structure of the marketing orientation scale. 3. To develop subscales which reliably measure the different dimensions of the scale. The first objective involved writing items which reflected and different characteristics of the marketing orientation. Items were written for the set of marketing characteristics developed in the introductory chapter. The methods of item construction and of scaling the re- sponses to the items are presented in the following chapter on the develOpment of the marketing orientation scale. The second objective was to determine the structure of the marketing orientation scale. It was not known whether the marketing orientation was unidimensional or multidimensional. If it was unidimensiona1,.the items should group into a general cluster and unimportant specific 17 18 clusters. If multidimensional, the items should group into as many clusters as there are dimensions of the scale. The dimensions of a multidimensional scale can be either inde- pendent of each other or correlated. Ascertaining the structure of the marketing orientation scale included grouping the items into clusters or dimensions, describing the psychological content of the clusters, and showing how the clusters are related to each other. The third objective was to develop reliable sub- scales to measure each dimension. The reliability coeffi— cient of .60 was established as a minimum criterion. Nunnally (1967) states that reliabilities of .50 or .60 are satisfactory for the early stages of research on hypoth- esized measures of constructs such as the dimensions of the marketing orientation scale. Coefficient alpha was chosen as the estimate of reliability since it is based both on the average correlation among items (i.e., internal consistency) and on the number of items. Coefficient alpha also sets an upper limit to the reliability. According to Nunnally (1967, p. 211), it is the preferred measure of reliability since it accounts for measurement error due both to the sampling of content and to the "'sampling' of situational factors accompanying the items." DEVELOPMENT AND ADMINISTRATION OF THE MARKETING ORIENTATION SCALE Development of the Marketing Orientation ScaIe On the basis of the description of Fromm's marketing orientation as presented in the Introduction,the investigator gathered a pool of 163 statements with which a person with a marketing orientation would be expected to strongly agree or strongly disagree. The statements in the pool were written by the investigator or taken from other scales. The preliminary version of the marketing orientation scale contained six items from Fricke's (1962) "Opinion, Attitude, and Interest Survey" and five items from Gough's (1956) "California Psychological Inventory." The statements in the item pool included references to feelings, behavior and beliefs. Some statements ask how the subject perceives the world, perceives himself, per- ceives others, how he interpersonally relates, and how others interpersonally relate. Twenty three statements were eliminated by the author because they were poorly worded or ambiguous. l9 20 The remaining 140 statements were rated by a panel of three graduate student judges who were familiar with Fromm's orientations in order to help determine whether the items discriminate between the marketing orientation and Fromm's four other orientations. The judges were instructed to read each item and then rank to what extent they be- lieved a person with each orientation would agree with the statement. If the marketing orientation is ranked first, it indicates that the judge believed that a person with a marketing orientation agrees with the item more than a per- son with any other orientation. If the marketing orienta- tion is ranked second, it indicates that the judge believed that a person with another orientation agrees with the item more than a marketing person but a marketing person agrees with the item more than a person with any of the three remaining orientations. For an item with which a marketing person is supposed to disagree, a fifth place ranking means that a person with a marketing orientation disagrees more with the item than persons with other orientations. For agree items, the criterion for discrimination between the marketing orientation and the other orientations was that the item be given a first place ranking by at least two judges and a second place ranking by the third. For dis- agree items, the criterion was that the item be given a fifth place ranking by at least two judges and a fourth place ranking by the third. One hundred five items met 21 the criterion. Eighty five items were given either a first or fifth place ranking by all three judges, depending on whether they were agree or disagree items. The 35 items which did not meet the criterion were discarded. Eighteen additional items were next eliminated since the judges considered them to be ambiguous or poorly worded. The remaining 87 items were read out loud by the investigator to a second panel of three graduate students who were also familiar with the marketing orientation. The following questions were asked for each item: does it really "get at" the marketing orientation: is it likely that a marketing person would answer honestly (social de- sirability); is the item clearly worded; can the wording be improved? Seventeen items were drOpped because at least one judge had doubts about the item's suitability. Twnety five other items were revised so that they satisfied the judges and the investigator. A pool of 70 items remained for the preliminary version of the marketing orientation scale. The items are listed in Appendix I. Judges on both panels were asked whether the items cover the major aspects of the marketing orientation as judged by their understanding of Fromm's marketing orien- tation. All judges thought that the items adequately re- flected Fromm's conception of the marketing orientation. 22 In order to control for yes-no response set, items were written so that the marketing person would agree with some and disagree with others. Forty four or 63 percent of the 70 items were in the "agree" direction while 26 or 37 percent were in the "disagree" direction. Subjects sometimes develop a set for what the in- vestigator is measuring, and respond on the basis of the set instead of the particular item. In order to reduce this possibility 20 unscored filler items were added. The filler items were taken from Domhoff's (1964) scale of Fromm's character orientations. Five items were taken from the receptive, exploitative, hoarding, and productive scales. To help avoid the beginning of a marketing set, more filler items were interspersed in the first quarter of the marketing orientation scale than in the remainder of the scale where filler items were interspersed on a random basis. Subjects were instructed to respond to each item on a 7 point Likert type scale (Edwards, 1957), except that no middle or neutral category was allowed. The rationale for forcing a choice is that the meaning of the middle category is ambiguous and that the forced choice format allows for easy dichotimazation of the data. It-is not clear whether the middle category means that the subject's belief is clearly in the middle of the continuum, whether he partially agrees with both ends of the continuum, or whether he is unwilling to commit himself. 