ABSTRACT A PLAN OF EDUCATION FOR NORTH DAKOTA: 1966-80 by Brendan J. McDonald The central purpose of this dissertation is to fermulate a plan whereby given the limitations of resources the school system.of North Dakota.might still attain needed new levels of effectiveness and efficiency. Three major theses are advanced about the public education system of the State of North Dakota. They are: l) the school system is essentially ineffective, inefficient, and inequitable; 2) the present state of health of the system.is correctable within present fiscal and human resources; and 3) the corrective pEasurés could be assimilated into a potentially effective plan of action that could alleviate the basic ills of the educational system. The theses advanced.were developed through systematic study and evalua- tion of the 1965-66 North Dakota public school system, Studies of the system.vere conducted by the North Dakota Statewide Study of Education in several areas, namely: personnel, finances, school district organization, and the instructional program. The principal theses are examined against the evidence provided by the Statevide Study of Education and elaborated in detail. The method employed was essentially clinical. Three major steps were involved. These were: observation, diagnosis, and prescription. Criteria are applied to the data in ways designed to illustrate a.more desirable future educational status toward.vhich.North Dakotans might reasonably direct their energies and Brendan J. McDonald resources. A plan of corrective measures is described that is intended to serve as a basic guide for improving the viability, effectiveness, and efficiency of the school system. The development period for the plan of action is the 1h year period of l966-to 1980. It is concluded that present education conditions could be improved by: l) appropriately reducing the number of needlessly small schools and school districts, and consequently the need for increasing numbers of teachers; 2) dramatically alter the pattern of public expenditure for education, while adding modest increments to the total expenditure annually for education; 3) develop a new pre-service and in-service training program to fully qualify all of the State's teachers and education service personnel; h) place and retain these personnel where they are most needed; 5) through these per- sonnel, systematically introduce a program of individualized instruction into each of the State's classrooms; 6) broaden the scope and diversity of curricular offerings to enable each child to form an appropriate program of instruction; 7) enrich on-going programs and extend specialized services through systematic application of'modern technology to education communica- tion problems; 8) increase the effectiveness of State education services through a system of intermediate district service centers; 9) seriously involve the State's institutions of higher education in a systematic program of research and personnel development. The plan fermulated is deemed feasible since the.State already.possesses the basic resources required by theSe tasks. The proposed plan of action shows concrete ways in which these resources may be used more effectively and efficiently to bring about a.more equitable educational opportunity. Brendan J. McDonald The thesis and the findings of this study are important to North Dakota and other states. They are important to North Dakota since it appears from.the analyzed data that the aim of the school system is not being met, but the situation is largely correctable. They are important to other states since many are in the same situation as North Dakota, and it would appear that if this plan can be applied successfully to North Dakota other states could benefit from a similar approach. A PLAN OF EDUCATION FOR NORTH DAKOTA: 1966-80 By 56° Brendan J? McDonald A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State university In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of l DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1967 \G\ ‘ \ x '\b <5 9&7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Completion of this dissertation would have been impossible without the interest and direct participation of a number of persons to whom I owe everlasting gratitude. Dr. Karl T. Hereford, chainman of my guidance committee, who gave liberally of his time and wise counsel in guiding this writer through this dissertation. The guidance was professional, appropriate and a source of personal satisfaction. Dr. Walter F. Johnson, Dr. Sheldon Lowry, and Dr. Stanley Hecker rendered a major service to/the develOpment of the dissertation and to my doctoral program in general. Dr. Kent G. Alm, College of Education, University of North Dakota, who directed and supervised my doctoral internship as a participant in the North Dakota Statewide Study of Education, and who made certain that the six month stay in Grand Forks was personally and professionally rewarding. My wife, Vernie, who recognized aspirations and did everything in her power to make them a reality. Mere words are inadequate to express a fitting tribute fer the moral support she has given during all of these years of "school". Brenda Jean and Judi, my daughters, whose patience, sacrifice, and encouragement contributed.immensely to the completion of this dissertation. -11- TABLE OF CONTENTS ACUOWMNTS . . . 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 ii LIST OF TABLE 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 v LIST OF FIGURE 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Vi 1 Chapter I A STRATEGY FOR IMPROVING EDUCATION IN NORTH DAKOTA . . . . . . l The Thesis and its Development 2 Method Employed in Developing the Thesis 5 Sources of Data for the Observations 7 Development Period of the Plan of Education 8 Definition of Terms 9 Overview of the Dissertation 12 II PUBLIC EDUCATION IN NORTH DAKOTA: 1965-66 . . . . . . . . . . 