I 5 o... L—uw‘;lnl.M-'-f' . d :wl This is to certify that the dissertation entitled The Identification and Validation of Critical Safety Behaviors of High School Girls Gymnastic Coaches presented by Barbara Kaye McKenzie has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degree inEd.SystemsDev. Bruce L. Miles, Ph.D. Major professor Date AugUSt 19 1986 MS U is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution O—lZWl MSU LIBRARIES m. RETURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. - THE IDENTIFICATION AND VALIDATION OF CRITICAL SAFETY BB-IAV IORS OF HIGH SO-IOOL GIRLS' GYLNASTIG (DAGIES By Barbara Kaye McKenzie A 0155 ERTATIGNI Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PH ILOSOFHY Department of Counseling. Educational Psychology. and Special Education 1986 ‘Vch— Q (at, I Copyright by BNBARA KAYE McKENZ IE l986 PBSTRACT THE IDENTIFICATION IND VALIDATION OF CRITICAL SAFETY BB-IAV IORS OF HIGH SCHOQ GIRLS' GYNNASTICS (DAG-IE5 By Barbara Kaye McKenzie Safety and accidents in sports. and in high school girl 5' gymnastics in particular. present perennial and probably increasingly severe problems such as a growing number of injuries and lawsuits and increased cost of insurance coverage. The two main approaches to these problems are (l) periodically revising opinion-based guidelines for coaches seeking certification and (2) conducting research on accident epidemiology. This writer believes that both of these approaches. although commendable. are inadequate. Expert opinions generally are "01: empirically derived and often are not behaviorally expressed. 5P1 demiol ogi cal studies have tended to focus on a few selected accident factors and have not reported what injury-reducing steps should be taken to reduce the occurrence of injuries. This research departed from past practice in several ways. to o‘Iercome the perceived inadequacies. The critical incident technique ins used to collect a substantial number of experts' observations. 'h‘lch were content analyzed to yield behaviorally worded. specific Barbara Kaye McKenzie statements to establish new guidelines. These. in turn. were organized into broader categories to enhance their comprehensibility by coaches. The critical-incident-based guidelines were validated by having a second substantial and independent sample of experts check each behavior statement and broader category with respect to their experi- ence regarding both frequency of occurrence and importance to gymnas- tics safety. Validity of the statements and their categories was demonstrated by the fact that all were reported as having been observed with some degree of frequency and importance. Reliability checks made throughout the research process showed adequate reliability to warrant proceeding to validation. In addition to the above-mentioned substantive findings. sev- eral refinements of the critical incident method were developed in this study. Al so reported were suggestions for further research and uses practitioners might make of the research findings Dedicated to Dr. Frederic Nickert and my parents. Virginia and Duncan McKenzie. Jr. ACKN GVLEmMENTS This doctoral dissertation was made possible through the efforts of a number of people. both on and off the Michigan State University campus. I shall forever be grateful and indebted to Dr. Frederic hickert. my research adviser. who supervised the development and com- pletion of this study. Dr. Nickert's assistance in the conceptual iza- tion and implementation of this validation study. training in the use of the critical incident technique. general guidance during the writing of this dissertation. and patience throughout the learning process were inval uable to my professional development. I only hope I can follow in his footsteps in using the critical incident technique in the future. I also wish to extend my gratitude and deep appreciation to Dr. Bruce Miles. chairman of my doctoral committee Dr.°Miles was responsible for introducing me to the field of educational systems development. overseeing my educational development within the graduate program. and guiding me through the completion of my dissertation. His constructive criticisms. suggestions for improvement. and guidance in rewriting this dissertation contributed to the quality of the finished product. Special thanks are expressed to Drs. Steve Yel on and James Page. who served as menbers of my doctoral cannittee. Further thanks go to the Illinois. Iowa. and Michigan State High School Athletic Associations for their support. as well as to the many high school athletic directors. coaches. officials. and gymnasts in those states who participated in the study. I would also like to thank my statistical consultant. Rafa Kasim. for his assistance with the study design and final formulation of the safety guidelines; and Sue Cooley. who edited and typed this dissertation. Last. heartfelt thanks go to my parents. Virginia and Duncan McKenzie. Jr.. and my brother. Duncan M. McKenzie. who gave me the encouragement to enter the doctoral program and the emotional support I needed to canplete this degree. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TELES O O C O O O O O O O 0 LIST OF APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. II. mmowmION O I O O O O O 0 Purpose of the Study . Need for the Study . . Definition of Terms . Design of the Study . Research Questions . Population . . . . Measured Coach Behavior Limitations of the Study. Contributions of This Research Systems Development Summary REV IEN OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction . . . . Literature on Safety Introduction . . . Prevention . . . . . oofloeeeoooe General Safety and the Role ofm Manager 0 0 ocean... "I oaooeooooo Sports Accidents and the Role of th 5 0 fl. 0 O O O O O O ‘ O o O O O O O O O O 3 S e afety Coach. -l Gymnastics Accidents and the Role of the Coach POSt-I'Uurycareooooooeooooeeoeo Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General Safety and the Role of the Safety Manager Sports Accidents and the Role of the Coach . . Gymnastics Accidents and the Role of the Coach Summary Page viii xi H d OOOQQONN 21 21 23 25 25 36 45 45 45 47 48 The Critical Incident Technique . . . smmary O O O O O O O O 0 I O O ChapterSumIary III. Emom O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Introduction . . . . . . Statenent of the Problen Subjects........ mmom‘ow O O O O I O 0 Step One--Development and Adnin Pilot Predictor Survey . . . . 1 str .3000. Critical Incident Studies Without Validation Critical Incident Studies With Validation t O a. O O O on a Step One--Development and Administration Predictor Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Step Two--Content Analysis of the Collected Critical Incident Reports . . . . . . . . . . Step Three--Development and Adninistration of the Pilot Criterion Survey . . . . . . . . . . Step Three--Development and Administration of the Criterion Survey . . . . . smaw O I O O O O O O O O O O O N 0 RESULTS 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Introduction . . . . . . . Predictor Results . . . . . Criterion Results . . . . Criterion Reliability . . Criterion Internal Analysis Beyond Partial Correlations . . . . . . Frequency and Importance . . . . Effective/Ineffective . . . . . R 61 Prevention/Post-Iruury Care . . . . Coach Behaviors and Characteristics VCITdatIOn O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Safety Guidelines for Ceaches . . smary O O O O O O O O O O O O O V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . Introduction . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . Substantive Conclusions . . Validation Findings . . . Safety Guidelines for Coaches Conclusions Regarding Methods vi of the of the T42 Page Recanmendations for Further Research . . . . . . . . 145 Substantive Suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . . T46 Methodological Suggestions . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Recommendations for Use of the Safety Guidelines . T49 APPmDICES O I O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C O O O O O O 151 A. SURVEY INSTRUNENTS IND RELATED CORRESPONDENCE . . . . 152 B. SAFETY GUIDELINES AND RELATED STATISTICS . . . . . . . 173 BBLImRAmY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O 253 vii Table 1.1 1.2 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 L IST OF TABL ES ResearchVariables ................. NWber Of safety BehaVTOI‘SD by Category 0 o e e e e 0 Gymnastics Statistics for the Seven North-Central States 0 O O O O O O O O 0 0 O O O O O O O O O O 0 Pilot Predictor Survey Return Rates . . . . . . . . . Denographic Information for Pilot Predictor Survey Respondents: Athletic Directors. Coaches. and Coach-Selected Gymnasts in Iowa . . . . . . . . . . Canbined Predictor Survey Return Nunbers and Rates (MICh‘gan SUbetS) O O O I O O O I O O O O O O O O Denographic Information for Predictor Survey Respondents: Athletic Directors. Coaches. and Coach-Selected Gymnasts in Michigan Plus Officials in "iw‘ga" O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O Denographic Information for Predictor Survey Respondents: Athletic Directors. Coaches. and Coach-Selected Gymnasts in Iowa and Michigan Plus Off‘CIQIS in "EChigan O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O 0 Preliminary Framework of Categories for the Coach BehaviorStatenents................ Results of Reliability Checks . . . . . . . . . . . . Results of Quantitative Check . . . . . . . . . . . . Criterion Survey Return Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . Demographic Information for Criterion Survey Respondents: Coaches and Officials in Illinois . . viii Page 'IS 16 6O 64 66 7O 72 73 B 88 Page 3.12 Denographic Information for Predictor Survey Respondents (Athletic Directors. Coaches. and Gymnasts in Iowa and Michigan Plus Officials in Michigan) and for Criterion Survey Respondents (Coaches and Officials in Illinois) . . . . . . . . . . 91 4.1 Cronbach Alphas for the Frequency and Importance Dimensions of the Criterion Instrunent . . . . . . . . 97 4.2 Cronbach Alphas for the Eight Major Categories of the CriterionInstrunent................. 98 4.3 Nunber of Criterion Itens Accunul ated Across Categories . 100 4.4 Category Totals Not on Table 4.3 . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 4.5 Origins of Item Categories in Table 4.3 . . . . . . . . . 101 4.6 Partial Correlations for the Criterion Instrunent's Eig‘t 5C3] es 0 O O O O I O O I O O O O O O O O O O O O 104 4.7 Frequency Distributions of Pearson r's Between Frequency and Importance for Each Behavior Statenent. by Effective Versus Ineffective. for Prevention. Post- Injury Care. and Both Prevention and Post-Inj ury Care . 106 4.8 Frequency Distributions of Pearson r's Between Frequency and Importance for Each Behavior Category. by Effective Versus Ineffective. for Prevention. Post» Iru ury Care. and Beth Prevention and Post-Injury Care . 108 4.9 Parallel Grouped Frequency Distributions of Behavior Statenent Means (Fran Appendix 8-3) for Frequency andImportance.................... 109 4.10 Parallel Grouped Frequency Distributions of Coach Behavior Category Means (Fran Appendix 8-8) for FrequencyandImportance............... 110 4.11 Results of Analysis of Variance for the Frequency and ImportanceData.................... 111 4.12 Parallel "Grouped" Frequency Distributions of Behavior Statenent Means by Frequency and Importance for Effective and Ineffective Prevention and Effective and Ineffective Post-Injury Care . . . . . . . . . . . 113 ix Page 4.13 Effective and Ineffective "Grouped" Frequency Distri- butions of the Coach Behavior Category Means (Fran Apmndix E8) 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 115 4.14 Individual Coach Behaviors: The Most Frequently Occurring. Most Important to Occur and/or Not to Occur. and a Mix of the Most Frequently Occurring and MostImportant.................... 119 4.15 Categories of Coach Behaviors: The Most Frequently Occurring. Most Important to Occur and/or Not to Occur. and a Mix of the Most Frequently Occurring and theMostImportant.................. 120 4.16 Frequency-Importance Schenatic Matrix . . . . . . . . . . 127 4.17 Matrices: Balanced Mix of Frequency and Importance (BehaVIOT‘ StatmentS) O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 128 4.18 Matrices: Balanced Mix of Frequency and Importance (Catemri es) 0 O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O 0 O O O 130 Appendix A-1 A-2 A-3 8-1 8-2 8-3 8-5 8-6 8-7 8-8 8-9 LIST OF APPENDICES Predictor Materials (for Athletic Directors. Coaches. and Selected Gymnasts) . . . . . . . . . . Predictor Materials (for Officials) . . . . . . . . Criterion Materials (for Coaches and Officials) . . Predictor—Based Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . Means and Standard Deviations for the Individual Coach Behavior Statanents for Frequency and Importance O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I 0 O O Grouped Frequency Distributions of Behavior Statanent Means by Frequency and Importance for Effective and Ineffective Prevention and Effective and Ineffective POSt'IllJUPyCGI'O..o......o...o..o. Grouped Frequency Distributions of Behavior Category Means by Frequency and Importance for Effective and Ineffective Prevention and Effective and Ineffective POSt-Iruurycareooeooooooooeooeoee Eigenvalues for the Factor Analysis of the Criterion Instrunent's Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pearson r's for the Individual Coach Behavior Statements (Frazuency vs. Importance) . . . . . . . Pearson r's for the Coach Behavior Categories (Frequencyvs. Importance)............. Means and Standard Deviations for Each Coach Behavior Category by Frequency and Importance . . . Significance of the Differences Between the Effective and Ineffective Coach Behavior Statanent Means in Frequency and Importance . . . . . . . . . xi Page 153 160 165 174 182 186 187 188 189 191 192 194 8-10 8-11 8-12 8-13 8-14 8-15 8-16 8-17 8-18 8-19 8-20 8-21 8-22 8-23 13-24 Analysis of Variance: Effective and Ineffective for Frequency and Importance Means and N's for Each Coach Behavior and Character- istic and Category Analysis of Variance: Prevention and Post-Injury Care for Frequency and Importance . . . . . . . . . . . Significance of the Differences Between the Effective and Ineffective Prevention and Post-Inj ury Care Means inFrequencyandImportance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Variance for Prevention and Post-Inj ury Care Coach Behavior Statanents The 19 Effective Prevention Coach Behaviors in Order of Their Frequency The 26 Ineffective Prevention Coach Behaviors in Order of Their Frequency The Six Effective Post-Injury-Care Coach Behaviors inOrderofTheirFrequency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Eight Ineffective Post-Inj ury-Care Coach Behaviors inOrderofTheirFrequency. . . . . . . ... . . . . The Two General Coach Behaviors That Apply to Both Ineffective Prevention and Post-Injury Care in Order of Their Frequency Coach Behavior and Characteristics Categories in Order of Their Frequency The 19 Effective Prevention Coach Behaviors in Order oflheirImportance.................. The 26 Ineffective Prevention Coach Behaviors in OrderofTheirImportance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Six Effective Post-Injury-Care Coach Behaviors in Order of Their Importance The Eight Ineffective Post-Inj ury-Care Coach Behaviors in Order of Their Importance xii Page 195 196 198 199 200 201 203 206 207 208 A 209 210 212 214 215 8-25 8-26 8-27 8-28 8-29 8-30 8-31 Page The Two General Coach Behaviors That Apply to Both Ineffective Prevention and Post-Inj ury Care in OrderofTheirImportance............... 216 Coach Behavior and Characteristics Categories in OrderofTheirImportance............... 217 Effective Prevention: Individual Coach Behaviors That Are Very Important and Occur Very Frequently. Very Important and Occur Frequently. Very Important and Occur With Moderate Frequency. Important and Occur Very Frequently. Important and Occur Fre- quently. Important and Occur With Moderate Fre- quency. Moderately Important and Occur Very Frequently. Moderately Important and Occur Fre- quently. Moderately Important and Occur With ModerateFrequency.................. 218 Ineffective Prevention: Individual Coach Behaviors That Are Very Important Not to Occur and Occur Very Frequently. Very Important Not to Occur and Occur Frequently. Very Important Not to Occur and Occur With Moderate Frequency. Important Not to Occur and Occur Very Frequently. Important Not to Occur and Occur Frequently. Important Not to Occur and Occur With Moderate Frequency. Moderately Important Not to Occur and Occur Very Frequently. Moderately Impor- tant Not to Occur and Occur Frequently. Moderately Important Not to Occur and Occur With Moderate Frequency....................... 221 Effective Post-Injury Care: Individual Coach Behaviors That Are Very Important and Occur Very Frequently. Very Important and Occur Frequently. Important and Occur With Moderate Frequency. Moder- ately Important and Occur With Moderate Frequency . 224 Ineffective Post-Injury-Care: Individual Coach Behaviors That Are Very Important Not to Occur and Occur Very Frequently. Very Important Not to Occur and Occur With Moderate Frequency. Important Not to Occur and Occur Frequently. Moderately Important Not to Occur and Occur Very Frequently . . . . . . . . 225 Ineffective Prevention and Post-Injury Care: Individual Coach Behaviors That Are Very Important Not to Occur and Occur Very Frequently. Important Not to Occur and Occur Frequently . . . . . . . . . . . 226 xiii 8-32 8-33 8-34 8-35 8-36 8-37 8-38 8-3 9 8-40 8-4 1 3-42 Ineffective Prevention: Coach Behavior Categories That Are Very Important Not to Occur and Occur Very Frequently. Very Important Not to Occur and Occur Frquently. Very Important Not to Occur and Occur With Moderate Frequency. Important Not to Occur and Occur Frequently. Moderately Important Not to Occur and Occur Very Frequently. Moderately Impor- tant Not to Occur and Occur With Moderate Frauen”...................... Ineffective Post-Inj ury Care: Coach Behavior Cate- gories That Are Very Important Not to Occur and Occur Very Frequently. Important Not to Occur and Occur Frequently. Moderately Important Not to Occur and Occur With Moderate Frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . Effective Prevention. Frequency and Corresponding Importance of Categorized Individual Coach Behaviors Effective Prevention. Importance and Corresponding Frequency of Categorized Individual Coach Behaviors . Ineffective Prevention. Frequency and Corresponding Importance of Categorized Individual Coach Behaviors Ineffective Prevention. Importance and Corresponding Frequency of Categorized Individual Coach Behaviors . Effective Post-1rd ury Care. Frequency and Correspond- ing Importance of Categorized Individual Coach BanEOrs O O O O O O I O I O O O I O O O O O O O O 0 Effective Post-Inj ury Care. Importance and Corres- ponding Frequency of Categorized Individual Coach Bd‘flViors O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Ineffective Post-IMury Care. Frequency and Corres- ponding Importance of Categorized Individual Coach Bd‘.V‘°rs O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O I O O O O Ineffective Post-Inj ury Care. Importance and Corres- ponding Frequency of Categorized Individual Coach BehaV‘Iors O O O O O O O O O O O I O O I O O I O O O O Ineffective Prevention and Post-Injury Care. Frequency and Corresponding Importance of Categorized Individual Coach Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . Page 227 228 229 232 235 238 241 242 243 244 245 8-43 8-45 8-46 8-47 Effective Prevention. Frequency and Corresponding Importance of Categorized Coach Behavior Categories . Effective Prevention. Importance and Corresponding Frequency of Categorized Coach Behavior Categories . Ineffective Prevention. Frequency and Corresponding Importance of Categorized Coach Behavior Categories . Ineffective Prevention. Importance and Corresponding Frequency of Categorized Coach Behavior Categories . Effective Post-Injury Care. Frequency and Corres- ponding Importance of Categorized Coach Behavior Categories and Ineffective Post-Injury Care. Frequency and Corres- ponding Importance of Categorized Coach Behavior catemrias O O O O O 0‘ O O O O O O O O O O I O O O 0 Effective Post-Injury Care. Importance and Corres- ponding Frequency of Categorized Coach Behavior Categories and Ineffective Post-Inj ury Care. Importance and Corres- ponding Frequency of Categorized Coach Behavior catawr‘as O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O Ineffective Prevention and Post-Injury Care. Frequency and Corresponding Importance of Categorized Coach Behavior Categories and Ineffective Prevention and Post-Ira ury Care. Importance and Corresponding Frequency of Categorized Coach Behavior Categories . . . . . . . . XV Page 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 GiAPTER I IN TRODJ cnon The number of females participating in sports has increased dramatically in the past 20 years (Al bohm. 1978; Clark 8 Buckley. 1980; Eisenberg & Allen. 1978; Gillette. T975; Haycock & Gillette. 1976). In turn. there has been a concomitant increase in the number of sports- related injuries (Eisenberg 8. Allen. 1978) and lawsuits (Aschenbrenner. 1983; Graham. 1982). Although virtually everyone associated with athletic endeavors is concerned about injury and the prevention of injuries. few research studies have been conducted regarding the specific causes of sports injuries to females (Albohm. 1976; Gillette. 1975: Whiteside. 1980). As a result. present training programs for coaches are guided primarily by the opinions of experts about what should be done to improve safety practices and sparse research findings on accident epidemiologyuthat is. frequency data on selected factors such as the location and type of injury. In the present study. the writer assumed that the existing coach-trai ning programs are not systematically teaching the critical competencies that. on the one hand. would help prevent injury and on the other would lead to effective post-injury care. It is entirely possible that a major reason for the increased number of injuries is tirat such competencies are largely unknown or. at best. founded on opinion rather than the result of anpi rical study. W The purpose of this study was to identify and validate critical safety behaviors of high school girl 5' gymnastics coaches that serve to prevent. reduce. or deal effectively with injuries to female high school gymnasts. Such coach behaviors are subsequently called inci- dents. and accidents or injuries always pertain to higir school girl gymnasts. W The increasing number of participants in gymnastics during the past 20 years has been accompanied by an increased number of injuries (Bowers. Pie. 8. Schmidt. 1981). Despite all precautions. . . . the possibility of serious injury remains due to the high levels to which the sport has progressed and to the considerable pressure to increase the difficulty content in routines. (Bowers et a1.. 1981. p. 317) In addition. the growing number of lawsuits in gymnastics (Aschenbren- ner. 1983). the sizable financial awards being demanded (Aschenbrenner. 198: Jacki. 1985). and the resultant increase in gymnastics insurance rates (Aschenbrenner. 1983: Jacki. 1985) have greatly increased the concern of gymnastics professionals Even though the occurrence and severity of gymnastics injuries have drawn considerable recognition. few research studies have been conducted on the specific causes of these injuries (Garrick. 1981: Lowry a Leveau. 1982; Shook. T979: Whiteside. 1980). As a result. present coach-trai ning programs are guided by limited research from two sources: (1) opinion-based research firat gives experts' opinions on what constitutes safe gymnasium practices for gymnastics personnel to follow and (2) epi demiology-based research firat focuses on fire fre- quency with which selected accident factors occur so that potential injury patterns can be better identified and preventive efforts be designed. implemented. and evaluated. Bofir fire opinion— and epidemiol ogy-based research approaches are commendable and have produced useful results in fire form of clues to what is happening in terms of injuries These two approaches have provided some preventive measures such as safety guidelines and frequency data for practitioners to follow as they attempt to reduce injuries Despite fire contributions firat opinion and epidemiology research have made. however. both approaches to the problem of sports injuries have inherent weaknesses. Insight into sports injuries using experts' opinions is based on fire experience of concerned gymnastics experts For example. in 1976 the United States Gymnastics Safety Association (USiSA) formed a commission to develop a list of safety principles. publish a safety manual. and develop a certification program. The safety manual con- tained 18 questions. such as "Are the gymnast and instructor able to communicate clearly so that each understands his/her responsibilities during fire learning of fire skill?" (Isabelle. Feigley. a Kruger. 1976. p. 2). Although these questions. which were referred to as guidelines. represent a major contribution. firey did not identify specific actions to be taken to prevent accidents In addition. fire opinion-based guidelines were limited to a small group of interested gymnastics supporters and firerefore could be biased according to eacir con- tributor's special experiences in the sport. Based on 23 years of experience as a gymnast. coach. and official. this researcher contends firat such data do not provide a firm foundation for developing sound. safe gymnastics practices Sensing the need for more quantitative data with which to analyze fire safety situation. gymnastics researchers within fire past ten years have turned to a more rigorous approach borrowed from the field of medicine fire epidemiological approach. This technique measures the frequency of occurrence of factors associated with accidents. such as injuries at a particular body site (e.g.. head. ankle). types of injuries (e.g.. sprains). conditions under which more accidents occur (e.g.. the event on which fire gymnast was performing when she was injured). the movement the gymnast was doing when she fell (e.g.. a double back on fire floor). and participant ciraracteristics (e. 9.. male versus fanale). When the epidemiological approach is used. sports injuries are investigated by means of frequency statistics However. frequency data alone do not indicate what injury-reducing steps to take or the degree of importance of each factor. For example in a recent epide- miological research project in the sports area. data were collected concerning injuries to 100 female college gymnasts (Sands. 1984). No control data for an equival ent sample of noninjured afirletes were reported. The investigator declared that the "epidemiologi cal approach can tell us a great deal about how to prevent sane of our injuries in some way.” He continued. "A profile of the injured afirlete . . . shows her to be about five feet firree inches. weight about 125.5 pounds. injured in November or January.” and among other firings. "less than 22 years old" (Sands. 1984. p. 7). But what does this indicate about preventing injuries? Should all gymnasts who fit firis description be stopped from participating in gymnastics in November and January. for example? Perhaps during these two months some special effort should be put into preventing accidents But nothing was said about what form such special effort. if any. would take. Sands did not mention how important each factor was in contrib- uti ng to unsafe practices Is one factor more important than another? Factors are probably not equally important. For example is weight more or less important than or as important as the gymnast's age? It is imperative firat fire importance dimension of accident factors be taken into account. Some injuries could happen frequently but not be important. whereas ofirers could happen rarely but be of great impor- tance. Other injuries could be both frequent and important or even infrequent and relatively trivial. If decision makers are to have dependable information to use in improving the sport's safety prac- tices. data firat indicate both frequency and importance of accident causes are needed. The present study differs frarr previous research in three major ways: (1) fire investigator concentrated on just one important accident factor. fire safety practices of fire higir school coach; (2) she examined both fire frequency and importance of safety data. a first in gymnastics research efforts as far as the investigator has been able to ascertain; and (3) fire researcher directly addressed fire form of special effort firat could be taken in preventing gymnastics accidents These three new directions in research on mmnastics safety were followed firrough the use of fire critical incident technique. The critical incident technique may serve to add a canponent to epidemiological research that it now lacks because it furnishes behav- ioral information to supplement fire statistics provided by fire epide- miological approach. Referring again to Sands's study on female college gymnasts. suppose firat wanen gymnasts weighing more firan 125.5 pounds were reported to have more accidents than those weighing less This factor could be used as a basis for additional research using fire critical incident technique. Gymnastics experts who can readily observe women gymnasts practice and/or compete in college could be surveyed and asked to describe fireir recollections of accidents i nvolv— ing only firose college female gymnasts who weighed 125.5 pounds or more. The in-depth behavioral information concerning this type of gymnast could be identified. analyzed. and firen added to fire existing data base provided by an epidemiological approach. Wm: The following terms are defined in the context in which firey are used in this dissertation. Accident, An event developing from unforeseen circumstances. which usually results in sane injury or loss. W The observed actions. movements. and performances of an individual. W Those behaviors that differentiate between an effective and an ineffective coach. Emergency. "An unexpected serious happening. demanding irrInediate action" (Taber. 1965. p. E-22). 51153151. "The administration of emergency assistance to individuals who have been injured or ofirerwise disabled. prior to fire arrival of a doctor. or transportation to a hospital or doctor's office. In no sense assumed to be fire substitution for medical care" (Taber. 1965. p. F-23). Incident "Any observable human activity firat is sufficiently complete in itself to permit inferences and predictions to be made about fire person performing the act” (Flanagan. 1954. p. 327). Injury, A trauma experienced by an athlete/gymnast during practice and/or competition that results fran an accident. W The care aanini stered to an injured person after an accident has taken place. In this study. post-injury care involved coaches deciding to treat an injury personally: sending fire irUured person to a physician. nurse. or afirl etic trainer: or a combi- nation of fire two actions W A process through which those in leadership posi- tions. such as sports coaches. strive to control fireir gymnasium envirorrrrrents and the behaviors of gymnasts at practices and/or meets by continually assessing and correcting unsafe circumstances as needed (e.g.. initially obtaining safe equipment and then checking it period- ically to ensure it is in proper working order). m A value that is highly supported by both society and fire law. which involves minimizing accidents and injury. In this research. fire coach behaviors that prevent accidents from occurring were considered effective safety beiraviors [3111:1195 "(1) inferences are drawn from observations of one set of behaviors about a quite different set of behaviors and (2) our concern is wifir fire relative accuracy of those inferences" (Ebel. 1979' P0 303). W W Six major research questions were addressed in this study: 1. What are fire most M occurring critical £391.11: inci- dents that have reduced the occurrence and severity of inju- ries? 2. What are the most immflx occurring critical mm inci dents firat have increased fire occurrence and severity of injuries? 3. What are fire most important critical mm incidents to occur to prevent. reduce. or deal effectively with injuries? 4. What are fire most M critical W incidents not to occur to prevent. reduce. or deal effectively with injuries? 5. What are the combined most frequently occurring and most impor- tant critical mm incidents to occur to reduce the occur- rence and severity of injuries? 6. What are the combined most frequently occurring and most important not to occur critical Wm incidents to reduce fire occurrence and severity of injuries? Emmlaflm The study population comprised afirl etic directors. coaches. coach-selected gymnasts. and officials in firree midwestern states from 1982 firrough 1984. The first survey. which was used to collect fire incidents. was administered to all fire athletic directors. coaches. and coach-sel ected gymnasts in Iowa and Michigan during 1982-83 whose high schools were registered with fire state high school athletic association and had competitive teams The population also included all of fire registered officials in Michigan during 1982-E. The second survey. whicir was used to validate the incidents. was administered to all of the coaches in Illinois during 1983-84 whose high schools were regis- tered wifir fire state high school athletic association and had com- petitive teams The population also included all of fire registered officials in Illinois during T98-84. W In addition to identifying critical behaviors of the coach. two ofirer research specifications were involved. The first was firat fire data be considered in terms of both frequency and importance. The second was firat fire research results be expressed in such a way firat special efforts the coach should make to reduce accidents be accurate clear. unequivocal. and possible to follow. It is this high level of 10 specificity that sets the present research apart from previous studies of safety in high school girls' gymnastics. The critical incident approach used in this research involved firree steps: (1) collection of incidents. (2) content analysis of fire incidents to identify and formulate the behavioral guidelines. and (3) validation of fire behavioral guidelines developed in step two by presenting than to an independent sample of observers of coach behav- iors associated with gymnastics accidents. WW To collect the P001 of critical incidents on which subsequent steps were based. knowledgeable observers were asked to report actual observed incidents Aside from using personal interviews during pilot testing of the instructions for the resulting mail survey. personal interviews were not used for reasons of time cost. and anonymity. It would have been too time consuming and expensive for the investigator to arrange personal inter- views with all 196 of the high school respondents from Iowa and Michi- gan. The issue of anonymity became very clear in the pilot testing. Most of fire respondents specifically asked to ranain anonymous Li ke- wise. firey did not wish to have the names of fireir high school iden- tified. In collecting the critical incidents by mail survey. the writer carefully followed fire guidelines developed by Flanagan (1954). Early in the development of fire critical incident technique. Flanagan noted firat observers of events under study tended to express personal 11 opinions about what ought to be done. Sucir data were easy to collect but were of limited utility because of vagueness and observer bias. To obtain useful generalizations from observers of accidents. Flanagan developed a different behaviorally oriented data-collection and data-processi ng procedure that eliminated asking for opinions Observers were asked to think back on fireir experiences and to recall incidents relevant to the problem of concern. For each such incident. observers were asked to report what people were doing as fire incident occurred. In the case of high school 91 r1 5' gymnastics. fire incidents would involve accidents. Previous studies using the critical incident technique consis- tently have identified eifirer positive or negative beiraviors In contrast. fire intention of this researcher was to identify behaviors firat differentiated between an effective and ineffective coach. These differentiating behaviors are critical--as implied by the term "criti- cal incident approach." The fact is firat effective and ineffective coaches do fireir jobs in very similar ways except for firese few criti- cal behaviors Observers can describe incidents but may not be in a position to identify truly critical behaviors These emerge only fran a detailed study of a wide variety of positive and negative safety incidents. In summary. a researcher using the critical incidents mefirod does not seek ordinary opinions but instead collects observations of behaviors and then objectively and impartially makes much sounder 12 generalizations from the large pool of collected observations of inci- dents. Observers do not always feel completely comfortable about reporting only fireir observations without fireir opinions because firey are not sure how someone else might interpret firem. Observers would rafirer include fireir opinions Neverfireless. instructions can be written in such a way as to motivate subjects to recall and describe fire details of critical incidents. The data-collecti on instructions for this study asked the subjects to recall fireir past experiences with high school 91 r1 5' gymnastics and to focus on the effectiveness of coaching behaviors The behavior data were categorized as eifirer effective or ineffective and served as the basis for the final safety guidelines. Fran fire content analysis of fire circumstances surrounding injuries and accidents. another set of research variables was identified—fire two time aspects of injuries: (1) prevention (before fire injury) and (2) post-injury care (after fire injury). Subjects were asked firree questions about each incident: (1) What was fire situation or background in which the injury almost occurred or did occur? (2) What did you personally observe actually happening as fire near or actual injury was taking place and/or being cared for afterwards? and (3) What were fire consequences of fire near or actual injury? Want:- The investiQGtOI' and a colleague experienced in fire development and use of fire critical incident technique. independently read and analyzed the incidents. 13 identified each one as effective or ineffective and. once agreement on incidents was obtained developed firese into behavioral statements to form fire guidelines. The content-analysis process employed by fire investigator was based on fire work of Maier (T965). Maier advocated firat to initiate a change in the occurrence of any behavior. catastrophic or not. one must first address accident causes as firey relate to fire role of fire profes- sional. such as a gymnastics coach. and then change fire events that lead to accidents Little is accomplished by examining only fire conse- quences of accidents. other firan describing the unsatisfactory state of affairs firat exists Once an accident has taken place no matter how catastrophic. it is too late for prevention Therefore rather firan focusing on fire consequences of accidents. this study was concerned with fire causes of gymnastics accidents in an effort to develop lists of coach safety behaviors from which professionals could develop pre- ventive measures The investigator did not use fire information col- lected on fire consequences of accidents in developing fire final safety guidelines. but firis information did help provide details about the beiraviors and accidents firat were essential to understanding fire causes of accidents The content analysis began with fire investigator's reading and rereading fire collected critical incident reports to screen them and formulate a preliminary framework of incident categories Because the gymnastics safety literature corrrmonly classifies safety as prevention and ranediation. referred to in this study as post-injury care and the 14 critical incident literature categorizes incidents as eifirer effective or ineffective fire investigator assigned all fire incidents to one of four major categories: (1) effective prevention. (2) ineffective prevention. (3) effective post-injury care and (4) ineffective post- injury care. Some of'the ineffective incidents could not be classified as strictly ineffective prevention or ineffective post-injury care Hence a fiffir combined category was developed. ineffective prevention and post-injury care. After each incident had been assigned to a category. fire incidents were reread and furfirer analyzed in an effort to group more of fire incidents that were similar to each other. As a result. five new groups were identified: 1. Coach behavior toward the gymnast a. mainly during practice b. mainly during competition c. during bofir practice and canpetition 2. Coach behavior with respect to the equipment during both practice and canpetition 3. Coach background 4. Coach behavior as a manager of assistant coaches 5. Coach beiravior in general The data within the reports dictated the development of fire study variables Table 1.1 summarizes fire arrangement of fire variables used in this study. Prevention behaviors are listed first. followed by post-injury care. Normally. a coach would first take preventive measures Once an accident occurred. post-injury care would be 15 administered. Since most published safety guidelines take a positive approach. fire investigator followed fire sane procedure. Tabl e l. 1. --Research variables . 