23 The directions to the subjects are as follows: On the following pages you.will find a series of statements that reflect a person's attitudes and be- liefs. As will be obvious, there are no "right" or "wrong" answers. Your reaction to each statement should be your personal opinion. Since the statements reflect many different and opposing points of view, you may find yourself agreeing strongly with some statements, disagreeing just as strongly with others, and perhaps uncertain about others. Whether you agree or disagree with any statement, you can be sure that many people feel the same as you do. Carefully read each statement and indicate how much you agree or disagree with it on the separate IBM answer sheet. The numbers on the answer sheet corres- pond with the numbers in this booklet. For each item, blacken -3, —2, —1, or +1, +2, +3, depending on how you feel in each case. -3: DISAGREE VERY MUCH +1: 'AGREE A LITTLE -2: DISAGREE ON THE WHOLE +2: AGREE ON THE WHOLE -1: DISAGREE A LITTLE +3: AGREE VERY MUCH Check to be sure you are marking for the same item number as the item you are reading in the booklet. Make a choice for each item. Do not skip any. Since this study is being done for research pur- poses only, do not indicate your name, student number, or other identifying information. Please do not open the booklet until the examiner asks you to start. Sub ects and Administration of ItHe Scale Two groups of subjects were used for the study. The first group consisted of 125 introductory psychology students of which 72 were females and 53 were males. The subjects were administered the scale as part of their class 24 work. They were told that they would receive research credit for participating but were free to leave if they wished. Most students stayed. The directions were read silently by the subjects and out loud by the investigator. Any questions that subjects' had were answered by the in- vestigator. The subjects were told that there was no time limit, but to work as quickly as possible. Most subjects finished within fifteen to twenty minutes. The second group consisted of 56 male subjects. They were summer session students, while the first group were regular session students. The second group included more older students than the first group. It was not pos- sible to administer the scale to introductory psychology classes as in the first administration. The investigator tried to obtain male introductory psychology subjects by having a sign up sheet for a personality experiment worth research credit passed around the introductory psychology class. Six subjects signed and were individually adminis- tered the scale. Any questions that the subjects' had were answered by the investigator. The subjects were told that there was no time limit, to work as quickly as possible, and that most subjects finished within fifteen to twenty minutes. All of the second administration subjects were asked to list their class, major, and intended occupation. 25 Since it was not possible to obtain a larger group of introductory psychology subjects for the second sample, the investigator obtained the remaining 50 male subjects by knocking on doors in a residence hall and asking the res- ident to volunteer to take a 15 to 20 minute personality scale in his room. Over three fourths of those who an- swered volunteered to take the scale. Research credit was given to a few who were enrolled in a psychology class. The administration of the scale to these men was more in- formal. The subjects did not take the scale in a stand- ardized setting but in their own rooms. The investigator was not able to be present but did notice that many radios were on and the atmosphere of the residence hall was party like. About half the men took the scale alone in their room. The largest group taking the scale was five while most groups had only two men. The instructions were the same as for the first six subjects of the second group. THE STRUCTURE OF THE MARKETING ORIENTATION SCALE Factor Analysis Male and Female Sample The data from the sample of 125 men and women was factor analyzed by the principal axis method followed by orthogonal rotations. There were moderate loadings on sex and the pattern of responses to the items of the marketing orientation scale differed for men and women. It was therefore decided to use only male data in developing the marketing orientation scale. Nunnally (1967, p. 370) suc- Cintly states, "One of the truisms in psychology is that males and females tend to differ with respect to almost everything . " The difference between the male and female data is not surprising since the investigator wrote the items from a male's perspective. Male pronouns were used in the word- ing of the statements. Fromm's discussion of the marketing o3"—"ientation also seems to assume a masculine orientation. All of Fromm's (1947) illustrations of the marketing orien- taltion, except one, refer to males. In The Art of Loving, From (1956) emphasizes the personality correlates of the 26 27 sexual difference between males and females when he distin- guishes between motherly and fatherly love. Due to the masculine orientation of Fromm and the investigator, the development of the marketing orientation scale was based on the male data. First Male Sample The date from the 53 men was factor analyzed in order to determine clusters of items. The four factor quartimax rotation resulted in four clusters of items which appeared to measure the marketing orientation. However, upon closer examination, the clusters were not satisfac- tory. If a cluster is to have parallel items, not only should the correlations of items be positive within a clus- ter but the items should also have a similar pattern of correlations with items outside the cluster. The first condition was satisfied but not the second. Items within a cluster which had positive correlations with each other often were correlated very differently with items outside the cluster. For example, items 10 and 15 are positively correlated with each other and with the other items of their cluster, but item 10 is negatively correlated with many of the items outside their cluster while item 15 is generally positively correlated with these same items. 