A STUDY OF THE EFFICIENCY
AND EFFECTIVENESS OF
FOUR DIFFERENT MODES OF
INSTRUCTION IN PROVIDING

LEARNING EXPERIENCES FOR'

' HIGH SCHOOL DRIVER
r EDUCATION STUDENTS

Thesis for the Degree of Ed. D.

MICHIGAN “STATE UNIVERSITY '

- IEDWARD ROY MclNTOSH

1967 ’

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THESIS

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

A Study of the Efficiency and Effectiveness
of Four Different Modes of Instruction In
Providing Learning Experiences for High

School Driver Education Students

presented by

Edward R. McIntosh

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

__E£1-_D+degree in Education

Major profésor

Date June 5, 1967

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L IE R A R Y
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ITFIZIEHCY AND ETEECTIVZPSSB
or scua )Is=:7::T

s- as RBTTUCTIOI

IN PRCVIDINB LS RJIRS EXPZ? ENCES 7C7
DRIVE? :DUCNTIOK 3TUDEKT3

by Edward ?, Scintosh

The purpose of this study was to secure evidence upon
which to base the m st efficient and effective design, pro-
duction, and utilization of instructional materials. Although
the literature leaves little or no doubt that pepple learn
from films and other instructional materials, the problem con—
fronting the instructional materials producer and user today
is controlling learning so that the important concepts to be
learned are not inhibited by non—essential information. The
best use of instructional materials is accomplished by their
design and use as individual or controlled combinations of
materials called modes of instruction.

Little factual evidence exists Upon which to base the
most effective production of instructional materials. The
problem of selection and use becomes one of logistics and
strategy. Carefully stated learner-tasks in behavioral
terms become essential to the process of selecting the best

modes of instruction which permit the student to complete more

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little evidence to support specifi
ments and materials combinations.

High school driver-education

Li)

during the summer as the population for t

f‘
-a.

novice drivers who had volunteered

area of driver—education “a chosen

5’J )

bility of a proven new
I‘Jrivometer,” which was

used to collect and re

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education in

c environmental

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structional materials [ere use} befnr: the
paper-and—pencil test '3 then jiven to th

that they might b, jrotiei h??? eneously

kno Iedee OF derlfiJ, " are n by their r
test, their ‘2', “1? tfeir i"tructcr.

\ thre“eLV« ire: T c.0rizi “nely

as used =ith faur indEpendent renlirati»

by random means, 1nd subject? are tract:

ant instructional F‘ICFI‘l7. . c, crlled

time, there i

arrange—

0

IL)

0 A
II? T .“T‘ “I

l
r Hi “Ann
MOTH} g I.

 

s, ~=re re y d?\i:fi01 to teach drivini skill“,
*fereee the ather tio. called “ct-”07'“er+?ry ”rieria A, were
designed to teach fret-2y drivinu skills. Thu materials used
.ere very different in their content treatment.

After the treatront, each “uhyect Jrsve ow that ViFT

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V- -7- ° . 0 , - L. A -- ., A - - , .
of the ireeway Which nrJ been selected as the tee-

\
. The Drivemeter recorded

on the four attribute: sf driving skill which it measured:

(1) steering—wheel reversals, l“) specs caanges, (7) acce «
erstor—revarsals, and (h) brake applications

. f" a- \ J- . r- . r‘ ..,.- .-x ' ~l- _,_i v“ A .7 ‘A -~
THE F9531: Ch hJ’flOciifj l .i "’4 917‘! 9,! " "71 :0l '0 it i.

‘ I)

~tudent“ who hfv Peed exeesed to one mode
fl '\

ll rake diffs st mean scores

i t8 Who have
struction,
ioniricwnt results ”ere found at the .01 level for
steering- heal reversals, at the ,OA level for speed—changes,
and at the ,Oo1 level 70? eccelerator reversals. The
analysis, however, did not locate the specific cause ow tnece

significant differences. t further analysis ”a performed in

(J)

order to identify the individual instructional at rial which

93
(T)

was responsible for the significance found.

The analys's enemas that the documentary materiel:

 

were not nearly so effective in inducing student behavioral

changes as were the non—denuragterymaterials. In addition,

 

’—

showed that important dig

the analysi erences existed bet een

C)

the non—docurentery materielfi.

 

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or high school driver-education students, it was

found that instructional materials should present the concepts

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to be learned in a serious manner; snould not introduce any—
thing which inhibits or interferes with the attention to, and
comprehension of, these concepts by the students; and should

be concise and businesslit

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y pogslble, ltflodt L

A J. o A O ,_. ‘ g _: O O I fl '.- “ ,—~ 0 .' ' -'W\ A | O ‘
questioning, and never—.eiling nel; given oy My adviser——

C)

Jr. Horace C, LJartrell-~-the author's completion of th

I

ducationsl Eadie Specialist nrngrae at Pichigan Stat

0

University would have been much more cif.1cult. The author

can never adequately express his thanks to Dr. Hartsell.

. . O
In addition, the author exnress~~

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to the other members or nis doctrral committee

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Dr. John sarson, and Jr. D. ”. Clrstead,

Iithout the support of Dr. gharles -. Cchuller, who
helped the author secure a one~year flational Defense Education
Act Fellowship, the conpietion of this stucy would still be

many months away.

1)

rr. cob shinn, of the Highway Traffic fety Center

hly of his time

d.

'J)

at Wichigan State University, gave unself

and eXperience in making available his extensive knowledge of
the Drivometer and in helping select the section of the
freeway to be used. It was through his help that the
Drivometer itself was made available for this study.

Sincere thanks are extended to Ur. fletcher N. Platt,
of the Ford Votor Company, for providing the vehicle, for

ii

i sound~.ilastrips, and For other aid.

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making availabl-

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Disney Productions for providin a

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.IClil Iain, ”lib/3 71/3llr'cl‘3 at) .38 8.1;“0 i’ll’S e“ ell-nl‘ff: engi-
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nexrlrig sar.wnrotrd :1 e,.z. i;nce r1 to n l‘velr;,.enc <urk
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uaJ res-arcn on ,le JFl”OlC,BF.

P L. .C‘ L J.“ ”N ‘1; I .". A A 3!. c ' ’ J
tor the usc oi studen_) at u3nuon 'l,f )3.0cl as tme sthOC.a
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‘Ol- '..l.‘. Lulu] J J e'x- )1 ll’ :pl,cL .

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To Dr. Charles l. Tart

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college, «avioru, fiiwlnia, the au’ha. lo cabECially in-

professional leave as well as Fur other considerations.

StOcKLOfl ; d to Dr. U. Dean FFOLSL, nro’-‘ or: cf Erglish
at Radford college, for creckiay coir the manuscript and the
final coby c? t'°s th-;is.

Ctrers who naxr contributed Lo this research are

Dr. Leslic Silvernale, ?r. G. ’. Haidu, $r. Lloyd A. Trinklein,
and Er. Bruce Wogers or nichigan State University; Ur. Dale

In. 1

:ngn School, Laflélflua

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.ssunptions behind the production of in-
structional materials are that their use will cause change in
the behavior of students who use the materials and that the
change will be in a predet-rmined direction. Turther stated,
there are underlying principles with which to guide such
production. Unfortunately, little research exists upon which
to base most materials production; and what does exist is
often not utilized. Hoban reinforced these assumptions by
stating: “There is little evidence that film research find~

ings have reached and influenced the producers or users of

films for and in schools and colleges."1

However, there is
considerable supporting evidence that people do learn from
films. Uittich and Schuller, for instance, reported on an
early research study conducted by Yale University which

tested the question: “Jas the motion—picture film a serious

and worthwhile means of contributing to classroom learning

eXperiences?“ They quoted the study by Yale University as

 

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1Charles . Hoban, "The Usable Residue of Educational
Film Wesearch,“ New Teaching Aids for the American Classroom
( ashington: U. 3. Government Printing Office, 1962), p. 100.

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fol lows:
use of t
creased
from l9
percent

the sile

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GVldEnce

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follows: "The result of this research established that the
use of the 'Chronicles of America PhotOplays' series in-
creased pupils' knowledge of places, personages, and events
from l9 to 35 percent. More important, it stimulated 40
percent more free reading by pupils who had seen and studied
the silent film materials."2 Arnspiger also pointed out the
importance of films, for he believed that films

(1) provide stimuli for reflective thinking,

(2) provide for use of concepts mastered from

film in new and different settings, (3) provide

self measure of pupil's progress, (4) provide

Opportunity for creative and oral expression,

(5) enable teachers and students c00peratively

to build upon common eXperiences 0% film, and

(6) build confidence for teachers.
Additional studies up to the present time provide ample
evidence that films do induce learning. Hoban made this
fact clear:

People learn from films. . . . A tremendous amount of

research has been in the field of learning. As a

result the evidence that factual, attitudinal, Opin-

ional, and preceptual-motor learning occurs hen

peeple are exposed to films is overwhelming.
Hoban concluded: "It can safely be said that people learn
from films."5

What does it mean to say that peOple learn from

films? Facts may be remembered, associated, or recalled;

 

2Walter Arno Wittich and Charles Francis Schuller,
Audiovisual Materials: Their Nature and Use (4th ed. rev.;
New Yorks Harper and Row, I967), p. 40l.

When asked about his ideas concerning the unique
contribution of films, Dr. Clyde Arnspiger made these state-
ments to Dr. Horace C. Hartsell.

5?:b3n, op,cit., p. IOS.
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processes may be explained; or aesthetic interests may be
strengthened. To say that peeple learn from films tells
little about the learning experience itself. Hoban empha-
sized the importance of analyzing the learning task when
he identified the central problem of education as the con-
trol of learning:

It is in the nature of man to learn. The central

problem of education is not learning, but the

control of learning. Cnce we have satisfied

ourselves that peeple can and do learn from films,

the problem b comes that of (a) controlling what

n

is earned a (b) increasing the efficiency of
learning.0

e
V
O

Ideally, teachers should select instructional mate-
rials to present information for a specific purpose and
to present content so as to emphasize identified concep-
tual ideas. But few teachers are knowledgeable enough to
select such instructional materials, and they are often
not readily available since instructional materials’pro—
ducers usually find a wider market for their product if
it is general rather than specific in nature. Cften the
practice of presenting too much information on a given
occasion tends to cause the specific concept being studied
to become lost in a wealth of related information. Learn-
ing theory research has shown that this practice increases
the probability of forgetting due to retroactive or proactive
interference.7 Yet the fault is often our own because, as

derlo put it, we fail to realize that we are in the "peeple

 

 

ns OT Learning (New
), p. 10-30

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Short MIITS are one way in which emphasis can be
given to Specific concepts. Another way of treating content
is to identify re la ted concepts and to regard each as a
module in a much longer film. The problem then become) one
of deveIOping and using the prober combination of materials

for teaching, for learning, and for developing modes on 1nstruc—
tion which provide the be; and most efficient learning env1-
ronment.

Harteell and ”argoles pointed out an important aspect
of the DrObIGlZ ‘” T!E.e difficulty most frequently occurs due to
lack of a plan and because of ineffective communications
among the researcher, the administrator, the teacher, and
the educational specialists, i.e., media, learning, and
evaluation." In addition, they 0p r tionalized problems
involved in the selection of 1nstruct1onal materials by
educators 1n terms of key curriculum issues:

The key curricului issues appear to be: (a) need
for estaLlishing priority, (b) importance of
learning how to learn, (c) need to see the school
program as a totality, and (d) caution in pro-
motion of 'easy to adept' packaged programs. A
quantity of instructional materia s is no assur-
ance tlat the learner will reach his behavioral
goals.9
The problem of selection and use becomes one of logistics
and strategy. Carefully stated learner-tasks in behavioral
terms become essential to the process of se lectino the modes of

 

o
’Horac:: C. "artse|l

lines for the election of I

visual Ins truC‘t ion, XII (Jan

 

and fiichard A. Jargoles, "Guide-
nstruetional 'aterials,” auo 'io-
uary, 1957), 23- 23.

sh

 

 

instruction--modes ahich permit the student to more eFfi—
ciently complete the prescribed task. At this time, there
little evidence to support speci‘ic environmental arrange—
ments and media combinations.
Purpo“2 o” the study
The purjcs‘ of 'hia study is to gather ewoirical

evidence relevant to the relat1onswip between the use or
differe.t types oi instructional m sis and their eTTective-
ness in producing tke best possible conditions for learning.
Sagne has alluded :0 ‘his proble”:

Still enoi’sr i plicatior itat flerives tron a

o'eeiFicat1en T she conjltions of learning con—

cerns tire ctoice of rwajia For ir15truction.

The required conditions Far learning can be put

iato ettect in difFerent ways and tr differing

degrees by each mediuw. . . . There are, then,

sone positive characteristics an: some limita-

tion; 0? egcn in tructional ne'iUT that become

evident when they are examined in the light of

their learning Tun3tions. . . . n“ructiocal

'edia conwtitute the valuable 'resources tor

hearning' tflmyt an echhgational ,;ys:em has tr

draw on. then the~e restorces are put to use,

the\ are u'ually placed in some 1articular

arrangeMenl called a mode a? instruction. . . .

The var1sus rodes o‘ instruction are employed

For the purpose 0: getting the greatest in-

structional usefulness ’ron media and combina-

tions 0? media. Thus the choice 0‘ modes is

also a hatter of aiming ‘or optimal 1function—

ing 1n geherating the 'rOper conditions For

learning. U
Eagne realiZe" that "1t is these conditions that provide
the 1mmed1ate instruct1onal purposes on the basis on which

10“ o A“
aagne, os.c1t., pp. 99—49.

 

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iv

CCTV

 

 

 

 

correct decisions can be made about media and modes of
instruction."ll

In this study, an attempt was made to provide answers
to the problem of which mode of instruction or controlled
combinations of various modes of instruction produce the

i

oest possible conditions for learning.

Heed for the Study

The works of Hoban and Sagne seem to support the
position that instructional materials do stimulate and increase
learning. This concern for the quality of the learning experi—
ence and the implications of controlling the learning envi-
ronment was especially emphasized. There is a need to know
whether instructional materials and modes of instruction being
used provide the best possible learning eXperience or whether
some other combination of materials would produce a better and
more meaningful learning eXperience. Prior research concerned
with this problem consisted mainly of comparative studies
in which one type of material was tested against another type.

.1?
l

A film has been compared to a filmstrip in a Speci ic situa—

tion. kewer instructional media have been compared with

.L C‘

LypeS 01

older media or witn non-media instruction. For ex-

ample, Hoban stated:
Media research in education frequently deals with

comparative learning, i.e., with the problem of
whether the learning increment from the newer

 

 

media
great
vent‘

The

sut not al
ence prodd

conditions

a? media 3

T‘iO'Jld De 3
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media and methods is equal to, less than, or
greater than that fgom older and/or more con-
vent1onal methods.