1h Equality l6 Instructional Program 16 Personnel 23 Finance system 28 Effectiveness 29 Personnel 29 School District Organization 3h Financial System ho Efficiency hl Instructional Program kl Personnel ha Finance hh III A FUTURE STATUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . NB Education fer A11 A9 Essential Objectives of Education h9 Education's Domain of Responsibility Sh Standards for School District Organization 55 Essential Elements and Limitations 55 -iii- Table of Contents (Continued) Chapter III (continued) IV A Estimating School Service Regions Financial System Financial Support and the Educational Program Equitable Support Equitable Distribution“ Local Administration of Funds Summary Personnel Preparation and Selection Professional Upgrading Supervision Personnel Team Personnel Salaries Desirable Personnel Plan Instructional Program Elementary Organization Secondary Organization Advisory Personnel Modern Technology and Education Modern Technology PLAN OF ACTION FOR NORTH DAKOTA. . . . . . . . School District Organization Personnel Personnel Needs Present and Estimated Supply, Demand, and Gap Personnel Qualification Objectives Improving Qualifications of Present Personnel Certification Plan Salaries for Personnel and Projected Costs Financial Support Plan Justification for Proposals Implementation of the Financial Plan Instructional Program Justification fer Plans Comprehensive Program A Supplement to the Plan: A.Modern Educational V COMMENTARY AND IMPLICATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O 0 p O O O O I O O O 0 O O APPENDICES . Technology 113 117 10 12 ll h-13 1h 15 l6 17 18 19 20 LIST OF TABLES TOTAL ELEMENTARY PUPILS AND THE NUMBER ENROLLED IN COMBINATION CLASSES: 1965-66 (In Percent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . PERSONNEL EMPLOYED AND PUPILS ENROLLED IN THE ELEMENTARY PROGRAM BY TYPE OF DISTRICT: 1965-66. 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o c o 0 COURSE OFFERINGS BY TYPE OF TWELVE GRADE DISTRICTS. . . . . . . . PERSONNEL EMPLOYED AND PUPILS ENROLLED IN THE SECONDARY PROGRAM, BY TYPE OF DISTRICT: 1965-66. 0 o o o o a o o o o o o o o o o o PREPARATION OF ELEMENTARY TEACHERS, BY TYPE OF DISTRICT: 1965-66 (In Percent ) o o o o o o o o o o o o o o a o o o o o o o DEGREES EARNED BY SECONDARY TEACHERS: 1965-66 (In Percent) . . . AVERAGE SALARIES EARNED BY ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY TEACHERS: 1965-66 (In DOllBJ‘S ) o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o , o o o o o o 0 NUMBER AND TYPES OF SCHOOL DISTRICTS AND PUPILS: 1965-66. . . . . 1965-66 PER PUPIL PAYMENTS BY THE STATE OF NORTH DAKOTA . . . . . ELEMENTARY LEVEL PUPIL-TEACHER LOADS: 1965-66 . . . . . . . . . . SOURCE OF FUNDS FOR PUBLIC SCHOOLS: 1965-66 (In Percent). . . . . PER PUPIL EXPENDITURES FOR TEACHERS SALARIES: l96h-65 . . . . . . ENROLLMENTS BY TYPE OF DISTRICT IN PROPOSED PLAN: 1980. . . . . . NORTH DAKOTA PUBLIC SCHOOL ENROLLMENT PROJECTIONS: 1965-80. . . . ESTIMATED ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY PERSONNEL FOR FUTURE STATUS: 19800000000coo-00000000000000...- PROPOSEDPERSONNELDEPIDYMENT.................. ESTIMATED ELEMENTARY DEGREE HOLDERS: 1966-70 (In Percent) . . . . ESTIMATED MASTERS DEGREE HOLDERS: 1966-80 . . . . . . . . . . . . ESTIMATED COSTS OF PROFESSIONAL SALARIES: 1966-80 . . . . . . . . ETIMATED GENERAL FUND WWITURES: 1966-80. a o o c o o o o o o Page l8 19 21 22 25 27 33 36 ho 1:3 1.6 m. 85 87 88 89 9O 91 96 98 List of Tables (Continued) h-21 22 23 Page PRESENT AND ESTIMATED GENERAL FUND EXPENDITURE BY CATEGORY: 1965-1980 (In Percent). 98 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 PROPOSED SOURCES OF TOTAL SUPPORT: 1966-1980 (In.dollars/pupil) . 100 APPROXIMATE TAXABLE VALUATIONS OF PROPOSED INTERMEDIATE AND CITY SCHOOL DISTRICTS: 1980 (In 1965-66 Dollars) , , , , , , , , , , 100 avi- II II LIST OF FIGURES Page LONG RANGE PLAN OF EDUCATION: 1966-800 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o 8 ESTIMATED CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION BY SOURCE, BY DISTRICT: 1980 ( In Del-181.8 Per Pupil) O O C C O O O C O O C O O O O I O O 102 GRAPHS ESTIMATED RETENTION OF 20,000 PUBLIC SCHOOL PUPILS WHO ENROLLED INFIRSTCRADEINNORTHDAKOTAINI95I: . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 MAPS PLAN OF INTERMEDIATE AND CITY SCHOOL DISTRICTS OF NORTH DAKOTA . 83 PLAN OF EDUCATION REGIONS AND REGIONAL EDUCATION CENTERS OF NORTH DMOTA O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O O l 0 9 -vii- Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix Appendix LIST OF APPENDICES Page SEX OF ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY TEACHERS (In Percent) . 118 AGE OF ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY TEACHERS: 1965-66 (In Percent) O I O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O 119 PROFESSIONAL CERTIFICATES HELD BY TEACHERS: 1965-66 (In Percent). O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 120 SEMESTER HOURS EARNED IN THE LAST FIVE YEARS BY BONDEGREE ELEMENTARY TEACHERS WITH FIVE OR MORE YEARS OF PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: 1965-66 (In Percent) . . 121 TEACHER TURNOVER 196h-65 TO 1965-66 . . . . . . . . . . 122 SCHOOL DISTRICT TAXABLE VALUATIONS: 1965-66. . . . . . 123 GENERAL FUNDS EXPENDED BY TYPE OF DISTRICT. . . . . . . 12h PROJECTED SUPPLY, DEMAND, AND GAP OF NORTH DAKOTA SCHOOL PERSONNEL, 1965-800 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 125 PRESENT GENERAL FUND EXPENDITURES BY CATEGORY . . . . . 126 ENROLLMENTS OF PROPOSED INTERMEDIATE AND CITY SCHOOL DISTRICTS: 1980. . O 0 O O O I O C O O O O O O O O O 127 ‘ -viii- CHAPTER I A STRATEGY FOR IMPROVING EDUCATION IN NORTH DAKOTA North Dakota is the nation's 17th largest State in area, and hSth in population.1 Founded in 1889, it derived its principal population from Nor- ‘way. Russia and Germany. Almost one-third of the population was derived from Norway.2 The discovery of gold in Montana in the 1860's and the entry of the railroad in the 1870's increased the population in North Dakota tremendously. The population grew from 190,000 in 1890 to a peak level of 680,800 in 1930. deay, North Dakota is a leading producer of barley, wheat, potatoes and oats. Its population once wholly rural is now clustered in approximately 600 urban or rural village centers. Culturally the State still reflects-among its older residents-the flavor of its Northern European origins. However, the State is losing much of its old world culture. Population has declined. In the 1930's there began a withdrawal from drought-stricken rural areas, which reduced the population by 10 percent by 1950.3 The population has also been A urbanizing. The urban population increased by 35.1 percent in the 1950's. Employment opportunities are limited, as agriculture becomes increasingly 1The Council of State Governments, The Book of the States, 1966-1967, (Chicago: Council of State Government, 1966). 