28 Second Male Sample It seemed that the results from the first sample data might be attributable to the particular sample drawn and/or to artifacts of the factor analytic method when applied to small samples. The marketing orientation scale was administered to a new sample of 56 men. The data was factor analyzed and compared with the analysis of the first sample. The clusters of items based on the factors for the second sample were different from the clusters for the first sample, and were similarly unsatisfactory. Complete Male Sample The data from the entire sample of men (N=109) was factor analyzed. The resulting rotated factors (quartimax and varimax criteria gave essentially the same results) Were similar to those from the first sample but not the Second. Although the items of the clusters were moderately POsitively correlated with each other, items which behaved Parallel within a cluster behaved differently on items out— side the cluster. The lack of equivalence between items Outside their cluster was true on all rotations. Nine ro- tations were attempted. It was concluded that orthogonal factor analysis Was inadequate to explain the structure of the marketing orientation scale. Oblique rotations were attempted but the computer did not complete the job. The oblique programs 29 were in error. Programmers tried to amend the programs so that the job would be completed properly, but were not successful. Re ordered Correlation Matrix Since the orthogonal factor analysis failed to pro- vide adequate clusters, it was decided to search for the clusters directly. First, the 70 item correlation matrix was reordered to reflect the clustering of items based on the factor analysis. Items were paired which behaved Similarly both inside and outside their cluster. For example, when item 43 correlates high or low with another item, regardless of cluster, item 54 usually correlates Wi th that item to roughly the same extent as item 43 does. Items 43 and 54 come close to being parallel items. The correlation matrix was next successively re- cDrdered so that items which appeared to form pairs were adjacent to each other. Items and pairs of items which did not behave Parallel outside their cluster were removed and grouped into new clusters. , After several reorderings, the following structure emerged: 1. Thirty one pairs were found. Eight items re- mained which did not form any reasonable pair. 2. Thirteen groups of one to three pairs were formed and three of these groups naturally formed 30 distinct clusters (CON, QIK, SOC). Two groups (GUI and OD2) were so similar to each other as to be regarded as subclusters of one cluster (OD). The remaining eight groups (EMP1,2,3,4 and MANl,2,3,4) form an approximately rank II set and were arbitrarily broken into two clus- ters (EMP and MAN). 3. To complete the subcluster structure, Cluster CON was arbitrarily broken into three subclus- ters (CON1,2,3) which are in fact its three pairs. Cluster QIK was broken into two sub- clusters (QIKl and QIK2) which are also its pairs. The same was done for Cluster SOC. Two pairs did not reasonably fit into any group and with the eight non-paired items from a miscel- laneous pool of 12 items. 4. Thus 58 items were grouped into 29 pairs, 17 subclusters, and six clusters as shown in the bottom half of Table l. The cluster names and their abbreviations are as follows: Other- directedness = OD, imposed conformity = CON, emptiness or inner loneliness = EMP, manipula- tion as a life style = MAN, quickness - QIK, and sociability = SOC. The first subcluster of other-directedness (OD) is abbreviated ODl, the second OD2, etc. Subcluster sums and cluster sums are described below. tI'he item and item-cluster sum correlations for each cluster are described in the following section. There is not space to present the complete reordered Iitem.pair, subcluster, and cluster matrix in the main text. IHowever, it is presented in Appendix II. A condensed ver- EBion, based on subclusters and clusters, of the reordered oa cosmUAMflcmfiw H0. 0H." Hm>oa mocmowwwcmflm m0. "wuoz _ 0H. 0H.1 00. mo. 00. 00. 00. mm. 0H. 0H.1 00. NH.1 HH.1 mo. mo. 00. ma. n0. H0.1 00. 00.1 NH. 00m 0H. mo. na.1 0H.1 0H.1 ma. Hm. mm. mm. 00. mo. 00.1 no. mH.1 00.1 mm.1 mo. 0H.1 va.1 0H.1 0H.1 no.1 xHo 0H.1 mo. 00. 0H. n0. ma.1 00.1 0H.1 0H. mn. on. on. mn. AH. 00. 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Nm Hon Nm «N on 00 00 NH 00 mN mm mm 0H m Hm NH 00 Nm 15:2 EouH .cmE 00H mo onEmm omanEoo How xHHumE :oHHMHoHnoo ZN: HoumsH011.0 mHnme 46 with subcluster MAN4 across the other items of the scale except for Cluster QIK. Item 8 is moderately correlated with the items of Clusters QIK and SOC, but is not parallel to the items of either cluster on items outside these two clusters. Items 16 and 8 are loosely parallel to each other across the remaining items of the scale. Pair 97 is composed of the following: 16. I'm pretty good at "bluffing." 8. I feel that I can dominate a social situation. Pair 97 appears to measure 'power as domination over others' and psychologically seems a part of Cluster MAN. ClusteerIK = Quickness Cluster QIK is composed of the following: Sub-matrix Pair Item Abbr. Number Number 62. I like doing things in which I have QIKl 98 to act quickly. 70. I am slow in making up my mind. (-) 19. I hate having to make hurried de- cision. (-) QIKZ 99 13. It's pretty hard to adjust to change. (-) Cluster QIK measures quickness, especially in regard to 'acting and thinking quickly.‘ Cluster QIK approaches being a rank I set both on the basis of the pattern of internal correlations and on the basis of correlations with items outside the cluster. The item and item-cluster sum correlations for Cluster QIK are shown in Table 7. 47 Table 7.—-Cluster QIK correlation matrix for combined sample of 109 men. Item Number 62 70 l9 13 62 .43 .30 .10 70 .43 .47 .12 19 .30 .47 .31 13 .10 .12 .31 QIK .67 .73 .77 .56 OD -.03 -.02 -.05 -.16 CON -.ll -.06 -.10 -.26 EMP -.14 -.10 -.04 -.19 MAN .15 .08 -.10 -.06 SOC .04 .14 .15 .20 Note: .05 significance level = .19. .01 significance level = .25. Cluster SOC = Sociability Cluster SOC is composed of the following: Sub-matrix Pair SOCl 100 SOC2 101 Item Abbr. Number Number 46. 39. 26. 20. I make friends quicker than most people. I am quite flexible when dealing with other peOple. I don't particularly enjoy meeting a lot of people. (-) One of my strong points is my ability to present a favorable image. A person who scores high on Cluster SOC would probably make a good salesman. He is 'sociable and friendly,‘ 'adaptable and flexible,’ likes people, and can present the image to fit the occasion. Cluster SOC can be characterized as .48 representing sociability. The item and item-cluster sum correlations for Cluster SOC are shown in Table 8. Table 8.--Cluster SOC correlation matrix for combined sample of 109 men. Item Number 46 39 20 26 46 .49 .41 .49 39 .49 .40 .20 20 .41 .40 .22 26 .49 .20 .22 SOC .83 .69 .68 .70 OD .08 -.12 .07 .12 CON .03 .01 .06 .01 EMP .09 -.17 .02 .24 MAN .03 -.13 .03 -.20 QIK .16 .20 .09 .11 Note: .05 significance level = .19. .01 significance level = .25. The items of Cluster SOC have strong internal cor- relations. The items are also generally parallel on Clusters OD, CON, and QIK but not parallel on Clusters EMP and MAN. The Reliability of the Cluster Scales One measure of reliability is the correlations be- tween items and scales or cluster sums. The internal correlations for the items of each cluster (item-total) and their relations to other scales are listed in Tables 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 in the previous section. The item-total correlations are an index of specific item reliability. 