The use of instructional media increases learning,
but not all types of media used in the same learning experi-
ence produce similar behavioral changes or provide equal
conditions for learning. It is possible that one combination
of media would provide a far better learning experience than
would be afforded by another combination. The problem of
films versus filmstrips is not the issue. The effectiveness
and efficiency of various types of media or modes of instruc-
tion necessary to reach learning goals is the real issue.
Emphasis must be placed upon the learning task and on produc-
ing the instructional materials which best help the learner
most effectively achieve desired objectives. Evidence based
upon empirical research should help provide these needed
answers; should be of value in the design, production, and

utilization of future instructional media; and should provide

a base for better use of existing media.

Scepe of the Study
The major limitation for examining media effectiveness
has been the lack of reliable instrumentation with which to
measure the efficiency and effectiveness of one mode of in-
struction when compared with another. Most studies have

relied upon paper and pencil tests for factual information.

 

12Hoban, og,cit., p. IOS.

Now a new instrument, referred to as the "Drivometer,"13 may
make it possible to measure the effectiveness of modes of
instruction on covert behavior.

It is apparent that a study of this nature must have
ore-stated limitations and that recognition and control must
be given to certain variables. Those limitations and controls
so identified are as follows:

(1) The variables will be limited to those derived
from the instrumentation used to measure and record differ—
ences in the effectiveness of one mode of instruction when
compared with another.

(2) The statistical analysis performed will be
limited to comparing the efficiency of four modes of instruc-
tion when they are used as instructional media in the same
learning experience, to collating one type or combination of
media with the other types and combinations, and to locating
possible interaction effects between all combinations of media
tested.

(3) The modes of instruction to be used in driver
education training will be limited to four types of media--
namely, (a) a standard film, The Case of Officer Hallibrand,
(b) a horror film, Signal 30, (c) a teaching film, Freeway-
ghobia, and (d) a set of teaching filmstrips, Ford Time-lapse

filmstrips--Freeway,series.

 

13The "Drivometer" is explained later in this chapter-

10

(4) High school driver education students will be
used, subject to the following limitations: (a) selection for
assignment to treatment groups will be by a table of random
numbers, (b) a three by three factorial analysis will be used
with four replications. Each nine subjects required per rep-
lication will be as homogeneous as possible, (c) no subject
will be selected who has had any driving experience before the
driver education course, (d) no subject will be selected who
is or has been a frequent passenger in a car driven on a
freeway.

(5) A standard driving course on a freeway will be
established, which each student will drive.

(6) Approximately a thirty-minute driving experience
will be given each student for the collection of the data.

(7) No driving will be done on days when the pavement
is wet or when there are high winds.

In this study, an attempt will be made to determine
the degree of significance of each mode as it relates to the
learner's achievement. The first mode of instruction consists
of the teaching film, Freewayphobia, and the second consists
of the teaching filmstrips, Ford Time-lapse filmstrips--Freeway
series. They are combined into what is called teaching media.
The third mode consists of the horror film, Siqnalgjo, and the
fourth consists of the standard film, The Case of Officer
Hallibrand. They are combined into what is called documentary

media. Whereas all four modes of instruction used in this

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study were designed to be used in the area of driver educa-
tion, their content treatment was quite different.

The horror film, Signal :0, was designed to empha-

 

size the personal danger involved in driving an automobile.
Consisting of various color segments taken at the scene of
actual highway accidents, the film shows in very graphic form
what can happen to anyone who is involved in an accident.
Very gory and gruesome, the scenes show smashed and burned
victims.

The standard film, The Case of Officer Hallibrand, is

 

a screenplay which portrays the last twenty-four hours in the
life of a traffic policeman. Several characters commit
various traffic violations in a typical middle-sized city.
Finally, Officer Hallibrand is killed while chasing a speeding
car. The film stresses the importance of safe driving, but
does so without any of the shocking scenes or treatment of
Signal 50. Although both of these films were designed to in-
fluence and promote safe driving, they were not produced to
teach specific driver education skills. Therefore, they are
documentary in nature.

The teaching film, Freewayphobia, was produced by the
Walt Disney Studios to teach three main skills of freeway
driving. These are (1) entering the freeway, (2) prOper posi-
tioning of the vehicle in relation to traffic flow, and (3)
leaving the freeway. The medium used to teach these skills

was the Disney character "Goofy." The film was in bright

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color, had an excellent sound-track, good narration, and
presented the concepts to be leached in a very entertaining

manner,

f)

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The teaching filmstrips, ord_Time-lasse filmstrips--

.——‘—— ”-

 

 

F eenay series, were produced by the Ford Votor Company to

 

teach four specific skills: (1) entering the freeway, (a)
driving on the freeway, (3) passing on the freeway, and (4)
leaving the freeway. One of these topics was assigned to each
filmstrip. A series of rapid scenes keyed to the narration
showed all of the steps necessary in order to learn the skill
treated under each toaic. Then every step was presented in
detail. Finally, each step was again shown in a rabid se~
quence in order to reinforce upon the viewers' consciousness
the continuity of the sequence of steps necessary to achieve
safely the skill being presented. In these black-and—white
filmstrips, nothing has been included which does not relate
directly to the skill being presented. 7hereas both Freewa -

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oro Time—lapse filmstripsf— reeway

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”eries were
desiened for much the same purpose, the treatment of their
content was quite different. Soth ho ever, were designed

and produced specifically as teaching materials.

The area of driver—education was selected for the
following reasons: (1) it was believed that any information
which would improve the design of instructional materials in
the area of driver-education would be of vital importance, and

(2) it was believed that the use of a new and proven instru-

ment, the “Drivometer,” could record the covert, psychomotor

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behavior of the learner, thus providing the research r with

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a more reliable measure or the effectiveness 0 a given mode
of instruction.

Citizens of the United State

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are killing and injuring
one another on the nation's highways at an appalling rate. One
important way to begin reducing this slaughter is to change

9-.

driver-behavior through the use or thl best driver-education

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materials available and to produce better materials. It is
imperative that program developers examine the prescriptive
aspects of the problem as a follow-up to the descriptive ap-

oroacn, To prescribe, one nust know materials effectiveness as

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well as the e :ectiveness 03 materia s combinations. It was ex—
pected that the Drivoneter would help identify such materials.

The Drivometer was developed as a joint effort by 3r.

Fletcher h. Flatt, Tanager of the Traffic Safety and highway

Improvement Department at the Ford Uotor Zompany in Dearborn,

Lichigan, and Ereen‘

by Jr. gruce

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the acting director of the Transportation Institute and a

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maintains a research office in the Civil Engineering Department
at the University of Hichigan. The Drivometer can measure the
three variables of driver performance, which are (1) tracking

the vehicle, (S) measuring the speed control of the vehicle,

ion to the other ele-

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ments within the driving environment. Completed re

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digital form: (1) steerinn rheel rave sals, (2) acceleration

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conditions and traffic fin” as they occurre each minute.

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Ether: listed in the Qibliography are Shirn, xeel,

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Juupra, ;octnote :a, chap-tr l, p. lt.

'7

1-3

Jajor emphasis in the research was placed Upon either
the individual mode of instruction or the controlled combina-
tions of modes of instruction. It was not placed upon the

1

area of driver education as such. Tne researcher was con-

('4’.

cerned with testing a generality within a specitic set ing.

Definition of Terms

5‘

The terms de ined in the section below are either those
used to form the Operational hypothesis, or those that do not
bear a common referent to the literature of the educational
field, or those which are used in a particular and limited
sense in this study.

"fiode of instruction:" Any instructional materials or
Specific combination or arrangement of instructional materials
or media used as a means for presenting ideas or concepts in
a given learning situation.

”Instructional media, or media:" A term having the

same meaning as instructional material or materials. Film-

U)

Strips and motion pictures were used in thi study.

(1)

”Drivometer:" An electrical multiple counting and
recording digital computer used to measure the three main
variables of driving performance.

"Horror film:” A documentary motion picture which
stressed the dangers of driving by showing color scenes of

gory accidents and accident victims. In this study, Sisnai

2Q was used.

"Standard film:" A documentary motion picture which
stressed the importance of safe driving and the dangers of
violating traffic laws. It did not show the gory scenes as

mentioned above. In this study, The Tase of Cfficer Halli-

 

brand was the medium.

Teaching filmstripsz” These were four black and
white, sound filmstrips designed to teach specific freeway

driving skill . In this study, the 70rd Time-lapte film—

U)

 

-
—-

strips--,r ewav series vere used.

(D

"Teaching film:" This was a Ualt Disney color motion
picture film designed to teaci specific freeway driving skills.

In this study, freewayphohia was used.

 

"?reeway drivingz" All aspects 0 entering, driving,
and leaving the freeway were included.
"Basic instruction:" The required non-media instruc-

p
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tion each student received in reeway driving before any
treatment.
"Paper-and-pencil test:” A test given to all subjects

after basic instruction, but before the treatment called for

by the rese

Ci)

rch design.

" These consist of the Ford

"hon-documentary materials:
filmstrips and the Disney film.

")ocumentary materials:” These consist of both the
horror film and the standard film.

"Steering wheel reversalsz" \ny movement of more than

3/8 inch by the steering wheel in either direction as measured

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and recorded by the Drivometer. This is the most sensitive
measure of driving skill, emotion, and attitude.

"Acceleration reversalsz" All up and down motions of
the accelerator of more than 1/8 inch.

"Brake applications:" The total number of times the
brakes were applied during the trip.

"Vehicle driving time:" The actual time the vehicle
was in motion.

"Speed change:" The minute-by-minute change in the
speed of the vehicle. Each two and one-half miles-per-hour
change in either direction was recorded as a half count by
the Drivometer. At the end of the trip, this was shown as a
total count.

"Total trip—time:" The total time required to return
to the starting point.

"Tracking the vehicle:" The amount of deviation from
a hypothetical straight line down the highway as measured by
the Drivometer.

"Positioning the vehicle in relation to the other
elements within the driving environment:" This is self-defined,

but positioning is measured mainly by steering wheel reversals.

Hypothesis
The hypothesis presented here is in the general
research form. In Chapter III, it is Operationalized and

presented in testable form.

 

 

..‘

 

 

18

H1: Students who have been eXposed to one mode of

instruction will make different mean scores on the Drivometer
than will students who have been exposed to another mode of
instruction.

Although this is a non-directional hypothesis, it was
eXpected that the non-documentary materials would be more

efficient and effective in providing the best control for

learning.

iesearch Design
The design of this research is to measure the effec-

“

tiveness 07 four modes ox instruction as applied to driver

education. The specific area of instruction used in the
research was freeway driving. A three-by-three factorial
analysis was used. Each node of instruction was compared with
the mode of instruction in a control group; and each treatment
condition was compared with every other treatment condition
for main effects, possible interaction, and significance.
Instructional materials dealt with were: (1) Ford

,— 0 rd

Time-lapse Tilmstrips--

reeway series, (2) the Disney film--

freewayphobia, (3) Signal 30, and (4) The Case of Officer

 

 

 

l i
|

wallibrand.

In tigure one, the basic
research design of the study is shown. In oroer to satisty
’ f

the assumption of indeaenoence 0

treatments, four independent

replications were used.

(.)

ixperimental

Design

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Columns Non-documentary aterials
ho Froj. Saterials filmstrips (Ford) Film (Disney)
R h Control group rord TirelaLse Freeveyphobia
o o fjigntrios--
w Free ay series
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D H signal 30 Sianal 30 Signal 30
o o
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e r filmstrips--
n free'ay series
t F
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e t Cfficer Officer CffiC§£_
r a Hallibrand Fallibrend Hallibrand
i n
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d filmstrips--
.Treeway series
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The two types of instructional media used in the four
modes of instruction were the educational motion picture and
the filmstrip. Emphases were given to the modes of instruction
reflecting the instructor's use of and the student's reactions
to the instructional material. Greater emphasis was thereby
given to the resulting behavior,and less emphasis was given to

instructional media by type.

Summary

Although instructional media should be produced and
selected in order to cause pre—determined changes in behavior,
little research evidence exists upon which to base such pro-
duction and selection. There is no doubt that peOple learn
from films, but this statement tells little about the value
of the learning eXperience. The central problem of education
is that of controlling and increasing the efficiency of
learning. Improved production, selection, and utilization of
educational media is one way in which learning can be
controlled.

Most teachers are not knowledgeable enough to make
intelligent selection and use of instructional media; and,
unfortunately, little media of a Specific nature has been pro-
duced, except as short, single-concept films. The use of
instructional media which present too much information on a
given occasion often promotes the forgetting of important con-

cepts due to retroactive interference. Today, little empirical

evideflC

and red

evideace

TEFE‘I'

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21

evidence exists to support specific environmental arrangements
and media combinations.

The purpose of this study was to gather empirical
evidence relevant to the relationship between the use of
different types of instructional media and their effectiveness
in producing the best possible conditions for learning. In-
structional media seem to be most effective when placed in a
particular arrangement known as a mode of instruction. In
this study, an attempt will be made to provide answers to the
problem of determining which mode of instruction or controlled
combinations of various modes of instruction produce the best
possible conditions for learning. Research which helps pro-
vide some of the answers should be of value in the design,
production, and utilization of future instructional media as
well as in the establishment of a base for better use of
existing media.

Four modes of instruction were used, consisting of
two teaching media and two documentary media. A three-by-
three factorial analysis was employed as the research design
with which to compare the efficiency and effectiveness of
individual and various controlled combinations of instructional
media as modes of instruction. The various necessary controls
and limitations required by the nature of the research design
and the study have been provided.

A new, bias-free, automobile-mounted-digital computer,
the Drivometer, should make it possible to measure the effec-

tiveness of various modes of instruction on the covert,

psychomotor skills of freeway driving. ?esearch subjects
were high school driver-education studerts assiinec to treat-

ment groups by random means.
Jajor emphasis in this research was placed on indi—

vidual mode of instruction or the controlled combinations of

...,)

modes of instruction. It was not placed upon the area 0
driver education as such. The researcher was concerned with
testing a generality within a specific setting. The availa-
bility of the Drivometer dictated the area of specific in-

’-
T

struction and the types 0 instructional media used.

The research hypothesis is as follows: Students who
have been exposed to one mode of instruction will make dif—
ferent mean scores on the Drivometer than will students who
have been exposed to another mode of instruction. Although
not stated in the hypothesis, the non-documentary modes of
instruction were expected to be more efficient and effective
in the control of learning.

Information relating to this study and the data
collected will be presented in the following sequence:

Chapter One: "The Problem."

Chapter Two: ”?eview of Kelated Literature."

Chapter Three: “Design of the Study."

Chapter four: "Analysis of the Data."

p.
-

In the final chap-er, Chapter ive: "Summary and
Conclusions," the researcher prOposes to synthesize his work
by presenting the summary; conclusions; implications; and

recommendations for further research, if warranted.

