This is to certify that the A thesis entitled AN INVESTIGATION OF THE LOCATION, AVAILABILITY, AND USE OF AGENCY TRAINING PROGRAMS IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION presented by David Lickteig has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ed .0; degree in Education Major professor Date 8-5-80 0-7639 LIBRAE‘E’ bl it‘lri‘rrrz 5 L C: P 3 University “in oveaour FINES: 25¢ per day per item 5 (fl'mfi‘ } RETURNING LIBRARY MAILRIALS; Ki? ,\ ‘ '” Place in book return to remove ‘ ’ :‘Vl’ff ‘ charge from circulation rem-w; © Copyright by DAVID LEO LICKTEIG 1980 AN INVESTIGATION OF THE LOCATION, AVAILABILITY, AND USE OF AGENCY TRAINING PROGRAMS IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION By David Leo Lickteig A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1980 I"! .0 l L», // /_l / uo‘ ABSTRACT AN INVESTIGATION OF THE LOCATION, AVAILABILITY, AND USE OF AGENCY TRAINING PROGRAMS IN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION By David Leo Lickteig Attempts to improve the quality of instruction through the use of individualized learning systems have been a significant focus of American education in recent years. Individualized learning sys- tems permit students to pursue educational goals in a manner that is most conducive to their specific needs and abilities. Several varia- tions of this approach have been used by educators in an effort to increase the options for each student to realize his or her indi- vidual potential. One such variation has been the use of educational experiences external to the traditional school environment, which for this study were identified as agency training programs. The problem, however, becomes: How are college and university Industrial Education departments to access such agency training pro- grams and how might they best be used in Industrial Education? Thus the purpose of this study was two-fold. First, it attempted to iden- tify the types of agency training programs currently available. Second, the study attempted to determine the manner in which agency training programs might be used by teaching and nonteaching degree programs of Industrial Education. David Leo Lickteig Two research instruments were used to conduct the study. A telephone survey of randomly selected Michigan businesses and indus- tries was conducted using focused, semi-stratified questions with open-ended alternated questions. One hundred percent of the sample was contacted. A mailed grid matrix questionnaire was sent to 77 Industrial Education department heads. Fifty-six department heads completed the questionnaire (73%). Two general hypotheses were formulated, from which a series of research questions were generated. Hypothesis 1: Agency training programs that can be located and identified are available. Hypothesis 11: Industrial Education personnel who deem agency training programs as appr0priate educational experiences for Industrial Education programs can be located and identified. The investigation yielded the following results with an error tolerance factor of .10. l. Businesses and industries offered agency training programs for use in Industrial Education programs. Seventeen of the ll2 Michi- gan businesses and industries surveyed had some type of agency train- ing program available. 2. Agency training programs occurred in five homogeneous cate- gories: technical sales training, technical training for production, management seminars, proprietary schools, open short courses and seminars. David Leo Lickteig 3. Some Industrial Education department heads were currently using agency training programs. Depending upon the category, from 3 to l3 percent of the department heads responding were using agency training programs in some form. 4. A number (about one-third of the respondents) felt that the use of agency training programs was appropriate for Industrial Education but were not currently using them. 5. Department heads rejecting the use of agency training programs did so at a higher rate for teacher education areas than they did for nonteaching areas. 6. Technical training for production and open short courses and seminars were the most frequently used agency training programs. 7. Little difference was noted between the number of semester credits allowed for teacher education versus nonteaching programs. The range through the various categories was 2.3 to 8.l semester hours when averaged. To Sweetpea ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS To my parents, Helen and Ted, who allowed me, through their guidance, to acquire the insight, stubbornness, and independence needed to accomplish a task. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ........................ vi LIST OF FIGURES ........................ viii Chapter I. THE PROBLEM AND BACKGROUND INFORMATION ........ l The Problem ..................... 2 Philosophical Background .............. 4 Progressive Education Movement .......... 5 Dewey, Nashburne, and Rugg ............ 6 Seven Principles of Progressive Education ..... 8 Summary ...................... 12 Historical Background ................ 13 The Kalamazoo Case ................ 13 Development of the High School Curriculum ..... l4 Impact of Progressive Education Movement ..... 15 Criticism of Traditional Education ........ 17 New Directions .................. 19 Development of Vocational Education ........ 20 Development of Career Education .......... 21 Summary ...................... 22 The Need for Research ................ 24 Rationale for Investigation ............ 25 Purpose of the Study ................ 26 Limitations of the Study .............. 26 Definition of Terms ................. 28 Procedure ...................... 30 Organization .................... 31 11. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ............... 33 Introduction .................... 33 Origins of the Concept ............... 34 Expression of the Concepts ............. 35 Community Schools and Career Education Influences . . 37 A Suggestion for the Use of Training Programs . . . 38 Industrial Education Teacher Educators Look at the Concept .................... 39 iv Agency Training Programs ............. 41 The Massachusetts Study .............. 41 Summary of the Literature .............. 43 III. METHODOLOGY ...................... 45 The Sample ..................... 45 Description of Test Instruments ........... 46 Statement of Hypotheses ............... 47 Development of Research Questions ......... 47 Design of the Study ................. 51 Survey I ..................... 51 Survey 11 ..................... 56 The Specific Method Employed ............ 58 Assumptions ..................... 60 IV. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA ................. 61 Profile of Survey I Respondents ........... 61 Analysis of the Hypothesis for Survey I ....... 61 Profile of Survey II Respondents .......... 63 Analysis of the Hypothesis for Survey 11 ...... 64 Summary ....................... 71 V. SUMMARY ........................ 72 Conclusions ..................... 74 Discussion ..................... 75 Implications for Future Research .......... 76 APPENDICES .......................... 79 A. QUESTIONNAIRE USED IN SURVEY I ............ 80 8. COVER LETTER AND INSTRUMENT USED IN SURVEY II ..... 83 C. SECOND COVER LETTER USED IN SURVEY II ......... 88 D. TWO-WAY GRID MATRIX DESIGN .............. 90 E. DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION FOR SURVEY II ....... 92 F. RAN DATA FROM SURVEY II ................ 94 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................... 116 Table Distribution of Companies LIST OF TABLES Distribution of Companies With Agency Training Programs ....................... Distribution of Categories of Agency Training Programs ....................... Distribution of Responses to the Survey Questionnaire Sent to Industrial Education Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses Responses to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to Research Question Research Question Research Question Research Question Research Question Research Question Research Question Personnel ........ 000000000000 Research Question 8 ............ Research Question Research Question Research Question Research Question Research Question Research Question Research Question Research Question vi 00000000000 Page 62 63 93 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 Table Page 21. Responses to Research Question 17 ........... 111 22. Responses to Research Question 18 ........... 112 23. Responses to Research Question 19 ........... 113 24. ReSponses to Research Question 20 ........... 114 25. Responses to Research Question 21 ........... 115 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Responses to Research Questions 1 to 6 ......... 65 2. Responses to Research Questions 13 to 18 ........ 67 3. Responses to Research Questions 19 and 20 ....... 68 4. Responses to Research Questions 7 to 12 ........ 7O viii CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM AND BACKGROUND INFORMATION Attempts to improve the quality of instruction through the use of individualized learning systems have been a significant focus of American education in recent years. Individualized learning sys- tems permit students to pursue educational goals in a manner that is most conducive to their specific needs and abilities. Several varia- tions of this approach have been used by educators in an effort to increase the options for each student to realize his or her indi- vidual potential. One such variation has been the use of educational experiences external to the traditional school environment, which for this study were identified as agency training programs. The Educational Testing Service has reported the use of some 1 The individualized programs outside the traditional school setting. 1972 Educational Testing Service report indicated that some inno- vative colleges and universities have accepted this type of learning experience for college credit in degree-granting programs. The ETS report also delineated various possibilities for external learning experiences, such as internships, field study, and apprenticeships. 1U.S., Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Increas- ing the Options. Recent Developments in College and University Degree Pro rams,TBy John R. Valley. Edhcation Resources Informatibn Center (Princeton, N.J.: Educational Testing Service, 1972). In addition, the report specifically mentioned the learning experi- ences available from business and industry, which the report labeled as "agency training programs."2 This type of learning experience permits the student to enroll in training programs offered by both public and private agen- cies in the local community and to receive academic credit for such training. Such a procedure also permits the school system to expand its curriculum at minimal cost, since it uses already existing facilities. The Problem The problem becomes how colleges and university Industrial Education departments are most easily to access such training programs and how the programs might best be used in Industrial Education pro- grams. Given that such agency training programs have been available from business and industry for some time, it becomes necessary to consider the possible reasons why post-secondary educators have not as yet taken optimal advantage of this educational resource to enrich their program offerings. This is especially true for those educators in the area of Industrial Education, who conceivably might benefit most from such programs, as the agency training programs offered by business and industry are designed to provide the knowledge and skills necessary for competence in the highly specialized fields of Indus- trial Education. 