2Conrad“. Leifur, "North Dakota," Encyclopedia Americana, VOlume 20, (New York: Americana Corporation, 1965). 3Ibid. “rum. -1- -2- mechanized, and new industry development lags. As of 1957, two-fifths of the labor force was employed in agriculture.5 North Dakotans, however, are seeking to reverse these trends. New power and recreational areas have been developed and.more are planned for the future.6 They see their future, however, to be principally realized through education. The State has established seven public colleges and universities in the past 80 years. It has extended some limited kind of educational oppor- tunity to every child in the State. To do so, it commits 31 percent of its total governmental expenditure solely for education.7 It has not yet succeeded in finding ways, however, to develop its educational institutions to desired levels principally because of limited resources and sparse population. The central purpose of this thesis is to formulate a plan whereby--given the limi- tations of resources-the school system of North Dakota might still attain needed new levels of effectiveness and efficiency. The Thesis and Its Development The aim of the public education system of the State of North Dakota is to offer an appropriate and equal educational opportunity to all educable children regardless of place of residence, physical or mental ability.8 The thesis advanced in this dissertation is six-fbld, as follows: 51nd. 6Economic Development Commission, North Dakota Economic Conference, Fargo, l96h, (Bismark, North Dakota: Economic Development Commissionj. 7 Council of State Governments, 92, cit. 8State Department of Education, Administrative Manual for North Dakota Public Schools, (Bismark, North Dakota: State of North Dakota). -3- 1) Despite major efforts by State and local units of government, children and youth in North Dakota Public Schools still do not enjoy an appropriate or equal educational opportunity. 2) The condition is caused in largest part by the interaction of several basic factors, namely: a) A.system of school organization that tends to dissipate the b) c) d) e) State's limited financial and human resources. Reliance upon underprepared teachers and education service personnel that tends to perpetuate antiquated methods of in- struction and to mitigate against needed instructional innovation. Restricted curricular offerings, particularly at the secondary level, that tend to make the content of education increasingly irrelevant to large numbers of the State's children and youth. Limited coordination and focus of effort on basic development problems among the State's principal education agencies and institutions. Lack of an appropriate statewide research and planning capacity to introduce a needed rational and technical component into the decisions that affect educational development. 3) These conditions are in greatest part correctable; modest additional funds will be required to initiate needed reforms. h) More importantly, the State can markedly strengthen the effective- ness and efficiency of its education system, principally through improved utilization of present fiscal and human resources. -h- 5) To do so, the State must formulate an appropriate comprehensive plan for educational development, and commit itself seriously to its imple- mentation during the next decade. 6) Such a plan can be constructed in the light of present knowledge; elements of a plan are presented as an elaboration of this thesis. The present pattern of utilization of financial and human resources-- more so that the limited quantity of resources-is deemed here to be the cause of inequitable and inappropriate educational opportunity in the State. The conclusion that the present utilization of resources is the major source of education problems is drawn from an examination of the descriptive data about North Dakota education today as reported in Chapter II. A marked.im- provement in the educational opportunity offered youth would require major modifications in the utilization of financial and human resources. The pre- sent conditions could be improved by: l) Appropriately reducing the number of needlessly small schools and school districts, and consequently the need for increasing numbers of teachers. 2) Dramatically alter the pattern of public expenditures for education, while adding modest increments to the total expenditure annually fOr education. 3) Develop a new pre-service and in-service training program.to fully qualify all of the State's teachers and education service personnel. A) Place and retain these personnel.where they are most needed. 5) Through these personnel, systematically introduce a program.of indi- vidualized instruction into each of the State's classrooms. -5- 6) Broaden the scope and diversity of curricular offerings to enable each child to form an appropriate program.of instruction. 7) Enrich on-going programs and extend specialized services through systematic application of modern technology to education communica- tion problems. 8) Increase the effectiveness of State education services through a system of intermediate district service centers. 9) Seriously involve the State's institutions of higher education in a systematic program of research and personnel deveIOpment. Method Employed in Developing the Thesis The six elements of the thesis advanced here were developed through systematic study and evaluation of the 1965-66 North Dakota public school system. Studies of the system were conducted in several areas. Those employed in the development of the thesis and cited in this dissertation covered some of the major aspects of the system, namely; personnel, finances, school district organization, and the instructional program. Conclusions drawn from these studies provided the framework for the development of the thesis cited above. This dissertation, in other words, begins with the develOp- ment of a thesis drawn from the conclusions of research reports. Some of the data from these studies are cited in Chapter II. The research conducted to investigate aspects of the North Dakota educa- tion system.was guided.by major questions developed around the central aims of the system. The stated aim of the system is to provide an appropriate and equal educational Opportunity for all children and yough regardless of place of residence, wealth, mental or physical ability. Some of the broad questions in the maJor areas of investigation were: -6- 1) Is the school district organization in total or in part a barrier to the realization of an appropriate educational Opportunity? 