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CHAPTZ? II

asvlzv er QELATZJ LITE?ATU?E

Instructional media are positively effective only when
the induced behavioral changes occur in the desired direction.
There has been little previous research concerned with the
criteria upon which to base instructional media, yet there
can be little doubt that the use of most instructional media
does cause behavioral change. Instructional media does teach,
but little has been written on the direction or consequence of
the learning which occurs. Therefore, a brief summary of
previous research which seems to be closely related to the

problem will be given in this chapter.

Literature on Behavioral Change
The use of all instructional media involves the
communication of ideas. The presentation of these ideas
determines their effectiveness in producing behavioral
changes in the desired direction. Hoban has stated: "It can
safely be said that peOple learn from films."1 Eut he also

noted:

 

1Charles F. Hoban, "The Usable Residue of Educational
Film Research," New Teaching Aids for the American Classroom
(iashington: U. 3. Government Printing Office, 1962), p. 105.

23

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w‘f‘ (' " .‘!\n C. "f" f‘ r
ctaa a HUwucF 0: research studies

llnfi a" aids Io teachinu. dovland,

ilation covered such areas as attitude
ixation films. The teaching ctfeciire—

ound notion oiCLures, the difference

en "one—oidei" versus "t/o-sided" pr:-
ni the of‘ect on learnirg oF student

ional tOpics 0? research. In ill of
concern was "on the measurement 0?

duced by a Film or ot.er communication

~varch has also been summgrized by a jelnt

 

 

Army and l , if any,3pecific attitude changes
A
.,
L
2:7
?l
03 Hovland, H./. Lumsdaine, and -.T. SheFfield,
E .ent. Communications (Princeto.: Princeton

.—
a.

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.4.

bl

:ll ll res:

the 50:12

film bias

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26

will result when the film bias is strongly contradictory to
the social norms. In the case of contradictory influence,
film bias may actually reinforce the existing attitude,

7

rather than modify it." This is confirmation of the "boom-

erang effect" found by Hovland, Lumsdaine, and Sheffield.8

In discussing research findings on the motion picture
versus the filmstrip and other communication media, this
same Army-Navy report stated: "There is, however, no direct
evidence that motion pictures are reliably superior to other
media of communication in their influence on general
attitudes."9

Hovland and others discussed an early study by
Peterson and Thurstone which showed that exposure to silent
motion pictures did result in changes in attitude measured by
verbal scales and that these changes had some permanence.1O
However, they reported that films which are not proberly
designed to produce attitude change do not produce well-
defined attitude change. If no important attitude change

occurs, the "boomerang effect" may result.

Thorndike's work, entitled, The Psychology of Wants,

 

Interests, and Attitudes, demonstrated that reward is an

 

7U.S. Army and U.S. Navy, Instructional Film Research
Reports (Navexos P-l543; Port Washington, L.I., New York:
U.S. Navgl Training Device Center, l956), II, S-I; 5-18.

Hovland, Lumsdaine, and Sheffield, Communication and
Persuasion (New Haven: Yale University Press, I953), pp. 36,
63, l4l-l43, I64, 286.
l8U°S' Army and U.S. Navy, og,cit., II, 5-l8.

Hovland, Lumsdaine, and Sheffield, op.cit., pp. 24l-
265.

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27

important factor in attitude formation and change. More

recent studies by reinforcement-learning theorists support

these conclusions. Skinner defines "reinforcement theory"

in these simple terms:

. . . . If it's in our power to create any of the
situations which a person likes or to remove any
situation he doesn't like, we can control his
behavior. When he behaves as we want him to
behave, we simply create a situation he likes,
or remove one he doesn't like. As a result,
the probability that he will behave that way
again goes up, which is what we want. Tech-
nically it's called 'positive reinforcement'.
The old school made the amazing mistake of
supposing the reverse was true, that by re-
moving a situation a person likes or setting
up one he doesn't like-~in other words by
punishing him-~it was possible to reduce the
probability that he would behave in a given
way again. That simply doesn't hold. It has
been established beyond question. What is
emerging at this critical stage in the evolu-
tion of society is a behavioral and cultural
technology based on positive reinforcement
alone. We are gradually discovering--at an
untold cost in human suffering--that in the
long run punishment doesn't reduce the prob-
ability that an act will occur. . . . Now that
we know how positive reinforcement works and
why negative doesn't, . . . we can be more
deliberate, and hence more successful, in our
cultural design.1

In addition, Bruner stated his viewpoint:

Virtually all of the evidence of the last two
decades on the nature of learning and transfer
had indicated that, while the original theory
of formal discipline was poorly stated in terms
of the training of faculties, it is indeed a
fact that massive general transfer can be
achieved by apprOpriate learning, even to the

 

PP-

11B.F. Skinner, Walden Two (New York: Macmillan,

259-262.

I948),

D)
(D

degree that learning prOperly under Optimum 12
conditions leads one to 'learn how to learn'.

But the discussion of "positive reinforcement" and "Optimum
conditions for learning" provides little concrete evidence on
providing learning experiences which are really positive in
nature and are conducted under Optimum conditions.

In discussing this matter of eXperience and its
importance in inducing behavioral change, Dewey also said:

The belief that all genuine education comes about
through experience does not mean that all eXperi-
ences are genuinely or equally educative. Experi-
ence and education cannot be directly equated to
each other. For some experiences are mis-educa-
tive. Any experience is mis-educative that has
the effect of arresting or distorting the growth
of further experience. An experience may be such
as to engender callousness; it may produce lack
of sensitivity and of responsiveness. Then the
possibilities of having richer experience in the
future are restricted. . . . The trouble is not
the absence of experiences, but their defective
and wrong character--wrong and defective from

the standpoigt Of connection with further
eXperience.

Mis-directed experience will often come about as the result
of social pressures directed against individuals to conform
to group norms, even if such norms are not in harmony with
society in general. According to Travers, "Some of the early
research on social psychology demonstrated that the Opinion
of an individual might be modified by knowledge of the

"14

Opinion of the group to which he is assigned. In alluding

 

12Jerome S. Bruner, The Process of Education (New York:
Vintage-Random House, I960), p. 6.
John Dewey, gxperience and Education (New York:
Collier-MacMillan, I963), PP- 25 27-
Robert M.W. Travers, Essentials of Learning (New
York: NacMillan, I963), p. 381.

 

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emotional political appeal is a better vote-getting instru-

."17 it seems obvious

ment than the rational approach, . .
that with a fifty percent probability, no valid conclusions
can be based upon his research.

Menefee and Granneberg, having United States foreign
policy as their subject matter, used printed materials which

18
One set

advocated isolationism as the best foreign policy.
used an emotional appeal, whereas the other employed a
rational one. The authors of the study concluded:
". . . Emotional propaganda was much more effective in chang-
ing student Opinion regarding our foreign policy than was

"19

logical argumentation. But nowhere in their study do they
report a level of significance greater than .20, with various
parts of the study yielding results of .40, .52, and .98 in
SUpport of the emotional appeal. Such results hardly justify
their positive statement of superiority for the emotional
appeal.

Knower utilized two speech presentations advocating

2O

prohibition.’ One used the emotional appeal, but the other

had a rational appeal. He reported results favorable to the

 

17George N. Hartmen, "A field experiment on the com-
parative effectiveness of 'emotional' and 'rational' political
leaflets in determining election results," Journal of Abnormal
and Social Psychology, xxx1, No. 1 (1936), 99-114.

18Selden C. Menefee and Audrey G. Granneberg, "PrOpa-
ganda and Opinions on Foreign Policy," Journal of Social
Psycholog%, XI, NO. 2 (1940), 393—404.

Ibid.

2OFranklin H. Knower, "Experimental Studies Of Changes
in Attitudes: A Study of the Effect of Oral Argument on
Changes Of Attitude," Jourral of Social Psychology, VI, NO. 3
(1935): 315'347.

rational appeal, ya“

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hygiene. Tne seco.

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authors concluded:

amount of yaar-arou~
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also stated the result

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Fear—Arousing Comm

Psychology,
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Journal 0; N

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32

appeal. . . ."23 In their study, the term "strong" referred

to the anxiety-producing appeal.

Levonian cited additional research involving more
dental hygiene, the use of automobile safety belts, and
smoking and lung cancer. But the results reported were not
conclusively in favor of any position. In the same report,
Levonian presented the results Of a study which he performed,
in 1965, at the University of California at Los Angelesffl+
While connected to a Galvanic Skin Response recorder, four
groups of high school students were exposed to the traffic-
safety film. Immediately after the film, a thirty—item
questionnaire was given. Fifteen of the thirty items on the
questionnaire pertained to the film. A week later, the
students were again asked to fill out the same questionnaire.
The three variables of interest in the study were forgetting,
retention, and reminiscence. He reported significant results
in the direction of the retention of anxiety-producing sections
of the film at the .01 level. But no attempt was made to test
for actual induced changes in behavior, resulting from expo-
sure to the film.

Beach conducted a pilot study to test the conclusions
of Janis and Feshbach that fear-arousing communications fail,

not because they fail to arouse fear, but because they evoke

 

33.1mm

“ Edward Levonian, Effectiveness of Traffic Safety
Films in Relation to Emotional Involvement (Los Angeles:
Institute of Transportation and Traffic Engineering, Univer-
sity of California, I965), pp. 111; 116.

 

4.
i

anxie

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1;
3..

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anxieties which motivate the audience to avoid the communica-
qr"

tion and its recommendation.‘3 Her study was an attempt to

. . . . . 26
"explore this delen5lve-av01dance hypothesls."

n C‘

She showed two modified prints of the film oa1ety
Through Seat Belts to forty—eight adult drivers. In each
instance, footage from the film Signal 30 was inserted. But
gory accident scenes were used in one print of Safety Through
Seat Belts, whereas footage showing state police training
procedures and a state police officer interviewing an accident
victim's wife was inserted in the other print of the basic
film. Twenty-three subjects were shown the anxiety-producing
film, but twenty—five subjects were shown the low-threat or
low-anxiety producing film. The data was collected by using
"(a) skin resistance changes during the test inserts,
(b) heart rate changes during the test inserts, (c) attitude
changes towards concepts rated on the semantic differential,
(d) changes in self-rated intention to install seat belts, and
. . 27
(e) frequency of lnstallatlon of seat belts." She found
that "the inclusion of high-threat material in one print of
this film did not render it either more or less effective

28

than the control print containing low-threat material"L and

that ". . . the failure to obtain significant differences in

 

2Jsuth I. Beach, "The Effect of a 'Pear-Arousing
Safety Film' on Physiological, Attitudinal and Behavioral
Measures: A Pilot Study," Traffic Safety Research Review
(1966), ,. 53.

PQIbid.

gglbid” p. 511.

L Ibid., po 56.

34

arousal in response to the two inserts is particularly
striking in view of their considerable differences in
content."29

Her results tended to show the inclusion or use of
anxiety-producing films or film-segments did not produce any
significant differences when compared with low—threat film
segments. Although anxiety-producing film segments served no
positive purpose in the study, a slight, though non-signifi-
cant, "boomerang effect" was reported. Somewhat fewer

subjects who saw the high-threat film segment indicated their

intention to install seat belts.

Literature on the Drivometer

As Hoban has said, the literature leaves little
doubt that peOple do learn from films and other instructional
devices. The important problem is not learning itself, but
controlling the direction of the learning which occurs. The
"boomerang effect" is an ever-present possibility. Previous
research has usually been forced to attempt to measure
learning and its direction through the use of paper and
pencil tests, but all paper and pencil tests contain error
and bias. Furthermore, the required use and understanding
of language introduces even greater chance for error.

The development of the Drivometer, by Dr. Bruce D.

Greenshields of the University of Michigan and Mr. Fletcher

N. Platt of the Ford Motor Company, has produced an

 

29Beach, Op,cit.

\N
Ul

automobile-mounted computer which measures and records in
digital form the responses made by subjects to the driving
tasks as well as the subjects' emotional involvement in the
driving situation.

Mr. Bob Shinn and Mr. Tom Reel, of the Highway Traffic
Safety Center at Michigan State University, have made an in-
depth analysis of the functioning of the Drivometer:

Throughout the driving task, the driver is
constantly confronted by a wide variety of
events - events involving the roadway, signs,
signals, traffic in the form of other vehicles
and pedestrians, and other elements that in-
fluence or conflict with his intended path of
travel.

On the basis of the Observations that the
driver must make of these events and how he
perceives them, he arrives at decisions re-
garding his intended course of action. These
decisions are directly expressed in the manner
in which the driver controls his vehicle and
communicates with other drivers.

 

 

Operations research concerning the driving
task has established 3 basic control actions
available to the driver. These are:
1. Tracking the vehicle
2. Sgeed control of the vehicle
3. Positioning the vehicle in relation to
the other elements within the environment

It should appear, then, that if precise
measurements of DRIVER ACTIONS can be made and
if relationships of inguts and resgonses
(driver actions) can be established, a new
means of evaluating a driver's approach to,
and ability to, handle the driving situation
is possible.

 

The Drivometer has been deveIOped to measure
these basic driver actions of tracking, speed
control, and gositioning. . . .

 

 

1. The Drivometer directly measures the con-
trol actions of tracking and speed control and
indirectly measures the element of positioning.

le
C\

2. Because of the fact that driver actions
reflect the Operator's mental attitude (alert—
ness, perception, emotions, etc.) the Drivo-
meter ratings, along with the observer's
written and/or oral comments, will also indi-
cate the mental approach of the driver to the
driving task.

In describing the functioning of the Drivometer, they further

stated:
The Drivometer is an electro—mechanical instru—
ment which was developed by Dr. Bruce
Greenshields of the University of Michigan's

Transportation Institute, and Fletcher N.
Platt Manager of Ford's Traffic Safety and
Highway Improvement Department. Briefly,
it provides a visual, objective record of
driving performance by measuring four
important actions:

 

1. Steering wheel reversals (per minute and
total) (tracking and positioning)
2. Spec ed changes (per minute and total)

 

(speed control and positioning)

3. Accelerator reversals (total only) (Speed
control and positioning)

4. Brake applications (total only) (speed
control and positioning)

. . . Two significant perl formance checks are
(1) the number of steering_wheel reversals per
minute and (2) the numl) er of speed changes per
minute made by the driver.

 

The appendix of their paper is especially valuable since it
provides an interpretation of variable Drivometer readings.
Platt and Greenshields found that data SUpplied by the

Drivometer can be used to differentiate between different

 

30a

00b Shinn and Tom Reel, Untitled memorandum, dated
October 6th, 1965, whose subject was "Rese arch Vehicle and
Drivometer" (East Lansing: Highway Traffic Safety Center,
Michigan State University), pp. 1- -2.

'Ibid., p. 4.