21bid., p. 23. Although it was beyond the scope of this study to examine all the possible reasons for the limited use of agency training pro- grams for Industrial Education personnel, it was the assumption of the researcher that agency training programs have not been used by Industrial Education personnel because of a lack of information. The lack of information often constitutes a major obstacle in the adoption of an innovative practice. Everett Rogers supported this observation in his work Diffusion of Innovations.3 Two important considerations must be made by Industrial Edu- cation personnel before they can access an alternative learning system such as agency training programs: (1) they must determine the degree of availability of such programs in terms of geography, type, and size; and (2) they must determine the extent to which agency training programs can be used in a college-level degree-granting curriculum. This study is an attempt to provide the information necessary to make these two considerations. It is not that educators have been unaware of the educational offerings of business and industry nor of the potential use for such fields as Industrial Education. For some time, Industrial Education personnel, in particular, have been sensitive to the possibility of using the training programs sponsored by business and industry as instructional vehicles for their programs. Each of the three special- ized areas of Industrial Education, namely Industrial Arts, Vocational Trade and Industrial Education, and Technical Education, has expressed 3Everett Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations (New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1962). an interest in the potential use of agency training programs. How- ever, it has not been easy for Industrial Education personnel to access the company systems. Philosophical Background Given the recent focus in education with its emphasis on meeting the individual needs of the student, educators are challenged to develop alternative methods of instruction. They seek to tailor instructional methods to fit two important tasks of education: (1) to enable the student to realize his or her individual potential and (2) to provide the knowledge and skills necessary for a smooth transition into the adult society of which the student is expected to become an integral part. The dual focus of the educational process calls for multiple approaches to meet the needs of students. One approach is to consider various social organizations as potential educational resources. These organizations, such as business and industry, often provide training experiences that are educational in nature but conducted external to the traditional classroom setting. Might not such agency training programs function as viable educational experiences, espe- cially for those enrolled in the Industrial Education curriculums? In an effort to examine this possibility, it is first neces- sary to survey the historical and philosophical precedents for the use of educational experiences external to the traditional classroom setting. A survey of educational theories will provide a philosophical basis for the use of educational experiences that are conducted outside the confines of the school environment. An exploration of educational history indicates the nature of the practical application such theories have realized. Together, the philosophical and historical background provided should supply the theoretical support necessary for the idea proposed by this study-- namely, that agency training programs might provide an additional resource for Industrial Education curriculums, a resource that is both economically feasible and educationally beneficial. Progressive Education Movement The use of community resources as educational activities, including those that are conducted outside the confines of the tradi— tional school environment, is a practice initiated by educators who favored an experimental approach to education. An innovative approach to the problems of providing an equal educational opportunity for all evolved as a basic tenet of the progressive education movement.4 This movement signified a shift of emphasis in American edu- cation. Whereas before the mid-18005 the educational system closely paralleled the elitist-based European system, which stressed the intrinsic value of knowledge, the progressive education movement signaled a "shift of emphasis from subject matter to the child."5 The change of emphasis generated greater experimentation on the part 4Patricia Albjerg Graham, Progressive Education: From Arcady to Academe (New York: Teachers College Press, 1967), p. 13. 5Charles C. Chandler and Carl H. Gross, The History_of American Education Through Readings (Boston: D. C. Heath and Co., 1964), p. 200. of educators who began to seek novel answers to the questions posed by the new perspective. The focus of such experimentation necessarily had its roots in a broader philoSOphical base. Educators were challenged to reevaluate their beliefs concerning the nature of childhood and its inherent developmental needs, the purpose of education, and how the educational system might address those needs. Dewey, Washburne, and Rugg Dewey, Washburne, and Rugg were leaders in the progressive education movement, and each supported a methodology to be found in contemporary education systems. Although the three agreed that the emphasis in education should center on the needs of the learner rather than on subject matter, they differed greatly with respect to their interpretations of the learner's needs and how education might best be designed to meet those needs. John Dewey, the acknowledged "prophet and elder statesman" of the progressive movement, viewed the school as "primarily a social institution."6 Thus he supported the integration of education with community activities. Since, according to Dewey, one primary function of education is to facilitate the integration of the child into adult society, he advocated the use of community resources by the school as an effective and efficient method of preparing the student for entrance into the larger social community. The implementation of this idea allowed schools to expand their curriculum to include 6Graham, p. 10. learning activities that promoted the active participation of the student in the learning process as well as providing him/her with an experience-based education.7 Not all of those involved in the evolution of the progres- sive education movement agreed with Dewey's emphasis on the interrela- tionship of the school and the community. Washburne, for example, preferred to focus on the learning process itself.8 While serving as the administrator for the Illinois school system at Winnetka, Wash- burne explored the possibility of tailoring instructional methods to fit the individual needs of students. Under the Winnetka Plan, later to be identified with Washburne, individualized instruction gained the partial acceptance of the educa- tional community as an alternate method of instruction. This method of instruction recognized that the child's needs and abilities should function as a determining factor in the pace and style of instruction. Although Washburne's approach to education had its philo- sophical origins in the works of John Stuart Mills,9 which stressed the "sovereignty of the individual," he later conceded that education 10 should also further the principles of democracy. Such an acknowledg- ment more closely aligned him to Dewey's position that the schools 7John Dewey and Evelyn Dewey, Schools of Tomorrow (New York: E. P. Dutton and Co., 1962). 8Graham, p. 10. 9Roger J. Havighurst, ed., Leaders in American Education, Pt. 2 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, for the National Society for the Study of Education, 1971), p. 459. 10Graham, p. 109. should offer an experience-based education that allowed for the full development of individual potential. In doing so, the school also prepared the student to function in the broader social community of which the school was but a microcosm. Another facet of the progressive education movement directed its attention to the child involved in the educational process. The child-centered approach, supported by Harold Rugg, explored the natu- ral development of the child. This approach suggested that the edu- cational experience should be one of drawing out the innate potential of the individual rather than the molding and shaping of the individual to conform to the dictates of society, as was the case in the tradi- 11 Child-centered education adhered to tional approach to education. Dewey's principles of experience-based education and active versus passive learning techniques. Despite his greater emphasis on the creative capacities of the individual, Rugg was also in agreement with Dewey and others in the movement who voiced a concern for a more effective and organic relationship between school and society.12 Seven Principles of Progressive Education One important result emerged from the controversy that char- acterized the early stages of development of the progressive education movement. In 1920, the Progressive Education Association adopted a list of seven principles that delineated the basic fundamentals of 1lHarold Rugg and Ann Shumaker, The Child-Centered School (New York: World Book Co., 1928). 12Chandler and Gross, p. 340. progressive education. Although the generality of the statement was instrumental in promoting the acceptance of these principles by all factions of the movement, it also elicited reservations on the part of many. Nonetheless, all chose to support the document as it exemplified the freedom characteristic of the movement. The first item, "Freedom to develop naturally," reflected the attitude of the movement toward itself as well as expressing the Association's aim in education. Other goals expressed included: Interest, the motive of all work The teacher a guide, not a taskmaster Scientific study of pupil development Greater attention to all that affects the child's physi- cal development Co-operation between school and home to meet the needs The progressive school--a leader in educational movements \l 01 0'1th Although the document supported no specific doctrine of any of the leaders of the movement, influences of each can be seen, par- ticularly in the first four principles listed. Although each leader of the movement mentioned in this study--Dewey, Washburne, and Rugg-- might well interpret the developmental freedom stated in Item 1 dif- ferently, each could also find support for his position. The only limitation imposed on the child's freedom to develop naturally--his responsibility to society--reflects Dewey's emphasis on the sociali- zation idea of education. He might also find support for his idea of an expanded curriculum, one that allows the student to follow his natural inclinations in terms of vocation, thereby preparing him to become an effective member of society. 12Graham, pp. 29-30. 10 Washburne could justify the use of individualized instruc- tion as a learning technique that permits the student to learn in a style in accordance with his nature in terms of time and method of instruction. Rugg might suggest that the child-centered school pro- vides the optimal environment for the natural development of the child with its lack of physical restraints and its positive attitude toward enhancing emotional awareness and encouraging intellectual curiosity. It is the assertion of this study that the developmental freedom sanctioned by the stated principles of progressive education could be logically extended. This extension could include the notion that the learner should be able to take advantage of situations in which learning is most accessible, whether the educational Opportunity exists within the traditional school setting or in the community. The second principle supports the cultivation of interest as a motive for all work through "direct and indirect contact with the world and its activities and the use of the experience thus gained."13 This cultivation of interest might be realized by a student's perusal of a specific area of interest outside the school setting. The third principle is rudimentary to progressive education philosophy and was supported by the three leaders mentioned. The idea that the teacher should function as a facilitator of learning is the logical result of shifting the emphasis in education from subject matter to child. Once the teacher is removed as the source of all knowledge, it is only reasonable that the child be permitted the use 131bid. 11 of all his senseS'hithe acquisition of knowledge and that this knowl- edge be related to actual experience. Thus, the student should have the necessary access to the educational experiences that are best suited to his needs, and that option could include learning experi- ences external to the traditional school setting. The scientific study of pupil development constitutes the fourth principle adopted by the Progressive Education Association. This principle has as its impetus the idea that the teacher should consider the needs of the total human being, as human development is interdependent. Rugg, in particular, supported this view and further suggested that educators should draw upon the findings of the new psychology for more information concerning the unilateral develOpment of the child. Out of this dictum, contemporary education has estab- lished the criteria for assessment of cognitive, affective, and psychomotor skills in relation to