49 Another measure of reliability is the correlations between subclusters of a cluster (see Table 2) since the subclus- ters can be viewed as alternate forms of a test. The alpha reliability coefficients for the clusters are given in Table 9. The alpha coefficient is the pre- ferred measure of internal consistency since it is sensitive to both the content of the items and to sources of measure- ment error that are part of the testing situation (Nunnally, 1967). The reliability of a cluster of items varies with the number of items in the cluster scale. If the items are homogeneous, the reliability generally increases when new homogeneous items are added, but decreases when items are deleted. If some items are not homogeneous with the other items of the scale, the reliability may increase when the non-homogeneous items are deleted. To explore this possi- bility, reliabilities were computed for each scale with every item deleted, one at a time. The items which when deleted either increased the reliability or only minimally lowered it were removed from the scales as shown in Table 9. In order to compare the reliabilities of the different clusters, Table 9 also lists the predicted reliabilities, based on the Spearman-Brown formula, for each cluster scale enlarged to 20 items. The reliabilities for the cluster scales with deleted items are inflated since another sample of subjects from the same population may respond differently to the items of each cluster. 50 Nm. mamas 4 mam. NuHHHnmsoom oom m0. ooDmHoo mH EouH mEouH m 000. mEmuH v HNo. mmoGMOHso MHO oouoHoo mm. 00.o0.mm memos mamas ma own. wflnum mesa wEmuH 0H omn. m mm soHumHsmHsmz 202 oouoHoo H0. nN.NN.0.0 mamuH msmuH 0H Nmn. mmocHHmsoq mEopH 0H nmn. HosaH Ho mmocHumEm mZM om. mEmuH o omn. >UHEHOMGOU @meQEH ZOO Ho. oouoHoo mm EouH msouH n moo. msouH 0 HHo. mmmsoouooHHUIHosuo oo MHsEnom c3onm1cmsnmomm ucoHOHmmooo NDHHHQmHHom soHumHHomoa HoumsHu HoumsHo 0:0 no msmuH om on 000000000 NDHHHanHmm .muoumsHo on» now mucoHOHmmooo mpHHHQMHHoH msmH¢11.0 oHQMB 51 The subscales of the preliminary version of the marketing orientation scale are listed in Appendix III. They include the seven best items of Cluster OD, all six items of Cluster CON, the 14 best items of Cluster EMP, the 13 best items of Cluster MAN, the three best items of Cluster QIK, and all four items of Cluster SOC. The means and standard deviations for both men (N = 109) and women (N = 72) on all items of the prelimi— nary version of the marketing orientation scale are listed in Appendix IV. The items are arranged by clusters. DISCUSSION The objectives of this study were to develOp a paper and pencil scale whose items reflect Fromm's descrip- tion of the marketing orientation, to ascertain the struc- ture of the scale developed, and to deve10p subscales which reliably measure the dimensions of the scale. Adequacy_of Items Fromm's description of the marketing orientation was condensed in schematic form in the Introduction. Items were written to cover each category of the schema. The items were rated by six judges as adequately reflecting Fromm's conception of the marketing orientation. Each judge was familiar with Fromm's orientations and used his own understanding of the marketing orientation as a criter- ion to judge the adequacy of items. There are some weaknesses in the items. Fromm's discussion of quickness or speed of thought stressed speed as a substitute for depth of thought. The items did not reflect Fromm's association of quickness with shallowness. A second weakness is that some of the items were unnecessarily ambiguous due to being phrased in a projective manner. For example, item 4: "Most people insist on their 52 53 own beliefs even when others disagree" should be rewritten somewhat as follows: "I typically express my beliefs even when others disagree." The intention in using a projective format was that subjects were more likely to reveal them- selves if they didn't have to directly refer to themselves on socially undesirable topics. However, many college sub- jects are aware that investigators are interested in what they think and not in their view of peOple in general. Also, for the nonconforming individual, what most people do and what he does is often not the same. The investigator now believes that the content of items should be worded unambiguously. Overall, it appears that the content of the items refers to relatively specific marketing behaviors while the emotional connotations of the items convey the marketing feeling of emptiness. Implications for Fromm's Conception o the Marketing Orientation The second objective of this study was to ascertain the structure of the marketing orientation scale. Four clusters, totaling 48 items, were found which reflect the central psychological characteristics of the marketing orientation. Three of the clusters (OD, CON, EMP) are correlated with each other while the fourth (MAN) is cor- related only with Cluster OD. The relationship between the clusters is schematically shown in Chart 2. Each of the 54 CHART 2.—-The correlations between clusters of the marketing orientation scale. Dimension One _ — — — ‘—._ — _ — — Dimension Two 55 four clusters taps emptiness in that the sources of value are external to the individual. This is the central link between Clusters OD and CON. Both Clusters OD and EMP refer to other-directed behavior but EMP also refers to strong feelings of emptiness and loneliness. A major link between Clusters CON and EMP is the mutual emphasis on the need for approval by others. The specific link between Clusters OD and MAN is the emphasis on success orientation. However, a high scorer on Cluster MAN would probably be more successful than a high scorer on Cluster OD who strongly desires to be so. Emptiness is more characteristic of Clusters OD, CON, and EMP while the emphasis in Cluster MAN is on ex- change value. The exchange value of the manipulator may be far from Fromm's productive person but it does seem greater than nothing or emptiness. Fromm states that the different orientations are related and implies that each orientation is homogeneous. This study suggests that the marketing orientation is not homogeneous but composed of two correlated dimensions. One of them, Cluster MAN, appears to be unitary while the other, Clusters OD, CON, and EMP, is tridimensional. The marketing orientation appears to be considerably more com— plex than the impression one gains from Fromm's description. 