2) Is the collection, distribution, and the utilization of fiscal resources for education equitable, effective, and efficient? 3) Do all students have equal Opportunity to secure the educational experiences appropriate to their interests, abilities, and needs? A) Are the human resources of the education system adequate in numbers and levels of preparation? Are they effectively deployed? Are there areas of concentration of the least prepared which promote unequal educational opportunities? The method employed was essentially clinical.9 Three maaor steps were involved. These were: observation, diagnosis, and prescription. These steps are described as follows: Observation. The present conditions of the North Dakota Public School system.were described in comprehensive data developed by the North Dakota Statewide Study of Education, of which the author was a principal investigator. The State of North Dakota began the study in l965 fer the purpose of providing a detailed description of the educational opportunity in the State. The study covered all manor aspects of the educational system including: school district organization and programs, personnel, finance, school enrollments, and school plant needs. Symptoms of ineffective or inefficient organization, use of resources, or deployment of personnel were given particular attention. 9E. Kirby Warren, Long Range_Planning: The Executive Viewpoint, (Englewood, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966). -7- Digggosis. Symptoms identified in the observation phase of the examinap tion were diagnosed to ascertain their underlying causes. Corrective measures were formulated to I) treat causes where possible, and 2) to reduce symptoms when underlying causes could not appropriately be treated directly. Prescription. Based upon the application of externally developed cri- teria and standards,a prescription was constructed in the form of a feasible plan of educational improvement for North Dakota. The plan is intended to comply with present and foreseeable resources of the State. The plan was directed toward appropriate and achievable new Objectives which, if pursued successfully, should better enable the State to achieve the principal aims of its education system. Sources of Data for the Observations The data fer the observation phase of the examination were collected by the author in his capacity as a researcher with the North Dakota Statewide Study of Education.‘ This opportunity came about through a doctoral internship program.in higher education at Michigan State University. The Statewide Study of Education was undertaken as a Joint effort of three of North Dakotafs most influential agencies: The North Dakota Legislative Research Committee, the State Deparhment of Public Instruction, and the College of Education of the University of North Dakota. The study was supported by funds from the State Legislature and the United States Office of Education, the latter under pro- visions of Title V of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965. The purpose of the study was to describe and evaluate the educational programs and practices in the State, and indirectly to strengthen the North Dakota State Department of Public Instruction. The primary sources of data for the -8- study were school district records and reports submitted annually to the Department of Public Instruction. These materials were supplemented in key areas by selected surveys conducted by the research staff of the study. Development Period of the Plan of Education A.period of approximately 1h years from 1966-80 is identified as the development period of the proposed Plan of Education for improvement of con- ditions in North Dakota education. 10 The Plan is presented in the form.of progressive steps to be taken by the State to advance each aspect of the educa- tional program.from the present to a desired future status. The Objectives of the Plan are described in terms of the elements of each major aspect of the program. The elements included in the Plan were: personnel, school district organization, financial support, control and administration, instructional program, special services, and.modern educational technology. A diagram to illustrate the plan of action is provided below: LONG RANGE PLAN OF EDUCATION: Future Status -Sc I‘diStricts FIGURE I Proposed Planaz””/” ’ lz” inances Personnel Instructional Program ’ 1966—80 / / School Dist ' té’rr Finances”’;lc .Pefgonnel Instructional Program F {— L- 1 _______ ‘_V ‘101966 is included as the base year because data for the 1966-67 school year were not available to the researchers at the time of this study. Definition of Terms The clinical method employed in the examination of the thesis necessarily involved the use of certain evaluative terms. As a participant in the research, the author consciously endeavored to separate the acts of Observation from those of evaluation or diagnosis. The act of evaluation was deemed to be an essential step leading to the plan of action or prescription, hence was not avoided. In evaluating conditions observable in the North Dakota school sys- tem, the bases for evaluating were made explicit. Wherever possible, the evaluative criteria that were imposed upon the system were grounded in appro- priate theory, research, or logical argument. Authority was used when no other bases were available. Six concepts were used consistently throughout the analysis. These were: 1) Education 2) Educational system 3) Effectiveness h) Efficiency 5) Appropriateness 6) Equality The thesis itself is directed