the child's total education. In this respect, it might be suggested that Industrial Educa- tion has made positive contributions since its inception, as it has sought an integrative approach to the problem of educating the whole child. The Industrial Arts curriculum includes those phases of gen- eral education that deal with technology and industry and with the problems and benefits of life in a technological society. The student uses cognitive skills in the acquisition of information related to industry and technology. The application of this information draws upon the student's psychomotor abilities, while the study of the prob- lems and benefits of life in a technological society requires value judgments on the part of the student. Such value judgments are under 12 the jurisdiction of the affective domain. To implement this inte- grative approach, might not educators be required to draw upon the resources located in the community as a supplement to the traditional curriculum? Marx The philOSOphical support for expanding the educational cur- riculum to include those educational opportunities external to the traditional school setting is to be found in the principles of the progressive education movement. Dewey specifically encouraged the use of community resources as an efficient and effective method of providing an equal educational opportunity for all. The problem of meeting individual needs increases in complexity at the higher levels of education, straining the economic and educa- tional resources of a school system. Thus it becomes reasonable to draw upon existing community resources to supplement the educational curriculum. Students at the college and university level might use the advanced training programs of business and industry to fulfill part of their educational needs. This approach would eliminate the duplication of educational activities in a community, as well as expand the educational opportunities of a school system, while keep- ing the cost of such expansion to a minimum. Although both the school and community would benefit from such an arrangement, the greatest benefit would be derived by the individual student. 13 Historical Background Progressive education did not evolve in a vacuum. It, like all other movements, was directly affected by the elements of social change that characterized the second half of the nineteenth century. In a move to make education the tool of an industrialized democracy, legislation was passed that provided for a broader-based general education program, including the tax-supported high school. Leaders of the progressive education movement drew heavily upon the concepts of "learning by doing" and "practical work"14 in order to meet the challenge presented by such legislation. The Kalamazoo Case The legality of the question of whether the public could be required to tax-support an educational system that attempted to pro- vide knowledge and skills that went beyond the basics of reading, writing, and arithmetic was answered by the courts in 1864 with the ruling in the Kalamazoo case. The court maintained that "the state had intended to furnish not only the rudiments of education but also "'5 This (equal opportunity for all to proceed on to higher studies. ruling guaranteed the development of a general high school education at the taxpayer's expense. 14Melvin L. Barlow, History of Industrial Education in the United States (Peoria, 111.: Charles A. Bennett Co., 1967), pp. 21-25. 15E. Freeman Butts and Lawrence A. Cremin, A History of Edu- cation in American Culture (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1953), p. 419. 14 The Kalamazoo ruling gradually altered the nature of general education, particularly at the high school level. No longer was a high school education the option of only a privileged few--the college bound. Now the opportunity existed for the general public, whose needs often differed from those of the college-oriented group. Recognition of those differences was slow in coming, however. Despite the fact that the courts had ruled in favor of tax-supported high schools in Michigan, Iowa, and other states, the high schools evi- denced little progress in providing an adequate education for those 16 not going on to college. As French pointed out, it was not until about 1920 that the goal of providing an education for all adolescents would be realized.17 It was also about this time, 1920, that meeting the individual needs of students came to be considered an appropriate aim for educa- tion. In an effort to meet the increased needs of the expanded stu- dent body, educators began to consider the possibility of using community resources as a means of supplementing the limited high school curriculum. Development of the High School Curriculum Providing twelve years of education for so many students created new problems for the educators of the twentieth century. How was the school to meet the instructional needs of so diversified a 16William Marshall French, American Secondary Education (New York: Odyssey Press, 1967), p. 159. '7Ibid., p. 126. 15 student body? Butterfield, one of the commissioners who served on the Committee for the Reorganization of Secondary Education in 1918, proposed three definitive tasks for the high school: to pre- pare, to train, and to educate. His proposal maintained that the high school should: 1. prepare twenty-five percent of our young people for pro- fessional specialization 2. train twenty-five percent of our young people for the skilled trades 3. educate fifty percent of our young people for the life of one who holds a job.18 Butterfield suggested that while a limited portion of the student body would benefit from a college-preparatory curriculum, and that while another sector of the high school population might benefit from a vocational education program, the majority of high school stu- dents would best be educated by a wholistic approach to the problems of life in general. His recommendations were later reiterated by Charles Prosser in 1939. While lecturing at Harvard, Prosser, the director of Dunwoody Institute in Minneapolis, Minnesota, suggested that "high school students should spend at least fifty percent of their school time each year in life-education subjects."19 Impact of Progressive Education Movement Despite the limited acceptance of progressive education tenets, some school systems did experiment with, and in some cases adopted, various aspects of progressive education philOSOphy. Studies were 18 19 Ibid., p. 160. Ibid., p. 167. 16 gradually devised that compared schools using the principles of pro- gressive education with those that were more traditional in nature. A study of eight activity-oriented schools compared them to eight traditional schools in New York City in 1939. The study reported data favorable to the activity classes.20 Most of the experimentation with progressive education tech- niques occurred at the elementary level. High school educators were reluctant to adopt some of the techniques employed at the elementary level, such as drawing upon community resources, as they feared that such instructional methods might fail to prepare the high school stu- dent adequately for entrance into college. The Eight Year Study,21 conducted by the Progressive Associa- tion's Commission on the Relation of School and College, seemed to disprove such assumptions. Completed in 1942, the study indicated that students from progressive schools compared favorably with those from traditional schools when measured in terms of academic success at the college or university level. Furthermore, the students from progressive systems tended to be more socially inclined.22 Some educators suggested that this study supported the idea that progres- sive education could be a sound and workable method of meeting both individual and societal needs.23 20Butts and Cremin, p. 590. 2'lWilford M. Aikin, The Storygof the Eight-Year Study, With Conclusions and Recommendations, Adventure in American Education Vol. 1 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1942), p. 117. 221m. 23Graham, p. 134. 17 Much of the impact of the Eight Year Study was lost due to the intervention of World War II, when the nation's interest focused on problems other than the education of its young. The progressive education movement lost much of its momentum in the wake of this national crisis, and many of its ideas lay dormant to be developed later in response to subsequent educational crises. Criticism of Traditional Education The period following World War II saw much criticism of the nation's education system. The school became the scapegoat for the emerging social problems of juvenile delinquency, youth unemploy- ment, and the high drop-out rate of students. In the public's eye, the school had not sufficiently prepared the student to function in the rapidly changing society. Although many of the social problems of the time were, in fact, related to such factors as the rapid advance of technology dur- ing the war, many critics felt the school should be held directly responsible for the social upheaval. The traditionalists blamed the advocates of progressive education for failing to provide students with the basic fundamentals of education. This occurred although the influence of progressive education was, in fact, minimal at the time. Progressive educators, on the other hand, attributed the blame for social problems related to education to the traditionalists, maintain- ing that the traditional approach to education had failed to meet the needs of the individual student in a rapidly changing society. 18 A new crisis had emerged from the attempt to offer an educa- tion to all the nation's youth. An educational opportunity was being offered to all, but all were not being educated, in the sense of being prepared to become functional members of an industrial society. Chandler and Gross commented on the inadequacies of the system in their educational history: When it is realized that this examination [Selective Service Registration Examination] is designed essentially to determine functional literacy, the 54% failure rate seems almost incon- ceivable, especially in a nation dedicated to the maximum development of every individual. . . . We rightly point with pride to the explosive growth of secondary education, yet only about 60% of our youth currently graduate from high school even though employment opportunities for the "drop-out" are extremely limited. College enrollments have skyrocketed; yet it has been estimated that some 40% of those inggllectually best qualified to succeed in college never attend. Public criticism of the educational system continued in the post-war years. The dissatisfaction was strong enough to cause the White House to convene a conference on education in 1955. This con- ference identified fourteen goals for education but failed to Specify 25 The goals tended to or suggest methods for attaining suCh goals. be idealistic in nature, with little guidance as to the implementation of such ideals. However, among the goals expressed was the need to prepare the student to function in the social comunity, through an increased awareness of that community. One way to accomplish that goal might be to utilize the resources of the community as part of the school curriculum. 24Chandler and Gross, p. 337. 25French, pp. 185-86. 19 New Directions Soon after the White House report was written, the first space vehicle, Sputnik, orbited the earth. The effect of the White House report was lost in the alarm created by the Russian advance- ment in the space race. American education attained a new focus as a result of this event: science. The greater emphasis on the sci- ences sought to bridge the technological gap between the United States and Russia. Education then became a matter of national secu- rity.26 Although that particular crisis seemed to ebb with some adjustments in the teaching of science, educational critics were not to be silenced for long. In the early 19605, others, such as J. Lloyd Trump, were taking a critical look at the development of general edu- cation in the United States. Trump, like many others, called for a comprehensive overhaul of the educational system. He also advocated the use of some of the progressive educa- tion methods as possible solutions to the problems of education, such as individualized instruction and the integration of the school and community facilities to better meet the needs of the individual stu- dent. Some out-of-school study may occur in factories, shops, offices, other places where students are acquiring work experiences. The school develops independent study spaces cooperatively with local employers, social agencies, governmental agencies, and others. 