ABSTRACT

A MACRO-DESIGN OF AN OPERATIONAL MODEL FOR THE
DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMISTRY PROGRAMS IN VIETNAM:
IMPLICATIONS FOR CHEMISTRY EDUCATION IN
VIETNAMESE SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND FOR
THE PRE-SERVICE EDUCATION OF
PROSPECTIVE PHYSICS AND
CHEMISTRY TEACHERS
IN VIETNAM

BY

Hua Vang Loc

Although studies related to the design of school
or college curriculum for Vietnam have been done, no one
has yet elaborated an adequate methodology for the con-
struction of instructional programs for Vietnamese schools
or universities. Thus, the concern for theory or methodol-
°9Y constitutes the major focus of this study, whose pur-

poses include the following:

1. To design an Operational Model for the development

Of chemistry programs in Vietnam.

To Propose a new chemistry program for Vietnamese

secondary schools, based on this Model.

To Propose an appropriate program of Chemistry and

PhYsics education for prospective Physics and

Hua Vang Loc

Chemistry teachers in Vietnam, WhiCh Will enable
them to carry out successfully the proposed

secondary school chemistry program.

The Macro-Design of the Model presented in this

Study is composed of six major components. To every im-

portant component of the Model was associated a set of
criteria designed to make the task of judging and evaluat-
ing instructional programs an objective and rational enter-
prise. These criteria were then applied to the evaluation
of the existing chemistry program of Vietnamese secondary
schools. As a result of this evaluation, major short-
comings in the existing chemistry program were identified

and a new program of chemistry education for Vietnamese

secondary schools (2nd cycle) was proposed. The three

major components of the new chemistry program include:

(1) a statement of objectives for chemistry education

at the secondary school level in Vietnam;

(2)

chemistry learning content and learning exper-
iences both for science majors (Chemistry I) and

non-science majors (Chemistry II); and

(3) a new system of measuring and evaluating chemistry
learning in schools, which makes use of various
strategies and techniques of measuring and eval-

uating educational achievement which are available

today.

 

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Hua Vang Loc

AS a logical implication of the proposal for a
new chemistry program for Vietnamese secondary schools, an
aPPmPI'iat:e program of pre-service education in Physics
and ChemiStry for prOSpective Physics and Chemistry teach-
ers in Vietnam was proposed. Thus, Physics and Chemistry
courses for future Vietnamese teachers (Physics and
Chemistry majors) were briefly described; minimal require-
ments in mathematics and a desirable minimal knowledge of
relevant learning theories-~e.g. those dealing with struc-
mue and mental readiness in teaching-learning--were also
suggested.
The internal logic of this Study may be summarized
as follows:
Any proposed instructional program, in order to
be successful, should include at least: a sound selection
of instructional objectives, a systematic selection and
organization of learning content and learning experiences,
an adequate evaluation system, and an apprOpriate program
of preparing teachers for the delicate task of implementing

the proposed program.

 

 

 

A MACRO-DESIGN OF AN OPERATIONAL MODEL FOR THE
DEVELOPMENT OF CHEMISTRY PROGRAMS IN VIETNAM:
IMPLICATIONS FOR CHEMISTRY EDUCATION IN
VIETNAMESE SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND FOR
THE PRE-SERVICE EDUCATION OF
PROSPECTIVE PHYSICS AND
CHEMISTRY TEACHERS
IN VIETNAM

BY

Hua Vang Loc

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Secondary Education
and Curriculum

1972

Q COpyright by
HUA VANG LOC

1972

 

DEDICATION

To the Vietnamese school teacher who
has toiled so much for so little return,

this work is humbly dedicated.

ii

 

AC KNOWLE DGME NT S

I wish first to express my sincere gratitude and
appreciation to my advisor, Dr. T. Wayne Taylor, for his
support and guidance both during this research and through-
out the whole training program, and also for his special
way of helping students release their creativity.

I am deeply grateful to Dr. Andrew Timnick,

Dr. Elwood Miller, and Dr. Alice Davis for their active
assistance as committee members, and eSpecially for their
critical evaluations which have contributed a great deal
to the "retouch" work of this thesis.

My Sincere thanks are extended to the following
persons for their help and encouragement: to Mr. Ho quang
Chieu, ex-chief-supervisor of elementary and secondary
education in the Mekong Delta Region (or MR4); to Venerable
Thich tri Hdhg, head of Thigh-Lam Pagoda; to the writer
Huynh-Minh, author of "Cén-Thd, Xda v5 Nay" ("Can-Tho,
Yesterday and Today"); to the Vietnamese Embassy in

Washington, D.C.; and to Dr. Hammer in the Chemistry

Department, Michigan State University.

iii

I
I wish to thank Professor Le van Thdi, Director

of the Vietnamese Atomic Energy Agency; Drs. Nguyéh thanh
Khuyén, Nguyen ngoc Sdong, Nguyen van Hoang, Chu-Pham
Ngoc-Sdn and H5 Ngoc Bich for their help in this research;
and also for their help and guidance throughout my years
of university studies. I would like to take this oppor-
tunity to send my thanks to all my professors and advisors
at Michigan State University for their contribution in
broadening my knowledge in Chemistry as well as in expand-
ing my intellectual horizons to other areas of knowledge)
e.g., philOSOphy and psychology of education. My thanks
are also due to Dr. Pham Hoang Ho (former president of
Can-Tho University), without whom the chance to complete
this study is clearly minimized.

To all staff members of the Science and Mathe-
matics Teaching Center, and especially to Mr. Gil Starks
of the Center's Library for his generous help, my sincere
appreciation.

To many friends at this University, both national
and international, who have expressed their universal
solidarity, understanding and encouragement throughout
iflus work, my warm thanks and lasting friendship. I

pnticularly wish to thank Dorothy Frazier, Don Walter,
and Dennis Walters for their graceful help in my troubles

with English idioms and structures.

iv

 

 

 

To my parents who have made enormous sacrifices,
my profound gratitude and admiration. To my brother-in-
law for his help, and also to my brothers and sisters for
their encouragement and sacrifices, my sincere thanks. To
my father-in-law for his generous help, my deep gratitude.
Finally, to my wife who has been enduring all sorts of
hardships during long months of separation, especially the
agonizing moments of loneliness, this work is offered as
a reparation. To our daughter--as a first significant

gift.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . x
LIST OF FIGURES . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Chapter
I. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . . . . . . 1
The Purpose of the Study . . . . l
The Problem and the Need for
the Study . . . . . 1
The Significance of the Study . . . . 3
Scope of the Study . . . . . . . 4
Limitations of the Study . . . . . 6
Related Studies . . . . . . . . 6
Procedures and Resources Used in
this Study . . . . . . . . . 7
Definition of Terms . . . . . . . 8
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Footnotes . . . . . . . . . 10
II. REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE . . . . 12
Chemistry Education in the United
Kingdom: The Nuffield Chemistry
Project (NCP) . . . . . 13
Chemical Education in the U. S. A. . . . 20
Chemistry Education in OECD
Countries . . . . . . 41
UNESCO Publications of Reprint
Articles in Chemistry . . . . 45
The UNESCO Project for Chemistry
Teaching in Asia (Bangkok,
Thailand). . . . . . . . . . 49

vi

 

 

 

Chapter

III.

IV.

V.

Science and Chemistry Education in

the Philippines: Recent

Deve10pments . . . . . .
Chemical Education in Scotland .

Chemical Education in Common-

wealth Countries . . . .
Chemical Education in Japan . .

Chemical Education in Brazil:
Recent DevelOpments

Conclusion . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . .
Footnotes . . . . . . . .

OBJECTIVES FOR SCIENCE AND CHEMISTRY

EDUCATION IN VIETNAM . . .

The Vietnamese Society: Its
Problems and Needs . . .
Perennial and Emergent Values
of the Vietnamese Culture
The Learner's Potentialities,
Needs, and Aspirations .
Leading Discoveries in
Psychology . . . .
Nature of Subject Matter . .
Summary . . . . . . .
Footnotes . . . . . . .

THE MODEL AND THE PRESENT STATUS OF
CHEMISTRY INSTRUCTION
IN VI ETNM O O O O O O O O

The Model and its Components . .
The Present Status of Chemistry
Education in Vietnam . .
Summary . . . . . . . . .
Footnotes . . . . . . . .

A PROPOSAL FOR A NEW CHEMISTRY PROGRAM

FOR VIETNAMESE SECONDARY SCHOOLS

General Considerations Regarding
the Design of New Chemistry
Courses for Vietnamese Schools

A New Chemistry Program for Viet-
namese Secondary Schools . .

vii

Page

52
56

S9
66

73
77

78
79

88

89
109
113

115

122
132
133

145
146
161

171
173

178

179

191

 

Chapter

VI. IMPLICATIONS FOR THE PRE-SERVICE EDUCATION

Evaluation Strategies and Techniques
for the New Chemistry Program .
Conclusion: A Systems Approach to
Evaluate Learning in Chemistry .
Summary . . . . . . . . .
Footnotes . . . . . . . . .

OF PROSPECTIVE PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY
TEACHERS IN VIETNAM . . . . .

General Principles for the Design
of Chemistry Courses for Pros-
pective Vietnamese Physical
Science Teachers . .
Physics (Courses and Requirements)
for Future Physical Science
Teachers . . . .
A Minimum of Mathematics Education
for Prospective Physical Science
Teachers . . . . . . .
Minimal Knowledge of Recent Learning
Theories for Prospective Physical
Science Teachers . .
Conclusion . . . . .
Summary . . . . . .
Footnotes . . . . . .

VII. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . .

BIBLIOGRAP
APPENDICES

Appendix
A. Sug

B. An

Summary of the Study . . . . .
Recommendations Related to

This Study . . . . . . .
Conclusions . . . . . . . .
Epiloque . . . . . . . . .
HY . . . . . . . . . . .

gested Practical Activities for
Chemistry I and Chemistry II . .

Alternative for Non-Science Students:

A Course in Integrated Physical
Science . . . . . . . . .

viii

Page

210
236

238
239

245

246

257

268

272
281
281
283
288
288
293
298
300

301

321

331

 

Appendix page

C. Descriptions of Some Chemistry

Courses (e.g. Structural Organic

Chemistry, Inorganic Chemistry,

Physical Chemistry I) Taught in

the Faculty of Science (Univer-

sity of Saigon) . . . . . . 333
D. An Outline of the Existing Chemistry

Proqram in Vietnamese Secondary

Schools (2nd Cycle) . . . . . . . 340

ix

Table

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

LIST OF TABLES

Industrial Production . . . . . . .
Agricultural Production . . . . . .
Imports by Commodity . . . . . . .
Imports . . . . . . . . . . . .
Exports . . . . . . . . . . . .
Social Statistics . . . . . . . .

Educational Development in the MeKong
Delta 1964-1971 . . . . . . . .

Table of Specifications for a
Chemistry Unit. . . . . . . . .

Comparison of Advantages and Disadvantages
in Essay and Objective Tests . . . .

Short-Answer Tests: Advantages and
Disadvantages . . . . . . . . .

Advantages and Disadvantages of Multiple-
Choice Test Items . . . . . . .

Advantages and Disadvantages of Inter-
pretive Exercises. . . . . . . .

Types of Complex Learning Outcomes
Measured by Essay Questions and
Objective Interpretive Exercises . .

Chemistry Requirements . . . . . . .

Physics Requirements . . . . . . .

Page
93
93
93
94
94

94

101

223

226

228

231

234

237

256
267

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page
1. Science as a Correspondence . . . . . . 125
2. Macro-Design of the Operational Model . . . 147
3. A Teaching-Learning Continuum . . . . . 155
4. Interpretive Exercises in Chemistry . . . 235
5. The Chemistry Program Structure . . . . . 252
6. The Physics Program Structure . . . . . 260

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CHAPTER I
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was three-fold:
(l) to design an Operational Model for the development

of chemistry programs for Vietnamese schools;

(2) to propose a new chemistry program for Vietnamese

secondary schools, based on this model; and

(3) to propose a new program of chemistry education
for prospective Physical Science Teachers in Viet-
nam, which will enable them to carry out success-
fully the proposed secondary school chemistry

program.

The Problem and the Need for the Study
The need for this study is derived mainly from the
consideration of various weaknesses that have been debil-
itating chemistry teaching in Vietnam for decades. Recent
curriculum revisions, e.g., the 1970 curriculuml--have
affected the chemistry program only insofar as subject-

matter content is concerned. Even this content revision

 

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inchemistry appears to be less than adequate. Witness
tMBfollowing complaint made by a well-known chemistry pro-
fmmor (when speaking about the low percentage of students
whapass the certificate of "Mathematics, Physics and
<3mmistry" (MPC), at the end of the college freshman year):
". . . This very low percentage does not result from a
rhmrous examination system or from students' weaknesses,
butit.does come from too large a gap between the two
mnricula: secondary school and university curricula."2

This complaint was undoubtedly caused by the
awareness of inadequacy in today's program of chemistry
teaching in Vietnamese secondary schools.

Among several deficiencies in chemistry teaching--
as it is practiced today in Vietnamese secondary schools—-
the following stand out as the most prominent ones:3

1. General and specific objectives are not provided
for chemistry education.

2. Too much emphasis is put on teaching of factual
knowledge, thus promoting student overmemorization
of chemical formulas and equations in the place of
thorough command of the essential meanings under-
lying these equations and formulas. No provisions
have been made for opportunities in guided dis-
covery learning such as small-group discussions or
individual projects.

13. There have been practically no attempts to insert

in the course content some considerations

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regarding the natural resources of the chemical
environment or the existing chemical industries

of the country.

4. Vietnamese students generally lack practical work
in chemistry courses. Chemistry is best studied
in the laboratory setting. More effort should be
directed toward the organization and reorganiza-

tion of practical work in chemistry laboratories.

5. Courses for non-science majors are not adequate.
They should be designed differently from the

. 4
courses for "mainstream"

students by including,
for instance, more topics on the cultural and
philosophical aspects of science and chemistry.
Bridging the gap between the "Two Cultures"5 should

be one of the main concerns of these courses.

6. The means that are used to evaluate students'
knowledge and understanding of chemistry are in-
adequate; essay-type tests still play an important

part in the existing evaluation procedures.

This study is thus designed to suggest possible
changes to meet the need and demand for quality in chemistry

education for Vietnamese schools.

The Significance of the Study

 

This study is an attempt to analyze and suggest

changes that may pave the way to future similar studies

tmm:are related to other fields of knowledge, e.g., mathe-

mmdcs, physics, biological sciences.

Scope of the Study

 

From an examination of the above-mentioned short-

cmnngs, such legitimate questions as the following may

beraised:

1.

Should we reduce the factual knowledge part of
chemistry teaching to an acceptable minimum?
Should we provide students with opportunities

in creative thinking, in learning how to learn?

Should we reduce the gap between schools and life
by establishing links between chemistry courses
and geography courses (raw materials, industrial
complexes, energy sources)? Should we put more

efforts in organizing laboratory work for students?

Should we strongly emphasize the necessity of
equipping our non-science students--a forgotten

6--with some practical wisdom? from

majority
chemistry instead of a purely theoretical knowledge
that they may never use again? Should we acknowl-
edge the fact that science, in general, is a

cultural-force8 in the contemporary world?

4. Finally, should we modernize our means of assessing

knowledge so that time and money are no longer

wasted?

To attempt to provide answers for these questions:

Chapter II briefly reviews recent developments in
(menstry education in various parts of the world. Con-
clusions--with regard to the design of new chemistry courses
flanietnamese schools--could be profitably drawn from this
brief analysis.

Chapter III derives objectives for science and
chemistry teaching in Vietnamese secondary schools from an
analysis of the Vietnamese society and its culture and in
consideration of the Vietnamese Student's characteristics,
the psychology of human behavior and the nature of the

subject-matter, following Tyler's scheme.9

Chapter IV presents a macro-design of an Operational
Model that may be used for the development of chemistry
curricula for Vietnamese schools. Criteria for objective
judgment about the adequacy of any particular chemistry pro-
gram are also developed. These criteria are used in the
last part of the chapter to evaluate the present chemistry
program in Vietnamese secondary schools.

Chapter V proposes a new chemistry program for the
second cycle of Vietnamese secondary schools--based on the
rationale developed in Chapter IV for the design of the

Operational Model .

Chapter VI proposes a new program of chemistry
emmation for prospective Physical science Teachers (second—
auyschools), in the light of the new program developed in
Chapter V .

Chapter VII concludes the study by suggesting
smxific recommendations, based on the preceding chapters,
nflated to the improvement of chemistry education in Viet-

nam Recommendations for future studies are also made.

Limitations of the Study
It is not within the scope of the study to deal
with:

(l) administrative or political aspects of this
Operational Model, e.g., details on the kinds of
peOple or pressure groups that should be involved
in the selection of objectives or learning content

for chemistry teaching;

(2) organizational aspects of the new chemistry program

for secondary schools, e.g., time-scheduling.

Related Studies

 

The literature that is related to this study in-
cludes the following theses:
1. "Strategies for Improving Science Education Prac-

10

tices in Vietnamese Secondary Schools," done by

Nguyen thi Du (1971), who proposes modern

cor-non.

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techniques for greater effectiveness in teaching

science to Vietnamese students in secondary schools.

2. "Proposal for a Model Program of Science Teacher
Education in Vietnam,"11 done by Phan My-Linh
(1972), who proposes a program for preparing pros—
pective science teachers for Vietnamese secondary
schools, which will "provide prospective teachers
necessary skills and knowledge to assume the task
of modern science teaching in Vietnamese secondary

schools."12

Other similar studies that have been conducted in
other countries or by international cultural agencies (e.g.,

UNESCO) are reviewed in Chapter II.

Procedures and Resources Used in this Study
This study is designed as a descriptive study. The
present situation in Vietnam--a war-time situation—~15 not
apprOpriate for conducting an experimental study.
The resources that were used in this study include:
(1) government data and documents;
(2) UNESCO and other United Nations sources and
documents;
CD books from various fields of knowledge, including
philOSOphy, education, science, mathematics, and

religion;

 

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(4) books and materials from well-known Chemistry or
Physical Science Projects, e.g., Chem Study,
Introductory Physical Science (IPS), Chemical

Bond Approach, Nuffield Chemistry;

(5) journals, periodicals; the most helpful among these
include the following:
Journal of Chemical Education
Education in Chemistry
AC3 Publications (AC3=Advisory Council on
College Chemistry)
Educational Technology
The Science Teacher
Science Education
Review of Educational Research

Journal of Research in Science Teaching

(6) the writer's personal experiences in secondary-

school teaching (Physical Science).

Definition of Terms
Macro-design.--This term refers to a design of the
model, which is used for the development of a chemistry
program that will be implemented throughout the country.
In ccmtrast, a micro-design is especially designed for
classnxmluse, only. The similarities and differences be—

tween the two designs are given in detail in Chapter IV.

Secondary cycle of secondary schools.--The last
three years of secondary schools beginning at the tenth

grade.

Summary

This chapter delineates the major shortcomings of
today‘s chemistry teaching in Vietnamese secondary schools.
Means for the removal of these shortcomings are prOposed.
Limitations of the study are also defined. This study

was designed and executed as a descriptive study.

FOOTNOTES FOR CHAPTER I

1Vietnam, Bo Giao—Duc, Chuon -Trinh Trun —Hoc
(1970) (Vietnam: Bo Giao-Duc, 1970), pp. 123-39.

2Nguyen thanh Khuyen, "Viet cho tan Sinh-Vien
Toan-Ly-Hoa" in Kim:Chi-Nam, tuVQu-Bi den Cao-Hoc, ed. by
nhonnSV’Bung-Song (DaiFHoc Rica-Hoc) TSaigon: Bung Song
Dai-Hoc Khoa-Hoc, 1971-72], pp. 97-98.

3These shortcomings have been detected, following:
(a) an examination of the present secondary school cur-
riculum, (b) recent talks with Vietnamese students and
teachers, (c) the writer's personal experiences in second-
ary school teaching (Physical Science).

4This term designates students who major in science
or science-related disciplines; it has been used by R. L.
Wolke in R. L. Wolke, "Chemistry for the Non—Science Major:
An Experiment in Relevance," Journal of Chemical Education,
XLVII (December, 1970), 788-93.

5C. P. Snow, The Two Cultures and the Scientific
Revolution (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1959),
pp. I-22. In this book, Snow discusses the misunderstand-
ing and antagonism that arise today between the scientists

and the non-scientists (including, for instance, writers,
artists).

p 6A. Miles Weaver, III, "The Forgotten Majority
:Science Curriculum," Science Education, LIV (January,
1970), 5-8.

7Editorial, ”Practical Wisdom and the Non-Science
Major," Journal of Chemical Education, XLVI (February,
1969), 63.

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11

8W. F. Kieffer, "Chemistry, Curiosity and Culture,"
Journal of Chemical Education, XLV (September, 1968),
530-54.

9Ralph W. Tyler, Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction: Syllabus for Education 360 (Chicago: Univer-
sity of Chicago Press, 1950). For Terr, the three sources
that generate broad educational objectives are: the
society, the student and the subject-matter. These tenta-
tive objectives--once-chosen--should undergo a further
refining stage, i.e., they should be screened by present
gmychological knowledge and the set of cultural values
presently held by the society. Tyler's scheme for select-
ing educational objectives includes, then, five components

in all.

loNguyen thi Du,"Strategiesfbr Improving Science
Education Practices in Vietnamese Secondary Schools"
(unpublished M.A. thesis, Michigan State University, 1971).

11Phan My-Linh,"Proposal for a Model Program of
Science Teacher-Education in Vietnam" (unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972).

lzIbid.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

A review of the literature dealing with recent
developments in chemistry teaching and learning in other
parts of the world is extremely helpful since it reveals
trends which may serve as useful guidelines for the design

cfifnew chemistry programs or courses of study for Viet-

namese schools.

Thus, this chapter reports recent chemistry pro-
jects from various countries in the world, or from inter-
national cultural agencies (e.g., UNESCO). In general,

for each project, the following reporting scheme was
adopted:

1. Goals or objectives of the project.

2. Characteristics of the project, in terms of con-
tent, learning experiences and instructional
resources.

3. Implementation features (only for well-known
projects-~those that have both national and inter-

national influence).‘

12

 

 

13

Chemistry Education in the United Kingdom:

The NuffieldChemistrnyroject (NCP)w

Em Goals of NCP

 

The NCP is a part of the Nuffield Program of Im-

pmwing Science Teaching in British high schools. This

pnmram has emerged as a result of Science Teachers' con—

mnn over weaknesses in high school science teaching,

weaknesses that can be vividly summarized in these follow-

ing words by G. Van Praagh:

. for a high proportion of children, school science

has been the mere acquisition of factual knowledge, of
definitions to be learned by heart, of formulas to be
remembered and of a series of mechanical rules for
deriving an answer, which too often appeared irrelevant
to the pupil's interest. There was far too much de-
pendence on dogmatic assertion, whether by the teacher
or the textbook, far too little opportunity for the
pupils to think for themselves, to look for evidence
and to use their judgment.

The desire to overcome these above shortcomings

has prompted British science teachers to launch a whole

series of reforms that encompassed every area of scientific

knowledge. The new approach to science teaching is based

mainly on the following principles:

a.

Pupils should gain an understanding that lasts
throughout their lives of what it means to approach
a problem scientifically. They should be taught
to be aware of what scientists are doing and can
do. This has little connection with the short-
lived remembering of dictated information. There-
fore science should be presented to pupils as a
way in which they can conduct an inquiry into the
nature of things as well as a body of information
built up by the inquiries of other people. Pupils
must approach their studies through experiments

14

designed to awaken the spirit of investigation.
They must be given opportunities to observe and
explore so that they develOp disciplined imagina-
tive thinking and are made fully conscious of

the important part that science plays in modern
life.

Which ideas are discussed, how they are presented,
what materials and techniques are used to demon-
strate them, depend on the level of development
reached by the pupils and should be chosen accord—
ingly. But what is taught must reflect up-to-date
thought and techn010gy.

Examination marks-~whether in class tests, school,
or public examinations--must be awarded chiefly for
intellectual and manipulative skills, understanding,
and a lively critical mind.

flue, according to these new approaches to teaching-learning

and evaluating science, students will not be passive lis—

teners, but active learners, and "doing science, instead

of hearing about it."

3

Characteristics of NCP

Course content and structure.--The NCP course is

to last for five years. Three stages are expected:

1.

Stage I: Exploration of materials (2 years).
Throughout this stage, which may last from less
than two to two years, the student is expected to

learn

about a wide range of materials, how to separate
them, and about some of their patterns of behaviour.
Thus he is led up to realize the central part

played by the elements in chemistry.4

There are two alternatives for Stage I, Ia or
Ib, depending on the student's aptitudes and

interests.

n. ‘

Ina.

u....

-
.u..

 

0.. ‘

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.
a

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15

2. Stage II: Usingideas about atoms andparticles
(2 years). During this stage, the emphasis is put
on using ideas, considered as tools that need
"continual overhaul and sharpening."S These ideas
include: "Models of atoms, molecules, and ions,

whether in expanded plastic or in the form of

chemical equations."6 The use of these ideas, may

proceed, "perhaps clumsily at first, but with

greater precision and discernment as time goes

on."7

This approach seems to align itself with the
approach used by the great Cannizzaro, a century
ago. Thus, the authors of NCP said:

We have therefore introduced molecules, giant struc-
tures, ions, and three-dimensional structures as soon
as the children have enough experience to consider
them reasonable and as soon as they are useful: not
waiting until their acceptance can be argued more
rigorously, but making sure that the use to which
they are put will lead to critical understanding. In
doing this we hope we are acting in the s irit of the
advice of a great nineteenth-century teac er: "After
many trials in the course of my teaching, I have come
to the conclusion that, not only is it impossible

to eliminate the atomic theory altogether, but, more-
over, in order to arrive at this theory, it is not
desirable to follow the long and fatiguing road of
induction. On the contrary, it is better to get to
it as quickly as possible, by one of those short-cuts
(finch the human mind often takes in order to raise
itself quickly to a height from which the relations

Imtween phenomena can be discerned at a glance."8
[Cannizzaro]

At the end of this stage--or nearly so--an attempt

is made to:

 

 

 

"

 

 

 

16

bring the pupils' attention to the way that chemistry
can be deliberately directed to meeting some of man's
social and industrial needs--providing there is added
the experience and insight of the engineer and tech—
nologist.

3. Stage III: A course of options (lyear). This

10 of the whole

stage has been termed the "climax"
scheme and is "the section that differs most from
the majority of existing schemes."11 In accord-
ance with the goals of NCP-—which state that sci—
ence skills and abilities should be developed
within the framework of chemistry--this stage is
therefore "used to give pupils opportunity to

round off these skills and bring themselves to a
reasonable standard of lively competence."12 Due
to individual differences, which begin to sharpen
at this age period, "a variety of tOpics has there-
fore been suggested and it is left to the teachers
to judge which of these will best suit the needs

of their pupils."13

The following are the topics discussed during
these three stages:

Stage I Exploration of materials

Alternative A

Getting pure substances from the world around
us

The effects of heating substances

Finding out more about the air

The problem of burning

The elements

Competition among the elements

O‘U‘bWN H

 

 

DON H omooq

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10
Stage II

11
12
13

14

15
16
17

18
19
20

21
22
23
24

Stage III
Option

UluwaH

17

Water as a product of burning

The effects of electricity on substances
Chemicals from the rocks

Chemicals from the sea

Alternative B

Separating pure substances from common
materials

Acidity and its cure

Fractional distillation as a way of separating
mixtures

The major gases of the air

Finding out more about substances by heating
them

Using electricity to decompose substances
The elements

Further reactions between elements
Investigation of some common processes involv-
ing air:

a. burning and breathing

b. rusting 14

Competition among the elements

Using ideas about atoms and particles

The ideas that chemists use

Atoms in chemistry

Investigation of salt and "salt gas"
Looking at the elements in the light of the
Periodic Table

Finding out how atoms are arranged in
elements

Solids, liquids, and gases

Explaining the behaviour of electrolytes
Finding the relative number of particles
involved in reactions

How fast? Rates and catalysts

How far? The idea of dynamic equilibrium
Investigating the substances called "acids"
Getting the mastery over chemicals

Breaking down and building up large molecules
Chemistry and the world food problem
Chemicals and energy

Radiochemistry15

A course of options

Water

Crystals and their orderliness
Colloids

Metals and alloys

Chemical changes and the production of
electrical energy

 

 

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6 An investigation of the structure of a few
compounds

7 Giant molecules

8 The chemical industry

9 Historical tOpics

10 Acidity--alka1inity

11 Analysis with a purpose

12 "Atoms into ions"

13 Periodicity and atomic structure16

Books and other teaching-1earning_resources.--

 

Besides some basic books, which are essential for the

course, other books, called "Background Books"17 were

also produced to "amplify and extend work done in class,

«13

and to stimulate the interest of pupils . . Films

and other audio-visual media are also available.

Training of teachers.-—The try-out period for

 

Nuffield Chemistry materials involved about 200 chemistry

19 Their results were later communicated to

teachers.
other teachers who have shown interest in Nuffield Chem-
istry. Thus, courses--most1y one-week courses--to help
teachers get acquainted with the new materials were run,
mostly by Nuffield trial school teachers. These courses
consisted of lectures, discussions, laboratory work, and
film showings. In addition to films, television programs

for teachers were also planned.20

 

Laboratory and equipment in Nuffield Chemistry.--
'The concern for students to learn via concrete exper-
iences has led to a reorganization of laboratory work so

that more time could be found for doing chemistry

19

experiments. Time can be saved--in routine operations
for instance--by using new techniques or new equipment,
e.g., using a direct-reading balance or filtering under
reduced pressure.21

Another feature related to the reorganization of
the laboratory environment consists of abolishing the
separation between laboratory and classroom: in Nuffield
Chemistry’laboratories, lectures, discussions as well as

practical works are conducted in the same milieu.22

Examinations.--The importance of apprOpriate

 

examinations at the end of the course has been recognized
by Nuffield Science Teachers.

They tried to avoid using examinations that test
only retention of knowledge and not real understanding
by the students.
Popularity of Nuffield Chemistry,
and Some Prospects for the
Future

Van Praag stated that about 600 schools have now
adopted Nuffield Chemistry (1968 data).23 For Van Praag,
some continuous development in curriculum will be more
desirable than periodic changes.24 He hoped that Science
Teachers' Centers--formed in England--whose function is to
organize in-service courses for science teachers, will
‘provide the "link between research into science teaching

and its implementation in the schools."25

20

Chemical Education in the U.S.A.

The post-Sputnik era has witnessed a feverish
development of new science programs or curriculum projects
throughout the country. The two oldest projects in sci-
ence for high schools are Physical Science Study Committee
(PSSC) and Biological Sciences Study Committee (BSCS).26
Later, other programs for chemistry or physical science
for junior high schools were develOped to meet the coun-
try's needs, with regard to science teaching and learning
in schools.

This section describes major chemistry or physical
science projects which have been develOped in the U.S.A.,
following the general movement of science curriculum
reform discussed above.

Chemical BongIApproach
Project (or CBA)

In June of 1957, upon a request made by the Ameri-
can Chemical Society about finding means to establish links
between high school and college chemistry, a committee--
composed of chemists and high school chemistry teachers--
was formed27 to discuss this tOpic. The result of these
discussions was the creation of a writing committee in 1958
to consider the developing of a new chemistry course that
would meet new requirements of modern advances in chemistry

knowledge, thereby enabling high school students to pur-

sue successfully further chemical studies in colleges and

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21

universities. The Chemical Bond Approach Project or CBA
(the name of the new chemistry project) had for its first

director, Arthur F. Scott from Reed College, who was

succeeded by Laurence E. Strong of Earlham.28

The goals of the CBA.—-For the authors of CBA, the

"29

process of "weaving together ideas and facts should be

the main concern of the student of chemistry. From this
view of modern chemistry, chemistry teaching objectives

could be derived as follows:

1. To present the basic principles of chemistry as an
intellectual discipline and to achieve an appre-
ciation of chemistry as a creative pursuit of
human knowledge.

2. To develop facility in analytical, critical
thinking--especia11y thinking which involves
logical and quantitative relations.

3. To develop scientifically literate citizens through
an understanding of (a) the methods of science
and (b) the role of chemistry in society and
everyday living.

4. To stimulate an interest in chemistry, to identify
promising students, and to provide adequate
preparation for further scientific studies.3

Characteristics of the CBA Project.--

1. Course content and structure: The CBA course is
organized so as to achieve the goals and objectives
outlined above. The course, entitled "Chemical
Systems," is divided into five parts, having for
titles, respectively: the nature of chemical
change; electrical nature of chemical systems;
models; aids to the interpretation of systems; bonds

in chemical systems; order, disorder, and change.31

22

In part I, the following topics are presented:

A description of the changes in chemical systems
in operational terms

Use of evidence of interaction between components
to distinguish solutions from mixtures

The definition of elements and compounds in
Operational terms

The composition of compounds in terms of ideas
about atoms, molecules, and structure

The introduction of the major theme: chemical
change is structural change

The significance and use of chemical symbols and
chemical formulas in the writing of chemical
equations.32

In part II, the following topics are presented:

The study of electrochemical cells and electroly-
sis to show the intimate connection between
chemical changes and electrical changes

An investigation of electrostatics and electric
potential energy to interrelate structural
change, electrical change, and energy transfer
The electrically charged units: electrons, pro-
tons, and atomic nuclei and the nuclear atom.
Chemical change is interpreted in terms of changes
in structure to establish that chemical systems
are electrical fiystems.33

In part III, the following topics are presented:

Mental models, the tools for thinking about
changes in chemical systems

The understanding of why some elements are solids,
some are liquids, and others are gases

The interpretation of heat transfer by chemical
systems in terms of enthalpy change and bond
energy

The relationship of structure and energy in the
development of orbital models

The introduction of periodicity and the periodic
table

Use of basic principles of the nuclear atom to
interpret chemical change

The knowledge that chemical change is structure
change, electrical change, and energy change.34

a.
be

23

In part IV, the following topics are presented:

Ideas about metallic bonds and ionic bonds

A treatment of metallic elements in terms of
positive ions and delocalized electrons

A study of ionic crystals in terms of charge,
size, and electronegativity of compound elements
Ionic solutions presented as electrical systems,
as solubility systems, as energy systems, as
interacting systems involving ions and water
Periodic tables used repeatedly as aids to the
entire discussion.35

In part V, the following tOpics are presented:

Advanced study of electrochemical cells: the use
of the Nernst equation

Discussion of chemical systems which have equili-
brium states

The relation of free energy changes and equili-
brium states

The study of entropy change to interpret changes
in chemical systems in terms of order and
disorder

Acid-base systems and the ionizat1on of acids

The postulation or reaction mechanism and reaction
pathways based on the study of reaction kinetics
The role of chemical changes to produce more dis—
orderly arrangements and more compact electrical
structures.

The following gives the sub-unit titles--

corresponding to the text's chapter titles--under

each part of the course:

Part I The Nature of Chemical Change

1. The Science of Chemical Change
2. Mixtures and Chemical Change
3. Gases, Molecules and Masses

Part II Electrical Nature of Chemical Systems

4. Electricity and Matter
5. Charge Separation and Energy
6. Electrical Nature of Matter

Part III Models: Aids to the Interpretation of Syseem

Systems
7. Chemical and Electrical Structures
8. Kinetic-Molecular Theory
9. Temperature-changing Capacity
10. Electrons, Nuclei, and Orbitals

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24

Part IV Bonds in Chemical Systems

11. Metals
12. Ionic Solids
13. Ions in Solutions

Part V Order, Disorder, and Change

14. Free Energy

15. Concentration Control and Chemical Change
16. Acids and Bases

17. Time and Chemical Change

18. Water37

38

The laboratory work in CBA: It was not originally

 

in the minds of the CBA committee members to pro-
vide laboratory experiences for chemistry students.
The idea of making students learn chemistry through
experimental work came out as an afterthought.
Today a major aim of the CBA laboratory program is
to help the student perceive the relationship
between theory and practice. This can be done by
having students conduct investigations which in-
volve basic concepts and principles discussed in
class or solve problems which might arise from the
consideration of the same set of basic concepts and
principles.

Experiments are classified into three groups,
according to their degree of complexity and the
amount of information or guidance given to each
experiment in each one of these groups. In the
experiments of Group III, the student may propose
a problem and design himself an experiment to

solve this problem.

hWNH
I o o

25

For each experiment, there exist three phases

to be taken into account: the pre—laboratory,

laboratory, and post-laboratory phases.

a;

The
The
The
The

D.

The Pre-Laboratory Phase: The first part of

 

this phase consists of a homework assignment,
which may be viewed as a preparation stage for
the second part of this phase. The class dis-
cussion of the experiment, which constitutes
the main activity of the second part of the
pre-laboratory phase, usually includes the
following tOpics:

scope of the problem to be studied

chemical system to be used

data to be collected

experimental procedure to be followed39

The Laboratory Phase: This phase is supposed

 

to follow immediately the class discussion
described above. The Operations involved in

this phase include:

Working alone or with partner(s)--with equipment,
chemicals, and instruments.

Making observations, measurements and also associ-
ated experimental conditions, which are to be
recorded in the student's notebook.40

At the completion of this phase, data collected
during the experiment may be exchanged between
students and solutions to the problems that
might arise during the experiment may be

offered by each individual.

3.

26

c. The Post—Laboratory Phase: The first part of
this phase consists of a homework assignment,
whose purpose is to help the student transform
primary data (or raw data) which are collected
in the laboratory phase, into secondary data
or "meaningful" data via such means as mathe—
matical reasoning or computation, graphing,
tabulating, etc. This data processing is help-
ful for the next part of the post-laboratory
phase, which consists of reporting the result
of the laboratory experiment to the whole 4
class. This reporting, and the subsequent
discussion, offer an opportunity for each indi-
vidual student to ”obtain additional informa-
tion on the same chemical system that [the
individual or group] has studied, or on a dif-
ferent system,"41 and to make adjustments to
(or modifications of) problem solutions, ac-
cordingly. In summary, "from the post-labora-
tory discussions, a great deal can be learned
about the analysis and interpretation of

data."42

Instructional Resources for CBA: Besides a text-
43

 

Jbook, a student laboratory work manual, the CBA

«committee has published a Teacher's Guide,44 which
45

 

dis "keyed to each chapter of the student textbook"

sand which contains:

 

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in.
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n. .