56 Since Clusters QIK and SOC are statistically inde- pendent of the other clusters and are independent of each other, they are not psychologically part of the marketing orientation. However, the content of their items reflects aspects of Fromm's description of the marketing orientation. According to Fromm, the marketing person is quick but in a shallow way and sociable but in a superficial way. Clusters QIK and SOC refer to quickness and sociability with pos- itive rather than negative connotations. Are the items of the two clusters then true to Fromm's description of the marketing orientation? They do not reflect Fromm's negative description of the marketing orientation but they do reflect his positive description of it. Fromm states (1947, p. 119), "Any of the nonproductive orientations [e.g. market- ing] has, therefore, a positive and negative aspect, ac- cording to the degree of productiveness in the total char- acter structure [of the individual]." It appears contradictory, or at least confusing, to define the char- acteristics of the marketing orientation as negative and then maintain that these negative characteristics are pos— itive in productive peOple. They are not the same char- acteristics in productive peOple. The positive aspects of nonproductive orientations are not nonproductive. The implication for Fromm's theory is that nonproductive orien- tations, such as the marketing orientation, have to be redefined to include only nonproductive aspects. 57 How does one determine whether a person has a mar— keting orientation? It is clear that a person who scores high on scales for each of the clusters (OD, CON, EMP, and MAN) probably has a marketing orientation and a person who scores low on each of these same four clusters probably does not. What about a person who scores moderate on all four clusters or high on only two of them? It is not pos- sible to adequately answer this question without knowing how a person also scores on Fromm's other orientations. Since the orientations are not independent of each other, the statement that a person has a marketing orientation means that he has more marketing characteristics than characteristics of any of Fromm's four other orientations. That is, he is dominant on the marketing orientation. To adequately define the marketing orientation, it is necessary to first cover the psychological space of Fromm's other orientations. Further research should be concerned with writing items which span each of the other orientations and ascertaining the structure of each set of items. Hopefully, Fromm's five orientations will be trans- lated into a set of clusters of which other-directedness, imposed conformity, emptiness, and manipulation are just a beginning. The manner in which the complete set of clus- ters group will define new orientations (or redefine the old ones) which can be statistically and psychologically related to each other. The result would be an empirical transformation of Fromm's literary character orientations. 58 The addition of empirically defined clusters re- flecting Fromm's other orientations may change some of the clusters of the marketing orientation. Some of the items of the marketing orientation scale may be more highly cor- related with items reflecting another orientation than with items reflecting the marketing orientation. In sum, the present study suggests that Fromm's marketing orientation is not a homogeneous dimension. Two correlated dimensions were found. The first dimension re- flects manipulation and appears to be unidimensional. The second dimension reflects the three following correlated clusters: other-directedness, conformity, and emptiness. The second dimension is tridimensional. Two minor clusters were also found which were independent of each of the four major clusters and independent of each other. They re- flected positive characteristics of the marketing orienta- tion. It was concluded that negative or nonproductive orientations, e.g., marketing, needed to be redefined to exclude positive characteristics, and therefore to include only nonproductive characteristics. Relationship between Other-directedness and Emptiness Fromm takes emptiness as his basic concept while Riesman takes other-directedness as his beginning. Since Cluster OD, which reflects other-directedness rather than emptiness, is the most general cluster, it would appear 59 that the marketing orientation scale does not measure marketing orientation, but other-directedness. The inves- tigator believes that the two concepts refer to similar behavior but the marketing orientation refers to internal feeling states to a much greater degree than other-direct- edness does. Perhaps this is due to Fromm being both a psychoanalyst and a sociologist and Riesman being primarily a sociologist. It is apprOpriate to say that a person with the feelings and motivation of the marketing orientation will behave in an other-directed way. Since behavioral components predominate on a paper and pencil scale, it is understandable that the most general cluster appears to measure other-directedness rather than emptiness. The marketing orientation scale better measures marketing behavior than marketing feelings. Reliability of subscales The reliabilities for all the subscales are above the .60 criterion level. Although above the criterion level, the reliability of Cluster OD is below that of the other subscales. The lower reliability of Cluster OD may be due to the additional criterion used for the selection of its items, i.e., that the items correlate strongly with Clusters CON, EMP, and MAN. The reliability would probably have been higher if more emphasis had been placed on choos- ing items with strong inter-correlations. 60 Further Research Needed This study has just begun the task of empirically exploring Fromm's character orientations. As already stated, the marketing orientation cannot be completely defined until scales purporting to measure Fromm's other orientations are develOped, and their structures and rela— tionships to the clusters of the marketing orientation are explained. Looking specifically at the marketing orientation scale, it is necessary to cross validate the structure on a new sample of subjects. It would be useful to do an oblique factor analysis on data from a large group of subjects. The scale can be strengthened by revising the weaker items and by writing new items which are parallel with the core items of each cluster. Different measures of reliability should be ob- tained for the marketing orientation scale. The scale should be readministered to the same group of subjects to measure item stability or test-retest reliability. The 31 pairs which were found are a beginning of the development of alternate forms of the scale. Some of the items make very loose pairs and will have to be revised before alter- nate forms are ready for use. 61 The data from females was not examined except to note that it differed from the male data. The structure of the female responses to the marketing orientation scale should be ascertained and compared with the structure for men. Items should be noted which are most and least in- fluenced by sex. Perhaps a sex free scale can be developed by writing new items similar to those which are least in- fluenced by sex. Another possibility is to determine to what extent each cluster is sex specific. It may be that a sex free scale will not tap all the clusters of the mar- keting orientation. It would seem that cluster MAN more narrowly applies to man only than the other clusters. The present study was limited to a sample of sub- jects composed largely of middle class freshmen and soph- omores at a large midwestern public university. The