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to pain a better understanding of the
ran portation system consistinn of the
he vehicle, the highway and the env1-

t has seeded logical to lirit examine

y the behavior of the individlal
d his tra’ ic environment,
g to presglect ’he driver for this
xenination is admittedly Optimistic,

llowing the proven validity 07 the
pprosch Lo a cowplex problem, it has

ibl" to identify and measure elements

ate to the driver and his elvironten..

lo_ical progress1on of this type of

Lion lill lead to a better me,hod of
g accid»nt potential. The paper here

inditat s that cart in measured
n‘rols and relater vehi le dynamics
ngful and that a grtup and individual
ation of driver: may be obtained by
ant ggmput;r analysis of these
HES.J‘
based Upon the hyuo hesis That "drlvers with
ant experience and driving records exhibit
77

n" profiles in ordinary driving."JJ The 3fiVO*
to measure and record these "different driving
it and Errenshiclds first cited evidence to

with any accuracy

 

the accident rate for any given 1nu1vidual or homogeneous
group of individuals. In their study, the subjectr consisted
of:

3".)

'Sruce D. Sreensh1elds and Fletcher N. Platt, "The
DevelOpment of a Method of Predicting High Accident and High
Violation Drivers," Unpublished research study, Transportation
Ir t tut , Department of Civil Engineering, University of

_Ann

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39

over the prescribed test course, and determine whether his
driving ability and emotional temperament placed him in the
beginning (poor) group, or in the control (good) group. They
were able to do this correctly more than two—thirds of the
time.

Surti and Servais used the Drivometer as a means to
study seven variables resulting from driver reactions measured
through the Galvanic Skin Response instrument and from the
response each driver made to his vehicle as measured and
recorded by the "Drivometer.34 They compared both the galvanic
skin response data and the Drivometer responses in determining
a comfort index, or the index of the driver's tension response
to driving on the freeway versus normal surface routes. The
results showed the Drivometer to be a sensitive and valid
instrument for this purpose since much valuable and unique
data, collected through its use, could not have been secured
otherwise.

Platt conducted a study in which the Drivometer was
used to evaluate the effect of driver fatigue and stress
during an extended cross-country trip, as reflected in the

35

factors of tracking and Speed control. He concluded:

 

34Vasant H. Surti and Edward P. Gervais, "Peak Period

Comfort and Service Evaluation of an Urban Freeway and an
Alternate Surface Street" (Detroit: The National Proving
Ground for Freeway Surveillance, Control and Electronic
Traffic Aids, 1966), pp. 1-63.

DFletcher N. Platt, "A New Method of Measuring the
Effect of Continued Driving Performance," Highway Research
Record, XXV (1963), 33-57.

 

40

"Driver stress and the effects of fatigue can be measured
effectively by the Drivometer . . . (and) quantitatively

rating a driver's performance compared to his norm provides a

f
. . .. . . . 0
starting pOInt for prov1ding a spec1f1c measure of fatigue."3

Sreenshields reported on the summary table and graphic charts
presented in his study of the same tOpic.

An examination of the graphic charts of the
individual "fatigue" runs and of the summary
table showing the changes in driving patterns
at half hour intervals plus other findings
from Drivometer tests leads to several
conclusions.

The Drivometer is sensitive enough to monitor
the changes in driving behavior that occur
with time behind-the-wheel. The most pro-
nounced measurement is the frequency of the
steering wheel reversals. The amount of Speed
change is less pronounced than the steering
wheel reversal rate. The accelerator rever—
sals seem to mean little as a measure of
driving change and the number of bgake appli-
cations are even less significant.

In an article reprinted from Traffic Engineering,
Sreenshields demonstrated the validity of the Drivometer as
a research tool to determine the quality of traffic flow for
safety engineers: "The attitude of the driver toward the
n 38

driving task is a most important factor in highway travel.

He further stated:

 

3olbid.
37Bruce D. Greenshields, "Changes in Driver Performance
with Time in Driving" (Ann Arbor: Transportation Engineering,
Dept. of ivil Engineering, Univ. of Michigan, n.d., p. 17.
Bruce Greenshields, "Drivometer Determines Quality
of Traffic Flow for Engineers," Traffic Engineering (1965),
reprint~unpaged.

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2.2

1963 Detroit Traffic Safety Association's "Good Driver
Recognition" contest:

In many respects, the contest provided a valid
testing ground for the "Drivometer" as well as
the contestants. The group had been previously
screened and were already in the "good" driver
group by competent judges. Thus, the "Driv-
ometer" was required objectively to rate
drivers who in a sense were already winners

in their class.

. . . The observer scores of traffic violations
also bore out the competency of the group. . . .
The driver who had the best score on the "Driv-
ometer" also was the only driver without a
traffic violation, as scored by one observer.

A significant observation is that observer
Opinions and "Drivometer" scores closely
paralleled each other. The value of the "Driv-
ometer" scores became apparent, however, when
subjective ratings were indecisive. "Drivometer"
scores differentiate at one-tenth of a percentage
point, not possible with subjective methods.
Thus, it was possible to rate contestants on a
far more precise scale with the "Drivometer."

All judges, officials, observers and contestants

connected with the contest agreed on the "Driv-

ometer's" validity in judging the contestants

accurately, and voiced enthusiasm as to its

potential in the fields of driver education,

licensing and performance rating.‘2

From the research on the Drivometer, there can be no

doubt of the validity of its use in measuring the variables
of driver performance. It has been proven to be reliable,

accurate, and bias-free.

 

42Gerald J. Fedderson, "The 'Drivometer': An Objective
Driver Performance Rating Instrument" (Traffic Safety and
Highway Improvement Department, Ford Motor Company, 1963),
unpaged.

43

Literature on Modes of Instruction
Gagne said that ". . . learning is inferred from a
difference in a human being's performance as exhibited before

"It 3

and after being placed in a 'learning situation.‘ He also
stressed: "It is necessary to show that there has been a
. "44 .
change in performance. For learning to have occurred,
Gagne believes that a measurable change in performance as a
direct result of the learning experience must take place.
Moreover, he pointed out that although each learner brings a
unique "internal capability" to the learning situation, he may
also be strongly influenced by learning conditions which are
"external to the learning." Gagne believed that it is
essential to plan carefully these external stimuli. He
explained: "One important implication of the identification of
learning conditions is that these conditions must be carefully
planned before the learning situation itself is entered into
J- "45 v' 4. °
by the s-udent. He continued:
The required conditions for learning can be put
into effect in different ways and to differing

degrees by each (instructional) medium. . . .
There are, then, some positive characteristics

and some limitations of each instructional
medium that become evident when they are /
examined in the light of their learning function.

Gagne realized that no type of instructional media can provide

the best possible learning experience by itself:

 

Z
iBRobert M. Gagne, The Conditions of Learning (New York:
Holt Rinfiflart and Hinston, 1965), p. 20.
Ibid.
45Ibi id., p. 24.
45_I__bid., p. 28.

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c o ..2. I
Instruction.-

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not as a .“ans lr itself, but as materials used tOgOLher With
other iflStFuCTiCle Media in r::ponse to a sgecific need
d'ctated by the uniqu: condition: 0“ the snetific learning
:lLUEILlOl‘l ..FMQLllifi‘i-JJ'.

In summary, he said: "Environnents for learning

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actual experier

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Although Dewey never used the concept “modes of in-
struction,” he made much the same point concerning the need to
fit the correct mode to a specific learning situation: "The be-
lief that all genuine education comes about through experience
does not mean that all experiences are genuinely or equally
educative. . . Some experiences are mis-educative. Any ex-
perience is mis-educative that has the effect of arresting or
distorting the growth of further experience."50 Eagne referred
to this problem by using the term,"interference," to refer to
eXperiences or modes which interfered with either new learning
or the blocked retention of old. He called this either "pro-
active inhibition," or "retroactive inhibition."51

Dewey expressed his philosOphy concerning the need for
positive learning experiences, represented many times by the
proper learning environment as provided by the correct node
of instruction: "It is not enough to insist upon the necessity
experience. . . . Everything depends upon the quality of
the experience which is had. . . . Pence the central problem
of an education based on experienCe is LO select the kind of
present experiences that live fruitfully and creatively in
subsequent experiences."1? In support of this position, he
bnless experience is so conceived that the
result is a plan for deciding upon subject—matter, upon

methods in instruction . . . and upon material equipment . . .

 

 

r: . ,.
JOL‘ildO 9 pa 2:.
§l‘3aene, siege”... p. 105.
DTDE‘Ney, 9.9.9...._.,_] o 3 r). (WC).

it is wholly in the air."33

Baldwin also referred to the importance of modes of
instruction:

. . . the purpose of instructional material is
to change the individual's cognitive structure
from one that is inadequate, incomplete, or
incorrect into one that is improved. This
requires an empirically founded set of hypo-
theses about the consequence of presenting
instructional material with one sort of struc-
ture to an individual with a different cogni—
tive structure. Presumably, the relevant
variables are the discrepancies bptween the
existing and presented structure.”L

The best mode of instruction in one case may not be suitable
in another.

Sruner described positive steps which have been taken
toward developing the best possible modes of instruction to

accomplish specific learning als:

(O
O

L

There has been an unprecedented participation

in curriculum deveIOpment by university scholars
and scientists, men distinguished for their work
at the frontiers of their respective disciplines
They have been preparing courses of study for
elementary and secondary schools not only re-
flecting recent advances in science and scholar~
ship but also embodying bold ideas about the
nature of school experience. Perhaps the most
highly developed curriculum of this kind is the
physics course for high schools prepared by the
Physical Science Study Committee, a course for
which textbooks, laboratory exercises, films,
and special teaching manuals have been

prepared. . . .39

 

f“ 7

gilbid.

”Alfred L. Baldwin, "Informational Structures,"
Learnigg About Learnigg (Uashington: U.3. Government Printing
Cffice, 1966), p. 167.

JSruner, oo.cit., p. 2.

 

 

 

.’j.7

Bruner did not use the concept ”modes of instruction,“ but

F

d use 0: the most e

.—+-

’-
o-
I

his integrat

(D

fective type of instruc-
tional media is the practical application of what Gagne had
in mind. In the Physical Science Study Committee's new con-
cept of physics, and in the iiological Sciences Curriculum
Study Committee's report on their new biology, as well as in
the new math and in chemistry, the concept of mores o
struction has been shown to be a valid one when wisely and

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ypes of instructional materials: “Device:

vicarious experience, mocel devices, dramatizing devices, and

u—J.

automatizing devices."9” In discuss ng these four types, ne

said: “. . . there exist devices to aid the teacher in extend-

.1.

ing the student's range of experience, in helping him to under-

stand the underlying structure of the material he 1 learning,

n57

U)

and in dramatizing tae significance of what he is learning.

The term, “integration," i used by Druner in the

0)

same context that Banne usec "modes 0 instruction." fruner
illustrated the importance of the "integration" of the

Physical Science Study Committee's teaching films which were
produced with two major objectives in mind: ". . . (1) further
the presentation of the P333 course as a whole, and (2) set the

1

tone and level of the course. Eor the P333 film is a part of

 

20191.9... pp. 82-83.
)7Ibid., p. '81..

4Q

a complex that includes also the text, the laboratory, the

re
classroom, the student, and the teacher.")” And concerning

teaching aids and their utilization, he felt

The devices themselves cannot dictate their
purpose. Unbridled enthusiasm for audio-
visual aids or for teaching machines as
panaceas overlooks the paramount imp portance
of what one is trying to accomplish. . .
The objectives of a curriculum and the

alanced means for attaining it should be
the guide. 59

In his explanation of simulators and trainers
Travers discussed them as instructional devices and media
working together as modes of instruction to provide the
necessary learning experiences planned by their designers.
Trainers and simulators vary in sephistication, but both are

based upon the mode of instruction concept.

Referring to one example of a trainer, Travers cited
the mechanized language learning laboratory:

Language installations . . . reflect well the
main principles that should guide the mechani-
zation of the classroom. The student plays an
active part in the learning process. He sets
the pace of learning. . . . Nithin such a
setting, the teacher is a very busy person,
but the tasks undertaken are very different
from those undertaken in the traditional
classroom. The teacher Spends very little
time going over material found in textbooks,
but Spends a much larger amount of the t&me
planning the learning experiences. .

Travers continued:

The design of human learning conditions is
generally considered to be a two—stage

 

Ibid., p. 85.
d0! pp. 87-880
Tr avers, op,cit., pp. 81-483.

 

 

8
91
0I

CDUTUT

49

Operation. First, the goals of learning must
be specified, and second, procedures, materials,
and equipment related to the achievement of
these goals must be Specified. . . The system-
atic design of learning conditions involves the
planning of the child's environment in such a
way that the impact of stimuli has the maximum
effect in promoting learning in the directions
that are Specified by the objectives.31
Although these different authorities employed different

’-
w
l

terms in their statements, the act remains that all have
stressed the need for the copperative, controlled, and inte-
grated use of the best and widest media of instruction in the
accomplishment of specific learning goals. Gagne referred to
this unified, c00perative, controlled use as "modes of instruc-
tion." Whatever the name, the concept together with its

application appears to be valid in light of the available

literature.

Summary

Literature offering information, data, or provided
results relevant to this study has been reviewed. The litera-
ture indicated that there can be little or no doubt that
peOple learn from films. The issue, however, was not learning,
pg; _g; but the control of learning. Several studies provided
insight and guidance into some of the factors relating to this
problem.

Studies were also reviewed which had as their tOpic the
subject of fear-arousing appeals. Although no definitive

results were found, such literature had a direct relationship

 

61Ibldo, pp. 508—5090

UT
C)

to this study. Eurthermore, literature on the Drivometer
pertaining to data-collecting was reviewed. These studies
showed that the Drivometer is a valid device with which to
measure a driver's psychomotor performance.

Finally, the literature on "Modes of Instruction"
was reviewed. Even though the phrase is used only by Gagne,
the concept of the value of using instructional materials of
all types in providing learning experiences was supported by
the writings of Dewey, Sruner, and Travers.

The review of related literature has helped the
researcher formulate the research design and disciplinary

outline of this study.

CHAPTER III

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

Population

In order to test the effectiveness and efficiency of
four different modes of instruction by means of the Drivo-
meter, it has been assumed in this study that the best
possible population would consist of novice drivers.

The experiment was designed to use subjects who were
taking High School Driver Education for the first time, who
had little or no previous driving experience, and who had not
been exposed to vicarious learning due to their having been
a frequent or daily passenger in an automobile driven on the
freeway. In this manner, all subjects would enter the study
with little or no previous experience in driving; but more
important, they would have had no previous experience of any
kind in freeway driving. Only through the use of novice
drivers was it considered possible to fulfill the assumptions
of the research design.

The subjects were volunteers from the driver educa-
tion classes held during the summer of 1966, at Sexton High
School, Lansing, Michigan. After answering a simple question—
naire to assure that they met the requirements of the research

51

5?

design, they were ultimately selected by both random and
purposive methods.

The sample used consisted of thirty—six high school
students, divided into four groups which were as nearly
homogeneous as possible. The following attributes were con—
sidered during the process of selection:

(1) Scores on a paper-and-pencil, non-media test on
freeway driving.

(2) Sex: two groups of nine girls and two groups of
nine boys were used.

(3) Instructor: each instructor had one group of
nine girls and one group of nine boys.