to definition and improvement of the educap tional system in North Dakota, as opposed to the improvement of education, per se. Education, in the thesis, is deemed to be the process whereby the State's children and youth come to be inculcated into the culture that prevails in -10- the State.11 Two dimensions of the concept are evident. These are: the content of substance of the culture to be inculcated; and the interaction process involving the potential learner, his peers and adults who represent the cultural mode to be emulated. The educational system, by contrast, is the social organization or vehicle established by the State as a principal means to accomplish the desired education.12 The curriculum of the educational system corresponds to the content or substance of culture to be transmitted.13 The teacher- pupil interaction--through classes and other devices—-represents the princi- pal process employed by the system. It should not be construed, however, that the school system is the sole-or even the best-~vehicle for education. Other social organizations, both formal and informal, play significant roles in the education of children and.youth.1h The major point to be made, however, is this: an elaborate educational system has been established in North Dakota for the expressed purpose of educating children and youth. It is intended that the system will function in ways that its curriculum and instructional process will in fact educate boys and girls. If this occurs, the program provided by the system may be deemed to be relevant or appropriate. llLouis Fischer and Donald R. Thomas, Social Foundations of Educational Decisions, (Belmont, California: 'Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1965). 12Ibid. l3Ib1d. 1h Ibid. -11- To accomplish its task well, the system.itself should be healthy and viable. The attention of this thesis is directed principally to the vitality and general state of health of the educational system, and only indirectly to the appropriateness of education itself in North Dakota. This clearly delimits the scope of diagnosis and prescription involved in the examination of the thesis. Moreover, it requires the introduction of evaluative concepts that are appropriate to systems analysis, rather than to analysis of educa- tional content and process. The evaluative concepts employed in diagnosis were: effectiveness, efficiency, and equality. These concepts are described as follows: Effective School System. A system of schools that achieve the Objectives set fOr it by its policy body. Efficient School System, A.system of schools that optimumly deploy its fiscal, material, and human resources in achieving its objectives. A.major aspect of efficiency is necessarily economic resources in the school system as a basic criterion measure. Equality. A condition in which resources are employed in ways that place no unwarranted burden upon either the supplies or recipient of those resources. With respect to equality of educational opportunity, an equitable school system allocates its resources consistently with the needs, interests, and capacities of its pupils, precisely in relation to their individual differ- ences.15 For example: all fourth grade children do not receive the same ‘lsMyron Lieberman, "Equality of Educational Opportunity," Harvard Educational Review, (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1959) -12- textbook. This would deny them.equal educational opportunity because the range of reading capacities in any given fourth grade may be as much as four to six.years. With respect to equality of tax support, an equitable financial support system depends upon a broad distribution of the tax burden, rather than a disprOportionate assignment of tax responsibility to a single class of citi- zens, as fOr example, property owners. Overview of the Dissertation In Chapter I, a thesis was advanced that the North Dakota school system is essentially ineffective, inefficient, and inequitable. Moreover, it was suggested that certain elements of education in the State may be irrelevant or inappropriate for substantial numbers of children and youth. In brief, the educational system is not as viable or healthy as conditions in the State 'would warrant. Indeed, were the State to continue in its present course of action, it will either have to exhaust its resources to support its education system, or so dilute the quality of work in the system as to make its very continuance suspect. A second thesis was advanced that the present state of health of the educational system is correctable. Indeed, specific corrective :measures are identifiable. Finally, a thesis was advanced that the correc- tive measures could be assimilated into a potentially effective plan of action that-if seriously implementedp-could alleviate the basic ills of the educational system and give it the necessary viability to cOpe with the funda- :mental prOblems of education in the State. In subsequent chapters of this dissertation, these principal theses are examined against clinical evidence and elaborated in detail. In Chapter II, -13- the status of the educational system in North Dakota is described. The basic conditions of the systemr-outlined in Chapter I--are diagnosed and the basis for ascertaining corrective measures are developed. In Chapter III, criteria are applied to the data in ways designed to illustrate a.more desirable future educational status toward which North Dakotans might reasonably direct their energies and resources. A plan of corrective measures is described in Chapter IV that may serve as a basic guide for improving the viability, effec- tiveness, and efficiency of the school system. Finally, in Chapter V, the author comments further upon the feasibility and appropriateness of the pro- posed plan of action, and suggest ways in which the clinical method employed in this study may be profitably be used elsewhere. CHAPTER II PUBLIC EDUCATION IN NORTH DAKOTA: 1965-66 The State of North Dakota operates a public school system that serves approximately lh7,500 elementary and secondary pupils. School programs are administered through 527 local school districts which annually expend approximately $67,500,000 to operate the system. An additional 7h districts retain their