 

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27

l) a review of the subject matter emphasizing the

major ideas and concepts; 2) a concise summary of each
section of the chapter; 3) a discussion of the rela-
tionship of the chapter to the major goals of the
course and describing the strategy of the chapter in
relation to the objectives; 4) hints and suggestions
for teaching the topics of the chapter; 5) a descrip-
tion of relevant demonstrations; 6) lists of student 46
exercises in the textbook with answers and solutions.

A Teacher's Laboratory Guide47 is also available,

which includes:

1) directions for preparing solutions; 2) suggestions
for diSpensing reagents and equipment; 3) ideas for
«conducting the pre- and post-laboratory sessions;

4) kinds of questions students usually raise in this
section of the work; 5) information for diagnosing
and helping students who are having difficulties in
tune laboratory; 6) alternative procedures for stated
experiments; 7) answers to questions in the student's
laboratory manual; 8) extensions to the stated experi—
ments; and 9) references for each experiment to be
found in scientific journals or books.

Implementation Features.--Despite its difficulty
level-n-suitable only for science-major students--CBA en-
jOYS pOpularity and reputation at home and abroad. Indeed,
itis <:onsidered now as a chemistry course which has a
respectable number of enrollees, ranking third below CHEMS
and Medern Chemistry, with respect to the number of stud-
ents who enroll for the course.49 Moreover, it has been
known in many other countries, e.g., India, the Philippines

(see Chemical Education in the Philippines later in this

Study) . 5 0

ggfig£fiFELEducational Material
wen: Study or CHEMS)

Crhe CHEMS project was an attempt to show that there

 

co . .
uld e=~=:I..st many ways to teach chemistry to high—school

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28

students and that CBA is not the only way. The CHEMS
story began in the fall of 1959 when Glenn T. Seaborg--
then Chancellor of the University of California at
Berkeley--was met by members of the American Chemical
Society Ad Hoc Committee* and by representatives of the
National Science Foundation, who persuaded him to accept
responsibility for developing another modern course in high
school chemistry, besides the CBA course. Upon agreement
by Seaborg--who also succeeded to convince Professor J.
Arthur Campbell of Harvey Mudd College to join him in the
task--planning and writing sessions were organized, which
culminated in the availability of the course materials,
near the end of Summer, 1960. School trials were organ-
ized, for the first time, during the 1960-61 academic
Year. Since then, four commercial versions of the course

have been available.51

The goals of the CHEMS course.--The primary purpose

 

Of this course is to reduce the gap between the science
teacher and the scientist in their conception of science.
In net: the course tries to show how one can formulate
hypotheses, design models by observation, eXperimentation,
induction and deduction, which are science processes par
excellence. These new features of the course are

\

T'American Chemical Society Ad Hoc Committee
in 1959) on Possible Organization of a High
cliemistry Course.

(formed
School

29

definitely attempts to strike against traditional methods

Of’ teaching chemistry in high schools, which consist of

lcuading students' brains with meaningless and isolated

fa‘2tS or sometimes with erroneous notions.

a)

b)

C)

Other goals include the following:

to encourage teachers to undertake further study

of chemistry courses that are geared to keep pace
with advancing scientific frontiers, and thereby
improve their teaching methods,

to stimulate and prepare those high school students
whose purpose is to continue the study of chemistry
in college as a profession; and

to further in those students who will not continue
the study of chemistry after high school an under-
standing of the importance of science in current
and future human activities.5

Characteristics of CHEM Study.--

Course content:53 The course content is designed

 

to meet the purpose and goals stated above. Thus,
the first six chapters give a modern presentation
of the Atomic Theory and the Kinetic Theory; the
eleven following chapters develOp the notions of
energy which are applied to the behaviors of sub-
stances, phase change, solubility equilibria,
equilibrium in chemical reactions, the rates of
chemical reactions, reaction mechanisms, aqueous
acids and bases, oxidation--reduction reactions,
chemical bonding in solids and liquids. The last
chapters (18-25) indicate how the notions pre-
‘viously acquired could be applied to the under-

sstanding of periods and groups in the Periodic

30

Table and the understanding of organic chemistry,
biochemistry and cosmochemistry. The whole course
content is an attempt to convey to students a
unifying idea about chemistry, which is--according
to Chem Study's authors--the notion of matter
structure and the effects of various forces on

changes in structure.

Teaching Aids: A series of films was made to
clarify some points in the textbook, which may
seem obscure to students, or to give them addi-
tional information that they may need for a fuller
comprehension of the course. These films are
well-documented and in general, excellent. Their
presentation, in order to be helpful to students,
should follow this technique: only a certain
number of frames are presented at a time, followed
by group discussion, or teacher's commentaries and

54

explanations. Other instructional resources

include laboratory manuals, Teacher's Guides as

well as programmed materials.55

Laboratory work: The experimental approach is
emphasized throughout the course. The basic
activities of an experimental science, such as

chemistry, include:

 

any

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31

a) accumulating information through observation;
b) organizing this information and observing
regularities in it; c) wondering why the regularities
exist; and d) communicating the findings to others.56

Thus, the student who follows the CHEMS experi-
mental approach is supposed to get used to major
science processes: observation during laboratory
sessions, film projections or demonstration experi—
ments performed by the teacher; induction resulting
from observed facts; model building--to be done by
students-~to explain phenomena and science regularities,
:and predictions that the model may suggest.

Precision in laboratory work is also an important
:Eactor. Thus, students should know when to use a
pxrecision balance (I%U-g precision) and should learn

tfliat precision is necessary in the interpretation of

results, in hypotheses formulation and in model con-

Struction .

Implementation features; strengths and weaknesses

QLCHEM study.--Chem Study is probably the most well-

known and also welcomed chemistry course in the U.S.A.
Compared to its predecessor--the Chemical Bond Approach
course"-—it is more balanced, in the sense that both aSpects
ofchenmistry (experimental and theoretical) are judiciously
combined in such a way that the student could not be em-
barrassed by their difficulty level. This explains its

0 -
p pulaJ’—":l_ty, translated by the emergence of three new

 

ll'

 

32

commercial versions of the course, besides the original
Version, published by Freeman Co., in 1963.

Unfortunately, Chem Study does not address itself
to all types of students-~especially the average or below
average ability students. Only a select number of stu-
dents (the bright ones) could profit by this course.
This explains why not all chemistry teachers have adopted
Chem Study patterns in their chemistry teaching. This
weakness has not kept Chem Study from becoming one of
the most popular chemistry courses for 0.8. high—school
students, ranging ahead of CBA, and second only to Modern

Chemistg (by Dull at 91.).57 Moreover, it is, together

 

with CBA, widely known in foreign countries, some of which
either adapt or adopt it as one of their modern chemistry
courses. These countries include: the Philippines,

Pakistan, South Korea, India, Brazil, and Russia.58

Modern Hi h School Chemistry:
Hecommended Course of Study

The "Modern High School Chemistry Program" (MHSC)

 

is a part of the so-called "Science Man-Power Project,"
whiCh Originated from Teachers College, Columbia Univer-
SitY (1956) , with F. L. Fitzpatrick as the Project
pummel-.59 The Project--which has been largely financed
by leading American industries and industrial founda-

tion -_ . . .
S has for 1ts purposes "the 1mprovement of sc1ence

ed - . - ~ -
“cation 1n the schools, w1th spec1a1 attention to course

33

(9f study revision, development of articulated prOgrams,

arufl improvement of teacher-education procedures."60

To achieve one of these purposes, a number of
scsience monographs have been published including among

these, Modern High School Chemistry.

The objectives of the MHSC course.--To serve
maachers is one Of the purposes of MHSC. The ways teachers
could.use this course for teaching, have been described as

follows:

:Some teachers may desire to employ the recommended
<:ourse of study in its entirety. Others may prefer
tn: use it as a guide in modernizing the content of
existing courses .

Existing high school chemistry courses--often called

traditional courses--have suffered the following short-

comings :

1.. Modern chemical theory is not adequately
represented.

12. Courses of study fail to incorporate new con-
cepts and emphases.

33. Courses fail to give students an understanding
and appreciation of scientific methods.

4-. Courses of study display a lack of unifying
concepts.

5- Courses fail to provide opportunities for critical
thinking in problem-solving situations.62

From the consideration of these shortcomings,

mOdern chemistry courses should provide:

1- a basis for understanding the physical environment;
2- a means for developing constructive attitudes and
3 interests;

Opportunities to practice critical thinking in
problem-solving situations;

4.

34

a basis for understanding the operation of
scientific methods in the field of chemistry;
and

an appreciation of the impact of cgemical
science and technology on society. 3

Characteristics of MHSC.—-

 

Course content: In order to meet the above—stated

 

objectives-~namely, teaching science as a process;
the impact of chemistry on society; the use of
conceptual schemes in teaching science and
chemistry--the following course content has been

proposed:

Area One: Science, matter, and energy

A. Scientific methods
B. Matter and energy
C. Energy and the States of matter

Area Two: Atomic and molecular structure

A. The atom

B. The periodic classification of the elements
C. Chemical combination

D. Molecular structure

Area Three: Chemical dynamics and equilibrium

Acids and bases
Organic Chemistry64

A. Chemical dynamics

B. Oxidation and reduction
C. Chemical equilibrium

D. Solutions

E. The colloidal state

F Electrochemistry

G

H

The rationale for the adoption of this content
and content structure has been given throughout
the monograph, as well as the detailed outlines

of the three areas of study.65

35

2. Recommended teaching materials for MHSC: At the

 

end of the monograph, a list of "reference" books
is provided. These "recommended" books will help
the teacher to supplement his knowledge, and
"eSpecially so in the case of information that has
been made available by relatively recent dis-

66

coveries." Among these,figure: Pauling's

General Chemistry; Read's Industrial Chemistry;

 

 

Sienko's Chemistry; Fowles's Lecture Experiments

 

 

in Chemistry; and Alyea's "Demonstration Abstracts"

 

in the Journal of Chemical Education.

 

The monograph concludes by referring the

67

teacher to an article in the Journal of Chemical

 

Education, related to the proposal for a list of

 

chemistry books which could be used by high-school

students.

Igtroductory Physical Science
(IPS)

Goals of the course.-—For students who lack basic

 

Science skills that would enable them to succeed more
easily'in such new courses as PSSC or Chem Study,

another approach is needed. Thus a new course was
created, the "Introductory Physical Science" (or IPS)
Course, designed for those students who need only a mini-

"mm background in Physical Science to pursue further

36

courses in science or for those students who do not plan

to take any more courses in science.

68 The course was

develOped to meet these goals:

1)
2)

3)
4)

5)

6)

to develop a feeling for the kind of human effort
involved in the develOpment of science;

to have students recognize that the root of all
science is in the exploration of natural phenomena;
to provide experience in scientific investigation;
to learn how, where appropriate, to generalize from
observation;

to understand how to construct models or theories
which can be manipulated logically and which may
serve to raise new questions; and

to recognize the advantages and limitations of
laboratory experiment. The Specific objectives of
the course are reflected in the rationale leading
to its development.69

Characteristics of the IPS course.--

 

Course content and textbook: The central theme

 

of this course is the introduction to the study
of matter. Thus, the rationale behind the selec-
tion of content for this course has been given by

U. Haber-Schaim in these words:

If we look around us we see a bewildering variety of
nutter; we can try to bring order into this seeming
(chaos by breaking up the many kinds of matter into
simpler components, and then combining these compo-
xients into a pattern. If we cannot build a pattern,
‘then we can only catalogue things as a collector
catalogues stamps . 70

In order to help the student perceive this central
theme, the course has been organized into these
broad areas: (a) Characteristic Properties;

(b) Mixtures, Pure Substances and Elements;

F

 

O I 4
U h
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37

(c) Radioactivity; (d) The Atomic Model; (e) The
Kinetic Picture of Heat. The proposed instruc-
tional sequence has been the following:

Introduction

Quantity of Matter: Mass
Characteristic PrOperties
Solubility and Solvents

The Separation of Substances
Compounds and Elements
Radioactivity

The Atomic Model of Matter
Size and Masses of Atoms and Molecules
Molecular Motion

Heat71

The criteria that have been used for the selection
of these tOpics were the same as those that were
used for the selection of tOpics for the PSSC
course, namely, the two following:
(a) Given a tOpic, how much does the student benefit
by learning this tOpic?
(b) How can a chosen topic be useful later in the
development of the story?72
For U. Haber-Schaim: " . . . a topic that appears
in (the) outline only once should not appear at
all, it has no 'mileage,‘ and (one) can do very
well without it."73
The course has assumed no prerequisites for the
students, except "some general familiarity with

our technological society."74

2-. Teaching Aids: Achievement Tests and the Teacher's
75

 

Guide are available for the course. Films to

supplement the course are also available.

38

3. Laboratory Work: The course emphasizes more than
in other physics or chemistry courses, the experi—
mental approach.76 to physical science. The experi-
ments are an integral part of the course structure
and most of the class time is spent in laboratory
experiments.77 Thus, according to Hurd, "If the
IPS course is taught as it is intended, seventy—
five per cent of the class time is Spent in
laboratory experiments and questions related to
these investigations."78 Pre-laboratory and post-
laboratory discussions help the student to perceive
his purpose for doing a proposed experiment and to
better interpret the experiment's results and
understand the implications of these results.

The course leaves little room for the teacher
to deliver lectures to students; his role is to
serve as a guide and a stimulator: a minimum of
directions should be the standard both in dis-
cussions (pre-laboratory and post-laboratory) and

during the student's laboratory work.79

Interaction of Matter and
Egrgy (IME PrOgram)

 

The IME course, as well as the IPS course, has
been designed to provide students with a necessary back-
ground in physical science, which will help them to pursue

further SOphisticated science courses. These sophisticated

'1‘ —-u _1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

39

courses may include college science courses, or modern
high school courses such as PSSC, Chem Study, and
especially BSCS. Moreover, recent school trials have also
indicated that IME is "suitable as a terminal course for
smudents who will undertake no further study of science

in high school. "81

Goals of IME.--The IME program is based on an in-

 

<mury approach to teaching and learning physical science.
It is hoped that the recourse to this approach--which
includes observation, investigation, interpretation, re-
smarch of apprOpriate literature, and critical study of
cmnclusions--would lead to the attainment of the following
objectives:

1) To understand the processes of science.

2) To acquire a fundamental knowledge of science.

3) To learn that science is always tentative and that

a fact accepted as true today may be modified or
discarded tomorrow.

Characteristics of IME.--

 

1. Course content and structure: In order to achieve

 

the above-stated objectives--the following unifying
themes are proposed:

The development of scientific behavior--particu1arly
in experimental design, observation and inter-
pretation

The nature and use of scientific models

{The particulate structure of matter

{Phe conversion of energy from one form to another

The continuous interaction of energy and matter 3
The behavior of matter and energy in living systems

40

The topics which help the student grasp the signi-
ficance of these themes include the following:

Observing the behavior of matter
Models of atoms and molecules
Periodic classification of elements
Chemical and physical reactions
Approximations in measurement
Phases of matter

Models of heat and light

Objects in motion

Force, acceleration, and mass
Energy conversion and transfer

Matter-and-energy requirements of living things84

2. Organization of learning experiences and laboratory

work: The IME course, as well as its rival (IPS)

 

puts strong emphasis on laboratory work, viewed as
an integral part of the whole scheme of physical
science learning. Thus, no separate text on
laboratory work is needed for this course. Only a

85 which contains both

unique text is available,
investigation ideas and procedures for laboratory
work and materials for understanding the topics

discussed in class.

3. Instructional resources for IME: Besides the

student's text mentioned above, a Teacher's

 

Edition86 of IME is also available, where "back-
ground information and additional problems, inves-
tigations, demonstrations and predictions of

probable student responses are included."87

41

Tests to evaluate students' knowledge in
chemistry and students' mastery of basic laboratory
techniques are also available from the publisher
(Rand McNally & Co.).

The equipment and supplies needed by this
course are modest in cost; they can be obtained via
the Rand McNally Company or can be constructed

very Simply, at a very modest expense.

Chemistry Education in OECD Countries

The Greystones Seminar and Its

Impact on the Member Countries
of OECD

On February 29, 1960, an international seminar,

entitled ”The Status and Development of the Teaching of

Chemistry," was held in Greystones (Ireland), under the

88 The purpose of the seminar was to

auSpices of OECD.
:fihd "specific steps required to provide the basis for a
muriculum better fitted, intellectually and practically,
ulthe needs of modern chemistry."89

This seminar was organized as a result of dis-

cmuent displayed by science educators in OECD countries

wiulregard to the then existing chemistry programs in

tmfir countries. The reasons90 for discontent lie in:

(l) outdated chemistry courses which (until 1960),

still treat the atom as the "smallest indivisible

part of an element";91 and in

 

 

42

(2) the reduction of chemistry teaching to a descrip-
tive presentation of chemistry or in other words,
to factual teaching. This resulted in a lack of
interest, displayed by intelligent students for
chemistry studies, who saw in this business only

memorization " . . . leavened occasionally by

. . . . 92
some stlmulatlng . . . practical experlments."

The desire to remove these deficiencies and the awareness
cm’the increasing importance of chemistry in modern life
rmve prompted science educators from OECD countries and
aflso from other parts of the world to join this Seminar.
The Seminar activities include lectures followed

by discussions and "drafting of the headings of a modern

«93

course in chemistry . . . for secondary schools. The

lectures were delivered by chemistry experts who parti-
cipated in the Seminar, and include the following tOpics:

(a) Advances in Theoretical Chemistry since 1900

(b) Importance of NOtions of Structure in the
Elementary Teaching of Chemistry

(c) Requirements of the University

(d) Requirements of Industry

(e) Recent Advances in Practical Chemistry

(f) Co-ordination of the Teaching of Chemistry,
Physics and Mathematics in Secondary Schools

(9) The Presentation to Pupils of Oxidation-Reduction
Reactions and Acid-Base Reactions on the basis
of the Electronic Atom

(h) The Teaching of Chemistry to Junior Students
(14-16 years)

(i) The Teaching of Chemistry to Senior Students
(16-18 years)

(3) Pruning and Simplification of the Syllabus and the
Teaching of Fundamentals 94

00 New Materials and Teaching Aids

43

After the first six days devoted to lectures and
discussions centered around these tOpics, the delegates
were thereafter divided into three "working groups," each
cm which was charged with drafting the outline of a new
secondary school chemistry course. The reports that came
:fipm these working groups, fortunately "did not conflict

0 0 O 5
math one another 1n any serious manner."9

A joint sum-
mary of these three reports was also issued "to offset
mw'confusion which might arise from the publication of

‘Uuee separate reports."96

The Seminar has had a strong impact on the member
countries of OECD. Several countries--e.g., Scotland,
Scandinavia97 decided to revise their chemistry syllabuses,

right after the return of their delegates from the Seminar.

Seminar follow-ups.--The Seminar was followed up

1. Refresher courses and "Teacher Guides": These

refresher courses--sponsored by OECD-—were organ-

ized in Dublin (1961) and in Norway (1962).98 At

the end of 1961, a writing session organized at

Frascati (Italy), resulted in the publication of a

"Guide for Teachers,"99 which include "selected

topics prepared by 19 experts from various member

countries."100

 

44

2. The London International Working Session (July 1963)
The purpose of this Working Session was to "stimu-
late national efforts towards modernization of
school chemistry by contributing new information
on teaching methods, demonstration experiments,
laboratory work, audio—visual aids, administrative
problems of implementation and examination ques-
tions."101 The report that came out of this
Session has three parts "dealing respectively with
present trends in teaching of chemistry (country
reports), presentation and discussion of selected
topics and, finally, annexes providing additional
information concerning country reports, outlined
tOpics and the organization of the working
session."102 The following gives the content out-
line of this three-part report:

Part one
Present Trends in the Teaching of Chemistry . . .
Part two

Selected TOpics:

Chemical Bonding

Crystals

Chemical Energetics

Equilibrium of Chemical Species in Solution

Chemical Kinetics

Examinations in Chemistry
Apparatus, Equipment and Visual Aids

Films
General Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Part three
ANNEXES :
I. The Reform of Secondary School Chemistry in

Belgium
II. The Reform of Secondary School Chemistry
Syllabuses in Greece

 

45

III. Proposal for a new Chemistry Curriculum in
Norway
IV. School Chemistry Reform in Switzerland
V. Summary Report on Secondary School Chemistry
in Turkey
VI. Contribution to Chemical Bonding
VII. Wave Mechanics: Why and How (with the help of
Bohr's model)

VIII. The Determination of the Combustion Heat of
Solid, Liquid and Gaseious Substances (Micro-
calorimeter)

IX. Examination Syllabuses in Chemistry
X. Examples of Examination Papers in Belgium
XI. Group Activity on Examination Questions
XII. List of Exhibits (Apparatus and Equipment)
XIII. List of Books on Display
XIV. Programme of the Working Session
XV. List of Participant5103

UNESCO Publications of Reprint
Articles in Chemistry

 

The idea of making available to developing countries

literature related to the teaching of the basic sciences

Ins germinated in the minds of the people of the Division

of Science teaching in UNESCO for quite a long time. A

decision to publish a series of reprint volumes dealing

with the teaching of mathematics, physics, chemistry has

been finally reached and has led to the publication of

"New Trends in Chemistry Teaching," Vol. 1 in 1967.

104

New Trends in Chemistry
_Teaching

 

Guidelines for the publication of Volume 1 of

"New Trends in Chemistry Teaching."--Prior to the publica-

’

tjfifliof this Volume 1, the IUPAC Committee on the teaching

 

of Chemistry,-—which has supported the project--convened

a meeting of the Committee at UNESCO headquarters in Paris

 

46

in April 1965 to set up guidelines for this volume. It
was recommended that the editor of this volume should:
(i) assemble a book of some 400 pages from published
articles recommended by journal editors;
(ii) provide editorial introduction to various
sections;
(iii) select topics which might include
(a) new material for the chemistry syllabus
(b) develOpments in classroom presentations
(c) new experiments and demonstrations

(d) teaching aids-~programmed instruction,
T.V., etc.

(e) curriculum reorganization and work in
progress.105

It was also recommended that UNESCO should try to
aflect papers in various sources-—and not only in English
language journals--and get them translated into English,
French or Spanish.

Major features and content outline of Volume 1
of "New Trends."-—This volume has forty-five articles,
divided into eleven sections; each section has a short
editorial introduction.

There is an adequate coverage of proposed topics,
but "the balance between the sections, and the various
levels of sophistication in the treatment might be
criticized."106

The scarcity of articles that are available in
cather sources (other than English language journals,

periodicals) unavoidably results in a preponderance of

papers published in English language.

47

Spanish and French abstracts of selected articles--

available at UNESCO--are not inserted in the published

volume.
The content outline includes:
Section 1: Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table
Section 2: Molecular Structure
Section 3: Crystals and X-Rays
Section 4: Stereochemistry
Section 5: Colour and Photochemistry
Section 6: Energetics and Kinetics
Section 7: Reactions in Aqueous Solutions
Section 8: Elements and Their Compounds
Section 9: Models and Experiments
Section 10: Programmed Learning in Chemistry
Section 11: Source-Book Section Curriculum Reform
and Work in Progresle7
Volume II of "New Trends."--This volume was pub-

 

08

lished in 1969.1

One part of this volume is devoted to a survey
of examinations,109 since examinations play an important
part in any curriculum reform.

Here are the major parts of this volume,

Section 1: Bonds and Structures

Section 2: Energetics and Kinetics

Section 3: Acids and Bases

Section 4: Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry
Section 5: Electrochemistry

Section 6: Chemistry and Industry

Section 7: Selected TOpics

Section 8: Source Book:

World View
Examinations

Visual Aids
Programmed Learning

Science Teachers' Abstracts110

 

48

New Trends in Integrated
Science Teaching

In response to recent trends in science teaching
toward unification, UNESCO has published a collection of
reprints related to integration in science teaching. The
VOlume l of "New Trends in Integrated Science Teaching"111
is divided into three parts:

1. Section 1 contains attempts of defining integrated
science. It also contains a summary of the

report of the Planning Meeting for UNESCO'S Pro-

gram in Integrated Science Teaching held in Paris

in March 1969.

2. Section 2 gives some approaches to integrated
science teaching with Specific examples of how

these approaches were utilized.

3. Section 3 deals with the psychosocial factors which
should be taken into consideration in planning

curriculum changes.

The purpose of this publication is to give some
help to people working in science-curriculum planning and
design,and in teacher training. It may also serve as a
source of information for teachers and for student teach-
ers alike, in their efforts to keep abreast of recent

developments in the field of integrated science teaching.

49

The UNESCO Project for Chemistry Teaching
in Asia (Bangkok,Thailand)

 

 

At the 13th session of the General Conference of
UNESCO, a resolution was adopted to start "a Pilot project
for Chemistry Teaching in Asia for the purpose of initiat-
ing a fundamental reorientation in the way of teaching
chemistry through the use of modern technical devices and
methodology."112 Chulalongkorn University (Bangkok) was

chosen as the Project's Headquarters upon agreement (signed

in 1965) between the Thai Government and UNESCO.

Goals of the Project

The Project, which has been a combined effort of
Chulalongkorn University, the Thai Ministry of Education
and other competent people from the region (Asia) aims at
assisting "science educators in their task of carrying

113

out reforms in chemistry teaching. Strong emphasis is

put on:

1. Modernization of the chemistry courses and develop-
ment of new teaching materials.

2. Assistance for in-service and pre—service teacher
training, improvement of examinations, and text-
books and use of the latest methods of teach—
ing. 1

The Project's Activities
Formation of an International Study Group and
Eptional Studnyroups.--The International Study Group,

whhfllwas formed at the Project's headquarters during

1965-66, was charged with the task of writing programmed

I'O' I
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50

instructional sequences in chemistry, producing film

loops, and developing low-cost laboratory kits for second-
ary schools. Efforts have been made by UNESCO to establish
liaisons between the International Study Group at Bangkok
with Study Groups for Science Teaching Improvement, which
have been created in Afghanistan, Iran, Japan, Philippines,
Thailand and in many other countries in Asia, upon recom-
mendation by UNESCO. The main purpose of creating these
links (between the International Group and various

National Groups) was "to help reduce the sense of iso-

115

lation that many such groups experience" and also to

provide needed assistance.116

The Project has succeeded in producing the follow-
ing instructional materials for better chemistry teaching
in schools:

. Programmed instruction sequence, 1966;

Teacher's Guide to the above programmed sequence;
Film 100ps in cassettes (8 mm.):

Teachers' Guide to film loops and film loop
production notes;

Compound formation (Vols. I and II), (teachers'
digest);

Chemical equilibria (teachers' digest);
Experiments on chemical equilibria;

Experiments on compound formation;

Compound formation Vol. I (Thai translation);
Experiments on chemical equilibria (Thai trans-
lation);

11. Newsletter, a bi-monthly periodical;

12. Prototypes of low-cost kits: "Teaching experi-
ments on chemical equilibria," "Teaching experi—
ments on compound formation" and "Teaching experi-
ments on rate of chemical reactions."117

U‘ waH
o o o 0

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51

Teacher re-training.—-In 1967, a four-week summer
institute was organized for Thai teachers by Chulalongkorn
University and the Thai Ministry of Education in coordi-
nation with chemistry experts from different countries,
such as the United Kingdom, the United States, Australia,
Japan, Ceylon and Czechoslovakia.

A broad topic, "Compound Formation," was chosen,
which had provided a rare opportunity for Thai teachers to
have a panoramic View of the unifying principles that link
various parts of chemistry together. In fact, under this
rubric, basic principles of stoichiometry, energy, reaction
rate, chemical structure, and acid-base theory were brought
into study via lectures, discussions and laboratory work.
Chemistry experts from abroad helped by providing lectures
and necessary guidance during group discussions while
local leaders guided in laboratory work.118 An important
feature of the laboratory sessions was that the inquiry

approach had been more often (if not exclusively) used

than the conventional approach of performing "tried and

trusted experiments."119

The results of this workshop were very encourag-
ing, since it succeeded in arousing teachers' interest in
raw approaches to chemistry practice. This could be seen
hlteachers‘ applications for returning to work in the

laboratory on a more regular schedule basis.

52

Another merit of this workshop is that it ”has
established a pattern for continuing cooperation between
university and secondary school teachers in pursuit of a

common professional interest in the subject matter of

chemistry."120

Science and Chemistry Education in the
Philippines: Recent Developments

In the Philippines, the school system is made up
of six years of primary--four years in certain rural
areas--and four years of secondary education.121 The
Board of National Education is responsible for the develOp-
ment and implementation of school programs, including
science and chemistry programs. There exists, in addi-
tion, the National Science Development Board (NSDB),
charged with the task of providing assistance to curricu-

lum development in science and mathematics--including

financial assistance.122

Science and Chemistry Educa-
tion in High Schools

In the Philippines, science is a required subject--
according to the revised science curriculum, l957--in
eflementary schools and is taught from Grades I to VI.123

During the two first years of all types (general
lfigh and vocational) of secondary schools, General

&fience I and II are available.

nu.

a",

 

  

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53

There exist two types of science curricula for
general high schools: (a) the college preparatory
curriculum; (b) the vocational education curriculum.
Thus, in the college preparatory science curriculum,
general chemistry is an elective and is taught in the
fourth-year of general high schools. Applied chemistry,
on the other hand, is a required subject for students in
the vocational education group and is taught in the
third-year of general high schools. In addition there
exists a special science curriculum which could be found
in large city schools, and in which chemistry is a re-

quired subject.124

Most chemistry courses, whether applied or gen-
eral, have "too much breadth of content while lacking in
depth."125 As to the laboratory work in science and
chemistry, the shortage of science equipment and facili-
ties has hindered progress in this direction.

Recent Developments in Science
and Chemistry Education in the
Philippines

Major develOpments include: (1) the creation of
the Science Education Centre (1964), whose purpose was to
develOp curriculum materials in science and mathematics

fin'elementary and secondary schools;126

(2) the crea-
tion of The Science Curriculum DevelOpment Study, whose

Purpose was to assist the Science Education Centre

54

mentioned above, in develOping instructional materials
for Elementary and General Science, since this task is

too time consuming,127 and (3) the gradual establishment

of Regional Science Teaching Centres128 whose purpose

is to:
(a) provide up-to-date pre-service and in-service
training programs for school science teachers;
(b) organize meetings and conferences; (c) provide

advice and information to schools on the setting
up of science librariesé and the develOpment and

use of new materials.12
The results of the work done by these organiza-
tions and centers include: the publishing, by the
Science Education Centre, of science and mathematics
courses for high schools and elementary schools; these
courses were ready for school trials in July, 1967.
Other projects, which are limited to Specific science
areas have been undertaken by:
1. Ateneo de Manila University: This University has
organized TV programs in physics, based on the
PSSC program. It has also edited, via its
Chemistry Department, a Philippine version of
CBA chemistry, "which is being used in a number

of private schools."130

2. The National Study Group for Chemistry Teaching:
This organization is destined to collaborate

with the UNESCO Project for Chemistry Teaching in

55

Asia, whose headquarters are located in Bangkok,
Thailand. This Group is composed of university
and school teachers, representatives from the
Department of Education, the NSDB and people from
the industrial sector. The Group's activities
include organizing workshOps and training pro-
grams with visiting lecturers. A new chemistry
curriculum for both general and vocational high
schools is now being prepared by the Group (data

and information related to 1969).131

Michigan State University: Through the Science
and Mathematics Teaching Center at Michigan State
University, the Philippine-American Education
Foundation, and the National Science Development
Board have organized a program of graduate
studies for Philippine teachers and short-term
consultants from Michigan State University. The
primary purpose of the consultants is to assist
in the development of the Regional Science Teach-
ing Centers as well as to conduct in-service

activities in the Philippines.

I!

to

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56
Chemical Education in Scotland

The Staterf Chemical Educa-
EiOn in Scotland prior to 1960

Secondary schooling in Scotland.--In Scotland,
students begin their secondary schooling at age twelve.
The beginnings of the students' secondary school life
(essentially an orientation period) are destined to
classify them into certificate pupils (i.e., those who
will study for the Ordinary Grade of the Scottish Certi-
ficate of Education) and non-certificate pupils.132

During the first two years of secondary school,
students are required to take courses in science, en-
compassing physics, chemistry and biology. The last two
years are spent in Specializing students either in science
or in non-science subjects, such as languages, art,
commerce, etc.

The majority of students who decide to Specialize
in science take physics and chemistry as their specializa-
tion field, but a combination of biology and chemistry
is also increasing in popularity among these students.

Students can leave school after their fourth
year, or can pursue further studies (for one or two more
yams) which help them to prepare for colleges, univer-

. . . . . . 133
Sunes or bursary competition examinations.

Traditional chemistry teaching in Scotland.--

Trafitional chemistry teaching in Scotland involved too

 

 

k

57

much factual teaching. Laboratory work was reduced to
the ”verification of facts discovered by others."134 And
during the exams, students were asked to reproduce facts
they had memorized; anything else, such as original
thinking, would have been secondary or completely banned.
Recent DeveloPments in

EhemistryTeaching

The revision of Scottish science syllabuses
started right after the Greystones Conference (organized
by OECD in 1960) was over.

All science subjects were revised, including
physics and chemistry.

Purposes of the revision.--The aim of the re-
vision, which is supposed to be carried out by the
Scottish Science Inspectorate, was four-fold:

First, to rationalize the content so that pupils
would appreciate the principles governing the
subject; second, to bring the content more into
line with 20th century requirements; third, to change
the method of teaching so that pupils would gain a
better idea of what science really is, and to Show
the pupils how scientists work by teaching the
pupils some insight into the immense importance
of chemistry to the wellbeing of mankind.135

The two unifying principles selected to meet the
first purpose were chemical bonding and energetics. The
relationship between these two principles allows the

Student to see chemistry in its totality after he has

CJone throughout the course.

 

 

 

 

"I-u.

‘ I-
""9“

 

 

 

(I)
C,

In: ”J

III)

58

To meet the second and third purposes, old mater-
ials were discarded in favor of new ones, that were more
rationalized so that rote learning of facts was no longer
required. This leads to a completely new approach to

teaching, involving more independent thinking by the

students.

In brief, the whole scheme was designed so that
chemistry teaching, besides its production function
(training prospective scientists), may also contribute

to the general education of all students.

The New Chemistry Syllabus: Goals and Content.--
There are two major goals stated for the New Chemistry
Syllabus, which are the following:

(1) To give pupils an understanding of how and why
chemical reactions take place and how fast and
how far they go.

(2) To give some idea of the vast social importance
of chemistry.136

The following is a broad outline of the New
Scottish Chemistry Syllabus:

Scottish Alternative Chemistry Syllabus (outline)!
girst Year: ‘Age 12413
Section 1: Introduction to Chemical Reactions
" The Particulate Nature of Matter
The Atmosphere
Age 13-16
Water
The Earth
The Sea
Atoms & Molecules
Third Year. Age 14-15
Section 8: Chemical Combination
" 9: The Electrochemical Series
" 10: Acids, Bases and Salts
" 11: Sulfuric Acid
" 12: Nitric Acid

Second Ye
Section
N

O. O. H O. O.

\JO‘U‘IthD’ MN

 

59

Fourth Year: Age 15-16

 

 

Section 1 3: FueTs

" 14: Foods and Related Compounds

" 15: Macro-molecules

" 16: The Halogens
Fifth Year: For University-Bound Students
Section‘17: Chemical Theory

" 18: Further Development of Valence Theory

Periodic Table
" 19: Chemical Reaction
" 20: Carbon Compounds137

Chemical Education in Commonwealth Countries

The Role of the British
Council and CREDOI3U—

 

 

The British Council.-—From the main activity of
teaching English language overseas, the British Council
(created in 1934) has been recently engaged in the domain

of modernizing science teaching in Commonwealth countries.

The Centre for Curriculum Renewal and Educational

Development Overseas (CREDO).--The British Council, along

 

with various foundations and agencies in England, such as

the Nuffield Foundation and the Ministry of Overseas

ImveIOpment financed the establishment (in 1966) and the

functioning of the "Centre for Curriculum Renewal and
Educational Development Overseas (CREDO)."

The role of CREDO was primarily a coordinating

.role in providing help and advice to a large number of
countries having the same developmental background, in

their efforts of updating their educational practices.

 

60

Thus, assistance in curriculum revision--in all fields--
has been sought from the Center by many Commonwealth
countries.

Modern approaches in science teaching in England
have stimulated science teachers overseas to try to
develop themselves new systems of teaching science, which
should not be mere duplicates of English systems but
which have their own characteristics, adapted to the
conditions of their own countries. CREDO was established
in order to provide necessary help for these curriculum
developments. Thus, exchange of scholars has been one
of the many aspects of this assistance program.

Recent Activities of CREDO and
the British Council Concerning

Chemical Education in Common-
wealth Countriés153¥

 

 

 

Africa.--The countries involved were Nigeria,
Ghana, Sierra Leone, Gambia, West Nigeria, Tanzania,
Uganda, Kenya, Zambia, Lesotho, Botswana, Swaziland.

1. West Nigeria: In WEst Nigeria, Nuffield schemes

 

in Science Teaching have been tried in some
secondary schools to sort out elements and
parts of these schemes that seem to suit the
needs of this region. A new science syllabus,
for the first two years of secondary schooling,

may then be introduced in the region, which will

. =5. --_1
.7.5

 

61

not necessarily be an exact duplicate of Nuffield
syllabus, but which will be subject to possible
adaptation or modification to be workable. Thus,
while chemistry seems to require only few ad-
justments, other subjects indicate a stronger
need for adaptation to the local environment
(e.g., biology) or for solving problems related
to apparatus (e.g., physics). The role con—
jointly played by CREDO and the British Council
in these trial courses was that of a coordinator
and a supplier of science materials, e.g., books,
apparatus, film loops. Summer courses for
teachers have been given by British teachers,

in both West and East Nigeria. Some of these
courses, such as the course given in Nsukka,

East Nigeria, in 1966, were at the secondary

school level.