The nine subjects for each group were assigned to one
of the nine treatment cells by using four sets of random
permutations of nine numbers chosen at random from table 15.6,
starting at the 26th column, as listed by Cochran and Cox.1

The purposive selection of subjects was to insure
homogeneous groups as nearly as possible. Random assignment
to treatments satisfied the requirement of equal probability
that any subject would be placed in any of the nine cells for
his group. There were four separate and distinct groups of

nine subjects each, one subject per cell per group.

 

A

1.‘Jilliam G. Cochran and Gertrude M. Cox, Experimental
Designs (2d ed.; New York: John Wiley and Sons, 19577, p. 577.

 

aterials Used
raterials used in this study were as follows:

A. Testing.

Due to the nature of the researcn design and of the

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ring device in
this study, the actual analysis was based upon data gathered
n

and recorded 5/ this ClQCtFQ-nechanicgl digital computer,*

In addition, a taper-and-pencil test was given all

‘1—

subjects who volunteers . It nae used as an aid in selecting

the most homogeneous groups pos ible on the attribute of

(a)

reeway driving after the non-media classroom
instruction, but before any projected media treatment. This
test was prepared by Dale Trance and dim Eond, the driver-
education instructors at Sexton High School. The paper-and-
pencil test followed by the Drivometer constituted the only
testing devices used.
3. Treatment.

Four different instructional media were used in the
treatment of subjects:

(1) ton—documentary materials designed specifically
to teach: (a) the Ford fiotor Dompany's four sound-filmstrips,

r.
-

Ford Time-lapse Eilmstrips-— reeway series, and (b) the Yalt

Disney film--Freewayphobia.

 

(2) Documentary materials which were not designed

Specifically to teach: (a) the horror film--3ignal_fiD, and

 

 

2The Drivometer is fully explained in Chapter I and in
Chapter II.

 

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The “riveteter was mounted in a nem
wagon, which was eauipped with power steering and power
brakes.

D. T

(1)

st course.
a standard driving course was selected on which each

student started fron the front drive ay of C'?afferiuy High

—+-
."T
(D

nool, drove west on Saginaw Street, and entered freeway,
heading north toward ?rand ?aoids, Nichigan. The Eagle exit
and entrance provided additional Drivometer readings on exit

and entrance oerfornance ano also rever ed the course in the

0)

° .C‘
l

direction 0 Lansing. The rest area on the return trio to

Lansing gave still more chance for testing exit and entrance

behavior. Tne final exit was west Street. Each

0

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subject yes scored on entrance and exit behavior at three
different tides. In addition, merging with the traffic flow
as well as leaving the traffic flow, at three separate times,
provided a better overall view of the total freeway driving
performance of each subject.
5. Literature.

All previous research which used the Drivometer was
reviewe , as was pertinent literature on behavioral and
attitudinal changes due to exposure to instructional media

which included fear-arousing media. finally, the literature

on "modes of instruction" was reviewed.

T )-ta.

'7
o
L

The minute 5

v

y minute readout of the Drivometer data
was recorded on the special form deveIOped for that purpose.
3. Analysis.

L ‘7/

The Control-Data-Corporation )mCO computer of
vichigan State University was used for the data analysis.

All processing of data and punch—card preparation related

1?:
1|

to the conputer analysis was done by professional sta

members of the Computer Center.

L
l

I. Cther materials.

Other material included a 16mm sound-motion-picture

U)

projector, a sound—filmstrip projector, a screen, various

_')

o fice su plies, a desk calculator, and other miscellaneous

T.)

physical facilities belonging to fiichigan State University

and the Lansing, Tichigan public school system.

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,tical hypotheses

(

jased upon the Operational definitions, tne following

hypotheses were formulater for testing purposes.

HO : No differences exist be ween the mean Drivometer
1

scores of students who have been exposed to one mode of

instruction and the mean Drivometer scores of students who

have been exposed to another mode of instruction.

H1: Students who have been exposed to one mode of
instruction will make different mean scores on the Drivo-
meter than will students who have been exposed to another

mode of instruction.

U‘l
0\

Experimental Procedures and Design

In order to secure information relative to effective-
ness and the efficiency of four different modes of instruction,
there were selected for the experiment two instructional media
designed to teach specific freeway driving skills and two
instructional media which stressed the importance of safe
driving. A three—by-three factorial analysis of variance
design was employed, using four independent and mutually exclu—
sive replications. This design was carefully prepared in
order to eliminate bias in its results and confusion in the
analysis and interpretation. It was designed by the statis-
tics expert, who was available himself to graduate students
in the Michigan State University College of Education. The
design, before being accepted, was further checked by several
Michigan State University faculty members.

Previous researchers dealing with behavioral and atti-
tudinal changes resulting from the use of media have turned to
the use of some type of paper-and-pencil testing procedure. It
is likely that whatever significant differences may have
actually been present between treatment conditions were often
masked by the bias factor inherent in such tests. Therefore,

3

the researcher was often forced to accept the null hypothesis.

 

3Hildreth Hoke McAshan, "An Experimental Study of
Traffic Safety Films, the Factors Involved in Determining
Driver Behavior, and the Predictive Effects of Driver Behavior
Change Analysis" (Unpublished Ed.D. Thesis, Dept. of Adminis-
trative and Educational Services, Michigan State University).

U?
N

The research literature concerniag tne use of the Drivometer
as the testing device indicated a bias—cree situation. A
computer can only report what has happened. In addition, the
literature showed the Drivometer to be a valid device for use

in measuring differences in driver performance. Eor these

reasons, the Drivometer was selected as the measuring device
to be used in this research.

T

3..

e Drivometer has gone through several 3

L

development. At one time, motion pietures were used in

addition to the instrument itsel . The use of film as a

recording device, however, did not prove to be needed. In

L l
l

the study, "his particular model or the Drivometer tested the

four basic driver skills: (1) Steering wheel r versals per

('0

d S? in the analysis, (2) SPGEd changes per

minute, CUd<

ll)

minute, coded S in the analysis, (3) Accelerator reversals
per minute, coded i? in the analysis, and (4) Brake appli-
cations per ainute, coded D: in the analysis.

to identify Specific areas of in-

creased anareness or learning as a result of the treatments.

ments given, the Drivometer measured

(D
,4»

wer the emotional, attitudinal, and behavioral changes or

C‘
l

the lack 0 them.
A complete analysis of the validity and effectiveness

of this research will be given in the following chapter.

Columns

k}
LO

U)

 

Lon-documentary fiaterials

 

to Proj.

Lateri-

Eilm (Disney)

 

L.O'173 if

(+9)

Control

group

 

'—
~o

I
rermayphobia

(

 

 

( .)

 

 

I:

C()O U

3

Ni '10‘1-10

‘<'1£‘.)t‘+3(D

._ .

Signal :3

 

( L)
.1)
( L)

U)

 

u—l. -‘

If) T.)

 

wiwzv

ri~JO
("a 6..) --
n

u

.1

(L)

 

 

 

in H- U)

m-—nJ-1rbr+m
CLD

Cl—lu)

3 _Hm‘q

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This experimental Jesign was administered using the
following procedure:

(1) The sample pOpulation was divided into one control
and eight treatment groups per replication. All subjects were
selected to provide a homogeneous group, as far as possible,

per replication. Random sample procedures were used in

I.)

assi ning subjects to treatmen-s.

L

(3) The three-by—three factorial research design pro-
vided for nine separate cells, with one subject per cell, per
replication. Each cell received a different treatment, per
replication. The control-group cell received no projected
media, whereas the other cells received the treatment called

. . . . . 4
for by their location in tne research design.
(3) Since each replication was an independent experi-

ment, it was possible to use two driver—education instructors,

each working with one grOUp of nine boys and with one grOUp

(A) All students who volunteered to take part met
the requirements of the research design. They were given the
same basic preliminary driver-education instruction, but with
no instructional media being used. This was necessary because
the control grOUp would drive the freeway course with no
additional instruction. At the end of this non-.edia instruc-
tion in correct driving, including freeway driving, a paper—

and-pencil test was given to determine which students were most

 

4

° C‘-

“ 91a, chapter iii, 0. 0. See Figure 1.

.... . . D

IL)

60

nearly homogeneous in their knowledge oF freeway driving.
Those nine students whose scores were most nearly alike, per
replication group, were selected as subjects and were assigned
to treatment cells by random means. An assignment form was
prepared for the subjects in each replication. Ho instruc-
tional media, other than that of the treatment, was given
these subjects. All subjects for each cell and for all
replications were given the treatment required by the eXperi-
mental design. Then they drove the Freeway course. A
complete record of all Drivometer scores was kept for each
student. The control group received no projected instruc—
tional media 0? any kind beFore driving the freeway course.

(3) No driving was done when either winds higher
than fifteen miles per hour or rains introduced additional
hazards that could have biased the results.
(6) All subjects received their test drive no later
than one and one-half hours following the treatment in order
to control for the p ssible effects of forgetting.

Following the completion of the data collection, the
data were analyses. It was eXpected that the conclusions of

arning

(D

this study would be relevant to other types of l

experiences.

Summary
In this chapter the design of the study has been
specified in detail--including, (1) pOpulation, (2) required

materials, (3) statistical hypotheses, (4) experimental

| I

procedures and design, and (5) 'he experimental design.
The population was limited to volunteer, beginning
students in high school driver education who were placed into

four homogeneous groups, as nearly as possible, on the attri-

butes of their scores on a paper—and—pencil test, their sex,
and their instructor. However, the assignment of each

subject to a given treatment for his replication was accom—

plished by random meess.

’h

A

f)
{'9‘

ter a-lec ion and nor-media driving instruction,
treatments as called for in the experimental design were
given. Data were then collected by the Drivometer as each
student drove the same Freeway course used in the test. All
necessary controls and limitations were observed.

7inally, from the data provided by the Drivometer,
individual and grOUp means were computed for the tour variables
measured and recorded by the Drivometer. The data were coded,
cards were punched, and the results were analyzed by the

professional Staff at the Hichigan State University Computer

Center, using the Control Data Corporation 3600 computer.

SHAPTZ? Iv
ANALYEIE c: a: DATA

?eported in this chapter is a compilation of the
findings of the study on the four variables measured by the
Drivometer. The data on steering wheel reversals per minute,
Speed change per minute, accelerator reversals per minute and
brake applications per minute have been analyzed as a function
of the mode of instruction used and the resulting attitudinal
and behavioral changes induced, if any.

In analyzing the data for each of the four variables
the Control-Data-Corporation 3600 computer first computed the

p.
,—
l

mean score 0 column one which consisted of the horror film

and the standard film. To the documentary materials were

added the non-documentary materials for columns two and three.

The factorial analysis of variance between the means of the

three columns and the F statistic significance level was re-

ported when column one was compared with columns two and three.
The analysis of rows followed the same plan. The mean

score for row one, the projected non-documentary materials--

consisting of the four filmstrips of the 70rd Votor Company

and the Disney film--was compared to the mean scores when rows

62

two and three, the documentary projected materials, were added
to row one. The factorial analysis of variance between the
means of the three rows was computed, and the F statistic
significance level was reported when row one was compared with
rows two and three.

The four attributes of driver skill, for both rows
and columns, were analyzed by comparing the mean of column
one with the mean of columns two and three, or the mean of
row one with the mean of rows two and three, to determine
the significance of the differences in the means. If si nif
icance was found, a further test located its Specific source.

The hypothesis tested in this study was:

H01: no differences exist Wetvteen the mean
Jrivom.eter scores of students who have
be- en e>pos M to one mode of in-

struction and the mean Drivometer
scores of students who have been ex-
posed to another mode of instruction.

Sywfixalically:
?indings of the Study

Cn the variable of steering-wheel reversal rate per

minute, measured across columns, column one had a mean score

Ar— 0...,
./‘

of .9), column two had 39.30, and column three had 30.09

steering-wheel reversals per minute. The difference in
means between columns one and two was 6. 39 reversals, whereas
the difference between columns one and three was 4 .Bor ever

sals. The standard deviation for column one was 3.00; for

column two, 5.53; and for column three, 5.39.

TAQL: l.--3ub-£Ffects Table for ?actorial with erlicates
Design

 

 

Dependent Variable is Steering—Wheel ?eversals.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

’3’ 15' (Rf;-
JUH' b:
"' ‘ "."" “’3‘ " TIM“) I"
._‘..~-\ JT‘klliJ.“\ J .2 Q .-‘\ x...)
" CT“? "" T"’.‘" Q l" A": "“7 A “I“ 'l "f“ l"‘l
JUL I h..." ..“\l\ idJ\h—-- 4L2 L/ 'L.\‘/I.\_ J‘—../Ifl" '4qu L] 1H
0" (‘1\I ‘7. ’3 “‘13 “j:"\ {\Hy ,Nl..? (5 u
.Q‘L/‘l‘JY -__l\.T .4 JUX \_.J TIUI TIL‘HJ '\C 4
r-r-~ -' -
‘iC. TH‘
'Tr‘mll'f'
.‘b’gl
nfin ” v” no ‘6 207/h “r ‘ L' 00 7‘

1e,;,91 a) -;,”> Juanw.)3 2.24 ggSJJQ
- O 4 r) qr“ 3-: ’ 7-0 ’3 5:0 n4 7 in no

#11L1L * 1-,) of" “.5 9‘): L 13;: 3 ) 0 CU J3 ,4 79 1
an -o s A «A - -7 r— r—‘-9 ‘7'Wl’ '-

H,7 An «A J? 7n n a 7 an eat n n
J‘- l 0:4" 1 Oil 2 “9,; J_ 1 I I i o --’. .2ng ,1’2 1.) »
"hf" 7-”: 4 A q q p -v" a 76m 7: - run 0 "

~{—Jo_—Lfi;’:’——‘-L—’L~ -——-- b—-—-‘-)-‘ -.M— \' l { ' 1 ’/ kl, . YJ J)! J! 3C7'11 J
_, ,, F To at “h Anh- (Z A rn n C n'

"x ‘ -‘_ _ ‘ ii - ... ‘ _ \.\I - -

__.J 5); 1 1*“ Q ‘— OLA' #1 l " ‘1/4 , * 02.1 0 a VA" 1
itfi f n do * d “n 1.7n A f h? hdh an O
4 ”a7 1 , ,_ - .u L. (3. a 1 v’g-"LJ «at; ,
7kg: '7’" '5 d0 '70 A ’7}. AAK'KT' :‘7 {"7 h. 7/37 / "'

__.)""_‘ LA - 1 9 L -(-”4 K“ 1!” Kv «" n ../L 43—5.}..- ./ —v 3.1;») 9

a r 4- o o ‘T O A ' ' 4' A ’A0
A .actcrial analySIS on variance vas useo to determine

1°C

innifican e of the c1.ferences between column teens on

H"
3.
(D
(I)

the variaale of the steering-whee reversal rate. An 7 value
of 4 93 was computed when the non—documentary materials were
added to the documentary materials, The addition of the non-

documentary materials to the documentary materials Vb

(D

.
810-

3
—‘
~}’
-I‘.
O
('1
:3
‘4.

at an alpha .01 level or confidence.

d.
( +
3

TABLE 2.--Analysis of Variance Table fo L‘actorial e
?eo|icates Design.