261bid., p. 187. 20 . . This kind of independent study makes the community- school concept a reality.27 Development of Vocational Education In 1963 the Kennedy Administration took note of the educational critics and chose to revitalize governmental interest in Vocational Education in an effort to meet the needs of individual students. This effort, in part, sought to reduce unemployment and to provide assistance to certain groups overlooked in the past. Two important documents resulted from this interest. One was Education for a Chang- ing World, produced by the President's Consultants on Vocational Education.28 The other was the Vocational Education Act of 1963. The recommendations of this group provided the basis for subsequent legislation, such as the Vocational Education Act of 1963. This act allocated $225 million for Vocational Education for 1965 and each year thereafter. The act made provisions for: 1. occupational training programs not requiring a baccalaureate degree for all persons, youth and adults 2. ancillary services to assure quality programs which included but were not limited to teacher education, administration, supervision, and instructional materials 3. construction of area vocational school facilities.29 This directive carried with it staggering implications. Con- sidering that there were about 30,000 job titles listed, for which the 27J. Lloyd Trump and Delmar F. Miller, Secondary School Cur- riculum Improvement Proposals and Procedures (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1971), p. 270. 28Carl J. Schafer and Merle E. Strong, Introduction to Trade, Industrial, and Technical Education (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. MerrillTPublishing Co., 1975), p. 13. 291bid.. p. 16. 21 student could demand training, the question naturally arose where this training might be given. It was somewhat unrealistic to expect that every school system could provide such extensive training for their students. An obvious alternative was to look to business and industry, which already provided much of the training needed by edu- cators, nacarry out the specifications of this directive. Development of Career Education The increased interest in Vocational Education, coupled with the renewed interest in meeting individual needs of students, par- ticularly those needs related to employment, caused the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare to declare Career Education a national goal in 1971. A primary objective of Career Education was the develOpment of the skills, knowledge, and attitudes necessary for work success.30 Sidney P. Marland, the then Secretary of Educa- tion, expressed his philosophy of Career Education as such: The fundamental concept of Career Education is that all educa- tional experiences--curriculum, instruction, and counseling-- should be geared to preparation for economic independence, personal fulfillment, and an appreciation for the dignity of work.3 Career Education required that all school systems provide students with an avenue for obtaining entry-level skills in whatever career they had selected. In compliance with federal law, each state had to devise a vocational plan which would meet the individual stu- dent's needs and also accomplish the objectives of Career Education. 3°Ibid.. p. 50. 3'Ihid., p. 61. 22 Vocational Education became a vehicle for realizing the goals stated for Career Education. Some state education departments recog- nized that frequently the local school district did not have the physical facilities nor the monies needed to build them, in order to comply with Marland's directives. Michigan, for example, issued administrative guidelines to aid local school districts with compli- ance to the federal law. These guidelines encouraged secondary dis- tricts to contract with nonschool agencies and businesses for specific 32 The contract between the Sault Area Skill educational services. Center and the Sault Ste. Marie Beauty Academy for cosmetology train- ing for skill center students serves as an example of the way in which the Michigan guidelines were implemented. Summary Historically, education in the United States has been char- acterized by expansion and change. It has evolved from a single sys- tem designed to meet the needs of a select few to a multiple system redesigned to provide an equal opportunity for all. The focus of education has changed from merely nurturing the intellectual growth of the student to a more wholistic concern for individual success in work and leisure pursuits. Whereas, in the past, one's educational experience was generally limited to a period of six to twelve years, education is now viewed as a lifelong process. 32Michigan, Administrative Guide for Vocational Education (Lansing: Michigan Department of Education). 23 The educational process, as well as the product, has under- gone significant revisions, in an effort to accommodate the forces of change. The child, in the traditional system, had to change to fit the needs of the system; today, approaches have been developed to alter the system to fit the needs of the child. In the past, educa- tion tended to be viewed in isolation; the process was separate and distinct from real-life experiences. It tended to occur within the confines of the traditional classroom. Today, the world is seen as an appropriate environment for learning experiences. The student is no longer confined to the limited resources of a single teacher or school system. The student's interests dictate the nature of the educational environment most conducive to learning. As the school cannot always provide the necessary facili- ties to accommodate the diversity of students' interests, it becomes expedient to draw upon community resources as an alternative method of meeting the needs of the individual student. It has been noted that ideas developed at the elementary level, where considerable experimentation is encouraged, are often adapted and modified by high schools to fit the needs of the more advanced students. The mutual benefits derived from this cross- pollination of ideas might serve as an incentive for upper levels of higher education, namely colleges and universities, to follow the example of their colleagues. For example, colleges and universities might contract with business and industry for specific training not available from the institution--as the public school system does. 24 Such an exchange of facilities and programs could enhance the curricu- lums of post-secondary institutions at minimum cost. The Need for Research The greater emphasis on individualizing programs of instruc- tion has caused educators to direct their attention to the possible use of agency training programs to fulfill the educational needs of students. Persons involved in Industrial Education at the college level have indicated an interest in using agency training programs as part of their respective programs. A problem arises, however, when the interested parties attempt to assess the feasibility of such a venture; namely, there is little information available concerning the agency training programs. Although it is known that business and industry conduct educational programs, no formal attempt has been made to determine the relevant characteristics of the sponsors or the agency training programs themselves. In addition, there has been no formal attempt to assess the attitude of Industrial Education leaders at the college and univer- sity level concerning the use of agency training programs in degree- granting curriculums, despite the fact that such programs have had limited use at the college level. Little or no data are available about the size and type of organizations which sponsor agency training programs. It is not known if the size or type of the organization is related to the spe- cific training programs offered by such organizations. There is insufficient information to determine if the existing agency 25 training programs are varied enough to warrant consideration for educational purposes. Although there is some evidence that directors of Industrial Education programs are interested in the use of agency training pro- grams, little is known about the projected frequency of such usage; also, there are some questions about the utility of agency training programs as vehicles for individualizing instruction. No data are available for projecting the specific program areas of Industrial Edu- cation that might benefit most from the agency training programs available. Furthermore, it has not been determined how supportive Industrial Education administrators would be of using agency training programs for academic credit in the degree-granting programs of their respective universities. Rationale for Investigation Rogers' research on the adoption of innovative practices indicated that there are five developmental steps in the adoptive process. They include: (1) awareness, (2) interest, (3) evaluation, (4) trial, and (5) adoption.33 A review of Industrial Education literature, coupled with the information gained by the pilot inter- views conducted in relation to this study, seems to indicate that Rogers' first step of the developmental sequence has occurred. Leaders in Industrial Education are apparently aware of the existence of agency training programs, and some have in fact used the programs on an experimental basis. 33Rogers, p. 81. 26 The next phase in the developmental sequence is the interest stage. "The function of the interest stage is mainly to increase "34 This stage is character- . information about the innovation. ized by an active interest on the part of the group most directly influenced by the adoption of the innovative practice. Thus, given that stage one has been completed, the leaders of Industrial Education should now be receptive to a more detailed exploration of the possible utility of agency training programs by their departments. That was the assumption of this investigation. The concern of this study was to promote the development of the interest stage by providing information pertinent to the adaption of an innovative practice--in this case, the use of agency training programs by colleges and universities as an integral part of Indus- trial Education curriculums. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study was two-fold. First, it attempted to identify the types of agency training programs currently available. Second, the study attempted to determine the manner in which agency training programs might be used by teaching and nonteaching degree programs of Industrial Education. Limitations of the Study The business and industrial organizations surveyed were lim- ited to those listed simultaneously in the Michigan Directory of 34Ibid., p. 32. 27 Manufacturers for 1972 and the Thomas Register of Manufacturers for 1974. All company names not cross-listed in both sources were dis- carded. These sources caused the study to be limited to Michigan companies; thus the study cannot imply that other states would reflect the same distribution or degree of agency training activity. The departments of Industrial Education contacted were limited to a random selection of those listed in the Industrial Teacher Educa- tion Directory for 1972-73. This directory is published by the American Council on Industrial Arts Teacher Education and the National Association of Industrial Technical Education. The directory includes 230 listings of Industrial Education programs in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and U.S. possessions. The responses given must be interpreted to reflect only those attitudes and practices of the institutions and persons represented. This study limited its resources to those available from Michigan companies as such a practice was most economically and geo- graphically feasible. In addition, as Michigan has a greater number of industries than many other states, a sampling of Michigan companies could provide sufficient data for the random sampling process. This being the case, although it was recognized that business and Industrial Education departments existed in other geographic areas, this study made no attempt to collect generalizable data. In spite of this limitation, the information provided by this study might well serve as a model for future investigations. 