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. W Coach behavior toward the gymnast --mainly during practice --during both practice and canpetition 8. Coach behavior wifir respect to fire equipment during both practice and competition C. Coach background 0. Coach management of assistant coaches Win A. Coach behavior toward the gymnast -mainly during practice --mainly during canpetition --during bofir practice and canpetition 8 Coach behavior with respect to the equipment during both practice and canpetition C. Coach background D. Coach managenent of assistant coaches W Coach behavior in general during both practice and competition WW Coacir behavior in general -mainly during practice --mainly during canpetition --during both practice and canpetition WW Coach behavior in general 16 Coach behaviors and background. as well as the situational variables wifir practice and competition. did not appear uniformly in each of fire five categories shown in Table 1.1. It was discovered that observers reported coach behaviors and situational factors under some circumstances but not others The categories correspond closely to observer reports. Table 1.2 shows the number of safety behaviors in each category. Table l.2.--Nrrnber of safety behaviors. by category. Category No. of Behaviors Effective prevention 19 Ineffective prevention 26 Effective post-injury care 6 Ineffective post-injury care 8 Ineffective prevention and post-injury care 2 Total 61 Step two resulted in (1) fire identification of 61 behavioral items that subsequently became safety guidelines for coaches and (2) a categorization of firese 61 items into a simplified structure firat would lend itself to providing measurable variables to be used to group. simplify. and better canmunicate fire beiravioral findings of potential users and aid in furfirer checking on the reliability and validity of fire outcanes of steps one and two. 17 The reliability of fire content analysis carried out in step two is discussed in Chapter III. The reliabilities were found to be satisfactory. and the behavioral guidelines were firerefore usable for step three. Wm The firird and final step provided a validation cireck on fire behavioral guidelines developed in step two The need for validation of the behavioral guidelines arose frarr some of fire difficulties firat trained researchers have experienced when using the critical incident mefirod. In fire critical incident mefiroe strategically situated observ- ers identify and report critical behaviors Next. a separate group of people called judges. subjectively categorize firese reported behav- iors Two important questions must then be addressed: (1) How representative of fire behaviors under study were fire original observa- tions? and (2) How accurate was the categorization? To answer these questions. a third independent but parallel sample of persons experi- enced in the behavior under study indicates the extent to whicir fire beiravi oral categories derived from fire original sample have occurred in fireir experience. If fire behaviors observed by fire first group and categorized by fire second group of persons are rare or nonexistent. fire observed experiences and categorization process would not be valid. If. on fire ofirer hand. fire observations of fire third group closely parallel firose of fire first two groups treated as a unit. a user of fire safety guidelines would have more confidence in firose findings 18 Experience with psychological measurement and fire critical incident mefirod has repeatedly shown the need for validation. In validating fire content occurring in safety research. previous researchers characteristically have encountered a further difficulty. Instead of the usual single criterion for satisfactory validatioe two criteria must be considered: frequency of occurrence and importance All too often. frequency and importance are not highly correlated: that is. a behavior firat frequently occurs can be relatively unimportant. or a behavior firat is highly important may not happen very often. Accordingly. validation must be carried out for each of firese two criteria. To validate fire findings of step two and to better identify the frequency of occurrence and fire degree of importance of fire recal 1- based behaviors. a different group of observers of accidents and post- injury care was surveyed Recognition. rafirer firan recall. was fire mefirod used. A new popul ation was presented with the recall-based behavioral items Each individual was asked to indicate fire extent to which he/she had personally observed the effective and ineffective safety behaviors and fire importance of each in maintaining a safe gymnastics environment. As in the recall process used in step one fire subjects were required to remember past gymnastics accidents before responding to the survey. Next they were asked to select from the recall-based list firose behaviors firey had personally observed in the sport and how important in their judgrrrent each behavior was in contrib- uting to fire safety practices under investigation. 19 In effect. this recognition check on recal l-based behavior lists is one form of external validation. Those recall-based behaviors identified by one sample of gymnastics experts had to be recognized as occurring on fire gymnasium floor by anofirer group of experts before fire investigator could confidently formulate safety guidelines to be used in making practical decisions (eg.. selection training. retraining. and/or evaluation of present and/or potential coaches). Without such measures. fire cirecklists could not be used with as high a degree of confidence Behaviors that very rarely. if ever. predict a coach's safety practices and/or are unimportant could appear on fire lists if they were not checked by another independent group of practitioners. The outline of fire study variables in step two remained fire same for step three because fire findings for step three closely paralleled firose of step two. As a result of carrying out step firree measurenents along two dimensions not available from step two were provided: (1) frequency of occurrence and (2) degree of importance. MW Girl 5' gymnastics falls into four organized training levels: (1) private gymnastics clubs and schools. (2) secondary schools. (3) colleges and universities. and (4) fire elite level of gymnastics This writer concentrated on the high school level for a number of compelling reasons In previous research on fire injury rate for females. compar- ing the high school level to club gymnastics. the latter was found to have a significantly lower injury rate because of better supervision equipment. and conditioning programs and a greater emphasis on teaching 20 proper skills progression (Hage. 1982). It is at the high school level firat fire skills of gymnasts and coaches are probably fire most diverse It is also likely firat high school gymnasts perform at the widest range of environmental conditions. from little in the way of facilities and coaching to relatively fine conditions This diversity creates the variability that has fire best likelihood of meeting research objec- tives. Female rafirer firan male gymnasts were selected for two reasons: (1) researchers have found firat fire rate of injuries is greater among female firan male gymnasts (Kindig. T982). and (2) the field of women's gymnastics has been relatively neglected in terms of research (Shock. 1979). A number of individuals have varying degrees of influence on fire safety of female high school gymnasts: coaches. gymnasts. and ancillary personnel. including parents and relatives of the gymnasts. athletic trai hers. athletic directors. officials and ofirer aanini stra- tors including those who set budgets. fire gymnastics industry including equipment designers. sports physicians. safety researchers. and gymnas- tics pol icy setters such as those who prescribe competition rules and write safety manuals Since fire coach is a relatively permanent part of the sports scene fire professional who can be reached by injury-reducing messages and can probably do the most to reduce sports injuries. firis study was limited to examining fire safety practices of the high school coach. At fire high school level. fire coach is at fire center of the communications 21 network and is the person who mediates between and among the gymnasts and fire various ancillary personnel mentioned above This study was based on the assumption that fire most progress in improving the safety of girls' high school gymnastics is likely to be made by changing fire safety practices of high school coaches The safety guidelines gen- erated in this study were based on and limited to fire cemented obser- vations of fire population surveyed. Wetland W This study can potentially contribute to the field of educa- tional systerrs development in several ways: 1. The usefulness of an infrequently applied data-collection device fire critical incident technique has been demonstrated The identification of fire effective and ineffective critical safety behaviors of higr school gi r1 5' gymnastics coaches might encourage future practitioners to use this technique to identify fire most appropriate canpetencies for practitioners in ofirer fields. 2. The critical incidents gafirered in the study can serve as a source of materials from which practitioners in academic-preparation institutions and/or leaders in gymnastics training programs can design. impl errant. evaluate. and/or revise coach-training prograns. Sum The purpose of this investigation was to identify and validate critical safety behaviors of high school 91 rls' gymnastics coaches firat 22 help to prevent. reduce. or deal effectively wifir injuries to female gymnasts The value of making coach behavior lists available was identified. To collect these safety incidents and formulate them into guidelines for coaches to follow. fire critical incident technique was undertaken in three steps Step one. fire collection of incidents. involved asking knowledgeable observers to recall and report fireir observations of coach behaviors In step two. content analysis was used to identify items and to formulate fire behavioral guidelines fran the incidents In step three as a validity check. another survey was developed and aaninistered to a second. independent group of observers of coach behaviors These observers were asked to recognize from fireir experience how often firose beiraviors in fire cirecklist took place and how important they were in maintaining safe practices Because the incidents identified with fire recall technique in step two were val i- dated to a significant degree by fire recognition cireck in step three fire recal l- and recognition-based coach behavior lists were canbi ned into one set of working safety guidelines for the profession. O-iAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE mm In this chapter. literature closely related to the study is treated under two headings: (1) safety and (2) the critical incident mefirod. Content research is concerned wifir fire behaviors of safety personnel and their role in preventing accidents among followers Research on fire critical incident technique concerns how content interrelationships can be observed and measured. 1.1mm mm A review of research on safety revealed studies in five rele- vant. interrelated areas: (1) categories of people in fire work place (eg.. supervisors. foremen. coaches). (2) three types of accident research (eg.. opinion. epidemiology. and behavior based). (3) two time frames (eg.. prevention and post-injury care). (4) two types of safety guidelines (eg.. effective and ineffective). and (5) a number of situational environments in which accidents take place (eg. coach behavior toward fire gymnast during practice and/or canpetition). Since fire safety literature was primarily concerned wifir fire first firree topics listed above firese areas were used to provide fire 23 24 foundation for the discussion of research in this literature review. The literature dealing with safety was categorized as follows: I. II. Prevention A. 8. General safety and the role of the safety manager 1. Opinion-based research 2. Epidemiology-based research 3. Behavior-based research Sports accidents and the role of the coach 1. Opinion-based research 2. Epidemiology-based research 3. Behavior-based research Gymnastics accidents and the role of the coach 1. Opinion-based research 2. Epideniology-based research 3. Behavior-based research Post-inj ury Care Au 8. C. General safety and the role of the safety manager 1. Opinion-based research 2. Epidemiology-based research 3. Behavior-based research Sports accidents and the role of the coach 1. Opinion-based research 2. Epidemiology-based research 3. Behavior-based research Gymnastics accidents and the role of the coach 1. Opinion-based research 2. Epidemiology-based research 3. Behavi or-based research 25 WW: Witness: The review of literature on prevention is focused on the topics of general safety and sports accidents The gymnastics literature is examined in detail. Several categories of people are involved with safety. irrespective of where the effort takes place (eg.. policy makers. supervisors. coaches). In reviewing the literature on general safety (nonsports-related injuries). the term ”safety manager" is used to designate fire individual who controls the safety practices in the work place Regarding sports. however. fire term "coach" is used to desig- nate fire individual who controls the safety practices of afirletes and coaching staff. W11. General safety research began wifir people formulating opinions Grimaldi and Simmonds (1975) and Haddon et a1. (1964) examined the origin of opinion-based research on safety. They found firat since accidents were believed to "just happen." few attenpts were made to observe and/or study accidents systenatical ly. W The epidemiological approach to safety research evolved during World War II (Haddon et a1.. 1964). Researchers. borrowing from medicine felt firat manifestations of injuries and their ciraracteri sti cs. just as symptoms of disease and epidemics. could be quantified so that causal patterns could be iden- tified and then used to develop injury-reducing measures 26 The history of fire epidemiological approach and significant epidemiological studies in general safety research were summarized by Haddon et al. (1964). According to their summary. fire focus of such research is on fire statistical analysis of factors associated with accidents. such as the host. agent. and environment. The frequency with which accident factors occur is measured. The safety manager's effect on preventing and/or causing accidents is but one of fire many factors examined A common emphasis is on factors firat can be readily observed and quantified. such as the kind of injury. fire injury site on fire body. and fire amount of time lost from work. By implication. fire factor counts suggest accident-preventi on actions to the safety manager. W In general. the behavior-based approach in examining accidents considers accidents a form of injury- producing behavior firat can be studied with observational techniques Once firese behaviors are identified safety researchers report what appropriate procedures can be designed and implemented to reduce the occurrence of such accidents. Landy (1985) reviewed the literature dealing with safety in the work place and found safety managers using firree approaches firat have met with sane success in reducing accident behaviors on the job: (1) an engineering approach firat identifies unsafe work procedures and/or physical conditions in the work environment and then redesigns the environment to improve fire safety conditions: (2) a personnel psyclrol- ogy approach firat identifies individual work characteristics. traits. 27 and/or responses that cause accidents to take place so appropriate personnel changes are made (eg.. training and/or retraining programs are developed and implemented); and (3) an industri al/soci a1 approach firat assumes accidents are motivational problems whereby workers have minimal motivation to follow fire company's safety policies A discus- sion of each of these three approaches. some examples of findings. and prevention procedures (guidelines) follow. 1. The engineering approach. The engineering approach is used to reduce the occurrence of accidents by first identifying environmen- tal conditions that have been causing accidents and then eliminating these unsafe conditions by modifying the nature of the work equipment or process a worker uses Heinrich (1959) and von Haller Gilmer (1971) used this approach in their safety research. In studying the causes of accidents. Heinrich found that injury-producing accident behaviors fell into two categories: (1) unsafe mechanical or physical conditions within the work environment and (2) unsafe acts of persons. violations of commonly accepted safety practices After reviewing 12.000 cases taken at random from closed files of insurance claims and 63.000 other cases from plant owners' records. Heinrich reported that 105 of the accidents steamed from unsafe mechanical or physical conditions and 83 were related to unsafe acts of persons The following list summarizes some of fire unsafe mechanical and/or physical conditions found to cause accidents. 28 1. Unsafely designed machines. tools. etc. . . . 2. Unsafely clothed. no goggles. gloves or masks. wearing higr heels. etc. . . . 3. Unsafe processes. mechanical. chemical. electrical. nuclear. etc. (p. 20) von Haller Gilmer (1971) reviewed the literature on accidents and concurred wifir Hei nrich's classifications of accident behaviors The envirorlnental conditions found to contribute to accidents were: (1) poor lighting. (2) warm and/or cold work temperatures. (3) physi- cal ly demanding work. (4) higr noise level. and (5) poor industrial climate (eg.. low probability of promotion). 2. The personnel psychology approacir. This approach is concerned wifir fire safety behaviors displayed by workers Acci dent- producing behaviors are studied wifir observational techniques to identify effective and ineffective safety behaviors Based on firese behavioral findings. safety managers make selection and/or training decisions For example an individual displaying fire safety behaviors identified as effective is selected for a position and/or pranoted within fire organization. An individual demonstrating ineffective safety behaviors may be passed over for a new position. dismissed from fire current positiorb relocated to a less hazardous job within fire organization. or receive training to improve hi s/her safety behaviors Heinrich (1959) and von Heller Gilmer (1971) also used fire personnel psychology approach in their safety research. Sane of their findings are sumrrarized below. In her previously reported general accident research. von Haller Gilmer found several behavioral factors contributing to 29 accidents in varying degrees: (1) poor vision. (2) extreme fatigue. (3) low auctions. (4) little experience on fire job. and (5) taking high risks--willingness to engage in an activity in which there is specific probability of failure. Hei nricir identified a number of unsafe personal acts resulting in accidents These included ”(1) operating or working at unsafe speed . . . (2) using unsafe equipment. or equipment unsafely . . . [and] (3) failure to use safe attire or personal protective devices" (p. 20). In addition Heinrich developed a list of rules for successful supervisory performance in preventing accidents. based on his knowledge of accident research. Sane of firese rules are: 1. Deal wifir people as hunan beings. not machines. . . . 2. Get people to like and respect you. create loyalty. win cooperation. instill confidence build morale and make men feel firat they belong. . . . 3. Give orders clearly and precisely. . . . 4. Recognize your responsibilities to both managanent and 5. 1:33th odifficulties and ranove obstacles in advance. plan ahead and organize. (pp. 207-208) 3. The industrial/social approach. The third approach used by safety managers to reduce accidents involves motivating workers to behave safely. Research has shown that the number of work-rel ated accidents can be reduced by motivating workers to follow fire organiza- tion's safety policies (Landy. 1985). Kanaki. Barwick. and Scott (1978) developed a program incorporating goal setting. positive reinforcement. and feedback to improve worker safety in two departments in a food-manufacturing plant. After desired safety practices had been identified. workers were 30 observed for 25 weeks. during which firey were frequently given feedback on their safety performance as well as encouragement to improve fireir safety practices As a result. anpl oyees in both deparfinents greatly improved their safety behaviors Workers in one department improved fireir safety performance from 70! to 96$: firose in the other department showed improvanents from 7st to 99$. Komaki et al. concluded firat as long as fire safety program was in operation it was an effective way to improve workers' safety performance. 4. Acci dent-prevention procedures (guidelines). To reduce acci dents. safety researchers have developed acci dent-preventi on procedures for safety managers to follow. Two representative examples are reported below. von Haller Gilmer (1971) advocated the following four-step plan for safety managers to follow in attempting to reduce accidents: 1. Analyze the causes of accidents by observing the unsafe acts and work conditions taking place on the.job. 2. Distinguish between accidents and their consequences. 3. Eliminate unsafe acts through training or retraining anployees and/or relocating workers to a less hazardous job within the organization. 4. Eliminate unsafe conditions. von Haller Gilmer found firat fire severity and frequency of accidents have been substantially reduced since the early 1900s. with fire impl ementation of fire above-mentioned safety procedures She stated. 31 Whenever fire strategic procedures summarized above have been put into practice fire result has been an improvanent in fire safety record Where these have not been adopted. as in the case of traffic accidents. fire record is poor. (p. 336) Heinrich (1959) developed another set of procedures for safety managers to follow to improve fire accident-prevention practices of organizations. His formula contained the following four steps: 1. Identify fire probl an. 2. Find and verify fire reason for fire existence of the probl an. 3. Select fire appropriate renedy. 4. Apply fire renedy. (p. 209) Hei nricir reported that research has shown that firere are only a few kinds of supervisory problans. seven reasons for fireir existence four basic rerredies. and only a few mefirods of application According to Heinrich. fire kinds of supervisory probl ens are as follows: LW l. Errors of carrnission 2. Insufficient work vol une 3. Poor work quality 4. Breakage. wastage. spoilage. etc. 5. Improper methods. tools. etc. II. WM 1. Conscious violation of rules 2. Failure to report facts 3. Abuse of privileges 4. Failure to maintain prenises. tools. etc. 5. Horseplay. gossip. loafing. etc. III. MW 1. Direct refusal or insubordi nation 2. Assurrpti on of unwarranted authority 3. Loose talk 4. Ridicule or criticism or company. etc. 5. Creating disturbance. noise. etc. 32 IV. MW 1. Dissatisfaction. wages. treatment: unhappiness generally 2. Chronic tardiness or absence 3. Outside. hane. social situations 4. Danands for prenature pranotion. etc. 5. Trivial tale bearing (p. 209) Heinrich found several reasons for fire existence of supervisory- rel ated safety problans: 1. Lack of skill 2. Insufficiently informed. misunderstands 3. Not convinced-indecision 4. Finds standard procedure difficult. awkward. etc. 5. Space. light. tools. etc. inadequate. unsafe. etc. 6. Physically unsuited 7. Personal characteristics unsuited (p. 210) To resolve fire various kinds of problarrs. Heinrich advocated enploying one or more of the following types of renedies: 1. Engineering revision" (eg.. changing fire physical envi- ronment through construction. repair). 2. "Persuasion and appeal" (eg.. sending manoranda to workers). 3. "Personal adj ustment" (eg.. adjusting the work assignment to better suit the worker). 4. ”Discipline" (e.g.. adninistering penalties) (p. 210). Heinrich reported firat. when fire foregoing procedures are followed. fire safety manager is better able to identify fire safety- ralated work problem and to select an appropriate ranedy for fire prob- lem by basing the ranedy on actual observations of behaviors rafirer firan on hunches and/or opinions about what fire problem might be 33 The review of behavior-based safety literature showed that behavioral approacires have been used to prevent accidents Actions to reduce accidents have included formulating behavioral checklists to provide guidelines to safety managers. describing how firey should behave toward subordinates That procedure was used in the present study. as well. We BMW WED. Many articles by individual sports experts have reflected fireir opinions about how to reduce sports acci- dents (Allman 1976; Frazier. 1979: Langerman 8. Fidel. T977: Obremsky. 1976). However. a search of fire literature on the role of fire coach in preventing sports accidents produced only firree studies that went beyond individual opinions and used fire collective opinions of groups of experts in identifying the safety abilities an afirletic coach should possess Those abilities were often referred to as medical and/or medical legal. Esslinger (1968) headed a task force for fire American Associa- tion for Health. Physical Education and Recreation (AN-IPER) Division of Men's Athletics Well aware of fire fact that many coaches have deficiencies in fireir professional preparation this association created a small task force to resolve the concern. They concluded firat. to improve fire general qualifications of athletic coaches. each state should develop certification standards To assist the states with this endeavor. fire task force using fireir manbers' opinions. 34 developed a 16-semester-hour program listing minimal standards for fire general professional preparation of all secondary school athletic coaches. In 1973. fire AN-lPER task force met again to review and modify fire coaching standards established at fire 1968 meeting. The committee through discussion and the consensus of experts. developed a list of skills a coach should possess in each of five designated areas: "(1) medical aspects of athletic coaching. (2) principles and problans of coaching. (3) theory and techniques of coaching. (4) kinesiological foundations of coaching. and (5) physiological foundations of coaching" (AMPER. 1973. pp. 1-2). Nafiranson (l979a. 1979b) formulated a list of 68 competencies an athletic coach should possess. based on fire opinions of a panel of experts as well as opinions reported in the sports literature He firen submitted firese competency statements to high school and college ath- letic directors and regional representatives or selected coaching executive officers in New York. Respondents were asked to express on a f ive-poi nt rating scale their degree of agreanent wifir each statement. Fifty-one of fire 68 canpetencies were accepted and incorporated into a set of recommendations for programs for fire City University of New York and fire State University of New York. Such opinion-based research on fire role of fire coach in preventing accidents is an important step in identifying safety concerns WW Epidemiology-based Sports safety research originated in fire 1970s Frequency counts on factors 35 associated with sports accidents provide a basis for identifying areas in which concerned professionals can do something to decrease the likelihood of injuries The relatively high rate of accidents taking pl ace in the sports area (Bailey. 1981: Esslinger. 1968: Garrick 8. Requa. 1978) has initiated the development of several accident-data-collecti on systems for the epidarriological surveillance of injuries (Damron 1981). Danron listed three data-collection systens that are applied to sports: 1. The National Safety Council System. which records fire details of elementary and secondary school student accidents and injuries. 2. The National Electronic Injury Surveillance System. a national data-collection systan firat attenpts to determine fire causes and scope of product injuries to consuners. 3. The National Athletic Injury Reporting System. a national sports injury data-collection systan. which generates continuing counts on fire incidence of and circumstances associated wifir athletic injuries for male and fanale sports partici pants. The epi daniology-based research procedure is used to quantify fire frequency of occurrence of accident-rel ated factors but at best is only minimally effective in identifying what injury-reducing steps to take. WW Educational Researcir Information Center (ERIC) computer searcires at fire University of Iowa and Michigan State University. Medline computer searches at fire University of Iowa. 36 manual literature searches by fire investigator. and correspondence with individuals currently involved in related research failed to provide evidence of behavior-based research in the sports area. Mathew: 891W Safety guidelines for gymnastics coaches seem to have evolved from the experiences of individuals involved in the sport as an observer. an afirlete a coach. or an official. In time gymnastics magazines and textbooks and classes were developed that concentrated on safety in the sport (eg. safety clinics and gymnastics coaching classesL As the number of injuries has increased within the past decade (Eisenberg 8. Allen 1978: Snook. 1979). concerned professionals have begun to search for additional ways to improve safety in the sport. One of the earliest programs aimed at organizing available gymnastics safety information and raising fire level of safety practices was developed by fire Uni ted States Gymnastics Safety Association (UESSA). In 1977. fire USGSA formed a small gymnastics commission firat wrote fire Gymnastics Safety Manual and developed a certification programs The Gymnastics Safety Manual contains a wealth of professional opinions concerning fire more important safety concerns in fire sport. It also includes a checklist of 18 safetyrquestions practitioners should use in evaluating safety practices. These safety questions are: 37 Is the Envirorrnent Prepared for the Performance of fire Skill? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Has fire instructor prepared fire gymnasium wifir proper matting and safe. secure equi prrrerrt? Is fire protective equipment properly positioned? Is the protective equipment appropriate to the level of difficulty and/or risk of fire skill to be attenpted? Is the protective equipment sufficient for fire weight of fire gymnast and fire force of a fall should it occur? Is the apparatus properly adjusted for the gymnast? Have measures been taken to prevent accidental collisions with others by identifying approach and landing areas in which performers have fire right of way? Is the Gymnast Prepared to Be Performing the Skill? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Does fire gymnast have fire physical abilities. strength. flexibility. and body awareness needed for the new skill? Are fire gymnast and instructor able to communicate clearly so that each understands his/her responsibilities during fire learning of fire skill? Is the gymnast motivated to perform the skill? Have fire potential problans in fire new skill learning experience been adequately identified to the satisfaction of both instructor and gymnast. and have measures been taken to eliminate or to minimize any risk? Does fire gymnast display or admit to any anxieties. doubts. or fears that could interfere with the safe performance of fire skill? Does the gymnast understand the mechanics of the skills and fire sequence of necessary steps leading to fire mastery of the skills? Has the gymnast attained sufficient mastery of the required subskills? Is the Instructor Prepared to Teach the Skill? 1. 2. 3. 4. Does fire instructor have sufficient knowledge of fire mechanics of fire skill to be learned and the necessary subskills? Is the instructor able to make specific adjustments in the learning sequence to accommodate fire gymnast's need whefirer real or imagined? Is the instructor familiar wifir the level of mental pre- paredness of fire gymnast and has fire instructor determined if that preparedness is appropriate to the difficulty level of fire skill? Is the instructor capable of spotting the skill properly eifirer by himself/herself or with qualified assistance? 38 5. In the event of special learner problans. is the instructor able to furfirer divide fire skill into smaller meaningful steps? (Isabelle et a1.. 1977. pp. 1-2) The safety guidelines include many. if not most. of the important safety considerations regarding the environment. afirlete. and instructor. However. as fire authors of fire manual indicated. firese guidelines are not exhaustive. WM An examination of epidemiology- based research on gymnastics acci dents revealed a large variety of investigator interests To provide a comprehensive yet concise cl assi- fication fire literature is reviewed in terms of fire following cl us- ters: (1) specific body parts. (2) catastrophic injuries. and (3) specific organized training level s-private clubs. high schools. uni- versities. and elites 1. Research on specific body parts Priest and Weise (1981) examined bofir personal and environmental factors associated with elbow injuries to fanale gymnasts The personal factors were (1) the experience of fire spotter and (2) fire training fire gymnast had been given on how to fall. The environmental factors were (1) the event on which fire gymnast was injured. (2) thickness of fire mats. (3) fire skill the gymnast was performing when she became injured. (4) the occasion (eg.. canpetition or practice). and (5) fire presence of a spotter when the injury took pl ace The authors noted that fire factors most often associated with elbow injuries were lack of spotters and thin floor mats. 39 Jackson Wiltses. and Cirincione (1976) studied personal acci- dent factors associated with fire incidence of spondylosis. vertebrae defects in the lower back. in female gymnasts The personal factors were (1) height. (2) weight. (3) age. (4) years of experience in the sport. (5) hours of practice a week. and (6) past history of back pain. The investigators found firat fire incidence of spondylosis was four times higher in the study group than in the general fanale Caucasian popula- tion. 2. Research on catastrophic injuries Since 1978. the USGSA has continuously studied catastrophic injuries to male and fanale gymnasts in the United States This organization funds the National Gymnastics Catastrophic Injury Registry at fire University of Illinois. which collects personal and environmental data on permanent neurol ogi- cal injuries Personal data included (1) sex. (2) age. (3) performance level. and (4) status of the gymnast (eg.. an afirlete who competed in fire sport or a physical education student doing gymnastics in school). The enviromnental data collected concerned (1) the event on which the injury occurred. (2) fire gymnastics equipment company firat produced fire equipment on which fire gymnast was injured. (3) the type of injury (eg.. brain damage). (4) program sponsor (eg. high school. private club). (5) the occasion (eg.. practice and/or competition). (6) the situation (eg.. improper landing on fire mats). and (7) the type of spotting harness used. if any. The Registry found that. firrough 1982. of fire 20 catastrophic injuries reported. 70: involved males. 50% of the women's injuries occurred on the parallel or uneven bars. 2% of 40 fire men's injuries took place in a physical education class. and 45% of firose who were injured were 19 to 23 years old 3. Research on specific organized training levels. Research conducted at.a specific organized training level was the most prevalent of fire firree types of epidemiological researcir. These training levels are (1) private clubs. (2) high schools. (3) universities. and (4) elites. Two studies addressed the injury problem at the private-club leveL. Both studies examined selected environmental factors as they related to injuries taking pl ace in the sport. whereas only one reported the personal factors associated with gymnastics accidents. Lowry and Leveau (1982) examined certain environmental factors related to injuries taking place at clubs These factors were (1) club size (2) class level of competition (3) student/instructor ratio. (4) types and number of injuries. (5) event on which fire injury occurred. (6) availability of safety equipment. and (7) conditioning program. The investigators found that: l. The more highly competitive levels of gymnastics resulted in higrer injury rates firan did fire less canpetitive and noncanpetitive levels. 2. More injuries to fanale gymnasts took pl ace on floor exerci se. 3. Contusions were fire most frequent type of injury for both fanale and male gymnasts. 41 4. The higher student/instructor ratios (8:1 or 7:1) as compared to lower ratios (such as 4:1) did not result in higrer injury rates. Ganim and Wei ker (1983) reported the nunber and types of injuries at fire club level of men's and wanen's gymnastics They collected information on the personal and envirorrnental factors asso- ciated with injuries The personal factors pertained to both instruc- tor and gymnast. Instructor information included (1) number of instructors at fire club. (2) student/instructor ratio at each level. and (3) personal data (eg.. age. experience in the sport as a competi- tor and coach. previous USGSA safety certification). Gymnast back- ground information included (1) sex: (2) hand. eye and foot dominance; (3) heigrt; (4) weight: (5) years of formal gymnastics training: (6) present competitive cl ass level: and (7) number of hours of training a day. The environmental factors examined were (1) program information (eg.. rajui ranents for each gymnastics level in the club). (2) facil- ity information (eg.. type of apparatus). and (3) injury information (eg.. fire event on which the injury occurred). The investigators found firat fire factors related to fire gymnas- tics program and the instructor showed no correlation with injury rates The following environmental factors did relate to club gymnas- tics accidents: 1. The highest nunber of injuries occurred on the balance 42 2. Class I gymnasts tended to get injured from mixed moves. whereas preps. gymnasts taking classes but not presently on a canpeti- tive team. most often were injured in a fall fran the apparatus 3. The most common type of injury to a Class I gymnast was a sprain or fracture whereas for a prep it was usually a sprain or contusion. 4. An increase in injuries was related to the more difficult moves. 5. Gymnasts performing established skills--those skills gymnasts have generally mastered—had fire higrest injury rate. 6. The highest nunber of injuries for Class I gymnasts tended to occur in fire second hour of workout. while preps tended to get injured late in their workout. To summarize the higher risk factors. Ganim and Wei ker constructed profiles of fire athlete most likely to become injured. based on the study findings They reported that the gymnast most likely to become injured would be "a smaller firan average Class I. fanale gymnast performing an established skill at fire C or CR level on fire beam during fire second hour of her workout and working without a spotter" (p. 5). Garrick and Requa (1973. 1974) carried out two studies in which firey examined fire gymnastics injury problan at fire higr school level. The first study involved just the higr school level of gymnastics. whereas fire second study included high scirool. college and private- club gymnastics In each study. fire authors investigated the 43 following environmental factors associated with men's and women's gymnastics accidents: (1) the event on which fire accident took place. (2) number and types of injuries. (3) anatomical site of fire injury. (4) amount of time lost from training and (5) occasion. The research- ers found that: 1. Most injuries took pl ace on floor exercises (33:). followed by fire balance beam (21%). 2. Sprains were the most frequent injury (43%). 