 

 

Dependent Variable is Steering-l .heel Revers als.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

APP?CX.
SOURCE CF SUM C? 933 £53 C? MEAN F SIGNIFICAHW
VARIANCE 33UA?£F 7REEDCV SQUAYE STATIS- PRCcaqteITY
TIC OF F
STATISTIC
Columns ?3C,1o n afoofi ”.9” O,C‘
Rows 1oLA3 2 2.21 0430 0102
Interaction 35,77 4 9L94 0.35 0.9fi
Remaininu 697.07 27 27 F2
3 J J.
Error
Remaining Error i3 Replication E’fect Plus All Interactions
Between Replications and Other foects.

 

Hhen the steering-wheel reversal rate per minute was
measured across FEMS, F0.” OHG had a mean SCOFQ Oi 3\
two had 29.70, and row three had 27.73, The difference in t

mean bet~e en ro s ore and wo was 0.35 reversals per ninut e,

no

but the difference between rows one and three was C.cc rever—

sals. The standard deviation for row one was 4.35; for row

two, 6.43; and For row three, 5.44.1

4, See Table l.

L;

13 °

v\

A factorial analysis of variance was used to deter-
mine the significance of the differences between row means
on the variable of steering-wheel reversals per minute. An
? value of 0.20 was computed when the documentary materials
were added to the non~docunentary materials. Adding the
documentary materials to the non-documentary materials was
not significant with an alpha level of 0.82.2

fihen the possible interaction between the rows and
the columns was computed, no significant interaction was
found. Computing the row and column interaction gave an
alpha level of confidence of 0.85.5

The computer analysis did not identify which of the

non-documentary materials, when added to the docunentary

materials, produced the sitnificant di:TGF€flCG which was

v

4

found. a further analysis, "Scheffe's" test, was performed

for this purpose.

 

"D
33uora, chapter iv,
ID 1 Cl .

(fl

"(.3
O
L 1
U)
(J

(D

...1
(J

J.
(D
O

 

 

.1"
~' "I :- 2 '5 ' ”C 0», 5-4.
iAdgu. J."-'J\,rlCale .3 TC)»
I" '1 ‘ ' O“: _‘ O-!— f»_ l ‘ V.’,~ . q q . \ ‘
u"§) ‘iHlNilI I‘lrldlji ‘ l: nature"ll‘lzl-gsTkj-ci 'KEVdI’SrJiS.

 

: 3 2 _
3 ... c -1) (e- A. ..> 6:: 92.816? (W? + 1/13)
./'-),r:',J
: 9 x 3.:3 - 6.53 = “3.8167 = h.3323

\)

A '7.’ mr‘v
: V:V_,'1, $:1,Li/

 

 

(1 —-. ).
3
(“l't

.3 A. C ~, ., I ,-~. -- ’ r— :7 ,1 (
v € ._ , g , . v: \ _ -'\ , ,
J t "‘ "0 1 " “'OJV -— JOa’H" -

$u (

.3

L: '

(DC)
\I 1 L‘]

U)

:3

(C

0 so

(1)

U) £1.)

U)

3.)

.1

Ki

(4.-

O

C'—

(D

J

 

 

 

 

 

 

m
/“ J
-l
A?
J
[.0 V ‘1 . A " 'A.fi_ r. ’.
Ym -1l 1:.-rips A7 .JlollC)’ line
7* "7/\ 78“ Or)
.2- n 2' 1’ v”. ' _.'
’NA 1. , . ”‘. ‘.I.‘ A" If": / 7'" ' 7/
n1 \JUHLFUI a JUCuurhidfy) p.; ,,/; ”,1)
/ l':,'__v 1"! , ° \ 7n 7/\ r: n?
/\— \l u: -1 .lluo'f‘lu); ){.,)/ -~.v
‘/ Ifi' ‘ " \ ‘7” r N
ftj. \qui‘ j l I! / 1’1... -
J
’I‘ " .... i R. < ‘ ... ‘4, ‘.._,», 1 ' ’ V" ‘,_ ; . ' [la n. a. r.
uni] clue Ul- illwllifl-’ L‘.’\(,fif".‘..a-‘.l qur I‘:J.c-’l!"u .0.) oljil.l"
- VA 3‘ -\ P T 7"
Lihp: i”Vdi ViiUC O J.JU,
‘ , r .' ”N A A? ‘ :."'__) fl ‘_\ ‘ ”V“ ‘ fi ‘ 4L ,1 fl ,’ v," _ o ff‘;
.hfl ciipfha OI .V,> COTM lJtJlCc lethal ;.qc ' Qi':CLA§u, :jnu tn; .3] u ,r-

ence in the MEdGS between columns one and tao and also

l-,1. H\ ‘ -,0 J_l ‘ A 0 v, _I'F(‘- ‘ ,
out can cLlJ.h‘ uflc arm uhf,u :1 Cu.tutuJ. TH; ml cFCWCT lH
' i" '3 TA ’ '\ 3 t 1 “v“ I i A " “ ' ‘ c’ "‘ . " v . l. . r‘ r"! ’ . ‘7
.I; “g: :> Us 33:: LL) cl in UT: rtiu l O ‘ Qibnli it i l: 1'. r.l

alpha level of .05, but the oif erence in means between
columns one and three was not significant at an alpha level

of .05. Th-refor , the Ford notor Company sound-filmstrips

(D

produced the majority of the variance found between columns
when the non-documentary materials were added to the docu-

al

‘0

mentary mat

(D

r.

U)

/\

Uf‘l

(‘5'

he variable of speed changes per minute measured
across the columns, column one had a mean score of 12.83,
column two had 1fi.91, and column three had 12.82. The
difference in means between columns one and two was 9.08
Speed changes per minute; however, the difference between
the means of columns one and three was 0.01 Speed changes
per minute. The standard deviation for column one was 2.41;

for column two, 2.1?; for column three, 2.06 speed changes

per minute.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

TA L; J,--3ub-foects Table for Factorial with Qcplicates
Design.
Den: mient Variable is 3s89d ChanQE.
SUM C?
SAN STAN AR) 3"}UA‘RED
SUM FRE— MEAN INCRE- 3W CF DEVIA- DEVIA- CCLU N
UENCY MINT 31UA323 TION TIONS 30
FROM THE
(3 N3
g§5.65 33 15.53 5773.24 3.35 194.98
1:3 “- ‘6 “.i;.-3Lf" ”ESLJO ".“l ’“.53 1
173.02 12 31 1.39 2Z1o.11 8.12_, A0 51 _2
135-871 1’2 1’) ”s -o 11 72018.3 1 2.03 $6.61 Q
147282. 1? 1?. 33_-1119 1395422. 9.57 12472, 1
169.15 12 1&.1O O .53 2423.66 2.16 51.26 2
169.61 12 14.17 0. 62 2442.53 03 ,_A§,24 3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A factorial analysis of variance was used to determine
the significance of the differences between the column means.
On the variable of Speed changes per minute, an F value of
3.61 was computed when the non-documentary materials were
added to the documentary materials. Adding the non-doc-
umentary materials was significant at an alpha level of

confidence of .04.

TASLE 5.-—Analysis of 7a Factorial with
W

 

 

Depenient Variable is Speed Change.

 

 

 

 

 

 

APPaox,
SOUYCE OF 3U C? 3&33233 OF WEAK F S GNIFICANCZ
VAQIANCE SQUARES FREEDOM SQUAVE STATIS- PNOBABILITY
TIC or r
STATISTIC

Columns 24,71 2 17.35 3461 0.04
ROWE 93.5? 3 19.8 9.77 O.C9
Interaction 4.76 A 1.10 0.26 0.91
Remaining 129.84 27 4.81

Error
Total 194,98 3;

 

 

 

 

 

 

Yemaining Error is Replication Effect Plus All Interactions
Between Replications and Other Effects.

 

fihen the speed change per minute data was measured
across the rows, row one had a mean score of 12.32; row two
had 14.10; and row three had 14.13 speed changes per minute.
The difference in the means between rows one and two was 1.73
speed changes per minute, whereas the difference in the means
of rows one and three was 1.81 Speed changes per minute. The

standard deviation for row one was 2.57; for row two, 2.16;

71

[L
and for row three, 2.0).

A factorial analysis of variance was used to deter-
mine the significance of the differences between row means
on the variable of speed change per minute. An F value of
2.66 was computed when the documentary materials were added

to the non-documentary materials. Adding the documentary

materials to the non-documentary materials w

C.)

s not signif-

,...
PW

icant at the required .Op alpha level of confidence, since
an alpha of .09 was computed.5
Jhen the possible interaction between the rows and

the columns was computed, no significant interaction was

found. Computing th row and column interaction gave an

e
,
alpha level of 0.91.0
The computer analysis did not identify which non—
documentary materials, when added to the documentary mate-
rials, produced the significant difference which was found.
A further analvsis, "Scheffe's" test, was performed for
this purpose. An acceptable alpha level of confidence was
set at .05, and the difference in the means between columns
one and two as well as between columns one and three was
computed. The difference in the means between columns one
and two was not significant. Nor was the difference in the

means between columns one and three significant.

 

 

4.1 . o n I
fiiugga, chapter iv, p. 69. see Taole 4.
gguor_, chapter iv, p. 70. 33e Taole 5.

 

72

TABLE 6.--Scheffe's Test

 

 

Dependent Variable is Speed Change.

 

 

 

 

 

’)
of- 7 \ r: 2 A Q. C
2‘ J - 1 l -— A -—; :‘ .\-.’CQO 1 L)
. < 1 < ’93,:le a. < / >
= 2 X 3.70 - 6.56 = .8013
= 2.33 63;: .90
3 6: = 2.56 x .90 = 2.30 (At .05 level, a value of 2. 0 or
larger is necessary to be signifi-
cant)
X X
2 3
X A - K A - X
1 ( 1 2) ( 1 3)
Xn X - <
2 < 2 >3)
X_
5

 

 

X2 Filmstrips X3 Disney film

 

14.£M_ 19.8?
X1 (Control a Documentary) 12.83 -2.08 .01
x2 (Ford filmstrips) 14.91 2.09
X3 (Disney film) 12.32

 

Neither the Ford filmstrips, nor the Disney film are signifi-
cant by themselves.

 

Although neither teaching media produced, by itself, the
significant difference found when both were added to the
documentary media, it is obvious in comparing the means that

..-

almost all of the significance was the result of the .ord

73

Lotor Company sound-filmstrips, Nean differences between the
documentary materials when the ford totor Company filmstrips

han

O
Q.
C)

were added was 1. 3 see

LO

es per minute, whereas that

O

,y film to the documentary mate-

a

produced by adding the Disn
7
rials was a minus 0.01.
On the variable of accelerator reversals per minute,
measured across the columns, column one had a mean score of
15.00, column two had 13.25, and column three had 15.25

accelerator reversals per minute. The difference in the

means between columns one and two was 1.73 reversals; however,
the difference between the means of columns one and three was

g.o5 accelerator reversals per minute. The standard deviation
for column one was 10.28; for column two, 5.54; and for

....

column three, 7.53.

 

7

3gpra, chapter iv, p. 69. See Table A.

74

,1

TABLE 7.--0ub-Effects Table for Factorial with Replicates
Design.

 

Dependent Variable is Accelerator Reversals.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

sum 0?
KEAN STANDARD SQUARED
sun :aa- NEAN INCRE- sum 0? DEVIA- 05v14- COLUMN
QUENCY pear sauaaes TION TIONS eon
FROM THE
MEANS
522.00 35 14.39 ,730.00 7.85 2151.00 ._
180.00 12 15.00 0.50 3850.00 10.22 1_50.00 1
159.00 12 1 .252—1.25 2045.00 5555. 23822 _2
182.00 12 15.25 0.75_, 7235.00 7205 644.25 3
155.00 12 12.32 -1.58 2409.00 6.08 405.92 1
112.00 12 9.42 -5.00 1171.00 3-11 106.92 2
254.00 12 21.17 6.67 6150.00 8.39 772.67 3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A factorial analysis of variance was used to determine
the significance of the differences between column means on
the variable of accelerator reversals per minute. An F value
of .035 was computed when the non-documentary materials were
added to the documentary materials. Adding the non-doc-
umentary materials to the documentary materials was not sig-
nificant for the attribute of accelerator reversals per

minute and gave an alpha level of 0.71.

ble for Factorial with
Denli n

\(.‘J

 

 

Dependent Variable is Accelerator Neversals.

 

APPYCX.

 

 

 

sodas: CF 30: C? ozsaces 0r pawn F SIGNIFICANCE
VARIAHC: 3?UA7:3 FHCZDCL SQUARE STATIB- PQCBAEILITY
TIC CF F
STATICTIC
Columns 23.50 2 14.25, 0.33 0.21
QO‘U‘IS (730.3,) f: ,hjf‘ojr‘ 1010’s @1001
Interaction 169.00 8 £2.25 1.05 0.50

 

Remaining
Error

0
\9
O
o
O
R)
\l
J:
O
W
\J

 

 

 

 

 

 

Total 2161.00

bl
U1

 

Remaining Error 18 Replication Effect Plus All Interactions
Between Teplications and “ther Effects.

 

Bhen the accelerator reversals per minute were

measured across the rows, row one had a mean score 01 2 00

h../",

row two had ;.#2, and row three had 21.1 accelerator reversals

‘J

per minute. The difference between rows one and two was 3.50

reversals per minute, but the differenc between rows one and

(U

three was 8.25 accelerator reversals per minute. The standard

deviation for row one was 3.07: for row two, ;.10; and for

J—L, n . -.
row three, c.,c.

Cf)

k Tactoriel analysis of variance was u ed to deterfiine

("F

I ‘.F'_‘
l

he sicnificrnco of tie GszCrCflCS: i.et lean ro means on the

v

A . _ '_ I‘ C‘ I“ , A J. , a, ‘ '.-— . 5 c!— x F: I r\ .0
VaFlRUl? u: accelarltor reversals per minute. An - value oi

‘ 1- ' - "' ' 4- . v "- "\ l 7‘ ' -'~ \ «- A a . A I " " '
:L.e: f0; compu.ec when the nocunentary Mutellalo are “U133
'L ' "1A -"‘ A "' “ . " A I" I“ . V .‘ l "- “v
to tne rn1.--do: Lutwit .ry hf.t:r11ls, .au.ing, .ie uecL11-ntl 3/

73
(‘l‘
(D
.3
do

J
k )

to the non~docunent ry materials was highly signif-

Q
idence of better than .001.”

icant With an alpha level 0? con
[he n possible interaction tet sen the rons and the
columns was co autos, no signi ic1ni; interaction was found.
Zomputinj the row end the column interaction gave an aloha
level of con 1’"nc‘ of >.h0. ”
The COfipUtEF analysis did not identity which of the
documentary materials, wnen added to the non-documentary

‘

materials, l:rod 'uceo the cianificant differenc found. a

(D

further analysis, "Echetre 3” test, was performed for this
purpose. kn acceptable aloha level of confidence of .05

was select

('0

d, and the difference in the means letveen rows
one and two as well as between rows one and three was com-
puted. Both the differences in means between rows one and
two and between rows one and three were significant. There-
fore, each of the documentary materials by Itself could have

produced the significance found.