legal identity but do not operate schools. Children in these districts are transported to Operating districts for all of their future schooling. The expressed aim of the State system is to provide an equal- and approPriate educational opportunity for each educable child: moreover, the schools are to be equally free, open, and accessible at all times to all children of legal age.1 North Dakota has succeeded in providing for access of children to school. Approximately 95 percent of six to seven year old children enter the first grade. Retention of children in school, however, remains a.major problem. or children enrolled in first grade in l95h, only 76 percent come pleted six grades; 70 percent completed 8 grades, and only A9 percent com- pleted twelve grades. These figures are graphically reproduced in Graph 1. The State Legislature, the State Department of Public Instruction, and local school district boards are organized to act as partners to provide and maintain an educational program.for the State of North Dakota. The 1 North Dakota State Department of Public Instruction, Administrative jManual for North Dakota Public Schools, gp, cit. -1h- -15- GRAPH l ESTIMATED RETENTION OF 20,000 PUBLIC SCHOOL PUPILS WHO ENROLLED IN FIRST GRADE IN NORTH DAKOTA IN 195h* Enroll- Per- GRADE Zeal; M— sea 12 A % 1965 11,562 A9 11 -{ 196k 12,188 55 10 -§ 1963 12,962 61 9 -§ 1962 13,h98 67 8 -1, i 1961 13.915 70 7 :A 1960 1u,3u1 73 6 { 1959 1h,782 76 s 1% 1958 15,238 79 Ah { 1957 15.870 83 3 i 1956 16,530 87 2 1 1955 17,h00 92 1 :{ 195% 20,000 100 7 : o 50% 100% Percent *Calculations are based on survival percentages of pupils from the 1965 to 1966 school years. Figures represent enrollment data as reported in the North Dakota Education Directogz for l965-66 and 1966-67 by the State Department of Public Instruction. -16- State Legislature empowers the Department of Public Instruction and the local school boards to interpret and manage the educational program within the broad framework established in State statutes. The administrative policies and action of these groups largely determine the adequacy and equality of educational opportunity for each child of the State. These decisions influence the apprOpriateness of the opportunity with respect to the instructional program, personnel, the structure of the school districts, financial support, the use and extent of instructional aids, and the kind and degree of Specialized services made available to each child. This chapter is devoted to l) a description of the educational oppor- tunity now available in North Dakota, and 2) a diagnosis of certain pro- blems of the education system.to determine probable causes and corrective measures. The description and diagnosis will be covered under each of the three major variables employed in this dissertation, namely: effectiveness, efficiency, and equality. Instructional Program An individualized program, the expressed aim of the North Dakota system, requires that experiences be adjusted to individual differences of pupils. A large portion of both elementary and secondary pupils of the State are not now assured of an approPriate instructional program. Limited programs and instructional aids, and extremely limited supporting educational services contribute to an inequitable program. Adjustments in the system can be made to improve the instructional program. -17- Standards for instructional programs in North Dakota schools are set by State law, interpreted into broad guidelines and supervised by the State Department of Public Instruction, and implemented through discretionary authority by the local school district. Within this framework, North Dakota classroom teachers employ their skills, knowledge, and judgement in bring- ing educational experiences to the pupils. The State has established in law that certain subjects shall be taught in all schools. The subjects so prescribed are: spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic, language, English grammar, geography, U.S. history, civil government, nature study, and elements of agriculture, physiology and hygiene.2 In addition, the schools also must provide physical education, moral instruction, teaching humane treatment of animals, conservation of natural resources and instruction on U.S. and State constitutions.3 The development and promulgation of courses of study, or curriculum guides, as interpretations of these standards, is the responsibility of the Superintendent of Public Instruction.h Elsnenfim. ,,Pr°6ram One purpose for organizing schools into levels of instruction, such as grades, is to reduce the range of individual differences. A single level 2North Dakota, North Dakota Century Code, Section 15-38-07. 3171101. thid 0 ’ 15-21-09 -13- of instruction provides the teacher with a.more manageable situation with- in which adjustments of instruction to individual differences can be more easily accomplished. Traditionally, the levels of instruction are made on an age-grade level basis. Later it will be demonstrated that the graded system.itself may hamper rather than help the process of individualizing instruction. Combination classrooms present a greater range of ages and individual differences and consequently make the adjustment of conventional instruc- tion to individuals difficult. In some schools all first eight grades meet in one room and are taught by one teacher. The instructional load and the range of individual differences under such conditions can become unreason- able. For example, a teacher may have at least one pupil enrolled at each of the eight grade levels. She is expected to prepare at least fOur lessons per day at each level, an unreasonable task. At present h0.7 percent of the elementary pupils of the State are taught in combination classes. The number and percent of elementary pupils enrolled in combination classes in North Dakota are reported in Table 2.1. TABLE 2.l-TOTAL ELEMENTARY PUPILS AND THE NUMBER ENROLLED IN COMBINATION CLASSES: l965-66 (In percent) Total Pppils in Combination Classes Elementary Type of District Number Percent Pupils l2—Grade Districts 35,698 36.8 96.772 Grade Elementary Districts h,558 82.3 5,539 One Room Rural Districts 2,392 100 2,392 TOTAL ‘ h3,639 no.7 10h,703 Source: State Department of