East Africa: Nuffield chemistry enjoys a wide
popularity in this region. Thus, trials of
Nuffield Chemistry were conducted in Tanzanian
secondary schools, under the supervision of the
Institute of Education (Dar-es—Salaam) and with
the assistance of CREDO as a materials supplier.

Uganda and Kenya are also willing to start

.J

 

62

similar trials, through Makerere University
College (Uganda) and the Curriculum Development

Centre (Nairobi, Kenya).

Zambia: The Department of Science Education at
the University of Zambia (Lusaka) is planning
trials of Nuffield Science in six Zambian
schools and one training college. Refresher
courses for teachers have shown encouraging re-
sults, particularly with help from CREDO and

the British Council (visits by Dr. G. Van Praagh
from England, for instance). Further help is
necessary, however, in terms of personnel and
materials, from various organizations, such as

UNICEF.

Lesotho, Botswana and Swaziland: Teachers in the

 

University of Lesotho, Botswana and Swaziland,
have cooperated with Dr. Van Praagh in organizing
summer courses for teachers which were held in
1966 (Chemistry, Physics) and in 1967 (Biology).
The purpose was to enable teachers to start

trials of Nuffield Chemistry (or Nuffield Physics,

Biology) in secondary schools.

West African Examinations Council (WAEC): Teach-

 

ers and university professors in Nigeria, Ghana,

 

 

63

Sierra Leone and Gambia (members of the WAEC),
have been working on developing new chemistry
syllabuses at the Higher School Certificate
Level.

Two teams, one in Ghana and one in Nigeria,
have succeeded in issuing new chemistry sylla-
buses, that were approved by chemistry staff at
the University of London and University of Cam-
bridge Examinations Boards. Courses to get
teachers acquainted with new materials were also
organized in both Ghana and Nigeria. PrOSpects
are bright, provided however, that no political

difficulties arise.

India.--In India, the National Council for Educa-
tion Research and Training (NCERT) is responsible for
curriculum development, including science curriculum
development. Thus, study groups composed of university
and school teachers were established by NCERT for the
purpose of introducing new curricula for high school
science and mathematics. There were five study groups
for chemistry alone.

These study groups have been assisted by British

Subject Specialists, sent by CREDO for a fixed period

of time.

 

 

 

64

There were, in addition, summer institutes for
high school science teachers. These institutes, Spon—
sored by U.S. Aid, the University Grants Committee in
India and NCERT--have given teachers some acquaintance
with CHEMS and CBA which are considered as modern ap-
proaches to high school chemistry in the U.S.A. Similar
British-sponsored summer institutes (via CREDO'S budget
and that of the Ministry of Overseas Development) are
also planned, in order to counteract the American

influence.

Ceylon.--The reasons that explain achievements in
science curriculum reform, including the clarifying of
science teaching objectives and the reappraisal of the
examination system in Ceylon may be summarized as
follows:

1. The impact of both of the Commonwealth Conference
on Science Teaching (Ceylon, 1963) and the

UNESCO Pilot Project for Chemistry Teaching in

Asia (1966-1967).

2. The enthusiasm and active help of both the Deputy
Director for Education responsible for secondary
schools and the Ceylon Ministry of Education.
This help lies in the increasing of the number

of "experienced teachers, inspectors . . . to

 

 

 

 

 

65

work in a curriculum unit on devising and

assessing new examination papers and preparing

teachers' guides."14o

3. A judicious use of foreign aid, consisting of
assistance in summer courses for science
teachers (1966, 1967), exchange of scholars
between Britain and Ceylon and supply of text

and materials for teachers.

Pakistan.--Although aid from various sources
(England, U.S.A., Ford, UNICEF) and under various forms
(science apparatus, equipment centers) has been pro-
vided to Pakistan to update science teaching at school
level, efforts in introducing new science curricula in
Pakistan schools, so far, have been "restricted to a
paper exercise rather than to field trials."141 Further
planning in improving science teaching will include
devising new science curricula (with the help of the
U.S.A. and CREDO) and providing in-service training

courses for teachers.

Malaysia.--The "considerable potential for

142

develOpment of new science teaching methods" which

this country has, could be seen in the selection of one
of its Science Teaching Centre (Penang) as a regional

mfience centre for Southeast Asia, during a Southeast

66

Asia Ministers of Education Conference. Help in the

development of this Center came from CREDO, which has

provided Nuffield texts, film 100ps as reference mater-

ials. Further help will include a wide range of appara-

tus for varied purposes. In-service training courses

which will involve British experts are also expected.
Chemical Education in Japan

Some Back rounds in Japanese

Chemical E ucation

After World War I, the Japanese education system
formerly characterized by astrong centralization, under-
went drastic changes in its organization. Prefectures,
cities and towns elected, and still do, their own boards
of education which control primary and secondary
schools. The Ministry of Education is given only an
advisory role, concerning Specific educational or tech-
nical matters.

However, these educational changes and subsequent
introductions of new, "progressive" curricula into
Japanese schools, later underwent strong criticism from
the public. Charges range from undermining parental

143 These

authority to loosening personal moral bonds.
attacks have benefited the Ministry of Education, which

has been gaining during recent years a stronger voice

 

 

pl

 

67

and is now exercising a greater control over curriculum,

textbooks, and teaching methods.144

Today in Japan, compulsory education encompasses
six years of primary school and three years of junior
high school.

Before World War II, entry into secondary schools
was highly selective: only 25 per cent of the primary
school pupils could be admitted via competitive examina—
tions. After the war, however, the Japanese educational
system was completely restructured after the American
model. This has led to the creation of more secondary
schools for Japanese pupils. In 1955, more high schools
Opened their doors to the junior high schools' population.
The percentage of junior high school pupils that went
into high schools has increased from 50 per cent (pupils)
in 1955 to 80 per cent in 1967.

Unfortunately, this quantitative progress in
Japanese education has not been matched by an improvement
in the quality of the instructional systems, including
the chemistry instructional system. Thus, chemistry
teaching has been plagued by:

(l) the lack of stimulating courses--geared to the

student's needs and interests;

(2) the lack of good chemistry examinations, which
test real understanding and not mere memorization

of facts; and

 

‘1.

\‘

 

2‘

 

 

 

 

 

 

68

(3) the secondary role played by chemistry in univer-
sities' entrance examinations. Entrance exami-
nations at several universities and colleges do

not include chemistry questions.14S

Recent Developments inyChemical
Education in Japan: The Role

of the Chemical Society of Japan146

The Chemical Society of Japan is particularly
interested in the teaching of chemistry in high schools,
since chemistry as such is really taught for the first
time to students only at the beginning of high schools,
and also since the manifestations of students' interest
in chemistry are clearly revealed at this stage.

The Society's activities are varied and multiple.
Thus, in 1952, it established the Committee of Chemical
Education, which has published a journal ever since. In
1962, the Committee conjointly with the Asia Foundation,
organized seminars about the "CBA" approach to chemistry.
Similar seminars--about the "CHEMS" approach to chemistry--
followed in 1965.

Although both approaches (CBA and CHEMS) to chemis-
try appeal to Americans' temperament, the search for a
mfltable way to teach chemistry to Japanese students
smems necessary, due to differences in cultural and educa-

tional backgrounds between the American and Japanese

peOple.

 

 

 

 

 

69

The task of renovating chemistry teaching prac-
tices seems difficult and becomes more urgent than ever
before, due to the intervention of UNESCO in the chemistry
teaching arena, which wanted to create a Pilot Project in
Chemistry Teaching for Asia, including Japan as a member
of the project. This has prompted Japan to first per her
"Chemistry House" in order before undertaking any project
abroad. Thus, the Committee of Chemical Education, with
Dr. Nagai at its head and with subventions from the
Ministry of Education, began to study necessary reforms
in chemistry teaching. Due to the lack of funds, the
study project was reduced to discussions about the se-
quencing of chemistry topics and the tOpics contents.
However, long-range planning also included experimental
aSpectS of chemistry teaching, such as laboratory work and
teacher demonstrations.

After two consecutive years of work, the Com-
mittee proposed the following outline, including sugges-
tions and remarks about chemistry teaching practices, and
a chemistry syllabus. These are the suggestions and
remarks:

1. The inductive approach should be chosen. Pheno-
mena lead to laws, and they do not occur ”because
of a law."147 This point should be stressed

throughout the chemistry courses, lest the students

might be misled.

 

 

 

 

 

70

The use of the inductive approach necessitates

the teaching of facts to students. An inevitable

consequence of factual teaching could be too much

memory work required from the Students. To solve

this problem, ”it is advisable to treat an import-
ant phenomenon, rule, or tOpic as many times as

possible,"148

and to use each time, just the
amount of material needed for the understanding of
this phenomenon or rule. The periodic table pro-

vides a good example.

The most recent advances in chemistry knowledge
should be used, but only when they are important

for the understanding of facts or phenomena.

Organic substances should not necessarily be
located only at the end of the course. They could
be used as illustrations of principles or theories,

wherever they could fit.

The use of mathematics to solve chemical problems
should be taught to students, as mathematics is
becoming an increasingly important tool for the

modern chemist.

Simple concepts Should be taught first, followed

by more complex ones. Also, it is recommended to

 

 

 

 

71

start with common things first. Thus, the teach—
ing of combustion should be taught first, since
it occurs very often in daily life. The syllabus
outline followed this sequence:

Heat and materials

PrOperties of gases

Molecules and atoms

Periodicity of elements

Periodic table and properties of substances
Acids and bases

Oxidation and reduction

Phase equilibria

Solutions

Chemical equilibria

Reaction rates

Structure of atoms

13. Covalent bonds and electronegativity
l4. Ionic and metallic bonds

15. Chemistry of third row elements

16. Structure of organic compounds

17. PrOperties of organic compounds

The following chapters are Optional and can be
presented if time permits:

18. Polymers, natural and synthetic

19. Substance of biological origin

20. Isotopes and radioactive elements
21. Water

22. Procedures in chemical research

23. Chemical calculations149

H
omchsmbuwr—t
O C O O C I O O O I

F‘H
ura
O 0

Implementation of New
Chemistry ProjectslbU

Teacher Retraining.--In Japan, refresher courses
for science teachers were secured in science centers,
which could be found in prefectures. Courses range from
long term courses lasting up to twelve months to short
cmurses lasting only one or even half a day. Other courses,
tmually seminars on new teaching methods, were given on a

weekly basis. Thus seminars on CBA and CHEMS were given

 

 

 

 

 

 

72

on that basis, providing enough time for participants to
study the relationship between practice and theory.
Refresher courses are necessary for science
teachers to update their knowledge. Few people today are
aware of the irony that "the teachers who attend refresher
courses are those who need them least and those who need

retraining do not attend unless forced to do so."151

Problems of science centers in Japan.--In Japan,
science centers, created for the triple purpose of
teacher training and retraining, and science education,
have been built in prefectures, with the money partially
coming from the Ministry of Education. The ideal is to
have one science center for each prefecture.

Each science center occupies an average area of
1800 square meters and has laboratories, a library, work-
shops for preparing and making teaching materials, class-
rooms. An astronomical dome or greenhouses is found in
many centers.

The equipment includes not only apparatus needed
for high school science teaching but also some research
instruments to allow teachers to be more involved in
research aspects of science education.

An average staff of eighteen persons--including
mhunistrative and clerical personnel-~seems to be a good

size to keep the center's atmosphere alive, but not big

 

 

 

73

enough to develop the center at its full potential, as a
center for both research and teaching. Now, most of the
staff members devote only their time to teaching and not
to research.

The shortage of staff members is mainly due to

the lack of funds. More aid from the central government

is needed.

Examinations.--Japan is now moving toward national
standardization of its college entrance examinations.

This could have favorable repercussions on Chemical Educa-

tion.

Chemistry Education in Brazil:
Recent DevelopmentlSZ

 

In Brazil, chemistry is taught for three years in

high schools, after four years of general science educa-

tion.153 Until 1952, the problems that have been plaguing

chemistry teaching in Brazilian schools may be classified

into two categories:

1) Secondary schools were originally intended for an
elite of future physicians, lawyers, and engineers

for colonial Brazil. Such an elite group is not

likely to want to soil its hands and thus shows little
concern for something that requires using them such

as doing experiments. 2) Secondly the number of candi-
dates grew much faster than the universities. The
universities have a limited enrollment and selection
procedures imposed more requirements year after year.
These requirements relate to written examinations which
became totally incompatible with the aims of science
education at the secondary level, not only as an
education for the layman and citizen, but even as

education for the future university student who plans
to major in a science.154

 

 

 

 

74

There exists in addition a not less serious problem-~if

not a major one--which is constituted by the rigidity Of
the educational structure in Brazil. This educational
system is highly centralized and seeks only uniformity

in science programs for all schools of the nation, and
thereby rejects any innovation in science teaching, whether
worthwhile or not. This uniformity has been carried out

too far, up to the point that "different authors wrote

identical texts."155

Thus, from this consideration of loopholes in

science and chemistry prOgramS in Brazilian schools, re-

forms seem unavoidable.

Reforms and Innovations

The reform movement started (1952) with the intro-
duction of experimentation in chemistry teaching. This was
a bold move, as compared to traditional curriculum reforms
which consist of “adding a few extra chapters at the ends
of textbooks"156 or to change the number of hours for
certain topics of the science or chemistry program. As
a result of this radical move, concrete innovations have
taken place. Low-cost chemistry equipment and laboratory
kits began to be produced locally, in cooperation with
local industries, which supplied mostly chemicals. The
mmmess in producing low-cost materials and equipment

"started to Open the eyes of the teachers to the possi-

bility of obtaining a low cost laboratory, locally

 

 

 

 

 

75

available, easy to maintain and replace, and thus available
for use by them for demonstrations, and even usable by
students."157 Before that time, Brazilian teachers used

to believe that a laboratory could only be obtained from

Europe,

. . . costing much money, and including everything
(from acid to a liter of distilled water), as selected
not by the teachers but by the supply house. The
laboratory could not be used as it could not be
replaced (including the distilled water that was sure

to be different from that available from the corner
gas station!)153

The next step in this science reform movement was
the creation of a laboratory supply service, which not
only supplied equipment to schools, but also published and
selected teaching materials for teacher uses. The ambi-
tious aim of this supply service was "to change the orien-

tation of chemical education, through selection of mater-

ials and Supply of guides."159

The AdOpted Chemistry Program

The design and production of low-cost science
facilities has paved the way to the introduction of a
modern chemistry program in school curriculum.

Brazilian professors and scientists, upon return
from the U.S.A. (some of them either visited the directors
of U.S. projects in chemistry or attended summer institutes
hlscience) have decided to adOpt CBA as a new chemistry

Subgram for Brazilian schools. As a consequence, CBA'S

 

o...

u
I...

 

 

 

c. _
\
.ID.
0-,.
.
.,--
n
a. .‘
N .‘
N.“
.
0"...
' .
.
a. .

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

76

textbook and laboratory guide were translated. Chemicals
and laboratory equipment can either be imported or pro-
duced locally (e.g., periodic table wall charts, styro-
foam models), to accompany the teaching of this newly
adOpted program. Not very long after the adoption of

CBA as a modern chemistry course for Brazilian high school
students, science reformers in Brazil realized very soon
that "a Single curriculum is a dangerous situation, leading
to fossilization and Obsolescence, even if good."160 Thus,
other projects in chemistry came also under consideration.
In 1967, Chem Study was published. A biochemistry

project was also completed and gained a wide popularity.

Other science projects are also underway and involve

university professors.

Science Education Centers and
Teacher Training Program

As the new chemistry programs and science instruc-
tional facilities have become available, the need for re-
training teachers for the new programs was felt. Thus,
science education centers were established to fulfill
this need. Today (in 1967), science centers in Brazil not
only provide short-term training (e.g., summer institutes,

in-service institutes), but also long-term training pro-

grams .

.Ia.

 

"a.

 

 

_-—--—- u", ‘w‘

77

Conclusion

 

This review of relevant literature has revealed

thert today, in most countries of the world, there exist

among Science educators an awareness of deficiencies in

their country's chemistry program(s) and a willingness to

remove these deficiencies by proposals for new syllabuses

0r new approaches to chemistry teaching in schools.

From the examination of these new programs, a set

cm’contemporary trends in chemistry teaching emerges as

follows:

1.

The reduction of descriptive chemistry to an

acceptable level.

The emphasis on teaching concepts and principles,
and on relating facts to underlying principles

or theories.

The effort to organize chemistry content around

unifying conceptual schemes.

The emphasis on a heuristic approach, both in

class work and in laboratory experiments.

The concern for bridging the gap between theory
and practice and for correlating lectures and

laboratory work.

0v ..

 

 

u.‘
.u.

 

 

 

 

78

6. The introduction of modern strategies and tech-
niques for evaluating and measuring educational

achievement in chemistry.

7. The inclusion of chemistry in programs of general

education for non-science curricula students.

These trends, which likely will continue for a
long time, constitute a solid basis for any design of

new chemistry programs or courses of studies.

Summary

Major chemistry projects-~e.g., Nuffield Chemistry,
CHEMS and CBA--were reviewed in this chapter. For each
major project, the following were described: (a) the
project's goals and Objectives; (b) the project's instruc—
tional resources, teaching procedures, and learning con-
tent; and (c) the project's successes and failures, or
strengths and weaknesses.

Other projects, which may provide inSpiration to
Vietnamese science educators, were also described; they
include both national projects and international ones
(e.g., those undertaken by UNESCO or OECD).

Common trends in school chemistry education which
emerge from the review of these projects were summarized
at the end of the chapter. These trends were considered
as useful guidelines for the design of chemistry programs

(nrcourses of studies for Vietnamese secondary schools.

FOOTNOTES FOR CHAPTER II

1G. Van Praagh, "Implementing the Nuffield Program
in England" in International Chemical Education: The
High School Years, ed. by O. T. Benfey and S. L. Geffner
TWaShington, D.C.: American Chemical Society, 1968),
p. 57.

2The Nuffield Foundation, Nuffield Chemistry:

Introduction and Guide (London: Longmans & Green Co.,
I966): PP- 1‘7.

 

3G. Van Praagh, pp. cit., p. 57.

4The Nuffield Foundation, 9p, cit., p. 21.

SIbid., p. 22. 61bid. 7Ibid. 81bid.
91bia., p. 23. loIbid.
lllbid. 12Ibia. 13Ibid.

14

The Nuffield Foundation, Nuffield Chemistry: The
Sample Scheme, Stages I and II: TheiBasic Course (London:
Longmans & Green Co., 1966), pp. 147.

 

15Ibid.

16The Nuffield Foundation, Nuffield Chemistry:

The Sample Scheme, Stage III: A Course of Options
(London: Longmans & Green Co., I967)7’p. l.

 

79

80

17These books were published by the Nuffield
Foundation and include--besides the three books cited
above--the following: (a) Nuffield Chemistry: Handbook
for Teachers (Longmans & Green Co., 1967); (b) Nuffield
ChémiStr : Collected Ex eriments (London: Longmans &
Green Co., ; c Nu ie emistry: Book Of
Data (London: Longmans & Green Co., 1968); Td) Nuffield
Chemistry: Laboratory Investigations: Stages IA, IB,
TT'(LOnHOn: Longmans & Green Co., 1966); (E) Nuffield
Chemistry:r_Laboratory Investigations: Stage III
(EOndon: Longmans & Green Co.,—1966).

 

 

 

 

 

18Nuffield Chemistry: Introduction and Guide,

pp. cit., pp. 11-13.

 

 

 

 

19G. Van Praagh, op. cit., pp. 58-59.
zoIbid. 21Ibid. 22Ibid. 23Ibid.
24Ibid., p. 60. 25Ibid.

 

26F. DeHart Hurd, New Directions in Teaching

Secondagy School Science: New Trends in Curriculum and
Ipptruction Series, edl by J. V. Michaélis (Chicago:

Rand McNally Co., 1960), pp. 156, 187. Hurd states that
school trials for PSSC and BSCS began during the 1957-1958
school year for PSSC and during 1960-1961 for BSCS

(pp, p£p., pp. 187, 156).

27"The Reed College Conference on the Teaching of
Chemistry," Journal of Chemical Education, XXXV (February,
1958), 54-55.

28"The Reed College Conference on the Teaching of
Chemistry," pp, cit., p. 54; P. DeHart Hurd, pp, cit.,
pp. 181-82.

29CBA Project, Chemical Systems (New York: Webster

Division, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964), p. v.

 

3o"The Reed College Conference on the Teaching of
Chemistry," pp, cit., p. 54.

31CBA Project, pp, cit.

 

81

 

32CBA Newsletter, II (April, 1963), pp. 5-6.
33Ibid. 34Ibid. 351bid. 36Ibid.
37

CBA Project, pp. cit.

38CBA Project, Investigating Chemical Systems
Mew York: Webster DiviSiOn, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1963).
Hus vook is the laboratory manual for the CBA course.

39Ibid., pp. 2-3. 4°Ibid.
41Ibid. 42Ibid.
43

CBA Project, Chemical Systems and Investigating
Chemical Systems, pp, Cit.

 

44CBA Project, Chemical Systems: Teacher's Guide
(New York: Webster Division, McGraw-Hill BoOk Co.,
1964).

45 46

Hurd, pp, cit., p. 185. Ibid.

47CBA Project, Investigating Chemical Systems:
Teacher's Guide (New York: Webster Division, McGraw-Hill
Book Co., 19637,

 

48Hurd, pp, cit., pp. 185-86.

49F. J. Fornoff, "A Survey of the Teaching of
Chemistry in Secondary Schools," School and Society,
XCVIII (April, 1970), 242-43.

50CBA Newsletter, I (February, 1962); Current
Topics, V (March, 1966i, pp. 7-8.

 

 

51R. J. Merrill and D. W. Ridgway, The CHEM
Study Story (San Francisco: Freeman and Co., 1969),
pp. 1-74.

52

Merrill and Ridgway, pp, cit., pp. 1-2.

n
.y...

 

 

82

53CHEMS, Chemistry, An Experimental Science (San
Francisco: Freeman and Co., 1963).

S4CHEMS, Teacher's Guide to the CHEM Study
Chemistry Films (New York: MOdern Learning Aids, 1964),
fareword.

 

55CHEMS, Laboratory Manual for Chemistry, An
Experimental Science (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and
Campany, 1963); Teacher's Guide for Chemistry, An Experi-
mental Science (sen Francisco: W. H.’Freeman and
Company, 1963f; Open-Book Achievement Examinations (Series
1964- -65) (San Francisco: W. H¥.:Freeman and Company);
A Programmed Sequence on the onential Notation (San
Francisco: W. H. Freeman an ampany,I962T; A Programmed
Sequence on the Slide Rule (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman
and Company, 1962); Film Transcripts: CHEM Study
Chemistry Films (New York: Modern Learning Aids, 1964);
TeaCher S Guide to the CHEM Study Chemistry Films (New
York: Modern Learning Aids, 1964).

 

 

 

 

 

56Chemistry, An Experimental Science, pp, cit.,

57Fornoff, op. cit., pp. 242-43.

SBCHEMS _News1etter, IV (May, 1964), 3; CHEMS

Newsletter, VIII (June, 1969), 4; Merrill and W3 way,
pp_. cit., pp. 52- 54.

 

59E. F. Pierce, Modern High School Chemistr : A

Recommended Course Of Stfidy: Science Man-Power PrOJect
MonographsCTNew Yofk: Teachers College,_Cqumbia
University, 1959), p. v.

 

60F. L. Fitzpatrick, Policies for Science Educa-

tion (New York: Teachers COIlege, Columbia University,
), p. vii.

 

61Pierce, pp, cit., p. v.

621bid., p. 4. 631bid.

 

64Ibid., p. 15.

 

83

651bid., pp. 7-101, 26-27, 52-53, 102-105.

66Ibid., p. 106.

67"Reference Books for Advanced Placement Chemistry
Courses," Journal of Chemical Education, XXXIV (March,
1957), 107.

68Uri Haber-Schaim, "Objectives and Content of the
Course," Introductory Physical Science: Physical
Science II: A Progress Report (Massachusetts: IPS
Group, Education DeveIOpment Center, n. d. ), p. 3.

 

69Hurd, pp, cit., p. 147.

7oHaber-Schaim, pp, cit., pp. 3-4.

71IPS Group, Educational Services, Inc., Intro-
ductory Physical Science (Englewood Cliffs, N. J.:
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1967), pp. ix-xi.

 

 

72Haber-Schaim, pp, cit., p. 3 (adapted).
73Ibid., p. 3. 74Ibid.
75

IPS Group, Education Development Center, Inc.,
Introductory Physical Science:t_Teacher's Guide (Englewood
CIiffs, N.J.: Prentice-Kali, Inc., 1967).

76Introductpgy Physical Science, pp, cit., p. v.

77Ibid.

 

78Hurd, pp, cit., p. 148.

791ntroductory Physical Science: Teacher's Guide,
02. Cit. I pp. Vi-Vii.

80Hurd, pp, cit., p. 151.

 

84

81Interaction Science Curriculum Project, Inter-
action of Matter and Energy: Teacher's Edition (Chicago:
Rand McNally and Co., 1969), P. 1x.

82Ibid., pp. viii, xi.

83 84

Ibid. Ibid.

85Interaction Science Curriculum, Interaction of
Matter and Energy (Chicago: Rand McNally and Co.,
I968).

 

86Interaction of Matter and Energy: Teacher's
Edition, pp, cit.

87Ibid., p. xii.

88OECD, New Thinking in School Chemistry: Report

of the Organization for European Economic Co-Operation
Seminar on the Status and Development of’the Teaching
of School Chemistry (Greystones, Ireland, 1960; Paris:
OECD,1961)

BQEEEQI . goiéigs
gliéifl- QZEEEE:
9322293! p. 5. 94£p£p., p. 4.
95£p13., p. 5. 96l§$§3

97ACS, International Chemical Education: The

High School Years: Proceedings of a Conference (Washing-
ton, D.C., 1967} Washington, D.C.: ACS, 1968), pp. 73-
87.

98OECD, School Chemistry; Trends in Reform;

Selected Topics: Report of an OECD Working SeSSion on
the Teaching of School Chemistry, London, July,l
(Faris: OECD,1963)

99OECD, Chemistry Today, A Guide for Teachers:
Selected quics for a Modern Approach to the Teaching
of School Chemistry (Paris: OECD, 1963).

 

f u . 1 Q \
.. .. . .. .. r14 W:— a . «lo
a v \ ‘4

Au v \ a, K .- 4. b \ 5 — V .v
5 .8 n u v S i . I .. 1 9

A. ‘1.- nn .. a. .. .4

 

 

 

 

 

85
\
l 100 . .
OECD, School Chemistry, pp, c1t., pp. 7, 5.
1°11bid. lozlbid. 103Ibid.
104

UNESCO, New Trends in Chemistry Teaching: Vol.
L (Paris: UNESCO, 1967).

 

105E. Cartnell, "New Trends in Chemistry Teaching,"
in International Chemical Education: The High School
Years, ea.‘5y O. T. Benfey and S. L. Geffner (Washing-
ton, D.C.: ACS, 1968), p. 29.

 

106Ibid., p. 29.

 

107UNESCO, New Trends in Chemistry Teaching:
Vol. I, Op. cit.

 

108UNESCO, New Trends in Chemistry Teaching:
Vol. II (Paris: UNESCO, 1969).

 

109 110

Ibid. Ibid.

 

 

 

 

V// 111UNESCO, New Trends in Inte rated Science
Teaching: Vol. I Paris: UNESCO, 1371).

112UNESCO, Bulletin Of the UNESCO Regional Office
for Education in ASia: Science Education in the Asian

Region, IV (September, 1969), 122.

 

 

 

113Ibid. 114Ibid.
1151bid., pp. 123, 124.
llGIbid. 117Ibid.

 

 

118E. C. Watton, "UNESCO Pilot Project for Chem-
:istry Teaching in Asia," in International Chemical
Education: The High School Yegp, ed. by O. T. Benfey
and S. L. Geffner (Washington, D.C.: ACS, 1968),

pp. 32—33.

 

119Ibid. lzoIbid.

 

 

 

86

 

 

 

 

121UNESCO, Bulletin, pp, 533.. PP- 95‘98°
122Ibid. 1231bid. 124Ibid.
125;p;g,, p. 97.

126ppigf, p. 99. 127Ibid.

 

128Today, there are five regional Science Centers
scattered around the country; Michigan State University
has played an active role in the establishment of these
centers.

 

 

129UNEsco, Bulletin, pp, cit., pp. 100-101.
13°Ibia. lalIbid.
132

A. J. Mee, "Recent Developments in Chemical
Education in Scotland," in International Chemical
Education: The High School Years, ed. by O. T. Benfey
and S. L. Geffner (Washington, D.C.: ACS, 1968), p. 73;
UNESCO, World Survey of Education, Vol. V: Educational
Poligy, LegiSlation and Administrationbliaris: UNESCO,
I971), pp. 1187-96.

 

 

 

 

 

 

133Mee, International Chemical Education, pp, cit.,
p. 73.
134Ibia., p. 74. 135Ibid.
1361bid., p. 112 (Appendix II).
137 . .
Ibid., pp. 112-16 (Appendix II).
138

D. G. Chisman, "Chemical Education Activities
in DeveIOping Countries: British Council and CREDO,"
in International Chemical Education: The High School
Years, ed. by O. T. Benfey andCS. L. Geffner (WaShing-
ton, D.C.: ACS, 1968), pp. 19-24.

 

 

139Ibid.

 

 

87

14OChisman, pp, cit., pp. 22.
141Ibid. 1421bia.
143

UNESCO, Worlp Survey of Education, Vol. V,
o . cit., pp. 667-80; Encyclopedia Britannica, Vol. 12

 

 

C icago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., I963), p. 948.

144Michinori Oki, "Chemical Education in Japan,"
in International Chemical Education: The High School
Years, ed. by O. T. Benfey and S. L. Geffner (WaShing-
ton, D.C.: ACS, 1968), p. 67.

1451bid. 1451bid., pp. 67-71.
147Ibia., pp. 70, 70-71.

1481bid. 149Ibid.

150 151

Ibid., pp. 71-72. Ibid., p. 71.

152Isaias Raw, "Recent Developments in Chemical
Education in Brazil," in International Chemical Educa-
tion: The High School Years, ed. by 0. Ti Benfey and
S. L. Geffner (WaShington, D.C.: ACS, 1968), pp. 45-49.

1531bid., p. 45. 154Ibid. 1551bid.
1561bid., p. 46. 157Ibid. lserid.
1”Ibid. 16°Ibid., p. 47.

 

 

$4327

 

CHAPTER III

OBJECTIVES FOR SCIENCE AND CHEMISTRY

EDUCATION IN VIETNAM

 

Objectives play an important role in curriculum
development.1 Without them all else seems to be devoid of
meaning2--methods, instructional media, and evaluation
procedures. The major functions of educational Objectives
may be summarized as follows:

1. Clarify the role of the school.

2. Guide decision making.

3. Determine the selection Of units of school
learning experience.

4. Set the parameters for the school experiences
of pupils.

5. Serve as a guide for the development of pupil
motives.

6. Provide the basis for evaluating the curriculum
of the school.

7. Enable the staff and the board of education
to improve the curriculum.

This chapter is an attempt to delineate viable
objectives for science and chemistry education in Viet-
namese secondary schools from an analysis of the society

and its culture and in consideration of contributions of

88

 

 

 

 

 

 

89

psychology to human learning, the student's characteristics
and the nature of the subject area, according to Tyler's
scheme.4

Desirable learning experiences are also suggested

as necessary companions for these objectives.

The Vietnamese Sociegy: Its Problems and Needs

This section analyzes present socio-economic needs
of the country. It also points out major socio-economic
factors that may hinder economic and social progresses in
Vietnam. These considerations, together with a glimpse
of economic potentialities of the country, give meaning
and validity to the selection of objectives and learning
experiences for science and chemistry education in Vietnam.
Economic and Manppwer Develpp-

ments in Vietnam: PrOSpects
and Retrospects

 

Vietnam is not a poor country,5

despite opposite
claims6 which may impart to the Vietnamese youth an un-
necessary feeling of inferiority for their nation's
wealth. An Obvious reason for imperialistic ambitions
toward Vietnam, e.g. China and Mongolia in the past7 and
France in modern times,8--1argely resides in the country's
abundance of natural resources, which have been only

partially exploited. No other words could better describe,

the wealth of Vietnam's soil than the following ones:

 

90

Le Viet-Nam etait, est et restera toujours riche
de possibilites et de potentialites. En effet, si
1' on mesure la richesse d'un pays a la diversite de
ses ressources naturelles et 1' abondance des moyens
de 1es mettre en oeuvre, on peut dire que le Viet-Nam
posséde un sol génereux, un sous- -sol bien pourvu et
une reserve de main d' oeuvre quasi- inépuisable. Les
rizieres fécondes des deltas echelonnés le long de ses
c6tes au Centre, étalés en éventail au Nord et au Sud,
que d'aucuns estiment plus fertiles que 1es plaines
limoneuses bordant le Nil en Egypte; 1es terres rouges
latéritiques de l'Est du Sud Viet-Nam, comparables au
loess jaune de la vallée chinoise du Hoang-Ho; 1es
terres grises basaltiques et humiféres ou sablonneuses
des hauts plateaux montagnards du Nord et du Sud,
constituent 1es sols d'une rare exception, convenant
parfaitement, 1es premieres aux cultures du paddy, 1es
secondes aux plantations d' hevéas, 1es troisiemes a
1' acclimatation du the noir, 1es unes et les autres
nourrissent admirablement 1es cultures vivriéres de
toutes sortes. Aussi bien 1e Viet-Nam a-t-il été
classé comme 3e pays exportateur de riz en Extréme-
Orient (aprés la Thailande et la Birmanie), 1e 3e
pays producteur de caoutchouc du Sud- Est Asiatique
(apres la Malaisie et 1' Indonesie) et se pays export-
ateur de thé du continent jaune (apres Ceylan,
Formose, 1a Chine et le Japon).

Economically Speaking, however, Vietnam is a poor
country, partially characterized by a low per capita
income of its citizens.10 The causes of this poverty are
multiple, but they reside mainly in: small size of
industry (insufficient develOpment of light industry and
almost non-existence of heavy industryll), lack of
rational development planning, inadequate exploitation of

12 13

natural resources and devastation of lands and forests

by an unending war.
In order to eradicate the nation's poverty, pro-
grams of economic development and manpower development

have been introduced Since 1957, under the first Republic.l4

91

Industrial Development in Viet Nam and Economic

Potentialities.--Programs of industrializing the country

were parts of the two quinquennal plans15

66). Modest results16 were recorded during the First

(1957-61, 1962-

Five-Year Plan (1957-61). Thus, since 1957, various manu-

17 have been created with the technical and

facturing plants
financial assistance18 provided by the Industrial Develop-
ment Center (1957) and the Handicraft Development Center
(1958). These manufacturing industries have provided
the Vietnamese consumer with basic domestic items,19 such
as:

textile

sugar

cement

paper

rubber and plastics

chemicals and pharmaceutics
processed foods

Recent efforts in industrializing the country have been
directed towards the construction of gigantic industrial
centers, such as the Bien-Hoa industrial complex20 which
will lead the way to another promising industrial center--
under construction-~located in Cam Ranh Bay.21
To feed these growing industries, Vietnam does not
lack energy sources. The Da-Nhim hydro-electric system,22
if fully operating, can provide enough power for an im-
portant section of South Vietnamese industry. The Mekong
24

River Project23 as well as the oil prospecting schemes,

if’successful, can bring to the whole Vietnamese people a

 

 

4"",

92

comfortable life that they have never dreamed of before.
This bright perspective however, largely depands on a sound
development policy, which would take into account the
benefits of the majority of the Vietnamese people.

In what follows, a panoramic view of the major

industrial and agricultural potentialities--revealed

through statistical figure325--of the country is offered.

A close look at these figures and tables will
reveal the following fact: war has been a serious impedi-

ment factor to the production of most agricultural and

industrial products.

Post-War Development Project (PWDP).--The Group in
charge of this Project was given the task of "not to
prepare detailed operational plans, but to examine the
problems and Opportunities likely to confront Vietnam
when the war ends, and to suggest policies and strategies

for development on which operational plans could be con-

structed . ."26

The objectives of the Project are:

. . . to increase per capita income and consumption,
while ensuring that the rewards of increasing pro-
duction shall not be devoted entirely to consumption;
and that a substantial prOportion of them will be saved
and invested in economic growth; to maintain a high
rate of employment and relative price stability; to
reduce by taxation and expenditure policies, the dis-
parity in standards of living and wealth between
regions and social classes; to improve rural standards
of living by a variety of prOgrams, principally, how-
ever, by increasing productivity; to provide adequately
for social services, especially education; and to end 27
the country's dependence on concessionary foreign aid.

Cotton yarns (metric tons)

Jute yarns (metrl

93

Table 1.-- Industrial Production .

 

Cotton fabrics (1) (metres '000)

Rayon labrics (metres '000)
ylon labrics (metres ’000)
ute bags (units)

Relined sugar (metric tons)

Brown sugar (metric tons)

l’icur (hectoiitres;

Solt drinks (heclolitres)

Tobacco (metric tons)

Paper (metric tons)

Glass (metric tons)

Cement (metric tons)

Electricity (2) (kwn '000)

1870 1888
JanoJune Jan-June
5.724 3.540
c tons) 787 847
27.787 22.444
na 16.473
na 3.520
251.000 102.000
46.134 53.710
na 2.695
733.640 732.700
723.280 660.930
4.747 4.660
19.267 14.207
9.688 8.534
129.192 113.683
395.320 403.200

(H 3‘9 Mills only

Product
Maize
Sweet potatoes
Manloc
Pineapple
Sugar Cane
Jute
Cotton
Kenal
Peanuts
Coconuts
Tea

Collee
Tobacco

(not including rice

U58 million

Mills
Wheat flour

(2) Saigon only

16.465
24 7.185
835.074

144.708
591.276

Table 2.-- Agricultural production

I. Cultivated areas

(hectares)

1884 1885 1888 1887
46.000 43.820 35.390 32.815
301.000 277.930 246.150 253.420
288.600 236.000 281.300 261.700
57.000 48.000 38.800 37.000
1.055.000 1.092.000 935.000 770.000
890 865 790 770
25 28 40 40
740 2.800 615 160
36.500 32.600 34,400 33.700
140.900 14 7.300 129.500 130.600
5.380 5.905 5.210 4.500
3.4.“0 3.530 3.070 2.500
7.2/5 7.575 6.900 7.890

1984

au
5".“
00

U

51a)

1887

7.401
2.283
43.099
36.182
7,988
1.000.000
90.266
16.651
1.292.630
895.000
10.746
20.806
17.000
180.760
572.241

1985
36.2

no
5"
N

U

.03

1888 1888
31.760 30.915
234.685 225.560
260.190 233.485

1'1... n.a.