items were written with this population in mind. Further re- search should investigate changes, if any, in the present structure of the marketing orientation scale on both more heterogeneous samples and other homogeneous samples such as a working class population. Further research is needed to see how the marketing orientation scale applies to dif- ferent age, educational, occupational, and social class groups. The most pressing need for further research is to establish whether the marketing orientation scale discrim- inates between groups which appear to differ on a priori 62 grounds. It is suspected that different occupations at- tract persons who would vary on the marketing orientation scale. Morticians and car salesmen would probably score high while artists, musicians, and probably researchers would score low. It is also suSpected that persons begin- ning psychotherapy would score high but that their score would drOp as a result of successful psychotherapy. The investigator has observed a reduction in marketing charac- teristics in his successful psychotherapy cases. Another approach to the problem of validation is to clinically study high and low scorers, and see if they possess or lack the characteristics which compose the marketing orientation scale. It is also important to relate the marketing orien- tation scale to established measures of personality. SUMMARY The objectives of this study were to develop a paper and pencil scale whose items reflect Fromm's descrip- tion of the marketing orientation, to ascertain the struc- ture of the scale develOped, and to develop subscales which reliably measure the dimensions of the scale. The three objectives were met. 2 A review of the literature indicated only one pre- vious attempt at empirically measuring Fromm's marketing orientation. The reliability of the scale was not high and no attempt was made to describe the structural dimensions of the marketing orientation. On the basis of Fromm's account of the marketing orientation, components of the marketing orientation were identified and related to each other. Over 160 items were written to measure the different components of the marketing orientation. After being judged by two different panels of graduate students, 70 items re- mained which formed the preliminary version of the marketing orientation scale. The items were scored on a six point agree-disagree continuum. Both agree and disagree items were included to compensate for positive response set. 63 64 The scale was administered to a sample of 53 male and 72 female undergraduate students and to a second sample of 56 male students. The factor analysis for men appeared different from the analysis for women on the data from the first sample. Hence, the development of the marketing orientation scale was based on the combined male data from the two samples (N=109). Factor analysis failed to satisfactorily cluster the items. The criteria used were that the inter-item correlations for each cluster be positive and that the items of each cluster behave parallel across the other items of the scale. The clusters based on factor analysis failed to meet the second criterion. Clusters were then searched for directly. The clusters were obtained by first finding pairs of parallel items, then combining them into subclusters, and finally into clusters. To aid in finding parallel items, sub- clusters, and clusters, the correlation matrix was reorded several times. Six clusters were found with positive inter-item correlations. Parallelism was met for four clusters but was weak in the two largest clusters. Alpha reliability coefficients were computed for the total set of items of each cluster and for clusters with weak items deleted. The subscales based on each cluster include all the items of the cluster except when deleting items did not reduce the reliability. The 65 reliability coefficients for the subscales are all above the .60 criterion level. This study suggests that Fromm's marketing orienta- tion is composed of two correlated dimensions. The first dimension includes only the cluster which reflects manip- ulation as a life style. The second dimension is tridimen- sional and includes the three following correlated clusters: other-directedness, imposed conformity, and emptiness or inner loneliness. Two other clusters which reflect quick- ness and sociaibility were also found. They were not con- sidered to be part of the marketing orientation since the two clusters were independent of each of the first four clusters and independent of each other. It was noted that the items of both clusters have positive connotations while the items of the other four clusters have negative connota- tions. Although Fromm describes the characteristics of the marketing orientation in strongly negative terms, he adds that its characteristics can be either positive or negative depending on the degree of productiveness in the character structure of the individual. It was concluded that it was contradictory to maintain that the negative characteristics of the marketing orientation are positive in productive people. They are different characteristics in productive peOple. It was suggested that Fromm's theory needed to be clarified so that only nonproductive characteristics were included in nonproductive orientations. 66 Other implications for Fromm's character typology and suggestions for further research were discussed. BIBLIOGRAPHY REFERENCES Adler, A. The science of livigg. New York: Greenberg, 1929. Buber, M. I and Thou. New York: Scribner, 1937. Domhoff, G. W. A paper-and-pencil study of Fromm's human- istic psychoanalysis. J. Human. Psychol., 1964, 4, 149-153. Edwards, A. Techniques of attitude scale construction. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957. Freud, S. New introductory lectures on psychoanalysis. New York: Norton, 1933. Fromm, E. The art of loving. New York: Bantam, 1956. Fromm, E. Escape from freedom. New York: Avon, 1941. Fromm, E. Man for himself. New York: Fawcett, 1947. Gough, H. G. Californi apsychological inventory. Califor- nia: Consulting Psychologists Press, 1956. Jung, C. G. Psychological types. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trfibner & Co., 946. Originally published, 1920. Keniston, K. The uncommitted. New York: Dell, 1956. Marx, K. Economic and philosophical manuscripts. In E. Fromm (Ed.), Marx's concept of man. New York: Ungar, 1966. Originally puinshed,_1844. Maslow, A. Toward a psychology of being. Princeton: Van Nostrand, 1962. Murray, H. A. Explorations in personality. New York: Oxford, 1938. Nunnally, J. C. Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw- Hill, 1967. 