3. The ankle was fire most frequent injury site. 4. Most injuries occurred during practice (95%): just 5% took place at meets. Seven research studies examined environmental factors associated wifir accidents among wanen collegiate gymnasts (Al bohm. 1976; Clarke. 1931: Eisenberg 8 Allen 1978: Gillette 1975; Haycock 8 Gillette 1976: Sands. 1984: Snook. 1979). The environmental factors most often investigated. in order of priority. were: 1. Frequency and type of injury to wanen collegiate gymnasts (Albohm. 1976; Clarke. 19m; Eisenberg 8 Allen 1978: Gillette. 1975: Haycock 8 Gillette 1976; Sands. 1984: Snook. 1979). 2. Anatanical site of the injury (Clarke. 198): Eisenberg 8 Allen. 1978; Haycock 8 Gillette. T976). 3. The environment in which the injury took place (Albohm. 1976: Clarke 1980). 4. The event on which fire injury occurred (Clarke. 19m; Sands. 1984). 44 5. The skill fire gymnast was performing when the accident occurred (Sands. 1984). 6. The month fire accident took pl ace (Sands. 1984). The researchers found: 1. The two most common types of injuries were the sprain followed by fire strain 2. Most injuries were to the lower extremity. 3. Most accidents occurred in floor exercises. 4. Most accidents took place at practice. 5. Most accidents.took place when the gymnast performed a double back somersault. 6. Most accidents occurred during January. One study was conducted at the elite level. Jeffrey (1975) found that gymnasts at the more highly competitive elite level had a higrer injury rate firan did those at fire less canpetitive levels. W291). Medline computer searches at fire University of Iowa. ERIC computer searches.at the University of Iowa and Michigan StaterUniversity. manual searches by the investigator. and correspondence and discussions with individuals currently located in related gymnastics research failed to locate citations of behavior- based research in fire gymnastics area. 45 W Intmductien The post-injury care literature dealing with general safety and sports accidents is summarized in this section The gymnastics literature is examined in detail. Whine WWW Wren. Safety research on post-injury care was predaninantly opinion based For example Blake (1964) reported firat post-injury care and the responsibilities of the safety manager in any organization involved insuring firat firere were adequate first-aid provisions and that prompt and proper treatment was given to employees who suffered an injury on fire job. This process involved fire safety manager's assessing the organization's f i rst-aid facilities. fire compe- tencies of personnel adninistering first aid. type of organizational record keeping of accidents. and the need for first-aid training wifirin fire plant so firat when accidents did occur an injured anployee was given fire proper treatment. Wm}; A Medline computer search at the University of Iowa. ERIC computer searches at fire University of Iowa and Michigan State University. and a manual searcir of fire literature failed to identify post-injury-care citations firat were epideniology based. WM Medline computer searches at the University of Iowa. ERIC canputer searches at the University of Iowa 46 and Michigan State University. and manual searcires by fire investigator failed to provide citations of behavior-based research on post-injury care. W W WEED. Most research in the post-injury-care literature dealing with fire role of fire coach was opinion based. Many opinion-based books (Muckle T975) and articles (Mags 8 Moore 1981: Obransky. 1977; Redfearn 1980b) are available In general. firese provide opinions on what a coach should do to treat an injured athlete. The literature evidenced little or no consensus on just where fire coach's responsibility begins and ends Opinions range from the belief firat because coaches are usually fire first to approach fire injured afirl ete. firey should assess the situation and administer the needed basic medical care (Shroyer. 1977). to fire ofirer extrane which holds that the coach's main responsibility is merely to summon a trainer or medical professional such as a team physician for assistance (Redfearn. 1975). WEI]. Only one study was located that was epidaniology based and examined fire post-injury skills of coaches Redfearn (1980a) administered a questionnaire to high school coaches in ten sports in Michigan concerning fireir medical skills. such as train- ing in emergency medicine Red Cross. and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR): experience with life-firreatening injuries: and sel f-appraisals of ability to manage a life-firreatening injury. The findings showed 47 that 2.71 of the subjects were trained in emergency medicine. 55% in Red Cross First Aid. and 30: in CPR. In addition fire respondents' sel f-appraisals indicated that only 44% of fire subjects felt they could handle a medical anergency. and 28% reported firat firey had experienced a life-threatening injury with one of fireir athletes W11, An ERIC computer searcir conducted at the University of Iowa and Michigan State University and correspondence with researchers in this area produced no citations of beiravior-based research on post-injury care in dealing wifir sports accidents. Wire 39.1mm W311, The Gymnastics Safety Manual (1977) summarized fire opinions of experts concerning fire role of fire gymnas- tics coach in dealing with post-injury care The following three suggestions were made for fire coach to follow: 1. Always have Medical Information Forms for each gymnast in order to know of any physical or psychological handicaps he or she may have--incl uding chronic ailments such as diabetes. epi- lepsy. heart disease allergies. or asthma—as well as fire name of his or her physician and relatives to be notified in emer- gencies. 2. Be ready to summon help from the most appropriate source: a physician a certified athletic trainer. an ambulance service a person trained in the American National Red Cross Advanced First Aid and Emergency Care program. or a person trained in the Red Cross or American Heart Association resuscitation program. (Leaders of hi gh-risk or hi gh—exposure activities should thansel ves receive emergency medical care training. according to a recommendation of fire National Academy of Sci ence/National Research Council.) A telephone should be available to every gymnastic instructor or coach. and posted near it should be nunbers for 48 Ambulance (or Emergency Operations Center) Teen or School Physician Athletic Trainer Fire Department (or Emergency Operations Center) Police Department (or Emergency Operations Center) 3. Carry an adequate amount of anergency care equipment and supplies This should be stored in a safe and accessible place such as a gymnasium office: should be plainly marked: and should be inspected periodically to assure its cleanliness and usability. (Lindstran 8 Kalenak. 1977. p. 101) WEED. Correspondence and discussions with researchers on gymnastics accidents. a manual search of the lit- erature and ERIC computer searcires at fire University of Iowa and Michigan State University produced no epidemiology-based research on post-injury care as related to fire role of fire coach. W1], A Medline computer search at fire University of Iowa. ERIC canputer searches at fire University of Iowa and Michigan State University. a manual search of fire gymnastics literature and correspondence with individuals involved in related research failed to identify post-injury-care citations that were behavior based. Samar: In this section of the literature review. safety research was organized into firree areas: (1) fire types of safety managers and fireir role in improving safety practices. (2) type of research conducted. and (3) type of accident event. The research on general safety dealing wifir safety managers was far more extensive firan that on afirl etics or gymnastics Neverfireless. fire review showed firat findings of research fran nonafirl etic areas could also apply to gymnastics. 49 Of the three types of safety research that have been con- ducted. opi nion-based research was fire most prevalent across all cate- gories of safety managers This was followed by epidemiology-based research and firen behavior-based research. All three types of research have made useful contributions to accident reduction Concerning the type of accident event. fire prevention literature across all categories of people involved in accident prevention was far more widespread than firat concerning post-injury care. Wanna The principal research method used in this study was fire criti- cal incident technique What high school girl s' gymnastics coaches did in safety situations was identified firrougr collected critical inci- dents that were observed taking pl ace on the job. These incidents were firen categorized and formulated into safety guidelines for coaches to follow. The critical incident technique was used because it: is thought to have certain values not obtainable by other techniques of measurenent: l. Adequate collection of critical incidents pl aces categories of human behavior on an anpirical base thus providing for greater validity for any subsequent measuring instrunent. 2. Collections of critical incidents provide realistic bases for any of a variety of evaluation techniques. alfirough the incidents do not of firanselves canprise a measuring instrunent. 3. The critical incidents thansel ves can frequently serve as a source of fire raw material out of which evaluation items are constructed. (Good. 1966. pp. 261-62) 50 The originator of fire critical incident technique Flanagan (1954). considered the technique a two-step process: (1) the unvalidated development of fire practical implications of a set of critical inci- dents and (2) a validated follow-up. In reviewing the literature on the critical incident technique. it was found firat a number of researchers using fire technique did not use the recommended follow-up but merely relied on unvalidated implica- tions of a set of critical incidents For this reason fire review was divided into two sections: (1) studies without validation and (2) studies with validation W W The critical incident technique was first used to analyze the effective and ineffective combat-leadership behaviors of pilots in the United States Air Force in World War II (Flanagan 1954). The tech- nique was found to be helpful in identifying effective and ineffective behaviors of combat pilots During the past 40 years. fire critical incident technique has been used successfully in a number of ofirer fields. including business law (Wilkinson 1979). consulting (Hanson 1977). special education (Ingharn 8 Blackhurst. 1976). education (Jensen 1951/1952: Leles. 1968). paraprofessionalism (Santapolo 8 Kell. 1976). engineering (Kaufman 1973). orthopaedic surgery (Gregory. 1969). and personnel management (Kay. 1959: Kirchner 8 Dunnette 1957). as well as with specific occupational groups. such as sales clerks 51 (Folley. 1953). dentists (Wagner. 1950). bookkeepers (Nevins. 1949). and forenen (Finkle 1949). Once effective and ineffective critical behaviors were identi- fied checklists were produced for individual and/or organizational use Interested individuals could use the checklists to (1) evaluate fireir own behaviors and determine fire need for training and/or retrain- ing and (2) become more aware of what was and what was not expected of than on fire job. Organizations could use fire cirecklists to (1) select candidates for a specific job. (2) appraise fire job performance of anpl oyees and take needed actions (eg.. rewarding outstanding anplcy- ees with job promotions and/or a merit raise. terminating ineffective anplcyees). and (3) develop and impl arrent training and/or retraining prograrrs. For example in 1964. fire American Board of Orfiropaedic Surgery used fire critical incident technique to identify critical behaviors of crfiropaedic surgeons (Gregory. 1969). More than 1.700 incidents involv- ing 1.100 practicing surgeons were collected These behaviors were firen used to develop examinations and certifying procedures Hansen Himes. Down and Sartone (1977) used fire critical incident technique to identify and describe the critical behaviors of consultants who worked with teachers The researchers surveyed 45 elanentary school teachers One hundred forty incidents were identi- fied. of which 113 were effective Based on a content analysis of firese incidents. fire majority of the effective incidents fell in the categories of instructing. consultant characteristics. and consultation 52 relationships Most of the 27 ineffective incidents were categorized under consultant characteristics and structure Hansen et al. identi- f ied the 'consultant's ability to offer explanations and concrete suggestions and to help fire teacher learn how to work wifir fire student or students” (p. 293) as the most critical effective consultant behav- ior. WM: Wen Researcirers using the critical incident technique have identi- fied a range of behaviors inherent in a job and/or probl erratic situa- tion but have not always measured. as fully as desirable the relative frequency and/or importance of fire behaviors Therefore to better identify fire frequency of occurrence and degree of importance of fire recall-based behaviors identified firrcugr fire critical incident tech- nique. researchers have often surveyed a parallel sample of subjects to validate their findings After a successful validity dreck. fire val 1- dated behaviors could presumably be used with a greater degree of confidence Such validation studies have been conducted by Rcff (1950) with combat-leadership behaviors of Air Force pilots. Reilly (1976) wifir fire behaviors of graduate students. and Machungwa (1981) wifir fire work behaviors that errranced motivation and productivity in Zambia. After collecting descri pticns of good and poor combat leaders frcrn returning aircrew officers. Roff (1950) developed and adrrini stered a validation survey to flying officers Subjects were asked to rate fire degree of importance of various effective and ineffective 53 characteristics. based on fireir flying experiences Examples of descriptions of good and poor combat leaders included: Knowledge of Canbat Flying: Knows his canbat tactics perfectly: very good at evasive action: . . . vs Lacked combat experience: inadequate knowledge of combat tactics and enemy opposition: experience not up to his rank. Proficiency in His Rated Specialty and Knowledge of His Equipment: A poor pilot: couldn't fly a good lead: dangerous to fly with or follow: . . . vs Exceptional flying ability: best pilot in his squadron: understood all phases of banbing technique. (pp. 230-31) Roff compared the ratings of successful officers and poor officers The most discriminating ciraracteristic was Strictness of Ground Discipline followed by Oual ity and Speed on Combat Decisions. Concern wifir Personal Advantage Flying Judgment. and Responsibility for His Men in Combat. Such characteristics as Voice. Stature Educa- tion and Age were discovered not to distinguisir between fire more successful and less successful leaders Machungwa (1981) conducted a validation study on work motiva- tion in Zanbia. Critical incidents were first collected from 341 Zanbian employees and content analyzed to construct a validation ques- tionnaire. The validation survey was given to another group of anpl oy- ees to determine which beiraviors could enhance work motivation and productivity. Machungwa found five factors that could increase or impair motivation: "(1) Growth and Advancanent Opportunity. (2) Work Nature and Context. (3) Material and Physical Provisions. (4) Relations With Ofirers. [and] (5) Fairness in Organizational Practices” (p. 61). Some of fire motivating work behaviors that were validated in the Growth and Advancement Opportunity category were: "Promotion or cirance for 54 promotion" "Chance to learn more about job and/or furfirer training." "Responsibility." and ”feedback (corrective)" (p. 61). Some of fire demotivatcrs that impaired work in the Growth and Advancement Opportu- nity category were: "Promotion (lack of)" and "Lack of chance to learn more about job and/or furfirer training" (p. 61). imam The critical incident technique is a two-step process that has been used successfully in a number of fields since it was first intro- duced during World War II. The effective and ineffective behaviors of workers in various occupations have been identified These behaviors have often been formed into checklists and used to (l) sel f-trai n and/or retrain. (2) make workers more aware of what behaviors are expected on the job. (3) select work personnel. (4) evaluate employees' job performance. (5) train and/or retrain personnel. (6) pranote out- standing anployees. (7) dismiss poor anployees. and (8) develop and impl anent needed training and/or retraining programs magnum General safety research dealing wifir safety managers in nonafirl etic areas was far more extensive firan research on safety in athletics and gymnastics Of fire firree types of safety researcir firat have been conducted. opi nion-based research was the most common across all categories of safety managers. followed by epi daniology-based and firen behavior-based research. In addition fire prevention literature 55 across all categories of people involved in reducing accidents was far more widespread firan fire literature on post-injury care. The critical incident technique. a two-step process. has been used successfully in a number of fields to identify effective and ineffective behaviors of workers These behaviors have often been formulated into checklists and used by individuals and/or organizations to (1) self-train and/or retrain. (2) select work personnel. (3) eval u- ate job performance and (4) develop and implanent needed training and/ or retrai ni ng programs O-IAPTER III LETHODS Intncdusticn This chapter contains a description of fire mefirods used to achieve the purpose of the study: to identify and validate critical safety behaviors of high school coadres firat serve to prevent. reduce or deal effectively with injuries to fanale gymnasts. W A great deal of concern is being evidenced about the prevention of sports injuries However. few research studies have been conducted on the specific causes of sports injuries to wanen (Al bohm. 1976: Gillette 1975: Whiteside 1980). Sane researchers have provided information on what was believed to constitute safe sports practices but often have not reported fire specific injury-reducing steps or behaviors that fire coach should take. This writer assumed that present coach-training programs are not systanati cal ly teaching the critical preventive competencies a coach should possess because such competen- cies are largely unknown or. at best. founded on opinions and accident statistics rafirer than being based on empirical evidence. 56 57 mum: The population comprised 637 athletic directors. coaches. coach-sel ected gymnasts. and officials These individuals were chosen because firey all were in a position to observe the effective and inef- fective safety behaviors of girl 5' high school gymnastics coaches The predictor instrument was used to survey all of fire high school athletic directors. coaches. and coach-sel ected gymnasts in Iowa and Michigan whose high schools were registered with fire state high school athletic association and had competitive gymnastics teams In addition all of fire state-registered high school officials in Michigan were surveyed. The criterion instrument was used to survey all of fire high school coaches in Illinois whose high schools were registered with fire state high school afirletic association and had a competitive gymnastics team. as well as all of fire state-registered officials mm The critical incident technique developed by Flanagan (1954) was used to collect behavior-based safety information The technique involved firree steps: (1) development and administration of a predictor survey to collect observed incidents of coaches who were effective and i neffecitve in preventing accidents and administering post-injury care (2) content analysis of fire incidents to identify and categorize fire behaviors. and (3) development and administration of a criterion survey to validate the behavioral guidelines developed in step two. 58 Steps one and two were designed to develop the preliminary sets of gymnastics safety guidelines. and step firree fire validated gui de- lines Operational ly. fire predictor (steps one and two togefirer) and criterion (step firree) instruments were carried firrough firree phases: (1) development of fire instrument. (2) collection of data. and (3) data analysis Within each of firese firree phases. several operations ccrnmon to both instruments were involved These within-phase operations were as follows Several steps were involved in the first phase First was the formulation of instrument objectives. which were (1) to design a meas- uring instrument to collect the needed safety data. (2) to instruct subjects on how to canplete and return fire survey and suppl anentary forms. (3) to motivate subjects to participate conscientiously in the survey. and (4) to ascertain fire extent to which fire groups of subjects were comparable The instruments from steps one and three were routinely pilot tested to monitor fireir effectiveness in collecting and/or validating the safety information Needed revisions were made before administer- ing fire instrument in its final form. It was necessary for subjects to be representative of fire target population-high school 91 r1 5' gymnastics coaches Thus. fire survey population comprised all of fire afirl etic directors and coaches in Iowa and Michigan whose high scirools were registered wifir fire state high scirool afirl eti c association and had girl s' gymnastics teams. all of fire higr school officials in Michigan and Illinois who were 59 registered with fire state and coach-selected gymnasts in Iowa and Michigan who were members of fire gymnastics team. In selecting subjects for fire surveys. seven north-central states were considered: Illinois. Indiana. Iowa. Michigan Minnesota. Ohio. and Wisconsin Indiana was eliminated because in 1982-8 firat state's competitive high scirool gymnastics program for girls was divided into two evaluation levels. compulsory and optional. This division would make it difficult. if not impossible to compare Indiana with the ofirer states because fire ofirer states used optional canpeti- tion only. Minnesota and Wisconsin were eliminated because they had a far higrer proportion of high schools wifir gymnastics teams firan did fire ofirer states (Minnesota = 22.55. Wisconsin 8 33.2%). Ohio was eliminated because its high school gymnastics were regulated by fire International Federation of Gymnastics Code of Points. as opposed to fire National High School Federation's rule book. which was used for high school competition in all of the other considered states The firree ranai ning states-Iowa. Illinoisand Michigan-were used in fire research. Smaller and less developed in high school girl 5' gymnastics. Iowa was used only for pilot testing. Table 3.1 summarizes fire gymnas- tics statistics for fire seven north-central states Of fire two principal methods of administering surveys. personal interview or mail survey. fire latter was used for both fire predictor and criterion instruments The mail survey permitted anonymity of responses. was less expensive and time consuming to administer. and had 60 fire potential for reaching a larger geographic area within a shorter period of time firan fire personal interview. Table 3.l.--Gymnasti cs statistics for the seven north-central states. Nunber of High Nunber of High Percent of High Schools in fire Schools in fire Schools With State State High School State With Gi rls' Gymnas- Athletic Assoc. Gi rls' Gymnas- tics Teams ti cs Teams Illinois 834 103 12.45 Indiana 405 147 36.5% Iowa 495 31 6.3% Michigan 742 95 12.8% Minnesota 601 135 22.5% Grio 730 140 19.2% Wisconsin 424 141 33.25 Subjects were first mailed a package of materials that included fire survey and related forms Each package was coded so firat respond- ents and nonrespondents could be differentiated Two weeks later. a raninder postcard was mailed to nonrespondents Two weeks after fire raninder postcard had been sent. another copy of fire original survey materials and an appeal letter were mailed to ranaining nonrespondents As a final follow-up. raninder phone calls were made to predictor- survey subjects The investigator firought firat it would be extremely difficult to make telephone contacts with subjects during the summer vacation On fire ofirer hand. a mailing was certain to be received within a reasonable time Therefore firis technique was used wifir fire criterion-survey group. 61 In fire third phase. data analysis. each of the two surveys required two different sets of data-processing procedures The predictor survey necessitated a content analysis of the critical incidents. whereas fire criterion survey involved statistical analysis. W W Wat. The Predictor instrument reflected fire joint experiences of fire investigator. a long-time gymnastics competitor. coach. and official. and her research advisor. who had for a number of years used fire critical incident technique in busi ness. industry. and the military. Also used were guidelines that Flanagan (1954) had carefully developed. F1 anagan's critical incident mefirod consisted in collecting behaviors of anployees firat described especially effective and ineffec- tive performance. The behaviors. obtained through observations rafirer firan opinions. described fire events firat led to incidents. fire specific actions of anpl oyees during the inci dents. and the consequences of firose behaviors. To obtain these critical incidents. subjects experienced in gymnastics were asked to (l) recall fireir experiences wifir gi rls' high school gymnastics during the 1982-83 academic year. (2) focus on the behavior of one or more coaches who displayed especially effective and/or ineffective behavior in preventing and/or caring for a gymnas- tics injury. and (3) write as precisely as possible responses to firree open-ended questions: (a) What was the situation or background in 62 which fire injury almost occurred or did occur. fire ci rcumstances. fire antecedents? (b) What did you personally observe happening as fire near or actual injury was taking place and/or being cared for? and (3) What were fire consequences. if any. of fire near or actual injury? To motivate subjects to participate in the study. a cover letter was included with fire survey. anphasizing firat fire study findings would be personally useful. mentioning the support frcrn the surveyed state's high school athletic association and describing fire general professional value of fire study. To determine fire extent to which fire pilot population was comparable to the predictor and criterion respondents and to comply with federal and university regulations protecting subjects of graduate research. firree supplanentary forms were developed to accompany the survey: (1) a personal data sheet used to collect danographic data. as well as written feedback on any difficulties fire respondents experi- enced while completing fire survey: (2) a participant agreanent form: and (3) a parental consent form to be used with gymnastics under 18 years old. mm Iowa was used as the pilot predictor state because (1) fire investigator lived in Iowa during fire time of fire pilot survey and served as assistant women's gymnastics coach at fire Uni ver- sity of Iowa. and (2) Iowa had a relatively small but sufficient number of girl 5' high school teams to pilot test the survey and. in case fire survey did not collect fire needed data. a large number of subjects would not have been lost to the main study. 63 Before fire pilot data collection began. fire pilot predictor was adrrinistered informally and independently to five individuals at fire University of Iowa: the head and assistant women's gymnastics coaches. fire assistant men's gymnastics coach. a high school 91 r1 5' gymnastics official. and a member of the University of Iowa's gymnastics team. Each subject was instructed to read and complete fire surveys as if he/she were involved in high school gymnastics and to report on diffi- culties experienced Because no problans were experienced. fire tested materials were systanati cal ly administered to subjects who were knowl- edgeable about high school gymnastics They included athletic direc- tors. coaches. and coach-sel ected gmnasts in all 31 high schools in Iowa that belonged to fire state high school athletic association and had a gi r1 3' gymnastics team during the 1982-83 academic yeah-a total of 93 subjects On February 21. 1983. firree packages of material s-each containing a cover letter. six critical incident forms (firree effective and three ineffective). a participant consent form. a personal data sheet. and a sel f-addressed. unstamped return envelope—were sent to the afirletic directors at the designated high schools The afirletic director was instructed to canplete and return one package and to give fire ofirer two packages to the gi r1 5' gymnastics coach. The coach. in turn was asked to canplete and return one of fire packages and to give fire renaining package to a senior gymnast. 64 Thirty-five of fire 93 surveys were returned. of which 26 were usable This represented a usable return rate of 28!. Complete data on return rates and usability of the reports are given in Table 3.2. Table 3.2.-Pilot predictor survey return rates. Athletic Director Coach Gymnast Total Number of surveys mailed 31 31 31 93 Number of surveys returned (including return of 13 16 6 35 personal data sheets only) Return rate (including return of personal data sheets only) 41.91 51.6% 19.41 37.61 Number of respondents submitting usable critical 7 l3 6 26 incident reports Percent of respondents. by category. submitting usable 53.8% 81.2% 100.0% 74.3! critical incident reports Percent of total possible respondents who returned 26.9% 50.01 23.1% 28.0% usable surveys By far fire largest number of critical incidents was reported by coaches: hence firis strongly influenced the development of the safety guidelines Many of fire athletic directors who participated in fire study reported that they were so busy supervising the wide range of 65 high school afirletics programs that firey often did not have an opportu- nity to observe gymnastics practices and/or meets Because of fireir limited observations. just over half of the participating afirletic directors returned usable critical incident reports Only six high school gymnasts returned the survey. Because fire survey was adrninis- tered after fire competitive season was over. fire coaches had difficulty reaching their gymnasts and distributing the survey to than. Participants were asked to answer several danographic questions so that comparisons could be made among the various groups of predic- tor respondents and eventually between fire predictor and criterion respondents These questions concerned the respondents' (1) position. (2) gender. (3) age. (4) experience in their present position. (5) educational degrees. and (6) major and minor in school. Response frequencies and percentages were computed for each question Table 3.3 shows the demographic findings for the pilot predictor respondents who returned the survey. AW Based on feedback from respondents to fire pilot predictor survey. fire following revisions were made: 1. The nunber of critical incident forms distributed to subjects was reduced frarr six to four. Pilot respondents indicated that six forms were unnecessary because they could not recall fire details of firat many accidents Each respondent usually returned two to four report forms. 66 Table 3.3.--Demographic information for pilot predictor survey respond- ents: athletic directors. coaches. and coach-selected gymnasts in Iowa. Category Number Percent Gender: Female 15 57.7 Male 11 42.3 Total 26 100. Age > 35 years 8 30.8 30-34 years 3 11.5 25-29 years 6 23.1 20-24 years 3 11.5 < 20 years 6 23.1 Total 26 100.0 WW 5 or more years 11 42.3 4 years 3 11.5 3 years 2 7.7 2 years 1 3.8 1 year 2 7.7 No reply 7 26.9 Total 26 100.0 Educaticn Graduate degree 9 34.6 Bachelor's degree plus 4 15.4 Bachelor's degree 4 15.4 Some college 0 0.0 High school graduate 1 3.9 In high school 5 19.2 No reply 3 11.5 Total 26 100.0 Hale: Physical education 15 57.7 Education 3 11.5 Other 4 15.4 No reply 4 15.4 Total 26 100.0 67 2. Several respondents reported that an indefinite time frarrre would allow firan to report important events that had occurred before 1982-83. Thus. fire time span was increased to include all of the respondents' past experiences in observing girl 5' high school gymnas- tics. 3. A few afirl etic directors recommended that the investigator include postage on fire return envelopes so firat more subjects would return the surveys Therefore a postpaid return envelope was included in future mailings 4. Because a number of coaches reported that they had not received fire survey from fireir athletic director or firat firey had received the survey a few weeks after its original mailing. fire inves- ti gator decided to make separate mailings to athletic directors and coaches with fire final predictor instrument. 5. The categories reflecting fire higr school's enrollment were changed from Class A. 8. C- and D. a classification scirane not used in Iowa. to enrollment numbers WWI-100M015: W Want. The revised Pilot Predictor instrument and fire personal data sheet (Appendix A) were used for fire predictor survey administered in Michigan In addition fire cover letter from fire pilot survey was used again: however. because fire state was ciranged. fire name of the state high school athletic association supporting fire research study was changed (Appendix A). 68 We, Michigan was used for the predictor survey for fire following reasons: (1) fire investigator moved back to Michigan after fire pilot data were collected: (2) many coaches. judges. and gymnasts in fire state personally knew fire investigator and were likely to be cooperative: and (3) Michigan's high school gi r1 5' gymnastics representative to fire national association supported fire study. The predictor instrument was administered to all of fire high school athletic directors. coaches. and coach-selected gymnasts in Michigan whose high schools were manbers of fire Michigan High School Athletic Association and had a girl 5' gymnastics team during fire 1982- 83 acadernic year. When the collected data became redundant-that is. no additional coacir behaviors were reported—fire survey was extended to all 70 of fire 1982-83 registered high scirool girl s' gymnastics officials in Michigan. The first mailing took place May 4. 1983. for fire afirletic directors. coaches. and gymnasts and firen on July 5. 193. for fire officials The same procedures used with the pilot predictor survey were followed for both predictor surveys. except firat it proved impractical during sunmer vacation to make raninder telephone calls Each individual was mailed a cover letter (Appendix A). four critical incident forms (two effective and two ineffective). a participant agreanent form (Appendix A). a coded personal data sheet to help fire investigator keep track of nonrespondents (Appendix A). and a postage- paid return envelope. 69 Of fire 355 surveys administered in both predictor surveys. 109 were returned. a 30.7! return rate As shown in Table 3.4. fire highest percentages of usable surveys were returned by officials. coaches. athletic directors. and gymnasts. in firat order. Officials and coaches had the highest return rates and the highest percentage of usable reports As was found with fire pilot test. athletic directors had a moderate return rate 32.63: only about half of fireir returns included usable critical incident reports Gymnasts had a low return rate but those who did respond submitted usable reports of their observations of coach safety behaviors Gymnasts and coaches had low return rates because their competitive season was over when the surveys reached their high schools. As shown in Table 3.4. fire majority of critical incident reports came from officials and coaches Officials usually reported on incidents that had occurred during meets because firis was generally fireir only contact wifir coach safety behaviors High school coaches reported information frcrn both meets and practice sessions Therefore from fire point of view of situational incl usiveness. firat is. reporting incidents that had occurred in practice as well as competition fire two groups were not exactly comparable The loss in comparability. how- ever. was judged to be more than compensated for by the increased number and variety of critical incidents available for content analy- sis. The predictor subjects were also asked to provide demographic data on themselves The same demographic questions used for fire pilot 7O m>o>esm o_nmm: N_.m~ N_.nm NN.N_ Nmnm wm._m ww.o_ vocesuoc 0:3 mucoocoemmc o_a_mmoe .mu0u no ucoocos manages Nm._m NN.mm w_.mm woo_ Nm.om No._m acoc_uc_ .mo_u_cu o_nmm: mc_uu_En:m .>Lomoumu >n .mucoccoamoL so ucoocos mucosa; acov_uc_ .mu mm o: m: m cm m. r_u_co o_nmm: mc_uu_sa:m announcemoc so consaz A>_co mumogm Nu.om No.oe Mm.m~ &~.m Nm.:m wm.~m meme .chmLoe no assume mc_c:_oc_v came ccsuox A>_co muoccm mama .chmLoe so ccsuoc mo. N: mm m mm .m mc_v:_oc.v eoccsuoc m>o>csm no Lease: mmm on mam mm mm mm vo__me m>o>csm so Lease: mLOuuoL_o m>o>csm :uOm m_m_u_eeo .muOF mummce>w monomOu o_uo_cu< ace .muOF N >o>cam _ >o>Lam .Amuuoansm cam—co.zv moumc ccm econ53c ccauoc >o>esm Lego—nose voc_nEOUrr.:.m o_nmh 71 predictor subjects were used for fire predictor subjects Response frequencies and percentages were computed for each question Table 3.5 contains fire darrographic data for the predictor group. Wham The reports collected in step one provided fire first large body of data to be subjected to analysis Details of fire content analysis are reported in fire following pages. We Went: The content analysis was carried out in several stages: (1) pooling and screening fire reports. (2) assigning coach behavior state— ments to a preliminary framework of categories. (3) identifying and writing coach safety behavior statarrents from fire reports. (4) placing each behavior statement into the appropriate preliminary category. (5) refining fire coach behavior categories. and (6) refining fire coach behavior statarrents 1. We The incidents from all sources were treated as a single collection because fire conditions under which fire various sets of incidents were collected were essentially fire same and using fire incidents from all sources provided a larger. more varied pool of incidents Scanning incidents fran fire various sources suggested no systanatic differences among fire incidents f ran different sources. The combined predictor data shown in Table 3.6 describe fire subjects included in fire content analysis. Table 3.5.--Demographic information for predictor survey respondents: athletic directors. coaches. and coach-selected gymnasts in Michigan plus officials in Michigan. Category Number Percent Gender Female 61 80.3 Male 15 19.7 Total 76a 100.0 Ads > 35 years 35 46.1 30-34 years 14 18.4 25-29 years 18 23.7 20-24 years 6 7.9 < 20 years 3 3.9 Total 76 100.0 mm 5 or more years 50 65.8 4 years 7 9.2 3 years 4 5.3 2 years 5 6.6 1 year 6 7.9 No reply 4 5.3 Total 76 100.1 Educaticn Graduate degree 30 39.5 Bachelor's degree plus 14 18.4 Bachelor's degree 14 18.4 Some college 13 17.1 High school graduate 3 4.0 In high school 2 2.6 Total 76 100.0 Halal: Physical education 31 40.8 Education 9 11.8 Elanentary education 3 4.0 Other 8 10.5 No reply 25 32.9 Total 76 100.0 "Thirteen of fire 89 Michigan predictor respondents submitting usable reports did not complete and return the demographic data sheets. 73 Table 3.6.--Demographic information for predictor survey respondents: athletic directors. coaches. and coach-selected gymnasts in Iowa and Michigan plus officials in Michigan. Category Number Percent Gender Female 76 74.5 Male 25 25.5 Tbtal 102 100.0 Age > 35 years 43 42.2 30-34 years 17 16.7 25-29 years 24 23.5 20-24 years 9 8.8 < 20 years 9 8.8 Total 102 100.0 Wm 5 or more years 61 59.8 4 years 10 9.8 3 years 6 5.9 2 years 6 5.9 1 year 8 7.8 No reply 11 10.8 Total 102 100.0 Educaticn Graduate degree 39 38.2 Bachelor's degree plus 18 17.7 Bachelor's degree 18 17.7 Some college 13 12.7 High school graduate 4 3.9 In high school 7 6.9 No reply 3 3.0 Total 102 100.2 Physical educati on 46 45 . 1 Education 12 11.8 Other 15 14.7 No reply 29 28.4 Tbtal 102 100.0 74 Screening was the next operation The final reports that were accepted were descriptions of fire observed safety beiraviors of high school gi r1 5' gymnastics coaches These reports were content analyzed and met all of fire following criteria: (1) described a safety incident firat dealt with gi r1 5' high school gymnastics. (2) reported on the critical behavior(s) of girls' high school coaches. and (3) described the specific safety behaviors of coaches Approximately 55 of the reported incidents were eliminated because firey did not meet firese criteria. 