426.070 521.445
525 250
40 40
200 80
32.055 34.410
110.705 99.545
4,170 4.900
3.000 3.550
7.620 7.790

Table 3.-- Imports by Commodity .

1

Sugar andpreparations

Leal topacco
Cement

Petroleum and products

Chemicals
Pharmaceuticals
Fertiliser!

Pigments and dyestulfs

Plastic raw materials
Tyres and tubes
Pulp. paper and prod
Textile raw materials
Yarn and thread
Textile labrlcs

ucts

iron and steelmlll products

Non-ferrous metals
Metal manufactures

Textile machinery and parts
Other machinery and parts

Electrical equipment
Tractors

Motorcycles. scooters. cycles and parts

Passenger cars
Trucks and buses

Other road vehicles and parts

Others
Total

Source : Far Eastern

H

M
:0 11900 b Duh-UUONFOI-OOle—I-Obb

a-e
DU
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1 878
(Jam-Maren)

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1888
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9;.
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01

Economic Review 1971 Yearbook

&
PT‘PFE’Ppgi-W'P
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1888 1888
12.220 12.425
1.199 1.347
50.126 52.705
37.700 37.000
7.200 8.048
884.000 2.146.000
75.312 64.375
24.427 36.900
1.150.000 1.120.000
805.000 694.000
7.534 7.636
18.887 17.15l
16.000 15.920
134.650 189.284
509.304 493.867
il. Crops
(M. Tons)
1888 1887 1888 1869
29.2 29 0 28.7 28.5
39.5 37.6 34.5 34.8
38.9 36.5 35.1 32.1
5.5 5.7 5.6 5.2
30.0 25.8 15.2 11.7
0.7 0.8 0.6 0.3
0.1 0.1 0.1 . 0.1
0.7 0.1 0.2 0.1
30.6 30.2 29.6 31.3
39.1 38.1 29.9 32.9
8.2 7.5 7.7 8.3
10.2 9.5 10.0 9.5
7.1 8.5 8.1 8 3
1888 1888 1884
25.9 18.5 17.3
9.5 8. 7.6
9.6 6.8 10.3
9.9 7.5 4.1
7.8 10.1 9.6
30.2 22.7 18.4
19.9 13.9 13.3
14.5 13.0 10.9
3.6 11.0 11.3
4.7 2.5 2.6
7.4 5.1 4.6
6.2 7.1 5.3
12.4 8.0 8.6
10.5 13.3 11.8
30.5 26.9 21.5
19.6 6.3 6.6
49.6 45.4 22.6
8.3 7.4 5.8
14.6 10.6 8.0
2.9 2.9 2.0
53.0 31.0 26.2
24.5 13.9 12.1
1.5 0.2 0.3
22.5 3.3 3.5
3.8 1.8 1.4
17.7 7.2 3.1
6.6 4.4 6.0
58.4 37.7 32.9
495.6 357.3 297.7
'\
31 c -1 ’1 .

94

Table 1.1..-- Imports
(not including rice)

U58 million
1 870 1888 1888 1968 1 967 l 966 l 868 I864
(Jan-March) (Jan-March)
US 62.5 53,7 258.3 136.1 174.2 200.3 161.9 126.3
Taiwan 7.8 13.2 52.5 45.8 80.5 71.2 47.1 38.3
Japan 40.4 69.6 168.5 139.5 148.7 71.9 32.9 32.1
France 12.7 11.2 33.9 20.3 17.8 16.0 12.0 18.2
1ndonesia 0.9 0.7 2.4 - 0.3 1.9 2.5 13.2
italy 2.5 6.8 23.6 14.9 23.1 17.5 7.2 8.5
West Germany 4-2 3.7 18.3 11.6 15.4 14.4 8.1 8.4
South Korea 0.9 1.9 11.8 4.6 5.3 14.2 18.2 7.0
lndla 0-5 0.4 1.7 1.5 7.3 7.6 8.0 6.4
UK 2.7 1.6 10.0 5.3 7.1 9.8 6.0 4.9
Others 23.8 30.7 86.8 86.5 58.3 69.4 63.4 34.5
Total 158.9 203.5 667.8 466.1 538.0 494.2 357.3 297.8
Source: South Vietnam Customs
Tan]. 0 S.-- Exports
055 m I It ion
1970 1969 1969 1968 1967 1966 1865 1964 1963 1962 1981
Market: Jan-1.1;:rch J.:n-t‘. 1:...1
traffic: 1.3 1.9 5.7, ‘v.'J 17.0 10.0 11.9 15”;
Ua< 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.5 2.3 4.5 4.4 ‘...1
Japan 0.6 0.4 2.0 2.2. 2.8 3.6 3.9 4.3
West Germany 0.4 0.3 0.9 1.0 2.4 3.0 5.0 0.4
.tsiaysia and Singapore 0.3 -‘ 0.1 6.3 0.4 0.3 2.4 2.3
“day 0.1 "' 0.1 0.3 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.»
US — " 0.1 0.3 U.-i 1 1 1.4 2.0
Otncrs 1.1 0.0 2.5 0.7 1.1 2.5 41.1 9..)
10:31 3.9 3.4 11.9 11.7 10.4 27.0 35.4 41; 1
Commoc? :13:
Rubber 2.3 2-7 9.4 9 I 13.2 21.0 26.0 33 2 33.7 37.9 43.6
Fur-a - -- - ~ -- —- 5.4 33.5 .30 14.9
Tr) - - 0.1 O. 6.9 2.1 2.1 1.9 19 1.: 1.5
(Mn-.2 3 1.6 0.7 2.4 1..) 2.3 3.4 7.4 I." 5.0 7.10.?
Total 3.9 3.4 110 11.7 10.4 27.9 35.5 40.5 70.7 25.5 10.9

SUUfu‘e: Sou‘m ‘li;'.-1;.11C11'1101n$

Table 6.-- Social statistics

3331:1101. (1869) . .............. . . . . .17.867.000
Deathnte (per thousand. 1965) ................ 27.7
00cm rate (per thousand. 1965) ............. . . . .6.4
"mam? (1966) . . . . ...................... 442
H050“ "“8 per doctor (1966) .......... . . . . . 37.430
510 «has boos (1966) ................... .. 27.813
p l s enrolled (1967):
' "01:1: . . . . ..................... 2.077.808
a . . . ....... . .......... . . .513.41o
T,”‘9"¢'-'y........ .......... .......33.983
“grins staft (1967):
'"gra‘gy . . . . . . ......... . .......... 34.993
ary . . . ...... . ............. . 14.01
0.,3‘990'...... ...... ....... 924
c.,cm"°_moapers (1968) ..................... 39
300k atlon (1968) ..................... 1.214.000
Cinemp'oduction (1968) . ..... . ............. 398
cun.m““19651 ........... .........108
11.0.0: ”Eats (1965) . . ................... 78.200
mmfcewors (1968) .................. 1.506.000
0" 'OCOlvers (1967) ............... .1.3oo.ooo

301%. : Far Eastern Economic Review 1971 Yearbook ,
ppe 30793‘3 0

 

95

A period of ten years--approximately three years

for the "reconstruction" phase and seven years for the

xiext phase, called the "develOpment" phase-~15 necessary

tn: achieve these objectives. Other requirements for the

success of this PWDP are stated as follows:

28

The achievement of such objectives will depend

in any case upon three major economic factors.

The first is the ability of the economy to mobilize
domestic and foreign capital to finance the plan
of reconstruction; and the second is the extent to
which inflationary pressures can be modulated so
that large public expenditures on reconstruction
projects will not accentuate them; and the third

is the expansion of exports.

Quantitative predictions are made: "Within the

fr:].l ten-year period of reconstruction and development

the systematic exploitation of the nation's economic

potential may increase per capita income by one-third and

the: gross national product by about half."

29

The prospects of this PWDP--according to the

Development Group-—are bright. The reasons for such an

oPtimism are expressed as follows:

1.

2.

Vietnam has not been destroyed by the
war.

Vietnam has practically no foreign
debt.30

The MeKong Delta Manpower Development Plan.~-

Generalities: The MeKong River Delta-—roughly

 

equivalent to former Cochinchina——extends from
the Camau Peninsula to an area thirty miles north

of Saigon. The MeKong River, which serves this

J.::

 

 

96

region, is a powerful river (5000 Km long),31

rich in economic promises: it brings in the soil
of this region fertile alluvial elements. The
Delta region constitutes in itself about 70 per
cent of South Vietnam's population and more than
one-fourth of South Vietnam land's area.32 Yet,
despite its importance, this region has never had
any adequate plans for development to its fullest
potential. The result is that great differences
exist between the farmer's life in this region and
that of a worker in a modern city like Saigon.
Many of the changes that have been introduced in
recent years were aimed at reducing these urban-
rural differences. New, cheap medical facilities
have been developed in the countryside and basic
medical services are Spread more widely. Making
the academic content of education more practical
has enabled elementary schooling--creation of
elementary community schools-~to reach areas where
there was none before. Large numbers of educated

33 to work with

youth have gone to the countryside
the peasants and to come to grips with their prob—
lems: problems of health, welfare and education,
and production. Despite all these efforts, much

remains to be done so that the peasant can share

the same advantages as the worker.

 

97

The Role of Education in the MeKong Delta: In

 

this total scheme of a betterment of the peasant's

life in the MeKong Delta, what is then the essen-

tial role of education in this region? In order

to win the people, to gain support from parents and

"than-hao nhan-si", education in the MeKong Delta

should:

a. Provide necessary manpower for the task of
rebuilding the nation's economy, morale and
culture.

b. Contribute to the expansion of knowledge, both
basic and applied.

c. Prepare farmers for leadership roles.

To achieve these basic objectives, schools,
universities and colleges in this region should
provide the youth with practical courses enabling
them to contribute effectively to their country's
economic growth and also to cope with problems
posed by a post-war period, such as unemployment,
rehabilitation of soldiers to civilian life, crop
defoliation, etc. What the MeKong Delta needs is
not a large number of highly academics, jealous
of preserving their privileges and quarreling
for more privileges, but a large number of enthus-
iastic technicians, engineers and researchers (in

a broader sense of the term), having enough

98

education and knowledge to introduce the basic
skills and knowledge of modern industry and agri-
culture to the rest of their country.

It is certainly along these same lines that
recent manpower development in this region has
been organized. Only the formal education aspect

of this development planning is discussed here.

Educational Development in the MeKongDelta:34

 

The main goal of educational development in
this area was to make education relevant to the
needs and aspirations of the surrounding community

or--in other words--to promote community schooling.

This was an attempt to counteract the elitist35

and perennialist36 concepts of today's Vietnamese
educational system.

An exhaustive list of more specific objectives
of educational develOpment in this region is
provided as follows:

SIGNIFICANT SHORT-RANGE AND LONG-RANGE

EDUCATION GOALS IN THE MEKONG DELTA
Introduce a continuous 12 year curriculum with
gradual elimination of a system of useless and
expensive examinations currently required for
passing on to higher levels in the elementary
and secondary school systems.
Encourage decentralization of present education
system by establishing "Education Sectors" in
which all education institutions and programs
in a given Sector will be administered and super-
vised by one education official.

4

1(3.

99

Decentralize Student Parent Associations (SPA)

by promoting Province autonomy, placing the SPAs
under the Province Chief, rather than under the
direct authority of the Ministry of Interior

and Ministry of Education.

Provision of free and compulsory elementary educa-
tion for all children, with plans to enroll all
first grade applicants in the 1970-71 school year,
and all second grade applicants in the 1971-72
school year. Enroll 85 percent of elementary
school age children (ages 6-11) in an elementarv
school. Currently, 83 percent are enrolled.
Annual construction of 436 additional elementary
school classrooms in MR4 is required to accommodate
annual increase in elementary school age youth.
Convert all primary schools into "Community
Schools" where the school will serve as a focal
center for education in the community, with a
maximum of parent participation through the
organization at the local level of Student-Parent
Associations.

Increase enrollment in existing normal school

and promote further development of the four
additional pedagogical centers at My Tho, Long
Xuyen, Can Tho, and Soc Trang to increase

number of teacher candidates, and improve pre-
service teacher training to eventually eliminate
the province accelerated three-month hamlet school
teacher training program.

Expand inservice teacher training during school
vacation to upgrade the "90 day wonder" hamlet
school teachers trained in three-month province
hamlet school teacher training courses and other
sub-standard teachers. Eliminate the "90 day
wonder" province accelerated teacher training
courses: in favor of recruiting 9th grade
graduates, who have higher qualifications.

Enroll 62.5 percent of the fifth grade graduates
taking the admission test for public high school
in the 6th grade at the beginning of FY 1971—72.
Establish a total of 35 comprehensive high schools
in which a multitrack curriculum will be intro-
duced. This will involve many inservice teacher
training seminars and workshops at the University
of Can Tho.

Organize an accelerated high school teacher
training program at the University of Can-Tho to
provide additional first cycle teachers. Organize
an accelerated practical arts high school teacher

 

 

 

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.
19.

100

training program at the University of Can Tho to
train Home Economics, Business Education Counsel-
ing and Guidance, and Industrial Arts teachers

for staffing the comprehensive High Schools in the
MeKong Delta.

Conduct high school inservice teacher training
workshops and seminars at the University of Can
Tho in the various subject matter fields to up-
grade the high school instruction program.

Enroll 35 percent of high school age youth (ages
12-18) in high school in CY 1972. Currently, only
25 percent of high school age youth are enrolled
in high school in the MeKong Delta. An additional
133 high school classrooms must be constructed
annually to accommodate the annual increase in
high school age youth.

Complete construction on three of the eight Junior
Technical High Schools currently operating in the
MeKong Delta.

Place increased emphasis on vocational technical
and agriculture education to provide needed skills
for nation building. Enroll at least 2,000 addi—
tional vocational students within two years.

Open 44 adult and literacy education classes in
primary schools for the eradication of literacy.
Where possible, conduct evening high school classes
for adults and Civil Servants to further their
education.

At the University of Can Tho, complete construction
of buildings on Cai Rang temporary campus and Cai
Khe permanent campus, as GVN budget will allow.
Increase University student enrollment as rapidly
as staff and facilities will permit.

Make the University of Can Tho an important educa-
tion service center and provide inservice training
center facilities for community and regional
meetings of interested groups, and any other
services that will promote a richer and better life
for the Vietnamese people.37

Tremendous gains in educational development '
in the MeKong Delta have been recorded following
the period 1964-71, as will be shown in the

following table.

 

 

101

 

.mmma wu nocmmo one coo mo wuflmum>ficsa

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A.vmmmmumooEazv
.Aahma .umsms< new aumsunmhv vmz on» CH usuamoao>oo Hucowvmoscm .Emcumfl> "wouaom
oaw mao.m mmm.m vnm aucmfiaaoumm
one now no muflmum>flcs .m
0mm ovv.H mmm.H med ucwEHHbmmm
Hoosom mmwm musuHsofiumc .0
0mm sma.a mms.~ mam ucmsHHouam
Hoonom swam Hmoflcnome .6
com ~m~.H oam.a mmm ucmEHHoucm Hoosom Hasnoz .o
mma mmm.nm www.mma mmm.an ucmsaaoucm unmosum
moa mmo.H muo.~ ooo.a mEooummmHu
up nmm.~ mmv.e mmm.a mumnomms
has mmH mam mmfl maoonom coax
maoosomxwmoocoomm “Masada .n
om mma.hm¢ Hmn.hvm mom.om¢ ucmEHHoncm Hanna
moa no~.m nb~.ma ono.m mommmao
em «mm.v mow.oa num.m mEooummmHo
mma oem.oa mam.ma mnm.n mumsomma
as mam ovm.~ H¢>.H mHoonom mumEaum a samucoEmHm .m
ommmuocH mmmouocH Huma Mm. coma um
unmoumm mo Ga Ga muflafiomm coaumosvm
nonEdz Honesz umnfisz

 

.Hpoa.vo¢3 mufioo ocoxmz mag as

Ill

ucmEgo~o>mQ Hmcowumosomau.n manna

 

 

W

102

Plans are now underway to:

a) convert current public schools, technical and

b)

C)

agricultural schools into locally supported
"community high schools";

expand further higher education by constructing
new normal schools and by establishing more
Junior Community Colleges;

create a secondary education service in each
province.

Major Social and Demographic
Obstacles to Economic
Development

These plans and schemes however, could never be

adequately implemented without removing social obstacles

that stand against them, directly or indirectly. A

brief identification of major social obstacles would help

in devising means to eradicate them, especially educa—

‘tional means--which constitute our focus.

These major obstacles may be found in:

Social values, beliefs and customs: The concept
of fate is strongly embedded in the Vietnamese
minds.39 Those things which men seem unable to
control are in the realm of Fate. This surrender
to an unknown force which controls one's own
destiny was well-illustrated by the following
stanzas-~composed by a king-poet in the 15th

century:

 

 

103

I shudder whenever I think of existence
Sent into life, I go back to death
Intelligence, idiocy: joined together under
nine feet of earth
Riches, poverty: a pot of rice cooking!
To struggle? Before my eyes, clouds dissolving
To suffer? Behind my body, very heavy mountains!
Vainly I question Heaven 40
Yet, I strive to live, listening out for Fate!
The belief in Fate has also been crystallized in
the popular saying:

Mdu syf tai nha‘n
Thanh sq tai thién

(i.e., Men design projects; but the key to
their successful implementation remains in
Heaven's hands.)

This passive attitude toward an obscure force
called Fate--has been responsible for the static
character of the Vietnamese society throughout
millennia; social and cultural changes are usually
met with resistance in Vietnam, largely because
of the Vietnamese basic beliefs that manners and
ways of life are Fate-~predetermined. This atti-
tude has also rendered the Vietnamese people vul-
nerable to superstitious beliefs, thereby becoming
easy prey for immoral astrologers, chiromancers,
physiognomists and fortune-tellers.

Another trait that characterizes the Viet-
namese peOple is the lack of the spirit of ad-

41 so essential for science endeavours.

venture,
This stems from the remnants of Confucius' teach-

ings which emphasize strongly harmony in the

 

,r r..- _; I7.” :

104

society as preferable to change and innovation.
This partially explains why big business in
Vietnam was42 and still is43 almost exclusively in

the hands of foreigners.

2. Demographic Trends: Galbraith, in analyzing the

 

causes of a nation's poverty, cited overpopula-

tion44 as one of the contributing factors.

Samuelson also supported this view by stating

that:

In the one hand, growing population makes for
high money Spending, as homes and factories are
being replicated in like number. Therefore it may
act against unemployment, and by the same reasoning
it could also aggravate inflationary threats. In
the other hand, a considerably higher level of popu-
lation threatens us with the law of diminishing
returns. It fills our cars with peOple and fills
our roads with cars, it pollutes the air with smog;
it Spoils the countryside and ruins privacy.

For most developing countries where natural
resources and capital stock remain unchanged, it
is not difficult to show--using the notion of
output per capita and the law of diminishing
returns46—-that a high rate of population increase
would certainly lead to increasing national
poverty.

In Vietnam, overpopulation is not an immed—

iate threat as in many other Asian countries,

such as India or China. However, with a present

 

 

105

relatively high rate of population growth47

(2.6% per year), with a present high population

density48

and with the present level of economic
development (which one may identify as the first
stage in Harbison's economic develOpmental
stages49), present population upsurge in Vietnam
should not be taken too lightly in economic
development planning. Thus, population control
should be systematically planned and should in-

50 and

volve modern techniques of communication
persuasion. The causes of the people's reluc-
tance to adopt modern contraception methods lie
most often in religious traditions; the often-
heard argument is that birth control is against
the will of God or offends human dignity. Such
arguments can only be defeated by a counter-
argument which uses the same rhetoric, such as
the following one:
The regard for human dignity with which some
religions approach the question of birth control
is understandable. But the argument seems to
ignore both the dignity of the women in question
and the lack of dignity with which the children
of depressed areas 1ive.51
Similar arguments, with a strong power of
persuasion should be developed in order to make
people accept the necessity of changing their

thinking patterns to improve their living

conditions.

 

 

106

The Status of Women in Vietnamese Society:

Any country which is seriously concerned with
its development should utilize all its available
resources to their fullest capacity. In Viet-

namese culture, women have been so far rele-
gated to a secondary role, although their abili-
ties are not inferior in any way to those of the
male population. By striving to raise women's
status and allowing them to participate more in-
tensively in the economic life, the country has
at its hands the most invaluable human resource.52

There are many factors which inhibit the
Vietnamese women's participation on an equal
footing into the task of national reconstruction.
Besides the national prejudice mentioned above--
stemming from outdated Confucius' philosophy--
the most important factor seems to be the enormous
amount of time spent to bear children and feed
them, and take care of them during a lifelong
period of time. Unless birth control measures
are widely practiced, the national economy will
suffer for a long time to come, from human re-
sources wastage and probably from overpopulation,
which may have a negative effect on economic
development, as was discussed in the previous

section.

 

107

4. Unemployment, Underemplgyment and Wartime

 

Situations: Vietnam has been suffering from both

 

underemployment (in the rural areas) and un-
employment (urban areas) for decades.53 Recently,
unemployment has been aggravated due to the war-
time situation, creating an enormous exodus of the
population from the countryside to towns and

54 Besides an active contribution to un-

cities.
employment, the war has had much impact on national
development planning, e.g., "giving rise to
national defense budgetary priorities which do

not leave adequate funds for educational planning
and manpower assessment activities of such magni-
tude as might reasonably be contemplated in an

"55 Thus it is difficult to

peace time situation.
conduct exact surveys of human and natural re-
sources which are prerequisite to any form of

planning, educational as well as national develOp-

ment planning.

glbjectives
From this consideration of the society's poten-
tialities, needs and problems, the following objectives
fC>xr science and chemistry teaching are suggested:
1. To realize that the country has immense natural
resources that need to be exploited and put to

effective uses.

 

 

 

108

To participate-~if need be--in the national and

economic development plans.

To understand the role of science and technology

in the nation's economic growth and develOpment.

To realize that superstitions are easily dis-

solved by scientific thinking.

To be able to cope with change, although temporary
disharmony could result; otherwise, a devitalized
society would be the inevitable result, as has
been pointed out by Cronbach: "A society loses
vitality when its members suppress ideas for the
sake of harmony, waste resources for the sake of
present satisfactions, demand no more of science
than addition to their daily comforts, and require

of the arts only that they soothe."56

To understand scientific causality.57

To realize that man can mold his destiny by self-

confidence and hard work.

To understand that adventurous, creative people
make good scientists and are important assets in
the period of economic reconstruction and develop-

ment, as was expressed in the following words:

 

 

109

"(A cet égard), le manque d'hommes ne reside plus
dans l'insuffisance du nombre des savants et des
technicians, mais dans la rareté des créateurs
d'evenements, de structures at de courants

d'opinion."58

9. To accept the principle that men and women are

equal in science abilities under the same environ-

ment.

10. To realize the importance of birth-control upon

economic development of a country.

Desirable Learning Experiences

Units on chemical industry (even chemical
economics), cosmochemistry (to combat superstition),
natural resources, relationships between chemistry and
the national economy, birth control, the spirit of ad-
‘Venture and self-reliance are recommended.

Perennial and Emergent Values
of the Vietnamese culture

This section is an attempt to delineate the
1'nest important time-honored social and moral values
held by a majority of the Vietnamese people.

Vietnamese Weltanschaafing has been Shaped by
titres major thought currents in the past59 (Taoism,

(knafucianism and Buddhism) and by today's individualistic

 

110

or socialistic concepts of man's relationships toward
himself, the society, and the Cosmological Order. It is
a difficult task to derive--from this vast synthesis of
apparently contradicting philosophies-~a definite set of
values for the Vietnamese culture. However, most of the
Vietnamese people today agree that in order to have a good
life in a good society, the following moral and social
qualities should be nurtured:

l. sincerity

2. Honesty

3. Humility

4. Gentleness and self-control

5. Moderation in every important aspect of life such

as eating, drinking, talking.

These qualities are well—illustrated by the

following poem:
Ngdoi xau cho nen noi,
Minh hay chd nen khen,
Lam an cho" nen nho",
Chiu an chd' nen uen,
Dofii khen kh6ng du men,
Duy lay nhan lam nen,
Chua bung roi mdbi dang,
Giem pha co ngai gi,
Dung dé danh qua thdc,
Thanh d' trong ngu Si,
Gid minh c6t trong- treo,
Anh sang 16 ty- ty.
Mém mong duBLc bén dai,
Lao- dam khoe mdbi ky,
Ham.h3m nét ké hén, Q
On-h5a ngdB}i lddng ca,
N6i can, an c6 chJJng,
Biet vda, kh6ng tai- —va,
Cd thé’ddofic mai- mai,
ThoJm-tho cung thoa- da.

 

 

7———

111

(Quelqu'wnest vilain, i1 ne convient pas d'en parler,
Sommes-nous bon, il ne convient pas de nous
en vanter,

D'un service rendu, i1 ne convient pas de s'en souvenir
D'un service regu, il ne convient pas de 1'oublier,
Les louanges du monde ne sont pas dignes d'envie,
II faut prendre seulement ses vertus pour fondement.
Refléchissez bien avant d' agir,
Ne craignez pas la médisance,
Ne laissez pas votre reputation s 'élever au-dela
de la vérite
La sagesse vient de l'ignorance,
Gardez-vous pur de toute souillure,
La lumiére ne se laisse qu'entrevoir,
Ce qui est faible et mince arrive a étre
solide et tenace,
C' est la la force etrange de Lao-Tseu,
L' agitation furieuse caractérise 1' homme vulgaire,
La douceur est le propre de l' homme de bien,
Soyez réserve’ dans vos propos, mesure dans
votre nourriture,
La moderation n 'entraine pas de malheur,
Ainsi, sans cesse comportez-vous, 60
One bonne renommee remplit le coeur d' aise. )

Other beliefs of contemporary Vietnamese include:

1. Belief in nationalism, viewed as a unifying

 

element for all Vietnamese from various socio-

politico-cultural strata.61

2. Belief in democracy: The roots of democratic

 

traditions in Vietnam date back from old times--
before the colonial period--where the village
played an important role in the Vietnamese's life.
The village then enjoyed a nearly complete autonomy,
as illustrated by this well-known saying: "Phép
vua thua lé lang [the king's law bows before

village customsl."62

 

112

A community-oriented life was characteristic
of the villager's life during these times, when
cooperativeness developed between people in the
same village and when everybody has his voice in
the decision-making process. This tradition of
"local"63 democracy is more akin to the socio-moral
type of democracy advocated by Dewey64 than the
political type with its intrigues, underhand
maneuverings and "secret" talks. Unfortunately,
this tradition was shattered by the time the
French imperialists came, with their policy of

"divide et impera" inherited from the Romans.

Belief in "vdongedao"--as opposed to "ta-dgo."

 

The "vdong-dao,“ or the "Royal Way" is the
way of the noble, who strives "to win people by
the prestige of his moral grandeur or his intel-
lectual value and by his determination to win them
by persuasion rather than by (physical or mental)
coercion."65 Thus, a "Royal Way"-man substitutes
a morale of conviction to a morale of coercion-—
which characterizes the ta-dao, or the "Devil
Way." For the Vietnamese people, "vddng-dao"--in

the long run--always overcomes "ta-dao."

 

JI

 

7.

113
Eggplnclusion and Implications for
§i§3gience and Chemistry‘fiducation
In general, one can say with confidence that a
'“Majority of the Vietnamese people are intensely national-
iistic--but neither chauvinistic nor xenophobic. They
'usually are proud-~but neither arrogant nor contemptuous
of other cultures, always striving to achieve an "under-

66--of their "four thousand

standing of other cultures"
years of civilization" and Show some reluctance toward the

acquisition of material goods to the detriment of moral

and human values. This latter attitude--and especially its
extreme form-~has resulted in the past in a neglect of cul-
tivating science and technology that constitute the mater-

ial basis for a civilization's survival.

Thus, the search for a new culture--including the
scientific element, of course--that reconciles the modern
with a preservation and reaffirmation of the national
identity is imperative67 today and must be emphasized
'throughout school curricula.

The Learner's Potentialities, Needs,
and Aspirations
Vietnamese students are intelligent, dynamic and
Crritical-minded people. They usually work hard at schools;
Ertudents' misconducts that one may find at schools--mostly

a1: private schools--are generally caused by:

 

114

Students' disinterest in outdated and irrelevant
curricula which were handed down from the colonial
regimes, without major changes to cope with the
needs and demands of an emerging nation. Teaching

methods are of a dogmatic nature, usually.

68 for their studies.

Students' lack of facilities
Books in the native language are scarce--eSpecially
science books. Besides, students cannot have access
to laboratory equipment and, laboratory work, that

are necessary for science learning.

Students' feeling of insecurity both for their
future and their nation's future--at the brink of

total annihilation under automated warfare.

Implications

 

In order to meet the abilities, needs and aspira-

tions of Vietnamese students, science and chemistry pro-

grams should:

1.

Challenge students' intelligence and critical

thinking.

Establish links between what they learn in schools
with what they may encounter later in their pros-
pective careers or as Stratemeyer said: "provide

them with persistent life situations."69

 

115

3. Stress the potentiality of science (especially
scientific thinking) as a factor for peace, in
terms of its recourse to rational thinking, as
opposed to emotion-laden thinking, generator of
conflicts and struggles.

Leading Discoveries
in Psychology
This section is an attempt to present leading dis-
coveries in psychology that may have important implications

to the learning and teaching of science and chemistry in

secondary schools.

Motivation and Effective
Learning

Motivation viewed as a pre-requisite for good
learning is a relatively recent concept. Indeed, when
W. James talked about the foundations of human behavior,
it was not these inner drives--as we understand today as

constituents of motivation--that he was referring to, but

instinct, instead.70

Dewey gave importance to foresight of goals which
lne considered a driving force to action: "Such words as
-interest, affection, concern, motivation, emphasize the
bearing of what is foreseen upon the individual's fortunes,
71

and his active desire to act to secure a possible result."

Thorndike, in one of his studies about the source

(NE behavior, affirmed that thought and action largely

—_""'

116

depend on wants, interests and attitudes and these "origi-

rxail propensities" have their roots in instinct.72

Thus, before 1920, the concept of human motivation--
ens it is understood today-~was almost alien to psycholo-
<gists, who preferred to refer to instinct, as the main

source of human behavior.

After world War I, however, the concept of inner
dynamic forces as important causes of human behavior began
to take shape. Thus, Watson proposed discarding of the
word instinct in psychology by stating that: “Everything
we have been in the habit of calling an instinct today is

a result largely of training-~belong to man's learned

behavior."73

In 1921, Woodworth perceived the need to include
inner drives as authentic sources of human behavior.
The theory of "driving adjustment"75 was elaborated by
Tolman, in terms of anxieties (or fulfilling tendencies)

and annoyances (escaping tendencies). In 1926, he dis-

76

cussed the nature of the "fundamental drives" and

stated that-~later in l932--they provide "the primordial
lbases of all human behavior."77 These theories of needs,
drives were further elaborated by Murray in his book,

"Explorations in Personality,”8 in 1938.

The recognizance of motivation as a psychological
Phenomenon was rapidly achieved in a relatively short

Period of time. However the relationship between

 

117

motivation and learning, i.e., the statement that "A child
learns better when he is motivated to learn"79--has been
slow in developing. It was not until 1943, that for the
first time, this relationship was perceived by Hull, who
said that: "Learning turns out upon analysis to be either
a case of the differential strengthening of one from a
number of more or less distinct reactions evoked by a
situation of need, or the formation of receptor-~effector
connections de novo."80

This historical review of the changing concept of
motivation has allowed us to have a clear understanding of
the nature and aspects of motivation.

Today, most of the psychologists agree that an
organism must be motivated to learn.81 The organism must
have some need, drive or goa182--or learning will not
occur. Needs range from physiological needs to personal
and sociological ones, such as the desire for recognition,
security, approval, and new experience.83

Besides some basic needs or drives common to most
of the people, there could be developed particular personal
needs and interests--called wants by Allport84--which de-
zoend on the person's characteristics. These wants, al-
though undoubtedly related to basic physiological needs of

85

true individual, acquire some functional autonomy in their

cnwn rights. These personal needs and interests (or

 

 

118

baaaslow's86 higher goals) could not be met, when individuals
aaxre reduced to struggling to satisfy their more basic
needs .

From the foregoing consideration, the following
cflajectives for science and chemistry curricula could be
derived:

Objectives.--

(1) To help students identify their needs, wants,

interests;

(2) to help them develop their epistemic87 curiosity--

a desire to learn, to explore for their own sake.

Desirable learningfiexperiences.—-Individual
projects or studies should be provided since they are

Irelated to the student's personal goals and interests.

Eggarning Readiness
Mental and educational readiness88 are important

fkbr learning, as well as physical maturation. The concept
c3f readiness for learning, viewed as a prerequisite for
1iaarning, applies to all levels of schooling--elementary,
secondary and college levels. The readiness principle re-
cIllires that every curriculum--in order to be defensible--
sl"tould provide for each grade, learning experiences and
Inaterials that suit a wide range of readiness levels within

thi S grade .

 

119

The following objectives could be derived--for
science and chemistry curricula--from the foregoing
cons ideration:

Objectives.--To make students experience success,
and not failure or frustration, in their learning exper—
iences, or to convert schools into "schools without

failure."89

Desirable learning experiences.--Suggest prefer-
ably learning experiences that take into account students'

entry behaviors . 90

Organization in Learning and
getention of Knowledge

Too often students in schools are required to
learn isolated facts which appear to be meaningless or
unrelated to students' life. The result is that drop in
retention or total forgetting occurs over a short period
Of time after the original learning. This point of view

91

is confirmed by studies done by Brooks and Bassett, who

found that students forgot within a period of sixteen
rnonths one-third of the material they knew at the end of
the course. The more abstract--or the more irrelevant--
1211053 material is, the faster the forgetting takes place.-
Thus, it takes only one year for students in an algebra
c=C>urse to forget two-thirds of the material they possessed

a year before.92

 

120

No such rapid forgetting occurs however, when
1:he content of learning is meaningful and highly organ-
ized.93 Better results in learning and retention are
:ftflther obtained in those cases where the learner is in—
xnalved in the process of selecting and organizing learning

. 94
experiences

that suit his needs and purposes and where
11is objective is to solve problems rather than to memorize
isolated facts. Studies to support this hypothesis were
«conducted by Davis and Word who found that "ability to
axpply principles, to explain phenomena, problem-solving
z>rocedures, and attitudes are retained over a long period
with only slight loss."95
The foregoing consideration has enabled us to
<1erive the following objectives for science and chemistry

<3urricula in secondary schools:

Objectives.--

 

(1) To help students know how to organize their
learning so that effective learning and better

retention would be obtained;

(2) to place more emphasis on the ability to apply
principles, to perceive relationships between
apparently divergent facts than the ability to

memorize isolated facts.

Desirable learning experiences.--Science and

(zlieamistry courses and learning experiences should be

 

JI

121

designed so that a high degree of internal organization

and structure is available.

Transfer of Learning

96 have indicated that

Although numerous studies
transfer of learning does occur frequently, interpretations
of this phenomenon--in termqof specific variables which
cause or influence transfer--vary from one psychologist
to another. This extremely important97 field in the
psychology of learning is also suffering today from a
lack of adequate conceptual frameworks or comprehensive

theories that may integrate and organize knowledge about

transfer. This explains why contemporary research has

98 to this problem--

shifted toward an analytical approach
i.e., the specification of necessary and sufficient
conditions for transfer to occur--and toward the develop-
ment of theoretical structures which take into account
these conditions.

What would teachers gain from such an "unorganized"
knowledge about transfer of learning? What are the most
valuable suggestions they can derive for daily educational
practices? Today as well as in the days of Thorndike,

‘the suggestion--based on Thorndike's theory of identical
elements99 or Judd's theory of transfer by generaliza-

‘tionloo--that the school curriculum should contain learn-

jJag activities and problems which have a strong degree of

 

122

resemblance to those which the student will encounter in

life, is still valid.101 What students learn in schools

is what they will be able to transfer to actual living

situations.102 The more similar the life and school

103

situations are, the greater the transfer. "[The]

similarity can be, and perhaps most often is, that of
patterns, rather than of specific parts."104
These are the objectives that could be derived--

for science and chemistry curricula--from the foregoing

consideration:

Objectives.--

 

(1) To aim for maximum positive transfer of
learning;
(2) to focus on actual living, i.e., to solve con-

temporary problems of living and learning.

Desirable learning experiences.--

(1) Select materials and activities that are directly
related to--or consistent with--learning objec-
tives;

(2) provide a profusion of examples in concepts and
principles teaching.

Nature of Subject Matter

1. A Review of Definitions of Science including
"Science as a Body of Knowledgg': There is'a
variety of definitions of science given by

scientists today--as well as by laymen.

 

 

 

123

For G. Gore: "Science is a collection of
facts and general principles which are to be
learned."105

For E. Hutten: "Science is a linguistic, or
symbolic representation of experience."106

For Lynn Thorndike, who deals only with
"achieved" science: "Science is systematized and
ordered knowledge, a consistent body of truth . . .
Mind and senses must be free from phantasy and
unwarranted association of ideas . ."107

For Campbell: "Science is the study of those
judgments concerning which universal agreement
can be obtained."108

These more or less distorted--because
incomplete--definitions do not reveal the true
nature of science. Each definition reflects only
the particular background of each individual, his
scientific and cultural formation, or his bias.