 

8
Junr , chapter iv p. 7t. See Table 7.
103U9—1’ chapter iv, o. 75. See Table C.

_Io'_i_d_.

77

TABLE 9.--Scheffe's Tes'

 

 

.9

Dependent variable is Accelerator ?eversals.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A2 - Aa .
Q = (3 "‘ l) ( n; n 77) 02:: #003704 (l/C)
a"'J919J)
: 2.56 6:: 2.59
3 6% =:?.59 A 2.53 = 6.53 (At .05 level, a value of 6.63 or
larger is necessary to be signifi-
cant)
X X
2 3
X X - A, X — X
1 l 1 a) l 1 5)
Ad (Xn - X5)
C. ..
\I3
X9 Filmstrips X3 Disney film
_ v 2.4:: _ 21-17
X1 (Control & documentary) 19.92 5.50 8.25
X0 (Ford filmstrips) 9.42 11.75
L.
X3 (Disney film) 21.17

 

UJ

30th the Horror film and the ;tandard film were significant by
themselves at the .05 level or better.

 

0n the variable of brake applications per minute,
measured across the columns, column one had a mean score of

9.17, column two had 10.08, and column three had 8.75 brake

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.. ' -..-1. ' .... ,. ,3 1,. “#1-, 3' [‘5‘-‘ - .... - J- .. 1...-L .-..
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.« :acLO11. l analysis 01 uUJ-tgtfe «as u:e. «)1 1erm1he
the si"‘i‘icarce o” the differevccs tot'een ~ol'vr 1can“ on
v. 111.. J I;‘ l l _, a. 1 _, .- . L1lg. \J ' v \- l 1 \1 4 J --1 k. l, e. K. K, J. 1 l l1 .- 1-_ ' l
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.H, x»r1m~lp v1 w11w. Ugo ICullOflJ yur ulnucg. WP ”A U- v1

0.53 was computed when the non—documentary materials were

added to the documentary materials. Adding the non—doc-

(D
--o

umentary materials was not cnificant with an alpha level of

confidence of 0.50.

ngL: 11.~-Analysis of Varianc ls
?eplicates Des“,

 

o 1'". l
_

.

b

Dependent Variable 1s pra<e Applications.

APPROX.

 

 

 

 

 

JoUiCE "7 SUM OF DEGREES 0? {SAN F SIGNlrlCANCE

VARIAUCE SQUA?ES 7?EEDCM BQUARE STATIB- PROBABILITY
TIC C7 ?

STATISTIC

Columns il.lZ. 2 __ 5.58 0.53 0.60

3‘0 '8 29430 I? /' 015 005 00'“)-

Interaction 85.33 4 21.33 2.03 0.12

Remaining

Ecror ._. 234.00 27 10.52
Total 390.00 is

 

 

 

 

 

 

Remaining Error is Replication Effect plus All Interactions
Between Replications and Cther Effects.

 

Jhen the brake application per minute data was
measured across the rows, row one had a mean score of 8.75
applications, row two had 10.00, and row three had 9.25 brake

applications per minute. Although the difference in the mean

between rows one and two was 1.05, the difference between rows

one and three was 0.50 brake applications per minute. The

standard deviation for row one was 3.?0; for row two, 3.58;
,- -.C‘ J- _' A". 11
and lor rot three, 3.0;.

K
.1

actorial analysis of variance was used to determine

the signifi ence of the differences between row means on the

('1

variable of brake applications per minute, An F value of 0.45

was computed when the documentary materials were added to the

non-documentary materials. Adding the documentary materials

to the non-documentary materials was not significant with an
. 0

alpha level of confidence of 0,35.
Then the possible interaction betmeen the rows and

the columns was computed, no significant interaction was

found, Computing the row and the column interaction gave

A. P 1A1?
an alpna level of contidance or 0.:a. J

ll . . fl
123uggi, cnapter 1V, p. 78. see Table 10.
13%fipga, chapter 1v, p. 79. See Table 11.

81

TAQLE 12.--Summary Table

 

 

Approx. significance proba~
bility of the F statistic

 

 

 

Steering wheel reversal rate Columns 0.01
?ows 0.9?
Interaction 0.95
Speed change Columns 0.04
Qows 0.09
Interaction 0.91
Accelerator reversal rate Columns 0.71
Rows 0.001 (or
better)
Interaction 0.40
Brake applications Columns O.JO
:? O 173 O 0 ($5
Interaction 0.12

 

Discussion of the Findings
Although four variables of driver performance are
measured and computed by the Drivometer, the literature on
Drivometer research as well as the personal conferences with
Greenshields show conclusively that the four attributes vary

considerably in their sensitivity and in their ability to

measure attitudinal and behavioral changes in drivers. The
importance which can be attached to these different attri-
butes varies accordingly.

A measured by steering wheel reversals, tracking the

0)

vehicle required constant driver attention. Changes in the

F C

driver's emotional responses ar reflected by the steering—

(D

wheel reversal rate. The more the driver is nervous or unsure,

the more steering-wheel reversal

0)

per minute will be recorded.

It has been well—documented in the literature that the steer-

9 O

ing-wheel reversa rate varies directly with the emotional

1

state of tne driver. The more nervous or insecure the driver

feels, the higher will be the steering—wheel reversal rate.

3‘
(D

Because of this factor, the steering-w el reversal rate has

been shown to be the most sensitive of all the attributes

14

measured.
The three-by—three factorial design provided for nine

discrete treatments, which were so arranged that all the three

cells of column one had a single characteristic in common.

Hone of these three cells received any eXposure to the non-

documentary materials. In every case, the treatments given the

p
-.-
l

cells 0 column two included the treatments given the cells of
column one. In addition, the common factor of the non-docu-
mentary materials for that column was added. Thus, the Ford
Motor Company sound—filmstrips were added as the common factor

for column two. In the same way, the Disney film was the common

factor added to all cells of column three. Therefore, adding the

 

14These statements are fully documented in Chapter II'

C
\Jl

treatment effects of columns two and three gave the mean
effect of the non-documentary materials.

The same procedure was followed for the rows. Row
one had in common the absence of any documentary materials.
Row two added the common factor of the horror film, the first
of the documentary materials; and row three added the second
of the documentary materials, the standard film. Adding the
treatment effects of rows two and three gave the mean effect
of the documentary materials. On the attribute of steering-
wheel reversals per minute, adding the non-documentary mate-
rials to the documentary materials proved to be highly signif-
icant, giving an F value .01. The further analysis using
“3cheffe's” test showed that most of the significance found
was due to column two, The Ford Motor Company sound-filmstrips.
From these results, it seems apparent that the use of the docu-
mentary materials had little effect upon beginning driver-edu-
cation students. The non-documentary materials, especially
as represented by the ford Uotor Company sound-filmstrips,
showed evidence of being both an efficient and effective
means of changing student attitude and behavior.

A further important consideration concerned the
direction of the induced changes which occurred. Although
previous Drivometer research had used the category of the
beginning driver, the term did not refer to the novice
driver, but rather to the newly licensed driver. In addition,

previous Drivometer research had used various categories of

experienced drivers. Such previous research has shown that
the more effective instructional media has been, the more
efficient will be the driver and the lower will be the
steering-wheel reversal rate per minute, other things being
equal. from the newly licensed driver to the very experi-
enced driver, the lower the steering-wheel reversal rate, the
more effective has been the media.

One of the smills which goes along with driving
experience, is the awareness of possible danger or problem
situations in the driving environment. One result of good

f‘

instructional media nor experienced drivers is providing

additional awarcne s of th;

(I)

(U

se possible problem areas and
giving instruction in their best solution. The experienced
driver, therefore, acquires more confidence in his ability
to control fully both the driving situation and his vehicle.
flhen emotional tension has been lessened, steering-wheel
reversals per minute are reduced. Previous Drivometer
research has shown that te sion and steering—wheel reversals
are highly and positively correlated. Hence, the steering-
wheel reversal rate per minute is less. Conversely, anything
which increases emotional tension and produces nervousness in
experienced drivers will be reflected by a corresponding
increase in the steering—wheel reversal rate per minute.
Novice drivers also reflect emotional tension by a
T}

change in steering—wheel reversals. way, however, do not

react to possible danger areas in the driving environment

L»)
0)

do experienced drivers. Unless they have been made aware of

l;

(D

(L)

.‘. A
\d- u‘
..4.

- I

LL)

pp

.—10

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. . ‘ a ,. A a , ‘ a C‘ , ,. -
put‘ilial Nib; l .r,s, Wk ediins O c=u Fiance
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i' fi'UflUL; bi]; ,Jp- Oi “lwlflj, wnu lcflbuc
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i re aim u 3“”? of all execs? the o—IL obvious
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a. -, h J ° :. A-n an: A. ', ..w . ° J '
ddtg~i0ug uflvim; pl,Ux;lOHb sUCaube novice ufl
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‘s per—QJ’l uf MicgilJL. \nofil-ugC ddOUc Q“L O.
9 r. 1 ”— 'r u ,. -~ r ’in " ~ ‘ “"1“ \r r! . l I) ’ ° " l 4 J if ,1 ° c- t 1-
icis. lm.J LJAMVL Huiiy iMQU, a ;lRJQL on is kw
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This assumption 0‘ hig

' '\ ”a - . z r 'v r‘ . V A I“. ‘ . “ '\ A ‘.‘ “ L ‘ . '. . r‘ | ‘ " A, ‘ t
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exposed to efficient driver—education ins

In addition, a conference with .reensnields confirmed his

..
'1
-

agreement With this position, “ as did the findings of this
study, There has been little previous empirical researcn

U

0)

ing the Drivometer as the cevice wibh which to measure tne

driving responses of novice drivers. The results as shown in
able 1 of this study seem to support this assumption.

In regard to the variable of speed change per minute,

results in the same direction were osserved. Adding the non-

0)

documentary material to the documentary materials produced a

difference in means which was significant at the .04 aloha

level 0 confidence. But most of the behavioral changes in—

i

duced by tne non-documentary materials were due to the Cord
Uotor Company filmstrips. There was a difference of only 0.01
speed changes per minute between columns one and three, which

compared the documentary materials with the Disney film. Yet

t.ere was a difference of 0.03 speed changes per minute when

_- p-
.‘ _

column two, the ord nilmstrits, was added to column one, the
documentary materials.

The row mean variance was not significant at the .09

alpha level of confidence. Nor was there significant inter—
action for either the steering—wheel reversal or speed change

analysis.
On the variable of accelerator reversals, a different

pattern appeared. Adding the non—documentary materials to

 

1DIntervie'v with Dr. Bruce Sreenshields, the Department
of Transportation Engineering, the University of Uichigan, July,
1966.

97

fl

the documentary materials was not signiticant at the 0.71 alpha
level of confidence. Apparently for the attribute of acceler-
ator reversals per minute, the non-documentary materials had
little effect beyond that produced by the documentary materials.

But the r. erse was not true. Adding the documentary material

«D
<

(J)

to the non—documentary materials was highly significant at the
.001 alpha level of confidence, or better. Jith “Schette's‘
test, both of the documentary materials were significantly

different trom the non-documentary materials. Yet the differ-

D

once: were in Opposite directions. The mean for the non-docu—

\r

mentary materials was 13.07; for the horror film, 9.42 and for
the standard film, 21.17. These results are in agreement with

an analysis of various subject-Drivometer responses prepared
9 W o ..) 1 3
by ohlfln and «eel.

l 1

Having been used first, tne non—dOCUmentary materials

apparently produced an awareness in the subject of the impor—

ance of the driving task and t o eib e hazards involved.

3-
(D
'0

C)
J )

A mean Drivometer accelerator-reversal rate per minute of 19.92
was the result. Adding the horror film to the non-documentary
materials caused a significant decrease in accelerator reversals.
The most likely explanation for these results is that an in-
creased awareness of the dangers inherent in the driving situ-
ation, as shown by the horror film, was reflected in a marked

reluctance to use the accelerator. Unlike in the case

 

1 6‘fi ,3 9 0
30b shinn and Tom Qeel, Untitled memorandum, dated

October 6th, 1965, whose subject was "Research Vehicle and
Drivometer” (East Lansing: Highway Traffic Safety Center,
Michigan State University), p. 8.

of steering, subjects had much more voluntary control of their

A
~—

use of the accelerator; therefore, the e.fect of the horror
film apparently was to inhibit use of the accelerator.

Jhen the standard film was added to the non—docu-
mentary materials, the accelerator reversal rate increased by
a highly significant amount. The mean for the non—documentary
materials was 12.92. Adding the documentary materials in the
form of the standard Tilm increased the mean reversal rate to
21.17 reversals per minute. The standard film apparently
blocked and inhibited the subject's attitude and behavior

which had been conditioned by the non-documentary materials,

effecting a much increased accelerator use.

3)
m

listed by Shinn and Reel, several causes have been

17

found for a high accelerator reversal rate. Among these is
the lack of attention to, or the concern with, the driving
environment. Typical symptoms of this condition, in addition
to a high accelerator reversal rate, are over-adjustment to
traffic conditions, caused by inattention and by following
the car ahead too closely. They regarded ignorance and the
lack of concern for potential dangers which might be present
as the causes of this type of poor driving behavior.18
The analysis SUpports these findings. Adding the

standard film to the non-documentary materials must have pro-

duced an apparent soothing effect which caused the subjects in

this treatment groub to forget behavior induced by the non-

 

 

:gIbig.
'Ibid.

 

(7")

documentary materials, thereby reducing the subjects' attention

and concern. The important concepts taught, together with the

attitudes formed by the subjects' exposure to the non-docu—

mentary materials, apparently were severely inhibited due to

(‘l'
3.
(D
.1
(D
(‘1'
"i
O
I
Q)
C)
(“i
<
(D

interference of the documentary materials,

9 y c no 10
oy tne standard Tilm. ’

R

x0 signiticant interaction effects were found.

The analysis Oi the brake application data showed no

significance in the columns, in the rows, or throus inter—

d

f

action. Although brake application data is provided by the

Drivometer, in most cases, brake applications would seem to

UV

be more a product of the unique driving conditions of each
test run, rather than a highly valid measure of behavioral

and attitudinal changes. From the analysis of the brake

$0

p.lication data, it can to seen that no meaningful pattern

‘I

of responses occurred in any categor‘.