2. We W Based on fire review of the literature on gymnastics and the critical incident technique. a framework was developed for performing fire content analysis The elanents in this framework represent the principal variables used in this study. Table 3.7 summarizes fire preliminary framework of categories for fire coach behavior statanents. The breakdown of coach behaviors according to whefirer they were effective or ineffective was derived from fire critical inci dent, litera- ture The prevention and post-injury-care categories and subcategories came from fire gymnastics safety literature and recent gymnastics epi- demiology research reports 3. Waterman Respondents reported incidents in varying detail and format. For example some respondents closely followed the instructions and thoroughly described one incident on each report form. taking care to 75 Table 3.7.-Preliminary franework of categories for the coach behavior statanents. No. of Itans W 1. 2. Prevention a. Coach background b. Coach behavior toward the gymnast (1) mainly during practice (5) (2) during both practice and competition (7) c. Coach behavior toward the equipment during both practice and competition d. Coach behavior as a manager Post-i nj ury care a. Coach behavior toward the gymnast (1) during both practice and competition 1W 1. 2. 3. Prevention a. Coach background b. Coach behavior toward the gymnast (1) mainly during practice (5) (2) mainly during competition (7) (3) during both practice and competition (7) c. Coach behavior toward the equipment during both practice and competition d. Coach behavior as a manager Post-injury care a. Coach behavior toward the gymnast (1) mainly during practice (1) (2) majnly during competition (1) (3) during both practice and competition (6) Prevention and post-injury care-general behaviors that apply to both a. Coach behavior toward superiors and the community (2) 25 19 1 12 OON# 36 00 N45 76 report fire background of fire incident. fire incident itself. and fire consequences in fire designated areas of fire report Other respondents reported incidents in a variety of ways. such as (1) writing out a number of incidents on a single report form. (2) describing an incident in 15 words or less and not reporting fire background and/or fire consequences. and (3) writing an effective incident on an ineffective report form. and vice versa. The mix of information and fire format in which the reports were written made it difficult for fire investigator to count fire number of incidents reported In general. most critical incident studies have counted the nunber of reported incidents In this study. however. fire investigator could not specifically count fire number of incidents reported Rafirer. coach behavior statements were extracted from fire variety of information firat was reported The incidents reports were read repeatedly. The content analyzers examined only fire observed behaviors of coaches firat led to the effective and ineffective safety practices The behavior state- ments were firen written from fire collected reports The content analyzers tried to capture both fire content and the spirit of the language of fire reports A single mention of an incident was suffi- cient to merit its inclusion in the safety list. In wording fire safety gui deli hes. the content analyzers sought to achieve a balance between being too specific and wording each incident exactly as it was written in fire reports and being too general. i.e. not giving enough specifics regarding what coaches did and did not do in fireir safety practices. 77 4. mmmmmmmmunmmm category, The individual coach behavior statarrents were placed into fire study's preliminary categories described in operation two. in accordance wifir fire following procedures: 1. Statements were sorted into two groups: effective and ineffective. 2. Statanents within the effective and ineffective groupings were then re-sorted into categories of prevention and post-injury care 3. Statanents within the prevention category were placed in one of firree areas: coach background. coach behavior toward fire gymnast. and coach behavior toward the equipment. At the same time fire behaviors were also placed into fire appropriate environmental subcategory: during practice. during competition and during both practice and competition Strict attention was paid to fire environment in which the incident was reported to have taken place If no specific environment was indicated. fire statanent was placed into fire during- bofir-practi ce-and-carrpeti ti on category. 4. Statements within fire post-injury-care area were placed into one of firree subcategories dealing with the enviromnent in which fire incident had taken place: during practice during competition and during both practice and competition. 5. WWW Flanagan indicated firat fire errors firat occur in content analysis tend not to happen so much in the collection and analysis of fire incidents tharrselves but in interpreting than properly. For example (1) fire categories might need 78 revision (2) individual behavior statanents might not have reflected closely enough fire content of one or more of fire incidents. or (3) fire wording of fire statanents may not have captured the spirit of fire reports To avoid such errors. two types of reliability checks were performed: (1) reliability checks on the content-analysis process to determine if firere was evidence for eacir category and each individual statanent and (2) reliability checks on the raters to determine if firere was interrater agreanent. In performing reliability cirecks on the content analysis of the coach behavior lists. firree procedures were used: (1) a content- verification check on the categories. in which three raters who were highly experienced in gymnastics independently read fire reports and evaluated whefirer firere was evidence for each category: (2) a content-verification check on fire individual behaviors. in which firree raters independently read the reports and then determined whefirer firere was evidence somewhere in all fire incidents supporting fire inclusion of each statanent in fire guidelines: and (3) a quantitative cireck on the individual behaviors. in which two raters read fire reports and counted fire number of times the content of each statement was mentioned in the reports The content-verifi cation cireck of fire categories is described in the following paragraphs. whereas the two checks on the individual statanents are reported under operation six. A manual was first developed and pilot tested for fire content- verificatien check on fire categories and statanents The manual was developed to standardize the instructions. procedures. and answer 79 sheets across raters participating in the check. One content rater. highly experienced as a male high school and collegiate competitor. coach. and official and functioning in a pretesting or pilot role. (1) read through fire manual and completed fire evaluation forms. (2) reported difficulties he experienced. and (3) provided oral and written evaluations of fire manual. As a result. a number of minor revisions were made in the final manual. In the actual content check on the categories. two raters. both experienced in gymnastics. independently studied fire instructional manual and responded to an open-ended question: Is there some better way to categorize fire data firat is more effective? If so. what are your ideas? Based on the input from fire pilot rater and the two other raters. fire study's categories were supported After furfirer examining rater reports on the categories. fire investigator made fire following revisions: (1) fire categories on both fire effective and ineffective prevention lists were reerdered so that fire "coach background" category was moved from first place on fire lists to second-to-last place and fire category "coach management of assistant coaches" was moved from second to last place: and (2) the ineffective category "coach sel f- defeating tendencies" was renewed from the list. The behavior that was listed under this category was placed under fire‘ category “coach manage- ment of assistant coaches" 6. WW5. Because a number of errors could have occurred in fire content-analysis process as fire two content analyzers attempted to interpret the reports and write the individual statanents. a content-verification check and a quantitative check were performed. These checks were conducted to ensure that the statements were reliable enough to warrant continuing to step three. validation of the guidelines. The content check on the statements involved four kinds of checks: (l) two content checks on fire individual statements and (2) two reliability checks on the raters. In the first check. three raters read fire reports and fire statements to determine whefirer firere was evidence to Justify each behavior's inclusion in the guidelines. In the second check. two raters independently read both fire reports and the statements and counted the number of times each behavior was mentioned in fire reports to ensure each statement had been reported at least once. The two reliability checks conducted on the raters used bofir fire intraclass correlation coefficient and Finn's r to calculate the degree of rater agreement in the first content check reported above. The first content check is reported immediately below. followed by a discussion of fire rater reliability checks. The second content check. fire quantitative check of the guidelines. is discussed later in fire chapter. The same manual used for fire content checks of fire categories was used for fire content checks on fire individual behaviors The same firree raters who participated in the content checks of fire categories were used. Each rater independently responded to a series of 81 evaluative questions on the content of fire 6l statements: 0) Is there evidence for each coach behavior statement somewhere in fire incidents? (2) Did each statement capture fire spirit of the incidents reported? If not. what are your suggestions for change? and (3) Is fire amount of information contained in each statement sufficient for your understand- ing it? If not. which ones need to be rephrased to better reflect the incidents? How would you rephrase fire statement? This check was done to eliminate statements not found to appear in fire reports. to minimize potential biases from the content-analysis process. and to make sure fire data were reasonably sound before proceeding to step firree. Based on the raters' input. fire needed revisions were made. Two statanents in both fire effective and fire ineffective lists were deleted because of content overlap. To estimate interrater reliability. both an intracl ass correl a- tion and Finn's r were computed. The intraclass correlation is based on analysis of variance and is often used to ”obtain either a unique estimate or a confidence interval for fire reliability of eifirer fire component ratings or fireir average" (Ebel. l951. p. 401). The intra- class correlation is fire most frequently empl oyed measure for comparing fire reliability of raters across situations However. it does not control a not-unusual chance problem. namely firat ”raters may agree through chance alone. and the raw frequency of agreement includes both chance and true agreement" (llhitehurst. l984. p. 22). Finn's r com- putes “the relationship of the ratings not due to chance" (lihitehurst. 1984. p. 26). using an index "firat compares fire obtained error variance 82 with firat which would have occurred had fire ratings been assigned randomly" (iihitehurst. T984. p. 25). Both sets of reliability coefficients shown in Table 3.8 were high enough to proceed to step firree. Both reliability checks yielded essentially fire same results. This indicates that the chance problem firat Finn's r attempts to control for did not play much of a role in the content-analysis process used in this study. Table 3.8.-Results of reliability checks. Type of Coach Intraclass Corre- Fi nn's Behavior Statenent lation Coefficient Reliability Effective .79 .78 Ineffective .88 .8 After fire above-mentioned revisions in fire guidelines had been made. another reliability check was done to determine fire number of times each statement appeared within fire reports. Two raters. one highly experienced gymnastics coach and official and the investigator. read and reread a typed copy of fire reports-55 singl e-spaced pages- and recorded the nunber of times each of fire 61 statements was made within fire reports. Each rater found all fire statements at least once except for two effective statanents The investigator found fire two effective statements in the reports Just once. whereas the other rater did not 83 find fire statements at all. (See Table 3.9.) Because of the large number of incidents each rater had to read. an incident that appeared only once could easily have been overlooked. As a result. all 61 statements were retained on the predictor-generated safety lists. Table 3.9.-Results of quantitative check. Rater l Rater 2 W (N = 25) Yes. the coach behavior was found in the critical incident reports 25 behaviors 23 behaviors No. fire coach behavior was not found in the critical incident reports Wanna (N . 36) Yes. the coach behavior was found in the critical incident reports No. the coach behavior was not found in the critical incident reports 0 behaviors 36 behaviors 0 behaviors 2 behaviors 36 behaviors 0 behaviors Evidence from all of the reliability checks suggested that fire checklists were reliable enough to proceed to step firree and to submit the recall-generated safety lists to a second and larger group of respondents for a validation check that was based on recognition. a4 WW3: W W Using recall and recognition raises potential methodological problems Recall is a difficult task since subjects often forget details of events with the passage of time (Yelon a iieinsteirb T977). In addition. recall does not offer as compl ete an opportunity to measure the relative frequency and impor- tance of identified behaviors. Recognition is easier for fire subject than recall but has its own inherent difficulties (Yelon 8. Weinstein. T977). while using a rating scale for recognition. respondents may check items in a constant direction as to their general impression of fire subject. referred to as fire halo effect (Kerlinger. 1964). Recog— nition. unlike recall. does provide an opportunity to measure the frequency of occurrence of behaviors and/or their degree of importance Unfortunately. such data do not lend themselves to combining the degree of frequency and/or importance. Despite fire problems. when recognition is used as a check on recalled data. fire validated findings can be used with a higher degree of confidence firan if eifirer technique had been used separately (Roff. T950). The researcher used the recalled behaviors identified in steps one and two and subjected thorn to a recognition check in step three to validate the checklists Because fire recognition check was faced with obtaining measurements in two not necessarily highly correlated dimen- sions--frequency and importance-fire validated survey form essentially called for both frequency and importance judgments on each behavior statement. The recal l-generated behavior statements developed in steps 85 one and two were subjected to a recognition check using two five-poi nt Likert scales. one for frequency and fire ofirer for importance The validation survey form asked a second independent group of observers to indicate (l) how often firey had observed each coach behavior take place in high school girls' gymnastics (i.e.. l I Very Frequently. 2 I Fre- quently. 3 I Sometimes. 4 I Rarely. 5 I Never or Practically Never) and (2) how important in their experience each behavior was in contrib- uting to safe gymnasium practices (i.e.. l I Very Important. 2 I Impor- tant. 3 I Moderately Important. 4 I Indifferent. 5 I Unimportant). For respondents who had not had an opportunity to observe fire identified behaviors (e.g.. gymnastics officials who did not get an opportunity to observe coaches during practice sessions were not able to respond to practice-based coach behavior statements). a sixth choice was included: “Does Not Apply.” The cover letter and fire criterion instrument wifir trial instructions were used for fire pilot criterion survey. W In selecting subjects to pilot test fire criterion materials. individuals were chosen whom fire investigator knew were experienced with high school gymnastics. were likely to participate in the study. lived in the immediate area. and could return fire surveys promptly. Ten individuals meeting firese criteria were used in the pilot study: four coaches. firree officials. and three gymnasts. One coach had participated in fire predictor survey. On January l6. T984. fire ten pilot respondents received the necessary forms to read complete. and write down any difficulties 86 experienced One week later. fire investigator collected fire survey materials and listened to each respondent's feedback. We“ All ten surveys were returned Of fire firree respondent groups. coaches and officials gave more verbal and written feedback on fire instrument firan did gymnasts. The surveys were reviewed to determine what problems the respondents had experienced It was discovered firat respondents did not understand how to rate fire degree of importance for fire ineffective coach safety behaviors. Instead of responding to how important it was that each listed ineffective behavior should not occur. as was the intention of fire scale many respondents interpreted fire question to mean how important it was for each behavior to occur. Based on the feedback. needed revisions were made in fire instructions. Wills: W Wm]; The instrument for fire criterion survey was essentially fire same as firat for fire pilot test. The revised criterion instrunent and cover letter are contained in Appendix A. W Illinois was used as firurjterion state because it was comparable to Michigan in terms of fire number of 91 rls' high school teams that were registered with fire state high school athletic association (Illinois I 84. Michigan I 742) and had a similar percentage of high schools with gi rl s' gymnastics teams (Illinois I 12.31. Michigan I l2.8$). 87 Because fire study called for the selection of subjects who were highly motivated to return fire surveys. and coaches and officials had fire highest return rates and submitted the highest percentage of usable critical incident reports with fire predictor instrument. all of fire 1983-84 registered high school officials and all of the Illinois high schools firat had state-registered high school teams were surveyed with the criterion instrument. This included 189 potential subjects: lOl officials and 88 coaches. No athletic directors or coach-selected gymnasts were included in the criterion survey group. A distortion firat could have taken place between fire two surveys was the different years in which fire surveys were administered There was no reason to believe firat fire l983-84 observations of high school coaches were any different from firose during l982-83. As far as fire investigator was able to ascertain no significant changes took pl ace in the occurrence of accidents during the two years. An attempt was made to keep fire two surveys identical so firat any differences in the findings would be a result of fire different techniques Therefore both surveys used fire same instructions and motivations in the cover letters and the same personal data sheets The groups of subjects were kept as comparable as possible given the fact that different states were used. On February 4. T984. each subject was mailed a package of materials firat contained fire cover letter. criterion survey. personal data sheet. participant agreement form. and postage-pai d. sel f- addressed return envelope Of fire 189 surveys mailed. 77 were 88 returned. for a 40.7! response rate Detailed information on fire survey response rates is given in Table 3.10. Table 3.10.--Criterion survey return rates. Coach Off i ci al Total Mrmrber of surveys mailed 88 101 189 Nrmrber of surveys returned 39 38 77 Return rate 44.33 37.6% 40.7! Nrmrber of respondents submitting usable reports 39 38 77 Percentage of respondents submitting usable reports 100$ 100$ TOO! Because follow-up operations continued into the summer vacation monfirs. fire criterion population did not receive reminder phone calls. The 40.75 return rate was comparable to the return rate of 35.11 for fire predictor survey. The return rate wifir recognition was somewhat higrer firan firat wifir recall. This is not surprising because pilot testing showed firat fire recognition survey was easier and less time consrmring than fire recall survey. Unlike the predictor surveys. all of the returned criterion surveys were usable The criterion respondents completed all of fire validation questions on bofir fire frquency and importance dimensions Originally. 88 coaches and 101 officials were surveyed However. fire personal data sheets showed that eigrt of the officials 89 were also coaches. so they were counted as coaches rafirer firan officials. The criterion popul atiorb like the predictor population. was asked to provide demographic data so comparisons could be made between fire criterion and predictor groups The same demographic questions were used as those answered by fire predictor respondents Response frquencies and percentages were computed for each question. Table 3.11 shows fire demographic information for criterion respondents. whereas Table 3.12 compares the predictor and criterion respondents in terms of denographic characteristics. After reviewing the demographic data collected from fire predictor and criterion respondents. and taking into account fire fact that the predictor group included several high school gymnasts whereas fire criterion group did not. it was discovered firat fire two groups did not differ appreciably. Both groups appeared reasonably similar on each of fire denographic characteristics measured. mm The behaviors identified in the content analysis and formulated into statements were used as items in fire criterion survey and then presented to a second. independent population of respondents who indicated on a five-point Likert scale (1) how often they had observed the behaviors taking place and (2) how important each behavior was in contributing to safe gymnastics practices Each itur could be rated from 1 to 5. In scoring each behavior under each of fire two dimensions. frequency and importance fire number of points for each statement was the numerical value of each particular response For 90 Table13.ll.--Demographic information for criterion survey respondents: coaches and officials in Illinois. Category Number Percent fiends: Female 61 79.2 Male 11 14.3 No reply 5 6.5 Total 77 100.0 Age > 35 years 36 46.8 30-35 years 17 22.1 25-29 years 16 20.8 20-24 years 8 10.4 Total 77 100.1 Want—22511120 5 or more years 57 74.0 4 years 4 5.2 3 years 6 7.8 2 years 8 10.4 1 year 1 1.3 No reply 1 1.3 Total 77 100.0 Graduate degree '32 41.6 Bachelor's degree plus 26 33.8 Bachelor's degree 12 15.6 Some college 6 7.8 High school graduate 1 1.3 Main: Physical education 47 61.0 Education 7 9.1 Other 10 13.0 No reply 13 16.9 Tbtal 77 100.1 91 Table 3.12.--Demographic information for predictor survey respondents (athletic directors. coaches. and gymnasts in Iowa and Michigan plus officials in Michigan) and for criterion survey respondents (coaches and officials in Illinois). Predictor Criterion Total Demographic Category N s N s N 5 Gender: Female 76 74.5 61 79.2 137 76.5 Male 26 25.5 11 14.3 37 20.7 No reply 0 5 6.5 5 2.8 Total 102 100.0 77 100.0 179 100.0 > 35 years 43 42.2 36 46.8 79 44.1 30-34 years 17 16.7 17 22.1 34 19.0 25-29 years 24 23.5 16 20.8 40 22.4 20-24 years 9 8.8 8 10.4 17 9.5 < 20 years 9 8.8 O 9 5.0 Tetal 102 100.0 77 100.1 179 100.0 WM 5 or more years 61 59.8 57 74.0 118 65.9 4 years 10 9.8 4 5.2 14 7.8 3 years 6 5.9 6 7.8 12 6.7 2 years 6 5.9 8 10.4 14 7.8 1 year 8 7.9 l 1.3 9 5.0 No reply 11 10.8 1 1.3 12 6.7 Total 102 100.0 77 100.0 179 99.9 Education Graduate degree 39 38.2 32 41.6 71 39.7 Bachelor's degree plus 18 17.7 26 33.8 44 24.6 Bachelor's degree 18 17.7 12 15.6 30 16.8 Some college 13 12.8 6 7.8 19 10.6 High school graduate 4 3.9 1 1.3 5 2.8 In high school 7 6.9 O 7 3.9 No reply 3 3.0 O 3 1.7 Total 102 100.2 77 100.1 179 100.1 Male: Physical education 46 45.1 47 61.0 93 52.0 Education 12 11.8 7 9.1 19 10.6 Other 15 14.7 10 13.0 25 14.0 No reply 29 28.4 13 16.9 42 23.5 Total 102 100.0 77 100.0 179 100.1 92 example if a respondent gave a statement a 2 in frequency and a 1 in importance fire frequency score was 2 and fire importance score was 1. The closer the mean score was to 1. the more frequently the behavior occurred and/or fire more important fire behavior was in contributing to safe practices imam Data collection basic to developing guidelines for high school girl s' gymnastics coaches followed a lengthy and somewhat complex process The first step involved obtaining recall information in the form of critical incidents The second step was content analyzing these incidents into a preliminary set of coach guidelines The firird step involved collecting recognition data based on fire previously obtained recall data to serve as a validation check on the recall data. For purposes of convenience fire recall-based data guidelines are referred to as the predictor instrument. whereas the recognition-based data guidelines are referred to as fire criterion instrurrent. Data processing for both predictor and criterion comprised three phases: instrument development. collection of data. and data Chelysis The first two phases were kept as comparable as possible for b0th predictor and criterion. A higr degree of comparability was achieved Both instruments were systematically and routinely pilot tested The necessary revisions were made before adrrinistering fire instrrnents in final form. 93 Phase firree data analysis. was markedly different for fire predictor and criterion phases because of fire data differences Predictor data were highly verbal. whereas criterion data were higrly quantitative Details of fire predictor data analysis. primarily fire content analysis and demographic comparisons of the predictor and criterion respondents. were reported in this chapter. Results of fire criterion analysis are reported in Chapter IV. along with fire results of the study. Predictor data analyses were checked for reliability. The researcher concluded firat fire predictor data were sufficiently reliable to proceed with validation. GiAPTER IV RESULTS Intreduction Chapter IV contains fire data collected in this study and provides behavior-based safety guidelines for coaches of higr school gi r1 5' gymnastics Two different sets of guidelines are set forfir: (l) recall-based. predictor guidelines and (2) recognition-based. criterion guidelines The predictor and criterion guidelines are compared to provide a validity check for fire predictor guidelines. Predictor results necessarily precede criterion results The two corresponding sets of results are presented in this recall/ recognition sequence There is more to fire presentation of criterion resul ts than of predictor results because. beyond internal analysis of the data. validity comparisons are involved in presenting fire crite- I‘ion results BMW It is a well-established practice to check reliability before proceeding with ofirer manipulations involving a particular measure Results of reliability checks on fire predictor were presented in Chapter III. where reliability was reported as sufficient to proceed furfirer with fire study. 9h 95 The results of the predictor studies in this research cul mi- nated in a set of safety gui delines for coaches These predictor-based guidelines are evident from the content of the survey questionnaires shown in Appendix A. They are also presented in the form of guidelines in Appendix B. These guidelines comprise two levels The first level consists of behavioral statements directly emanating from fire content analysis of fire incidents The second level consists of categories or logical content groupings of fire behavioral statements The 61 behavioral statements that comprise fire predictor guidelines could be presented in random order. However. firey were grouped by categories to help coaches better use the guidelines by providing some structure to the presenta- tion In presenting fire coach behavior categories. an attempt was made to establish an appropriate complexity/simplicity level. Guidelines that are too complex. firat is. contain too many behaviors for fire coach to renember. may not be very useful. On the other hand. a set of guidelines firat is too short and simple may be too vague and general to be useful. The 61 behavioral statements. arranged under categorical headings. are shown in Appendix B-l. WW1: Criterion results were analyzed to produce additional gui de- '| ines for coaches to follow and a1 so to validate the recal 1-based guidelines Results of validation are discussed first. % In this study. validity refers to the validity of fire recal 1- based guidelines as ascertai ned firrough independent. recognition-based follow-up observations carried out in the form of a criterion survey. The predictor guidelines were validated by comparing firern with fire criterion guidelines The criterion guidelines were developed from a statistical analysis of fire data. The statistical character of fire criterion data provided a nunber of analysis possibilities not available with fire predictor data. Nith fire criterion data. it was possible to estimate reliability in a more statistical way. W A series of Cronbach alphas first was used to measure the reliability of fire overall instrument and firen to measure fire reliabil- ity of fire instrument's two major dimensions: frequency and impor- tance A third set of Cronbach alphas was employed to measure fire reliability of each of fire instrument's eight major categories and. for purposes of comparability across categories. was corrected for fire nunber of items within each of these categories The eight categories and fire number of items in each category are as follows: (1) effective prevention/frequency (n I 19). (2) effective prevention/importance (n I 19). (3) effective post-injury care/frequency (n I 6). (4) effective post-injury care/importance (n I 6). (5) ineffective prevention! frequency (n I 26). (6) ineffective prevention/importance (n I 26). (7) ineffective post-injury care/frequency (n I 8). and (8) ineffective post-injury care/importance (n I 8). 97 The Cronbach alpha for the entire instrument was high. r I .98. The Cronbach alphas for both the frequency and importance dimensions. even when calculated separately for the itemsrin the effectiverand ineffective categories. were also high and ranged from r I .91 to .97. as shown in Table 4.1. The Cronbach alphas for each of the eight major categories were relatively high. considering the smaller number of items in each category as compared with the more inclusive cate- gories shown in Table 4.1. The Cronbach alphas for fire eight cate- gories ranged from r I .71 to .95. as shown in Table 4.2. Based on these data. it was concluded that the criterion reliability measures for the entire instrument and its eight categories were sufficiently high to proceed with further analyses. Table 4.1.--Cronbach alphas for the frequency and importance dimensions of fire criterion instrurrent. Category Reliability No. of Behaviors 1. All fire effective frequency data (prevention and post- .94 26 injury care) 2. All fire ineffective frequency data (prevention and post- .96 36 injury care) 3. A11 fire effective importance data (prevention and post- .91 26 injury care) 4. All fire ineffective importance data (prevention and post- .97 36 irUury care) 98 Table 4.2.-~Cronbach alphas for fire eight major categories of the criterion instrunent. Category Reliability No. of Behaviors 1. Effective prevention/frequency .93 19 2. Effective prevention/importance .90 19 3. Effective post-injury care/ frequency .82 6 4. Effective post-injury care/ importance .71 6 5. Ineffective prevention/frequency .94 26 6. Ineffective prevention/importance .95 26 7. Ineffective post-injury care/ frequency .88 8 8. Ineffective post-injury care/ importance .92 8 WWW Basic to understanding fire criterion survey results were the data concerning (1) behavior statements and (2) behavior categories Behavior statement means and standard deviations for each of fire 61 items are shown in Appendix B-2. The behavior statement tables included in Chapter IV are rearrangements of fire appendix data. These rearrangements are later reported for the purpose of making logical points in fire development of fire recognition-based guidelines The behavior statement data in Appendix B-Z are presented in terms of both frequency and importance In fire criterion survey. 99 subjects reported fireir recollection of frequency and importance of each behavior separately. Tables 4.3 through 4.5 surrmarize the study's categorical data. The number of items accumulated across fire categories first identified in Chapter I are shown in Table 4.3. Responses concerning both fre- quency and importance were obtained for all 61 items and were broken down into 25 effective and 36 ineffective behaviors The behavior statements were subdivided into prevention and post-injury care and then furfirer sorted into the seven categories that identify coach behaviors and characteristics The data in Table 4.4 represent a rearrangement of fire numbers in Table 4.3 to show 45 prevention. 14 post-injury-care and 2 combined prevention and post-indury-care items By way of review. Table 4.5 identifies fire origins of iterr categories. Basic data for categories to parallel Table 4.5 are presented in Appendices B-3 and 8-4. Grouped frequency distributions of behavior statement means are shown by frequency and importance and by the study's subdivisions: effective/ineffective prevention and effective/ ineffective post-injury care Columns F and G for both freruency and importance are subtotals and are discussed later. Appendix B-4 con- tains grouped frequency distributions of category means for fire same data. 100 N a w mm m __ N .m _mu0u can—cu “NV oamu N o o o o o o >L=Hc_-cmoa Remy w co_uco>oce o>_uuoeeoc_ Amy came 0 o o m _ _ o >camc.rum0s AoNV o N : n n m _ co_uco>oca on oamo Amuv o o o m o o o >canc_rum0e o>_uooeem Am_v o N a m o m _ co_uco>ocs >u c3520 .sEOu w .aEOQ w co_u_u oo Homes o. cmu ou_uomcs museums; ranOQ mc_as mcuucwaa cummcmz "aces mc_a:o mc_aao mmpe>o unaccm oamu cmeOhm m mm ra.:am- ummce>c ummcs>o Wamzohu rxomm >Lamc.rumoa com0u camsoh ccm30h cease» comOu \co_uco>oca o>_uuoemoc_ co_>m;om so.>mnom umo co_>m;om co_>m;om Lo_>m:om umo \o>_u00eeu : u zomOu :umOu sumac ; u Amco_>mcon .m u zv oocmucan_ c0\ucm >ucoaooce ace mu_um_couomcm;u co mco_>m:om somOQ .mo_comoumu macaum cope—:Eauum mama. :o_cou_co do Loa832rr.m.§ m~nm~ 101 Table 4.4.--Category totals not on Table 4.3. Frequency Importance Prevention 45 4S Post-injury care 14 14 Prevention and post-injury care 2 2 Total 61 61 Table 4.5.--Origins of iten categories in Table 4.3. Traditional Content Analysis of The Study's Critical Incident the Study's Critical Major Practice Incidents and the Categories Technical Literature Recall Recognition Effectiveness/ ineffectiveness ' x Freq uency/ importance x Preventi on/ post-inj ury care x Coach characteristics and behaviors x In addition. data from the criterion survey were of two types: (1) overall analyses to determine if firere were ofirer ways to cate- gorize the data firan the classification used in Tables 4.3 and 4.4 and (2) analyses by specific established categories to determine special 102 category characteristics and to provide a structure to what would ofirerwise be just miscellaneous behavior statements The overall analysis procedure was factor analysis To check fire categories. a factor analysis was done on the table of intercorre- lations resulting from step-firree data. The eigenvalues for fire fac- tors that emerged (Appendix B-S) indicated that only fire effective and ineffective factors in fire frequency dimension were supported No other factors emerged to a statistically significant degree The generally low obtained eigenvalues suggest firat eifirer fire rational categories developed in the content analysis did not hold up under factor analysis once intercorrelations among fire item measures became available or the item measures did not meet the measurement assumption of factor analysis The measures were not interval but ordinal level. Factor analysis was still worfir trying because with similar data it sometimes happens firat fire data meet fire strict assumptions of a demanding statistical procedure and help in explanation. Unfortu- nately. such was not fire case with fire data in this study. The factor analysis helped very little Ofirer kinds of overall analysis such as cluster analysis were considered However. technicians did not recom- mend furfirer overall analyses of these sorts after considering the nature of fire data. W A second kind of overall analysis was tried-Iparti a1 correl a- tions Part1 a1 correlations were computed as a precautionary measure to better understand the analyses to be used in working with fire 103 special category characteristics The criterion survey was divided into the eight categories for intercorrel ational checks on the eight parts of fire instrument: 1. Effective prevention behaviors: frequency with importance. 2. Effective post-injury-care behaviors: frequency with importance. ' 3. Ineffective prevention behaviors: frequency with importance. 4. Ineffective post-injury-care behaviors: frequency with importance. 5. Frequency of effective behaviors: prevention with post- injury care. 6. Frequency of ineffective behaviors: prevention wifir post- injury care. 7. Importance of effective behaviors: prevention with post- injury care. 8. Importance of ineffective behaviors: prevention wifir post- injury care. Partial correlations measured the degree of relationship between each set of true variables and each ofirer set (eg.. frequency wifir importance. prevention with post-injury care) while adjusting for fire effects of fire rerrraining variables Consequently. spurious inter- correlations might be identified if the partial correlations were substantial. 104 Table 4.6 shows the partial correlations among the eight sets of variables. Table 4.6.--Parti al correlations for the criterion instrunent's eight scales. Scale 1 Correlation p Frequency Nith Importance Canparisons Il-Effective prevention .35 .003 {2--Effective post-injury care .57 .001 I3--Ineffective prevention .27 .022 l4--Ineffective post-injury care .54 .001 Prevention Nith Post-Inj ury-Care Comparisons I5-Frequency of effective behaviors .40 .001 f6--Frequency of ineffective behaviors .58 .001 I7--Importance of effective behaviorsa -- -- f8—Importance of ineffective behaviors .72 .001 aBecause a number of officials did not have an opportunity to observe high school 91 r1 5' gymnastics practices. firey did not respond to fire degree of importance of firese effective individual coach behav- iors As a result. too many data were missing to permit the computa- tion of statistically dependable coefficients for fire importance of effective coaching behaviors Except for #7 in Table 4.6. which could not be computed as explained in fire footnote to fire table fire partial correlations were positive and almost all high enough to be significantly different from zero. It is clear firat fire variables did tend to vary togefirer. Neverfirel ess. fire coefficients were also sufficiently low to indicate 105 firat much of fire variance was still unaccounted for. Partially for this reason. analysis of data was undertaken to determine special characteristics of certain of fire categories without severe misgivings about spurious interrelationships. WW If firere had been some way to show firat frequency and impor- tance were highly intercorrelated. it mi grt have been possible to reduce fire number of specific coach behavior statements appearing in fire safety guidelines and to simplify fire rafirer complex guidelines However. firis was not the case In general. frequency and importance were found not to be highly intercorrelated In comparing frequency and importance for the statements and categories. several checks were made: (1) Pearson correlations for each of the individual statements in ungrouped and grouped frequency distributions. (2) Pearson correlations for each of fire categories in ungrouped and grouped frequency distributions. (3) individual statement means in ungrouped and grouped frequency distributions. (4) category means in ungrouped and grouped frequency distributions. (5) one-way analysis of variance of frequency and importance and (6) t-tests to show fire significance of fire differences between frequency and impor- tance means Pearson correlations showed the extent of the relationship between frequency and importance for each statement and are reported in Appendix B-7. The details are summarized in Table 4.7. 106 mucoeoumum ao_>m;on o>_uuoeeoc_ I _ .mucoEOHmum Lo_>m;oa o>muuoeem I u "sex .0 —\Df\mm—I\MN— III— mm N—NMN— II-m— mN N o m w mu m- _mu0h oo._- ca 33 3 ms.