A relatively better definition, which takes
into account the interplay of ideas and experi-
mental processes was given by Conant: "Science
is an interconnected series of concepts and con—
ceptual schemes that have developed as a result of
experimentation and observation and are fruitful

of further experimentation and observation."109

 

124

This interplay, which is an important charac-
teristic of science is included in the following
writer's own view of science:

Science may be viewed as the actualization
of any conceivable ideas and thought schemes
that occur in the scientist's mind. The
actualization--partial or total--is the result
of an adjustment of the realities of the ex-
ternal world with the scientist's ideas and
thought schemes.

This definition includes two other major

features of science:

Science viewed as a correspondence: This corres-
pondence--or interplay mentioned above--is a
"reversible process" and was illustrated by
Einstein in the following manner: "Science is
the attempt to make the chaotic diversity of our
sense-experience correspond to a logically uni-

form system of thought"110

(see Figure l).

The means—-implied in our definition--by
which this correspondence is obtained are usually
referred to as processes of science. The processes
of science do not differ from the steps employed

in a problem—solving strategy. They include the

following:

 

125

"a logically uniform system of thought"
Hypotheses
Assumptions
Deductions
‘;

Correspondence sought by Science

Empirical generalizations
Facts of Science
"Chaotic diversity of sense experience"

Scnarce: O. J. Drennan, The Aims and Achievements of
Science (3rd ed., Dubuque, Iowa: KendaII7fiunt
Publishing Co., 1970), p. 39.

 

Figure l.--Science as a correSpondence.

 

 

126

l. The formulation of a problem.

2. The search for data that will suggest possible
solutions to this problem.

3. Reformulation of the problem to include these
possible solutions.

4. A determination of the data necessary to solve
the problem.

5. A plan of experiment that will elicit the data
desired.

6. Execution of the experiment and accumulation of
the desired data.

7. Interpretation of the data by means of the guiding
substantive structures together with previous
knowledge possessed by the investigator.111

 

3. Science viewed as a created knowledge: This

 

position was endorsed by Einstein who said:

If you wish to learn from the theoretical physi-
cist anything about the methods which he uses, I would
give you the following piece of advice: Don't listen
to his words, examine his achievements. For to the
discoverer in that field, the constructions of his
imagination appear so necessary and so natural that
he is apt to treat them not as thf creations of his
thoughts but as given realities.1 2

This creativity-based view of science was
probably reflected in the recent NSTA position
statement on the marks of a scientifically liter-
ate person: "[He] recognizes the human origin of
science and understands that scientific knowledge

is tentative . . ."113

Anything which comes from human beings is
subject to the interplay between imagination, 10g-
ical thinking and creativity; science itself does
not make exceptions. What are then the origins

of science or, the sources of scientific crea-

tivity?

 

a)

127

It would appear that the internal motives of
human creativity reside in men's yearnings to
overcome their limitations--as human beings. Al-
though men could neither fly nor see through the
walls, they nevertheless were able to conceive the
desire to do so. These desires were translated
into myths which could be found in legends or men's
dreams. Thus, those dynamic myths such as the
myths of Prometheus, Icarus, Golem and the myth of
the philosophal stone, have given birth respec-
tively to modern science (especially nuclear sci-
ences), aeronautics, cybernetics and modern
chemistry.114

The foregoing has probably suggested to us that
common grounds between scientific creativity and
artistic creativity could be found. Indeed, there
are no fundamental differences between scientific
and artistic creation processes: both pass through
the same basic stages (interest/preparation/
incubation/i1lumination/verification or retouch);
both are essentially free in statu nascendi.115

The apparent differences between artistic and
scientific creativity, reside in:

The artist and the research scientist work

on different aspects of the phenomenological
universe.

 

128

b) The arbitrariness of the artistic creation
remains visible in the finished product whereas
that of the scientific creation is seemingly
eliminated or hidden under rational constructs
of the "achieved" science.

c) The scientist benefits more--and therefore enjoys
less freedom--than the artist from the acquisi-
tions of "achieved" Science, which constitute
basic raw materials for him to work with.116

Thus, the differences do not lie in the pro-
cesses or methods used (heuristic method), but
mainly in different materials of the same Universe.

Recently, considerable effort has been expended to

explore the similarities and differences between

artistic and scientific creation. Some results
pointed out that there is a close resemblance
between scientific and artistic creation processes.

For example, Woodruff--an authority on the evolu-

tion of scientific ideas--remarked that:

The educated person has read some of Shakespeare
and heard compositions of Beethoven but has little
conception of what Newton accomplished, and may not
even have heard of Gauss. Yet, . . ., the latter
scientists have not only exercised at least as pro-
found an influence on our lives as Shakespeare and
Beethoven,they developed their scientific and mathe-
matical systems by a process of creation subject to 117
rules which are quite similar to that of the artist.

The Nature of Chemistry.--Chemistry, as a scienti—

fic discipline, possesses all the characteristics dis-
cussed above (about science), namely: (a) a created

knowledge; (b) a way of looking at things and Operating
on them; and (c) a body of knowledge, with its "codes,"

laws, facts and theories.

 

129

Besides, chemistry has some features of its own.
Today's chemistry is characterized by a search for broader
conceptual schemes which are able to unify chemistry
knowledge.118 Chemists and chemistry teacher nowadays are
not content with teaching isolated facts which most often
require too heavy a memory load from their students. They
are now adopting a different teaching approach, involving
the organization of chemistry teaching around major con-
cepts (or conceptual frameworks), which give to modern
chemistry, a highly structured discipline. This shift in
emphasis in chemistry teaching occurring today was the
result of two major compelling forces: recent discoveries
in the psychology of learning and the present state of
chemistry knowledge.

Discussions (see previous section on "Leading
Discoveries in the Psychology of Learning") about the
effect of organized learning on the retention of knowledge
have led to the conclusion that disciplines that possess
a highly internal organization (or structure) result both
in better learning and retention. Recent advances in
chemistry knowledge Should also be reflected inchemistry
curricula. Today's scientists agree that chemistry re-
volves around the following major concepts:119 energy,
atomic and molecular structure, equilibrium, and
dynamics. Recent efforts have been given to the reclassi-

fication of various fields of chemistry, which will

 

130

eventually lead to the elimination of the artificial dis-
crimination between inorganic and organic reactions and

120 recommenda-

structures. Thus, the Westheimer Report's
tions include the reclassification of the fields of
chemistry along contemporary research fields. According
to this reclassification proposal, today's chemistry can
be divided into three major areas:

(1) structural chemistry, dealing with the atomic

and molecular structure of matter;
(2) chemical dynamics; and

(3) chemical synthesis.

It is hoped that this reclassification will make
chemistry teaching-learning more realistic and exciting.
The teaching of the "ways of the scientist"--implied by
this reclassification--will make chemistry a thrilling
adventure for some students, a "glorious entertainment";121

for others, but never (as it has occurred in the past) a

burden to carry throughout the high school years.

Suggested objectives.--

 

(1) To develop the ability to c0pe with change, since
science is constantly subject to change and
revision in the light of further evidence;

(2) to develop basic psycho-motor skills, e.g., skills
in observing and experimenting, skills in handling

apparatus, equipment, chemicals.

 

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(1)

(2)

(3)

131

to develOp basic scientific abilities, with
regard to science processes, e.g.,

(a) problem identification,

(b) hypotheses formulation and verification,
(c) information and data collecting and inter-

preting;
to foster creative thinking in science;

to get acquainted with basic stages of creative

processes--both in Science and in the Arts.

to be aware of the limitations of science and

the impact of science on society; and

to know and understand basic scientific facts,
laws, principles, which constitute the so-called

"achieved" science.

Desirable Learninngxperiences.--
Laboratory work as a good medium for students to
develop their basic scientific skills and

abilities.

Courses in history of science to broaden their
culture and to develop their interests in

scientific creation and achievement.

Courses in philosophy of science to pinpoint
problems (social, epistemological, etc.), limita-

tions and hope created by science and technology.

"'7

 

132

(4) Use of various strategies (expository, discovery,
guided discovery approaches) and techniques

(lecture, discussion, media) in learning.

Summary

The selection of objectives for science and
chemistry education in Vietnamese schools was based on
the Vietnamese society's needs and demands, the Vietnamese
youth's abilities, needs and aspirations, the nature of
science and chemistry, the present state of knowledge in
the psychology of human behavior, and the set of cultural
values presently held by the Vietnamese society.

For each consideration mentioned above, corres-
ponding objectives and desirable learning experiences for

science and chemistry education were suggested.

 

 

 

FOOTNOTES FOR CHAPTER III

1R. L. Brackenbury, "Guidelines to Help Schools

Formulate and Validate Objectives," in Rational Planning
in Curriculum and Instruction (Washington, D.C.: National
Education Association, Center for the Study of Instruc-
tion, 1967), p. 89.

 

2W. C. Trow, "Behavioral Objectives in Education,"

Educational Technology, VII (December 30, 1967), 6.

3J. G. Saylor and W. M. Alexander, Curriculum

Planning for Modern Schools (New York: Holt, Rinehart

 

4Ralph W. Tyler, Basic Principles of Curriculum

and Instruction: Syllabus for Education 360 (Chicago:
The University of Chicago Press, 1950).

5H. Gourdon, L'Indochine (Paris: Larousse, 1931),

p. 155; Le T. Loi, "Vietnam Tren Duong Phat-Trien,"
Chan-Hung Kinh-Te (October 1, 1970), 7; G. Azambre, "Le
Vietnam," in Geographie Universelle Larousse, Tome II,
ed. by P. Deffontaines (Paris: Librairie Larousse,
1959), 312.

6F. Bernard, L'Indochine (Paris: E. Fasquelle,

1901). pp. 95-109.

7Tran Trong Kim, Vietnam Su-Luoc (Saigon,
Vietnam: Tan-Viet, 1954), pp. 45-81, 125-57, 487-542;
Joseph Buttinger, The Smaller Dragon: A Political History
of Vietnam (New York: Praeger Pub., 19587, pp. 67412§TA

81bid.

133

 

 

 

134

9Nguyen Xuan Quang, Les Problemes Economiques
et Financiers du Vietnam a lTiAube de Son Independence
T1945ll954) (Vietnam: Centre Prive d' Etudes et de
Documentation, 1959), P. 53.

 

 

10Per Capita National Income is about 150 Dollars
(1967 data) in United Nations, Statistical Yearbook 1970
(New York: U.N. Pub., 1971), p. 600.

11FAS, Area Handbook for Vietnam (Washington, D.C.:

FAS, The American University, 1962), p. 379.

12Embassy of Vietnam, Industrial Development of
Vietnam: Vietnam Info Series 5 (Washington, D.C.: Embassy
of Vietnam, September, 1969), p. 3.

 

13John Lewallen, Ecology of Devastation: Indochina
(Baltimore, Md.: Penguin Books, Inc., 1971); A. H.
Westing and E. W. Pfeiffer, "The Cratering of Indochina,"
Scientific American, CCXXVI (May, 1972), 21-29.

 

14South Vietnam was proclaimed a republic on
October 26, 1955 (see Buttinger, 9p, cit., p. 468).

15E. S.Kirby, Economic Development in East Asia
(New York: Praeger Pub., 1967), pp. 203-204.

16Ibid.

 

173115, 92, cit., pp. 383-84.

lsIbid.

19Embassy of Vietnam, Industrial Development of
Vietnam: Vietnam Info Series 5, 2p. cit., pp. 3-31.

 

20Embassy of Vietnam, The Bien-Hoa Industrial Park:
Vietnam Info Series 29 (Washington, D.C.: Embassy of
Vietnam, April, 1970TT

21Embassy of Vietnam, Industrial Development of
Vietnam: Vietnam Info Series 5, op. cit., p. 3.

 

22Ibid.

 

135

23The MeKong River Project, whose survey studies
began in 1958, is a Multi-National Development Scheme--
involving countries that border the MeKong River, such as
Vietnam, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia. The Project, mainly
consists of building several dams in the Lower MeKong
Basin, which will provide electric power for the countries
involved, and which will also contribute to the improve-
ment of irrigation and navigation in this region. As of
today, only one dam was constructed: the Nam Pong Dam
(1966), located near Khong Kaen in Northeast Thailand.
.Another dam, the Nam Ngum Dam (northeast of Vientane) is
in the process of construction. Such an enormous project,
surely has to face with many problems, e.g. , socio—
«economic, cultural and political problems (see J. M.
Halpern, below).

For the story of the Project, see Comite pour la
(:Joordination des Etudes sur le Bassin Inferieur du
lydekong, Aspects Juridiques et Adminstratifs de la Mise
en Valeur de la Partie Inferieure du MeKong: Proces-
‘Kferbaux et Documents; Vol. I: Proces-Verbaux (Bangkok,
'Ifhailand: Comitegdu MeKong,41969), pp.’l-4.

R. R. Rawson, The Monsoon Lands of Asia (London:
fiutchinson Educational Pub., 1963), p. 233; R. T. White,

‘“The MeKong; River of Terror and HOpe," National Geo-
graphic (December, 1968), 737-44.

For the problems and difficulties involved in the
IProject, see Joel M. Halpern, "MeKong River Development
Schemes for Laos and Thailand: A Hope for the Future?" in
.gnternationales Asian Forum, III (January, 1972), 20-35;
Comfie pour Ta Coordination, o . cit., pp. 22-84.

For the achievements ag't5€_Project, see J. M.
Iialpern, 9p, cit., pp. 21-22; Comite pour la Coordination,
§;p. 315., pp._I:4; P. Bourrieres, "Les Grands Travaux

u MeKong," Tiers-Monde, XI (April-September, 1970), 549-

 

 

69.

24Preliminary surveys conducted since 1966--via
sysophysical methods--have hinted the possibility of off-
shore oil deposits in Vietnam. Recently, geologists and
ruining experts have reaffirmed that oil in South Vietnam
exists both off-shore and on land: this oil is believed
to be of superior quality, sweet and sulphurless. For
NKDre information--especially, information related to
laidding by international oil companies for concessions--
See, Ralph Lombardi, "Oil Concessions: Let Bidding
Commence," Far Eastern Economic Review, LXXV (February 5,
1972), 37-36; "VNCH Da Nhan 11.001? My-Kim Le-Phi Khai-
7Thae Mo Dau Hoa," Tin Que-Huong (2, thang 12, 1971), 1;
"Dau Hoa VN Tot va Gia Cao Hon Dau Trung—Dong," Tin Que-
Huong (December, 30, 1971), 1-6.

 

:1

136

25See Tables 1-6.

26Republic of Vietnam, Post-War Development of
Vietnam: A Summary Report, MarCh, 1969: Viet-Nam
Documents Series No. 5 (Washington, D.C.: Embassy of
Vietnam, 1969), pp. 1-5.

 

27Ibid. 281bid.
29Ibid. 3°Ibid.
31

A. M. Savani, Visages et Images du Sud-Vietnam
(Saigon: Imprimerie FrancaiSe d‘ Outre—Mer, 1955), p.222.

 

32R. L. Sansom, The Economics of Insur enc in the
lMeKong Delta of Vietnam (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT, 1570),
1;. 5; H. H. Smith et a1}, Area Handbook for South Viet-

xuwm (Washington, D. C.: FAS, The American University,
2(967), p. 4.

 

 

33Vietnamese Embassy, Vietnam's Youth: Vietnam
Info Series 19 (Washington, D.C.: Vietnamese Embassy,
‘December, 1969); Edward C. Britton, "Vietnamese Youth
and Social Revolution," Vietnam Perspectives, II, No. 2
(November, 1966), 13-27.

 

 

34Vietnam, Educational DevelOpment in the MR4,
February and August,'l971. (Mimeographed.)

 

3SThe elitist conception of education which is
far from dying down in the Vietnamese minds is a legacy
from the colonial regime.

The perennialist conception of education has its
.roots in the past, when the educational system was then
Inoulded upon the Chinese model, wherein education con-
sists of memorizing the Eternal Truths delivered in some
"Basic Books," such as the Tu-Thu and the Ngu-Kinh.

361bid.

Vietnam, Educational Development in the MR4,

 

381bid.

 

137

39E. Hammer, Vietnam, Yesterday and Today (New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1966), pp. 27530.

40A. C. Crawford, Customs and Culture of Vietnam

(Rutland, Vermont and Tokyo, 1966), p. 142.

 

41C. Robequain, The Economic Development of French
Indo-China, translated by I. A. Ward (London: O.U.P.,
, pp. 62, 88; H. Gourdon, 9p. cit., p. 143.

 

=1

421bid.

43N. T. Hy at L. Q. Trong, "Sud-Vietnam 70:

Déséquilibre et Dependance Economiques," Tiers-Monde, XI
(April-September, 1970), 389-93.

 

44J. K. Galbraith, Economic Development (Cambridge,

Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1967), p. 45.

 

45F. A. Samuelson, Economics: An Introductory
Anal sis (6th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1964),

pp. - 3.

46Richard T. Gill, Economics and the Public Inter-
est (Pacific Palisades, Calif.: Goodyear Pub. Co.,
m8) I pp. 231-340

 

 

47Annual rate of po ulation increase: 2.6%
POpulation Density: 103/km of area, see: United Nations,
Statistical Yearbook, 1970 (New York: United’Nations
P1fl3., U71), p. 84.

 

 

48Ibid.

49F. Harbison and C. A. Myers, La Formation, Cle'
du Développement: Les Strategies du Développement des
Ressgurces Humaines, translated by D. Vignaux (Paris:
1es Editions Ouvriéres, 1967), pp. 68-97.

 

50W. S. Thompson, "The Population Barrier," in
[breign Aid Re-Examined, ed. by J. W. Wiggins and H.
gafifoecke (WaShington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1958),
. 151-67; X. Brzezinski, "The Politics of Underdevelop-
W ‘6," World Politics, IX (October, 1956), 55—75; p. Fistie,

 

[13” controls des Naissances dans la Strategie du Develop-
‘Zz? a! Singapour," Tiers-Monde, XI (April-September, 1970),

@flfiéo5.

 

 

A:

 

138

51J. A. Raffaele, The Economic Develo ment of
Nations (New York: Random Housei. Pp. 38-49.

52F. Perroux, L'Economie des Jeunes Nations (Paris:

P.U.F., 1962), p. 220.

 

53H. H. Smith et al., 0 . cit., pp. 313, 349, 353.

For disguised unemploymenE_in t e Mekong Delta see: R. L.
Sansom, _p. cit., pp. 135-50.

541bid.

55Republic of the Philippines, NEC, "Status of
Human Resources Development Planning in Vietnam," in
Proceedings: Far East Regional Manpower Assessment and
Educational Planning Seminar, ManiIa, February 12- 17, ‘I965
(Manila, NEC,1965), p. 123.

56Lee J. Cronbach, Educational Psychology (2nd ed.,

New York: Harcourt, Barce and World, Inc., 1963), pp. 50-
51.

57Wartofsky has provided a thorough analysis of

the concept of causality, viewed both in the philosophical
and scientific points-of-view in M. W. Wartofsky, Con-
ceptual Foundations of Scientific Thought (New York?—

The Macmilian Co., 1968), pp. 291-315.

58Perroux, 9p, cit., p. 225.

59P. Huard and M. Durand, Connaissance du Vietnam,
(Hanoi: Ecole Francaise d'Extreme-Orient, 1954), pp.’f82

GOIbid.

61This is reflected in the Vietnamese educational
goals, established during the First National Education
Congress (July, 1958). The second goal (or guiding prin-
ciple of Vietnamese Education)reads: "Education in Viet-
rum must be nationalistic," see: Vietnam, Bo Giao-Duc,
chuo_g:Trinh Trung-Hoc (Vietnam: Bo Giao-Duc, 1958),
p? ”f

62The Committee of Concerned Asian Scholars, The

,.(:hina Story (New York: Pantheon Books, 1970),

g 67

 

 

139

63Ibid.

64John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York:
The Macmillan Co., 1916).

 

65Huard and Durand, 22' cit.

661. C. Brown, Understanding Other Cultures
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1963).

 

6.7Inspired by Le thanh Khoi, "In Search of a
National Culture: Striking a Balance between Tradition ,
and Modernity," CERES, IV (May-June, 1971), 34-37.

 

681bid.

69Florence B. Stratemeyer, et al., Guides to a
Curriculum for Modern Living (New York: Teachers College,
Columbia University,’1952), pp. 10-20.

 

70William James, Psycholo , II (New York: Henry
Holt and Company, 1890), p. 555.

71John Dewey, Democracy and Education (New York:
The Macmillan Company, 1916), p.4117:

 

72E. L. Thorndike, The Psychology of Wants,
Interests, and Attitudes (New York: Appleton-Century,

 

73J. B. Watson, Behaviorism (New York: W. W.
Norton and Company, 1924), p. 74.

 

74R. S. Woodworth, Psychology (New York: Henry
Holt and Company, 1921), p. 71.

 

75E. C. Tolman, "Can Instinct Be Given Up in
Psychology?" Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology,
XVII (July-September, 1922), 139-52.

76E. C. Tolman, "The Nature of the Fundamental
fl jves," Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, XX

/January,m

 

   

LL
L
13..

 

140

77E. C. Tolman, Purposive Behavior in Animals

and Men (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,41932),
pp. 271, 272.

78H. A. Murray, Explorations in Personality (New

York: Oxford University Press, 1938).

79Adapted from L. P. Thorpe and A. M. Schmuller, e
Contemporary’Theories of Learning (New York: The Ronald “T
Press Co., 1954), p. 451.

80Clark L. Hull, Princi 1es of Behavior (Appleton- r11
Century-Crofts, Inc., 1943), pp. 79-90.

81J. F. Dashiell, "A Survey and Synthesis of
Learning Theories," Ps cholo ical Bulletin, XXXII
(April, 1935), 261-75; T. R. McConneII, "Reconciliation
of Learning Theories," in The Psychology of Learning,
Forty-First Yearbook of the National Society fOr the
Study of Education, Part II, ed. by T. R. McConnell

(Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1962), pp. 262-
66.

 

 

82O. H. Mowrer, "Motivation and Learning in Rela-
tion to the National Emergency," Psychological Bulletin
XXXVIII (June, 1941), 421-31; Clark L. Hull, Principles
of Behavior (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc.,
1943), pp. 79-80: N. E. Miller and J. Dollard, Social
Learning and Imitation (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University
Press, 1941), p. 21.

 

83W. I. Thomas, The Unadjusted Girl (Boston, Mass.:
Little, Brown and Co., 1923), pp. 4ff.

 

84G. W. Allport, Personality: A Psychological

Inte retation (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston,
1937), pp. I9U-212.

BSIbid.

86A. H. Maslow, "A Preface to Motivation Theory,"
ps chosomatic Medicine, V (1943), 85-92; A. H. Maslow,
f' Theory of Human Motivation," Psychological Review,
(1943) , 370—96.

 

fl

   

‘1

A
-

141

87Nuttin et al., Egperimental Psychology: Its
chpe and Method, Vg;;_v: Motivation-éfimotion and
Personality, ed. By P. Fraisse and J.#Piaget, translated
5y Mme A. Spillmann (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul,
1968), P. 35.

 

 

88C. Washburne, Child Development and the Curricu-
lum, Thirty-Eighth Yearbook of the National Society for
the Study of Education, Part 1, ed. by G. M. Whipple
(Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1939), pp. 299-
324.

 

89N. Glasser, Schools without Failure (Harper and
Row Publ. Co., 1968).

 

9°Tyler was the first person to use the term entry
behaviors to designate the background behaviors a
particular individual possesses before any new learning
he is going to undertake.

91F. D. Brooks, and S. J. Bassett, "The Retention
of American History in the Junior High School," Journal
of Educational Research, XVIII (October, 1928), 200.

92E. T. Layton, "The Persistence of Learning in
Elementary Algebra," Journal of Educational Psychology,
XXIII (January, 1932), 52. .

 

93G. Katona, Organizing and Memorizing (New York:
Columbia University Press, 1940).

 

94R. I. Perkins, "A Structured, Independent-Study
Course in Chemistry," The Science Teacher, XXXVII
(November, 1970), l9-20i

 

95A. H. Word, and Robert A. Davis, "Individual
Differences in Retention of General Science Subject-Matter
in the Case of Three Measurable Teaching Objectives,"
Journal of Experimental Education, VII (September, 1938),
30.

96E. L. Thorndike and R. S. Woodworth, "The
Influence of Improvement in One Mental Function upon the
faitciency of Other Functions," Psychological Review, VIII
)7, 1901), 247-61; H. Woodrow, T e Effect of‘Training
Transference," Journal of Educational Psychology,

 

 

I:
a.“
[L
.I-

In...

I ll I‘~

 

.u?....

>1... 1

 

142

97H. C. Ellis, The Transfer of Learning_(New York:
The Macmillan Co., 1965). P. 5.

981bid., p. 7.

99E. L. Thorndike, Educational Psychology, Vol. II:

 

The Psychology of Learning (New York: Teachers College,
Calumbia University, 1913), pp. 358-59.

 

100C. H. Judd, Educational Psychology (Boston:
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1939), p. 514.

 

101J. M. Gwynn and J. B. Chase, Fr., Curriculum
Principles and Social Trends (4th ed., New York: The
Macmillan Co., 1969), p. 66.

 

102E. R. Guthrie, "Conditioning: A Theory of
Learning in Terms of Stimulus, Response, and Association,"
The Psychglogy of Learnigg, Forty-First Yearbook of the
NationaI’Society for the Study of Education, Part II,
ed. by T. R. McConnell (Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press, 1942), pp. 24-26.

 

103J. M. Gwynn and J. B. Chase, Fr., 92, cit.,
p. 66.
104 .
L. P. Thorpe and A. M. Schmuller, 92, c1t.,
p. 418.
105

G. Gore, The Scientific Basis of National

Pro ress, (London: Frank Cass & Co., I970), p. 17. Gore
defined science as "a collection of facts and general
principles which are to be learned."

 

1063. H. Hutten, The Language of Modern Physics
(New York: The Macmillan Co., 1956), p. 15.

 

107Lynn Thorndike, A History of Magic and Ekperi-
nmntal Science, Vbl. V (New York: Columbia University

108N. Campbell, What is Science (New York: Dover
, , 1952), p. 27.

 

rub

 

143

109James B. Conant, Science and Common Sense

(New Haven and London: Yale UniversityhPress, 1963),
p. 25.

110A. Einstein, "Considerations Concerning the
Fundamentals of Theoretical Physics," Science, IX (1940),
487.

111J. J. Schwab, "The Structure of the Natural

Sciences,” in The Structure ofrgnowledge and the Curricu-
lum, ed. by G. W. Fordhand L. Pugno (Chicago: Rand
Mafially Co., 1964), pp. 38-39.

112Cited in E. H. Madden, The Structure of Scien-
tific Thought (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1960),
p. 300

 

113NSTA, NSTA Position Statement on School Science

Education for the770‘s (pamphlet) (Washington, D.C.:
NSTA, 1971).

114-116

a) A. A. Moles, La Creation Scientifi ue,
(Geneve: Editions Rene Kister, I957), pp. 201-208,
208-211.

b) Harold K. Hughes, "Individual and Group
Creativity in Science," in Essays on Creativity in the

Sciences, ed. by M. A. Coler (New York: New York Univer-
sity Press, 1963).

117A. E. WOodruff, ”Elementary Science Courses

Called Misleading,” Educational Technology, VII (July 30,
1967), 7.

118-119E. R. Pierce, Modern High School Chemistry:

A Recommenged Course of Study'TNew York: Teachers
College, Columbia University, 1959), pp. 7-13.

12°U.S.A., National Academy of Sciences. Chemistry:

Opportunities and Needs: The Westheimer Report (Washing-
ton, D.C.: National Academy ofSciences, 1965T.

 

144

121J. Barzun, Science, The Glorious Entertain-
ment (London: Secker ahd*Warbury,‘l964).

 

.l

AQV

p d

Lb

\:

CHAPTER IV

THE MODEL AND THE PRESENT STATUS OF

CHEMISTRY INSTRUCTION IN VIETNAM

There exists today such a profusion of definitions
for the word "curriculum" that one may get easily confused
as to what definition seems the most correct one. Fortu-
nately, however, Beauchamp has established that there are
three usual meanings associated with the word "curriculum";
it may mean: "a) a 'curriculum' i.e. a substantive docu-
ment; b) a system of schooling; c) a field of study."1

The first meaning is closely related to the focus
of this chapter. Thus the first part of this chapter pre-
sents the major components of an operational model that
will be useful for the development of any science or
chemistry program. Criteria for objective judgement about
the adequacy of any particular science instruction pro-
gram--e.g., a chemistry instruction program-~were also
developed .

The last part of the chapter utilizes the estab—

llished set of criteria to evaluate the existing chemistry

145

.\- ‘

.55

146

program in Vietnamese secondary schools, in order to

locate weaknesses and strengths.
The Model and Its Components
Description of the Operational
Tar—DeveIOpmental) MOdel
The Model adopted for this study is composed of
six major components (see Figure 2).
Component I: General Objectives Selection
Component II: Specific Objectives Selection
Component III: Pre-Assessment
Component IV: Learning Content Selection and
Organization (SOC)
Component V: Learning Experiences Selection and
Organization (SOLE)

Component VI: Program Evaluation

Whereas a macro-design of the Model includes all
these six components, a micro-design--especia11y designed
for classroom use-~would include a fewer number of compo-
nents.

These components are interwoven with each other
by a system of feedback loOpS.

The design of this Model was suggested by works in
curriculum done by Tyler, Glaser, Taba, Stratemeyer, Oliver,
:Fox, Saylor and Phenix. The Model was designed to bridge

'the gap between the classicists (Tyler, Taba, Goodlad) on

147

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.muucowuomxm mcwcunoq uo cowuuuw

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«mooq cannabax can xuunvoo~
y /

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148

one hand, and the"hierarchists"(e.g. Glaser, Gagné), on the
other hand, so that both ends and means of the curriculum
are included in the same package.2

The nature and functions of each one of these
components are given below.

Selection of General
Objectives

 

 

The sources of objectives include: the society,
the learner and the subject matter. The society's values
as mirrored in the nation's educational goals and the
contributions from other instructional fields (e.g.,
psychology) serve as screening devices for tentative ob-
jectives that are derived from the three sources. The
selection of general objectives for science and chemistry
instruction was done in Chapter III, following Tyler's
rationale,3 i.e., using the three sources and the two
screens.

In this component, the two-way arrows represent
possible interactions between the sources. For instance,
there may be conflict between a Vietnamese student (source
B) who wants to become an outstanding research scholar,
with the society's (source A) needs for more engineers
and technicians to build a solid material infrastructure
for the country. The drawing used here implies that each

outer Sphere (E or D), may interact not only with the

149

other outer sphere but also with one or all of the three
inner spheres (A, B and C) through a "chain reaction"
pattern.
Determination of Specific
Subject Area Ohjectives

From the pool of general objectives (as repre-
sented by Component I), specific objectives for a particu-
lar grade or phase (flexible scheduling terminology) of
the school can be drawn, which will generate, in turn,
specific objectives for the units or sub-units of the
course. Thus, a hierarchy of objectives could be estab-

lished, according to the following diagram:

General goals of education

General goals of local school systems
Subject area objectives (general)

Course (or syllabus) objectives (specific)

Unit or Sub-Unit objectives (more specific)

 

Increasing degree
of spec1f1c1ty

[

I

In order to be specific, a science objective
should be stated in terms of learner behaviors. The
behavior or the product of the learner‘s behavior should
.be described in operational terms, i.e., using words
*which are defined by "the operations that it takes to

"5 The behavior or its product should

produce them.
also be observable: mental or "mystical" operations are

exc luded .

F.-

.- 5. PM». ~ “an \

150

Mager has established a procedure for writing
behavioral objectives,6 which is adopted today by a
majority of writers in the fields of education, education
technology or science education.

A behavioral objective "a la Mager" should

include:

1) A specific description of the terminal behavior.
2) A statement of important conditions under which
the behavior is expected to occur.
3) A specification of criteria of acceptable
performance.7
The foregoing considerations have led to the
development of the following criteria which would allow a
fair judgement about the selection of general and specific
objectives for science and chemistry programs.
Criteria for a Valid System of

Seleching Ohjegtives for:§Eience
and Chemistry Education

1. Does the prOgram have a statement of objectives,

both general and specific?

2. Are general objectives derived from a considera-
tion of the society, the subject area, and the
student and also consistent with present status
of psychology knowledge and the set of cultural

values presently held by the society?

3. Are Specific objectives stated as explicitly as
possible, following for instance Mager's procedure

of writing instructional objectives?

151

4. Are objectives comprehensive enough to include
those from Bloom's cognitive, affective and

psycho-motor domains?8

Pre-Assessment

 

The purpose of pre-assessing learner behaviors is
to guide the selection of content and learning experiences,
which should be appropriate to the learner's mental and
educational readiness. The assessing of learner entry
behaviors could be done at the national, regional or
provincial levels. At the national level, it could be
done periodically, when it is necessary to have a national
revision of science proqrams.

Selection and Organization of
fearninghContent I SO

The purpose of "SOC" is to provide a reference
framework upon which learning experiences can be builté-
those experiences that are designed to meet the subject
area objectives set forth. Thus, "SOC" should be consis-
tent with established objectives and, in addition, with
the nature and structure of the subject area.

The foregoing consideration has led to the es-

,tablishment of some principles that should guide "SOC."

152

Criteria for the Selection and Organization of

 

Content (”SOC").--
1. Is "SOC" consistent with objectives?
2. Is the content selected meaningful and highly
internally organized?
3. Is "SOC" realistic, in terms of learning-teaching
resources that are presently available?
4. Is "SOC" coordinated with other related disciplines,

both in the sciences and liberal arts?

Selection and Organization of

 

Learning Experiences ("SOLE")

"SOLE" should be consistent both with objectives

and content. In order to be adequate, "SOLE" should in-

clude the following sub-components:

1.

Strategy and technique determination.
Student grouping.

Time allocation.

Space allocation.

Selection of instructional resources.

Evaluation of learning.

Strategy and technique determination.-—The word

 

"strategy" has been more and more used during recent

jyears in curriculum studies. Most of the definitions

given to the word may be reduced to the following:

153

A strategy is the teacher's approach to using

information, selecting resources, and defining the

role of the students. It includes specific 9

practices used to accomplish a teaching objective.

Only two kinds of strategy are examined here: the exposi-
tory approach and the discovery approach.

Expository Approach.--In the hypothetically pure
form of this approach——sometimes called deductive teach-
ing-—the teacher plays a dominant role: it is he who
selects, organizes and presents the subject-matter content
in an explicit and understandable form, leaving no room for
discovery work by the students. The most commonly used
technique for this approach is the lecture method, whereby
the teacher stands in front of the classroom and lectures
to the students; but he can also supplement his lectures
by audio-visual demonstrations--or, in the case of science
lessons, by science demonstration experiments.

The reasons for the wide use of this approach in
thepast as well as for its adOption by most of today's
schools have been expressed in the following words:

a) It [the expository approach] is a superior approach
to help students directly grasp relationship be-
tween concepts and principles--thereby making
their learning more effective.

b) It helps students to have an organized view of
the subject-matter so that better retention is
obtained. 10

c) It requires less time than the discovery approach.
Thus, it would appear that the criteria of ef-

:fectiveness and efficiency are met by the use of this

approach. Unfortunately, human experiences--their

154

intensity or depth--could not be measured solely in terms
of time or money. There exists more to human learning
than efficiency and effectiveness, or right and wrong
answers. There exist: the joys of discovery, the
ecstatic approach to learning,11 the existentialist views
on living and learning,12 all of which have the same
common denominator which is the "freedom to learn,"13 to
live, to create or at least--in existentialistic termi-
nology--the freedom to choose what one wants to learn, to
live and to create. It is this freedom which establishes
differences between human learning and animal or robot
learning.

Discovery Approach.--In the hypothetically pure
form of this approach, the teacher provides no guidance
(or learning cues) to the students; he only "arranges
conditions in such a manner that students raise questions
(and find answers for themselves) about a tOpic or
event."14 These conditions include all kinds of instruc-
tional resources that are available within the limitations
imposed by the school‘s budget. The following example
may serve to illustrate this approach.

A fifth grade science teacher might demonstrate
the arrangement of iron filings around a magnetic
field using an overhead projector so that all might
see. He asks his class to raise questions without

providing any background information except the
demonstration itself."15

155

There are many advantages to the use of this

approach in teaching. Bruner, among others, claims that

discovery learning:

a)
b)
C)

d)

increases intellectual power.

increases intrinsic motivation.

teaches the techniques of discovery i.e. one can
improve one's technique of discovery by engaging
in discovery tasks oneself.

insures better retention of what is learned, since
what one can internalize and organize with one's
own words and imagery is easier to retain and
bring out when needed.16

It is hard to say which approach is better. The

choice of one approach instead of another, or the choice

of both or even the choice of a middle-of-the-road

approach--termed as the guided discovery approach (see

Figure 3) depends mainly on:

a)
b)

C)

the purposes and objectives one has set forth.
the types of students one has, in terms of entry

behaviors.
the kinds of resource materials (and persons) one

has.17

Pure Guided Pure

Expository Discovery Discovery

 

(all cues) (some cues) (no cues)
_>

Figure 3.--A Teaching-Learning Continuum.18

156

Technique.--For Gerlach and Ely, the word ”tech-
nique" means "the procedures and practices used to ac-
complish teaching objectives, regardless of approach."19
Whenever more than one technique is needed--which is
often the case--to reach a stated objective, precautions
should be taken to combine these various techniques (lec-
ture, discuss audio-visual presentations) into a harmo-

nious "whole," so that a maximum positive effect on stu-

dents' learning could be obtained.