One hypothesis was tested in this study. The alter-

III-‘0
')

native hypothes s, m1, pertained to the efficiency and effec-
tiveness of each of the four modes of instruction studied for
the four attribu’

automobile—mounted computer, recorded student responses on

f.

 

 

the TOUF main variables of the driv1ng task. The results of
1C” I ' ." O O F5 O to
“Tooert m. Gagne, The Conditions 0? Learnino (hew
York: Holt Qinehart and flinston, 19o3), p. 105,

findinos pertaining to each of these four variables are

. . 20
summarized in table 12.

—0.

Based Upon the f ndings reported by the computer
analysis and summarized in Table 12, the null hypothesis
was rejected and the research hypothesis was accepted for

the three attributes ow the steering-whee reversal rate,

the speed change, and the accelerator reversal rate. The
null hypothesis was accepted only for the attribute of

I

brake applications. Srake applications have been shown by

previous reserrch to be the least h

t.)

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iportant measure of
driver performance.

The researcher hrs reported and interpreted the

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analysis of the datr

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collected through available research

evidence. Since little previous evide

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the Drivometer “as used to measure driving responses of
novice drivers, he realizes that otner interpretations are
possible. dut he considers other valid interpretations to

be unlikely. However, the need TOF additional reseerch in

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this area is recognized. It was shown tl%i

have been GXposed to one mode of instruction will make
different Drivometer scores than will students who have
been exposed to another mode. In addition, it was shown

that on mode, the non—documentary materials, produced

(I)

evidence of positive behavioral and attitudinal changes,
whereas the documentary materials either inhibited such

positive change or else made no difference.

CHAPTER V
SUUSAQY AND SCNCLUSICRB

Summary

The efficiency and effectiveness of two combinations
of the four modes of instruction were investigated in this
study. They were composed of: (1) documentary materials and
(2) non-documentary materials.

Mounted in the test automobile, a digital computer,
the Drivometer, was used as the un-biased testing device with
which were recorded the effects of the various treatment
conditions in regard to the four variables of driver perfor—
mance measured and recorded by the Drivometer. These vari-
ables were (1) steering-wheel reversals per minute, (2) speed
changes per minute, (3) accelerator-reversals per minute, and
(4) brake applications per minute.

A three-by-three factorial analysis design was used,
consisting of a control group and eight treatment groups in
which four independent replications were employed. Subjects
for each replication were selected from beginning Summer
School driver education classes at Sexton High School in
Lansing, Michigan. After meeting the requirements of the

research design, volunteers were finally selected by the use

01

J

of a paper-and-pencil test--given after the basic, non-media
driving instruction—-so that those chosen were as nearly homo-
geneous as possible in their knowledge of freeway driving.

All subjects for each replication were of the same sex and

had the same instructor. Every student, per replication, was
assigned to treatments by random selection. The random
distribution of uncontrolled variables was assumed by the
research design.

One hypothesis was examined:

H1: Students who have been exposed to one

mode of instruction will make different
mean scores on the Drivometer than will
students who have been eXposed to another
mode of instruction.

The area of freeway driving was selected as being
most suitable for the administration and control of the
testing procedures involving the Drivometer. A standard
driving course on the freeway, northward in the direction of
Grand Rapids, Michigan, was selected to allow students to
perform a variety of freeway driving tasks. After the treat-
ment called for by the research design, treated students
drove the standard course. A record was made of the four
attributes measured by the Drivometer.

Following the completion of all treatments and test—
ing, the resulting data was analyzed. The hypothesis was
supported on the attributes of steering-wheel reversals,
Speed changes, and accelerator reversals. Significant

differences were found between the means of the columns when

the non-documentary materials were added to the documentary

r‘ f
.‘ J

materials for the two attributes of steering—wheel reversals
and speed changes. Cnly on the attribute of accelerator re-
versals were row mean differences sianificant. In regard to

the most highly sensitive attrio te, steering~wheel reversals

C

per minute, as well as the second most sensitive attribute,
speed changes per minute, when the non-documentary materials

I

were added to the documentary materials, highly significant
findings resulted. Concerning the attribute of accelerator
reversals per minute, the addition of the documentary mate-
rials to the non-documentary materials gave highly signifi-

cant results. Ho ever, these results showed a reduction of

non the standard film was included. ”ith this

.—<

reversals w

C A
I

attribute only, signi.icant results seemed to be of a neg-
ative, rather than a positive nature. ho significance oc-

curred on the attribute of brake applications per minute.

a:

A further analysis, "Scheffe's" test, was performed

to determine whether one, or both, of the two non—documentary
materials was the cause of most of the signif'cance found for
the attributes of steering—wheel reversals and speed changes.

For stetring—wheel reversals, the Ford Votor Company sound—

(

filmstrips produced the bulk of the significance found when the
non—documentary materials were added to the documentary materials.
The data collected by the Drivometer not only supported
the hypothesis for three of the four attributes tested but also
indicated the type of projected non-documentary materials which

were most effective and efficient in this study.

Conclusions

The following conclusions are drawn from the results
of this study, but they apply only to instructional materials
used with novice driver education students:

(1) for the documentary materials, no positive learn-
ing was found; there were recorded several instances of negative
learning--that is, learning which tended to inhibit the positive
learning produced by the non-documentary materials. Gagne calls

this either retroactive or pro—active interference depending

1

Upon when it occurs. Therefore, the continued use of such

documentary media is highly questionable.

(2) In regard to the most highly sensitive attribute,
steering-wheel reversals, as well as the next most sensitive
attribute, speed changes, the non-documentary materials pro-
duced both highly significant and positive behavioral changes.

(3) Cf the two different non—documentary materials,
the factual, straightforward teaching format of the Ford Wotor
Company sound—filmstrips caused the bulk of the positive and
significant behavioral changes which were recorded.

(4) Projected instructional media which are used for

teaching purposes should be Specifically designed and pro-

.2

duced to teach only the concept or concepts desired.

 

1Robert M. Cagne, The Conditions of Learning(New

York: Holt Rinehart and Jinston, 19653, p. 105.

 

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‘1

(5) The use of general media not designed to tea h

(A)

Specific concepts cannot be justified except, in some cas s,
as supplementary materials. Their use may inhibit rather
than help produce behavioral changes in the desired
direction.

(6) In the selection of combinations of teaching
media, care must be taken to choose media which do not
detract or inhibit other teaching media being used. All
media used as a teaching mode should add to the desired
behavioral changes.

(7) The Disney film, r-‘ree-=..V«.Iayphobia, did not produce
the positive behavioral changes which were exhibited by the
Ford filsstrips. The Disney film, however, was superior to
the documentary media. It seems likely that the addition of
the excellent production techniques used, together with
"Soofy" as the main character, may have distracted or inhib—
ited the basic concepts being presented.

(9) The most effective and efficient instructional
media should present the concepts to be learned in a serious
manner; should not introduce anything which inhibits or
interferes with the attention to, and the comprehension of,
these concepts by the students; and should be concise and

businesslike.

Implications for Future Research
As a result of the study and the analysis, certain

problems and differences in data direction suggest the need

for future research.
If an un—biased neasuring and testing instrument can

be developed, a similar study in an area other than driver

l-‘F

education should provide data for d ermining whether the

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results obtained in this study transfer to the use 0 instruc-
tional media in general.

As has been noted, the results of this study were in
the Opposite direction from those produced when experienced
drivers were used as subjects in previous Drivoneter re-

search. It can be hypothesized that as novice drivers become

more and more €Xp€fi<'

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coring pattern on tne
steering-wheel revereals, at some level cf experience, will

reverse direction so that effective instructional media would

produce lover, not higher Drivometer scores. A more extensive

(D

tudy with re—te

U)

ts of the subjects is needed to prove the
validity of this hypothesis.

In order to verify the best design for efficient and
effective instructional media, a study should be devised in
which projected teaching media are produced along the lines
shown to be best by this study. Varied and controlled
amounts of a possible detracting or an inhibiting format

I

-.e basic teach-

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could be added to different version
ing mode in order to test the effectiveness of the different
versions. Some entertainment or respite may be beneficial if

added at the prOper place and in the proper manner. Perhaps

such a study could provide more information on this problem.

In no case did the use of documentary materiat

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vide significant positive behavioral changes when

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compared to non~documentary materials. he Drivometer tested

only immediate psychomotor responses to the treatment media.
Current learning theory supports the beliet that

instructional media which pronuce the largest immediate

behavioral change will also produce the greatest retention

0 assume

ri-

of that which has been learned. It seems logical
that for novice drivers, the teaching media which produced
the greatest behavioral change would also produce the most
lasting sub-liminal retention of the important concepts which
had been learned: information which could prove invaluable
in a future driving situation or an emergency.

Although unlikely, it is possible that the documentary

media might produce poor Drivometer data as the result of

J

immediate road-testing. Yet the shock-treatment of a Sidn_L

\

 

2Q type horror film might provide a deep-seated, sub-liminal
reaction which could prove valuable in an emergency driving
situation. Cn the other hand, in an emergency driving

situation, tne sub-liminal reaction--as a result of the

subjects' having seen a Cignal.30 type horror film——might

 

very likely produce an increased feeling of panic, causing
the driver to "freeze" to the wheel at a time when prOper
avoidance action could have prevented an accident.

Perhaps novice drivers also react in a different
manner to informative non-documentary materials. Maybe a

higher steering-wheel reversal rate does not indicate the most

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f a mot’ah-picture and a series of filmstrips should be

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designed according to the fin s of this study. In addi—

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tion, an experiment should be designed similar to this study
with a much greater variety of instructional media used and
with many Drivometer evaluations. Attention could thus be
given to the identification of specific learning patterns.
3uch a study should help point out the types of materials
needed to produce behavior indicative of good driving. Per-
haps actual driving experience is more effective in induc—
ing such good driving behavior. The results of such studies
should help clarify the implications of the importance of
different types of media as shown by this study, if any
implications actually exist.

The researcher does not believe that any of these
possibilities are likely. Yet the results of this study
alone can only point the way toward needed future research
in such possible problem areas, no matter how unlikely they
may seem to be.

These problems, along with others, have been re-
searched by this experiment. ?esearch evidence relating to
the most effective and efficient production and to the use

.5
I

o instructional media is limited. This study is only one
of many studies needed before an adequate body of research
information can be provided upon which to base the pro-

duction of instructional materials and guide their com—

bined use as modes of instruction.

/\
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3.

ix

lOO

PAPER-AND-PENCIL TE 3T

1. Approximately percen ‘ of the people are killed
within 33 mi es of their home s.

Bu; er hi ghvays are times safer than surface

a

3. .‘hat fraction of fatal accidents result from unknown
C- H

4, how much Carbon monoxide over an hour's exposure will
induce drows ess and result in loss of control?

5 The insurance
ac

. s find the average driver has a
pro perty damage 3

1e
dent ev~ry how many years?

6. The insurance companies find that the average driver has
a personal injury accident every how many years?

, in terms of years, do the insurance cem-
ost dangerous?

 

. name the tnree "piston pushers" from the A 3 C's of the
utomooile engine.

9. State tie nrimar purpose of seat belts.
i" I l

10- Name the five seeing~habi-

£XPLANATICH AND VCCLHTE'i FClM
3e may want you to take pa rt in a research study being con—
duct ed by fiichigan State University.
If you would like to take part, please fill in the following
blanks.

Statistical techniques will be used to select those who will
actually take part in the experiment.

If you are selected and if you agree to part ticipate in the
study, your copperation will be absolutely essential in
completing your part of the experiment.

 

you agree to parti
l ' a le

cipa e in the s- oe sure that
to complete i

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You will be nee ded For halt a day. First, you Will be shown
driver training films or filmstrips; then you will drive a

car on the Freeway so that your responses can be rueasure d and
recorded by a s 1all computer mounted in the glove compartment.
Me are interested in your responses to either the film or the
Filmstrip, or bot h, which you were shown. It must be empha-
sized that this experiment is in no way connected to your

cu cces s in the driver training course. No grade or evaluation
is attached to your performance in the experiment.

ANY 1L_3T1Ch3?

O l I U 7-

 

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I have had no experience driving a cs r on public street s.
I agree to return to Se><tcn High School for the experiment:
during the morning, if my class 3 are in the afternoon; and
during the afternoon, it my clas sses are in the morning.

 

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(There should be as many lines as there are minutes of driving
t1me, since one line is used to record the 3? and the SC
readings pen minute.)

The Drivometer provides totals on 33, 87, AV, and 3A, plus
total running time.

 

 

 

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, ?eorge ”. ”A Fielo exoerimvnt on the uonoerative
:ffectiveness of 'ivotionil' and 'xetionel'
Political Leaflet? in Determining Llection Results,"
Journal 3? Abnormal :nz Social PSithi?]j, XXXI,

Ho. 1 (1953), 99—114.

, Horace 3., and largoles, Tich ard A. “"uidelines
for the Selection of Instructional iaterials,"
iadiovisual Instruction, XII (Januar/, 1967), 23-26.

Charles F. "The Usable Tesidue o? ;ducational Film
Research," '3' Teachinerids for the Axericeh
Cla32roow. .aohing or: U.3. errnment Printing
Office, lyv-.

C.I., Janis, I.L., and Kelley, H,H. Comnlglnicatioo
and Persuesion. New Haven: Yale University Press,
1953.

, LUlkuyilflE, :3.\., 241d Simfi‘Fiel;?,l7.T. :aneri ente
C“ ‘33' C T”LniCrLiOflS. Pr'nceton: Prince;on
Universit/ Prep), 1339,

 

.L., enl esnoack, 3. “iffects of e r-AFOUQIHQ

COMiUfllcaLIOHS," Journgl of Abnornel nu Soc13l
’ ‘ I ' '7 7 «Jr— ';I \ —V'r\l ,

Psycnoloqy, XL/III, no. J \1>J ,, /v—m_.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Franklin H. ":xoeriwental Stufies of Changes in
AtLitudes: i. K study of the :ffect of Oral Argument
on Changes of ALtiLude,“ Jourr l of Social Peichologl,
v1, Flo. 3 (i933), 213 “7

', Edaard. LFfectiveneea of Tre'fic GaFeL177ilms in
?el3tion ro Znotional Involve ant. Los Angeles:
Institute of Trenoportation ant Traffic Lngineering,
CHIVGFSILy of California, 1933.

iiloreth Hoke, "An Experimente Study of Traffic
Safety Films, the Factors Involved in Determining
JriVEr -3havior, ard the Predictive Effecls of
Driver uehavior Change Annly3ie." L'npuhliehed
5d. 3. thesi'a, Deptq 'f Ad.irii5trati\ne and Echuxat ional
Services, Wichiiwn State Universit\, 1950.

SelJ:n 3., and Granneberb, Audre\ G. "Propaganda and
Coinions on F reign Policy," Joirn3l of Social
Pcéchologi, XI, No. 2 (19 v), EfL-Tffi.

Theodore H. Social Pelchologi. lei orl The
Jrjden Press, 1930.

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