67 68 Riesman, D. The lonely crowd. New Haven: Yale, 1961. Rogers, C. On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961. ' APPENDICES 10. ll. 12. APPENDIX I PRELIMINARY VERSION OF THE MARKETING ORIENTATION SCALE Adaptability is one of the most important qualities a person can have. I always try to consider the other fellow's feelings before I do something. It is generally best to do things in the approved way. Most people insist on their own beliefs even when others disagree. The main reason a person does a job well is that he expects to be rewarded. As a general rule, as long as things look all right it's o.k. Sometimes I rather enjoy going against the rules and doing things I'm not supposed to. I feel that I can dominate a social situation. I'd rather be at home alone than go to a dull party. I don't really care all that much whether people like me or dislike me. I'm likely to discontinue doing something others think not worthwhile. It is a good idea to be able to make several different impressions in order to get along with all kinds of peOple. 69 Agree Agree Agree Disagree Agree Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 70 It's pretty hard to adjust to change. It is extremely important to get to know the right people in order to get ahead. I usually maintain my original position even when my superiors disagree. I'm pretty good at "bluffing." I usually try to do what is expected of me. I know some pe0ple who I just really dislike. I hate having to make hurried decisions. One of my strong points is my ability to present a favorable image. I like having something to do every minute of the day. I'd rather not go to a party than go with someone I don't like. Who we are is mainly determined by our attri— butes, e.g., age, style, intelligence. A person should usually be more concerned with himself than with others. I easily change my mind after I hear what others have to say. I don't particularly enjoy meeting a lot of peOple. I often think about the meaning of life. Most peOple can't stand to be alone for more than a few hours at a time. I usually avoid doing something that might provoke criticism. I feel comfortable being different from those around me. You can learn a lot about a man from knowing the kind of car he drives. Disagree Agree Disagree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Disagree Agree 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 71 It is hard to be nice to people I don't like. Disagree A person should adapt his ideas and his be- havior to the group that happens to be with him at the time. I would be happy if I could be with lots of people most of the time. The pressures of the modern world often re- quires us to change our beliefs. The qualities of a good salesman are an im- portant part of any job. I don't mind working alone. In order to succeed, a person has to be willing to change. I am quite flexible when dealing with other peOple. Lack of money is the greatest single cause of unhappiness. Society owes a lot more to the artist and the musician than it does to the business- man and the manufacturer. I'd rather be thought of as intelligent than sociable. Before I do something I try to consider how my friends will react to it. It is important to me to someday wear fine clothes. I like dramas better than musical comedies. I make friends quicker than most peOple. I'd like to know much more about social etiquette. Promises are really hard to keep. Most of the arguments or quarrels I get into are over matters of principle. Agree Agree Agree Agree Disagree Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Agree Agree Disagree Agree Agree Agree Disagree 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 72 Success seems to depend more on luck than on ability. Most peOple act the same way regardless of whom they are with. One of the most important things a father can do for his son is to be successful. A pleasant voice is an important part of a desirable personality. More often than most peOple admit, an individual has to maintain his principles. are willing to stand alone to I try to do what is fitting and appropriate. More often than most people think, it is necessary to tell a lie. I feel comfortable acting unconventionally if an important issue is involved. The mark of a happy man is that he is well thought of by his peers. Since things change so fast in this modern age of ours, it is important that a man doesn't believe in any one thing too deeply. There are few peOple with whom I feel com- fortable enough to be really honest. A person's appearance is not very important. I like doing things in which I have to act quickly. In choosing a job, the opportunity to de- velop one's own abilities is more important than the opportunity for advancement. I would like to belong to several clubs or lodges. Probably the most important way to be happy is to please others. I don't make as many compromises as most peOple. Agree Disagree Agree Agree Disagree Agree Agree Disagree Agree Agree Agree Disagree Agree Disagree Agree Agree Disagree 73 67. It is important to be able to take orders without getting angry or resentful. 68. I am more sensitive than most people to the desires of others. 69. Although not perfect, the American way of life comes closer to the ideal than any other system. 70. I am slow in making up my mind. Agree Agree Agree Disagree 74 APPENDIX II REORDERED CORRELATION MATRIX The computer print out shows items, pairs, subclus— ters, and clusters in reordered form. The items are arranged to show the chaining effect across pairs, subcluster sums, and cluster sums. Going from left to right, the matrix be— gins with the 12 miscellaneous items not belonging to any cluster. Next is the eight items of Cluster OD which are moderately correlated with Clusters CON, EMP, and MAN. Cluster CON is next since it is moderately correlated with EMP but slightly correlated with MAN. Clusters EMP and MAN form a single submatrix with the items most in common to the two clusters in the center and items at the extremes which negatively correlate with the other cluster in the submatrix. Items in the center correlate higher with Cluster OD than items at the extremes. Pair 97 is next and forms a bridge to Clusters QIK and SOC. The matrix continues with subcluster sums for the three largest clusters: OD, EMP, and MAN. Next is the submatrix of the six cluster sums. The submatrix of pairs was intended to be between the item submatrix and the sub- cluster sums submatrix, but was put at the rear so that most of the pairs could be on the same page. The total 75 matrix includes 70 items, 31 pairs, ten subcluster sums, and six cluster sums. Since the computer could not print the subcluster and cluster abbreviations used in the text, the print out includes only numbers. Numbers one through 70 are the items. Numbers 71 through 102 are the pairs. The pairs are composed of the following items: 71 = 36,53 ’ 79 = 57,10 87 = 65,58 95 = 48,56 72 = 47,7 80 = 4,22 88 = 54,43 96 = 24,32 73 = 44,61 81 = 9,34 89 = 52,40 97 = 16,8 74 = 33,6 82 = 15,66 90 = 12,31 98 = 62,70 75 = 63,50 83 = 51,59 91 = 5,14 99 = 19,13 76 = 25,11 84 = 42,45 92 = 38,35 100 = 46,39 77 = 55,29 85 = 27,49 93 = 23,69 101 = 20,26 78 = 3,30 86 = 64,37 94 = 18,60 Numbers 102 through 111 are the subcluster sums and numbers 112 through 117 are the cluster sums. The cluster sums are composed of the following subcluster sums, pairs, and items: Sub— Cluster Clusters clusters Pairs Items Abbreviation 112 = 102 = 73,74 = 44,61,33,6 OD = 