Student Grouping. Time and Space Allocations.--
The organization of students into groups for effective
learning, as well as the time and Space allocations for
each unit of learning experiences depend on the objectives
chosen for theunit. According to Gerlach and Ely, the
following basic questions should be answered before such
decisions--any decision that could be included in the
five sub-components of Component V--could be made:

1. Which objectives can be reached by the learner
on his own?

2. Which objectives can be achieved through inter-
action among the learners themselves?

3. Which objectives can be achieved through formal
presentation by the teacher and through inter-
action between the learner and the teacher?20
The three sub-components dealt with in this sec-

tion are closely related to each other. Thus, the organ-
ization of students into small, large or "individual”

groups will determine the size of learning spaces or the

amount of learning time that could be allocated. However,

157

the learning time required--in the case of individualized
instruction--cou1d not be determined precisely, since

individuals differ in terms of learning rate.

Selection of instructional media.--It was estab-

 

lished in the previous section that the selection of in-
structional media depends on the chosen objectives. The
knowledge of the nature of instructional media is also
crucial in this selection process and constitutes the main

focus of this section.

Definition of instructional media.--The term

 

"medium," understood in its broad sense, means: "any
person, material or event that establishes conditions
which enable the learner to acquire knowledge, skills and

attitudes."21

This definition implies that the teacher
is also an instructional medium. However, for our con-
venience purposes, a narrower definition of instructional
media (which was given by Edling and Paulson) is adopted
in this study:

Media are defined as "the graphic photographic,
electronic, or mechanical means for arresting, processing

”22 This

and reconstituting visual or verbal information.
definition includes all the audio-visual instructional

media commonly found in today's schools.

Characteristics and properties of instructional
media.--An adequate knowledge of the vast array of today's

instructional media can be obtained by inquiring about:

158

(l) the characteristics of each medium, in terms

of motion, sound, color, for instance;

(2) possible uses of each medium (including advan-

tages of each medium);
(3) limitations and disadvantages of each medium; and

(4) the ways in which each medium can be used ef-

fectively, to promote maximum positive effects.

Guidelines for the selection of instructional
media.--From theknowledge of objectives and of the nature
of instructional media, the principles that guide the

selection process could be derived. Today, most media

23 24 25

experts--e.g., Dale, Harcleroad, Schuler --would

agree on the following guiding principles:

(1) Appropriateness: Is the medium suitable to
accomplish the defined task?

(2) Sophistication Level: Does the medium suit
students' abilityhlevels?

(3) Cost: Is the cost worth the potential learning
offered by this medium?

(4) Availability: Are the material and equipment
available when needed?

(5) Technical quality: Is the quality of the mater-
ial acceptable in terms of readability, visibility
and audibility?"25

Evaluation of learning within an instructional
program.--The purpose of evaluating learning in school

should be two-fold:

(l) to contribute to learning and teaching (formative

evaluation purposes);27

159

(2) to judge (or grade) students or instructional

programs (summative evaluation purpose).28

Thus, both approaches (formative and summative) to eval-
uating science and chemistry learning should be utilized.
A variety of testing and measuring techniques (e.g., ob-
jective test items essay-type tests) should also be
included in the evaluation system (or examination system).
The evaluation system should pay greater attention to
the technical qualities of measuring instruments, which
include reliability and validity.

The foregoing considerations have led to the

establishment of some guiding principles for "SOLE.”

Criteria for the Selection and Organization of
Learning Experiences ("SOLE").--

1. Is SOLE consistent with objectives and content?
2. Does "SOLE” serve wide range of objectives?

3. Does "SOLE" provide for the analyzing and sequence
of learner behaviors--inc1uding individual dif-

ferences, of course?

4. Does "SOLE" make use of the systems approach, i.e.
the use of various learning strategies (expository
pure discovery, guided discovery approaches) and
various learning techniques (lecture, discussion,

laboratory work, multi-media)?

160

5. Does "SOLE" minimize the role of memorization?
6. Is "SOLE” feasible, in terms of time and money?

7. Is the evaluation system in "SOLE" adequate (or
comprehensive)29 i.e., does it include all types
of strategies (e.g., formative and summative
approaches) and techniques (e.g., both objective

and essay-type test items)?

8. Is the evaluation system in "SOLE" valid (i.e.

consistent with objectives) and reliable?

Evaluation Program (EP)

The purpose of the "EP" is to provide indications
on the extent to which established objectives for a science
or chemistry course were met, and also on the effective-
ness of the proposed content or learning experiences to
meet these objectives. These indications are extremely
helpful for program revisions and improvements.

The criteria that help to identify a good evalua-
tion program in any science or chemistry program are the
following:

Criteria for a sound evaluation program.--

1. Is "EP" consistent with objectives?3°'31

2. Does "EP” include pre-assessment?32

161

3. Is "EP" reliable and valid?33

4. Is "EP" comprehensive?34

5. Does "EP" include the evaluation of both learners

and teachers?

6. Is "EP" continuous?35

Present Status of Chemistry
Education’in Vietnam

 

 

Historical Backggound

 

School chemistry during 1956—1970.--Before and

 

during this period, chemistry played a secondary role in
secondary schools, as though it is only a chapter in a
physics course. Indeed, until 1970, the "Ly—Hoa" program
(Physical Science program) gives physics a higher status
than its partner; and a student who was strong enough in
physics could then afford to ignore chemistry: he could
get a reSpectable grade in the Physical Science examination
anyhow (only one examination for both physics and chemis-
try was given, in which questions for chemistry were given
a light weight, compared to physics questions).

Chemistry programs throughout this period do not
differ substantially from those that were left by the
colonial educational system. There were practically no
signs of reforms in chemistry education throughout this

Ioeriod. For instance, both programs of chemistry-—one

162

for 1960, and another for 196436--are identical, except
for the fact that the programs for 1960 were written in
French, and those for 1964 were in the Vietnamese lang-

uages.37

 

The new program for 1970.--This date marks a pro-
found change in the history of chemistry teaching in Viet—
namese secondary schools. First, there was a rise in the
status of chemistry teaching in secondary schools, be-

38

ginning with the setting up of a fixed number of hours

per week reserved for chemistry teaching (before, the
number of hours was not precise).39

The content (as was expressed in the 1970 syl-
labus) was also revised. Essential features of the new
chemistry pr0gram include:

1. Avoidance of content duplication from grade to

grade.

2. Memorization work by students is supposedly re-

stricted to essential chemical facts and laws.40

However, nothing was said-—in the curriculum
guide--about objectives, teaching approaches. It seems
also that the same system of examinations will be used
for years to come.

The situation looks better in the higher level of
cahemistry teaching--but only insofar as content is

concerned . 4 1

vb;

cub. .f b -

NH

‘1.

m:

:‘

Ah.

:5

unslsu

is.

I \
-\‘

163

Present Status of Chemistry
Education in Vietnam: A
Close Look

During the first years of secondary school (1st

 

cycle), students are taught simple chemical processes that
they are likely to encounter in everyday life or in other
subject areas. Instruction is essentially based on lec-
tures delivered by the teachers to the whole class.

In grade 10 (formerly called De Tam) that begins
the 2nd cycle of secondary schooling, students begin to
study chemistry that is taught with a slightly different
approach--more detailed as to theoretical explanation of
chemical processes and phenomena. Laboratory work is al-
most nonexistent except for a few privileged secondary
schools.

Chemistry syllabuses have a traditional structure,
in the sense that they are based mainly on experience and
views on which previous syllabi were based and compiled to
serve only the needs of a small select group who can afford
to pursue higher education in colleges and universities.
:Even this unique purpose of chemistry teaching in secondary
schools--i.e. preparation for higher education--seems to be

42 It may be in this purpose--

unsuccessfully fulfilled.
preparing for higher education in chemistry--that the
recent curriculum revision (1970) took place. However,
this revision (see New Program for 1970) lies only in the

content area but does not affect neither the teaching

 

164

approaches nor the teaching objectives (no objectives for
cmemistry teaching could be found). Here exists also the
problem of meeting the needs of the country and those of
the Vietnamese youth that the new program did not pay
attention to. Endeavors were made to up-date the program
with regard to the subject-matter only. The forthcoming
discussion takes a closer look at the weaknesses and in-
adequacies of the existing chemistry pregram, with constant
reference to the different components of the ”hypothet-
ically" ideal model of the chemistry (or science) instruc-
tional system that was developed in the beginning of this
chapter and also under the light of the associated set of
criteria. Thus the following points are examined:

(1) objectives,

(2) content (or syllabuses),

(c) learning eXperiences (selection and organization),

and

(d) examination system.

Objectives.--According to our conception of a good

 

chemistry (or science) curriculum--laid out in the previous
part-~objectives constitute an important part of the whole
cnarriculum. General as well as specific (in behavioral
form, if possible) objectives for chemistry education

should be provided in the curriculum guide.

165

The New Program for 1970, as well as the programs
for 1960 and 1964, did not contain any statement of ch-

43

jectives--general or specific-~whatsoever. In the intro-

ductory part to the Chemistry Program (1970), only broad
guidelines related to teaching techniques are provided.44
One may argue however that the objectives are implied by
the content; but a close look at the content reveals that
the possible implied objectives were drawn mainly from the
subject-matter content and that these objectives would
serve only a small select group which could afford to go
on for further higher education. No concern was shown as
to how chemistry teaching may have an impact on life and
society, or on national economic and industrial develop-
ment, or on the cultivation of scientific thinking and
reasoning. Thus, the criterion number two--which stipu-
lates that objectives should be derived from Tyler's
sources--was not adequately met. Other criteria, namely,

criteria one, three, and four, were not entirely met,

according to the above considerations.

Learning content.--Since learning content should be

 

consistent with objectives set forth, an examination of

the curriculum objectives may help in giving insight into
the nature of the learning content of the curriculum. The
foregoing has probably suggested that the chemistry content
would be heavily subject-matter-oriented--which is true,

45

indeed. In fact, in both courses, there are no traces of

166

reference to the role of chemistry in the nation's economic
growth or the emphasis on dealing with substances that
have practical importance in the student's daily life--
e.g. detergents, fertilizers, semi-conductor elements,
plastics.

Another major shortcoming consists of neglect in-
volved in the designing of courses for non-science majors.

In fact,46

the course designed for non-science majors
(Arts and Letters Section) is a miniature replica of the
other--designed for science and technology majors--in the
sense that the course organization is the same in both
courses; only fewer details are involved for the non-
science majors course and also less rigorous explanations
are used (in terms of mathematical rigor).

The following picture about teaching chemistry to
non-science majors in the United States may also be found
in Vietnamese secondary schools:

And yet chemistry courses for nonscience majors
continue to be taught as if the objective were to
produce miniature chemists. The textbooks, the
syllabi, and the methods of teaching continue to
be relaxed by otherwise virtually unmodified ver-
sions of those used in the first-year "mainstream“
chemistry courses.

The non-science major does not really need the
approach used for the science (or chemistry) major; the
reason is that: "While the mainstream chemistry student

must indeed be provided with a rigorous introduction and

a firm foundation, the nonmajor may understandably feel

167

that an introduction to something he will never again
encounter is a useless formality and that a foundation
which will never be built upon is nothing more than a
hole in the ground."48
Another approach for the nonscience major is im-
perative; it Should be relevant to the student's true
needs:
The cry for relevance can be interpreted partly as
a plea for pertinence to the student's own educa-
tional objectives. Since he will in all probability
never pursue the subject far enough to use it
creatively in the solution of a future problem, there
is not much point in taking him down the same path-
way to mastery that has been devised for the ultimate
practicioner: the major in the field.3 Trying to
turn out violinists, however rudimentary, from a
group of expressedly non-musical peOple only courts
frustration. One must rather hoge to turn out per-
ceptive, non-performing critics. 9
Thus, one of the objectives for nonscience major
courses in chemistry should be to provide these students-—
the future non-scientists--with the ability to appreciate
science and chemistry, without having to perform what
scientists and chemists perform: one need not be a
pianist to be able to enjoy Beethoven's or ChOpin's piano
music, provided one has had prior training in piano music
appreciation.
The last weakness in the content is the impres-
sion--given by the content lay-out--of a vast sea of iso-
lated facts that may appear meaningless to students,

irrelevant to their needs and interests.

168

These foregoing have led to the conclusions that

the following criteria are not met:

1. Criteria one and two, relative to the relevance of
the Learning Content to the country's and stu-

dent's needs (as implied by the stated objectives.)

2. Criterion two, relative to the degree of internal

organization of the learning content.

3. Criterion three, relative to the degree of realism

of the learning content.

Selection and organization of learning exper-
iences.-—In Vietnam, science teaching in secondary schools
relies heavily on the lecture method. The familiar image
of a science teacher in Vietnamese secondary schools is
the following one:

With a textbook and a chalk board, the secondary
school science teacher tries to transmit his knowledge
of the day's lesson to his students. . . .

Science teachers sometimes use demonstrations
along with their lectures whenever conditions permit.
They may set up laboratory sessions for their
students . . . once in a while.50

The reasons for a nearly complete neglect of practical
work in science teaching include the following ones:

(1) lack of laboratory facilities and scientific
equipment,

(2) lack of adequately trained science teachers in
laboratory teaching,

(3) serious pressure of the national examinations on
students' and teachers' activities.

(4) too large class size.51

169

While it is clearly true that the above picture
could not be changed overnight (due to the Ministry of
Education's limited financial resources), it is not un-
realistic to affirm that steps could be taken right away
to enrich an impoverished picture. Thus, why present
chemistry programs do not include a wide range of modern
approaches and techniques that are available today? Such
techniques as discussions, chemistry individual projects
(e.g., summary or report on recent articles in chemistry,
model-building projects which use low-cost materials),
low-cost audio-visual media, certainly do not cost a great
deal. Whenever first-hand experiences--e.g. laboratory
work-~are not available, vicarious experiences (especially
those that are not so expensive) should be sought.

The problem discussed here, lies: (a) more on the
lack of well-prepared teachers, who know how to solve
problems that are presented to them in their daily teach-
ing, than on the lack of financial resources; (b) and on
the curriculum content, that substitutes memorization to
creative work.

What science education in Vietnam needs today is:
(a) a new generation of well-prepared and enthusiastic
teachers who-~through their self-reliance, their crea-
tivity--know how to impart to students the interest and

love for science learning; and (b) a modern science

170

curriculum that makes use of all strategies and techniques
for learning and teaching which are available today.

The above consideration has led to the conclusion
that almost all criteria under "SOLE"--from criterion 1
to criterion 6--are not adequately met by the present

chemistry program.

Examination system.--In Vietnam, secondary school
examinations consist of external examinations, organized
twice a year (Bac I and Bac II). Those examinations--
especially chemistry examinations--test mainly recall of
knowledge. In chemistry for example, the examinee is
supposed to reproduce a part of a chapter (or several
parts of different chapters). While essay-type tests
have some value--especially for normal school students--
in determining the students' ability to organize knowledge,
they are not very apprOpriate in secondary schools where
priority should be given to developing students' abilities
in scientific thinking, in drawing inferences or in solv-
ing problems. One of the objectives of science and
chemistry teaching--as was discussed in Chapter III--should
be to produce creative citizens, since more problems need
to be solved in a developing country today than twenty
years ago. More avenues to testing and evaluating science
knowledge and understanding in secondary schools should be
sought--e.g. objective and essay-type tests, and inde-

pendent studies .

I”

’f

I
e.’
_.4

171

The foregoing has shown that several criteria
relative to a good evaluation system in chemistry teaching
are not met by the present chemistry program, namely:

1. Criteria related to the comprehensiveness of a

good evaluation system.

2. Criteria related to the technical qualities of
evaluation measuring instruments, e.g. reliability

and validity.

3. Criteria related to the incorporation of pre-

assessment to the evaluation process.

Summary

The Macro-Design of the Model presented in this
chapter is composed of six major components. The nature
and functions of each component of the Model were
described, and a distinction between a macro-design and
a micro-design of the Model was also made.

To every important component of the Model was
associated a set of criteria designed to validate and
rationalize the task of judging or evaluating any seem-
ingly weak science or chemistry program, in an effort to
persuade by the strength of logical arguments rather than
by wild criticisms.

These criteria were then applied to the evaluation
<3f the existing chemistry program in Vietnamese secondary

schools. As a result of this evaluation, major weaknesses

172

and 100pholes in the existing chemistry program were
identified--namely, its irrelevance to both the learner's
and society's needs--and the need for a totally new
program of chemistry education for Vietnamese secondary

schools was felt.

FOOTNOTES FOR CHAPTER IV

1George A. Beauchamp, Curriculum Theory (2nd ed.,
Wilmette, 111.: The Kaag Press, 1968), pp. 74, 77.

 

2a) R. W. Tyler, Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction (Chiago: The University chChicago Press,
I950)?

 

 

b) R. W. Tyler, "Some Persistent Questions on the
Defining of Objectives," in Defining Educational Objec-
tives, ed. by C. M. Lindvall-TPittsburg,Pa.: *The
University of Pittsburg, 1964), pp. 77-83.

c) Robert Glaser, "Some Research Problems in
Automated Instruction," in Programmed Learning and
Com uter-Based Instruction, ed. by J. E. CoulSon TNew
YorE: Wiley andOSons, 1962), pp. 67-85.

d) Hilda Taba, Cgrriculum Development: Theory
and Practice (New York: Harcourt, hrace, and World,

l§62).

 

 

 

 

 

 

e) Florence B. Stratemeyer et al., Developing a
Curriculum for Modern Living (New York:__Teachers College,
Columbia University, 1957).

f) Albert I. Oliver, Curriculum Improvement
(New York: Dodd, Mead and Co., 1965).

9) Robert S. Fox, "Curriculum Development with a
Purpose," Theory into Practice, I (October, 1960),
pp. 202-207.

h) J. Galen Saylor, and W. M. Alexander, Curricu-
lum Planning for Mgdern Schools (New York: Holt, Rine-
hart and Winston, Inc., 1966), pp. 3-401.

i) Philip H. Phenix, PhilosoPhy of Education
(New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1958),
pp. 57-75.

j) John Goodlad, Planning and_9rganizing for
Teachin (Washington, D.C.: National Education Associa-
tion, 1%

 

 

 

 

63).

3R. W. Tyler, op. cit.

173

174

4Adapted from J. W. Thornton, Jr. and J. R.

Wright et al., Secondar School Curriculum (Columbus,
Ohio: Harrill Books Co., Inc., 1963), pp. 28-32.

sGilbert Sax, Empirical Foundations of Educa-
tional Research (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,

 

Robert F. Mager, Preparigg Instructional Objec-
tives (Palo Alto, Calif.: Pearon Pub., 1962).

71bid., p. 12.

8a) B. S. Bloom, ed., Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives: Handbook I: ngnitive Domain (New York:
cKay o., 6).
b)D. R. Krathwohl et al., Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives: Handbook II: Affédtiv§_5omain (New York:
McKay Co., 1964).

9V. S. Gerlach and D. P. Ely, Teaching and Media:

A S stematic Approach (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-
Ha , Inc., 1971), p. 15.

10a) D. P. Ausubel, The Psycholo of Meaningful
Verbal Learning: An Introdugtion to School Learning_(New
York: Greene and Stratton, Inc., 1963)) p. 19.
b) J. B. Carroll, "Words, Meanings, and Concepts,"
Harvard Educational Review, XXXIV (Spring, 1964), 202.

11George B. Leonard, Education and Ecstasy (New

York: Dell Publishing Co., Inc.,l968).

12a) Van Cleve Morris, "Existentialism and

Education," Educational Theory, IV (October, 1954), 247-58.

b) George F. Kneller, Existentialism and
Education (New York: Philos0phical Library, Inc., 1958).

c) Van Cleve Morris, Existentialism in Educa-
tion: What It Means (New York: Harper an Row,

d) Arturoli. Fallico, "Existentialism and
Education," Educational Theory, IV (April, 1954), 166-72.

 

 

13Carl R. Rogers, Freedom to Learn (Columbus,
Ohio: Merrill Pub. Co., 1969).

175

14-15Gerlach and Ely, gp, cit., p. 15.

16Jerone S. Bruner, "The Act of Discovery,"
Harvard Educational Review, XXXI (Winter, 1961), 21-32.

17J. P. DeCecco, The PS cholo of Learning and
Instruction (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
Inc.,—1968), p. 475.

 

 

18Adapted from Edwin Fenton, The New Social

Studies (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.,
, pp. 33—34.

 

lg'zooeriach and Ely, 92, cit., pp. 17, 22.

211bid., p. 282.

22J. V. Edling and C. A. Paulson, "Understanding
Instructional Media," in The Contribution of Behavioral
Science to Instructional Technology (Monmouth, Ore.:
Teaching Research Division, Oregon State System of
Higher Education), pp. iv-6.

 

 

23Edgar Dale, Audio-Visual Methods in Teaching
(revised ed., New York: The Dryden Press,’1954).

 

24J. W. Brown, R. B. Lewis, and F. F. Harcleroad,

AV Instruction: Media and Methods (3rd ed., New York:
McGranHill BoOk Co., 1969)}

 

25W. A. Wittich and C. F. Schuller, Audio—Visual
Materials: Their Nature and Use (4th ed., New York:
Harper and Row, 1967).

 

 

26Gerlach and Ely, 22, cit., p. 291.

27.28M. Scriven, "The Methodology of Evaluation,"
in Pers ectives of Curriculum Evaluation, ed. by R. E.
Sta e Chicago: Rand McNally, 1967), pp. 39-83.

 

29Oliver, op, cit., p. 404; also Taba, 22, cit.,
pp. 317-18. 0

176

3oTaba, pp. cit., pp. 316-17.

31.32011ver, pp. cit., p. 404.

33Robert L. Ebel, Measuring Educational Achievement
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1965),
pp. 308-45, 376-95.

34Oliver, pp, cit., p. 404; also Taba, pp, cit.,
pp. 317-18.

35Taba, pp, cit., p. 323.

36.37a) Republique du Vietnam, Department de
l'Education Nationale, Programme_pe l'Enseignement Second-
aire (Vietnam: Departement de l'Education Nationale,
b) Vietnam, Bo Giao-Duc, ChuongeTrinh Trung-
Hoc (Vietnam: Bo Giao-Duc, 1964).

 

38Vietna, Bo Giao-Duc, Chuong-Trinh Trung-Hoc
(Vietnam: Bo Giao-Duc, 1970), pp. 123.

 

39Vietnam, Bo Giao-Duc, pp. cit. (36-37, 81).

40Vietnam, Bo Giao-Duc, pp, cit. (38), pp. 123-34.

41See Appendix.

42Nguyen thanh Khuyen "Viet cho tan Sinh-Vien
Toan-Ly-Hoa," in Kim—Chi-Nam, tu Du-Bi den Cao-Hoc,
ed. by nhom SV Bung-Song—Tfiai-Hoc Khba-Hoc), Saigon:
Bung Song, (Dai-Hoc Khoa-Hoc, 1971-1972), pp. 97-98.

 

43-44

Vietnam, Bo Giao-Duc, pp: cit. (Ref. 38),
pp. 123-24.

451bid., pp. 128-34.

46Ibid., pp. 129=32, 134.

177

47"49R. L. Wolke, "Chemistry for the Non-Science
Major: An Experiment in Relevance," Journal of Chemical

Education, XLVII (December, 1970), 788-93.

so.51’Nguyen thi Du, "Strategies for Improving
Science Education Practices in Vietnamese Secondary
Schools," (unpublished M.A. Thesis, Michigan State
University, 1971), pp. 98-104.

CHAPTER V

A PROPOSAL FOR A NEW CHEMISTRY PROGRAM

FOR VIETNAMESE SECONDARY SCHOOLS

This chapter deals with the proposal of a new
chemistry program for the second cycle of Vietnamese
secondary schools. The first part of the chapter pre-
sents the rationale behind the design of new chemistry
courses for Vietnamese schools. The second part proposes
the content and the content structure of new chemistry
courses. Suggested teaching-learning activities are also
included.* The last part proposes a new system of exami-
nations to evaluate students' knowledge and understanding
of chemistry. This sytematic approach to measuring and
evaluating students' achievement makes use of recent
developments in evaluation strategies--e.g. formative and
summative approachesl--and evaluation techniques, and also
of recent works in the area of behavioral objectives2 for

science and chemistry instruction.

 

*See Appendix A.

178

179
General Considerations Regarding_the Design of
—N3w_Chemistry Churses for Vietnamese Schools
From the consideration of objectives for chemistry

teaching in Vietnamese secondary schools--objectives that
have been established in Chapter III--and from the con-
sideration of inadequacy of existing chemistry programs
to meet these objectives (inadequacy that has been re-
vealed in Chapter IV), what will new courses in chemistry
look like, in terms of content and content structure?
How can they reflect, for instance, recent advances in
science and chemistry knowledge, new trends in national--
or international--industrial production, and prepare stu-
dents to apply their scientific knowledge and thinking in
solving social or economic problems? A brief look at
the chemistry material now studied is a necessary step to
answer these questions.
Characteristics of Existing
Chemistry Churses: Content

Elements that Could be
Retained

 

Present chemistry courses for the second cycle of
secondary schools were organized around fundamental con-
cepts, laws, and principles of inorganic and organic
chemistry. Some rudiments of physical and analytical
chemistry were added in the latest curriculum revision,3

in order to enhance deeper understanding of chemical

processes and phenomena.

180

The first important law that is included in the
existing chemistry program is the Periodic Law.4 One can
hardly imagine modern inorganic chemistry without
Mendeleev's Law. Farrar has elegantly illustrated the
importance of this Law in the following words:

No longer need inorganic chemistry be a scrapbook
of unrelated facts which had to be memorized like
nouns in a dead language; it suddenly had a
grammar of its own, a framework which made sense
of old discoveries and pointed forward to new ones.
It could stand equal with organic chemistry, where
the new Structure Theory was reducing confusion

to order in a most satisfying way.5

Thus, study of the Periodic Law and the Periodic
System should be an integral and important part of our
new chemistry courses.

Besides the Periodic Law, existing chemistry
courses include other "retainable" elements, namely:

Oxidation and Reduction

Acids and Bases

Chemical Bonding

Inductive and Mesomeric Effects

Rate of Chemical Reactions

Chemical Equilibrium

AtomiC‘Structure

Organic Analysis and Separation Methods

The Role of Energy in Chemistry
Inorganic Chemistry6

While these content elements could enter into the
design of new chemistry courses for secondary schools,
they could, however, be subject to further rearrangements
(see next section for more details) including, for in—
stance, their integration into broader contexts or their

placement order in the whole course(s) scheme(s).

181

Improvements that Could be Made
ihthe Learning Content of
Existing Chemistry Courses

The following deals with improvements that can be
made in the selection and organization of learning content
for new chemistry courses. These improvements include
the following possible operations:

(1) the addition of new tOpics in the course(s)

content(s):

(2) the discarding (total or partial) of some un-

desirable content elements;

(3) the reorganization of some content elements

into new patterns.

For example, the present chemistry proqram includes (in
the organic course) the study of natural substances and
man-made compounds without relating it to any broader
context. A better organization of this tapic would be
implied by this title: "The importance of carbon com-
pounds in Nature and Industry." Thus, a relationship is
discussed and not a mere enumeration of facts.

“hm—4a: i3: ifié’e’é‘ifiiiifiguii be

Chemical Elements and
Their Compounds

 

 

 

To provide a stronger theoretical basis should
constitute one of the major goals in the teaching of

chemical elements and their compounds--an area commonly

182

known as inorganic chemistry. In order to reach this
goal, an early acquaintance by the students with the
periodic law and the structure of atoms is recommended.
This approach has been termed as a systematic approach
to inorganic chemistry, by Douglas and McDaniel in the
following context:

A systematic approach to inorganic chemistry is

today almost synonymous with a study of the periodic

relationships of the elements and their compounds.

Such an organization has an empirical foundation

built during the last century and a theoretical

justification of half a century.7

Thus the need to have an in-depth understanding

of the Periodic System has been clearly demonstrated.
This understanding could not be achieved however, if the
study of the Periodic Table is made in isolation from its
theoretical basis--i.e. the theory of the structure of
atoms. Thus, a change in the present chemistry program
could be brought about by incorporating into one unit--
instead of two--the study of the atomic structure of the
elements with the study of the Mendeleev's Table. To
understand deeply (or clearly) an event or phenomenon re-
quires not only the knowledge of the event's or phenome-
non's characteristics, but also the knowledge of possible
relationships that may exist between this event or pheno-
menon and another event, or phenomenon. A similar view

on understanding has been provided by Ouspensky, who

states:

183

Knowledge did not of itself confer understanding

on a person, nor did understanding necessarily
arrive with a further accession of knowledge.
Understanding was the outcome of certain relation-
ship between knowledge and being, and we could
therefore regard it as being the resultant between
the two. Another important thing about understanding
was that it always entailed a realization of the
relationship existing between the cell and the body;
between the individual man and mankind; between man-
kind and organic life; between organic life and the
earth; between the earth and the sun and between the
solar system and the whole universe.8

Thus, true understanding requires some sort of
structure or relationships, as has been pointed by Bruner,
who defines structure as: "understanding subject matter
in a way that permits many things to be related to it
meaningfully. To learn structure in short is to learn how
things are related."9

Thus, the study of the Periodic Table could not be
fully understood unless it is related to the study of its
theoretical framework.

Another change that can be made in the existing
secondary school chemistry program consists of getting
students acquainted more adequately with materials of mod-
ern technology. Up until now, only a few of metallic
elements--e.g. calcium, iron, a1uminum--have been studied

in detail.10

This limited list should be lengthened to
encompass these following metals: copper, chromium,
manganese, titanium, vanadium and some others. It is not
necessary to treat each one of these metals in detail (this

approach may not be feasible due to time limitation), since

184

a consideration of these metals in terms of general salient

 

featuresll of the corresponding group (or sub-group) of

elements in the Periodic Table could meet sufficiently the
purposes of chemistry teaching at the secondary school
level.

The same approach should be extended to the study
of non-metals, although a concrete consideration of sub-
stances should not be neglected. Then students will have
opportunities to learn chemistry in the hypothetico-
deductive way, which they are fully able to do so--since
most of them (in a tenth grade) are in the formal opera—
tions stage, according to Piaget's Theory of Cognitive
Development.12 For instance, they will be able to charac-
terize a member--which has not been studied directly--of
a particular group in the Periodic Table from their knowl-
edge of the general properties that are common to all
elements of this group.

In teaching the properties of compound substances,
more emphasis should be given to the most significant
properties that find applications in students' daily life.
Thus students should be given information about semi-
conductors, materials for chemical industries and power
plants, building materials, inorganic polymers, ferti-

lizers.

fl...

 

 

185

What Further Improvements Could
5E Made in tpp_Teaching of the
éhpmistryofCarbon and its
Compounds?

 

Recent curriculum revisions have benefited organic-
chemistry-learning in secondary schools more than other
areas of chemistry. Thus, students' initiation to relations
between electronic structure and chemical reactivity of
organic substances (inductive effect, mesomeric effect),
constituted one of the major hallmarks of recent chemistry
programs.l3 However, further improvements could be added
to organic chemistry courses.

First of all, greater attentiOn should be focused
upon chemical understanding of life processes. The study
of biologically active substances and some notions of
molecular biology should be, therefore, part of the chemis-
try programs. Students should also be acquainted with
fundamental constituents of living matter (glucids,
lipids, proteins), and also of vitamins, ferments and anti-
biotics that are important both theoretically and prac-
tically (medicine, agriculture). Information about growth
stimulants and means for eradicating pests and weeds
should be given to students; although such materials are
increasingly important--especially for an agricultural
country like Vietnam--they are almost nonexistent in
present chemistry programs.

In the study of representatives of major classes

of organic compounds only their important properties

186

(those relevant to life and production) should be singled
out. For instance, it is much more important to illus—
trate the lengthening of the hydrocarbon chain with the

alkylating reaction than with the Wurtz reaction, since

14

the latter has little significance for production. The

direct oxidation of hydrocarbons to produce alcohols also
has a higher order of importance than the hydrolysis of
chloroderivatives.15
Such foregoing consideration in dealing with
properties of substances and their preparation, besides
helping students perceive trends of modern scientific
and technological efforts, can give students more free
time, allowing them to engage in more challenging tasks
in chemistry learning. These tasks, which should be
included in the chemistry programs, comprise the technical
realization of typical organic reactions (e.g., oxidation
and reduction,hydration and dehydration, etc. . . .) in
chemical laboratories and in industry; a more intensive
study of chemical industries and of modern tendencies in
the use of sources of raw materials (modern methods for
oil/or gases processing); the study of substances that are

important for thenational economy, eSpecially the chemical

study of oil and its refining processes.

187

On what Basis Should thp_Teaching
of Analytical:Physical Chemistry
be Organized?

 

At a time when problems related to chemical bonding
in molecules are being intensively treated in scientific
literature, it is necessary to delve more deeply into
these problems in school chemistry courses. Theories of
chemical bonding should be supplemented with the examina-
tion of the shapes of molecules, which depend on their
atomic configuration.

Some energetic aspects of chemical reactions should
also be part of the chemistry programs. These considera-
tions of the relationships between chemical transformations
and energy changes have both a theoretical and a practical
value: theoretically, they contribute to a clear under-
standing of the mass-energy equivalence relationship;
practically, they will help students see better the com-
plexities in starting and controlling chemical reactions
in production, in selecting Optimum conditions etc. The
importance of this aspect of chemical reactions should
deserve a systematic, presentation of the principles of
chemical thermodynamics (e.g. CBA and Chem Study).

In the area of analytical methods in chemistry,
the latest curriculum revision has introduced elementary

16 Further

notions of qualitative analysis of common ions.
steps in this direction should include the laboratory

approach to chemical analysis (such experiments as flame

188

tests are easily performed and inexpensive). Students
should also be acquainted with modern methods of chemical
analysis, e.g. Spectroscopic methods. The inaccessibility
to these modern measuring and analyzing devices does not

warrant an ignorance about their existence.

What are Some Guidelines for

Teaching Chemistry as an Experi-
menta Sc1ence?

The methods of a science are as important as its

 

 

content. Therefore, students should be provided oppor-
tunities to become familiar with the experimental aSpect
of chemistry. Chemistry teachers should perform chemistry
demonstrations frequently. They should allow students to
perform simple experiments in class and organize regular
laboratory work for them. In this stage of our economic
development, it is unrealistic to dream of complicated
laboratory equipment. However, students at the end of
their chemistry courses should at least have a clear notion
of how to work with test tubes, flasks, Bunsen burners,
measuring devices and other primitive equipment. They
Should also be taught about safety measures in chemical
laboratories and about the handling of emergency cases of
laboratory accidents. They should also know how to per-
form safely simple experiments such as distillation,
chromatographic procedures and similar tasks.

The tasks performed in school chemical laboratories

should not be limited only to the usual experiments and

189

during episodic, isolated practical lessons. These tasks
could be expanded to include some large-scale experimental
sessions that are organized on a research basis, with
definite purposes and connected by the content inner logic.
Such sessions——usually to be attended by a group of stu-
dents who desire to work for a common purpose--will play

a great role in developing the students' scientific inter-
ests, creative abilities, cooperative spirit, and devotion
to chemical activities. Early familiarized with such a
research-type activity, students can easily carry over its
effects into later academic studies in universities and
colleges.

pr to Introduce in Chemistr

Courses the Applications 0

Chemistr in Agriculture and
Industry

 

 

To develOp students' broader outlook, thereby
"integrate" them into life mainstream, chemistry courses
should familiarize students with the fundamentals of
chemical industry production and the importance of chem-
istry in the nation's economic life. Thus, students should
be taught the major laws governing chemical technology and
the most important--as regards the national economy--
industrial production processes. Students will then see
more clearly the main directions of chemical industrial

develOpment in the national economy context.

190

The most important production problems in Vietnam
at the present time can be classified under three rubrics:
the production of fertilizers, metals and building mater-
ials (cement, etc.). More attention should be paid to
fundamental physico-chemical laws governing important
production processes than a concentration on details that
require too much memorization. For instance, the operation
of basic apparatus where chemical reactions proceed is
considered to be more important than a detailed considera-
tion of the general technological scheme of production,
with all of its developmental stages.

The application of chemistry in agriculture is
crucial to the country's economic develOpment. Informa-
tion about fertilizers (concentrated fertilizers, complex
microfertilizers and other kinds of available fertilizers),
their properties and the rules of their tran3portation,
storage and utilization Should be provided to students.
While teaching students about the use of special chemical
agents (pesticides, fungicides etc. . . .), a coordination
to a greater extent with students' backgrounds in both
plant and animal biology is desirable.

Field trips to agricultural and industrial sites
are also recommended so that the student can have a better
'view of the role of chemistry in the nation's economic
(activities. He then can develop a sense of reSponsibility

toward his school work, viewed now as an integral part of

191

the nation's task of building and reconstructing a solid
material infrastructure for further develOpment in other
areas.
A New Chemistry PrOgram for
Vietnamese Secondagy Schodls
Preliminary Remarks
Although students who learn chemistry in secondary
schools can be split into various groups according to
their needs, interests, and abilities, most of them can
be classified into these two broad categories:
1. A first group including those students who will
use their chemistry knowledge to pursue further

studies in this subject area or in chemistry-

related disciplines.

2. A second group including those students who will
abandon later their chemistry learning, such as
those who will hold responsibilities in political,

social or cultural domains of life.

Thus, sound programs of chemistry in secondary
schools should suit the needs and ability levels of those
two groups of students. The first group needs more of a
program that will give it general ideas and a unifying
picture about chemistry, without overconcern about content

details, whereas the second group needs a more rigorous

192

treatment of fundamental principles of chemistry which
helps considerably in further studies in this area.
Students differ in their school performance. To
require them to take the same program in chemistry--even
the most modern program e.g., Chem study--is to make the
false assumption that every student should behave (like
Skinner's pigeon) in the same way when provided with the
same stimuli and reinforcers, or that everyone of us

should be able to appreciate Beethoven's last quartets.

Proposed Program

The following program is designed in accordance
with the rationale just laid out above and also in Chapter
IIIand Chapter IV. Since two kinds of students are in-
volved, accordingly there should be two different in-

structional sequences to serve them.