28 Definition of Terms The following terms, as used throughout the study, are defined below: Agency training program-~Any educational program Sponsored and conducted by a non-school-related agency, business, industrial, or governmental division, which takes place under predetermined conditions and has pre-established objectives. The training is open for public participation, as well as for that of Industrial Educa- tion personnel. The training approach involves a combination of theory and application and is reflective of courses conducted at the college level. Examples of agency training programs include: a welding course conducted by a welder manufacturer at its facili- ties, a hydraulics course offered by a hydraulic machinery manufac- turer, or an instructional systems seminar sponsored by an information retrieval company at a conference center. Not included in the defi- nition are such activities as co-op work, work study, and on-the-job training programs. Industrial Education teacher education--Refers to the branch of education devoted to the preparation of teachers in the following curriculum areas: Industrial Arts Education, Trade and Industrial Education, Industrial Technical Education, and Vocational Education. All the areas specified function as components of Industrial Education. Vocational-Technical Education (nonteaching degreegprograms)r- Refers to the branch of education devoted to the instruction and training for occupations above the craftsman or trade level. Instruc- tion is baccalaureate in nature and is evaluated by a credit-hour 29 criterion. The program qualifies persons for employment in semi- professional positions as technicians or production specialists. Thomas Register of Manufacturers--A series of books, published yearly, that provides a compilation of companies nationwide. The listings are sectioned alphabetically by name and location, and are categorized by product or service and dollar-size rating. It is published by Thomas Publishing Company, 1 Penn Plaza, New York City, New York 10001. The Directory of Michigan Manufacturers--A book, published yearly, that provides a compilation of companies in Michigan. The listings are sectioned alphabetically, geographically, and by product classification. Usually, over 14,000 companies are listed. It is published by Manufacturers Publishing Company, 8543 Puritan Avenue, Detroit, Michigan 48238. Pre-service education--College-1evel courses, workshops, semi- nars, and independent studies offered for credit by institutions of higher learning, which result in the granting of a degree but in which the student participates before entering teaching or industry. In-service education—~College—1evel courses, workshops, semi- nars, and independent studies offered for credit and not for credit by institutions of higher learning and other education agencies, which result in an increase in educational knowledge but in which the participant is already a teaching professional or employed in industry. Educational delivery system-~Sometimes referred to as a teach- ing method. It refers to the situational design used by the instructor and includes such factors as physical setting, sequencing of events, 30 approach to instructional materials, audio-visual equipment, and other stimuli used to assist the learner in the process of knowledge acquisition. Procedure As the study was investigatory in nature, the methodology employed was designed to generate descriptive data about the two groups involved in the investigation, namely, industries and busi- nesses with agency training programs, and Industrial Education per- sonnel at the post-secondary level. The study sought to provide information to interested parties regarding the two populations sur- veyed, as well as provide opportunity for each professional involved to assess him/herself. The descriptive data desired concerned the types and fre- quency of agency training programs available from industry and the attitude of post-secondary Industrial Education personnel toward the use of such programs as components of Industrial Education curric- ulums. Two survey techniques were used to extract the desired infor- mation about the two populations. A telephone questionnaire was designed to survey industries in regard to the availability and nature of agency training programs. A written questionnaire was designed to survey post-secondary Industrial Education personnel about the prospec- tive use of agency training programs in their curriculums. The volume of information desired from the second population (Industrial Education 31 personnel) precluded the use of the telephone survey in the second instance. The procedure for each survey was identical. Based on the hypotheses formulated for each phase of the investigation, research questions were generated to test each hypothesis. The research ques- tions then formulated a basis for the design of each test instrument: a telephone survey for phase one and a written questionnaire for phase two. Six sequential steps were used to conduct each survey. The first involved an identification of the sample population to be tested. The second step involved the development of a pilot instru— ment. The pilot instrument was then refined in each case before collection of data began, this comprising steps three and four, respectively. Step five involved the tabulation of data collected. Analysis of the data concluded the procedure. Organization Chapter II includes a review of the literature considered to be pertinent to the chronological development of the concept that forms the basis of this study, namely the use of agency training pro- grams in education. The intent is two-fold: to outline the histori- cal background of this concept and to describe actual situations in which agency training programs have been used. The investigatory design of the study and a description of the statistical method employed are found in Chapter III. Chapter IV 32 contains the findings and discussion thereof. The conclusions and implications of the research conducted are reviewed in Chapter V. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction Chapter I developed the philosophical and historical basis for the use of external learning environments for educational experi- ences. Chapter 11 provides an overview of the literature more directly related to the use of agency training programs by educators. The information available tends to be sketchy and piecemeal because of the inconsistent terminology used to identify training programs that are educational in nature but are offered by business and industry. A review of the literature pertaining to agency training pro- grams also tends to suggest that the concept of using such programs as vehicles for educating students has been explored theoretically but that very little has been done of an experimental nature, and even less has been substantiated. Only one study was discovered that dealt directly with the question of the availability of agency training programs, and that study had a slightly different orientation than the present investigation. It was, however, included in the lit- erature reviewed. The sparseness of the literature available on agency training programs and their use by educators suggests the need for further research in this area, and that was one of the functions of this investigation. 33 34 Origins of the Concepp While the advocates of the progressive education movement were seeking to establish their philosophies as a basis for the Ameri- can education system, a parallel developmental process was occurring within the vocational education movement. Although the two groups shared some common goals, such as seeking to prepare the student better for entry into adult society, they diverged in the actualiza- tion of those goals despite the fact that some mutual trading of ideas did exist. Vocational education evolved as a separate and distinct move- ment from the more general progressive approach partially because public schools resisted altering the traditional system of education to accommodate programs of a more technical nature, which were intended to prepare the student for employment upon graduation from high school. As a result, the early Vocational Education programs tended to be found in training schools specifically designed to provide students with the skills necessary for employment in the trades and industry. The estab- lishment of such training schools signified the inception of a new attempt on the part of educators to provide for the educational needs of the industrial class. The first major step in this direction was accomplished by the passage of the Morrill Act in 1862 "to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts . . . in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes 35 in the several pursuits and professions in life.“ The passage of 35Barlow, pp. 32-36. 35 this Act, along with the subsequent passage of the Smith-Hughes Act in 1917, established Industrial Education as a "new profession that awaited development."36 Expression of the Concepts From the beginning, Industrial Education leaders have expressed a concern that there be a working relationship between edu— cation and industry. While tracing the roots of Vocational Educa- tion, William Sears listed over a dozen industries that were provid- ing some type of educational program for their employees as early as the early 19005. He maintained, VAlong with the development in indus- try and in business has come the development of Vocational Education. 37 Graney further The one is inextricably tied up with the other." supported the existence of the relationship between schools and industry by tracing the history of several institutions such as RCA Institute, which was established to provide technical skills to its students.38 Those in education were also interested in exploring the uses of industry in the preparation of their students. In 1908, Professor Herman Schneider of the University of Cincinnati, Ohio, reported at a meeting of metal manufacturers in New York City that he had secured 36 37William Sears, Roots of Vocational Education (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1931). Ibid. 38Maurice R. Graney, The Technical Institute (New York: Center for Applied Research, Inc., 1964), p. 47. 36 the services of industry for the purpose of providing practical experience to the engineering students at his university.39 Simonds, a representative of the Massachusetts school system, happened to be present at Schneider's address and was so impressed by the possibilities of such cooperation between school and industry that he went back to Fitchburg, Massachusetts, and proceeded to apply Schneider's ideas in his own locale.4o Millwacker carried this concept of cooperation even further. He reported in 1916 that his institution was closing its technical laboratories (called shops at the time) as industry could provide the necessary work stations for the students.41 The fact that industry had programs available that could be used by educators was recognized early in the development of Indus- trial Education. Some organizations such as the National Association for Industry-Education Cooperation provided newsletters that encour- aged cooperation between the two by informing industry of the benefits to be derived from an educational approach to the problem of training 42 employees. The National School Public Relations Association treated 39Charles Alpheus Bennett, History of Manual and Industrial Education in the United States 1870-191711Chicago: Charles A. Bennett Co., 1937), p. 531. 40 41 42National Association for Industry-Education Cooperation, The Link Between Industry and Education (Washington, D.C.: National Association for Industry and Education, August 1973), p. 3. Ibid. Bruce Millwacker, "NewsNotes," Manual Arts 5 (May 1914): 9. 37 the relationship of industry and education as a partnership that needed further development, in its publication on Vocational Edu- cation.43 Community Schools and Career Education Influences Although both industry and educators have been aware of the possibility of a more symbiotic relationship between the two, most of the awareness has remained at the cognitive level. Very little actual cooperation has existed until recently. The development of the concepts of community schools and career education has played an important role in the change that has occurred in the relationship of school and industry. Given the focus on the need to prepare the stu- dent for a vocation, those in Career Education have acknowledged the necessity of using every available resource. Support must be provided for such programs in occupational education, . . . in a wide variety of settings, including residential vocational schools, community colleges, private business and vocational schools, and apprenticeships.4 This idea was also supported by Byram and Wenrich in the development of the community school concept as they advocated the use of people, organizations, agencies, and establishments of production as educational resources for the Vocational and Industrial Arts programs. They maintained that "the resources inherent in the 43National School Public Relations Association, Vocational Education (Washington, D.C.: National School Public Relations Asso- ciation, 1971), p. 3. 