- as $.- 3 mm.- as ea.- 3 _ mm.- ou N mu.- 3 N m_.- as 8.- 3 m mo. 3 m_. cu «N. o» mm. o» m... 3 mm. o» mo. 3 me. o» mm. as oo._ 0» .—Nm.:ru\sor\ooor Nm— N p e e I —\Df\wm NN—e-I —4rr.nr\N o e o mmNWMJMN—OO .25“ do .mcoe ccmau mucoEOumum Lo_>m;om o>_uuoeeoc. .mu0h mucoeoumum Lo_>mcom _ m _ u _ u o>_uoomem oamu >L:H:_rum0s .mHOP ccm co_uco>ocm m.c cemamoa menu >Laac_rum0s co_uco>oLs .ocmu >L:H:_rumoa cam co_uco>oce neon ccm .ocmu >a:~c.rumoe .co_uco>oaa ace .o>_uooemoc_ mamco> o>_uuoeeo >3 .ucoeoumum Lo_>mcon some see oucmuaoas_ cam >ocoaooce coozuon m.c cOmcmom do mco_uan_cum_c sucuscoLd-r.n.a o_nmh 107 Table 4.7 shows grouped frequency distributions of the Pearson r's by mai or categories Frequency and importance were clearly more highly correlated on effective than on ineffective behaviors. even to the point of making it possible to consider some combination of frequency and importance on the effective statements On the other hand. fire correlations hovered around zero for fire ineffective statements so that combining corresponding items on ineffective behaviors hardly appeared justified. Table 4.8 shows Table 4.7 data condensed for category data. In general. the same results emerged from Table 4.8 as from Table 4.7. The means for fire coach behavior statements (Appendix B-2) were compared on both frequency and importance by placing firem into parallel grouped frequency distributions (See Table 4.9.) Table 4.9 shows firat fire frequency and importance distributions differed markedly from each other. Side-by-side grouped frequency distributions of category means (Appendix B-8) for both frequency and importance are shown in Table 4.10. As was the case with the individual coach behavior means. Table 4.10 shows firat fire frequency means were markedly higher firan fire importance means. The results of a one-way analysis of variance for frequency and importance data are summarized in Table 4.11. The one-way analysis of variance showed that the frequency/importance difference was higrly significant statistically. 108 m m N _ _ _ _ _ .muOP m m _ _. _ mo. 3 o 9. 3 _. 3. 3 N. mm. 3 m. _ _ _ me. ou :. _ _ _ mm. on m. mo. cu m. ms. 3 N. mm. cu m. 00.. cu m. cm mucoEoumum mucoeoumum .... ......” gamma. .meme _ . _ . ccmau .muOh ”much use co_wco>ocm oamu >csmc_-um0s cowuco>oca .oamo >c:m:.rumoa ccm co_uco>oca neon ccm .ocmu >L:Hc_-umoa .:o_uco>0ae so» .o>~uuoeeoc_ mamae> o>~uuoeeo >n .>comoumu Lo_>mzon some so» oucmucoes_ ccm >ocoaooce coozuon m.c acmcmos so mco_u:n_cum_c >ocoacocd-r.w.a o_nmh 109 Table 4.9.--Parallel grouped frequency distributions of behavior statanent means (frarr Appendix B-3) for frequency and importance. Mean Frequency Importance 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50 4.75 to 1.24 to 1.49 to 1.74 to 1.99 to 2.24 to 2.49 to 2.74 to 2.99 to 3.24 to 3.49 to 3.74 to 3.99 to 4.24 to 4.49 to 4.74 to 4.99 Total Grand mean NOQNW 11 Nib-b0 61 3.2 16 34 11 61 1.11 110 Table 4.10.-Para11e1 grouped frequency distributions of coach behavior category means (fran Appendix B-8) for freq uency and importance. Mean Frequency Importance 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.25 2.50 2.75 3.00 3.25 3.50 3.75 4.00 4.25 4.50 4.75 to 1.24 to 1.49 to 1.74 to 1.99 to 2.24 to 2.49 to 2.74 to 2.99 to 3.24 to 3.49 to 3.74 to 3.99 to 4.24 to 4.49 to 4.74 to 4.99 Total WNN 16 10 16 111 Table 4.11.-Results of analysis of variance for fire frequency and importance data. SS df MS F Treatments (between) 44.65 1 44.65 26.9 Error (within groups) 477.55 287 1.66 Totals 522.20 288 In addition to the analysis of variance. a t-test showed that the difference in means between frequency and importance was stati sti- cal ly significant to an extreme degree (t I 14.75. whereas t at the rs level with 288 degrees of freedom was just 1.645). For purposes of fire guidelines. frequency and importance should continue to be considered separately. W In addition to frequency and importance. another category. effective/ineffective required a similar analysis The effective! ineffective analysis was carried out wifirin frequency and importance and included (1) Pearson correlations for each of fire individual coach behavior statement means. (2) Pearson correlations for each of the coach behavior category means. (3) differences between fire means of fire individual statements collectively. (4) differences between the means of fire coach behavior categories collectively. (5) several one-way analyses of variance. and (6) t-tests of the significance of differ- ences between means 112 Table 4.7. which showed the Pearson r's for the individual statements for frequency and importance also showed fire Pearson r's for effective/ineffective Columns labeled "Total Effective Behavior Statements" and "Total Ineffective Behavior Statements" in the table showed that effective behaviors were correlated higher wifir each other firan were fire ineffective behaviors The difference between fire means of firese two columns was .36. which was significant at better firan the 1% level. The category Pearson r's between frequency and importance as reported in Table 4.8 also included fire effective/ineffective category Pearson r's Again. like fire individual behavior results. the effec- tive categories were more highly correlated wifir each ofirer firan were the ineffective categories The difference between the means of firese two columns was .45. which was significant at the 1% level. The means for fire effective and ineffective coach behavior statements (Appendix BIZ) on both frequency and importance are pre- sented in parallel grouped frequency distributions in Table 4.12. An inspection of fire two subtotal columns in Table 4.12 discloses that frequency means for the effective behaviors were significantly higher firan those for ineffective behaviors The difference was statistically significant to a high degree (t I 6.94. while t at fire 1! level was 1.96). For fire importance measure the difference between effective and ineffective means was not significant (t I .98. while t at fire 15 level was 1.96). 2113 _e en mN N N e eN m. _o on mN N o e oN a. .aaoN o a as}: o N N . . sN..-cm.s o m m s m ms.s-mN.s o a a : :N.:-oo.e o o m N : ma.m-mN.n c __ . __ __ sN.N-Om.n o n m . _ _ m:.m-mN.n o _ _ _ 4N.N-co.m o o mm.N-mN.N o N N _ _ sN.N-om.N c o o o meN-mNN o N N N m sN.N-oo.N o N N m : ma._-mN._ _ m N N _ o N N m N 3N._-Om.. an mN m o N m. N o ms._-mN._ .. N s. _ s _ o. o sN._-eo._ .a.:. ...N u_u.“ .u.a .u.a ..ota .ota .aoc_ ...“ u_utu u.a .u_a ...a not. .oao» ..< _.< .aoc. doc. dam doc. .aau .auo» __< __< .aoc_ .a»:. dam .doc. dam coo: n_muoun:m oocmutoee. m_muoua:m >uceaeotd .otmu stsac_-umoe e>_uooeeoc_ use e>_uueeeo ccm co_uco>ote e>_uueeeoc_ ccm o>muuoeeo cos uucmucoee_ ccm sucuacote >5 memes acoeeumum to_>m;oa mo mco.uan_tum_c sucosaote :coe20cm: _e__mcme-.N_.a e.nmh 114 Parallel frequency distributions of the means for fire effective and ineffective categories on both frequency and importance drawn from Appendix B-8. appear in Table 4.13. The table reveals that the effec- tive and ineffective category means were significantly different for frequency but similar for importance Appendix B-13 summarizes the significance of particular differences It should be mentioned that. before conducting the t-tests for significance of differences among the various means. a one-way analysis of variance was performed (See Appendix B-TO.) The analysis of variance indicated firat it would be worthwhile doing fire t-tests One interpretation of the effectiveness/ineffectiveness out- cornes is firat. in fire frequency context. respondents to fire criterion survey were willing and able to look back at their experiences with gymnastics accidents and report. with a good deal of discrimination. which coach behaviors they observed frequently and which ones less so. On the ofirer hand. in fire importance context. subjects were unwilling or unable to discriminate Apparently all coach behaviors that had any role in preventing and leading to accidents were considered important to occur and/or not to occur. WWW Another analysis of the criterion survey dealt with the prevention/post-injury-care behaviors and categories of fire study. In comparing the findings for the prevention and post-injury-care state- ments and categories. fire same analyses were carried out as firose ILLS o. o. o a. o _muoh mm.a-as.: as.a-cm.: ma.:-mN.: 3N.c-oo.e mm.m-mN.m aN.m-om.m ma.n-mN.m 4N.n-oc.n mm.N-mN.N 3N.N-om.N ma.N-mN.N 3N.N-oo.N mm._-mm._ em._-om._ m:._-mN.. aN..-oo._ .eo:_ .eeu ...oN ..a __< u.e u .05; .e0:. u.e 9.; .ets .ONA .uoc_ .uew .uoc. .eeu «.muouanm oucmucoee. ...oe .eoc_ .ueu __< ._< 9.; a .ots .eoc. u.s .eoc u_s .ots .OLs . .eem .eoc. .uuw m_muoua=w >ucosvocu smut .Am-u x_ccoee< eocdv memos stomoumo co_>mzen sumac ecu do mac—N:n_tum_c >ocozcote :eoaaoao: o>_auuaaoc_ use o>_uuoaau--.m_.s o_ame 116 previously reported for frequency and importance and effective and ineffective behaviors and categories. Table 4.7 reporting the Pearson r's for fire individual state- ments and Table 4.8 reporting fire categorical Pearson r's revealed firat the correlations for both the prevention and post-injury-care behaviors and categories were similar. The means for fire prevention and post-iniury-care statements and categories shown in the grouped frequency distributions in Tables 4.12 and 4.13 were also found to be similar in both frequency and importance The analyses of variance for prevention and post-injury care are summarized in Appendix 8-12. The only findings regarding possibly significantly different prevention and post-injury-care responses occurred in the context of importance and ineffective behaviors Subjects considered it more important firat ineffective post-injury- care behaviors not occur firan that ineffective coach prevention behaviors not occur. This finding approached significance at the 1% level in the analysis of variance. Results of fire t-tests are reported in Appendix B-13. The t-tests showed fire differences in fire means were not statistically significant at fire 1% level. Thus it is difficult to make too much of fire highly tentative finding stated in fire preceding paragraph. A review of the data concerning prevention and post-injury care suggested firat this differentiation should probably be preserved This distinction was also reflected in the gymnastics safety literature. 117 What-ramme- One last kind of categorization intended to be helpful to coaches as firey consider fireir safety behaviors concerned coach behav- iors and characteristics The seven categories under this heading emerged from fire content analysis of incidents In addition. firese categories seemed meaningful to coaches Scharratic relationships among firese categories as variables were shown in Table 4.3. The obtained means and N's for fire groupings of firese coach behaviors and character- istics within frequency/importance effective/ineffective and preven- ti on/post-injury care are reported in Appendix B-ll. The previously reported analysis procedures firat were performed on the seven categories were not carried out on coach behaviors and characteristics because fire individual behaviors were not similar enough to permit drawing comparisons Two analysis possibilities that were considered dealt wifir practice versus competition behaviors and coach behaviors toward the gymnast as compared with behaviors toward fire equipment However. behaviors firat were observed during practice were for fire most part different from firose observed during competi- tion. as was fire case wifir behaviors toward fire gymnast and fire equip- ment. The few situational behaviors that were similar were too few in number to be able to perform stable analyses of variance or t-tests Furfirer analyses of the data for coach behaviors and charac- teristics presented several difficulties For one thing. a substantial proportion of fire respondents who were officials rafirer than coaches may have been unable to observe in practice as much as in competition 118 situations. whereas coaches would have observed in both. Since the observations were different for these two groups. any analysis of fire data for this set of variables was suspect Few items for coach back- ground and management made for response instability. Importance means were all quite similar. with nearly all behaviors considered important. The variability was so restricted as to make analysis unrewarding. Notwithstanding fire above-descri bed difficulties of precise analyses of fire data concerning coach behaviors and characteristics. cruder analyses were considered both possible and desirable The practical issues of where to focus attention among the various coach behaviors and characteristics were firought to be so important to fire profession that Tables 4.14 and 4.15 were developed to elucidate relevant findings. Table 4.14 shows the most f reruently occurring. fire most important. and a combination of fire most frequently occurring and fire most important coach behaviors in each of the study's categories For fire most part. firese turned out to be different rafirer firan fire same behaviors However. fire categories of coach behaviors in Table 4.15 were fire same across frequency and importance The most frequently occurring categories were also the most important to occur or not to occur in promoting safe gymnasium practices mm In the context of this study. validity refers to the degree of agreement between fire outcomes of fire critical-inci dent analysis and fire criterion survey. To what extent did the criterion respondents 119 s: ...... 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N. uezu N. cu eon oN cOZZoeecu to\ccm .euZumte .mea -Etms ecoeon uceee.=ce ecu umsmcm ou mace—nex- Aa.v .e>oE cu scoot ccm .aao cozuuocum .Etmx use munmcs>u use Nagy xuoco ou Ntodee oz. name go: even cc- cso t_o;u :0 Nov: m toxccm ou.uoeta unseat can otoeoe a: ates nuumcs>u ecu Neg» mossmn1- unto—>mceo co_uco>ote e>_u00eeec. oN do use Amv .mucoEo>oE so: uc.:umou cos: msumtmeom cam uc.m >uoemm e0 emmucm>cm ..ae mesme- A_v .mom_o rtoxo oc.zuuotum vetauostum on to: mc_>m: zmsotzu >N__.n_xo.e n.ummcs>u ecu meo.o>oo- Amy .uucmcafico to .>N._.n.xo_e .zuecotum use e>ms No: meet “me: -E>o use o>o_.en cu seemed an: esnxes :u_:3 ace Ncqu>oe m 0c ammcE>m ecu No. No: meet cam co_N.Nme80u ccm oo.uomte snap a. co_N_c -c0o .mo_m>;e n.unece>c ecu «emcee >_oumt:ou<- Am. .mccose>oe so: oc.comeu cogs usumtmaom cce nc_m saeemn eo eomucm>ce ..se «use»- "mac—>mcen co_uce>ute e>_uuoeeu a. e0 «so ucmuaoae. “no: use use uc.tt:uuc >.Nco:oetd Neat 0:“ e0 x_x tsooc o“ No: to sauce 0» Nematode. awe: ecstasuuo >.ucescotd Nee: .Auce63aamc. cc_teu_cu use so tease: Eva. 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No: tcxccm tsuuo cu NcmNtceE_ Naoe .mc_ttsuuo >.uce:cete umoe och "mac.>m;on £0000 .m:c.>.vc.-.c_.a 0.3m» 120 .53 8 .53 3 .53 3 >_sem amzu mtc_>mzon :om0u .maocou- >_aam umzu mto_>m;on somou .mtecou- >_sem umgu mco_>m:on sumac .mtecou- "accumumu ocmu-xcafic.-umom ccm co_uco>ocs o>_uuoeeec_ we use .comu_uoeeoo cam .co.N_uos80o can .co_u_uoe50u can ou_uomta zuon mcwaac cow>mson succu- ou_uoeta neon m:_t:v co_>mzon succu- eu_uumce Luca m:_t:c to_>mzoa succu- "momcomwumu etmurxcahc_-umoe m do uso .co_u_uonEOO cam .co_u_uoeeoO ccm .co_u_uerOO cam oo_uumcs cues mc_t:c to.>m;on concur oumuumte cuon menace to_>m;on succu- ou_uumta sacs mc_a:c to_>m£on cemen- wxuommNmu otmu->L:Hc_-umcs _ we «so .ccsotmxumn :omou- .u::05mxoma succu- .ccsotmxumn succu- umo_t0moumu co.uco>ots o>_uuoeeoc_ e do use .co_u_uoeeoo .co_u_uoa600 .co_u_uoe50u cam eu_uumta cuon mc_c:c acoEa_:eo use oumuumts :uon mcmcsc ucosewsao ccm ou_uumte zuoa mc.c:c geese—ace ecu cu “cosmos ;N_s to_>m;on succu- use cu Nooamot cums to_>m;on :umOu- ecu cu Novemoc nu.) to_>m:en succu- Nmo_ccmoamu co_uco>ocs o>muuoeeu m we use gemstone. Nmo: ecu tsooo cu No: to caouo cu ucmutoee_ one: mc_ta:ooo >_uco:aoau awe: ccm mc_tc:uoo >_uco:cocd awe: ecu so x_t .ucmuc0se_ umoe any use mc_tt:ouo >_uco:ooce umoe ecu do x.E m cam .taooo c» No: co\ccm tsuuo cu unmat0ee_ umoe .mc_ct:ouo >_Nco:aoce umoe use “mac.>mzea cameo do memLOmoumu-r.m_.a e.amh 121 observe fire safety behaviors firat were reported by fire predictor respondents? The criterion observers were not allowed to add to the list of behaviors in fire predictor but were asked to report fire degree of frequency and the degree of importance of these events. according to fireir experience Validation is reported at fire same two levels as fire criterion survey results: behavior statements and categories Validation at fire behavior-statement level (Appendix B-2) showed that all of the behaviors emerging from fire predictor were reported as occurring with some degree of frequency. Earlier tables in firis chapter showed a good deal of variability in frequency. Appendix B-2 also shows firat criterion respondents considered all fire behaviors important. There was much less doubt about importance firan there was about frequency. The researcher concluded firat firere was a substantial degree of validity at fire behavior-statement level. Because fire critical incident analysis does not lend itself to fire reporting of particularly quantitative data. fire preceding data analyses represent about all that could be done in reporting validity at fire statement level. At the category level. validity concerns the degree to which fire categories firat were developed from fire incidents level held up in analyses of fire criterion survey. Four major categories were developed in this study: frequency/importance effective/ineffective preven- tion/post-injury care and coach behaviors and characteristics Of firese four categories. frequency/importance emerged as a result of the criterion survey. The degree of frequency and importance did not 122 appear in fire reports except for a few unsysternatic. fleeting refer- ences Therefore frequency/importance is irrelevant here in a discus- sion of category validation. Regarding effective/ineffective criterion subjects saw these two categories as very different. as shown in Table 4.12 and Appendix B-lO. Therefore firis category. wifir its origin in the history of critical incident technology and its support from fire content analysis in this study. became a behavior categorization that was validated Statistical analysis of fire criterion survey demonstrated its existence in the sense that subjects regarded effective and ineffective as two quite different phenomena and firerefore as two separate kinds of cate- gories. The criterion subjects appeared to accept prevention/post- injury care and coach behaviors and characteristics as categories There is no reason to consi der these two kinds of categorization in any way invalid. At the coach-behavior-statement level. all of the behaviors were validated However. fire degree of importance of firese behaviors was higher than their frequency. At the category level. all held up on fire criterion subjects' acceptance grounds. with effective/ineffective on statistical grounds as well. In data that check recall with recog- nition. firere is always a danger firat fire recall process suggested the material firat was recognized The investigator saw no means to con- trol for suggestion effects in this research situation. 13 We: The more practical results of this study. fire guidelines coaches may use to improve their safety behaviors. are presented next. The data did not permit fire investigator to publish a single ultimate set of guidelines Rafirer. five sets of guidelines were developed The users' values. purposes. and preferences will determine which set of guidelines to use Probably no one set is better firan any other. The first of firese five sets of guidelines is based on fire critical incidents analysis The last four are based on criterion-survey analyses. The first or predictor-based set of guidelines is presented in Appendix B-l. That set has fire advantage of being shorter firan the ofirer four and not complicated by considerations of frequency and importance However. not having frequency and importance built into a set of guidelines assumes that all fire statements are of approximately equal frequency and importance or firey would not have been included in fire list. The criterion survey findings made frequency and importance information available and one need not be content wlifir guidelines firat do not consider firese aspects as fully as possible On the other hand. since fire items in fire first set of guidelines were validated. a coach could feel reasonably comfortable about using them. even without f re- quency and importance information. The remaining four sets of guidelines are based on criterion survey results. which include frequency and importance information. Items in the first three criterion-based sets are arranged within a 124 structure that takes into account the three basic variables used in this study: frequency/importance. effective/ineffective and prevention/post-injury care The fourfir criterion-based set of guide— lines reflects a similar use of the three basic variables but. in addition. has an item-by-item comparison of frequency and importance Details regarding the first three criterion-based sets are-made clear by indicating that these sets are based on (1) frequency alone. (2) importance alone. and (3) a balanced mix of frequency and impor5 tance For purposes of presentation. these first three criterion-based sets have identical internal organization. which is as follows The appendix in which each guideline subset may be found is also indicated. I. Emuancx Appendix A. Individual Coach Behaviors 1. Effective Prevention B-15 2. Ineffective Prevention 8-16 3. Effective PostIInjury Care I B-l7 4. Ineffective PostIInjury Care B-l8 5. Ineffective Prevention and Post-Injury Care B-l9 8. Categories of Coach Behaviors 1. Effective Prevention B-20 2. Ineffective Prevention B-20 3. Effective Post-Injury Care B-20 4. Ineffective Host-Injury Care B-20 5. Ineffective Prevention and Post-Injury Care B-20 II. Importance A. Individual Coach Behaviors 1. Effective Prevention B-Zl 2. Ineffective Prevention 8-22 3. Effective PostIInjury Care B-23 4. Ineffective PestIInjury Care B-24 5. Ineffective Prevention and Post-Inj ury Care B-25 125 Appendix B. Categories of Coach Behaviors 1. Effective Prevention B-26 2. Ineffective Prevention B-26 3. Effective Post-Injury Care B-26 4. Ineffective PostIIndury Care B-26 5. Ineffective Prevention and Post-Injury Care B-26 III. W A. Individual Coach Behaviors 1. Effective Prevention B-27 2. Ineffective Prevention B-28 3. Effective Post-Injury Care 8-29 4. Ineffective PostIInjury Care B-3O 5. Ineffective Prevention and Post-Injury Care 8-31 B. Categories of Coach Behaviors 1. Effective Prevention (shown below) 2. Ineffective Prevention Bé32 4. Ineffective Post-Injury Carea B-33 An example of fire balanced mix of frequency and importance for the effective prevention categories of coach behaviors is as follows: Coach Behavior Categories firat are W and occur 1m Emuenflx 1. Coach behavior with respect to the equipment during practice and canpetition. Coach Behavior Categories that are W and occur Emily, 1. Coach behavior toward fire gymnast-mainly during practice. 2. Coach background. aIII.B3. "Effective Post-Injury Care." and 5. "Ineffective Prevention and Post-Injury Care—General Coach Behaviors." each con- tai ned but one topical heading: for this reason there was no way to incorporate firese two into a frequency-importance matrix as described above in fire text for fire other variables 126 Coach Behavior Categories firat are Important and occur My 1. Coach behavior toward the gmnast during both practice and canpetition. Coach Behavior Categories that are MW and occur with W 1. Coach managanent of coaching assistants. The outline shows 15 clusters of behavior statements and 13 categories for a total of 28. Each cluster has a corresponding appendix firat presents guidelines for coaches Within each of fire 28 clusters. fire items are presented in order of frequency. importance. or both frequency and importance conbined. The only one of fire three sets of clusters that needs furfirer explanation is the combined balanced mix of frequency and importance The balanced mix was arrived at by identifying the items in the top. middle and lower thirds of frequency and importance and placing the items in the appropriate cell of the two-dimensional scherratic matrix shown in Table 4.16. 127 Table 4.16.--Freq uency-importance schenatic matrix. Frequency 1 Importance Moderately Very Frequent Frequent Frequent (bottom 1/3 (middle 1/3 (top 1/3 rankings) rankings) rankings) Very Important (top 1/3 rankings) Important (middle 1/3 rankings) Moderately Important (bottan 1/3 rankings) Table 4.17 shows fire item numbers in fire matrices firat follow the schematic matrix. whereas Table 4.18 shows the corresponding infor- mation for categories In using the balanced-mix matrices and the guidelines that follow. coaches should be advised that the frequency items are well distributed: hence differences in frequency may be morermeaningful than fire less-well-di stributed importance items Criterion subjects were willing and/or able to say which behaviors occurred more and less frequently in their experience but were less willing and/or able to report which behaviors were more and less important To these sub- jects. about all of fire items were important. 128 Table 4.17.-Matrices: Balanced mix of frequency and importance (behavior statanents). Moderately Very Effective Prevention Frequent Frequent Frequent (I's 14-19) (I's 8-13) (#15 1-7) Very Important ("5 1'7) 12s17s18 69899911 105 Important (I's 8-13) 19 10 4.16 Moderately Important (I'S 14-19) 3913 297 14:15 Moderately Very Ineffective Freq uent Freq uent Freq uent Prevention (I's 19-26) (I's lO-18) (I's 1-9) Very Important ("5 1'9) 6018123925 13119022 2024 Important (I's 10-18) 4.11.12 5.17 1.3.14.16 Moderately Important (l's 19-26) 7.10 8.9.21 15.20.26 Table 4.17.--Continued. 129 Moderately VOW Effective Frequent Frequent Frequent Post-Injury Care (l's 5-6) (I's 3-4) (l's 1-2) Very Important (I's 1-2) 22 23 Important (l's 3-4) 21 24 Moderately Important (l's 5-6) 20 25 Moderately Very Ineffective Freq uent Freq uent Freq uent Post-Injury-Care (l's 7-8) (1's 4-6) (I's 1-3) Very Important (i's 1-3) 27.28 30 Important (I's 4-6) 29.32.33 Moderately Important (l's 7-8) 31.34 130 0.0;. .ecoeecezh .xmcume oocmutoee.->uceacete m o.:. osu omega egocoet0oc_ ou >ms o: was 0.0;“ scams. m_cu Nod .neu.tume o>cnm ecu :. csozm ac: otm no_toeoumo .oc.cmeg .mu_eoN oco use cec_m.c0u some :.mtom>m:eo :umOu .mtecec-etmu >csmc.-am0e ccm co_Nco>ece e>_uuoeeoc.: .u ccm :.0cmu >c=~c_-Nm0e e>_uuoesu: .u .cuueuu >.m:o_>ete «(m .co.u.uerOu cam eo_uumts sacs uc_tsc -ummce>e ecu cease“ to.>mcea :umOu .:o_u_uerOu ac_t:c >.:_mE r-ummc6>a 0:“ cause» to_>mzon :umOu .ou.uomte ec_t:c >_c.me -ummcE>a ecu cacao“ ce_>m:en :umOU Ame. Nematoee_ >_eamcocoz ANN. ucmutces_ :: Nematode. >Nu> A_‘V “concede >to> ANN. «concede Am‘v ucoscots >.oumtoco: metmu ->caac.-um0e o>.uuoeeec. .o .ou_uumce uc_c:c >_c_mE -ummcs>m ecu cease“ to.>m:en semen .ccsotmxuma :umOu .co_u~uoeeoO cam eu_uumte :Non mcmtsc -.mcmE>o ecu cease» to_>m;ua somOu .co_u_ueeecu ccm ou_uomta :Non mc.t:c aces -e_sce ecu ou uuoenec :u_s ao_>mgea somOu .muceuu_mmm mc.com0o do Ncosoumcme somOu .co_u_ueeeou mc.c:c >_c_ms -Nmmce>o on“ cause“ to_>mcoa :onu Aorm m.\. «cantons. >.eumtoc0t Aa-m m.\v Ncmutoas. AN-_ .... ucmutooe_ >to> AN-_ n.nv “seaweed >te> Aarm m.sv “success Ao-m a.‘v Ncoseotd >_uceteeoz co_uco>oce o>_uueeeoc_ .n .co_c_uerOo 9cm oo.uumca mc_tsc aces -e_:ao egg on uueenec :..s to_>ecea :omOu .co_._uerOo cam uo_.umte sacs ac_t:c -NmmcE>m use nausea to_>mzua somOu .ccaocmxuma sumac .eo_uomts mc_t:c >_c.ee -Nmm:E>m ecu camsou co_>mcea somOu .mucmum_mmm ac_:umoU do useEeomcmE :omOu Amuv ucmuceeE_ >_oumtocot ...-N ...: ucmutoee_ AN-_ .... Nematoee_ >t0> AN-. m.\. acescotd >t0> Aa-m m.u. “cements Ame. acescotd >_ouetocox co_uce>ete o>.uu0eem .< .Amo_coooumuv ouceutoee_ use socoscece do x_e mecca-mo "m0u_t.mx-.w_.c o.am» 131 The fourth set of criterion-survey-based guidelines is presented in Appendices B-34 through B~49. The purpose of this set is to display behavior statements by frequency and their corresponding importance value To complement the frequency data. Appendices 8-34 firrough B-49 also present guidelines with behavior statements in the order of fireir rated importance accompanied by notations of corres- ponding frequency values. Both sets of guidelines. those in the order of frequency with corresponding importance and those in the order of importance with corresponding frequency. are presented in clusters by major variables: effective/ineffective and prevention/postwinjury care. Individual behaviors and categories are listed separately. The internal organization of firese appendices is as follows: WWW Armenia 1. Individual Coach Behaviors A. Effective Prevention 1. Frequency versus importance B-34 2. Importance versus frequency B-35 B. Ineffective Prevention 1. Frequency versus importance B-36 2. Importance versus frequency B-37 C. Effective Post-Injury Care 1. Frequency versus importance B-38 2. Importance versus frequency BI39 D. Ineffective Post-Injury Care 1. Frequency versus importance B-40 2. Importance versus frequency 8-41 E. Ineffective Prevention and Post-Injury Care 1. Frequency versus importance and importance B-42 versus frequency (same ranks for both) 132 II. Ceach Behavior Categories ‘Appgngjz A. Effective Prevention 1. Frequency versus importance B-43 2. Importance versus frequency B-44 B. Ineffective Prevention 1. Frequency versus importance B-45 2. Importance versus frequency B-46 C. Effective PostIInjury Care 1. Frequency versus importance B-47 2. Importance versus frequency 8-48 0. Ineffective Post-Injury Care 1. Frequency versus importance B-47 2. Importance versus frequency B~48 E. Ineffective Prevention and Post-Injury Care 1. Frequency versus importance B-49 2. Importance versus frequency B-49 Swan The initial discussion in this chapter involved a consideration of predictor and criterion reliabilities and a description of how validation of the predictor was attempted. both at the individual behavior statement level and at the category leveh Results showed a satisfactory degree of validity at both levels The remainder of this chapter was devoted to a presentation and discussion of the safety guidelines that were developed in steps one. two. and three Included were (1) one set of recall-based guidelines and (2) four sets of recognition-based guidelines that took into account frequency. importance and a mix of frequency and importance for individual coach behaviors and categories of coach behaviors. as well as fire variables: effective/ineffective prevention/post-injury care. and coach behaviors and characteristics. 133 It is hoped the variety of guidelines presented will meet the various needs of gymnastics professionals as they attempt to improve fire sport's safety practices. O-IAFTER V C(NCLUS 1048 AND REmMMENDATIGVS W20 The first of fire two major sections in this final chapter contains both substantive conclusions and conclusions regarding the methods used in this study. The second major section is devoted to recommendations for furfirer research and recommendations for using fire safety guidelines generated in fire study. Conclusions WEED: The findings of this study could mark an important milestone in fire development of safe practices in high school gi rls' gymnastics To date research in this area has been characterized by two lines of activity: (1) traditional collection of opinions on what constitutes effective safety practices. leading to the writing of periodically revised safety guidelines and manuals and fire content of safety classes and (2) epidemiological investigations in which statistical data are collected on selected accident factors The opinion approach is used primarily to examine the importance of particular aspects of safety. whereas the epidemiological approach is errrployed to investigate the frequency with which accident factors occur. There has been little integration of findings regarding importance and frequency. 1311 135 In contrast to these two rather separate mefirods of investi- gating safety problems. fire present researcher. by using actual observations of problem safety situations made by substantial numbers of competent and interested accident observers. was able to collect information on both importance and frequency. Findings of the study provide integrated frequency and importance results for the first tjme. Substantive research on the topic of gymnastics safety is broader based firan fire present study. Accumulative research covers a wide variety of factors that could play a role in causing accidents. such as fire location of fire injury on fire athlete's body. type of injury. fire skill firat was being performed when the accident occurred. and the roles of various safety personnel including coaches. gymnasts. trainers. and sports physicians The present study. however. was limited to just one aspect of this ccrnplexity. namely. fire coach's behavior. This writer believed that. to make significant progress in improving safety practices. it is important to focus on the key person in the network of individuals involved in gymnastics safety: the coach. It is fire coach who is in a position to make changes: to influence what each gymnast does out on the floor in both practice and competition. to relate to parents. to ask for improved equipment from administrators. and to participate actively in professional gymnastics affairs to improve safety practices Alfirough concentrating on fire coach might be limiting. it can also facilitate greater practical progress in gymnastics. 136 In accord with the special features of this research. fire writer attempted to identify and validate gymnastics safety guidelines that integrate across frequency and importance and to examine the coach's behavior. Furfirer. in line with fire increasingly widespread and rewarding practice of working guidelines and other practical aspects of work behavior in specific behavioral terms (eg.. use of behavioral objectives in training). fire safety guidelines that resulted are behaviorally stated A glance at currently available guidelines for gymnastics safety shows that some guidelines contain behaviorally worded statanents. but fire majority are stated nonbehaviorally. Just as important as the prevailing conditions in substantive research on gymnastics safety was fire method used to identify coach safety behaviors A technique was available that could produce the kinds of guidelines described above-Igui delines firat focus on one key role player (in this case the coach) and are expressed in specific. behavioral terminology. This method was fire critical incident technique Since 110er Nar II. fire critical incident technique has been used effectively in various fields to identify fire effective and ineffective behaviors of employees in specific problem situations (eg.. near accidents in airplanes. industrial accidents). However. as far as could be determined. this method had not yet been applied to safety in gymnastics or other sports The task of carrying out the critical incident mefirod first necessitates collecting observations made by competent observers of critical incidents in the area under investigation. In this case. the 137 observations concerned fire safety behaviors of high school 91 r1 5' gymnastics coaches The term “critical” describes incidents that make a real difference in causing a problem and/or preventing a problem from occurring. Since descriptions of such incidents usually cannot be collected at fire moment firose incidents occur. firey are normally obtained by asking observers to recall fire circumstances The term “recall." used in fire first of fire two steps in fire critical incident mefirod. is derived from observer recall. As an essential component of fire first step. firese recalled incidents are content analyzed into a list of specific behaviors The second of the two steps is called recognition. As one method of validating fire recall-derived behaviors. fire recalled behav- iors are given in survey form to a second. independent. and equally competent group of observers The merrrbers of this second group are asked to check the frequency and importance of each behavioral state- ment. The extent to which fire behavioral statements are judged to be frequent and important serves as a measure of the degree of validity of fire recall-derived behaviors This follow-up process is termed recog- nition because the second group of observers is asked to recognize the frequency and importance of each behavior but not fire details of original experiences To put this two-step process in another context. fire product of fire recall procedure yields predictor information. whereas fire product of the recognition procedure provides criterion information. 138 Determining the extent to which the criterion information confirms the predictor information is a fonn of validation. In accordance with classical critical incident procedures. fire recall and recognition steps outlined above were followed in this study. Each recall and recognition step was checked with appropriate reliability measures before proceeding to fire next step. In each instance. reliabilities generally were found to be more than adequate considering fire exploratory nature of fire study. Validity is more complex to describe because it must be consi d- ered at two levels: (1) fire individual behavioral statements or guide- lines for coaches. of which 61 emerged from the analysis of fire study data; and (2) fire categories into which fire individual behavior state- ments are organized Sixteen categories were formul ated. Specific behavioral staterrrents were considered important because firese state- ments tell coaches what to do to improve fireir safety practices Cate- gories of fire statements were considered important because it is difficult for guideline users to renember and apply large numbers of miscellaneous statements Organization of fire behaviors into cate- gories helps in recalling and applying the guidelines Wings In the first level of validation that of the behavior state- ments. all 61 of fire statements generated by fire content analysis were evaluated by a second. independent group of observers as occurring with some degree of frequency and being of sorrre importance Frequency. however. was found to vary much more than importance. 139 Concerning the second level. or category validation. fire findings are reported separately for each of fire four categories used in this study. The first of firese categories is effective/ineffective This category was built into the study because of lessons learned in earlier applications of critical incident mefirodology. Researchers using this methodology found long ago firat observers reported incidents of both effective and ineffective behaviors From fire beginning of all data collection in this study. fire effective/ineffective dichotomy was used The content analysis of the critical incidents identified 25 effective behaviors and 36 ineffective beiraviors Evidently effective coach behaviors were less readily identified than coach mistakes Hhen fire second group of observers became involved in using fire effective/ ineffective category. firey reported that effective behaviors were much more frequently observed firan ineffective ones In addition. fire effective and ineffective coach behaviors were of about equal impor- tance In ofirer words. for fire observers. coaches were practicing more effective behaviors than ineffective behaviors even though fewer effec- tive firan ineffective behaviors were cited The second category of behavior statements dealt with accident prevention in contrast to post-injury care This distinction is a chronological one and is reflected in the safety literature in gymnas- tics Entire articles have been focused on prevention and ofirers on post-injury care This distinction was built into the instructions to subjects who were asked to report critical incidents The analysis of incidents showed that those incidents involved mostly prevention 140 mostly post-injury care or both. One can conclude firat fire chrono- logical distinction made sense to both fire predictor and criterion observers The statistical analysis of fire criterion group reports indicated a slight suggestion that observers considered it more impor- tant firat ineffective post-injury-care behaviors rafirer firan ineffec- tive prevention coach behaviors not occur. The third category of behavior statements was concerned with coach behaviors and characteristics This category was formulated primarily from fire collected incidents and referred to such factors as what fire coach did differently in practice as compared to competition situations. and coach behaviors toward fire gymnast as compared with fire equipment. Despite fire professional interest in these somewhat situa- tional factors. fire study data did not provide satisfactory insights The fourfir category of behaviors pertained to frequency and importance This distinction was not made in fire instructions to fire group of observers who were asked to recall critical incidents The researcher wanted to avoid prejudicing fire observers regarding fre- quency and importance However. firese two dimensions. to which criti- cal inci dent methodology has long accorded much importance were included in the instructions to the second observer group. This group was in fire best position to scrutinize fire entire list of behaviors generated from the critical incidents and to report on frequency and importance. Findings indicated that frequency and importance among effective coach behaviors were significantly more likely to correlate 141 with each ofirer firan were frequency and importance among ineffective coach behaviors. On the whole frequency and importance were suffi- ciently different from each ofirer firat. despite fire practical advan- tages of combining then and providing simpler safety guidelines. grounds for doing so were inadequate Regarding the four types of categories. fire researcher con- cluded firat all four should be maintained and worked with in presenting behavioral guidelines to coaches and other potential users Their validity tended to be supported WW Five sets of guidelines were developed from fire recall and recognition analyses All five are presented in fireir entirety in fire following appendices: Set 1--Appendix B-l: Set 22-Appendices B-TS firrough B-ZO: Set 3-Appendices B-21 firrough B-26: Set 4-Appendices B-27 through B-33: and Set S-IAppendices B-34 firrough 8-49. Each set of guidelines comprises a list of behaviors classified into fire four behavioral categories. It was not possible to develop one. al l-encompassing set of guidelines Each of fire five sets of guidelines was seen to have uniquely valuable characteristics. as described in the following paragraphs. 