Public Instruction Personnel Card 2. -19- The combination classes in the elementary districts is a carry-over of the original one-teacher schools. The most direct corrective measure of combination classes is to organize schools into larger units. Sufficiently large enrollments would permit the division of instruction into levels or grades. Instruction could then be more readily adjusted to individual dif- ferences. This plan will not eliminate individual differences, but it will reduce the range of differences each teacher confronts. Services. An individualized instruction program.oalls for an appro- priate effort Of related services. Elementary instruction in North Dakota has practically no support from.related educational service and administra- tive personnel, 312;) principals, supervisors, librarians, counselors, and others. The Statewide Study of Education reported that only 81 persons were employed as administrators and eight as service personnel to devote 50 per- cent or more of their time to services or administration. These data are summarized in Table 2.2. TABLE 2.2--PERSONNEL EMPLOYED AND PUPILS ENROLLED IN THE ELEMENTARY PROGRAM, BY TYPE OF DISTRICT: l965-66 Number of Adminis- Service Pupils Type of District Districts Teachers tration Personnel Enrolled 12 Grade: Large 13 1,569 6h 3 h0,252 Medium 61 1,089 31 1 26,675 Small 20h 19355 O O 29,8h5 Graded Elementary 81 311 1h A 5,539 One Room Rural 168 218 0 0 2,392 TOTAL 527 h,5h2 81 8 10h,703 Source: State Department of Public Instruction, Personnel Cards 1 and 2. 12 Grade district sizes: Large Enrollment of MOO or more secondary pupils Medium = Enrollment of 150-399 secondary pupils Small = Enrollment of 1A9 or less secondary pupils -20... Secondary Program. The State has established certain standards by which secondary programs must operate. These standards have been interpreted by the State Depart- ment of Instruction under the supervision of the State Superintendent. The subjects to be taught at the secondary level are the same as at the elemen- tary.5 Four units of high school work is considered to be the minimum number of courses that may be offered in any one year from the ninth grade to twelfth grade, inclusive.6 To be graduated from a secondary program in the State, the student shall have completed a minimum of 17 units of high school work which shall include 11 units of broad general education. The general education minimums are: A units of language arts (English), 3 units of social studies, 1 unit of mathematics, 2 units of science (laborap tory), 1 unit of physical education.7 Students must elect a.minimum of six additional units of work presumably in line with their interests and abili- ties to meet the total requirement of 17 units.8 However, the small schools are unable to offer extensive electives, hence most students receive essen- tially the same course of instruction. (See Table 2.3.) Secondary education should be individualized to meet the aims of the State. According to Conant, at the secondary level this means a compre— 9 hensive instructional program” A comprehensive program, writes Conant, is 5 North Dakota Century Code, 92, cit., 15—h1-06 6State Department of Public Instruction, Administrative Manual for North Dakota Schools, pp, cit., p. A8 7Ibid. 8:911- 9James B. Conant, The American High School Today, (New York: McGraw— Hill Book Co., 1959). -21- TABLE 2.3-COURSE OFFERINGS BY TYPE OF TWELVE GRADE DISTRICTS Type of Twelve Average Number” Grade School Percent of Total of Course District Enrollment Enrollment Offerings Large 15,360 35.9 57 Medium 13,331 31.2 35 Small lA,781 32.9 23 TOTAL A2,781 100 *Only includes number of different offerings. Source: Irvin Garbe, "Course Offerings of North Dakota Secondary Schools," Statewide Study of Education. one in which courses are offered that: 1. Provide a general education for all secondary pupils. 2. Meet the needs of those students who plan to enter the labor market immediately upon graduation. 3. Meet the needs of those students who plan to enter college upon graduation. A. Meet special interests of the students. Courses in music and art are examples in this category. It was found by the Statewide Study that a comprehensive program, according to Conant's standard, existed in only 13 high schools. These few large schools serve 35.9 percent of the secondary pupils. This means that according to this standard, 6A.l percent of high school youth were attend- ing inequitable and inappropriate programs. The number of high school offerings by type of district are listed in Table 2.3. Limited.number of secondary personnel in the small high schools is the cause of limited offerings. The State Department of Public Instruction -22... reports several high school programs that are staffed by as few as three or four classroomteachers.lo Conant's standard would call for no less than 18. The most expedient and potentiall effective solution would be to reorganize the smaller schools. Services. There are more administration special service personnel at the secondary level. Although the picture is brighter at the secondary level, the utilization of personnel is still far.from the best possible arrangement. The large number of small high school districts require many more such personnel than available. The data gathered about the number and classification of service personnel at the secondary level is reported in Table 2.A. TABLE 2.A-PERSONNEL EMPLOYED AND PUPILS ENROLLED IN THE SECONDARY PROGRAM, BY TYPE OF DISTRICT: 1965-66 Type of Twelve Number of Adminis— Service Pupils GradeIDistrict Districts Teachers tration Personnel Enrolled Large 13 713 158 116 15,360 Medium 61 7A3 109 5A 13,331 Small 20A 1,009 20A 1 1A,090 TOTAL 278 2,h65 A71 171 A2,781 Source: State Department of Public Instruction, Personnel Cards 1 and 2.. It should be noted that the category "Administrator" in Table 2.A includes 278 school district superintendents and 192 secondary school principals. l°North Dakota State Department of Public Instruction, North Dakota Educational Directory, 1965-66,, (Bismark, North Dakota: State of North Dakota, 1965) p- A9- -23- The present number of related service personnel could be increased by 755 if the schools were to reorganize on the same per pupil ratio as the