Chemistry I.--In this sequence--designed for the
first group of students described previously--courses of
studies attempt to achieve the following objectives:

Objectives for Chemistry I:
I. Basic knowledge of chemistry

1. Knowledge of basic chemistry facts.

2. Knowledge of definitions (especially Opera-
tional definitions) of important chemistry
terms.

3. Thorough graSping of important chemistry
concepts.

4. Verbal understanding of laws, theories and
principles of chemistry.

II.

III.

IV.

5.

193

General knowledge of the physical prOperties
and chemical behavior of the most important
and useful elements and their compounds.

Functional understanding of chemistry

1.

To be able to apply definitions, principles
or rules in making predictions (e.g., out-
comes of chemical reactions), drawing con-
clusions or solving chemistry problems.

To perceive (and if possible to graSp)
relationships between facts, concepts,
theories and principles.

To understand the nature and structure of
modern chemistry (chemical structure,
chemical dynamics and chemical synthesis).

General science skills and abilities

To be able to identify problems

To be able to formulate and verify hypotheses
To be able to collect and interpret various
forms of data (e.g. graphs, charts, tables)
To be able to engage in creative thinking,
once in a while.

To be able to differentiate between theories
and facts.

Skills and abilities in experimental work in

 

 

dhemistry

1. Skills and abilities in observing, deducting
and inducting.

2. Skills in handling chemicals safely.

3. Skills in handling apparatus and equipment
(with care), for maximum results and longer
use.

4. Skills and abilities in controlling an experi-

ment (e.g. identifying factors that must be
controlled).

Scientific attitudes

 

1.

To be able to c0pe with change (Buddha once
said: "All phenomena and human events are im-
permanent") i.e. to be able to modify or ad—
just one's ideas in the light of further
evidence.

VI.

194

2. To be able to apply some scientific principles
and methods to everyday life situations;
eSpecially to be able to suspend judgments or
predictions until enough data are obtained.

3. To distinguish between facts and Opinions,
and between theories and facts.

Appreciation of science and chemistry

since science is also a human enterprise.

. To understand the role of science and chemis-
try in the life of the individual and in the
nation's life (economic aspects, e.g. agri-
culture, industry).

3. To rec0gnize that scientists are also human
beings and that all of them are not neces-
sarily uncultured; among scientists (bad and
good), may figure highly cultured men, such
as Linus Pauling, or noble minds, such as
Marie Curie, Oppenheimer.

4. To realize that "science without conscience
causes the ruins of the soul."

5. To understand that there is negligible dif-
ference between artistic and scientific
creation.

1. To be aware of the limitations of science,
2

CHEMISTRY I: A SUGGESTED COURSE
FOR SCIENCE MAJORS

Unit I: Science and Chemistry: Their Nature and

Their Effects on Man and His Ehvironment

Possible TOpics:

1. Science viewed as:
(a) A Created Knowledge;
(b) A Body of Knowledge; and as possessing
(c) A Dynamic Structure.
2. The Nature and Structure of Chemistry, defined
as A Molecular Science, whose components

include:

195

(a) Structure,
(b) Chemical Dynamics, and
(c) Chemical Synthesis.
3. Values and Limitations of Science; Role of

Chemistry in the National Economy.

Unit II: The Atomic Theory;_ The Classifipation and
Bondingof Atoms; Structure and Isomerism
of Carbon Compounds

 

Possible TOpics:

l. Theories and Models. Their Roles in Science
and Chemistry.

2. The Evolving Theory of Atomic Structures:
From Bohr's Atom to the Quantum Mechanical
Model; Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle;
Electron Clouds or Atomic Orbitals;Isotopes.

3. The Placement of Electrons in Atoms: Quantum
Numbers and Energy Levels in Atoms; Pauli's
Exclusion Principle; Orbital Classification
of Elements.

4. Distinction Between Hypothesis, Law and Theory.
Example of a Law in Chemistry e.g., Law of
Mass Conservation.

5. The Periodic Law: Periodic Classification of
Elements; Correlations of Structure and
PrOperties; Distinction Between Metals, non-

Metals and Transition Elements.

196

6. Chemical Bonding: Distinction Between Ionic,
Covalent (Polar and Non-Polar), Coordinate
and Metallic Bonds; Electron Rearrangement
and Molecular Shapes.

7. Applications of the Notions of Structure and
Bonding to the Study of Structure of Simple
Carbon Compounds.

(a) Carbon and Carbon Compounds: Bonding
(also including the particular ability
of carbon to bond to itself.)

(b) Structure and Isomerism of Alkanes,
Alkenes, Alkynes, Benzenes and Haloalkenes
(Stress on IUPAC nonenclature); Distinc-
tion Between Structural Components (or
Intact Groups) and Functional Groups.

Unit III: Gas Laws and Avogadro's Hypothesis: Gas

kingpic Theory; Mathematics andSymbols
in Chemistry.

 

Possible TOpics:
l. Gay-Lussac's Law of Volumes and Avogadro's
Hypothesis; Avogadro's Number.
2. Gas Laws: Volume-Pressure, Volume-Temperature
and Temperature-Pressure Relationships of a
Gas; The Combined Gas Law; The Perfect Gas

Law and the Gas Constant.

Unit IV:

197

The Gas Molecular Kinetic Theory, As a
Tentative to Account for Gas Laws and
Avogadro's Hypothesis; Gas Diffusion and the
Law of Partial Pressures.

Symbols, Equations and Calculations in

Chemistry.

Electrochemistry.

 

Possible Topics:

1.

Univ V:

Oxidation-Reduction: Chemical Activity;
Galvanic Cell, Standard Oxidation Potentials;
Oxidation Numbers.

Electrolysis and its Applications (e.g.,
Electroplating).

The Study of Ionization and of Solutions;
Adids andiBaseS.

Possible Topics:

1.
2.

3.

The notions of solute, solvent and solutions.
Le Chatelier's Principle.

Solubility: Temperature-Solubility Relation-
ship, Solubility of Gases.

Concentration of Solutions.

Freezing and Boiling Points of Solutions:
Raoult's Law.

Conductivity of Solutions: Electrolytes and

Non-Electrolytes.

198

7. Arrhenius's and Debye-Huckel's Theories;
Bronsted-Lowry Theory of Acids and Bases.

8. Acids and Bases: pH Scale; Neutralization
(End Points; Indicators).

Univ VI: Chemical Dynamics; Dynamic Eguilibrium;
Applications.

 

Possible Tapics:

1. Rates of Chemical Reactions: Influences of
Concentration, Temperature, Catalyst and
Surface Areas of Reacting Substances on
Reaction Rates.

2. Heat of Chemical Reactions.

3. Chemical Equilibrium and Factors that Affect
Equilibrium; Applications of Le Chatelier's
Principle.

4. Ionic Equilibria and Solubility Product;
Common Ion Effect.

Unit VII: Separation ppd Identification Methods in
Chemistry. Research in Chemistry and
Prospects of Chemical Research in Vietnam
Possible TOpics:

l. Distillation Techniques.

2. Chromatographic Techniques.

3. Spectrosc0pic Techniques.

4. Chemical Research in Vietnam: Research in

Faculties of Sciences and in Research

199

Institutes (How is it conducted? For which
purposes?); Research in Industrial Labora-

tories.

Unit VIII: Applications of Chemical Principles and
Theories to VariOus Chemieal Systems.

 

 

.Possible TOpics:

l. The Chemistry of Carbon Compounds; Important
Reactions of Major Classes of Carbon Com-
pounds; Reaction Mechanisms. Some Chemistry
of Life Processes.

2. Some Chemistry of the Earth and of Petroleum
(same as in Chem. II: Unit X).

3. Some Metals and Non-Metals, Studied in
relation to the Periodic Classification.

4. Some Transition Elements.

Unit IX: Basic Principles of Nuclear Chemistry (or
Nuclear Transfdrmatibns).Applications.

 

 

Possible TOpics:
l. Radioactivity (Natural and Induced); Iso-
tOpes; Nuclear Equations.
2. Nuclear Energy: Fission and Fusion; Chain
Reaction and Nuclear Reactors.

3. Applications in Agriculture and Medicine.

200

Possible Instructional Segpences for Chemistry I:

 

Giade5410:l2.

 

Grade 10:

 

Unit I:

Unit II:

Unit III:

Unit IV:

Grade 11:

 

Unit V:

Unit VI:

Unit VII:

Units I,

Science and Chemistry: Their Nature
and Their Effects on Man and His
Environment.

Topics 1 and 2 only.

The Atomic Theory); The Classification

and Bonding of Atoms; Structure and

'Isomerism of Carbon Compounds.

Topics 1-2, 4-7.

Gas Laws and Avogadro's Hypothesis; Gas
Kinetic Theory; Mathematics and Symbols
in Chemistry.

Electrochemistry.

The Study of Ionization and of Solu—
tions; Acids and Bases.

Chemical Dynamics; Dynamic Equilibrium;
Applications.

Separation and Identification Methods
in Chemistry; Research in Chemistry
and Prospects of Chemical Research in

Vietnam.

II, and VIII: Unit II: TOpic 3.

Unit VIII: TOpics 3-4.

Unit I: Topic 3.

201

Grade 12:
Unit VIII: Applications of Chemical Principles
and Theories to Various Chemical
Systems.
TOpics 1-2.
Unit IX: Basic Principles of Nuclear Chemistry
(or Nuclear Transformations); Appli-

cations.

Chemistry II (Non-Science Majors).--Courses of
studies in this sequence have for broad objectives the
following:

Objectives Related to the Cognitive and Affective
DBmainsl7

Appreciate the beauty and elegance in science (via
models, theories)

Realize that the scientific method of problem solving
is applicable also to most areas of human enterprise.
Understand the limitations of science.

Appreciate the contributions of science and chemistry
to modern civilization and the importance of chemi-
cal development in the nation's economic life.

Acquire a good understanding of the relation of
chemistry to other scientific disciplines.

Recognize the individual's responsibility for making
wise uses of chemistry products to the profit and
happiness of his fellow citizens and of mankind in
general.

Objectives Related to the Cognitive and Ppycho-Motor
DomainSIU’

Through successful participation in the learning
activities of this sequence, the student will be able

to:

202

Interpret and use graphs, charts, and tables.
Interpret correctly the periodic table and atomic
structure.

Exhibit fluency in the use of an enlarged scientific
vocabulary. '

Discriminate between facts and opinions.

Draw inferences andmake generalizations based upon
evidence.

Show proficiency in using chemistry books and other
resource materials.

Use correct symbols in interpreting and in writing
formulas and chemical equations.

Recognize that science is based upon laws and theories.
Understand the equivalence-relationship between

energy and matter and the changes in matter.
Understand the basic laws involved in chemical changes,
weights and volumes.

Know about chemical structures and the processes of
oxidation and reduction, ionization.

Understand the basic nature and structure of chemistry.
Get acquainted with basic stages of an act of scienti-
fic creation.

Demonstrate skill in predicting possible courses of
chemical reactions.

Demonstrate skill in solving chemistry problems in-
volving weights, percentage and principles and laws

of chemistry.

Show evidence of precision and scientific honesty in
chemical work.

Follow safety procedures recommended in laboratory
work.

Care for cleanliness and efficiency in laboratory

work (e.g. efficient setting up of laboratory equip-
ment, careful reading of laboratory work instruc-
tions).

In order to achieve these objectives, the follow-

ing content outline is proposed:

203

CHEMISTRY II: A COURSE FOR
NON-SCIENCE STUDENTS

Unit I: Science: Its Nature and Its Impact on the
Individual and’His SOdiety.

Possible Topics:

1. The Growth and Evolution of Science Concepts
(examples from Physics and Chemistry) from the
Ancient Times to the Modern World.

2. The Nature of Science and Chemistry.

3. Impact of Science and Chemistry on Individuals
and on Society; Values and Limitations of
Science.

Unit II: Matter and Energy; Energy Conversion; Con-
servation Laws in Science and Chemistry.
Possible TOpics:

l. Distinction Between Hypothesis, Law and
Theory.

2. Example of a Law: Law of Mass Conservation,
Derived from Chemical Reactions (Precipitation
Reactions); Limitations of a Law.

3. Mass-Energy Equivalence.

4. Conversion of Energy from One Form to Another.

Unit III: Atomic Structure and the Periodic Law:
Chemical Bonding and The Molecular Basis
of ChemiStry.

Possible Topics:

1. Observations Leading to Particle Theories;

Some Experimental Verifications:

204

Brownian Motion, Diffusion.

2. The Changing Concept of Atoms: From Dalton
to Schr6dinger; Size of Atoms; Isotopes.

3. Atomic Notation; Interpretation--using Atomic
Theory--of the Law of Mass Conservation in
Unit II.

4. Relative Masses of Atoms; Scale of Atomic
Weight.

5. Periodic Classification of Elements; Trends in
Columns and Rows.

6. Nuclei-Electrons Attraction and Chemical
Bonding; Different Kinds of Bonds.

7. Structure and Bonding in Carbon Compounds;

Isomerism and Functional Groups.

Unit IV: States of Matter and The Behavior of Gases.
Possible Topics:
1. Phase Changes in Matter; Solutions.
2. Arogadro's Hypothesis and Gas Laws.
3. Kinetic Theory.
Unit V: Essentials of Chemical Reactions and Chemical
Research.
Possible Topics:
1. The Nature of Chemical Reactions; Distinction
Between Reactions at the Molecular Level and

those at the Nuclear Level.

 

 

205

2. Some Questions Pertinent to Chemical Reactions.

(a) When does a chemical reaction occur?

 

(b) If it does occur, how fast will it go?
and how far?

(c) The nature of research in chemistry; [a
imagination and creativity in research. hr

(d) Instruments and techniques used in research.

Unit VI: Chemical Equilibrium; Oxidation-Reduction.
Possible TOpics:

l. Equilibrium, A Dynamic Concept (Compromise
Between Minimum Energy and Maximum Disorder);
Equilibrium in Phase Changes and in Chemical
Reactions.

2. Factors that Affect Equilibrium; Le Chatelier's
Principle.

3. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions: A Case of
Equilibrium; Electrochemical Cells and Electro-
lytic Cells; Electron Transfer and Predicting
Reactions; Balancing Redox Equations.

4. Some Applications of Electrochemistry.

Unit VII: Ionization and Liquid Mixtures; Applica-
Possible Topics:

1. Liquid Mixtures: Solutions, Suspensions,

Colloids and Emulsions.

2. Solubility: A Case of Equilibrium.

 

206

3. Ionic Equilibrium; Electrolytes, Acids and
Bases; The pH Scale; Applications of Inductive
and Mesomeric Effects to Predict and Explain
Acid Strengths of some Acids.

Unit VIII: The Chemistry of Some Compounds that are

Important for Industry and Agriculture:
The Control ofTIndustry in Vietnam.

 

 

 

Possible Topics:

1. NitrOgen and Phosphorous: Their Structure and
Important Properties.

2. N- and P-Compounds; Fertilizers; Fertilizer
Industries in Vietnam.

3. Chemical Industry in Vietnam: Its Importance
for the National Economy; Its Problems: Pri-
vate Industries and National Industry; Indus-
trial Planning and Development Planning;
Discussion of Products, Advertising Policy
(Ethics), Customer Relations and Employee
Benefits in Industry.

Unit IX: Some Chemistry of Carbon Compounds and of
Life Processes; Applications.
Possible Topics:

1. Some Important Reactions of Major Classes of
Carbon Compounds: Hydrocarbons, Alcohols,
Acids and Their Derivatives.

2. A Qualitative Description of Enzymes and

Digestion, of Nucleic Acids.

207

3. Birth Control Pills, Fertilizers, Insecticides
in Relation to Food and Population Problems.

4. Soaps, Detergents, Plastics and Fibers, as
Important for the Home.

5. Toxic Chemicals: DDT, Mercury and Carcinogenic
Compounds.

Unit X: Some Chemistry of the Earth and of Petroleum:
Petroleum and Pollution in Vietnam.

 

 

 

Possible Topics:

1. The Earth and Oceans as Sources of Food
(problems). Example of Petroleum as a Source
of Proteins.

2. Petroleum in Vietnam.

3. Bidding for Oil Concessions in Vietnam: The
Role of the Government to Secure Maximum
Profit for the Vietnamese PeOple.

4. Pollution Problems of the Earth: Air and
Water Pollutions; Sea Pollution (Petroleum).

Unit IX: Nuclear Reactions and Their Peaceful
Applications.

 

 

Possible TOpics:
l. Radioactivity: Its Effects on Living Things
and Men.
2. Fission and Fusion: A Qualitative Description;
Nuclear Piles.

3. Applications to Biology and Agriculture.

 

208

Possible Instructional Sequences for Chemistry II:

Grades 10-12.

 

Grade 10:

Unit I:

Unit II:

Unit III:

Unit IV:

Grade 11:

Unit V:

Unit VI:

Unit VII:

Unit VIII:

Science: Its Nature and Its Impact on
the Individual and His Society.

Matter and Energy; Energy Conversion;
Conservation Laws in Science and
Chemistry.

Atomic Structure and the Periodic Law;
Chemical Bonding and The Molecular
Basis of Chemistry.

States of Matter and The Behavior of

Gases.

Essentials of Chemical Reactions and
Chemical Research.

Chemical Equilibrium: Oxidation-
Reduction.

Ionization and Liquid Mixtures: Appli-
cations.

The Chemistry of Some Compounds that
are Important for Industry and Agri—
culture: The Control of Industry in

Vietnam.

 

 

209

 

Grade 12:
Unit IX: Some Chemistry of Carbon Compounds and
of Life Processes: Applications.
Unit X: Some Chemistry of the Earth and of
Petroleum: Petroleum and Pollution
in Vietnam.
Unit XI: Nuclear Reactions and Their Peaceful

Applications.

 

*These sequences are by no means rigid
sequences.

Time Scheduling for Chemistry I
and Chemistry II

 

It is not the concern of this study to delve
deeply into technical details about time scheduling for
these courses. However, an indication of the place occu-
pied by these courses in the whole school time schedule
seems necessary. It was our intention to design Chemistry
I and Chemistry II for the whole second cycle period of
present secondary schools--which lasts for three years. A
minimum of two hours per week of lecture attendance is
enough to cover the whole program. The number of hours
devoted to laboratory work depends on present school
facilities and therefore cannot be determined accurately.
It is our hepe in this transitional stage-~where facilities

for laboratory work are lacking--to see students be able

210

to perform at least from fifteen to eighteen manipulations

per year, at an average rate of two per month.

Assumption Made (in Terms of
ChemiStry KnowledgeBackground)
Regarding Students who will

Elect Chemistry I and ChemistrypII

 

 

 

 

PrOSpective students<xfChemistry I and Chemistry II
are supposed to have some background in physical sciences
during their first (lst cycle) secondary school years, as
it is now provided in the lst cycle of Vietnamese second-

ary schools.19

Evaluation Strategies and Techniques
for the New Chemietry Prpgram

 

 

A change in objectives and learning content of an
instructional proqram necessitates a corresponding change
in the means used to evaluate the outcomes of learning
experiences that are provided by the new program of in-
struction. Thus, the present system of examination--with
its essay-type tests as the predominant mode for
evaluation--no longer suits the demands of the new chemis-
try program, namely the demand for objective and compre-
hensive evaluation.

Evaluation Techniques and

Strategies, and’Science
Ohjectives

 

 

 

Evaluation techniques or strategies for a chemistry
course or an instructional program in science depends

largely on the stated objectives for the course or the

211

program.20 To each objective or each category of

objectives--cognitive, affective or psycho-motor21--should
correspond an appropriate category (or appropriate cate-
gories) of measuring and evaluating devices.
Usefulness of Behavioral Objec-
tives for Science Instruction

The usefulness of behavioral objectives for
courses or instructional programs is widely recognized
today. Following the book on techniques for preparing
and stating behavioral objectives written by Mager22 in
1962, a host of books and articles on similar topics have

been published by different authors, e.g., Popjam,23

24

Yelon. Works on behavioral objectives for science in-

struction in the affective domain have been done by Eiss

25

and Harbeck. It is precisely in this domain that diffi-

culties in preparing behavioral objectives are enormous.
Limitations of Behavioral
Objectives

Despite today's wide recognition of their im-
portance to learning and teaching, behavioral objectives
are not thepanacea. Their limitations have been defined

26 27

by different authors, such as Taylor who

and Atkin,
fear that triviality or decrease in educational relevance
may result from a strict adherence to too specific be-

havioral objectives, eliminating the unexpected, the

212

improvised, or the "leap-into-the-dark," yet exciting
experiences. However, Baker--speaking against Atkin--
states that: "It seems that Atkin has not acknowledged
the possibility of using the 'behavioral objective' strat-
egy as develOpment tool to help cultivate the unknown to
define worthwhile but as yet 'phantom' objectives, and to
specify procedures for maximizing instructional relevance

of objectives."28

From these arguments and counter-
arguments, it would appear that some caution in using
behavioral objectives should be observed.

Behavioral Objectives for

Chemistry Eppcation in
Vietnamese Sdhools

 

The following gives a list of possible behavioral
objectives--borrowed or adapted from DeRose29--for chem-
istry instruction in Vietnamese schools. These behavioral
objectives are classified into four categories, according
to their level of complexity. These categories are:

(a) behavioral objectives related to knowledge of

30

specifics e.g. facts, concepts, principles; (b) behav-

ioral objectives related to the skill or ability to use

31

or demonstrate processes and procedures; (c) behavioral

objectives related to the skill or ability to construct

32

or design procedures and methods; (d) behavioral objec-

tives related to the ability to apply rules or prin-

ciples.33

213

According to Bloom pp gi,,34 behavioral objectives
in categories b, c, d, are at a higher level than those
in category a. For DeRose, behaviors in category c are at
a higher level than those in category b, since they re—

35

quire a certain amount of creativity. Thus, it would

appear that the following hierarchical order is an authen-

 

tic one:
/\
H o o .
.8 >. Ability to apply rules or pr1ncip1es
u u
o ‘k Ability to construct procedures and
2‘ 3 methods
”.4 Q
3 8 Ability or skill to use or demonstrate
a U processes and methods
0 m
.5 0 Knowledge of terms, facts and principles

The following give some specimens Of these be-

havioral Objectives.36

Behavioral objectives related to knowledge Of

 

terms, facts, concepts or principles.--

 

Identify and describe the system, initial state and
final state, given a report of an experiment performed
and the observations collected.

Distinguish between definitions which are Operational
or conceptual, given a set Of definitions.

Identify samples of matter as mixtures, solutions,
substances, elements and compounds, given Observa-
tions Of the properties of the samples.

Identify the smallest number Of different substances
represented in a set Of samples, given either mass-
volume and/or time-temperature data for each sample
in the set.

214

Identify systems in which interaction between the
initial components can be assumed upon mixing, given
mass and volume data Of the systems in their initial
and final states and systems composed initially Of
either two solids, a solid and a liquid, or two
liquids.

Distinguish between Observations and hypotheses
(theories).

Name substances, given formulas Of binary compounds
and diatomic elements.

Identify (a) the polarity Of the electrodes Of an
electro-chemical cell, (b) the potential difference
between any two points in a circuit, (c) direction and
magnitude Of current in a circuit, (d) quantity Of
charge which passes a point in a circuit in a given
time, and (e) solutions which contain ions, given
either the necessary equipment or a description Of a
procedure and the Observations recorded.

Behavioral Objectives related to the skill or
ability tO use or demonstrate processes andyprocedures.--

Demonstrate the procedure and apply the rule for
identifying systems in which a change occurs, given
the components of the systems in their initial states
and the experimental procedures to follow.

Demonstrate the procedure and Obtain the data necessary
to calculate the density Of a substance, given a
sample in the solid or liquid phase.

Demonstrate the procedure for distinguishing between
a substance and a solution which is based on at least
two kinds Of evidence, given the procedure and a
liquid which is either a substance or a solution Of

a solid.

Demonstrate a procedure for Obtaining data to determine
the solubility Of a given solid substance in water.

Demonstrate a given procedure for Obtaining data to
determine the effect, if any, of temperature on the
solubility of a given solid substance in water.

215

Demonstrate the preparation of an aqueous solution Of
specified volume and concentration, given a solid
substance, the volume of the solution, and the con-
centration in grams Of solute per unit of volume Of
solution.

Demonstrate a procedure for Obtaining data which can
be used to test the hypothesis that a given aqueous
solution of a solid is homogeneous with reSpect tO
subdivision.

Demonstrate a procedure for qualitatively determining
which, if any, Of two solutions in the initial state of
a system is present in the final state, given the
procedure and two solutions which produce a precipi-
tate when they are mixed.

Demonstrate a procedure for Obtaining data to determine
the relationship (mass ratio) if any, between the mass
Of either Of two initial components and the mass of
either of two initial components and the mass of the
precipitate produced after mixing, given the procedure
and solutions of the initial components and their
concentration in grams Of solute per unit volume of
solution.

Demonstrate a procedure for Obtaining data to determine
the mole ratios between the reactants and between each
of the reactants and a product, given (a) the procedure;
(b) a system in which mixing two reactants, each in
aqueous solution, produces a precipitate as a product;
(c) the molar concentrations Of the solutions; and

(d) the formula of each of the r.actants and the
precipitate.

Demonstrate a procedure for Obtaining data to determine
whether or not there is a unique thermal energy change
per mole of reactant, given the procedure, a finely
divided metallic element, an aqueous solution Of a
substance with which it reacts and the equation for

the reaction.

Behavioral Objectives related to the skill or
ability to construct or desigp procedures and methOdS.--
Construct a procedure for Obtaining the data necessary

to calculate the density Of a substance in the solid
or liquid phase.

216

Construct a procedure for distinguishing between a
substance and a solution which is based on at least
two kinds Of evidence, given a liquid which is either
a substance or a solution Of a solid.

Construct a line graph, given a set of paired data
for two variables.

Construct a procedure for Obtaining data to determine
the solubility of a given solid substance in water.

Construct a procedure for Obtaining data tO determine
the effect, if any, of temperature on the solubility
Of a solid substance in water.

Construct a procedure for Obtaining data which can be
used to test the hypothesis that a given aqueous
solution Of a solid is homogeneous with respect tO
subdivision.

Construct a procedure for qualitatively determining
which, if any, of two substances in the initial state
of a system is present in the final state, given
solutions of substances which produce a precipitate
when they are mixed.

Construct a procedure for obtaining data to determine
the relationship (mass ratio) if any, between the

mass Of either Of two initial components and the mass
of the precipitate produced after mixing, given solu-
tions Of the initial components and their concentration
in grams of solute per unit volume of solution.

Construct a hypothesis concerning the simplest atom
ratio of elements (formula) in molecules Of Specified
gaseous components of a chemical system in the
initial or final state, given (a) the experimentally
Obtained volumes Of each Of the gaseous components
(b) the name Of the elements in each substance and
(c) Avogadro's hypothesis.

Construct a table of atom mass ratios, given the atom
mass ratios of all possible pairs Of elements within
a set of four elements and a numerical value for an
element in the set specified as the standard.

Construct a procedure for Obtaining data tO determine
the mole ratios between the reactants and between each
of the reactants and a product, given a system in which
mixing two reactants, each in aqueous solution, pro-
duces a precipitate as a product; the molar concentra-
tions of the solutions; and the formula of each reac-
tant and the precipitate.

217

Construct a hypothesis as to the formula Of the single
product Of a synthesis reaction, given the formulas

Of the reactants, the experimentally determined masses
of all components in the initial and final state Of a
system and the table Of atomic masses.

Construct an equation for a change in a chemical system
given the formulas, the experimentally determined
masses Of all components in the initial and final
state, and the table Of atomic mass units.

Behavioral Objectives related to the ability to

apply rules oryprinciples.--

 

State and apply the rule for determining either the
mass of solute, volume of solution or concentration
of a solution, given values for the other two.

State and apply the rule for identifying systems in
which a change occurs, given the components of the
systems in their initial states and the experimental
procedures to follow.

Apply the rule for calculating the atom mass ratio Of
two gaseous elements, given the combining mass ratio
and the combining volume ratio of the elements at the
same temperature and pressure, their formulas, and
the Avogadro's hypothesis.

State and apply the rule for calculating the combining
mass ratio and the combining volume ratio Of two
gases, given their densities and either mass or volume
data from an investigation Of their reaction at the
existing conditions of temperature and pressure.

Apply the rule for calculating the molecular mass
ratio of two gases, given the combining mass ratio
and the combining volume ratio Of the gases at
standard temprature and pressure and Avogadro's
hypothesis.

Apply the rule for determining the formula mass of a
substance, given the formula and the table Of atomic
mass units.

Apply the rule for determining the number of moles Of
formula (structural) units in a sample of a substance,
given the formula and either (1) a sample of a sub-
stance or (2) the mass Of a sample of the substance.

218

Apply the rule for calculating the mass and/or appar-
ent volume of the formula unit Of a substance, given
its (empirical or molecular) formula, its density,
the Avogadro number, and the table of atomic masses.

Apply the rule for determining the number of formula
(structural) units and/or Specified atoms in a sample
of a substance, given the formula and the number of
moles of the substance in the sample.

Apply the rule for converting the concentration Of a
solution expressed as mass Of solute/volume of solu-
tion to a molar concentration (moles of solute/volume
of solution), or if expressed as a molar concentration
to mass Of solute/volume Of solution.

Apply the rules for determining either the volume of
a solution, moles Of solute, or molar concentration
of a specified solution, given values for the other
two.

Proposal of an Evaluation System
far ChemiStry Instructionvhased
on BehaviOral Objectives

 

 

The following deals with the strategies and tech-
niques that should be included in an effective evaluation
system for chemistry instruction, and with the specific
behavioral Objectives for chemistry learning, which should
form the basis of a sound program Of instructional eval-
uation. Depending on particular instructional situations,
each Of the following strategies and techniques could be
used alone or in combination with the others.

Strategies.--Many evaluation strategies in educa-
37

 

Most Of these strategies are
38

tion are available today.
based on Tyler's theory of curriculum and instruction.

According to Tyler, education has the following function:

39

to create changes in students' behaviors. The role

 

 

219

Of evaluation is then to determine the degree to which
students have changed as a result Of teaching—learning
practices.

While Tyler's concept Of evaluation is broad and

does not limit itself to judgments to be made at the end

4

of a lengthy instructional period, most of today's views
on evaluation are limited to the process of judging or
grading, which usually comes at the end Of a course. Thus,
depending on the role or purpose-~broad or narrow-—Of
evaluation, a distinction between two approaches to evalua-
tion could be made. Scriven40 was the first to use the
terms "summative" and "formative" to distinguish between
these two approaches--although such a distinction is not
easy to be made in practice.41
1. Summative Evaluation: For Scriven, summative
evaluation refers to the type of evaluation which
is primarily designed to provide terminal or over-
all estimate of a curriculum or an instructional
prOgram as a whole.42
Thus, this type Of evaluation is only helpful

in grading or certifying students;43

it also helps
to distinguish between competent and non-competent
teachers, or between gOOd and defective instruc-
tional programs (or courses of studies). This

type Of evaluation however, does not help the

student, teacher, or curriculum builder to identify

 

220

deficiencies44 in learning, teaching, or curricu-

lum building, at a certain point in time. The

 

knowledge of en—route deficiencies--which summative
evaluation cannot provide due to less frequent

testing45

associated with it--is especially impor- “a
tant in those fields--e.g. mathematics--where

previous instruction forms the basis Of later

 

instruction. via
Thus, the contribution to students' learning

(or to changes in students' behaviors) should be

one Of the major purposes Of educational evalua-

tion, which the other type Of evaluation--forma-

tive type--is likely to be able to achieve.

Formative Evaluation: The purpose Of formative
evaluation is to determine the extent to which a
particular task-~a unit or sub-unit of a course--

‘5 This defi-

has been satisfactorily completed.
nition implies that formative testing or formative
behavior observations should occur at more fre-
quent intervals than summative testing or Obser-

vations.47

Thus, en-route inadequacies could be
detected and allow students, teachers or curriculum
builders to make necessary readjustments to a
specific learning unit or instructional sequence

of the whole course or instructional prOgram. The

 

221

formative approach to curriculum or instructional
evaluation has met the criterion Of usefulness to
learning, as has been developed by Cronbach48 in

1963.

Guidelines for Constructiong Tests for SummatiVe

Evaluation: The following are the necessary steps—-

described by Bloom-~which may be helpful in the

making of a test for summative evaluation pur-

poses. The steps are arranged in the following

order:

Develop--or borrow and adapt--a table of Specifica-

tions for the subject area and education level

concerned with.

Develop test items which fit the applicable cells

of the matrix.

Choose items which test the various cells by

sampling in some rational way.

Assemble the items according tO some systematic

plan.

Develop a scoring scheme which will furnish the

most useful information or the examination pur-

pose(s).49

Guidelines for Constructing Tests for Formative

Evaluation: The necessary steps in the construc-

tion of a test for formative evaluation purposes

include the following:

(a) Develop a table Ofygpecifications. The same
rules used in the development of the table Of
Specifications for summative evaluation can be

applied here, with only a difference in the

size of thelearning unit to be taken into

 

 

(b)

(e)

222

account. For summative evaluation, the learn-
ing unit is the whole course or half Of the
course (if there is a mid-term exam), whereas
the learning unit in the case Of formative
evaluation is only a small portion (one-tenth
or one-twentieth) Of the course. The following
diagram illustrates a table of specifications
for a formative test in a chemistry unit.50

The table should include all important tasks

in the learning unit.

Specify relationships between tasks. 'It is
not enough to identify all important elements
(or tasks) in the learning unit, but it is
also imperative to search for possible rela-
tionships that exist between these tasks, or
between each of these tasks to the guiding
idea or unifying concept Of this unit. These
relationships may also exist following a
certain hierarchical order, as will be dealt

with in the next section.

Specify the structure of the learning unit.
The structure Of a learning unit is related

to Gagne's hierarchy51

Of learning tasks:
some tasks are easier to learn than others.

The structure of a learning unit is then made

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224

Of specific hierarchical relationships
between various tasks in the unit. As a con-
sequence, test items should reflect this
structure that characterizes the learning

unit. For instance, "test items for knowledge

[i

of specifics should be passed by more stu-
dents than those for knowledge Of rules and
principles or skill in the use Of processes

52

and methods." In other words, and con-

versely, "if the lower-level item is necessary
for success on the higher-level item, then
those students who fail the lower item should

also fail the higher item."53

Techniques.--The following techniques may be used

 

for both summative and formative purposes and for various
behavior levels--i.e. from simple to complexed behaviors.
Only a brief description of the most relevant techniques
(to chemistry instruction) is given, since most of their
evaluation techniques are discussed at length today in
standard texts on educational measurements and evaluation--
e.g. Ebel's54 book on measuring educational achievement or

55 on standardized tests.

Mehren ' 5 book
Most of the measuring devices--e.g. classroom
teats or standardized tests--used today in schools fall

Within the following broad categories.

 

225

The first category, including tests which have a
relatively high degree Of reliability. These tests--
commonly referred to as Objective tests--are the following:
multiple-choice, true-false, completion-type and matching-
type tests.

The second category, including tests which have
a relatively low degree of reliability-~compared to those
in the first category. These tests are commonly known
under the following names: essay-type and oral tests.

The advantages and disadvantages of these two
categories are contrasted in the following table

(Table 9).56

l. Short-Answer Tests: Most authors today-~e.g.
Stanley,57 Furst58--would probably agree upon the
following definition of a short-answer test
item:

The short-answer item is a free-reSponse form. The

test taker is called upon to write an answer to a

question rather than to circle a number or letter as

is required in Objective items. The short-answer

item however is much more restrictive than the essay,

for the test taker is forced to answer the question
within very prescribed 1imits.59
There are many variations to the short-answer item
such as the completion-type (or supply-type) item,
but the following feature remains common to all

of these variations:the narrow interval within

which the answer should be located.

226

Objective Tests.

TABLE 9.--Comparison Of Advantages and Disadvantages in Essay and

 

Essay

Objective

 

Abilities Measured

 

Requires the student to express
himself in his own words, using
information from his own back-
ground and knowledge.

Can tap high levels of reasoning
such as required in inference,
organization of ideas, compari-
son and contrast.

Does not measure purely factual
information efficiently.

Scopp

Covers only a limited field of
knowledge in any one test. Essay
questions take so long to answer
that relatively few can be
answered in a given period Of
time. Also, the student who is
especially fluent can Often
avoid discussing points of which
he is unsure.

Incentive to Pupils

Encourages pupils to learn how
to organize their own ideas
and express them effectively.

Ease of Preparation

 

Source :

Requires writing only a few
questions for a test. Tasks
must be clearly defined, general
enough to Offer some leeway,
specific enough to set limits.

Scoring

Usually very time-consuming to
score. Permits teachers to
coment directly on the reason-
ing processes of individual
‘pupils. However, an answer may
be scored differently by differ-
ent teachers or by the same
teacher at different times.

ETS, Making the Classroom Test:

Requires the student to select
correct answers from given op-
tions, or to supply an answer
limited to one word or phrase.
Can also tap high levels Of
reasoning such as required in
inference, organization Of ideas,
comparison and contrast.

Measures knowledge of facts
efficiently.

Covers a broad field of knowledge
in one test. Since Objective
questions may be answered quickly,
one test may contain many ques-
tions. A broad coverage helps
provide reliable measurement.‘

Encourages pupils to build up a
broad background of knowledge
and abilities.

Requires writing many questions
fer a test. Wbrding must avoid
ambiguities and “give-aways."
Distractors should embody most
likely misconceptions.

Can be Scored quickly.

Answer generally scored only
right or wrong, but scoring is
very accurate and consistent.

A Guide for Teachers:

Evaluation and Advisory Service Series, NO. 4, ed. by M. Katz
TPrinceton, N.J.: ETS, 1961), p. 16.

227

The The advantages and disadvantages of short-
answer tests are listed in the following table60
(see Table 10).

The disadvantages outlined above (e.g., dis-
advantage #2) are less real in the case Of physi-
cal science or mathematics tests where the solu-
tions to problems or answers to questions can be

61 Also, the

expressed by numbers or symbols.
range Of measurable learning outcomes may be con-
siderably extended, including for instance the
ability to solve physics or chemistry problems,
the ability to complete and balance chemical
equations; these abilities go well beyond the
mere recall Of facts or principles.