531:4. Appendix B-l. comprises 61 behaviors It is based solely on fire content analysis of fire critical incidents Because this 142 set does not distinguish between frequency and importance it is only half as long as the recognition-based guidelines SELZ. Appendices B-TS firrough 8-20. concerns frequency alone Those primarily interested in epidemiological research are most likely to use this set of guidelines. 5313, Appendices B-21 firrough B-26. concentrates on importance alone This set is fire one firat gymnastics practitioners such as coaches and afirletic directors will probably use the most. 5315, Appendices B-27 firrough B-33. represents an attempt to integrate both frequency and importance This set lists grouped behav- iors and categories firat were both most frequent and most important. down to those that were least frequent and least important. 533;, Appendices 8-34 firrough 8-49. includes frequency and importance for each coach behavior to facilitate comparison across frequency and importance. Throughout all sets of guidelines. an attempt was made to incorporate fire study's major categories: frequency/importance effective/ineffective prevention/post-injury care and coach behaviors and characteristics These categories were designed to make fire guide- lines more understandable and usable W The refinement of mefirods involved in the recall. content analysis. and recognition of critical incidents was not a primary goal in this study. Neverfireless. fire apparent novelty of some of fire situations encountered in fire study incidentally led to fire refinerrrent 143 of methods not reported in fire literature concerning fire critical incident technique To benefit others using the critical incident method. firose ref inerrents are discussed in the ensuing paragraphs. The refinements fell into three categories: (1) overall-~firat is. applying to recall or content analysis and fire recognition phases of data processing: (2) applying only to content analysis of the criti- cal incidents: and (3) applying only to validation. Wetlands. Getting enough qualified observers to recall critical incidents and firen to recognize firem is always a problem. One tactic found to be useful in this study was to include judges at competitive meets as observers Judges could well serve as additional competent observers to obtain critical incidents in other sports that use judges One drawback of using judges is firat firey are not in as good a position as coaches and some other types of observers such as gymnasts to observe appropriate critical incidents firat take place during practice sessions It was difficult to recruit gymnasts as observers except firrough firei r coaches Gymnasts were often reluctant to report on their coaches if they firough fire coaches might read their critical incident reports. especially firose describing ineffective behaviors. Related to the above consideration was the difficulty in get- ting observers to report incidents. especially firose dealing with ineffective behaviors Much care went into motivating observers to participate in this study. State leaders in professional gymnastics supported the research and stressed its importance Anonymity of 144 responses was promised and scrupulously observed On fire whole a cooperative climate emerged Another problem was reaching the predictor respondents by mail. especially high school coaches and gymnasts Because fire survey was mailed at the end of fire competitive season fire investigator experi- enced fire following difficulties: (1) most of fire coaches were dis- covered to be part-ti me errrployees and no longer were employed by the high school when fire surveys and/or the follow-up materials arrived. and (2) the gymnasts were often participating on other sports teams and were not in contact with fireir gymnastics coaches As a result. fire predictor instrument did not reach all of the potential respondents W In mid! of fire previous research in which content analysis of critical incidents was reported. just one behavior statement generally emerged from each critical incident. One can then obtain frequency counts for each behavior statement. In this study. critical incidents were often too complex to yield just one behavior. Two or more behaviors often were derived from a single complex incident. For example a given incident might have described ineffective accident prevention but also reported effective post-injury care In addition. some incidents might have reported completely on practice situations. others completely on competition and still others on both practice and canpetition The specificity of reports also varied widely. Under these circumstances it was not possible to obtain frequency counts of behaviors in fire recalled inci dents. and it was not easy to determine interrater 145 reliability. One solution was to check fire quality of fire content analysis by having each analyzer independently report whether she had found evidence for each behavior statement somewhere in fire mass of critical incidents. 131mm To assure comparability across the predictor and criterion groups of observers. fire same cover letter providing motiva- tion to participate and instructions was used Furfirer. identical denographic data were collected from each group and firen compared Comparison data were reported in Chapter III. New to validate also presented difficulties The predictor list or content-analysis results were in highly verbal form. whereas fire criterion list or survey-data results were highly quantitative One solution to this problem was to ascertain the extent to which each recall-generated behavior was supported by fire recognition observers as firey reported the frequency and importance of each recall-generated behavior. As stated earlier in this chapter. each behavior statement was reported as occurring with some frequency and as having some impor- tance. W The following recommendations for furfirer research include both substantive and mefirodol ogi cal suggestions Substantive suggestions fall into two broad classes: (1) extensions of fire data base and (2) other types of validation beyond the type used in this study. 146 Winn: W A nunber of data-base extensions exist for bofir fire predictor and criterion instruments: 1. Another predictor study using this investigation's pre- dictor instrument with high school coaches. athletic directors. off i- cials. and gymnasts could be conducted in other states and/or in foreign countries to collect additional coach safety behaviors and add firerrr to the present guidelines 2. Another validation study using this research's criterion instrument could be conducted in ofirer states and/or in foreign countries to determine to what extent the results of fire present study are generalizable State regional. and/or international similarities and differences could be explored. 3. Both the predictor and criterion instruments developed in this study could be used in fire same states in one year. five years. or ten years to determine trends and changes in the safety practices of higr school gi r1 5' gymnastics coaches. 4. The predictor instrument could be extended to different observers of high school girl 5' gymnastics from those used in this study (eg.. assistant coaches. afirletic trainers. sports physicians) to collect additional observations of safety behaviors. 5. The predictor instrument could be used at other levels of gymnastics (eg.. private club. college elite). both male and female to identify fire effective and ineffective safety behaviors of coaches These data could firen be compared with fire findings of this study to 147 determine similarities and differences between coach safety behaviors at fire two levels of gymnastics 6. The critical incident technique should be used in ofirer sports (eg.. football. basketball. wrestling. softball). both male and female to identify fire effective and ineffective coach safety behav- iors taking place in firose sports Because fire critical incident technique employed in this study was effective in collecting and iden- tifying fire safety behaviors of gymnastics coaches and this technique has been successfully applied in a number of other fields in which accidents have taken place it is time firat fire technique be applied to fire sports area. Once the behaviors that prevent or cause sports accidents are identified firrough errrpirical research using fire critical incident technique. better safety guidelines can be developed. imple- mented. and evaluated in an effort to reduce fire occurrence and severI ity of sports injuries 7. The critical incident technique should be used in conjunc- tion wifir fire findings of epiderrriological research. These accident factors that sports epidemiology researchers have found occurring fre- quently could be used as a basis for furfirer research using the criti- cal incident technique For example in 1984 Sands found collegiate fanale gymnasts weighing 125.5 pounds had more accidents firan those weighing less The critical incident technique could be used to survey fire observations of gymnasts who fit this description. Respondents could be asked to recall and report the behavioral details of such 148 accidents The data could firen be analyzed and added to fire existing data base produced through by epidemiological approach. Wm Long-term direct validation and indirect predictive validation with the study findings could prove useful. 1. Another study could be conducted with an experimental and a control group of high school 91 r1 s' gymnastics coaches The experimen- tal group would be trained in the safety behaviors developed in this study. whereas fire control group would continue with fireir present safety practices using the information normally available to then. After a year or two of data collection fire two groups of coaches could be compared as to the number of accidents occurring to gymnasts under fireir tutelage. 2. The principles developed in this study could have a wide range of uses in personnel adninistration: coach selection periodic evaluation training. and motivation. Validation data could be used in ascertaining whefirer fire principles helped reduce accidents. WW 1. Because fire criterion observers reported that almost all of fire behaviors were important and did not denote fire degree of impor- tance of fire behaviors. future validation studies should use a forced- choice format for responses rafirer firan fire free-choice format employed in firis research. Observers would be required to assign high. moder- ate and low importance ratings to a fixed proportion of their 149 responses In this way it would be possible to obtain a better idea of which behaviors are very important and which ones less so. 2. Because of fire difficulties encountered that were directly related to fire timing of fire data collection it is suggested firat future researchers in 91 r1 5' high school gymnastics mail surveys at the beginning of fire sports season. This would ensure firat coaches receive fireir surveys at fire high school when they are most likely to be there coaching fireir teams. and fire gymnasts could more readily be reached by fireir coaches and asked to participate in the study. W W The five sets of safety guidelines developed in this study can be used in a variety of ways by gymnastics practitioners. 1. High school girl 5' gymnastics coaches can use fire safety lists to assess fireir own safety practices. to become more aware of firei r safety responsibilities. and. if necessary. to obtain furfirer training in fireir areas of weakness. 2. High school 91 r1 5' gymnastics coaches can also use the safety lists to evaluate train and/or retrain fireir assistant coaches and ofirer support personnel affiliated wifir fire team. 3. Athletic directors at fire high school and college levels. as well as owners of private gymnastics schools. can use the safety guidelines as fire basis of interview questions to better assess fire safety behaviors of potential coaches. 150 4. Evaluators of gymnastics coaches can use fire safety guidelines as checklists in assessing the safety practices of fireir coaches Coach behaviors exhibited in practice and/or competition could be observed and checked off fire safety lists As a result. appropriate administrative actions could be taken: giving recognition and/or a merit raise to coaches displaying effective safety behaviors. suggesting and/or offering f urfirer training to coaches who display weaknesses. and terminating coaches who display an overabundance of ineffective safety behaviors and refuse to improve their safety practices. 5. Trainers of gymnastics coaches can use the guidelines as a base on which to develop and direct a coach-training curricul um. For example fire effective frequency and importance safety lists can be used by trainers to design impl errant. and evaluate fire needed educa- ti onal experiences to which future coaches need to be exposed A behavior-based training curriculum would help ensure firat trainees know what behaviors are expected of firerrr. how to prevent accidents from occurring in fire first place and where they need additional training. It is suggested that each gymnastics practitioner carefully review all five sets of safety guidelines before selecting a safety list or lists to follow. APPENDICES 151 APPENDIX A SURVEY INSTRUMENTS AND RELATED CORRESPONDENCE 152 153 APPENDIX A-I The study has been fully explained and I freely consent to participate in it under the following terms- the respondent can discontinue at any time without recriminationr the results will be treated with the strictest confidence: and the respondents will remain anonymous. 13135335??? 111-fir 'lfill In describing the coaching incident behaviors lease do 3%; write the name(s) of the coach. gymnast. spec ic high so col. or city the incident took place . . Tor Gymnasts Pin!!! 003333! POEM 2!!Bl!£.!1££tl If you are 17 or younger your parents or guardian must give their consent before you can participate in the stud . Please have them review the survey and sign their names be cw it they agree to your involvement in this gymnastics research. Return this tors with your reports. we give our consent to let our daughter icipate in this stics research. 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Noocoe cuuc ses meuoceueemoo uaeuuoema «usesu ou coves: nu eocwueueee use» 523 .559. I: use 8.5 33 one-Na 8» 3.5m .eeouesme ensues seemeue .oeeeeoece sues use .eouaccouuees .seuueu assoc ecu so suoo secuome sous anus so» secede:- .eucumeoe ee coco em assess rcouumesu ecu eeueoes ou measmncu ses uc—ueo use seduceseoe cu mecoeoo monummcmau muse. «cocoa chuc so so oceueemoo co segue couueouues eucu so mmeoosm ecu cu ucauu mu sueseuuwe ea us .uu secede-Wm eemc so one uses e uooce so» ou use. one uecu endoscouuees Hues ecu eueu o ou ceuuousos esec so» coaches .bouoehdn cauedcu< bloc .noau on male 160 APPENDIX A-2 To: High School Girl's Gymnastics Officials in Michigan No one ever wants to see a high school girl got injured who's just been putting everything she's got into gymnastics. Unfortunately. the best available information is that injuries in the sport are rising with the increase in both the numbers of participants and the difficulty level of the routines (Bowers. Pie. Schmidt, 1981). There is every reason to believe you are in a good position to provide information that could eventually lead to a reduction in these unwanted injuries. The research project, of which this letter is a part. is aimed at developing this injury reduction information. This project involves not just another round of collecting random opinions about this important matter. Instead, it involves going directly to gymnastics officials and asking them to make systematic reports of their actual observations of injuries: the situation in which the injury occurcd, the injury itself, and the aftermath. The observations are to include both prevention and care of these athletic injuries. Once enough of these observations have been collected. they will be objectively (and anonymously) analyzed to die- covcr what the actual facts are about these injuries. Once the facts become available, our profession and gymnastics participants will be in a stronger position to work out what injury-reducing steps to take. (Incidentally the method described has been successfully applied to other safety problem areas. m.g.. reduction of airplane accidents-Iit could be time that we. in gymnastics. take advantage of the method to make some progress toward handling our own increasingly embarassing common problem.) Mr. Vern Norrie, Executive Director for the Michigan High School Athletic Association. and Mrs. Suzanne Martin. Assistant Director support this research. At first the project is limited to data collection in the state of Michigan only. If resources and the Michigan results justify it. the project could be extended to other states. Every effort will be made to help our sport take full advantage of any outcomes of this research. Each questionnaire has a code number in the upper right hand corner. This will be used to identify those respondents that have not answered the survey so the investigator can send follow up materials. The data that you provide will be kept confidential. Now, here's where you come in! Instructions I.Bnclosed are copies of two simple forms which are designed mainly to help you clearly report your observations. One form asks you to report an incident in which the coach, the almost injured or actually injured girl, or one or more other observers who happened to be nearby did something that was especially effective in either preventing an injury or in caring for the injury after it happened. The second of the two forms asks for 53—incidcnt in which whoever was involved did something (or maybe not enough) that was particularly ineffective (though often well meant) in either preventing an injury or in caring $25 the injury after it happened. l6] 2.Please try to report as many incidents as there are copies of forms enclosed. If you honestly have not observed any of the kinds of incidents needed, then obviously you have nothing to report. Nevertheless, even if you have observed just one incident. that incident is of great value to our understanding of gymnastics injuries and the hope is that you will report it. If you happen to have observed more incidents than the number of forms enclosed, then only report the most serious ones up to the two forms enclosed. Even if you have observed no reportable incidents, please fill out the personal data on the last pages of these materials. Your answers will give us a clearer idea of the rate of these injuries in Michigan. 3.0nce you have written your reports, put them in the self-addressed. stamped envelope and get them to me as soon as you can. Sincerely, Barbara Mc Kenzie-Hamilton Doctoral Candidate. Michigan State University High School and Class I Girl's Gymnastics Official (Home) 313—752-6418. 162 PERSONAL DATA Once you have finished writing your reports, please tell us enough about yourself to help us to see where you are coming from as you wrote your reports. 1.1 an a (check one): High School Girl's Gymnastics Official High School Girl's Gymnastics Official and a U.S.G.F. Official 2.Your sex (check one): Female Male 3.Your age (check one): Over 35 25-29 Under 20 __30-34 _20-24 4.How many years have you judged high school girl's gymnastics? (check one): 1 year 3 years 5 or more years 2 years 6 years 5.Are you involved with any Michigan high school girl's gymnastics team in any other capacity than an official? Yes No (If you answered Yes to question #5 then proceed to question #6. If you answered £2 to question #5 then proceed to question #7.) 6.In what other capacity are you involved with a Michigan high school girl's gymnastics team? (check the appropriate response or responses below): coach choreographer critique routines before competition begins other (Please Describe) 7.Your highest level of education to date (check one): Have a graduate degree (M.A., M.S.. Ph.D.. etc.) Major Minor *B.A. plus some graduate credit Major Minor *B.S. or equivalent Major Minor College or University but not a B.A. Major Minor High School Graduate *If you have a graduate degree. also please show your undergraduate major and minor(s). 8.The primary concern of this project is to obtain facts. If revealing your identity in any way could keep you from having described the incidents as you really saw them, then do Egg answer any of the following. Your name and mailing address: (Over) 163 In my report, may I list your name as having cooperated in providing data? (check one): Yes No Would you like a copy of the research report? (Be sure you have given your name and address above) (check one): Yes No Reminder: Please return the materials in the enclosed, self-addressed. stamped envelope to: Barbara Mc Kenzie-Hamilton 9O Nest Predmore Road Lake Orion. Michigan 48035. 16h Dear Gymnastics Official. July 18' 1983' This is just a note to remind you that the mail questionnaire you received a few weeks ago on the validated competencies of coaches in preventing and caring for injuries to high school girl gymnasts is still needed. Your identification of critical incidents will allow this project to be extended to other states to fur- ther develOp this injury reduction information. Please complete the questionnaire and sent it back to me as soon as possible. Thank you! Barbara Mc Kenzie-Hamilton (319) 752-6h18. Ph.D. Candidate. Michigan State University 165 APPENDIX A-3 February 6. 190“. Dear lllinois high Iohoel dirls dynasties ceach and(or Official. hammerinaaliaeieontethathveroeontlyhsppsnediaeursportn thou-net‘s oreingafrontoeaiontohbstwsenthelowandhinhrinhor competitive rout . She sissed Itching the high hr on the release. her coach. stand nearby anticipating her every sovosent. sensed a 'siso' in the routine and i-ediatelyste intoeatchtbeg-nstinhissrss.urofullyberoassaredber and set her he to her feet. Daring urn ups the coach as heavily spotting“: gymnast on a hndspring front vault. the coach told the onset that she sou d do vault by herself in the out and instructed her to go for the vault and step balm such a hby about the stunt. the first did the vault during canpetition and landed a: her head. She no i-sdistely n to the hospital by ambulance. Darings balancebeaareutimtheg-mstattosptodaeartwhoel. Ihesissedtho bass with her are and fell. this resulted in a emeund fracture. a severe break. in the forearm. the coach i-ediately tool ehsr air oplinted the era. exhibit or- gllont first aid techniques. additinlc the coach bspt ever-you oals inclsd ng the jun-ed met. thou-matusdeihgsoele circlosntholowhrsndhsrhnds slip .lhonsho landed she put her are out behind her. Several stopping sounds were c early heard. the coach became totally unglued. the coach screened and backed an free the met no no in intense pin and bleeding. the mst's are no def and had several splinters of bone sticking out. because of the coach's behavior the entire toss to cry and sail. heenehile the hurt girl as still lying on the at. i realised that the coach as not going to do wthiu so 1 quickly stepped in and followed reper- first aid procedures. ln-rsupeatsssetlneticodtmtthe-wvonurowsrelseoeandbrought thisto the attention of the hose coach. She explained that it as too difficult to adjust the hrs to correct the poblea so the bars were left untouched. my unset no in the siddle of her routine won one screw in the scum pulled fr“ free the floor to ssusing the hrs to collapse. the met no thrown to the floor landing on 3: head and shoulders. the other coach reached my unmet first and started soving horaromd. i told the coach not tosevo the girl. sent feradocter that l bnew -s ntchiu the seat. and began questioning the gran to deter-sine the seriousness of the in: . the hose eoach mooted screwing aount bash into the floor and eontinuing ththsuot. lrofusedteallowulastgirltoceapeteonhrs. it's clear free the above that h school girls gynstics coaches are doiu sose things right but at the ease tine sese e thee. through how they handle themselves. could and do get into trouble. these dra-tic coach behaviors some free the data of a beginning phase of a research project concerned with the role of oosches in preventing injuries and giving post-injury care to high school girl mots. he ofthe tneodsyourhsl.te.ovthebindofholp.ododf‘ros ou let :‘tsnnrou Whig-nights of th: reject to hte. then 1 can better out in; for you met you can do for it. Over the past year 1 have been collecting spate-tic reports of actual incidents in which high school girls gy-Iaetics coaches were especially effective or not so effective on the b in both the practice and/or cospetitive envirmts. Coaches. officials. and even a ow knowledgeable athletic directors and girl sts all over lo- and lichigan. hve gone to a good deal of trouble to write out inc dents of oosches in action that they ave observed. the essence of these incidents has been boiled down to two lists of coach be- hviors. one list of effective behaviors and a second list of ineffective behaviors. lots that these behavior lists are not based on sore vague abstract general opinions that we slltooeftengotespoeedtobutonbulsirodssfraalhppeningsutthereonthegysfloer. 166 these two lists could be used as is to bel revise high school la gy-mstics .fe .nuals to serve as a basis for coach and :fficisls traimimg woe-“Jeeps. etc. S! One probles in usi the lists in their sent fore as we have learned from ssperience with this approach other nfoty-u'actc ces areas. is tlmt the behaviors in the lists do not. as accurately as is desirable. reflect relative uency and importance. some behaviors could happen frequently but not be torribl importantwh whle others could he pen rarely but be really important .Others could be both uent and important or even requent and trivial. if users of the lists such as .fety .nual citors and leaders of coach treiniu worbshops are ten vebdependa lo infantion to wars sith.beth Wand importance not be -de availableto to.thes hero'swhero eomein.touarebe”iuaebedtogivothebsnefitofyear losperience. as long or chm as that might be.by cheebifi the relative frequency and rtanee of each behavior shown. Just going lots and ueiauwhst ed behaviors are has proven to be a fascirmting as well as a sometimes ly disturb experience tothefewceacheewehvoshowntheliststesofar . till you please. then. the the very few simtes that are needed to road o-and attached two lists. hack a the real effort tut your colleagues sin and 325.2333" already put inteth this t t. All the high school girls etics coaches and officials on the official restore llinois are beingasbed to prtfcip to. the project needs your parssnl help if it's going to do the job well for all of as.. Sincerely. lie Bernie - hailton lcandidate. tichiean lute University (Si?) 372-3166. ms. 1 as required by federal regulations gleaming research with bun subjects to advise you t'mt you are under no pressure to participate. tour completion ofthe attached geestieuomire constitutes your agresesntto mieipate. I67 !. VALINTIOI C sun-cum um mm “VIM or MIG)! m1. onus MIC-'8 comm: II WIN seems AD WIN POST-m1 “I! amnion touwilloeethtoachrgointbofellowiuse tofferashsthree col-umcola-aiistholist of coach behaviors dove oped from the critical incidents. Col-a 2 provides a scale for you to tell . in your utensive persoml experience. you five observed the corresponding coach be- v or n column 1. Coleen 3 ides another seals for oryeu to «11W in your rionee the corresponding coach behavor in calm i is. if you stop to thi a u t is clear any of the list behaviors in column 1 -y hapnn quite often but not bevery importantor vice var-u your answers for an as coach behvior col- ! and 3 could be von different from each other. Record eaporieneo reprd thew often? and 'how important?- each coach bermvier is by sirel 3.. responses. be sure a circle. in m to 'hoe often?‘. one of the numbers free i to 3" in so um I to give your swear to 'how oftent'. 1f 'vo never been in a position to observe the coach behavior please circle .ber 6. “Does let a '. tor seamplo. if you've been a Judge almost occlusivsl . you probably haven't utohod gy-mstios fractioe very much so you can't . what soachcs' bel-viors in practice slut be. to give your answert hewimportsnt?’ be sure to cire s one of the "bars from i to 6 in cola-1 3. there could be a special hp-eblom in your understanding of dust 'how tt' means in this context. 'llow important?“ for th a coach behaviors means - how is- t is each behavior in searing .fe main p-aeticos ' ow rtantt' for the v coach behaviors. when you come to the ineffective behaviors on 3. means ohow for the behavior m to occur. the concern in this pro act is to ind out about coach behaviors that load to developing a afar enviroe-ent for garnets their sport. Myounvefiniueds shsohtessothtforuchitsmyouhvooircledsnsubsrincolu-I tandnemmcolmgoteushouldhvotwocirclod lodteresponses mbelmviorstatement. cm x m— Wm—* M W 1".” mm ouch munch arms mum, "R3,"... ’m..m1’ 2-1mm!“ mg.” Moderately important cgcn names m m Hem " ”man... the ceach missile S-Unimportant ' ‘-Does lot 61:33,." - i c y s 5 s n z 3 s 5 Izaqpuiu. Izaessxzaus nswmovemenis. (lsamplesu spotting 'bslt. pdded :ouipsnt. 1 t 3 ‘ 5 ‘ 1 3 3 ‘ 5 m 17.1.; .J'eivO'vOM r“....:‘:.::.".:“;".:§.. sto-tioallyshsobmtosesthtthe 183‘5618lfis ore‘actics. a meet. and/or a pn- titbsirbodesare-n.stretoh- u I". use '0‘! efoallingsttentontofaul sethattbezlmstaetually senses mm c on poetics and competition and sit activates a fearful gy-met torisoabovebsrfsarandgoforsmozjomsntcr O-eccurately senses the guest's carnation in ootn poetics and competition and does not st the st do a moment for which s/ho has reason to believe st does not have the stre h. flexibility. or “arena. llama only lets a beg gy-Iast with mafficient stragth do oa front undspring vmu tu steps a first with a badly inod ankle or bruised heel from t-bl beeps a mots wth overly tender hands offthe them “)3". lo-p'ocissly judges when a all-st needs spotting. positions ber- self/himselftecffsroptimuasssietancs.andstepsinstthe ""5‘113‘5 right moment with the riot amoum of physical assistance. I68 rm - 2 - ljsry L'sry Frequently important I-P'roquently Z-lmportant com muons res m (anti-ed) '3'“ mngxfi Hover or b-lndifferont 233“” ’3.“ s O-Doos let M m II-Wml a gymnast from doiu movements tht the coach is not completelzowepar‘e: to spoaand/cr asks a coach. who is so : ' , . 3 ‘ . 3 ~ 3 ‘ -encoursges gymnas . pe (hupln-mosydofor ststeattsndoa-er 183‘} i23‘56 naetics ilinics or “in at clubs between” compet t! vs i-etxaanee q yoftheoquipent especiallysts-y 383‘5 113356 meets. and stops gymnasts from nraing up. wacticing. and/ 1 exam nos . p dcemen di! ey are or nound the area use each forent st and cover the equipment basesaswel as (2)-t thic .( lsufora ‘ t 3 . 5 ll ‘ ’ ‘ 5 ‘ lorbut bacb sosie dismount from the uneven .bars pul s in another landing at so that the guest Inc a double thiob- i5-moves out of the ny any oquipent and/or obstacles that are 1 8 3 g 5 , , g 5 6 too close to the appratus in order :o povid: the met 1” c ' a ran u pson ore ..l'l ups the equipmentés adjusted to each gynst. es cially at 1 a , ‘ 5 P 2 ’ ‘ 5 6 e i-swe inedandesperieneedincuchinggirlsgy-mstiss 185e5 1:31.56 andupdates her/his knowledge in the sport by attending ch term ement of chi ssistants i 2 3 e 5 l 1 5 b 5 6 that they impove their teachi and s tti skills. .1 "G 1 r 3 e 5 a r 5 e 5 6 WC" mum M W Coach behavior-Dar both metres and 10:“ we'll'mne a'bspsrisnc—ls 5 15!“ J5 EH aphtos bsr/ ‘ t ’ . 5 i 1 ’ . 5 ‘ his knowledge by attending clinics. workshops. somimrs.sono li-afterian injury. n so a qu e accurate asses-en o s I 5 I 5 i I j a 5 b mover . -a m n stsrs no more pfiog s oase e the relatively rare. potent l serious injury accurately : I , g 5 : I 3 . 5 6 to W i 8 5 e 5 i 2 3 b 5 6 oinj dn't t (in: l i thrived in 2:11;” 00:: 0°" e d an ure umnas . p e: s o g 3 p motsjontueblingandrunstoag-mstsoes stanosanywho ‘t, 5 ’ 5 u ' 1 c 3 b 5 1 e 3 I» s 6 I69 no - 3 - ”final W cry cry mm ouch Dunes arms ,ngg ,_m unstimes )doderatsly ly important Hover or hindiffersnt ceach mulls II M Ironically portant lover a hot the coach: e-ooes let M V . one s a s o seen a 9:” in weight control. eta-:ngth. flexibility. and/or .25: ‘ l , . 5 ‘ z ’ . 5 ‘ vascular enduranu for the gy-msts. (couple: tahes it for medtntthsmstssnhsr/histnm audit ioniuon -sarel uses shil ssisns or s ass-es thtthe gm- tfiflsybn-flm teller‘alz-Ipskimo(m 1., 1p,g,‘ goes directly intoltoachingn a s leamevusntto . menu: a - 3not:vraparticularcliaueoftoa-sabers thsnonlym 18, 133.56 heal...” “am: when.thet=, oftho tt e e no a on re s s {altzna' )sting-vsmsntaretwrnsdths thste’spposi .y’. ‘t’ ‘1"56 M . 5-essumes the guest is loin a prtioular sovemern. places berself/himselfina eitiontospotthtmevementandthentsig) aggagg m age 's ”in El use: mm. Imam m: v t st - esnge sac gymrmstanswmovsmenor it) i13h56 even a complete routine until the meet .rm :z: and ash/ees sefarastoroquiretheu-msttoperform 1-in a meet mssuros the met. who isn't even being‘spegted. i 8 3 l 1 5 h 5 6 - ameet pressures gymna . so at eooac spottingher.intodoingamovomsntthtahehasnotpev- it) 123.56 9"“ ero- st to com eto. (.hmmple s talhed int lett a too aghly sotyotiztod not mamevoredggy-nugoompete: ’ ’ ’ f 3 ’ ‘ 5 ‘ lets the st c to simply maths stronth of the ritton a a is nynot snow the cm" as 15-even Sign: rules $.73. a coach to fit to a potentially Im- jurod refrainsfrom tothe staftershs it) 115b56 jj-permtsaqumst. .9 33, x 5.5 e a case a game e t.3a.:samiitthIs:_omLeaps.“inanimate- ‘ ' ’ ‘ ’ ' 5 l I re gymrmsts t perf any from i i . maple e 5'... not designateoarsasui: a large “fix-3°?aiuu for. : t , : 8 , 5 ‘ nrsi u because so rvis on a no ssibls. i senses that the caste urn up ore and/eraseeton irsnarddoesnotnhoths ortte :‘, 113b56 shock thtthsu-mstsare-rm. stretched out. alreadyte J" 54ers into out the gy-mst' s smscsticn faults because the ‘eoachzdzan'trecenisethss thssinthefiretplaceerlaebsthe "’ 1',"‘ isssa choc-I 03¢.m ' 185 113556 i-Imsaneshauste unstoent id) 185356 inr-essurosagy-mstteperfsrmtiloneisospsrismimg it) 183‘56 n. thas a problea with her/his timiu. placement. and/or intensity 1 8 J 1 3 3 t 5 6 W I70 no- - ~ - on W1 colon mums n t-rrooluontly gm mm (nun-u) ...;- . 2-1mm: 2...,2, "2":21’ nt 5m:1“"3 ly h-lnnnoront lever ‘ Hoes hot ' ”n -x .1' '2 J . use ‘ . . JEN-b I'm-n+1 1r +9600) --cssosyooa “Env1’3.5 113.56 of ‘30 ”01"!“- 0w? Wie- m I'npoen to see that t ...-to seed 2! ate emote anon u Ito-It 1:!otyetamards.(hhl;.ha letsa.‘~stseriononaeetei 18365 iz3o56 n uhoeurothatthemeths’engghspaoavamhoto it3b5 izyhgg 8 non re” o.n ails/cit o sepia? 2t?“ to "tug-3 "?henu’uipentgr” . i 8 3 b 5 i 1 3 b 6 - aeo s u miaailiarm (heap on doesn't get or?“ to =vihg ate 5 WI W experience or - for-lee Mosul trainiu ant/or experience incoaching girls caustics.( ls: l I 3 h 5 l 8 3 h 5 6 salts to no coaching training hot too! the coaching h on a prt tiae hssis hoooosotho thoschool ministration uated to ch“ ngvon owe . =ployenaseistant 183.5 183556 coach to oorh vithatoaatoolarug:toho Mlodhy see as o ass ts. p on s too so s inexpemriemod tea—to or assi-tant coach oorhritha yo- 1 8 3 b 5 i 2 3 b 5 6 M Dunn: n W nag-u- iolioviuaheooiieat. ""5 ""5‘ and even though the kmusician's instruction are tut canastrosteno tahot tiaeoflto torocover.eries-sthsga- to'aeooanco M‘s-5%. it3b5 183.56 t:llen lard to hove i-ooistoiy :r even heap e tor an aooiiont coachiooslittlroruhothihgforth; eteratheet i83b5 113.56 lets soaoono else ahinistorthe thefirot cares sees to l 8 3 h 5 i 8 3 b 5 6 (Ila-pl mover-ts ortsps ”I”; to a . ul- es en s oc s a not eith'shin nuts heioro ”eh: mos-Is. aegl‘Ects aattiu l 8 3 t 5 i 8 3 o 5 6 a at on a m tostfset m n-figsseb-omtrolatsruseovoriutttthouZet-sa xt,. ’ 1 ‘,‘ 5 6 eovoroin .( mthoarts ht jun Ill-v10- noose-seem I71 lIc- - s - igery [gory : l-Preo outle’ I laportant u . WC! “'10” II Wflmmfl ”a“... ,...¢.,...1, Rarely laportsnt 3-qlovor or b-lndifforsnt hectically minor-tant I s hot “Does not Apply 33-tahssaieplacodpidzinher/hietirstaidehilleendms 183§56lz3b56 n osth vssva oaetoc a on a 113136113i56 tdL mammummmrommmm MEL-HEM ”-lesvosittosossoneelsetest-sneetheoe-mi.0 inludiuthe 1 t , ‘ 5 ‘ ' 2 , . 5 6 school adainistration to .hs ving such nnial robloas as: too .5 an athletic budget o obtain sr replace desperately needed equipsntu insufficient alount of peraittsd practice tiae in the school schedule: too shy etc the. son t o ‘°"'1'“:1.2::m. ' "" ‘K" i'ossiom {stein to ehsroutoo gallium“ coaches at the high sc 1 level. ”Wong.” difficult event e. and tougher l I 3 h 5 6 l t 3 b 5 6 andtougher colpctltiom takes no init "tive in call those . robless to the attention of such ps-te1 of the potoes oml m: structure as the state high eohoo lgirls athletic assoc- mm the pereml its could help the invoctiater terdotersihethe extent to nich the lllinoic poop is emble to the hichinn ad is. poupe in solution-hip to iob titles. sec. age. etc. 1.1 as (check sneh—JJ . ”notice ceach _fi.d. Official o‘thour g" , so I-tesr ses (check one). _,-lo _ple . Hour ago (choc! one). _ovec 35 __30-3h _i5-89_ io-ll __~os so use- .ny years hes yea school ls sheet as) ... —o1ohed m— hip: mgir— notice? ( 0 Hour hipoeet level o! education to fits (check one): ”V. . ”Out. I a“. ‘s. .e.sg Hobo) .10! I1”? (lfyouhvsa o. aleoupleasoshesmaflWIfll ___t. i. or equivalent pluseeae toes-edit.” linor _§.i.er {bivalent end so ”dz-to credit :3: linor Co go or University ssperieuo Iiaor :hin school Mt s loainder- Please return the -terialo in the unlesed sh-ed. ssll-sddsossed useless to: unlclouio-hailtm 22:22:22.5": 12 e hm (lfyousouldlihseoopyetthoi’i-lreeearc lstterroesoetingthe noportandliet witeassprats ”you 172 February 20. 198k. Dear Gymnastics Coach and/or Official. This is just a note to remind ou that the questionnaire you received a fin weeks ago ggithe validated behaviors of high school coaches effect- ively and ineffectively preventing and caring for injuries to girl gymnasts is still needed. Please complete the questionnaire and send it to me as soon as possible. If you have alreadybggE turned the questionnaire. consider this a thank you for your participation. Si cer 1y. { (fir, gargarg MEidenzic - Hamilton . . an ate Michi n State U (517) 372-3186.. so niversity .March 5. 198“. Dear Gymnastics Coach and/hr Official. The validation study on the behaviors of high school coaches effectively and ineffectively preventing and caring for injuries to girl gymnasts still needs a much higher return rate to make the study a success. If you have not responded to the questionnaire please complete the survey and return it as soon as possible. Your support is crucial! The project needs your per- sonal help to collect a sufficient amount of informa- tion to develop better guidelines for gymnastics per- sonnel to select. train. and/or evaluate present and future high school girls gymnastics coaches. Singgreig. arbara lo Kensie-flamilton (517) 372-3186. v APPENDIX B SAFETY GUIDELINES AND RELATED STATISTICS I73 17h APPENDIX B-I Preliminary Guidelines generated by the Predictor Survey C V MENTS Prevention The coach: goach Beh v or o d the mnast - Mainl duri 28591192 l-develOps the gymnast's flexibility through having her do structured stretching exercises. 2-develo s the gymnast's strength through having her do condit oning and/or weight training. 