44Kenneth B. Hoyt, Rupert N. Evans, Edward F. Markis, and Garth L. Mangun, Career Education: What Is It and How to Do It (Salt Lake City, Utah: Olympus Publishing Co., 1974), p. 220. 38 economy of a community are the very life blood of vocational edu- cation."45 A Suggestion_for the Use of Training Programs In 1973, Angelo Gillie, in his work, Principles of Post- Secondary Vocational Education, recommended that the public educa- tional system make use of private training programs offered by busi- ness and industry, as well as private vocational schools, to improve the effectiveness of college-level programs in rural and poverty areas. He wrote, "Movement in this direction could very well be the start of a trend to subcontracting much of the specific skill training out to private vocational enterprises and leave more of the basic cognate elements of occupational education to the public two-year 46 Gillie's suggestion differed from that of his fore- colleges." runners, such as Byram, Wenrich, and Schneider, in that he recommended the use of private vocational schools as resources for college-level programs, whereas the others favored the use of training programs conducted by industry. Although the private vocational schools have Operated as business ventures since the 18005, Gillie was the first to propose that they be used at the post-secondary level. 45Harold M. Byram and Ralph C. Wenrich, Vocational and Practical Arts in the Community School (New York: Macmillan Co., 1956). p. 28. 46Angelo C. Gillie, Principles of Post-Secondary Vocational Education (Columbus, Ohio: Merrill PUblishing Co., 1973), p. 201. 39 Industrial Education Teacher Educators Look at the Concept Those educators involved in providing qualified personnel for the teaching profession have speculated on the use of agency training programs as part of the teacher education curriculum. Rosenberg asked the question, "How are teaching personnel to keep themselves informed of ongoing changes in their respective fields?"47 This is particularly a problem in the rapidly advancing areas of trade and technology. Erber treated the subject of the teacher as an industrial technologist and listed the qualities he perceived to be essential for the teacher in Industrial Education.48 Olson suggested that "the new Industrial Arts may invite industry to lend assistance to advanced 49 It was the students in carrying on research and experimentation." suggestion of this study that such curriculums might well benefit from the use of agency training programs. Such programs could pro- vide the technical assistance and practical experience necessary for the teacher in an Industrial Arts program. Other leaders in Industrial Education have maintained that agency training programs can be used to enrich the curriculum while providing for a more effective and efficient learning experience for 47Jerry M. Rosenberg, New Conceptions of Vocational and Technical Education (New York: Teachers College Press, 1967), p. 87. 48C. Thomas Dean and Nelson A. Hauer, Industrial Technical Education (Bloomington, 111.: McKnight and McKnight Publishing Co., 1969). Pp. 58-59. 49Delmar W. Olson, Industrial Arts and Technology(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963), p. 291. 40 the student in the Industrial Education program. Hammond suggested that any single institution, be it industry, education, or government, is inadequate to fulfill all the needs of today's student in a tech- nological environment.50 Thus he called for an integrative effort on the part of all three institutions and advocated the concept of a partnership in the preparation of Industrial Arts graduates. Again, those interested in the concept of career education have asserted the necessity of "interaction among the training institutions, employ- ing institutions, and labor associations to provide a more fertile learning environment than the schoolroom."5] Roger Viceroy, while reviewing the requirements for the technology-oriented graduate student, suggested that the relation- ship between industry and education should permit the student a "flexibility in his program which allows him to attend such things as industrial schools, professional organization-sponsored classes, or institutes, intensive industrial courses or workshops and even travel to visit industries which would add to his technical competence."52 50James H. Hammond, "The Educational Partnership: Government- Industry-Labor," Man, Society and Technology (September-October 1970): 17. 5lRupert N. Evans, Kenneth B. Hoyt, and Garth Mangreve, Career Education in the Middle and Senior High School (Salt Lake City, Utah: Olympus Publishing Co., 1973), p. 14. 52Roger A. Viceroy, "Program Requirements for a Technically- Oriented Graduate Student," Convention proceedings, American Indus- trial Arts Association, 1972. 41 Agency Training Programs Examples of how agency training programs might be used by those training vocational education teachers were described by Maley in his work, Cluster Concept in Vocational Education: (2) Some of the teachers were involved in on-the-job work learning experiences on some of the local construction proj- ects. (3) Another group received programmed instruction in typewriter repair from a nationally known maker of such equip- ment. A tutor was also furnished by the typewriter manufac- turer. (4) Another group of teachers needing upgrading and enrichment in occupations related to metalworking spent con- siderable time at the Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland. These teachers were introduced to and instructed in some of the latest techniques in metal forming, soldering and welding. The Massachusetts Study In the late 1960s, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts undertook a study to determine the effectiveness of occupational education in the private sector.54 A portion of the Massachusetts study was devoted to a detailed analysis of the industrial training programs available in the state to the high school graduate. An analysis of the data provided by the Massachusetts study indicated the availa- bility of agency training programs for the state of Massachusetts. The question of availability of agency training programs was also explored in the present investigation. 53Donald Maley, Cluster Concept in Vocational Education (Chicago: American Technical Society, 1975), pp. 180-81. 54Carl J. Schaefer and Jacob K. Kaufman, New Directions for Vocational Education (Lexington, Mass.: Heath Lexington Book Co., 1971). PP. 65-67. 42 The impetus of the Massachusetts study came from a concern on the part of educators in the state that the public schools were not preparing the high school students adequately in terms of occupa- tional training. Thus it was determined that the need for occupa- tional training was being served by private institutions at the post-secondary level. The study then set about to determine the characteristics of the training programs available in the private sector. That, basically, was the same information sought by the present study, although the latter asked how the existent industrial training programs can best be accessed and used by those in Industrial Education curriculums at the college level, whereas the former sought to determine the types of training programs that were available to the high school graduate. Thus the data accumulated by the Massa- chusetts study differed from those sought in this investigation because the population sample differed, as did, in some cases, the nature of the data collected. The Massachusetts study used an industrial directory to identify the target papulation, namely companies that offered indus— trial training programs. The selected companies were categorized, employee size being the determinant factor. However, other alterna- tive categories might be used for determining the characteristics of the company, such as dollar output or product output. Based on the low response rate to the written questionnaire used by the Massachu- setts study (32 percent), it would seem that an inquiry design that 43 involved more personal contact, such as a telephone survey, might prove to be more effective in extracting the information desired. The Massachusetts study identified the various types of pro- grams offered by the companies surveyed. That information tended to support the hypothesis that the size of the company is directly related to the amount of money expended on industrial training pro- grams, with the larger companies offering a more varied selection of programs. The study also indicated that the majority of the training occurred at the operative and apprentice levels, with supervisory instruction the predominant kind of training available. The Massa- chusetts study also suggested that "there appears to be a good rela- tionship between the area of manpower needs and the private school's offerings."55 Summary of the Literature The reviewed literature indicated a philOSOphical and his- torical basis for the use of learning settings outside the traditional school. It further showed that there has been an interest in a cooperative effbrt between industry and Industrial Education. How- ever, this interest has been evidenced primarily by an exchange of ideas between the two groups. Most exchanges of students and teaching techniques have been experimental in nature and have not been imple- mented on a broad scale. In some cases, as in Maley's program in Maryland, the experimentation has involved allowing students to par- ticipate in agency training programs for academic credit. However, 551bid. 44 many areas of this concept have not been researched. This investi- gation focused on two such areas of needed research: 1. the availability of agency training programs, and 2. the attitude of Industrial Education personnel toward the use of agency training programs in Industrial Educa- tion post-secondary curriculums. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY This chapter describes the research design, populations, instruments, collection of data, coding and tabulation of data, research hypotheses, and analysis. The purpose of this study was to ascertain if agency training programs are available that might be used by Industrial Education departments for training of students in that curriculum. Given that such agency training programs could be located and identified, it was necessary to determine if such pro- grams were presently being used by Industrial Education departments and to what extent the usage occurred. It was also the purpose of this investigation to determine if those companies with agency train- ing programs were receptive to the idea of offering such training programs to Industrial Education students and, if so, how the Indus- trial Education departments might best access the company system. The Sample The subjects of this investigation were selected from two separate and distinct population groups. The first population group consisted of the fourteen thousand companies listed in the Michigan Directory of Manufacturers. Of that population, six hundred organi- zations were selected through a random number selection process. The Michigan Directory of Manufacturers does not categorize companies 45 45 by size, so the group of six hundred companies was then cross- referenced with the listings in the Thomas Register of Manufacturers. This process assigned a rating based on total company assets. The 150 companies that emerged as a result of this process were identi- fied as the sample for Survey I of the study. The second population group consisted of the 230 Industrial Education department heads at colleges and universities in the United States and its territories, as listed in the Industrial Teacher Educa- tion Directory (1973-74). A geographically stratified sample of seventy-five department heads was generated from the second population group through the use of random number assignment and selection pro- cedure. The distribution generated twenty-five subjects in each of the three designated geographic areas, namely East, West, and Central United States. The seventy-five department heads comprised the sample for the second phase of the investigation. Description of Test Instruments Two investigatory instruments were selected to extract