national average, i.e., 25.0 pupils per teacher.11 Personnel One objective of the North Dakota education system is to provide a fully qualified teacher in each classroom of the State. A large prOportion of the classrooms of the State are now occupied by underprepared, under- supervised, and underpaid teachers. This is the most difficult problem to correct in the entire system. General Characteristics of Personnel. Economic and social factors more so than public policy determine the composition of public school personnel in terms of age and sex. There are some exceptions in those fields where a teaching position obviously is more suited to one sex than the other, such as in home economics or vocational agriculture. S35, It is reported by the Research Division of the National Education Association that the percentage of male teachers has been steadily rising since WOrld War 11.12 The report shows that 31.6 percent of the elementary and secondary public school teachers are male. North Dakota ranks 11th llCalculation: PrOposed pupil-teacher ratio = 1-25.0 Total pupils = A2,781 Classroom teachers needed = A2781 = l7lO.A 250 Present staff (2,A65)-- proposed (1,710) = 122 12National Education Association, Rankings of the States, 1966, _p_. cit., p. 22. -2h- among the 50 states in percentage of male teachers. The percentage of male teachers in the State is 3A.0. These data are reported in Appendix Table A. Age, The mean age of elementary teachers is Al.9 years, and the mean age of secondary teachers is 3A.5 years. These data are reproduced in Appendix Table B. It appears from the data that as the size of the enroll- ment in the school district increases, the average age of elementary teas chers tends to decrease. The reverse is true at the secondary level. This condition may be explained in part by the fact that better prepared people at all levels tend to gravitate to the larger 12 grade districts where salaries and working conditions tend to be favorable. They also tend to stay in the larger districts. Hence, the average age of elementary and secondary teachers is approximately the same in large districts. Secondary teachers tend to be younger, as a group, because of the substantial turnover among qualified personnel, particularly in smaller districts. Elementary teachers generally under-prepared, tend to gravitate to smaller districts where they may be employed, albeit at lesser salaries. Turnover among these teachers is less, since the better districts are not in the market for underprepared teachers. Hence, elementary teachers as a group tend to be older than secondary, and the average age of underprepared elementary teachers older still. The small districts, principal employers of underprepared teachers, find, therefore, to have older teaching staffs. Professional Preparation. The State of North Dakota has established in the law that beginning September, 1969, every individual considered qualified to teach in the State -25- will have to have earned at least a bachelors degree.13 The term.qualified used hereafter in this paper shall refer to this level of preparation. Elementary Personnel. In North Dakota, 59.2 percent of the elementary teachers have less than four years of college preparation and hence, are un- qualified according to the new standard. This group instructs 61,95A ele- mentary pupils. These data are outlined in Table 2.5. The average prepara- tion of the nondegree elementary teacher is 2 2/3 years of college academic work. TABLE 2.5-PREPARATION 0F ELEMENTARY TEACHERS, BY TYPE OF DISTRICT: 1965-66 (In Percent) Less Than Masters or Pupils Type of District Bachelors Bachelors Beyond Enrolled 12 Grade Districts Large 2A.O '67.3 8.7 A0,252 Medium 68.7 30.7 .6 26,675 Small 80.7 18.9 .1: 29,816 Elementary Districts 90.1 lO.A .5 7,931 TOTAL , 59.2 37.5 3.3 10A,703 Source: State Department of Public Instruction Personnel Cards 1 and 2. The major cause for the low level.of preparation is the historically low certification standards of the State. Up to the present teachers could qualify for a certificate if they had at least 2 years of college preparation. Improve- ment of preparation level of personnel is a difficult problem and it is unlikely 13North Dakota, North Dakota Century Code, Section 15-36-0A. -26- that any single administrative act would correct the situation. A combina- tion of several feasible measures might provide a solution. They are: l) Inservice education programs. 2) Upgrading pre-service programs. 3) Increase the production of teachers. Increases in the production of qualified teachers will occur in the near future as the college population expands. Although output from teacher production may in- crease, the percentage of college graduates who enter the North Dakota system is declining, according to the Statewide Study of Education.1h The Study reports that only A0 percent of the teachers produced by State institutions actually enter teaching in the State.15 Therefore, increased production may not increase the number of per- sonnel for the system. Secondary_Personnel. The level of preparation of secondary teachers in North Dakota schools is high when compared to other states. All secondary teachers have at least earned a bachelors degree. These data are reported in Table 2.6. The secondary program, however, lacks teachers with masters degrees. North Dakota.has 12.A percent of its teachers hold masters degrees compared to 2A.0 percent for the nation.16 Moreover, the State is gradually losing h l Statewide Study of Education, Educational Personnel in the North Dakota Public Schools, (Grand Forks, North Dakota: University of North Dakota, 1967), p. 26:» 15Ibid. 16National Education Association, Selected Statistics of Local School Systems,_l96A-65, (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, September, 1966), p. 21. -27- mes.m m ems.m annoy phonon oz nocssz .H coco Hooaomnom cowpomApmaH afiacsm mo voospasmom modem "condom o : :om m:H.N .uooamz o. m. :.NH :.>w Aaosa Mo omha m m m m o m a Announce cal mounted "mmmaoema amuomnm Alon: I mnoaomosoo HIooa I muOmfi>homOm Hlom: I mmmwhmubwq HIoom I muoaomsdoo . ooanoaan\m I monoonopsanoasm HIoom I seasonanaa Mm HIom: I saaaaonsna HIoom I masaaosana . 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