3-develops the gymnast's cardiovascular endurance through having her do aerobic activities. u-teaches new movements to each gymnast only after she has mastered a movement's fundamentals in- cluding lead-up skills and progressions. 5-takes full advantage of safety aids and apparatus when teaching new movements. 7-requires and then systematically checks to see that the gymnasts warm up before practice. a meet. and/ or a particular event to insure that their bodies” are warm. stretched out. and ready to move. B-accurately senses the gymnast's mental condition in both practice and competition and either motivates a fearful gymnast to rise above her her fear and go for a movement or gets her to wait. despite the pressure to excel. 9-accurately senses the gymnast's physical condition in both practice and competition and does not let the gymnast do a movement for which s/he has reason to believe the gymnast does not have the strength. flexibility. or endurance. lO-precisely judges when a gymnast needs spotting. positions herself to offer Optimum assistance. and steps in at the right moment with the right amount of physical assistance. ll-prevents a gymnast from doing a movement that the coach is not completely prepared to spot and/or asks I75 a coach. who is so prepared to s at the gymnast. 12-encourages the gymnast to stay n shape through- out the year. Coach Behavior with res ect to the i ment - in at P T C n N l3-examines the quality of the equipment. especially at away meets. and steps gymnasts from warming up. practicing. and/or competing on equipment that does not meet safety standards. iu-examines (1) mat placement to insure that they are under and around the area used by each different mnast and cover the equipment bases as well as f3) mat thickness. 15-moves out of the way any equipment and/or obstacles that are too close to the apparatus in order to provide the gymnast with sufficient space to per- form without hitting something. 16-examines the equipment before warm ups and sees to.it that the equipment is adjusted to each gym- nast. especially at away meets where the equipment may be unfamiliar. 0 ch c ound 17-is well trained and ex erienced in coaching girls gymnastics and updates er/his knowledge in the sport b attendi clinics. workshOps. seminars. convent ons. and or congresses. Co ch ement of c s stants 18-manages coaching assistants in such a way that they improve their teaching and spotting skills. 19-discourages having gymnasts act as spotters when they are not very well trained in spotting. especially when high level movements are involved. I76 EFEQCTIXE COACH B§§5VIQR SIAEEMENTS Post-Injury Care The coach: QOQch fiehavior - Durigg bgth BEACIICE gnd QOM§§1;2;ON 20-is well trained and eXperienced in first aid and updates her/his knowledge by attendi clinics. workshOps. seminars. conventions. and or congresses. 21-after an in ury. makes a quick accurate assessment of its sever ty. 22-administers no more than appropriate first aid: in the case of the relatively rare. potentially serious injury accurately judges when to send the gymnast to an athletic trainer and/or physician for further evaluation and treatment. 23-stays in control while examining and treating an injury no matter how severe. Zh-stOps whatever s/he is doing and gives immediate attention to an in ured mnast. 25-keeps a stocked f at a d kit on hand at all practices and at all home and away meets. I77 NE? C C H V R {govention the coach: Co ch e v o d the t - d E£A_I_QE. 1-has done little about developing and implementing fitness programs in weight control. strength. flexibility. and/or cardiovascular endurance for the gymnasts. ' 2-rarely uses skills progressions or simply assumes that the gymnasts have mastered fundamentals or lead-up sk lls. 3-deve10ps a dislike. often unconscious. for a part- icular gymnast or a particular cli us of toammembers and then only infrequently works w th her/them. u-eometimes doesn't use safety aids the way‘they were intended. 5-assumes the gymnast is doing a particular movement. places her/h self in a pos tion to spot that move- ment and then to the coach's surprise the gymnast performs another movement. Qoach Behavior Togggd the Gyggggt - Mainly during COMPE IT ON 6-doesn't get around to teaching the gymnast a new movement or even a complete routine until the meet warm ups and then goes so far as to require the . mnast to perform the movement/routine in the meet. 7- n a meet pressures the gymnast. who isn't even being spotted into doing a movement that she has not previously mastered. 8-in a meet pressures the gymnast. who at least has the coach spotting her. into doing a movement that she has not previously mastered. 9-against the coach's better judgment permits an injured gymnast to compete. lO-even though rules permit a coach to talk to a potentially injured gymnast. refrains from talking to the gymnast after she has fallen hard from the apparatus for fear of losing points. I78 11-permits a gymnast. disoriented from a fall. to continue competing. 12-yells and thereby embarrasses a gymnast who has just fallen or committed some other execution faults. Coach Behavior Toward the G at - Duri both E§Z::i§E End fiofiifiiiTifiN lz-permits gymnasts to perform away from supervision. 1 -assumes that the gymnasts warm up before and during practice and/or a meet on their own and does not make the effort to check that the gymnasts are warm. stretched out. and ready to move. 151111-er points out the gymnast's execution faults because the coach doesn't recognise them in the first place or lacks the confidence to explain the faults to the gymnast. 16-pushes a freightenod gymnast into doing a movement regardless of her anxiety. 17-has an exhausted gymnast continue performing in spite of her overwhelming fatigue. 18-pressures a gymnast to perform while she is experienc- ing severe pain. i9-has a problem with her/his timing. placement. and/or intensity of the physical spotting used. ‘ zo-ie so busy coaching that s/he overlooks examining the quality of the equipment. especially at away meets. 21-permits the gymnast to perform on equipment that does not meet safety s s. zz-doesn't bother to observe the placement of the equip- ment to make sure that the gymnast has enough space available to perform. 23-neglects to adjust the equipment before warm u 3. practice. and/or competit on to see to it that t is adjusted for each gymnast. especially at away meets where the equipment may be unfamiliar. C c c o ZH-has had little experience or no formal or informal training andzor experience in coaching girls gymnastics. I79 ch ement o i as nts 25dwhen given the opportunity. refuses to employ an assistant coach to work with a team too large to be handled by one coach: prefers working with the team all alone. 26-uses unqualified assistants. 180 INEPFECT;!§ COACH BEfiAVLOR STATEMENTS zgst-lnjggy Care The coach: Coach Behavior -»!§inly during PEACTlgE 27-after a gymnast has seen a physician following an accident. and even though the ph sician's instructions are that the gymnast rest and ta e time off to re- cover. orders the gymnast resume practice as of now. Coach thgvio; - gainly during goggggzrzgn 28-so that the meet can continue. tells the gymnast who has fallen hard to move immediately or even pulls the gymnast up to her feet before examining ’19: e Coach Behgvior - 232225 goth zaggglgg 3nd CQEZETITION 29-gives first aid low priority. 30-misses identifying a serious injury. 31-has problems using taping to support weak body struc ures. 32-loses self-control after discovering that the gym- nast has a severe ingurya 33-takes misplaced pri e her/his first aid skills and refuses assistance from an athletic trainer or another coach. 3h-does not have available a stocked first aid kit on hand at all practices and at all home and away meets. I8] NE? CT 0 CH V TEMENTS grovention and Pgst-Injggy gig; The coach: Geneggl Coach Behaviogs 35-leaves it to someone else to arouse the community including the school administration to make pro- ess toward solving such perennial problems as: 0 small an athletic budge to obtain or replace desperately needed equipment: insufficient amount of permitted practice time in the school schedule: tic many meets in the season: too much pressure to w n. 36-accepts the situation as it is with respect to such long term professional problems as not a long enough season to get gymnasts into shape. too few qualified coaches at the high school level. in- creasingly difficult event requirements. and tougher and tougher competition: takes no initiative in calling these problems to the attention of such a of the rofessicnal ower structure as the state high so col girls at letic association. 182 APPENDIX 8-2 Means and standard deviations for the individual coach behavior statements for {reguency Ezfggtivg gggvgntign Standard Statement 1 Me n ngiation 51» 2 2.3 1.15 2 2. .93 5 1.; .30 6 2.. .92 g 2.1 .8 2-3 .9 9 2.2 .79 10 1.9 .76 11 2.2 1.02 12 2.# 1.05 1 2.3 1.17 1 1.7 .90 15 1.9 .89 16 1.7 .89 17 2-3 .95 18 2.2 .91 19 2. 1.03 Effective Pgst-lnjggy Qgre Standard St tement Megn ngigtigg 20 2.5 .97 21 2.2 1.01 22 1e8 o75 22 1.8 .69 2 1.8 .92 25 2.2 1.13 183 heans and standard deviations for the individual coach behavior statements for Ineffective Prevention scat t t g E Sm #ti omen O n V on 2 3:7 1:18 a 3.6 1.12 5 .1 1.33 6 BIZ :90 7 “.2 :99 3 3: 12 10 Bin :85 1%. 3'2 "8‘? 1 3:8 1:10 1 3.4 1.12 15 3.6 1.12 16 2.7 1.10 17 .1 1.00 18 “.4 .97 19 3.7 1.0 20 2.6 1.1 g; .3 1.3g 2 2:3 :86 2 3.6 1.22 25 .6 .80 26 3.6 1.01 Ineffective Eogt-Injggy gags s to t am misuse 27 “.6 .80 :8 fies egg 9 .3 . 3? “'° 1'23 32 M 238 . .92 33 3.: 1.13 e v t P - 0.11 Statement t Egg; Qevigtion 35 30“ 1e20 36 3.2 1.1u 18h Means and standard deviations for the individual coach behavior statements for Impoztgnce gffective Prevention Standard __e___£3tat uent Essa mm 1 1e3 053 2 1.3 . O z 1.6 . 5 1 O 2 Cu 5 1 O 2 g 6 1.3 .58 7 1.5 .62 8 1.5 .76 9 1.3 .65 10 1.2 .45 11 1.3 .59 12 1.? . 6 1 1.2 . 7 1 1.2 .57 15 1.2 .h9 16 1.2 .h7 17 1.2 .58 18 1.5 .65 19 1-5 .75 Effective Post-Injury 99%; andard Stgtemgnt t Megn ngigtigg 20 1e” e61 21 1.3 .52 22 1.1 .3 23 1.1 . 2 1.3 .57 25 1.3 .67 185 [loans and standard deviations for the individual coach behavior statements for W Ineffectivg hevgntion Standard Statement t m nevigt ion 1. 1:: '2; a 2:0 1:06 1-2 .53 5 1 C 6 O 81 g is“ e fi 8 1:3 :82 9 1 .14: . 68 10 1.“ .8“ 2 1; 2 1 '1: :9u 15 1'6 '33 16 1:2 :70 17 1.3 079 18 1. .77 19 1.” .78 20 1.2 079 21 1e 079 22 1.4 .70 2 1.3 .66 2 1.3 .6“ 2 1.5 . 6 2 1 . 5 . 3 Ineffgctive Pogt-zgjm gage Statement 1 m Evigtign 27 1.3 .66 28 1 O 2 O 60 29 1.3 e69 30 1.3 .68 31 1.3 .79 32 1'1: '33 33 1!» :83 186 APPENDIX B-3 so on aw N m c c~ as so on nm N a 6 o~ as cos a m m H e a n P i m . I” H v w v .n . n, a . . mIIIH 1 a =I m e 11 ... I» m ... As 0 ~ H N 1... I a? RN m 6 ~ 9 a 6 ea N ea H a a can a a a 6 L4 m a o m < = A o a m n... o m < : sacvov “:4. a pop .28... ...:m 8528: = 3.8a :26 28:33.2 5.: 8 e 3 9:6 P3563.“ coco use coavsohoom o>aaoomum um hasnsu:vmom e>avoeuuosn on Am 0 .9 .mV Aonoahczom cocoa Hegemony sumo hasnsn:vmom o>uuoouuu so sumo hasnsH:paom one sonvso>eam o>upoounesu se coco husfisu:umom use soapso>oum caduceuuesu on coavse>oam shavoouuocn um conuCohoum shavoouuu s< a some nuanc«:ueom o>auooumoca use sodaooHMe mom sonusohoum e>dvoemuocu use e>uuoenuo sou oocsvuomsd use hosesdonu no names psosovmpm noa>mson no macavsnanvmam accosvoum zoomsomo: 187 APPENDIX B-h H S H H H o .H n H c m __ Hafiz. me o e = 3% FE o H o H n 3N.¢IOE w = figunfin L fl 0 U o m 3N. nook ¢ . . c . . a . a H H H . u . a m v a N . I . H H H N N NMHM-oMHM n N H H H o .. . M N N N W N o aaqHumN H m H N o NJ! d m m d u H u ..H M a d n d Wfiwwww upum cocavuonan _TH«MNMA uauwnw mucosaoum undo: auto nuancu A0 a 4v undo hasnnnnvuom quom o>Hvoomuocn no and coHanotoum o>Haoomuu In came an a .n.nv Anu0H>anom :oaoo Hauococv nuancnuvuom obavoonuu no undo nuancuuaoom ved oudo husecauvuom can :oHu:o>oum o>HaoouuoCH In :oHv:o>oum o>HvoouHoca nu coHuco>oum obHaoouuonn an coavco>oum obHvooun I4 .ch o o» 0H» 0 zone sumo you undo on» no :OHaanHuqun undo hasncHuvuon o>HpoouuonH and o>Hvoouuo and :ouucoboun o>Haoouuqu and o>Hvoouuo non oocavhonau and hocosdouu an nudes huowovdo uoa>anon no ucoHaanuvnHu hocoadouu svomaouu: 188 APPENDIX B-S Factor Analgoie of the Criterion Instrument'e Qategories A. {reguencx # of Factors Eigenvalues for each Identified identified factor 5 of the Variance 13 1- 15.075 35.0 2- 11.326 26.0 a- 30359 708 - 2.375 305 2' 1'83; 3'“ 7- 1.202 3.Z 8- 1.371 3.2 9- 1.160 2.7 10' 096“ 202 11- 0897 201 12- .825 1.9 13- 0756 108 B-M # of Factors Eigenvalue. for each Identified identified factor 5 of the Variance 25 1- 28.03“ 46.3 2- 50772 902 3' 13;; 6°. 5- 2.676 B3u 6- 2.135 305 7' 10805 300 8- 10536 2.5 9" 10295 201 10- 1.205 2.0 11- 1.036 1.7 :2- ~22; 1.2. 13- .691 1.1 15' 055 09 16- a 1 08 17' a “6 e7 18- .408 07 19- a367 o6 20" 0339 06 21- .312 .5 22" 0282 05 2 - 027 a 22- .255 .2 25- 0227 on 189 APPENDIX B-6 Pearson r's for each individual coach behavior statement (frequency vs. importance) Effective ggevention W t. 1 .20 2 .27 a .01 .33 5 . 6 .uo 7 .27 8 .27 9 .00 10 .20 11 .29 12 .33 1 .31 1 .33 15 .51 16 .35 17 .17 18 .17 19 .#7 Effective Post-gnjugx gare §tatement g g 20 .37 21 .17 22 .23 22 .36 25 .08 Ineffective Prevention Statement 1 g; mflmummu O o ... I90 Ineffective gevention (contguedl Statement f z 9 . 10 -.Oz 11 -eao 12 -.08 1 -e17 1 -.O1 15 -.02 16 'e 17 .00 18 -.07 19 .03 20 .02 21 .08 22 -e12 2 .03 2 .17 2 -e06 (Pearson r'e were rounded off to the nearest one hundredth) I91 APPENDIX B-7 Pearson.r's for each coach behavior category (fre- quency vs. importance) 9552822! I. .3 Effective Prevention .08 19 Ineffective Prevention .05 26 Effective Post-Injury Care .57 Ineffective Post-Injury Care .09 I92 APPENDIX 8-8 leans and standard deviations for each coach behavior category by frequency and importance Erequency Importance lean s,n, Effective gggvention Categogz flean §‘2‘ 2.1 .52 Coach behavior toward the gym- 1.3 .31 nast -mainly during practice (In-5P 2.0 .63 Coach behavior toward the gym- 1.0 .03 nast during both practice and competition (n-7) 1.9 .82 Coach behavior with respect to 1.2 .38 the eguipment during both pract cc and compet tion (n90) 2.3 .95 Coach background (nni) 1.2 .08 2.0 .87 Coach management of coaching assistants (n-Z) 1.5 .59 Effective Post-Injggx Care a egos: Coach behavior during both 2.0 .6? practice and competition (n-6) 1.3 .32 Ineffective figsvention Categogx 3.8 .67 Coach behavior toward the gym- 1.5 .62 nas§)-mainly during practice 1’ 0.2 .76 Coach behavior toward the gym- 1.3 .59 nas;)-mainly during compet tion 31- 3.8 .80 Coach behavior toward the gym- 1.0 .68 nast during both practice and competition (up?) 0.0 .86 Coach behavior with respect to 1.0 .67 the eiuipment during both pract ce and competition (n-0) 3.6 1.22 Coach background (n-i) 1.3 .60 0.7 .80 Coach management of coaching 1.5 .59 assistants (n-Z) * N I number of items included in the category I93 Frequency I Importance lean 5.0. neffective st- n are ‘ e o aean 8.0, 0.0 .89 Coach behavior mainly during 1.0 .7? practice (n-i) 0.0 .92 Coach behavior mainly during 1.0 .72 competition (n-i) 0.3 .90 Coach behavior during both 1.3 .32 practice and competition (tr-6) neffective Prevention and _2_fi__. 3.3 1.07 General coach behaviors that 1.7 .75 apply to both (n-Z) I90 APPENDIX B-9 Significance of the differences between the effective and ineffective coach behavior statement means in frequency and importance "Effigctive gzifective Difference t Frequency ” 2.09 3.93 1.80 t 6.90 lawman“ 1 .30 1 .01 .11 .98 Difference .79 2.52 t E 5.60 E 10.0? * The 1% level of signifiance for t I 1.96 195 APPENDIX B-IO Analysis of variance: effective and ineffective for _ frequency and importance :{ifiétiv’ :gzgfective Difference P Value Pr.quency 2e09 3093 106“ “21.05 Importance 1-30 1.01 .11 5.60 Difference ~79 2.52 P Value 0.50 11139.60 *p < .01 (the 1’ level of significance for P a 6.63) 196 APPENDIX B-II Means and N's for each coach behavior and characteristic and category Frequency Importance . Category gean nean E 0 Effective Prevention (C.M.I2.1) (C.M.I1.3) -Coach behavior towards the gymnast -mainly during practice 2.1 1.3 5 -Ccach behavior towards the gymnast during both practice and competi- tion 2.0 Is“ 7 -Coach behavior with respect to the equipment during both practice and competition 1.9 1.2 0 -Coach background 2.3 1.2 1 -Coach management of coaching assistants 2.5 1.5 2 ineffective Prevention (C.M.I0.0) (c.m.-1.0) ICoach behavior towards the gymnast -mainly during practice 3.8 1.5 5 -Coach behavior towards the gymnast -mainly during competition 0.2 1.3 7 -0oach behavior towards the gymnast during both practice and competition 3.8 1.0 7 -Coach behavior with respect to the equipment during both practice and competition 0.0 1.0 0 -cOach background 3.6 1.3 -Coach management of coaching assistants 0.? 1.5 2 ffective Post- n u are (C.H.I2.0) (C.M.I1.2) -Coach behavior during both practice and competition 2.0 1.2 6 *C.M. I category mean In I number of statements in a category I97 quency Importance e Qatagogy I an lean Ineffective zest-{naggy 93:3 (C.M.I0.3) (C.I.I1.3) -Coach behavior-mainly during practice 0.0 1.0 -Coach behavior-mainly during competition 0.0 1.0 -Coach behavior during both practice and competition 0.3 1.3 Ineffective Prevention and st- (C.M.I3.3) (C.M.I1.7) I:]§§§ §are -General coach behaviors that apply to both 3.3 1.? 198 APPENDIX B-IZ Analysis cf'variance: prevention and post-injury care for frequency and importance Effective " neffective Z I Prev. PIC Prev. PIC Difference P Value Frequency 1.97 2.01 .00 .13 3093 hel? e2“ 6e27 1.27 1.20 . Importance 03 3.85 1.03 1.31 .12 011.11 ‘p < e 01 (the if level of significance for P I 7.56) 199 APPENDIX B-I3 Significance of the differences between the effective and ineffective prevention and post-injury care means in frequency and importance Effective Ineffective t Prev. PIC Prev. PIC Difference Value p 1.97 2.01 .00 .10 .8. Frequency 3093 “‘01? .2“ e91 NeSe 1.27 1.20 .0 00 . . Importance 3 ° N s 1.03 1.31 .12 1.28 N.S. (the 1! level of significance for t I 1.605) 200 APPENDIX B-I0 Analysis of variance for prevention and post-injury care coach behavior statements Source -Effective Prevention 31.97) and Effective Post-In ury Care (2.01) for frequency -Ineffective Prevention (3.93) and Ineffective Post-Injury Care (0.17) for frequency €Bffective Prevention (1.27) and Effective Post-Injury Care (1.20) for importance -Ineffective Prevention (1.03) and Ineffective Post-Injury Care (1.31) for importance M§ .01 .69 .05 .01 .2. .13 6.27 3-85 *11.11 'p<.01 (the 11 level of significance for E I 7.56) 20] APPENDIX B-IS the 19 Effective Ezeventiop Coach Behaviors in order of their Frequency ' The coach: 1-takes full advantage of safety aids and apparatus when teaching new movements. gExamples. spotting belt. padded equipment. mat pit. pit, (5) 2-examines (1) mat placement to insure that they are under and around the area used by each different gymnast and cover the equipment bases as well as (2) mat thickness. (Example. for a Korbut back somie dismount from the uneven bars pulls in another landing mat so that the gymnast has a double thickness of mate to land on ) (10) 3-examines the equipment before warm ups and sees to it that the equipment is adjusted to each gymnast. especially at away meets where the equipment may be unfamiliar. (16) 0-develops the gymnast's flexibility through having her do structured stretching exercises (1) 5-teaches new movements to each gymnast only after she has mastered a movement's fundamentals including lead-up skills and progressions. (0) 6-moves out of the way any equipment and/or obstacles that are too close to the apparatus in order to provide the gymnast with sufficient space to perform without hitting something. (15) 7-precisel Judges when a gymnast needs spotting. positions herself himself to offer optimum assistance. and steps in at the right moment with the right amount of physical assistance. (10) 8-requires and then systematically checks to see that the gymnasts warm up before practice. a meet. and/or a part- icular event to insure that their bodies are warm. stretched out. and ready to move. (6) 9-while watching a rticular gymnast. has a constructive way of calling attent on to real 8 so that the gymnast actual y makes the needed changes. (7) 10-accurately senses the gymnast's h sical condition in both practice and competition and does not Is? the gymnast do a movement for which s/he has reason to believe the mnast does not have the strength. flexibility. or endurance. Example. only lets a beginning gymnast with sufficient strength do a front handspring vault). (9) *The number in parentheses after each individual coach behavior statement reflects the statement number in the predictor survey shown in Appendix 0-1. This applies to all the safety guidelines that follow. 202 11-prevents a gymnast from doing movements that the coach is not completely prepared to spot and/or asks a coach. who is so prepared to spot the gymnast. (11) 12-accurately senses the gymnast‘s mental condition in both practice and competition and either motivates a fearful gymnast to rise above her fear and go for a movement or gets her to wait. despite the pressure to excel. (8) 13-deve10ps the gymnast's strength through having her do conditioning and/or weight training. ( ) 10-examines the quality of the equipment. especially at away meets. and stops gymnasts from warming up. practicing. and/or competing on equipment that does not meet safety standards. (13) 15-is well trained and experienced in coaching girls mnastics and updates her/his knowledge in the sport by atten ing clinics. workshOps. seminars. conventions. and/or congresses. (17) 16-develops the gymnast's cardiovascular endurance through having her do aerobic activities. (Examples: Jo gin . aerobic dancing. consecutive routines on the apparatus.) (3? 17-discourages having gymnasts act as spotters when they are not very well trained in spotting. especially when high- level movements are involved. (19) 18-encourages the gymnast to stay in shape throughout the year. (Exam 1e: arran as ways for mnasts to attend summer gymnastics clin cs or tra n at local c ubs between competitive seasons.) (12 19-manages coaching assistants in such a way that they improve their teaching and spotting skills. (18) 203 APPENDIX B-I6 The 26 Ingggggtiyg_£zgygntign_Coach Behaviors in order of their Frequency The coach. 1-assumes that the gymnasts warm up before and during practice and/or a meet on their own and does not make the effort to check that the gymnasts are warm. stretched out. and ready to move. (10) 2-has had little experience or no.formal or informal training and/or experience in coaching girls gymnastics. (Example. admits to no coaching training but took the coaching Job on a part time basis because the school administration wanted to keep girls gymnastics as part of their athletic program.) (20) 3-develops a dislike. often unconscious, for a particular gymnast or a particular cli us of toammembers and then only nfrequently works with hergthem. (3) 0-uses unqualified assistants. (Example. is too busy so has an inexperienced teammate or assistant coach work with a gymnast who is beginning to learn a new movement.) (26) 5-rarely points out the gymnast's execution faults because the coach doesn't recognize them in the first place or lacks the confidence to explain the faults to the gymnast. (15) 6-has done little about developing and implementing fitness programs in weight control. strength. flexibility. and/or cardiovascular endurance for the gymnasts. (Example: takes it for granted that the gymnasts on her/his team do conditioning on their own.) (1) 7-is so busy coaching that s/he overlooks examining the guality of the equipment. especially at away meets. (Example. oes not happen to see that the taped wrestling mats used for the floor exercise event have gaps between them.) (20) 8-rarely uses skills progressions or simply assumes that the gymnasts have mastered fundamentals or lead-up skills. (2) 9—pushes a freightened gymnast into doing a movement regardless of her anxiety. (16) 10-has a problem with her/his timing placement. and/or intensity of the physical spotting used. (19) 11-assumes the gymnast is doing a particular movement. places her/himself in a osition to spot that movement and then to the coach's surpr se the gymnast performs another movement. (5) 200 12-in a meet pressures the gymnast. who at least has the coach spotting her. into doing a movement that she has not previously mastered. (8) 13-permits gymnasts to perform away from supervision. (Example: does not designate areas in a large gymnasium off-limits for warming up because supervision is not possible. (13) 10-against the coach's better judgment permits an injured gymnast to compete. (Example. gets talked into letting a too highly motivated yet not too well recovered gymnast compete: lets the gymnast compete simply on the strength of the written approval of a physician who may not know the circumstances as well as the coach.) (9) 15-doesn't bother to observe the placement of the equipment to make sure that the gymnast has enough space available to perform. (22) 16-pressures the gymnast to perform while she is experiencing severe pain. (18) 17-has an exhausted gymnast continue performing in spite of her overwhelming fatigue. (17) 18-permits the gymnast to rfcrm on equipment that does not meet safety standards. {21) 19-s3metimes doesn't use safety aids the way they were intended. ( 20-in a meet pressures the gymnast. who isn't even being spotted. into doing a movement that she has not previously mastered. (7) 21-permits a gymnast. disoriented from a fall. to continue competing. (11) 22-neglects to adjust the equipment before warm ups. practice. and/or competition to see to it that it is adjusted for each gymnast. especially at away meets where the equipment may be unfamiliar. (23) 23-yells and thereby embarrasses a gymnast who has just fallen or committed some other execution faults. (12) 20—doesn't get around to teaching the gymnast a new movement or even a complete routine until the meet warm ups and then goes as far as to require the gymnast to perform the movement/routine in the meet. (6 205 25-even tough rules permit a coach to talk to a potentially injured gymnast. refrains from talking to the gymnast after she has fallen hard from the apparatus for fear of losing points. (10) 26-when given the opportunity. refuses to employ an assistant coach to work with a team too large to be handled by one coach: prefers working with the team all alone. (25) 206 APPENDIX B-I7 The 6 Effective Post-Injugy Care Coach Behaviors in order of their Eieguency - The coach: 1-stays in control while examining and treating an injury no matter how severe. (23) 2-stops whatever s/he is doing and ives immediate attention to an injured gymnast. (Example: s involved in spotting some gymnasts on tumbling and runs to a gymnast some distance away who has just been injured on the uneven bars.) (20) 3-administers ho more than appropriate first aid: in the case of the relatively rare. potentially serious injury accurate y judges when to send the gymnast to an athletic trainer and or physician for further evaluation and treatment. (22) ‘ 0-keeps a stocked first aid kit on hand at all practices and at all home and away meets. (25) 5-after an injury. makes a quick and accurate assessment of its severity. (21) 6-is well trained and experienced in first aid and updates her/his knowledge by attending clinics. workshops. seminars. conventions. and/or congresses. (20) 207 APPENDIX B-I8 The 8 ineffective Post-Injggy Qare Coach Behaviors in order of the r re uenc The coach. 1-has problems using taping to support weak body structures. (Examples overtapes). (31)' 2-does not have available a stocked first aid kit on hand at all practices and at all home and away meets. (30) 3-misses identifying a serious injury. (Example. tells the at that she has only a sprained ankle: later finds out ficm a physician that the gymnast has a broken ankle.) (30) 0-gives first aid low priority. (Example: after an accident the coach does little or nothing for the gymnast or at best lets someone else administer the first aid care.) (29) 5-takes misplaced pride in her/his first aid skills and refuges(;;gistance from an athletic trainer or another coac . 6-loses self-control after discovering that the gymnast has a severe ingury. (Example. cannot bear to look at a compound fracture. (32) 7-so that the meet can continue. tells the gymnast who has fallen hard to move immediately or even ulls the gymnast up to her feet before examining her. (28) 8-after a gymnast has seen a physician following an accident. and even though the physician's instructions are that the gymnast rest and take time off to recover. orders the gymnast resume practice as of now. (27) 208 APPENDIX B-I9 The 2 General Coach Behaviors that apply to both neffective Prevention and Post-Injugy Care in order of their re uenc Th0 0016)! 8 1-leaves it to someone else to arouse the communit including the school administration to make progress toward so ving such perennial problems as. too small an athletic budget to obtain or replace desperately needed equipments insufficient amount of permitted practice time in the school schedules too many meets in the season: too much pressure to win. (36) 2-accepts the situation as it is with respect to such long term professional problems as not a long enough season to get gymnasts into shape. too few ualified coaches at the high school level. increasingly di ficult event requirements. and tougher and tougher competition: takes no initiative in calling these problems to the attention of such parts of the professional power structure as the state high school girls athletic association. (35) 209 APPENDIX B-20 Coach Behavior and Characteristics Categories in the order of their [reguency 92225251 Effective ggevention 1-Coach behavior with respect to the equipment during both practice and competition 2-Coach behavior towards the gymnast during both practice and competition 3-Coach behavior towards the gymnast- mainly during practice 0-Coach background 5-Coach management of coaching assistants ineffective Preventigg 1-Coach background 2-Coach behavior towards the gymnast- mainly during practice 3-Ccach behavior towards the gymnast- during both practice and competition 0-Coach behavior with respect to the equipment during both practice and competition 5-Coach behavior towards the gymnast- mainly during competition 6-Coach management of coaching assistants Effective Post-Injugy Care 1-Coach behavior during both practice and competition neffective ost- n u are 1-Coach behavior during both practice and competition 2-Coach behavior - mainly during com- petition 3-Coach behavior - mainly during practice Ineffective Prevention and Post-Injugy Ciie 1-General coach behaviors that apply to both 3.8 3.8 0.0 0.2 0.7 0.3 0.3 an. 4.1. 3.3 3.3 S.D. .82 .63 .52 .95 .87 1.2 .67 .80 .86 .76 .80 .67 .90 .92 .88 1.1 fl '0 Sim) run a: ‘# “NV? 0).. cit-Ina. NIN 2I0 APPENDIX B-ZI The 19 Effective zgevention Coach Behaviors in order of their Impgrtance 1-accurately senses the gymnast's physical condition in both practice and competition and does not let the gymnast do a movement for which s/he has reason to believe the gymnast does not have the strength. flexibility. or endurance. (9) 2-manages coaching assistants in such a way that they improve their teaching and spotting skills. (18) 3-prevents a gymnast from doing movements that the coach is not completely prepared to spot and/or asks a coach. who is so prepared to spot the gymnast. (11) 0-accurately senses the gymnast's mental condition in both practice and competition and either motivates a fearful gymnast to rise shows her fear and go for a movement or gets her to wait. despite the pressure to excel. (8) 6-requires and then systematically checks to see that the gymnasts warm up before practice. a meet. and/or a particular event to insure(zhat their bodies are warm. stretched out. and ready to move. 6-is well trained and experienced in coaching girls gymnastics and updates her/his knowledge in the sport by attending clinics. workshops. seminars. conventions. and/or congresses. (17) 6-encourages the gymnast to stay in shape throughout the year. (12) 8-takes full advantage of safety aids and apparatus when teaching new movements. (5) 9-precisely judges when a gymnast needs spotting. positions her/himself to offer optimum assistance. and steps in at the right moment with the right amount of physical assistance. (10) 10-examines the equipment before warm ups and sees to it that the equipment is adjusted to each gymnast especially at away meets where the equipment may be unfamiliar. (16) 11-discourages having gymnasts act as spotters when they are not very well trained in spotting. especially when high-level movements are involved. (19) 12-devel0ps the gymnast's flexibility through having her do structured stretching exercises. (1) 13-teaches new movements to each gymnast only after she has mastered a movement's fundamentals including lead-up skills and progressions. (0) ZII 10-moves out of the way any equipment and/or obstacles that are too close to the apparatus in order to provide the gymnast with sufficient space to perform without hitting something. (15) 15-develops the gymnast's cardiovascular endurance through having her do aerobic activities. (3) 16-develops the gymnast's strength through having her do conditioning and weight training. (2) 17-examines (1) mat placement to insure that they are under and around the area used by each different gymnast and cover the equipment bases as well as (2) mat thickness. (10) 18-examines the quality of the equipment. especially at away meets. and stops gymnasts from warming up. practicing. and/or competing on equipment that does not meet safety standards. (13) 19-while watching a particular gymnast. has a constructive way of calling attention to faults so that the gymnast actually makes the needed changes. (7) 212 APPENDIX B-22 The 26 Ineffective agavention Coach Behaviors in order of their 3222222222 1-neglects to adjust the equipment before warm ups. practice. and/or competition to see to it that it is adjusted for each gymnast. especially at away meets where the equipment may be unfamiliar. (23) 2-doesn't bother to observe the placement of the equipment to make sure that the gymnast has enough space available to perform. (22) 3.5-rarely uses skills progressions or simply assumes that the gymnasts have mastered lead-up skills. (2) 3.5-when given the Opportunity. refuses to employ an assistant coach to work with a team too large to be handled b one coach: prefers working with the team all alone. (25 5-has had little experience or no formal or informal training and/or experience in coaching girls gymnastics. (20) 6-doesn't get around to teaching the gymnast a new movement or even a complete routine until the meet warm ups and then goes as far as to require the gymnast to perform the movement/ routine in the meet. (6 7-permits gymnasts to perform away from supervision. (Example: does not designate areas in a large gymnasium off-limits for warming up because supervision is not possible.) (13) 8-assumes that the gymnasts warm up before and during practice and/or a meet on their own and does not make the effort to check that the gymnasts are warm. stretched out. and ready to move. (10) 9-sometimes doesn't use safety aids the way they were intended. (Example: pays no attention when the two ropes of the spotting belt on a twisting movement are turned the opposite way around the gymnast.) (0) 10.5-pushes a freightened gymnast into doing a movement regardless of her anxiety. (16) - 10.5-has an exhausted gymnast continue performing in spite of her overwhelming fatigue. (17) 12-develops a dislike. often unconscious. for a particular mnast or a particular clique of toammembers and then only nfrequently works them her/them. (3) 13-has done little about develOping and implementing fitness programs in weight control. strength. flexibility. and/or cardiovascular endurance for the gymnasts. (1) 213 10-assumes the gymnast is doing a particular movement. places her/himself in a position to spot that movement and then to the coach's surprise the gymnast performs another movement. (5) 15-permits a gymnas. disoriented from a fall. to continue competing. (11) 16.5-yells and thereby embarrasses a gymnast who has just fallen or committed some other execution faults. (12) 16.5-rarely points out the gymnast's execution faults because the coach doesn't recognize them in the first place or lacks the confidence to explain the faults to the gymnast. (15) 18-has a problem with her/his timing. placement. and/or intensity of the physical spotting used. (19) 19-in a meet pressures the gymnast. who isn't even being spotted. into doing a movement that she has not previously mastered. (7) 20-is so busy coaching that s/he overlooks examining the quality of the equipment. especially at away meets. (20) 21-pressures the gymnast to perform while she is experiencing severe pain. (18) 22-uses unqualified assistants. (Example: is too busy so has an inexperienced teammate or assistant coach work with a gymnast who is beginning to learn a new movement.) (26) 23-permits the gymnast to perform on equipment that does not meet safety standards. (21) 20-even though rules permit a coach to talk to a potentially injured gymnast. refrains from talking to the gymnast after she has fallen hard from the apparatus for fear of losing points. (10) 25-against the coach's better judgment permits an injured gymnast to compete. (9) 26-in a meet pressures the gymnast. who at least has the coach spotting her. into doing a movement that she has not previously mastered. (8) - 210 APPENDIX B-23 The 6 Effective Post-injugy Care Coach Behaviors in order of their Importance 1-stays in control while examining and treating an injury no matter how severe. (23) 2-administers no more than appropriate first aid. in the case of the relatively rare. potentially serious injury accurately jud as when to send thsrgymnast to an athletic trainer andfior physician for her evaluation and treatment. (22) 3-after an injury. makes a quick and accurate assessment of its severity. (21) 0-stops whatever s/he is doing and ives immediate attention to an injured gymnast. (Example. s involved in spotting some gymnasts on tumbling and runs to a gymnast some diatance away who has just been injured on the uneven bars. 5-keeps a stocked first aid kit on hand at all practices and at all home and away meets. (25) 6-is well trained and experienced in first aid and updates her/his knowledge by attending clinics. workshops. seminars. conventions. and/or congresses. (20) 215 APPENDIX B-20 The 8 ineffective Pgst-Injggy nge Coach Behaviors in order of the r Importance . 1-so that the meet can continue. tells the gymnast who has fallen hard to move immediately or even ulls the gymnast up to her meet before examining her. (28) 2-after a gymnast has seen a physician following an accident. and even though the physician's instructions are that the gymnast resume and take time off to recover. orders the gymnast resume practice as of now. (27) 3-misses identifying a serious injury. (Example. tells the gymnast that she has only a sprained ankle. later finds og:)from a physician that the gymnast has a broken anile.) 