the data required to test the hypotheses generated for this investigation. A focused, semi-stratified questionnaire with open-ended questions was the format for conducting the telephone survey used to test the first hypothesis, related to the availability of agency training programs. The test instrument was designated as Survey I. (See Appendix A for a cepy of the instrument.) A two-way grid matrix design was used to investigate the second hypothesis, related to the nature of agency training programs deemed 47 appropriate by Industrial Education personnel for their programs. The two-way grid matrix was presented in letter form to the subjects. This test instrument was designated Survey II. (See Appendices B and D for further explanation.) Statement of Hypotheses Two hypotheses were generated for this investigation. They are as follows: Ho]: Agency training programs that can be identified and located are not available. H02: Industrial Education personnel who deem agency training programs as appropriate educational experiences for Industrial Education programs can not be located and identified. Development of Research Questions To investigate the two hypotheses for this investigation, itwas necessary to develop a format that lent itself to a survey instrument. Therefore, research questions related to each hypothesis were developed as a method of categorizing the responses made by the sample popula- tions. In the first instance, the responses to the research questions had to be extracted from information gathered by Survey 1, related to the availability of agency training programs. The second group of research questions (related to the apprOpriateness of agency training programs for Industrial Education curriculums) served as the format for Survey II. The research questions developed for Survey I were designed to determine what industries offered agency training programs. They also were developed to determine if agency training programs were 48 available in distinctive homogeneous groups. The research questions for Survey 11 sought to determine how frequently agency training pro- grams could be or were presently being used in Industrial Education curriculums. Sufficient questions were constructed to insure data related to a particular aspect were collected in more than one way. This allowed the researcher an alternate means of assessment should the primary question's answer be suspect. The number of credits (semester) allowed was also assessed. Survey I Research Question 1: What percentage of A, AA, AAA, AAAA sized businesses and industries have agency training pro- grams available? Research Question 2: If agency training programs are avail- able to colleges and universities for student participation, in what general homogeneous categories do they exist? Survey 11 Research Question 1: How frequently was an agency training program used as a pre-service elective in: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? Research Question 2: How frequently was an agency training program substituted for a required course in a pre-service role in: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? Research Question 3: How frequently was an agency training program used as a required activity in a pre-service role in: Industrial Education Voc.-Te¢h. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? Research Question 4: How frequently was an agency training program used as an in-service elective in: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? 49 Research Question 5: How frequently was an agency training program used as a substitute for a required course in an in-service role in: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? Research Question 6: How frequently was an agency training program used as a required activity in an in-service role in: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? Research Question 7: How frequently was an agency training program deemed inappropriate for pre-service programs as an elective in: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? Research Question 8: How frequently was an agency training program deemed inappropriate for pre-service programs as a substitute for a required course in: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? Research Question 9: How frequently'wasan agency training program deemed inappropriate for pre-service programs as a required activity in: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? Research Question 10: How frequently was an agency training program deemed inappropriate for in-service programs as an elective in: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? Research Question 11: How frequently was an agency training program deemed inappropriate for in-service programs as a substitute for a required course in: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? Research Question 12: How frequently was an agency training program deemed inappropriate for in-service programs as a required activity in: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? Research Question 13: How frequently was an agency training program deemed an appropriate activity as an elective course but was not presently being used in a pre-service role for: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? 50 Research Question 14: How frequently was an agency training program deemed an appr0priate activity as a substitute for a required course but was not presently being used in a pre- service role for: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? Research Question 15: How frequently was an agency training program deemed an appropriate activity as a required activity but was not presently being used in a pre-service role for: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? Research Question 16: How frequently was an agency training program deemed an appropriate activity as an elective course but was not presently being used in an in-service role for: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? Researchgguestion 17: How frequently was an agency training program deemed an appropriate activity as a substitute for a required course but was not presently being used in an in- service role for: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? Research Question 18: How frequently was an agency training program deemed an appropriate activity as a required activity but was not presently used in an in-service role for: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? Research Question 19: How many total credit hours were allowed’per program for any given agency training program if used in a pre-service role for: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? Researchgguestion 20: How many total credit hours were allowed per caliege program for any agency training program if used in an in-service role for: Industrial Education Voc.-Tech. Education Teacher Education? Nonteaching Degrees? Research Question 21: How often were those surveyed undecided about any of the previous questions? 51 Design of the Study The study consisted of two separate investigations, each containing six sequenced steps. The six steps were repeated in sequence for each phase of the study with regard to the investigatory instruments, Survey I and Survey 11. Survey I sought to establish the availability of agency training programs and to delineate the types of agency training pro- grams available. Survey 11 sought to identify the preference of the Industrial Education personnel with regard to the use or possible use of the agency training programs as identified in Survey I. The major aspects of the two phases of the study involved: 1. the identification of the sample, development of a pilot instrument, refinement of the survey instrument, data collection, data tabulation, and 0301-th data analysis, which involved the conversion of raw data to percentage form. A detailed account of each procedural step for each phase of the study follows. Survey I Step one: Identification of sample.--From the list of 14,000 companies listed in the Directory of Michigan Manufacturers, a pool of 600 company names was selected through the following process. Each company listed in the Directory was assigned a number from 52 l to 100. From each group of 100, four names were selected using a table of random numbers. For every 300 names in a running count, a name was selected in order to obtain an average of twenty-four names per 1,000 company listings. In the case of a 00 listing in a random number column, the first number in the next column was substi- tuted. The company names were chosen from the alphabetized town listing section of the Directory. A group of 600 company names was compiled by this random number selection process. Each of the 600 company names was then cross-referenced with the company names listed in the Thomas Register of Manufacturers and its concomitant rating system. Companies that were subsidiaries of larger companies were assigned the parent com- pany name and rank. The Thomas rating system is based on the approximations of each company's total tangible assets. The companies are rated on the following basis: A--$lO0,000 capital; AA--$300,000; AAA--$500,000; and AAAA--$l,OO0,000 and over capital. After the cross-referencing process, the final sample con- sisted of 150 company names that appeared in both the Directory of Michigan Manufacturers and the Thomas Register. The 150 company names in the final sample were distributed in the four categories assigned by the Thomas Register in the same random order as they appeared in the Directory. These 150 companies represented a cross- section of typical Michigan companies. The number 150 gave the researcher a sample size large enough to conduct a pilot survey and still retain enough companies to ensure a proper sample size. 53 Step two: Development of a pilot instrument.--Twenty-five percent of the companies in each of the four categories rated by Thomas as A, AA, AAA, and AAAA were selected for use in the pilot study. Each of the thirty-eight selected was contacted by telephone. The interviewer requested to speak with the industrial relations manager. If the company had no one assigned to that position, a request was made to speak with the party responsible for educational or training activities of the company. The person responding was then asked if the company was involved in any activities of a training or educational nature, either internally for employees or externally for nonemployees. If the response was negative, the interview was terminated with a request for the name of the respondent and the title of his/her position with the company. The information was recorded on a sheet of paper, along with the company's name and telephone number. When a positive response was received, the reSpondent was then requested to describe the nature of the training or educational activities conducted by the company. The responses were recorded on a sheet of paper, along with any other pertinent information provided. If the respondent did not offer very specific information, the inter- viewer attempted to initiate conversation related to any kinds of training activities the company might be involved in, or to the philo- sophical views of the company spokesman related to agency training programs. Step three: Refinement of the test instrument.--The data col- lected and the interviewing experience gained from the pilot survey 54 were then reviewed to determine the most efficient method of conduct- ing the interview section of the first phase of the research. This review led to two conclusions: 1. The survey would be completed using the telephone tech- nique because that method allowed for a high response rate from those surveyed. 2. The telephone contact would be carried out using a focused semi-stratified questionnaire with open-ended alternate ques- tions assembled from the experience gained with the pilot survey. It was determined that the telephone interview technique permitted Opti- mal efficiency with regard to the nature of the information gathered and the time involved in doing so. Step four: Data collection.