103 = 75,76 = 63,50,25,11 113 = = 77,78,79 = 55,29,3,30,57,10 CON 114 = 104 = 80,81 = 4,22,9,34 EMP = 105 = 82,83 = 15,66,51,59 = 106 = 84,85 = 42,45,27,49 = 107 = 86,87,88 = 64,37,65,58,54,43 115 = 108 = 89,90 = 52,40,12,31 MAN = 109 = 91 = 5,14 = 110 = 92,93,94 = 38,35,23,69,18,60 = 111 = 95,96 = 48,56,24,32 116 = = 98,99 = 62,70,19,13 QIK 117 = = 100,101 = 46,39,20,26 SOC 41111111111 1||.1L.111.1 (\ MECELLANEOUSPOOL CLUSUHEOD RCHlE-FL COHHtLAilUN MATRIX CLUSTER CON CLUSTERINMP(COHL) 1 2'6 2‘1 41 68 36 53 17 47 7 6/ 2 44 51 3.5 6 6.3 ”'39 2b 11 55 223 3 .50 5/ 10‘ 4 22 9 34 1 100 9 3 1 6 16 7 17 1 ~13 18 6 6 10 -4 7 ~14 5 9 ~5 7 ~12 11 0 1 6 ~2 ~0 5 ~4 g ’8 9 11f 19 1 -9 m ~2 2 16 15 6 ~6 16 15 6 9 6 11 15 5 5 17 —1 ~4 O 11 5 1 20 9 a 21 3 10 100 -5 ~14 17 ~13 14 14 12 3 -2 8 6 4 ~1 -1 '17 -1_4 5 '2 '0 '/ 2 1 '2 6 18 11 1/ 8 41 1 1 -3 LDC 29 12 14 -12 -/ ~17 1 22 3 ~11 -5 10 ~14 1 25 -@ ~23 ~11 ~4 3 -8 ~7 ~11 11 -17 7 = 28 8 '9 -14 29 100 16 9 ‘5 18 5 12 98 12 -2 9 g -1é 8 26 -4 6 11 1 _12 5 16 -¢ _11 _22 6 § 3“ 18 0 17 12 10 100 24 -3 5 -5 16 2: 12 16 -7 9 ~11 -15 9 1 18 -2 3 -5 12 15 3 -19 -7 5 g 5,5 7 '2 '15 14 Q ?4 100 4 0' 6 9 9 29 29 23 18 -2 t9 1‘] .5 25 1‘5 / 1 2 1 -17 -7 -4 3 m 1’ 17 2 l4 '12 '9 '4 4 100 1 2 28 -5 -2 22 12 7 11 9 -8 15 14 14 3g 7 8 3 7 14 ~2 11 E 47 1 16 14 -7 16 5 3 1 100 53 16 '13 72 6 11 ~8 4 2 14 18 21 10 4 7 6 10 -0 5 14 13 g 7 ~13 15 12 -17 6 -5 6 2 30 10; 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A person's appearance is not very important. (-) 11. As a general rule, as long as things look all right it's o.k. In choosing a job, the Opportunity to develop one's own abilities is more important than the opportunity for advancement. (-) Success seems to depend more on luck than on ability. I easily change my mind after I hear what others have to say. I'm likely to discontinue doing something others think not worthwhile. ' Items from Cluster CON I try to do what is fitting and appropriate. I usually avoid doing something that might provoke criticism. It is generally best to do things in the approved way. I feel comfortable being different from those around me. (-) I feel comfortable acting unconventionally if an impor- tant issue is involved. (-) 10. 54. 43. 58. 65. 64. 37. 42. 45. 49. 15. 66. 59. 51. 34. 85 I don't really care all that much whether people like me or dislike me. (-) Items from Cluster EMP More often than most people are willing to admit, an individual has to stand alone to maintain his principles. (-) Before I do something I try to consider how my friends will react to it. The mark of a happy man is that he is well thought of by his peers. Probably the most important way to be happy is to please others. I would like to belong to several clubs or lodges. I don't mind working alone. (-) I'd rather be thought of as intelligent than sociable. (-) I like dramas better than musical comedies. (-) Most of the arguments or quarrels I get into are over matters of principle. (-) I usually maintain my original position even when my superiors disagree. (-) I don't make as many compromises as most people. (-) Since things change so fast in this modern age of ours, it is important that a man doesn't believe in any one thing too deeply. Most peOple act the same way regardless of whom they are with. I would be happy if I could be with lots of peOple most of the time. Items from Cluster MAN The main reason a person does a job well is that he expects to be rewarded. 14. 31. 12. 52. 40. 56. 48. 86 It is extremely important to get to know the right people in order to get ahead. You can learn a lot about a man from knowing the kind of car he drives. It is a good idea to be able to make several different impressions in order to get along with all kinds of peOple. One of the most important things a father can do for his son is to be successful. Lack of money is the greatest single cause of unhappiness. More often than most people think, it is necessary to tell a lie. Promises are really hard to keep. 24. A person should usually be more concerned with himself 32. 23. 18. 35. 19. 70. 62. 46. 39. than with others. It is hard to be nice to people I don't like. Who we are is mainly determined by our attributes, e.g., age, style, intelligence. I know some people vflua I just really dislike. The pressures of the modern world often require us to change our beliefs. Items from Cluster QIK I hate having to make hurried decisions. (-> I am slow in making up my mind. (-) I like doing things in which I have to act quickly. Items from Cluster SOC I make friends quicker than most people. I am quite flexible when dealing with other peOple. 87 26. I don't particularly enjoy meeting a lot of people. (-) 20. One of my strong points is my ability to present a favorable image. Note: Disagree items are followed by a minus sign (-). APPENDIX IV.--Means and standard deviations for men (N=109) 88 and women (N=72) arranged by clusters. Means Standard Deviations Cluster Item Men Women Men Women OD 44. 3.376 4.014 1.915 1.629 61. 4.963 4.972 1.724 1.624 33. 3.257 3.389 1.960 1.822 6. 3.028 3.264 1.774 1.599 63. 2.972 3.444 1.622 1.527 50. 3.321 2.833 1.781 1.414 25. 3.174 3.431 1.520 1.526 11. 3.404 3.042 1.787 1.389 CON 55. 4.853 5.181 1.513 1.134 29. 3.789 3.847 1.740 1.469 3. 4.202 4.278 1.707 1.557 30. 3.899 4.153 1.882 1.488 57. 3.817 3.889 1.823 1.514 10. 4.505 5.250 1.957 1.543 EMP 4. 2.899 3.486 1.591 1.500 22. 3.037 3.208 1.915 1.870 9. 3.009 3.389 2.011 1.976 34. 3.495 3.542 1.870 1.674 15. 3.532 3.625 1.566 1.495 66. 4.321 4.250 1.680 1.639 51. 2.927 3.194 1.646 1.478 59. 2.183 2.264 1.551 1.344 42. 3.716 3.833 1.782 1.546 45. 3.945 4.042 2.004 1.767 27. 2.339 2.264 1.793 1.572 49. 2.972 3.083 1.511 1.320 64. 3.394 3.500 1.792 1.624 37. 2.450 2.736 1.398 1.563 65. 4.248 3.750 1.940 1.762 58. 3.661 3.472 1.798 1.633 54. 2.771 2.833 1.554 1.291 43. 4.018 4.750 1.703 1.320 89 APPENDIX IV.--(Continued) Means Standard Deviations Cluster Item Men Women Men Women MAN 52. 3.266 3.292 1.938 1.759 40. 3.028 2.708 1.927 1.679 12. 4.064 4.375 2.069 1.881 31. 2.826 2.500 1.972 1.633 5. 4.339 3.931 1.893 1.727 14. 4.706 4.514 1.849 1.537 38. 5.083 5.208 1.609 1.433 35. 4.716 4.569 1.698 1.470 23. 4.376 4.375 2.115 1.961 69. 5.239 5.181 1.631 1.946 18. 5.128 5.486 1.916 1.607 60. 4.899 5.347 2.201 1.930 48. 3.294 3.639 1.633 1.593 56. 3.670 4.111 1.714 1.595 24. 3.651 5.236 1.913 1.768 32. 4.046 4.097 1.849 1.660 Pair 97 16. 4.222 4.431 1.969 1.817 8. 3.954 4.361 1.941 1.530 - QIK 62. 3.862 4.278 1.815 1.766 70. 3.954 4.153 1.784 1.920 19. 3.147 3.500 1.896 1.650 13. 4.367 4.403 1.811 1.705 SOC 46. 3.743 3.972 1.834 1.724 39. 4.945 5.097 1.585 1.314 20. 4.835 4.972 1.651 1.453 26. 4.615 4.458 2.036 1.965 Misc. 1. 6.128 6.056 0.910 1.012 28. 4.505 4.444 1.790 1.723 21. 3.826 4.000 2.089 1.871 41. 3.257 3.162 1.721 1.658 68. 5.083 4.931 1.472 1.437 36. 4.688 4.778 1.629 1.565 53. 4.780 4.444 1.576 1.461 17. 5.413 5.417 1.287 1.176 47. 3.798 4.375 1.962 1.504 7. 3.303 2.917 1.800 1.392 67. 5.505 5.625 1.386 1.207 2. 5.505 5.722 1.311 0.961 IES \ E ”'itiifixignujlgwmufififlflfififlfiwflfifimfi 3