0-gives first aid low priority. (Example. after an accident the coach does little or nothing for the gymnast or at best lets someone else administer the first aid care.) (29) 5-takes misplaced pride in her/his first aid skills and refuses assistance from an athletic trainer or another coach. (33) 6-lcses self-control after discovering that the gymnast has a severe injury. (Example. cannot bear to look at a compound fracture.) (32) 7-doee not have available a stocked first aid kit on hand at all practices and at all home and away meets. (30) 8-has problems using taping to support weak body structures. (Example. overtapes) (31) 216 APPENDIX B-ZS The 2 General Coach Behaviors that apply to both ineffective Prevention and Post-Injugy Care in order of their importance 1-leaves it to someone else to arouse the community including the school administration to make progress toward solving such perennial problems as. too small an athletic budget to obtain or replace desperately needed equipment. insufficient amount of permitted practice time in the school schedule. too many meets in the season. too much pressure to win. (36) 2-accepts the situation as it is with respect to such long term professional problems as not a long enough season to get gymnasts into shape. too few qualified coaches at the high school level. increasingly difficult event requirements. and tougher and tougher competition. takes no initiative in calling these problems to the attention of such parts of the professional power structure as the state high school girls athletic association. (35) 2I7 APPENDIX B-26 Coach Behavior and Characteristics Categories in the order of their Importance Cate o Effective Prevention 1-Coach behavior with respect to the equip- ment during practice and competition 2-Coach Background 3-Coach behavior towards the gymnast-mainly during practice 0-Coach behavior towards the gymnast during both practice and competition 5-Coach management of coaching assistants ineffective Prevention l-Coach background 2-Coach behavior towards the gymnast-mainly during competition 3-Coach behavior towards the gymnast during both practice and competition 0-Coach behavior towards the gymnast-mainly during practice 5-Coach behavior with respect to the equip- ment during both practice and competition 6-Coach management of coaching assistants Effective Post- n u are l-Coach behavior during both practice and competition neffective Post- n are 1-Coach behavior during both practice and competition z-Coach behavior-mainly during practice 3-Coach behavior-mainly during competition neffective evention d ost- n are 1-General coach behaviors that apply to both 1.5 1.7 1.7 :22 .31 .03 .59 .57 .59 .68 .62 .62 .73 .32 aaNHa km rIPP amkm\l\lu 218 APPENDIX B-27 EFFECTIVE PREVENTION Individual Coach Behaviors that are Very Important and occur Very Preguently 1-develops the gymnast s flexibility through having her do structured stretching exercises. (1) 2-takes full advantage of safety aids and apparatus when teaching new movements. (Examples. spotting belt. padded equipment. mat pit. pit.) (5) Individual Coach Behaviors that are Vegy important and occur Frequently i-requires and then systematically checks to see that the gymnasts warm up before practice. a meet. and/or a particular event to insure that their bodies are warm. stretched out. and ready to move. (6) 2-accurately senses the gymnast's physical condition in both practice and competition and does not let the gymnast do a movement for which s/he has reason to believe the gymnast does not have the strength. flexibility. or endurance. (Examples. only lets a beginning gymnast with sufficient strength do a front handspring vault. stops a gymnast with a badly sprained ankle or bruised heel from tumbling: keeps a gymnast with overly tender hands off the uneven bars.) (9) 3-accurately senses the gymnast's mental condition in both practice and competition and either motivates a fearful gymnast to rise above her fear and go for a movement or gets her to wait. despite the pressure to excel. (8) 0-prevents a gymnast from doing movements that the coach is not completely prepared to spot and/or asks a coach. who is so prepared to spot the gymnast. (11) Individual Coach Behaviors that are Very Important and occur with Moderate Frequency 1-encourages the gymnast to stay in shape throughout the year. (Example. arranges ways for gymnasts to attend summer gym- nastics clinics or train at local clubs between competi- tive seasons.) 2-is well trained and experienced in coaching girls gymnastics and updates her/his knowledge in the sport by attending clinics. workshops. seminars. conventions. and/or congresses. (17) 2I9 3-manages coaching assistants in such a way that they improve their teaching and spotting skills. (18) individual Coach Behaviors that are important and occur e e uent 1-teaches new movements to each gymnast only after she has mastered a movement's fundamentals including lead-up skills and progressions. (0) 2-examines the equipment before warm ups and sees to it that the equipment 8 adjusted to each gymnast. especially at away meets where the equipment may be unfamiliar. (16) Individuql Coach Behaviors that are important and occur {sequent y 1-precisely judges when a gymnast needs spotting. positions her/himself to offer optimum assistance. and steps in at the right moment with the right amount of physical assistance. (10) Individual Coach Behaviors that are important and occur with Moderate Frequency 1-discourages having gymnasts act as spotters when they are not very well trained in spotting. especially when high-level movements are involved. (19) Individual Coach Behaviors that are Moderately important and occur Vegy Frequently 1-examines (1) mat placement to insure that they are under and around the area used by each different gymnast and cover the equipment bases as well as (2) mat thickness. (Example. for a Korbut back somie dismount from the uneven bars pulls in another landing mat so that the gymnast has a double thickness of mate to land on.) (10) 2-moves out of the way any equipment and/or obstacles that are too close to the apparatus in order to provide the gymnast with sufficient space to perform without hitting something. (15) 220 Individual Coach Behaviors that are querateiy important and occur Ezequently 1-develops the gymnast's strength through having her do conditioning and/or weight training. (2) 2-while watching a particular gymnast. has a constructive way of calling attention to faults so that the gymnast actually ‘makes the needed changes. (7) Individual Coach Behaviors that are Eoderately important and occur with Ecderate Frequency 1-develops the gymnast's cardiovascular endurance through having her do aerobic activities. (Examples. jogging. aerobic dancing. consecutive routines on the apparatus.) (3) 2-examines the quality of the equipment. especially at away meets. and stops gymnasts from warming up. practicing. and/or competing on equipment that does not meet safety standards; (13 22I APPENDIX 8-28 INEFFECTIVE PREVENTION Individual Coach Behaviors that are Very Important Not to Occcpp and occur Vegy Frequently. 1-rarely uses skill progressions or simply assumes that the gymnasts have mastered fundamentals or lead-up skills. (Example. goes directly into teaching a complex movement to a gymnast without using skill progressions.) (2) 2-has had little experience or no formal or informal training and/or experience in coaching girls gymnastics. (Example. admits to no coaching training but took the coaching job on a part time basis because the school administration wanted to kee girls gymnastics as part of their athletic program.) (20) Individual Coach Behaviors that are Vepy important Not to 9953; Ind occur Roughly; 1-permits gymnasts to perform away from supervision. (Example. does not designate areas in a large gymnasium off-limits for warming up because supervision is not possible.) (13) 2-has a problem with her/his timing. placement. and/or intensity of the physical spotting used. (19) 3-doesn't bother to observe the placement of the equipment to make sure that the gymnast has enough space available to perform. (22) Individual Coach Behaviors that are Vepy Important Not to Occur and occur with Moderate Frequency. 1-doesn't get around to teaching the gymnast a new movement of even a complete routine until the meet warm ups and then goes so far as to require the gymnast to perform the movement/routine in the meet. (6) 2-pressures a gymnast to perform while she is experiencing severe pain (18) 3-neglects to adjust the equipment before warm ups. practice. and/or competition to see to it that it is adjusted for each gymnast. especially at away meets where the equipment may be unfamiliar. (Example. doesn't get around to moving mats to where they are needed for dismounts.) (23) 0-when given the opportunity. refuses to employ an assistant coach to work with a team too large to be handled by one coach. prefers working with the team all alone. (25) 222 Individual Coach Behaviors that are important Not to Occur and occur Vepy Frequently 1-has done little about developing and implementing fitness programs in weight control. strength. flexibility. and/or cardiovascular endurance for the gymnasts. (Example. takes it for granted that the gymnasts on her/his team do conditioning on their own.) (1) 2-develops a dislike. often unconscious. for a particular . gymnast or a particular clique of toammembers and then only infrequently works with her/them.) (3) 3—assumes that the gymnasts warm up before and during practice and/or a meet on their own and does not make the effort to check that the mnasts are warm. stretched out. and ' ready to move. f¥0) 0-pushes a frightened gymnast into doing a movement re- gardless of her anxiety. (16) Individual Coach Behaviors that are impOptant Not to Coop; and occur Frequently. 1-assumes the gymnast is doing a particular movement. places her/himself in a position to spot that movement and then to the coach's surprise the gymnast performs another movement. (5) 2-has an exhausted gymnast continue performing in spite of her overwhelming atigue. (1?) Individual Coach Behaviors that are important Not to Cccur and occur with Moderate Eyequency. 1-sometimee doesn't use safety aids the way they were intended. (Example. pays no attention when the two ropes of the spotting belt on a twisting movement are turned the opposite way around the gymnast.) (0 2-permits a gymnast. disoriented from a fall. to continue competing. (11) 3-yells and thereby embarrasses a gymnast who has just fallen or committed some other execution faults. (12) 223 Individual Coach Behaviors that are Moderately important Not to Occur and occur Vegy Frequently. 1-rarely points out the gymnast's execution faults because the coach doesn't recognize them in the first place or iqqks the confidence to explain the faults to the gymnast. 2-is so busy coachi that s/he overlooks examining the quality of the equ pment. especially at away meets. Example. does not happen to see that the taped wrestling mats get: gor the floor exercise event have gaps between t em. 0 3-uses unqualified assistants. (Example. is too vusy so has an inexperienced teammate or assistant coach work with a gymnast who is beginning to learn a new movement.) (26) Individual Coach Behaviors that are Moderateiy important Not to Occur and occur Frequently. 1-in a meet pressures the gymnast. who at least has the coach spotting her. into doing a movement that she has not previously mastered. (8) 2-against the coach's better judgment permits an injured gymnast to compete. (Example. gets talked into letting a too highly motivated gymnast compete simply on the strength of the written approval of a physician who may not know the circumstances as well as the coach.) (9) 3-permits the gymnast to erform on equipment that does not meet safety standards. Example. lets a gymnast perform :2 3 set of bars that has a big chip in one of the rails.) 1 Individual Coach Behaviors that are Modepately impgptant Not to Occur and occur with Moderpte {requency. 1-in a meet pressures the gymnast. who isn't even being spotted. into doing a movement that she has not prev ously mastered. (7) 2-even though the rules rmit a coach to talk to a potentially injured gymnast. refra ns from talking to the gymnast after she has fallen hard from the apparatus for fear of losing points. (10) 'a 224 APPENDIX 8-29 EFFECTIVE POST-INJURY CARE Individual Coach Behaviors that are yepy :mppptant and occur Vegy Preguently. i-stays in control while examining and treating an injury no matter how severe. (23) Individual Coach Behaviors that are Vpry Important and occur zpeguentiy. 1-administers no more than appropriate first aid. in the case of the relatively rare. potentially serious injury accurately judges when to send the gymnast to an athletic trainer and/or physician for further evaluation and treatment. (22) Individual Coach Behaviors that are Ipportpnt and occur Vegy Preguently. i-stops whatever s/he is oing and ives immediate attention to an injured gymnast. Example. s involved in spotting some gymnasts on tumbling and runs to a gymnast some distance away who has just been injured on the uneven bars.) (21.) Individual Coach Behaviors that are Ippprtant and occur with ngderate Praguency. 1-after an injury. makes a quick and accurate assessment of its severity. (21) Individual Coach Behaviors that are ode te m o tant and occur Egeguently. i-keeps a stocked first aid kit on hand at all practices and at all home and away meets. (25) Individual Coach Behaviors that are nodepately Ippoptant and occur with loderpte {peguengy. i-is well trained and eXperienced in first aid and updates her/his knowledge by attending clinics. workshops. seminars. conventions. and/or congresses. (20) 225 APPENDIX B-30 INEFFECTIVE POST-INQQB! 9533 Individual Coach Behaviors that are Vegy Important Not to Qccur and occur Vegy Frequently. i-misses identifying a serious injury. (Example. tells the gymnast that she has only a sprained ankle. later finds out from a physician that the gymnast has a broken ankle.) (30) Individual Coach Behaviors that are yepy Imppptant Not to Occur and occur with Moderate Prpguency. i-after a gymnast has seen a physician following an accident. and even though the physician's instructions are that the gymnast rest and take time off to recover. orders the gymnast resume practice as of now. (27) 2-so that the meet can continue. tells the gymnast who has fallen hard to move immediately or even ulls the gymnast up to her feet before examining her. (as) Individual Coach Behaviors that are Important go; to Occur and occur FreguentIy. i-gives first aid low priority. (Examples. after an accident the coach does little or nothing for the gymnast or at best lets someone else administer the first aid care. sees to the performing gymnasts first and then only gets to the injured gymnast when time permits.) (29) z-loses self-control after discovering that the gymnast has a severe injury. (Example. cannot bear to look at a compound fracture.) (32) 3-takes misplaced pride in her/time first aid skills and refuses(as?istance from an athletic trainer or another coach. 33 Individual Coach Behaviors that are modezptely Importpnt Not to Occur and occur Vepy EzeguentIy. 1-has problems using taping to sup ort weak body structures. (Examples. overtapes. undertapea ( 31) 2-does not have available a stocked first aid kit on hand at all practices and at all home and away meets. (34) 226 APPENDIX B-31 INEPFECTIVE PREVENTION AND POST-INJURY CARE - GENERAL COACH BEHAVIORS THAT APPLE TO BOTH Individual Coach Behaviors that are Vgpy Ippoppppt Not 3...__0 Occur and Occur WM i-leaves it to someone else to arouse the community including the school administration to make progress toward solving such perennial problems as. too small an athletic budget to obtain or replace desperately needed equipment. insufficient amount of permitted practice time in the school schedule. too many meets in the season. too much pressure to win. (36) Individual Coach Behaviors that are Importpnt Not to Occur and Occur [peguentIy i-accepts the situation as it is with respect to such long term problems as not a long enough season to get gymnasts into shape. increasingly difficult event requirements. and tougher and tougher com- petition. takes no initiative in calling these problems to the attention of such parts of the pro- fessional power structure as the state high school girls gymnastics association. (35) 227 APPENDIX B-32 INEPTECTIYE PREVENTION Coach Behavior Categories that are W Not to Occur and occur ,Vepy EeguentIy i-Coach background. Coach Behavior Categories that are t o cc and occur 22mm]; ~- i-Ccach behavior with respect to the equipment during both practice and competition. Coach Behavior Categories that are W and occur with goderate heguepcy i-Coach behavior towards the gymnast - mainly during competition. Coach “Behavior Categories that are Imporflpt lot to Qcc_._.; and occur neguentIy i-Coach behavior with respect to the equipment during both practice and competition. Coach Behavior Categories that are led pat e]; I Ham got 52 9.0.— mmd 0°“? W i-Coach behavior towards the gymnast - mainly during practice. Coach Behavior Categories that are WW pccur and occur with [pgegte neguency i-Coach management of coaching assistants. 228 APPENDIX 8-33 INEPPEOTIVE POST-INJURY CARE Coach Behavior Categories that are Iggy Impprtant not to rour and occur Vepy gppguently i-Coaeh behavior toward the gymnast during both practice and competition. Coach Behavior Categories that are Ipppp§gp§_flg§_1p_gpppp and occur 2:232:22}! 1-Coaoh behavior toward the gymnast - mainly during competition. Coach Behavior Categories that are lodeppter Impppggpt apt to Qpppp_and occur with moderate Preguency i-Coach behavior toward the gymnast - mainly during practice. 229 APPENDIX B-3h Brequencx‘and Corresponding Importance of Categorised Individual e Coach B viors IZZEQII!E_IBIZIEIIQE [peguengy I. rt c all; lean fl Individual Qopch pehavIor §tatement flank 10.9 gypy 1 1.7 .82 -takes full advantage of safety side 8 1.2 .hs and apparatus when teaching new movements . . -exam nes ma p cemen o in- ”I7? 1.5 775 sure that they are under and around the area used by each different gymnast and cover the equipment bases as well as (2) met thick- EOBBe 1 1D 3 1.7 .89 -examines the equipment before 10 1.2 .52 warm ups and sees to it that the equipment is adjusted to each at. especially at away meets are the equipment may be un- gamiliar..( 6) h 1.8 .82 -develops the gymnast's flexibility through having her do structured stretchng exercises. (1) 12 1.3 .58 5 1.9 .81 -teaches new movements to each gym- 13 1.” .65 nast only after she has mastered a movement's fundamentals includ- ing lead-up skills and progres- .‘2!I3 e (u) 6 1.9 .89 -moves out of the way any equip- lb 1.4 .61 sent and/or obstacles that are too close to'the apparatus in order to ovide the gymnast with suffic- ent space to perfgim without hit- 1 7 1.9 .76 -precisely judges when a gymnast 9 1.3 .#9 needs spotting. positions her/ himself to offer optimum assis- tance and steps in at the right moment with the right amount of physIch pssistance. (10) 8 2.0 .98 -requires and then systematically 5 1,2 .48 checks to see that the gymnasts warm up before practice. a meet. and/or a particular event to insure that their bodies are warm. stretched out. and ready to pove. (6) lppguency M lean fl ndiv d ch e v tement 9 10 11 2.1 2.2 2.2 230 .89 -while watching a particular gym- nast has a constructive way of call attention to faults so that the gymnast actually makes the needed cpppges. (7) .79 -accurately senses the gymnast's physical condition in both prac- tice and competition and does not let the st do a movement for which s/fie has reason to believe the gymnast does not have the strength. flexibility. or en- durance.g(9) 1.0 -prevents a gymnast from doing movements that the coach is not completely prepared to spot and/ or asks a coach. who is so e-‘ paged to sppt the gymnas . 11) mr BEE!L!2§£.§aDi 19 1.7 1.2 1.2 .76 .h7 .h7 12 13 2.3 2.3 .98 -accurately senses the gymnast's mental condition in both practice and competition and either mot- ivates a fearful st to rise above her fear go for a movement or gets her to wait. des its the ressure to excel (8) 1.2 -develops the gymnast's stre h through having her do condit on- 1“ 2.3 and or wei ht t ini 2 1.1 -examines the quality of the equipment. especially at away meets. and stops sts from warmi up. pract oing. and/or oompet on equipment that‘does ct meet fet standards. (13) 15 2.3 .95 -is well trained and ex rienced in coaching irls gymnast cs and up- dates her is knowled e in the sport by attending cl nice. work- s o r ps. seminars. conventions. and/ p gopgpgsees, (I?) 18 O 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.2 .h7 .62 .65 4.8 23I M 322229... E aegn $12.. IndIvIdual Qoach aehaviop Statement 3gp; 3.9.21 8,1), 16 2.4 .99 -develops the gymnast's oardiovascu- 15 1.5 .76 lar endurance through having her do aerobic activities. (3). 17 2.” 1.0 -discourages having gymnasts act as 11 1.3 .57 spotters when they are not very well trained in spotting. especial- ly when hi -level movements are involved. 19) 18 2.h 1.1 -encourages the gymnast to stay in shapp throughout the yeap. (I ) 19 2.5 .92 -manages coaching assistants in such 2 1.1 .3” a way that they in cve their teach and s ott ski s 18), 6 1.2 .#8 232 APPENDIX 8-35 Importance and Corresponding Frequency of Categorized Individual Coach Behaviors W LBJ—n on CO 2.9110116! apnk Mean 8,2. IndIvIdgl gpgcp pevaor sgtement M M £2; 1 1.2 .97 -accurately senses the gymnast's 10 2.2 .79 physical condition in both practice and competition and does not ler the gymnast do a movement for which s/he has reason to believe the gymnast does not have the strength. flexibility. or en- dugance. 2 1.1 .39 -manages coaching assistants in such19 2 5 92 a way that they in rove their ' ' teachipg and sppttipg skills, (18) 3 1.2 .u7 - events a gymnast from doing move- :znts that the coach is not compl- 11 2'2 1'0 etely prepared to spot and/or asks a coach. who is so {Espared to sppt the gymnast, ( h 1.2 .97 -accurately senses the gymnast's 12 2 3 98 mental condition in both practice ' ' and competition and either moti- vates a fearful gymnast to rise above her fear and go for a move- ment or gets her to waité despite the pgesgppp to excel. (l) 6 1.2 .47 -requires and then systematically 8 2 0 98 checks to see that the gymnasts ' ' are warmed up before practice. a meet. and/or a particular event to insure‘that their bodies are warm. stretched out. and ready to ppvp, (6) 6 1.2 .h8 -is well trained and experienced 15 2 3 .95 in coaching girls gymnastics and ' updates her/his knowled e in the sport by attending clin cs. work- s ops. seminars. conventions. an _ W (171 6 1.2 .58 -encourages the gymnast to stay in 18 2.9 1.1 spppg tapppghout pp; yepp, (I ) mm 8 1.2 1.2 233 121922221 Bank gean 5.2. IndivIdgl Qppph ppngp; gapepent 8213 £325 §_,_p_,_ .95 -takes full advantage of safety aids and apparatus when teaching new movements. 15) .59 -precisely judges when a gymnast 7 needs spotting. positions her/him- self to offer op imum assistance. and steps in at the right moment with the right amount of physical pssistance, (1Q) 1 10 11.3 .52 -examines the equipment before 3 warm ups and sees to it that the equipment is adjusted to each gymnast especially at away meets where the uipment may be un- gamiliar. :16) 11 1.3 .57 -disccurages having gymnasts 17 act as spotters when they are not very well trained in spotting. especially when high-level move- 12 1.3 ments ppe Ipyolve . (19), .58 -develops the gymnast's flexibility # through having her do structured stretchng exercises. (1) 13 1.4 .65 -teaches new movements to each gym- 5 nast only after she has mastered a movement's fundamentals includ- ing leaduup skills and progres- sIons. (U) 1:. 15 16 1.“ 1.5 1.5 .61 -mcves out of the way any equipment 6 and/or obstacles that are too close to the apparatus in order to vide the gymnast with suffic- ent space to perform without hit- tng sopethipg, (I5) .76 -develops the gymnast's cardiovas- 16 cular endurance through hav he ob v es (3 .62 -develcps the gymnast's stre h 13 through having her do condit on- d i ht t in . 2) . -e es ma p cemen to In- 2 sure that they are under and around the area used by each dif- ferent gymnast and cover the equipment bases as well as (2) mat thickness.#(Ih) 1.7 .82 1.9 .76 1.7 .90 2.1. 1.03 1.8 .82 1.9 .80 1.9 .89 2.4 1.00 2.3 1.2 1.7 .90 23h mums: MMflWMMM 18 1.5 .65 nexamines the quality of the equip- 14 2.3 1.2 ment. especia ly at away meets and stops gymnasts from warming up. practicing. and/or competing on equi ent that does not meet g;:.§§ sgppgppds. (13) 19 1.7 .7? -while watching a particular gym- 9 2.1 .89 nast has a constructive way of call attention to faults so that the gymnast actually makes the nepdeg gpppges. (7), 235 APPENDIX 8-36 Frequency and Corresponding Importance of Categorized Individual Coach Behaviors IIIZIIQII!I_IIIIIEIIEE ELL—1' ...... We mmammwma ch . v r .... mamas. 1 3.4 1.1 -essumes that the gymnasts warm up 8 1.4 .78 before and during practice and/or a meet on their own and does not make the effort to check that the gymnasts are warm. stretched out. ppd pppgy to move. (14) 2 3.6 1.2 -has had little ex rience or no 5 formal or informs training and/ or experience in coaching girls‘ gypppsticsI (24) 3 3.6 1.1 -develops a dislike often uncon- 12 1 4 82 scicus. for a particular gymnast ' ‘ or a particular oli us of team- members and then o infrequent- works with her them. (3) 43.6 I30 «uses ppgualIfied assistppts, (26) 22 I,§ .22 5 3.6 1.1 -rarely points out the gymnast's 16 5 1 5 8O execution faults because the coach ' ' ' doesn't recognise them in the first place or lacks the confi- dence to explain the faults to thO nast. ‘15) 6 3.6 1.1 -has done little about developing 13 1.“ .5“ and im lementing fitness pro- grams weight control. strength. lexibility. and/or endurance gor the gypppsts: (1) 7 3.6 1.2 -is so busy coaching that s/he overlooks examining the quality 20 1'5 '76 of the equipment. especially at MD 8 3.7 1.2 -rarely uses skills progressions 3 5 1.3 .64 or simply assumes that the gym- ' masts have mastered leaddup Chills. (2) 9 3.7 1.1 -xushes a freightened gymnast into 10.5 1.4 .79 oing a movement regardless of her anxiepy, (16) 1.3 .70 #- 22mm 10 3.7 236 1.0 -has a problem with her/his t . placement. and/or intensity of the si s tt used ) 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 3.7 3.7 3.8 3.8 3.9 3.9 4.0 4.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 longtime—e mummmwmmm 1.5 .75 18 .90 -assumes the gymnast is doing a particular movement. places her/ himself in a sition to spot that movement and hen to the coach's surprise the gymnast performs anothep movement. (5) 1.2 oin a meet pressures the gymnast. who at least has the coach spot- ting her. into doing a movement that she has not previously gfltOz. e ‘8) 1.1 -permits gymnasts to perform away from supppyision. (1 ) 1.0 -against the coach's better judg- ment permits an injured gymnas to compete.g(9) 1.. 26 ‘ 7 25 1.4 1.6 .84 .94 1.0 -doesn't bother to observe the placement of the equipment to make sure that the at has enough pppce available to pppfcrm. (22) 1.0 -pressures the gymnast to perform while she is experiencing severe Elna (18) 2 21 1.3 1.5 .65 1.0 -has an exhausted gymnast continue 10.5 performi in spite of her over- ‘h.ngng‘tis!. e I 12) 1.0 -permits the gymnast to perform on equipment that does not meet safepy standards. (21) 1.1 -scmetimes doesn't use safety aids the ypy they were intended. (4) 23 9 1.4 1.5 .79 .83 .68 .99 -in a meet pressures the gymnast. who isn't even being spotted. into do a movement that she has not pgev oust ppstered. (7) 19 .91 1.0 - rmits a at. disoriented cm a falIS to continue com- 15 1.4 .70 IIESEQEEX. 237 322mg: gank lean §_,_p_._ Individual gcach pehavior §tatement gank m §_,_p_._ 22‘ 4.3 .86 ans lects to adjust the equipment be ore warm ups. practice. and/or competition to see to it that it is adjusted for each gymnast. es- pecially at away meets where the ui ent ma 23 21. 25 26 1.... 4.2. I... 4.6 be unfamiliar. 23) .91 dyells and thereby embarrasses a at who has just fallen or committed some other execution t altos 12) .90 -doesn't get around to teaching the gymnast a new movement or even a complete routine until the meet warm ups and then goes as far as to require the gymnast to perform the movement/routine in the meet. (6) ‘ .85 -even to ta 3%”? to the though rules permit a coach lk to a potentially in- d gymnast. refrains from talk- gymnast after she has len hard from the apparatus for fear of losipg ppints. (10) .80 dwhen given the opportunity. re- fuses to employ an assistant coach to work with a team too lar e to be handled by one coach. pre ers workiggywith the team 1 lone 2 1 16.5 24 3-5 1.2 1.5 1.3 .60 .79 .70 .78 .68 238 APPENDIX B-37 Importance and Corresponding Frequency of Categorized Individual Coach Behaviors I!EEZEQII!E.2££XEEIIQE Impoptance 2‘8 uenc Bank Mean S.D. Individual Qcach gehavior Statement Bank gean 8.2. l 1.2 .60 -neglects to adjust the equipment before warm ups. practice. and/or competition to see to it that it is adjusted for each gymnast. es- pecially at away meets where the sguipment may be unfamiliar. (23) 3.5 1-3 3.5 1.3 8 1.4 .66 .68 .69 .70 .70 .77 .78 -doesn't bother to observe the placement of the equipment to make sure that the gymnast has enough space available to per- gorm. (22) -rarely uses skills progressions or simply assumes that the gym- nasts have mastered lead-up skills. 2 -when given the opportunity. re- fuses to employ an assistant coach to work with a team too large to be handled by one coach. prefers worki with the team MM- 2 -has had little ex. rience or no formal or informs training and/ or experience in coaching girls gymnastics. (24) 22 15 ...3 3-9 3.7 4.6 3.6 .86 1.0 1.2 .80 1.2 -doesn't get around to teaching the gymnast a new movement or even a complete routine until the meet warm ups and then goes as far as to require the gymnast to perform the movement/routine mu. L6) -permits gymnasts to perform away from supervision. (13) 24 13 a... 3.8 .90 1.1 -assumes that the gymnasts warm up before and during practice and/or a meet on their own and does not make the effort to check that the gymnasts are warm. stretched out. and ready to move. (14) 3.4 239 Ipportppce [yeguency flank gean gypy Individual Qoach gehavior Spatement Bank lean gypy 9 1.4 .68 -sometimes doesn't use safety aids 19 4.1 1.1 the way they were intended. (4) 10.5 1.4 .79 -pushes a freightened gymnast into 9 3 7 1 1 doing a movement regardless of ' ’ her anxiety. (16) 10.5 1.4 .79 -has an exhausted gymnast continue 17 4.1 1.0 performing in spite of her over- a 12 1.4 .82 -develops a dislike. often uncon- 3 3 6 1 1 scious. for a particular gymnast ' ' or a particular clique of team- members and then on y infrequently works with her/tbsp. (3) 13 1.4 .84 -has done little about developing 6 3 6 1 1 and implementing fitness programs ' ' in weight control. strength. flex- ibility. and/or cardiovascular endppance for the gymnasts. (1) 14 1.4 .84 -assumes the gymnast is doing a 11 3 7 9° particular movement. places ' ' her/himself in a position to spot that movement and then to the coach's surprise the gymnast pprforms another movement. (5) 15 1.4 .70 - ermits a gymnast. disoriented 21 4.3 1.0 ran a falljtc continue com- pgtinggoL11 16.5 1.5 .79 ~yells and thereby embarrasses a gymnast who has just fallen or committed some other execution zgpIts, (12) 3.6 1.1 Vt 16.5 1.5 .79 -rarely points out the gymnast's 23 4 4 91 execution faults because the ' ' coach doesn't recognise them in the first place or lacks the con- fidence to explain the faults to the gymnast. (15) 18 1.5 .75 -has a problem with her/his timing. 10 3.7 1.0 placement. and/or intensity of the physicgl spottng used. (19) 240 Importance lzpqpppgy Rank Eean S,D.-Individual goach gehaviop Statements agpIIIQan §.D. 19 1-5 ..91 -1m a meet pressures the gymnast. 2° “‘2 '99 who isn't even being spotted. into dci a movement that she has not pgevioust mastered. (7) 20 1.5 .76 -is so busy coaching that s/he 7 3 6 overlooks examining the quality ' of the equipment. especially at gygy meets. (20), 21 1.5 .65 -pressures the gymnast to perform 16 3 9 1 0 whige shg)is experiencing severe ‘ ' 22 1.5 .22 duses ppgualified assistants. (26) 4 3.6 1.0 23 1.5 .83 -permits the gymnast to perform on 18 4.1 1.0 equipment that does not meet safety standards. 21) 24 1.5 .78 -even though rules rmit a coach to talk to a potentiafly injured gym- 25 4.4 '85 nast. refrains from talking to the gymnast after she has fallen hard from the apparatus for fear of losipg points. (19) 25 1.6 .87 -against the coach's better judg- 14 3.8 1.0 ment permits an injured gymnast to cogpete. (9) 26 1.6 .94 -in a meet pressures the gymnast. who at least has the coach spot- 12 3.7 1.2 ting her. into doing a movement that she has not previously master- ed, (8) 1.1 24] APPENDIX 8-38 Frequency and Corresponding Importance of Categorized Individual Coach Behaviors CT - 2091101121 I O. Rank lean SQ. IndivIdual gogch pehavIor gtayements up; lean {my 1 1.8 .69 -stays in control while examining 1 1.1 .34 and treating an injury no matter how severe. (23) 2 1.8 .92 ~stcps whatever s/he is doing and 4 1.3 .57 ives immediate attention to an jured gymnast. (24) 3 1.8 .75 -administers no more than appropr- 2 1.1 .39 late first aid. in the case of th relatively rare. potentially ser- ious injury accurately judgen when to send the gymnast to an athletic trainer and/or physician for fur- ther evaluation gnd treptment.(22) 4 2.2 1.1 -keeps a stocked first aid kit on 5 1.3 .66 hand at all practices and at all home and a meets. 5 2.2 1.0 -after an injury. makes a uick 3 1.3 .52 and accurate assessment c its severigy, (21) 6 2.5 .96 -is well trained and experienced 6 1.4 .61 in first aid and updates her/his knowledge by attending clinids. workshops. seminars conventions. andéop copggpsses. (20) 242 APPENDIX 8'39 Importance and Corresponding Frequency of Categorized Individual Coach Behaviors IIIEEII!!.£9§1:I!£!EI_£ABE. 1222535322 22223229! Rank M_e_a£ 8.2. Individual Qoach nengoy Sntemppts 835! [up w 1 1.1 .34 -stays in control while examining 1 1.8 .69 and treating an injury no matter how severe, (23) 2 1.1 .39 -administers no more than appropr-. 3 1 8 75 iate first aid. in the case of the - ' ' relatively rare. potentially serious injury accurately judges when to send the gymnast to an athletic trainer and/or physician for fur- ther evaluation and treatment. (22) 3 1.3 .52 -after an injury. makes a uick and accurate assessment 0 its severipy. (21) 4 1.3 . 7 -sto s whatever s e is do and 2 1.8 .92 t 5 ivgs immediate {gtentionigg an n ured mnast. 24) 5 1.3 .66 -kee s a stocked first aid kit on 4 2.2 1.1 han at all practices and at all home and aygy peets, (25) 6 1.4 .61 -is well trained and experienced in 6 2.5 .96 first aid and updates her/his knowledge by attending clinics. workshops. seminars conventions. gpgécr copgpesses. (20) 2.2 1.0 U. 243 APPENDIX 8-40 Frequency and Corresponding Importance of Categorized Individual Coach Behaviors W figeguengy Ippprtance yank lean 8,2, Individual gpgch pehavIog figtemgnts Bank lean m 1 3.5 1.1 -has problems using taping to 8 1’5 '79 support weak body structures.(31) 2 3.8 1.1 -dces not have available a stocked 7 1.4 .83 first aid kit on hand at all pr- actices and at all home and away .geets. (34) 3 1.3 .68 3 4.0 1.1 -misses identifying a serious in- 13:13.139) 4 4.3 .94 :gives first aid low ngcpIgy, (22) 4 1,3 .62 4.4 .92 -takes misplaced ide in her/his first aid skillspind refuses‘assis- 5 1'“ '72 tance from an athletic trainer or ppother cpgch. (33) . 6 4.4 .88 -loses self-control after discover- 6 1 4 77 i that tge gymnast has a severe ' ' u 7 4.5 .96 -so that the meet can continue. tells 1 1 2 60 the ‘{::.'t who has fallen hard to ' ' move ediately or ven pulls the mnast up to her feet before exam- hCre (28) 8 4.6 .80 -after a gymnast has seen a physician 2 1.3 .66 following an accident and even though the physician's instructions are that the gymnast rest and take time off to recover. orders the gignast resume practice as of now. 244 APPENDIX B-4I Importance and Corresponding Frequency of Categorized Individual Coach Behaviors F T - N Importance [peguengy 3gp; am Lg... Individual ngch nevaor figtgpents m lean $42.. 1 1.2 .60 -so that the meet can continue. tells 7 4.5 .96 the gymnast who has fallen hard to move immediately or even lls the mnast up to her feet be ore exam- ipg her. (28) 2 1.3 .66 -after a gymnast has seen a physician 8 4 6 80 following an accident and even ' ' though the physician's instructions are to recover. orders the mnast resume pppctice as of now. (27) 3 1.3 .68 umggges identifying a serious injury. 3 4.0 1.1 4 1.3 . 9 :gives fIgst pid low ngppipy. (29) 4 “‘3 '9“ 5 1.4 .72 -takes misplaced pride in her/his 5 4 4 92 first aid skills and refuses‘assist- ' ' ence from an athletic trainer or another coach. (33) 6 1.4 .77 -loses self-control after discovering 6 4.4 .88 :32; the gymnast has a severe injury. 7 1.4 .83 -does not have available a stocked 2 3 8 1 1 first aid kit on hand at all ' ' practices and at all home and away meets. (34)l 8 1.5 .79 -has problems using tap to support 1 3.5 1.1 weak body structures, (2 ) 245 APPENDIX 8-42 Frequency and Corresponding Importance of Categorized Individual Coach Behaviors FFBCT NT ON 081- - General Behaviors app 0 o mm mm Mk 535. gm IndivIdual Coach pegviog §tatements up; 19.9.12 £42,. 1 3.2 1.1 -leaves it to someone else to arouse 1 1.6 .79 the community including the school administration to make progress toward solving such perennial pro- blems as. too small an athletic budget to obtain or replace des- perately needed equi ent. insuffi- cient amount of perm tted practice time in the school schedule. too many meets in the season. too much pgessure to win. (3é) 2 3.4 1.2 -accepts the situation as it is with 2 1.7 .85 respect to such long term profes- sional problems as not a long enough season to get gymnasts into shape. too few qualified coaches at the high school level. increasingly difficult event requirements. and tougher and tougher competition. takes no initia ive in calling these problems to the attention of such parts of the professional power structure as the state high school girls gthetIc psscciation. (35) 246 APPENDIX 8-43 Frequency and Corresponding Importance of Categorized Coach Behavior Categories IZIEQIIII_£B!!3!IIQE uen Impoptance Bankueanm ch e v r teories mum 1 1.8 .25:Qoach bacggpound.(g=1) 2 1.2 ,48 2 1.9 .82-Coach behavior with respect to the 1 1 2 38 equipment during practice and com- . . onetiticn. (Nan) 2.0 .63-Coach behavior towards the st- 3 1.3 .31 SI mainly duripg pgactice.(N- 4 2.1 .58-Coach behavior towards the gymnast- g 1 4 “3 guring both practice and competition. ' ' N=7 5 2.5 .87-Ccach mana ment of coaching assis- ME .52! N - the number of individual coach behaviors within each category. U 2.7 APPENDIX 8-44 Importance and Corresponding Frequency of Categorized Coach Behavior Categories W 1222522222 22292222! 2295 has 5.42.. W nun lam £12.. 1 1.2 .38 -Coach behavior with respect to the 2 1.0 .82 equipment during practice and com- mtition. (3'4) 2 1.2 .48 “Ch bfic ound N-1L 1 1e8 p z: 3 1.3 .31 -Coach behavior towards the gymnast- 3 2.0 .63 duri ctice (H35 4 1.4 .43 -Coach behavior towards the gymnast 4 2.1 .58 dur both practice and competi- tion. NS?) 5 2.5 .87 5 1.5 .59 eggsgggzigzgement of coaching assis- 248 APPENDIX 8-45 Frequency and Corresponding Importance of Categorized Coach Behavior Categories IIEIZIEII!I_IBIIIEIIQE uen m ce Rank mean 8.1), ngch Behaviop gategpyiee sank Leg 1.2.. 6 .2 cach b c ound Hui) 1 I.3 .52 2 3.8 .81 -Coach behavior towards the gymnast- 4.5 1.5 .62 mainIy durng pggctice.(N-5 3 3.8 .80 -Coach behavior towards the gymnggt- 3 1 5 68 during both ractice and compe- ° 0 tition._(flL7I 4 4.0 86 -Coach behavior with respect to the . equim ent during both practice and I‘05 1.5 .62 competitIon. (fl-4) 4.1 .80 -Coach ma ement of coach assis- 6 1.5 .73 5 In? ins 6 4.2 .76 -Coach behavior towards them t- maipIy durng oompetitiopilfl-7)_. .g___1y3__y52_ 249 APPENDIX 8-46 Importance and Corresponding Frequency of Categorized Coach Behavior Categories W Ippoptance {peguenpy 8.92 8332 LP... BEE new $4.11.. 1 1.2 .52 -Coach baoggound.(N-1) 1 1.6 ;,2 2 1.3 .59 -Coach behavior towards the gymnast- maipIy duripg competition.(N-7) 6 4.2 .26 3 1.5 .68 -Coach behavior towards the gymnast 3 3.8 .80 duri both practice and competi- tion..N!7)3 4.5 1.5 .62 -Coach behavior towards the st- 2 3.8 .81 main_Jy durigg practicum-5 4.5 1.5 .62 -Ccach behavior with respect to the p 4 O 94* equipment durigg both practice and ' '“" ccmpptItIon.(N ) 6 1.5 .73 -Coach mana ement of coaching assis- 5 4.1 .80 to N-Z 250 APPENDIX 8-47 Frequency and Corresponding Importance of Categorized Coach Behavior Categories WM Mon-n laminae: mmchh . v .... magmas. 1 2.0 .67 -Coach behaviors dur both prac- 1 1.2 .32 tics and competition. BIS) CT VE S - N 299119110! nce M m gap. «...... pehavior gptegon m m m 1 4.0 .79 -Coach behavior during both practice 1 1.3 .60 and competItion.(N-6 2 4.5 .96 -Coach behavior mainly during com- pptitiop,(N-1) 3 4.6 .80 -Coach behavior mainly during pr- 2 1.3 .65 actice.(N-1) 3 2.0 1.1 25] APPENDIX B-QB Importance and Corresponding Frequency of Categorized Coach Behavior Categories 8? C - 1322: 5.3100 “.9 1.10110! MMLLW“ . var too magic; 1 1.2 .32 -Coaoh behaviors duri both prao- 1 2.0 .67 tice 5nd competition. NIS) T ST- ;mportance uen MMLLW mmm 1 1.3 .60 -Coach behavior duri both practice 1 #.0 .78 and cgnpetition;(N-6 2 1.3 .65 -Coach behavior mainly during 3 4.6 .80 practice.(N-i) 3 1.9 1.1 -Coach behavior mainly during com- petitiongffl-i) 2 “.5 .96 252 APPENDIX B-AS Frequency and Corresponding Importance of Categorized Coach Behavior Categories VB N - {22923221. I222££££££ gent lean §_,_p_,_ Coach Behavior Category 393 M 1,2,, 1 3.3 1.1 -General coach behaviors that apply 1 1.7 .75 to both ineffective prevention and at- n .e Importance and Corresponding Frequency of Categorized Coach Behavior Categories INEPFBCT VE NT N - N Importance [geguengy m m 11.94. 925. ch Beggvio; Category BEE m w 1 1.7 .75 -General coach behaviors that apply 1 ' 3.3 1.1 to both ineffective grevention and st-in e . BIBLIOGRAPHY 253 BIBLIGBRAH-IY A1bohm. Marge. '1-lou Injuries Occur in Gir1s' Sports.” 111.: Ehysisian and Wm 3 (February 1976): 46-49. A11man. Fred L. "The Major Concerns and Cha11enges in Sports Safety." 5.129115 Safety 2, Proceedings of the Second Nationa1 Sports Safety Conference. 1976. American Association for Hea1th. Physica1 Education and Recreation "Liabi1ity for Injuries in Ath1etics.“ 9935:1135 Hammock, Washington. D.C.: AIHPER Pub1ications. 1974. Emiessjnnal mum .in Ehxsjnal Educatinn and Coaching. Washington. 0.0.: M-IPER Pub1icati one. 1974. 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