--After the information gathered from the pilot survey was analyzed and converted into a series of focused semi-stratified questions, step four was initiated. Each of the remaining 112 companies from the sample was contacted by telephone. The person contacted was read the introductory material and then asked the questions on the data sheet. (See Appendix A.) The format of the questionnaire was followed verbatim. All responses were recorded in the appropriate blanks of the questionnaire. Five attempts were made to contact a given company over a period of one week before ter- mination of effort. One hundred twelve companies were actually con- tacted in this manner. A sample population n of 67 was required for the study to have an error tolerance equal to .10. This was determined using the formula: 55 .z2 "’22 4E +‘;_ N where N = total number in the population n = size of sample population needed for the study E = confidence level 2 = value of the normal distribution The remaining 75 percent of the original 150 companies (112) exceeded the n required for statistical validity. This statistical procedure was used to ensure that if the research was repeated under identical circumstances, one could be confident 90 percent of the time that the results would be the same. This was also true for Survey 11. Step five: Data tabulation.--Upon completion of the telephone survey, the data were categorized by company rating (Thomas'), and total responses were calculated for each research question. Step six: Data analysis.--The raw data were then converted to percentages. Finally, the data collected were used to generate five homogeneous categories of agency training programs provided by the companies interviewed. The categories were derived from the raw data collected. The five categories of agency training programs that emerged were as follows: Technical sales training, technical training for production activities, management seminars, pr0prietary schools, and open short courses or seminars. Agency training programs were placed in the various categories on the following basis: 56 1. Technical sales training--This category involved those training programs offered to people who sell the company's product but are not involved in the production of said product. 2. Technical training for production activities--Training programs designed for training in-plant workers for the purpose of improving productivity. 3. Management seminars--Training programs designed to improve personnel relations between supervisors and employees in order to increase productivity of workers. 4. Proprietary schools--Training programs designed exclu- sively to improve productivity for related industries. Service is furnished only after a fee is paid. 5. Open short courses or seminars--A catch-all training pro- gram offered to any personnel not in plant production. Survey 11 Spep one: Identification of the sample.--Phase two of the research project began after the compilation of the data extracted from Survey I. Step one of the second phase involved the identifi- cation of the Industrial Education department heads to be surveyed. A geographically stratified sample of seventy-five department heads was generated from the 230 listings in the Industrial Education Directory (1973-1974) through the use of random number assignment and selection procedures. Twenty-five department heads were selected 57 from each of the three geographic areas designated (East, West, and Central United States). The seventy-five department heads to be surveyed was a large enough number to ensure an n of 52 returned survey instruments needed to obtain a confidence level of 90 percent as derived from the formula given on page 55. The number of actual returned responses was 56. (See Appendix 0.) Step two: Development of pilot instrument.--A review of various written survey methods revealed the three-way grid matrix design best suited for this purpose. Based on the content provided by the research questions developed from the second hypotheses, a three-way grid matrix design was constructed as the pilot instrument for this phase of the study. Step three: Refinement of the test instrument.--The instrument design for the second phase of the study was validated with the assis- tance of three Michigan Industrial Education department heads at Eastern Michigan, Central Michigan, and Michigan State Universities. The three department heads, all experienced in research design, reviewed the pilot instrument and offered suggestions on how to revise the instrument to be sent to other department heads. Their sugges- tions were intended to maximize the extraction of pertinent informa- tion desired from the sample group. The pilot instrument was then revised to accommodate the suggestions derived from this resource. Step four: Data collection.--Seventy-five Industrial Education department heads were sent a c0py of the written survey instrument with a cover letter and a self-addressed, stamped envelope. (See 58 Appendix 8.) Three months were allotted for the receipt of the questionnaire. Those not responding in the allotted three months were sent a second copy of the questionnaire along with a second letter requesting a response. (See Appendix C.) A period of two months was then allowed for the forms to be returned. At the end of the five-month period, data collection was terminated. Fifty-six Industrial Education department heads returned responses. Step five: Data tabulation.--The data collected from Survey 11 were then tabulated by the computer. Data processing used was a two-way grid matrix design. (See Appendix 0.) Charles Weber of Lake Superior State College designed the program for the computer that processed the data. Step six: Data analysis.--This step involved the conversion of raw data into bar graphs and percentages so as to make the informa- tion more intelligible to the general reader. Since the design of the study was investigatory in nature, the methodology of data presen- tation was statistical, although the study itself was designed to ensure statistical confidence. The intent was to present the infor- mation gathered in the most comprehensible form to the reader. Bar graphs are used in Chapter IV to present the numerical data. The Specific Method Employed The research design that offers the greatest amount of direct contact is the personal interview. However, that method would have been economically and geographically unfeasible for the present 59 study. Therefore, telephone interviews were conducted in the first phase of this investigation for the following reasons: 1. The telephone interview guaranteed that all 150 companies would be contacted if they were still in existence. The telephone interview technique allowed for needed flexibility to contact the appropriate person within the organizational structure. The telephone interview method allowed for clarification of the language used in the specific area of Industrial Relations. The telephone interview increased the possible return response rate from a probable low percentage to approxi- mately 100 percent. The telephone interview enhanced the willingness of respondents because of the informality and increased per- sonal contact involved. The possibility of interviewer bias and variations became negligible as one party did all the interviewing using a focused, semi-stratified questionnaire with open-ended alternate questions. The reasons listed above were derived from the works of Engelhart in Methods of Educational Research and Phillips and Selltiz in Social Research concerning interview techniques. 6O Assumptions This study was predicated on the following assumptions: 1. The businesses and industries interviewed in phase one of the study represented a normal cross-section of Michigan businesses and industries. The department heads involved in phase two of the study represented a normal cross-section of Industrial Education department heads at colleges and universities in the United States. The terms used in the telephone and written survey instru- ments were ones that have generally accepted definitions among the group surveyed, and all questions were answered within that Specific context by respondents. Parties not completing a particular question on the writ- ten survey were considered to have been undecided about that specific question. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA Data gathered on agency training programs and their use in Industrial Education are reported and analyzed in this chapter. The report includes a distribution of the subjects contacted and the results of the two surveys. The information generated by the surveys is reported in the form of tables and bar graphs. Several of the tables and bar graphs contain data from more than one research ques- tion. This method of presentation was chosen for ease of data com- parison and clarity. Profile of Survey_I Respondents The research sample for Survey I consisted of 112 Michigan businesses and industries. These businesses and industries were ranked by dollar volume as indicated in Table l. The dollar volume size ratings were assigned through the use of the Thomas Register of Manufacturers. Table 1 shows that large companies, type AAAA, are the most frequently encountered business or industry in Michigan. Analysis of the Hypothesis for Survey I Ho]: Agency training programs that can be located and identified are available. To investigate this hypothesis, it was divided into two research questions. The first research question generated data in answer to 61 62 Table l.--Distribution of companies. Size of Industry Number Contacted A ($100,000 capital) 30 AA ($300,000 capital) 15 AAA ($500,000 capital) 14 AAAA ($1,000,000 capital) _£§i Total 112 the query: "At what frequency do A, AA, AAA, and AAAA sized busi- nesses and industries have agency training programs available?" Responses to this question were distributed as illustrated in Table 2. The table shows that 17 of the 112 companies contacted did have agency training programs available. A relationship between the size of a business or industry and the availability of agency training programs was also evident. Twelve of the seventeen organizations having agency training programs available were in the AAAA size range. Table 2.--Distribution of companies with agency training programs. Number Company Cowpiaies ca?::glis REEESEd Offices Contacted Rating Programs Programs Answer Closed 30 A O 24 O 6 15 AA 3 9 O 3 l4 AAA 2 10 l 1 '_53 AAAA 12 33 O 8 112 Total 17(15%) 76(68%) 1(1%) 18(l6%) 63 The second research question for Survey I was: "If agency training programs are available to colleges and universities for student participation, in what general homogeneous categories do they 'exist?" The categories and their distribution are presented in Table 3. These categories were defined in Chapter III, p. 52. A sample recording instrument for this portion of the data is located in Appendix A. Table 3.--Distribution of categories of agency training programs- Number With T A . Company Agency Training We vailable Rating Programs Pro- Manage- Proprie- Available Sales duction ment tary Open A 0 0 0 O 0 0 AA 2 0 0 o 2 NW) 12 6 5 12 3 2 Total 17 3 6 12 3 5 Industries offered management seminars most frequently. Sales training programs were the second most frequently available agency training program. Proprietary schools were the least frequently encountered agency training program. Profile of Survey II Respondents The research sample for Survey II consisted of seventy-seven randomly selected Industrial Education department heads. These department heads represented a geographically stratified sample of 64 the department heads listed in the Industrial Teacher Education Direc- tory (1973-74). Fifty-six of the selected seventy-seven department heads responded to the survey. A table listing the number of respon- dents by geographic region is located in Appendix E. Analysis of the Hypothesis for Survey II H02: Industrial Education personnel who deem agency training programs as appropriate educational experiences for Industrial Education programs can be located and identified. To investigate the hypothesis for Survey 11, a series of twenty- four research questions was generated. (See Chapter III for specific questions.) These questions were developed to determine the use or desired use of agency training programs in Industrial Education. The following four bar graphs contain data from a cluster of from two to six research questions. Research questions were grouped to report data clearly. They were not necessarily presented in numeric sequence since those numbers were assigned through test instrument design. As was pointed out previously, an excess of data was collected to allow for alternate means of assessment should they prove necessary. Therefore, data from each question were not presented in the bar graphs but may be found in the appendix. Detailed data related to individual responses and geographic regions are found in Appendix F. Figure 1 shows that open short courses or seminars were the most frequently used agency training program. Agency training pro- grams were consistently used most often as electives. 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