(a) Instances for using short-answer items in

chemistry. The examples selected here are

 

designed to show that short-answer tests may
be used to measure those learning outcomes
which are above the knowledge-recall level.
(1) Ability to complete and balance chemical
equations.62 3A1 + ?HC1-———-—) ?
(2) Ability to apply concepts and principles
to solve chemistry problems.
All chemistry problems requiring a numer—
ical answer (as in physical chemistry prob-

lems) or an answer that should be expressed in

TABLE 10.--Short-Answer Tests:

228

Advantages and Disadvan-

 

 

tages.
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Easy to construct l. Unsuitable for measur-
ing complex outcomes
Of learning
2. Answer supplied by the 2. More difficult to score
student; therefore than other forms of
possibility Of getting Objective tests
a correct answer by
guessing is minimized
3. More efficient than
essay-type test
4. Easier to score than

essay-type test

 

Source: J .

E. Horrocks and T. I.

Schoonover, Measurement
for Teachers (Columbus, Ohio:
Puhl. Co., I968), p. 538.

Charles E. Merrill

229

a symbolic form (as in physical-organic
chemistry problems where the unknown is an
organic compound which has been synthesized
from more simple compounds) are instances in

which this ability could be measured.

(b) Other examples of Short-answer items:

Answer A if 1, 2, and 3 are correct.

Answer B if 1 and 2 only are correct.

Answer C if 3 only is correct.

Answer D if some other combination is correct.
Hydrogen forms a stable molecule, H2, whereas

the helium molecule, He2, is unstable. The following

factors contribute to the instability of Hez:

1. In Hez there are more electrons in antibonding
orbitals than in bonding orbitals.

2. The energy of a molecule with an electron in
an antibonding orbital is more than that of a mole-
cule with an electron in a bonding orbital.

3. Both bonding and antibonding orbitals are

filled.53

2. Multiple-Choice Tests: In a multiple-choice test
item, "a direct question or incomplete statement
is presented and a number of possible responses or

Options are given."64
The question or statement is called the stem

Of the item, while the options are called the dis-

tractors, whose purpose is to distract those stu-

dents who are hesitating about the correct alter-

65

native. The correct alternative may be an

exactly correct answer-~e.g. a number or a chemical
formula--or a best answer under a specific circum-

stance.

230

The advantages and disadvantages of multiple-
chOice tests are listed in the following table66

(see Table 11).

(a) Instances for using multiple-choice items in

science and chemistry. The consideration of

 

the table (11) has led to the conclusion that

multiple-choice tests can measure a broad

range Of learning outcomes; they may measure

for instance:

(1) Outcomes at the knowledge level. This
level includes the knowledge of terminol-

Ogy and specific facts or the knowledge of

methods and procedures.67

(b) Examples of multiple-choice* test items:

Tom wanted to find what effect fertilizer has on
garden plants. He put some good soil in garden
boxes. To Box A he added fertilizer containing a
large amount Of nitrogen. To Box B he added ferti-
lizer containing a large amount of phosphorous.
In each box he planted twelve bean seeds. He watered
each box with the same amount of water. One thing
missing from Tom's experiment was a box Of soil with

(A) both fertilizers added

(B) neither nitrogen nor phosphorous added

(C) several kinds Of seeds planted

(D) no seeds planted

(Answer: B)68

(c) Outcomes at the next higher levels, erg.

comprehension level. These levels include the

 

ability to interpret relationships (causal or

 

*Items 1-4 by permission Of the COOperative Test
Division, Educational Testing Service.

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231

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232

correlational), or the "ability to justify

methods and procedures."69

(d) Examples:

ppestions 20-23 relate to the following information:
A student is told to consider the following hypo-
thetical elements:

 

 

 

Element Atomic Number Atomic Weight
A 6 12.01
B 17 35.5

 

He is also told that Element A combines chemically
with Element B to form Compound X.
20. From the information given in the table above,
one can correctly infer that the neutral atoms
of an isotope Of Element A might possibly contain
(A) 7 protons, 5 neutrons and 6 electrons
(B) 6 protons, 8 neutrons and 6 electrons
(C) 12 protons, 6 neutrons and 12 electrons
(D) 6 protons, 7 neutrons and 7 electrons
(E) 6 protons, 7 neutrons and 13 electrons7o
3. Measuring complex achievement: The interpretive
exercise and the essay-type test in science and
chemistry: Although these two kinds of test
belong to different categories--the high-
reliability and the low-reliability categories--
they are studied under the same rubric here, only
by convenience: both measure more kinds of com-
plex learning outcomes than the previous types

of tests. These complex learning outcomes include

the following:

Ability
Ability
Ability
Ability
Ability
Ability
Ability

to
to
to
to
to
to
to

233

apply a principle

interpret relationships

recognize and state inferences

recoqnize the relevance of information
develop and recognize tenable hypotheses
formulate and recognize valid conclusions
recognize assumptions underlying con-

clusions
Ability to recognize the limitations Of data
Ability to reOOgnize and state significant problems
Ability to design experimental procedures.7

While the essay-type test is tOO familiar--

especially in Vietnamese schools--to warrant a

definition, the interpretive test needs some

introduction, since it is not as well-known as

some other types of Objective tests, e.g.,

multiple-choice. The nature of the interpretive

exercise may be described as follows: "An inter-

pretive test exercise consists of an introductory

selection of material followed by a series Of

questions calling for various interpretations."

In

72

science and chemistry, the material to be

interpreted may be a table Of data--a diagram,

or the description Of an experiment. The inter-

pretive exercise may use any of the commonly

used item forms, e.g. matching, multiple-choice

items.

The advantages and disadvantages of this type

of test are summarized as follows (see Table

12).

73

234

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.momaouoxm O>HuowmuoucH mo momeucespemwo use momeuce>oeul.~H manta

235

(a) Instances of using interpretive exercises in

chemistry.

 

This question is based on the following situation:

A piece of mineral is placed in a bottle half-
filled with a colorless liquid. A two-holed rubber
stOpper is then placed in the bottle. The system is
then sealed by inserting a thermometer and connecting
a glass tube to the stoppered bottle and a beaker of
limewater as shown in the accompanying diagram:

   
      
    

thermom.f¢r—-~

 

(‘

 

 

 

00
CD.

——~— limewater

’0
ob
\

 

 

Figure 4.--Interpretive Exercises in Chemistry.

The following series of Observations is recorded:
Observations during the first few minutes:

I.

II.

2.

3.
4.

l Bubbles Of—e cOlorless gas rise EO‘the tOp

of the stOppered bottle from the mineral.
Bubbles of colorless gas begin to come out
Of the glass tube and rise to the surface
of the limewater.

The limewater remains colorless throughout
this period Of time.

The thermometer reads 20°C.

Observations at the end of thirty minutes:
I. Bubbles of cOlorless gas continue to rise

in the stOppered bottle.

The piece Of mineral has become noticeably
smaller.

There is no apparent change in the level
Of the colorless liquid in the bottle.

The colorless liquid in the bottle remains
colorless.

The thermometer reads 24°C.

The limewater is cloudy.

236

Which one Of the following is the best explanation
for the appearance Of gas bubbles at the end Of the
tube in the beaker Of limewater?

A The pressure exerted by the colorless liquid is

greater than that exerted by the limewater.

B The bubbles coming from the mineral cause an

increased gas pressure in the stoppered bottle.

C The temperature increase at the end of thirty

minutes causes an expansion Of gas in the
stoppered bottle.

D The decrease in the size Of the piece Of mineral

causes reduced pressure in the stOppered bottle.

E The glass tube serves as a siphon for the flow

Of gas from the bottle to the beaker.74

The advantages and disadvantages Of essay-type
tests have been laid out earlier in this sec-
tion (see Table 9). The following table
(Table 13)75 is useful in contrasting complex
learning outcomes that can be measured by essay-
type tests with those that can be measured by
interpretive exercises.

Conclusion: A Systems Approach

to Evaluate Learning in
Chemistry

 

 

 

A better system Of evaluating learning in Viet-
namese schools can be Obtained by the use of all strategies
and techniques for evaluating students' learning outcomes
xehich are available today. To each category Of learning
(Jutcomes should correSpond appropriate measuring tools.
Thus ,

There is no single achievement test or test battery

that will be "best" for all pupil pOpulations, all
curriculum objectives, all purposes, and all uses.

237

 

.NNH .m .Amoma ..OU neHHfieoez "xnow 3ozc.mnflnoeoe no nOHueoHe>m one unoEouomeez .onoanono .m .z “mouoOm

meson mo sumo? on» oueoae>e
Aunosauomxe ne onwnmflmoo .m.ov menon Henwmfluo oueouo
meoue unouewmwo no monanueoa oueumuunw

memo“ moonmxo one .ouanemuo .ouoooum noaumooo hemmm

"on aueafinn uncommon oeoneuxm

AneSmne one madman Op wuwaane .mawmnm on» no oemeo mmeoouoo neafinam onec

monsooooum one moonume naeflmxo
eueo mo enoeueuaEAH one onwuomeo
mnoaumsnmme wuemmmomn oueum
mnowmoaonoo oaae> eueannnom
momenuonmn maneneu eueasnnom
manoeuone une>oaou anemone
moamwonaum mo mnOHueOHHmme onwuomeo

emanmnofiueaeu pneumonomneo nweamxo mnowumena memmm

no» mundane oncommom eouoeuumoe

“nozmne on» euflnoooou on >ueaane .uaamnm one no oouen eesoouso neaaawe onec
mousowooum no >oeooooe one euwnmooou
eueo mo wnofiueuaEAH one ouwnoooon
mnOHumsomme oeueumno euwnmooeu
mnoamsaonoo owae> euwnoooou
momonuomun oabeneu ouwnmooou
munesomue mo eone>eaou enu ouwnooomu
meamflonaum mo nowueonamme unu euwnoooou
manmnoHueHmu usemmonmmneo euwnmooou momwoumxm o>auoum

"on apaafinn nuounH o>wuoeflno
oonnmeez on neo pen»
moeoouno mnnnneoq ermEOO mo moameexm seuH puma mo onus

.oomaunoxm o>aueum
unounH o>auomnno one mnOeummsO memmm an oeunmeoz moeoouso onwnueoq ermEOO mo nom>9u|.ma memes

238

Even tests universally recognized as "good" are not
equally "good” for different school settings, situa-
tions, and circumstances.76
The reliance on one type of test--e.g. essay—type test--
for measuring students' learning outcomes results in lack
Of precision and fairness and lack Of objectivity, thereby

creates frustration and bitterness for students and

teachers alike.

Summary

A new program Of chemistry education for Vietnamese
secondary schools (2nd cycle) was proposed in this chapter.
This new program is relevant both to the Vietnamese society
and to the Vietnamese student; it also takes advantage of
recent discoveries in the psychology Of learning and re-
flects latest advances in science and chemistry knowledge.

The major components Of the new chemistry program
include: (a) a statement Of Objectives; (b) chemistry
courses for science majors and non-science majors, includ—
ing laboratory activities and individual projects; and
(c) a new system Of measuring and evaluating chemistry

learning in schools, based on behavioral Objectives.

FOOTNOTES

1M. Scriven, "The Methodology of Evaluation," in
Perspectives of Curriculum Evaluation, ed. by R. E. Stake
(Chinago: Rand McNally, 1967), pp. 39-83.

2J. V. DeRose, "New Directions for Chemical Educa-
tion in High Schools," in The 1969 Star Awards, ed. by
NSTA (Washington, D.C.: NSTA, I969), pp. 11-26.

 

 

3Vietnam, Bo Giao-Duc, Chuon -Trinh Trung-Hoc
(Vietnam: BO Giao-Duc, 1970), pp. l28-34.

4Ibid., pp. 129-30.

5W. V. Farrar, "The Periodic System," Education
in Chemistry, VI (January, 1969), 39.

 

 

6Vietnam, BO Giao-Duc, pp, cit., pp. 128-34.

7B. E. Douglas and D. H. McDaniel, Conce ts and
Models Of Inorganic Chemistry (Massachusetts: Blaisdell

Co., I965), p. l.

 

8K. Walker, A Study of Gurdjieff's Teaching
(London: Jonathan Cape Co., 1957), pp. 53-54.

 

9J. S. Bruner, The Proopps of Education
(Cambridge: Harvard UniverSity Press, 1962), p. 7.

 

loVietnam, BO Giao-Duc, pp, cit., pp. 128-34.

11M. J. Sienko and R. A. Plane, Chemistry (New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1961).

 

239

240

12J. H. Flavell, The Develo mental Ps cholo
Of Jean Piagpt (Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand Co.,

Inc., 1963), p. 205.

 

13Vietnam, BO Giao-Duc, pp, cit., pp. 128-34.

14J. K. Stille, Industrial Organic Chemistry
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1968),
p. 11.

15Ibid., pp. 33-41.

16Vietnam, BO Giao-Duc, pp, cit., pp. 128-34.

17a) D. R. Krathwohl, B. 8. Bloom, and B. B. Masia,
Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook II:
Affective Dompip (New York: McKay Co., 1964).
’b) B. S. Bloom, ed., Taxonomy of Educational
Objectives: Handbook I: Cognitive Domain (New York}
McKay Co., 1956).

 

18B. S. Bloom, ed., pp, cit.

19Vietnam, BO Giao-Duc, pp, cit., pp. 106-28.

20A. L. Taylor, "Curriculum and Instructional
Evaluation in Science," Science Education, LIV (July-
September, 1970), 238-39.

21a) D. R. Krathwohl et al., pp, cit.

b) B. 5. Bloom, ed.';—pE.- cit.

22R. F. Mager, Preparing Instructional Objectives
(Palo Alto, Calif.: Fearon Publishers, 1962).

23W. J. POpham and E. L. Baker, Establishin
Instructional Goals (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prent1ce-

Hall, Inc., 1970).
24S. L. Yelon and R. 0. Scott, A Strate for
Writing Objectives (Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall7Hunt Puh. Co.,

1970).

 

241

25A. F. Eiss and M. B. Harbeck, Behavioral Objec-
Eives in the Affective Domain (Washington, D.C.: National
Science Association, 1969).

 

26A. L. Taylor, pp, cit., p. 238.

27J. Myron Atkin, "Behavioral Objectives in
Curriculum Design: A Cautionary Note," The Science
Teacher, XXXV (May, 1968), 27-30.

 

28R. L. Baker, "Curriculum Evaluation," Review Of
Educational Research, XXXIX (June, 1969), 351.

 

 

29J. V. DeRose, pp, cit., pp. 18-25.

30B. S. Bloom, ed., pp, cit., pp. 17-20, 44-49.

313. S. Bloom, J. T. Hastings, and G. F. Madaus,
Handbook on Formative and Summative Evaluation Of Student
Learning (McGraw-Hill BOOEiCO., 1971), pp. 119-20.

J. V. DeRose, pp, cit., p. 13.
B. S. Bloom, ed., pp, cit.

34a) B. 8. Bloom et al., pp, cit., pp. 118-20.
b) B. S. Bloom, ed., pp, cit.

35J. V. DeRose, pp, cit., p. 13.

asiéiégp Pp. 18-25 (adapted or borrowed).

37D. D. Sjogren, "Measurement Techniques in Evalu-
ation," Review Of Educational Research, XL (April, 1970),
313.

38a) R. W. Tyler, Constructing Achievement Tests

(Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, 1934).

b) R. W. Tyler, Principles of Curriculum and
Instruction (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1950).

c) R. W. Tyler, "Achievement Testing and Curricu-
lum Construction,” in Trends in Student Personnel WOrk,
ed. by E. G. Williamson (Minneapolis, Minn.: *UniverSity
of Minnesota, 1969), pp. 391-407.

 

 

 

242

39R. w. Tyler, pp, cit.

4OM. Scriven, pp, cit.

41H. Grobman, "Evaluation Activities of Curriculum
Projects: A Starting Point," in AERA Monogrpph Series on
Curriculum Evaluation, NO. 2 (Chicago: RandiMcNally Co.,
1968)! p- T‘-

 

42:1) Ibid.

b) R. L. Baker, pp, cit., p. 353.

43B. S. Bloom pp p£., pp, cit., p. 61.

44R. L. Baker, pp, cit., p. 353.

45B. S. Bloom pp gi,, pp, cit., p. 62.

46 47

Ibid., p. 61 Ibid., p. 62.

48L. J. Cronbach, "Course Improvement Through

Evaluation," Teacher's College Record, LXIV (1963), 675.

49B. S. Bloom pp gi,, pp, cit., pp. 62-63.

5°lbid., p. 121.

51R. M. Gagne, The Conditions of Learning (2nd ed.,

New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970), pp. 35-65.

523. 5. Bloom p£_p1,, pp, cit., p. 129 (adapted).

53Ibid. (adapted).

54R. L. Ebel, Measuring Educational Achievement
(Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc., 1965).

55W. A. Mehrens and I. J. Lehmann, Standardized
Tests in Education (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
Inc., 1969).

 

243

56ETS, Making the Classroom Test: A Guide for
Teachers: Evaluation and Advisory_§ervice Series, NO. 4,
ea. by M. Katz (Princeton, N.J.: ETS, 1961), p. 16.

 

57J. C. Stanley, Measuremenr_in TOda 's Schools
(4th ed., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1964), p. 206.

 

58E. J. Furst, Constructing Evaluation Instruments

(New York: Longmans Co., 1958), pp. 238-39.

 

59A. Schwartz and S. C. Tiedeman, Evaluating
Student Progress in the Secondary School (New York:
McKay Co., Inc., 1957), p. lSl.

 

60J. E. Horrocks and T. I. Schoonover, Measurement
for Teachers (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merri P
CO., 1968), p. 538.

61N. E. Gronlund, Measurement and Evaluation in
Teaching (New York: Macmillan Co., I965), p. 122.

 

62Ibid.

63A. H. Johnstone and D. W. A. Sharp, "Objective
Testing in Tertiary Education Chemistry Courses," Chemistry
in Britain, VIII (February, 1972), 67.

 

64J. S. Ahmann and M. D. Glock, Evaluatin Pu 11
Growth (4th ed., Boston, Mass.: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.,
l97l), p. 95.

65N. E. Gronlund, pp, cit., p. 140.

66J. E. Horrocks and T. I. Schoonover, Measure-
ment for Teachers (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill
Publ. Co., 1968), p. 538.

67N. E. Gronlund, pp, cit., pp. 142-44.

68ETS, pp, cit., p. 17.

69N. E. Gronlund, pp, cit., pp. 145-47.

244

7OCHEMS Newsletter, I (February, 1961).

71N. E. Gronlund, pp, cit., p. 160.

72R. L. Ebel, "Writing the Test Item," in

Educational Measurement, ed. by E. F. Lindquist (Washing-
ton, D.C.: AmeriCan Council on Education), p. 241.

732239:' pp. 243-46 (adapted).

74Educational Testing Service, Multi le-Choice
Questions: A Close Look (Princeton, N.J.: ETS Publish.,
1963), p. 36: also in CHEMS Newsletter, pp, cit.

 

751:. E. Gronlund, pp. cit., p. 184.

76M. Katz, Selectingyend Achievement Test:

Principles and Procedures: Evaluation and Advisor
Service Series, No. 3 (Princeton, N.J.: ETS, l96l), p. 32.

CHAPTER VI

IMPLICATIONS FOR THE PRE-SERVICE EDUCATION
OF PROSPECTIVE PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY

TEACHERS IN VIETNAM

The develOpment of a new curriculum project alone
:is not enough. The reason has been given by Rutherford
(as follows: "No matter how carefully designed the emerging
‘course is, no matter how capable it is in principle Of
serving the needs of students, and indeed, no matter how
‘well the course seems to work when tried out experimentally,
the unhappy truth is that in general practice the course
simply will not work as the designers intend unless the
generality Of teachers who use it are prepared to make
it work."1 Thus, any design of new instructional programs
car new courses Of studies must be paralleled or followed
lay an apprOpriate program of preparing teachers to cope
effectively with new instructional situations created by
the new programs or courses.

This chapter proposes a program of chemistry edu-

cation, designed tO help prospective secondary school

245

246

teachers (Physical Sciences majors) to succeed in their
daily implementation of the new chemistry prOgram that

was prOposed in Chapter V. It is not within the scope of
this chapter to deal with the professional aspects of pre-
paring Physics or Chemistry teachers for Vietnamese second-
ary schools, since a majority Of ideas and principles in-
volved in My-Linh's study,2 regarding the professional
preparation of school science teachers, can be applied
here without major modifications. Thus, only the pre-
service education in Physics and Chemistry for prospective
Physical Science teachers constitutes the focus of this
chapter.

The chapter begins with general considerations re-
garding the design Of possible Chemistry and Physics
courses for prospective teachers of Physical Sciences in
Vietnamese secondary schools, followed by a brief descrip-
tion Of the recommended courses. Minimal requirements in
mathematics as well as minimal knowledge in recent learn-

ing theories constitute the last part of the chapter.

General Principles for the Design of Chemistry
Courses fOr Prospective Vietnamese
Physica Science eachers

Suitability Principle

 

 

In designing courses for prospective Physical
Science teachers, a major concern was to avoid some mis-

takes commonly seen in other pedagogical faculties around

247

the country. One Of the major mistakes consists of
making students in the Faculty Of Pedagogy take science
courses that are at an unnecessarily high level for them.
This practice--besides cultivating an inferiority complex
in teacher-students--has another disadvantage in their
science training program, since teacher-students need
more of a training in general science--especially during
the first year--than a program that is too specialized,

Specific courses therefore should be designed to
meet the needs and abilities of teacher-students, besides
basic courses that they may take along with Faculty Of
Science students.

There may be real problems in creating these ad-
ditional courses--e.g. financial and man-power problems.
Creating more courses would cost the university more money
and would require more teachers. The financial problem,
however, can be solved by designing courses that not only
serve teacher-students, but also students from other
scientific disciplines, such as agriculture, health, or
those students who would only need courses that are more
practical than theoretical. The man-power problem can
also be solved by getting rid of the paralyzing ”formal-
ism" that has been plaguing higher education in Vietnam
for decades. This formalism--whose roots lie in the fear
of the loss of status for Vietnamese university programs,

vis-a-vis international university programs--consists of

248

allowing only high academicians to teach most university
courses. Some arrangements should be made to allow and
encourage B.S. or M.S. holders to participate in the teach-
ing program, not only in the peripheral tasks (such as
graduate assistants) but also in substantial tasks such as
lecturers, readers. These arrangements have been undertaken
by many universities in other countries, e.g. in the United

Kingdom.3

Fluidity Principle

 

Another concern in designing these courses lies in
the desire to see students be able to switch to another
program of studies--i.e. to change from one major area Of
study to another--after the first years (from one to two)
of college study, if they choose to do so. These first
years--comparable to the first years Of secondary schools--
may be viewed as an orientation period in which students
may not be able to make up their minds on a definitive
career for their future. In these circumstances, it is
desirable that students may have many alternatives in their
course selection. For instance, future Physical Science
teachers in the Faculty Of Pedagogy may have two choices:
they may take some chemistry courses designed eSpecially
for science students (in the Faculty Of Science) or they
may take less rigorous courses in chemistry designed for

teacher-students (Physical Science majors) and for students

249

in other areas as well. Thus this flexibility in course
selection will allow teacher-students to be able "to flow
smoothly onto their next immediate educational or occupa-
tional goal"4 or to switch to another area of learning
for which they may have developed a stronger interest--
during the first years of orientation--than the old one
(science teaching in secondary schools).
Considerations Related to the Design
df—Courses—forSecondary Schools
The rationale used in the design Of new chemistry

courses for Vietnamese secondary schools (in Chapter V) is
still valid here. Thus, courses for prospective Physical
Science should:

1. Take into account recent advances in chemistry

knowledge.
2. Be relevant to the society's needs and demands.

3. Take into account the scientific nature Of chemis—
try, i.e. (a) a created knowledge; (b) a body of

structured knowledge; and (c) a dynamic process.

4. Take into account recent realignment of chemistry
areas into (a) chemical structure; (b) chemical

dynamics; and (c) chemical synthesis.5
This realignment, which is a breakdown of

traditional divisions (organic, inorganic, etc.)

is considered as a sign Of health and vigor, since

250

from now on, "a chemist should not be inhibited

from exploring a problem or idea simply because it

7

is 'not his field.'" From the socio-moral angle,

this realignment brings about collaboration between
chemists, deemed superior to competition.

Competition of ideas does much to generate enthusiasm
and provides an important stimulus to research. How-
ever, collaboration between chemists . . . having
different backgrounds and vieWpOints, has been parti-
cularly effective in solving problems and in generating
new chemical ideas. Such collaboration is sometimes
inhibited by intolerance [which] can appear in chemistry
in conflicts Of personality between individuals, in the
attitudes Of physical chemists toward organic chemists
and vice versa, . . ., in the attitudes of chemical
educators and research-oriented academic chemists to-
ward each other . . .

This breakdown Of traditional divisions of chemis-
try seems much easier in Vietnam, whose science
traditions are not as strong as in other countries.
Thus, by adOpting such a modern restructuring of
chemistry for better educational purposes, Vietnam
may provide a good example and inspiration for
other countries.

gonsiderarions Of Contemporary
Trends in Teaching Chemistry

at the College Level

 

The design of these chemistry courses for pros-
pective Physical Science teachers also follows contemporary
trends in teaching chemistry at the university level,
namely the dividing Of chemistry teaching into three

stages: the introductory stage, the "degree course" stage,

251

and the training in research stage.9 The two first stages
constitute our present focus.

These considerations have led to the following
scheme that shows a desirable pattern for teaching chemistry
in small-size universities and community colleges in

Vietnam, and in large universities as well (see Figure 5).

252

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  
     
 

 

 

 

 

 

 

OTHER A.R.C.
COURSES
CHEM SYST
I a II
MODERN CHEM
I a II
GEN CHEM CHEM CHEM ANALY CHEM SYST
I 5. II DYNAMICS "'9 I 5. II "—) III
IAk’
STUDENTS IN '
ALL WALKS g; l
I
OF LIFE )1: I
V/
INTRO CHEM
I & II
JV
ESS OF
CHEM SYST
I a II
OTHER A.S.C. e C.A.C. or
COURSES ' ' C.A.P.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 5.--The Chemistry Program Structure.

Notes: (1) For the understanding of the courses listed
above (in abbreviated form). Please refer to
"Course Descriptions?"

(2) A.R.C.=Advanced R-Courses; R=Research-oriented
(R-Curriculum)

(3) A.S.C.=Advanced1 S=Courses (S=curriculum); S
means specially designed for other Specific
purposes (other than research-orientation
purposes).

(4)- - - - -: A possible alternative (for
bright students).

(5) IF NO: If the student fails the course.

253

Course Descriptions

 

General Chemistry I and II (Gen Chem I & II).—-
Introduction tO the fundamental concepts and principles
Of chemistry pertaining to the areas Of structure, dynamics

and synthesis.

Introductory Chemistry I and II (Intro Chem I &
iii--A less rigorous course than Gen Chem I & II, with
emphasis on unifying conceptual schemes, and their inter-
relationships. Also, emphasis is put on applications to

Agriculture and Biology.

Chemical Dynamics (Chem Dynamics).--Course dealing
with the energetic and kinetic aSpects Of chemical reac-
tions. Essential background in stoichiometry, energetics
and structure--as is provided in Intro Chem or Gen Chem--
is assumed. Possible topics include:

States Of Matter
Laws Of Thermodynamics. Energetic Aspects Of Reactions
Equilibrium
Solutions
Acid-Base and Oxido-Reduction Equilibra
Interphase Equilibria
Reaction Rates
Mechanisms Of Reactions
Modern Chemistry (Modern Chem I & II).--Introduc-

tion to Quantum Mechanics (Modern I) and its applications

254

to physico-chemical systems including important spectro-
SCOpic systems, e.g. IR, UV, NMR, Mossbauer (Modern II).

Background in Linear Algebra is recommended.

Chemical Analysis: Strategies and Techniques I

 

and II (Chem Anal).--A study Of the fundamental theory Of

 

volumetric, gravimetric analysis and of separation tech-
niques integrated with instrumental analysis. Also
emphasis on the problem-solving approach--e.g. combining
various chemical strategies and techniques--in dealing
with problems in identifying and separating chemical sub-

stances.

Chemical Systems I and Iijand Chemical §ystem III

 

(Chem §yst).--Applications Of chemistry concepts gained

 

in previous courses to the study of structure and behavior
of Chemical Systems formed by Carbon Compounds(Chem/Syst

I and II) or by compounds Of other elements, including
transition elements, noble gas, lanthanides, and actinides

(Chem Syst III).

Essentials Of Chemical Systems I and II (Ess

 

Chem Syst I & II).--The study Of structure and behavior

 

of systems formed by Carbon Compounds, and Of bio—systems
(in the physico-chemical point-Of-view). Emphasis on
concrete applications to agriculture, medicine, and

biology.

255

Miscellaneous courses: cultural or elective.--
Cultural Approach to Chemistry (CAC): A treatment of
cultural and economic asPects Of chemistry in our life.
The course includes major production processes in chemical
industries, a stress on the important role played by
chemistry in scientific studies, in agriculture, medicine
etc., and also a presentation of the historical events
important to the science of chemistry and discussion Of

their significance.

Chemistry Requirements
The following table (Table 14) shows the number

of chemistry hours required for physical science majors:

256

Table l4.--Chemistry Requirements.

 

Credits in

' *
Semester Hours Course Tltles

Major** Minor**
Program Program

 

6 Introductory Chemistry
I & II
6 General Chemistry I & II
5 Chemical Dynamics
5 Chemical Analysis:

Strategies and
Techniques I & II

6 Chemical Systems I & II
or Essentials Of
Chemical Systems

I & II

3 Modern Chemistry I
or Modern P.S. I

3 - - - II or
- - - II-B

3 C.A.C. or C.A.P.

4 Chemical Systems III

3 to 6 Elective Courses in

Physics or
Chemistry

Total Number of
Hours

V V

X V X
V X X
V X X
V X

X V X

X
V X V X
V X

29 35 18 22

 

*Please refer to "Course Descriptions" for the
understanding Of some course titles listed in abbreviated

forms.

**Major Program (Two Alternatives

Chem MAJORS.
Minor Program (Two Alternatives

Chem MINORS.

v and x) = for

v and x) = for

257

Ph sics (Courses and Requirements) for
Future Physical SCience TeaChers

The rationale used for the design of physics courses

 

for prOSpective physics teachers is closely similar to the
rationale involved in the design Of chemistry courses for

chemistry teachers.

Suitability Principle
Physics courses should be geared to the needs Of
the future teacher. The future teacher surely

does not need to learn to do quantum mechanical calcu-
lations or to learn the mathematics of general rela-
tively. He does not need as much physics before the
bachelor's degree as does the candidate for graduate
school (although he will want more courses later).

And he needs a wider background in other sciences and
in the history and philOSOphy of science.10

Fluidity Principle

According to a recent report by the Commission on
College Physics, students who are likely to be attracted
to a Physics teaching career in high schools may be clas-
sified into three types:

(a) Student A, who has just taken the professional
introductory physics course, but who might be
persuaded at this point to teach physics in
high school if he were able to switch into the
teacher program.

(b) Student B, who begins with an inclination toward
teaching as a career, has not had a good high
school physics course, and has not considered
physics as a Specialty. He might however take an
introductory physics course for nonscience majors
and from there be attracted into physics teaching.

258

(c) Student C, who in high school chose to teach
physics as a career and has chosen his college or
university for its preparation program. He has
probably had a very good high school course and
is ready for more Of a challenge than the non-
scientist's course Offers.11
The program should provide multiple exits and

entrance points to these different types of students,
according to their physics background. Thus, courses at
different levels of SOphistication should be Offered--
ranging from courses for non-science majors to more chal-
lenging courses as those delivered in the faculty Of
science--so that students who have not decided yet as to
what possible career they would embrace, would now have
an Opportunity to do so, e.g. to make a choice between a
research-oriented physics career or a physics teaching
career; in the latter case, they may move downward (toward
less theoretical courses).

Other considerations have been drawn from the
Commission on College Physics recommendations12 and also
from international studies Of physics teaching in colleges,13
which were recently done. They include the following:

1. "The prOgram should prepare a teacher in at least
one other field."14 Due to the present shortage
Of physical science teachers in Vietnam, especially
in rural areas, and also due tO the necessity Of

working overtime to survive (high cost of living),

a preparation program for physics teachers should

259

"anticipate the likelihood that its graduates will
have to teach chemistry or mathematics in addition

to physics."15

2. "A course in the history and philosophy Of physics
is particularly important for the teacher."16
History and philOSOphy or physics provide the

future teacher with apprOpriate means for moti-

vating students and help them appreciate more the

world Of science and scientists.

3. "The prOgram should enable teachers already in
service to get further training in physics."17
The physics education should not stop at the exit
gates of the Faculty Of Pedagogy; it should con-
stitute a life-long exciting journey toward keep-
ing abreast of latest advances in Physics knowl-
edge. In order to help teachers achieve this
purpose--continuous improvement, instead Of in-
creasing Obsolescence—-provisions Should be made

to design courses, seminars that they may attend

in the evenings, or in summers.

These considerations have led tO the selection Of
the following courses and course patterns for prospective

Physical Science teachers (see Figure 6).

 

260

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

.\ OTHER A.R.C.
i7 COURSES
MODERN P.S. ADV LAB
I & II I & II

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

INTERM. PHYSICS

V I, II, & III
GEN PH.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I &]I

I v$
fl '
I I
I l
I I

l

STUDENTS IN I I ADV LAB
ALLlwurs o l I I
z I L. :u'NO
OF LIFE E3 | _'-— MODERN p.s. /////}7
I '2 I
/
I /
l /
/
I /
/
I, /
_ //
INTRO PH.v’ ;_ OTHER A.S.C.
I a II 7' COURSES

Notes:

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 6.--The Physics Program Structure.

(1) For the understanding of the courses listed

(2)
(3)

(4)
(5)

above (in abbreviated form), please refer to
"Course Descriptions."

A.R.C. = Advanced R—Courses, R means Research-
oriented (R=curriculum)

A.S.C. = Advanced; S=Courses (S=curriculum);

S means Specially designed for other Specific
purposes (other than research-orientation
purposes).

----- : A possible alternative (for bright
students).

IF NO: If the student fails the course.

261

Course Descriptions

 

First_year: Introductory Physical Sciences (Intro

 

PS) I and II (5 hours each including laboratory).--Require-
ments in mathematics for this course are not as rigorous

as in General Physics I and II--where calculus is required.
The course content includes basic principles of physics

and chemistry deemed necessary for the understanding and
appreciation Of physics and chemistry in the modern world.
A strong emphasis Should be put on the philosophical and

cultural approach such as presented by H. G. Cassidy.*

First or second year: General Physics (Gen PH)

 

I and II (5 hours each including laboratory).--This course

 

provides solid foundations for further advanced under-
graduate courses. At the end Of this course, students
Should be able to transfer to R-curriculum,** if they wish.
Possible tOpics include: the basic principles Of mechanics
and thermodynamics; electrical and magnetic phenomena;
geometrical and physical Optics, and selected topics in
modern physics. A strong emphasis should be put on the
grasping of electrostatics and physical Optics (since less

emphasis in physical Optics and electro-statics is

 

*
R-curr1culum = regular curriculum (1.e. research-

oriented curriculum).

**
H. G. Cassidy = Science Restated: Physics and

Chemistry for the Non-Scientist (San FranEiSCO: Freeman,
Cooper and Co., 1970).

 

 

262

characteristic of Introductory Physical Sciences), and

on the use of calculus to solve Physics problems.

Second_year or beyond: Intermediate Physics (or

Interm PH) I, II and III* (4 hours each including labora-

tory work).--This sequence is designed to provide student-

teachers
Physics.
Of their
dents as
course.
1.
2.

Area I:

with a solid background for graduate studies in

Furthermore, the tOpics are selected on the basis

relevance tO high school physics. Promising stu-

well as in-service teachers can enroll in this

There are two areas discussed in this course:

The physics Of vibrations; and

thermal physics.

Physics of Vibrations I, II:

TOpics discussed in this area are designed to

give the student a unified picture Of periodic pheno-

mena Observed in nature. TOpics include:

1.

Basic notions Of Newtonian, Lagrangian and
Hamiltonian dynamics. Oscillatory motion;

coupled systems. Sound and Music.

Periodic phenomena in electricity and magne-
tism; Maxwell's equations. Periodic phenomena
in Optics. Spectroscopy and introduction to

relativity.

 

Physics)

*
Partially adapted from CCP (Commission on College

263

Area II: Thermal Physics (3-2-4):

Physical Thermodynamics including fundamental
principles, thermodynamic laws and functions. A dis-
cussion of the Kinetic theory Of gases and an intro-

duction to statistical mechanics.

Second year or beyond: Modern Physical Science (or
Modern PS) I and II (3 hours each) (3-0-3).--A course de-
signed tO introduce students tO quantum mechanics and its
applications in physics and chemistry. While Modern
Physical Science I (or Modern PSI) is common tO Physics
and Chemistry majors, Modern PS II-A and Modern PS II-B
are respectively designed for Physics and Chemistry majors.
Possible topics include the following:

Modern PS-I: Introduction to Quantum Mechanics and
tO the Physics of Atoms and NuCleiE

The evolution of the atomic concept of matter; the
Bohr Model and the Schroedinger wave formulation of
Quantum Mechanics. Discussions Of two—state systems
(cf. chapters 1-4 of the Feynman lectures, Vol. 3):
electron distribution in excited states of the H-
atoms: application Of wave mechanics to atoms having
several electrons; shell structure, valence; nuclear
systematics; binding energy; modes of radioactive

disintegration; fission and fusion.

264

Modern PS—IIA (Phypics Majors) (3 hours for each
area discussed or for elements Ofieach area combined
together):

 

Applications of Quantum theory to modern aspects
Of physics: solid-state physics (and/or low—
temperature phenomena and/or fundamental particle
physics).

Possible tOpics for solid state physics include:
Liaison forces in solids: interatomic and inter-
ionic. The classification Of solids into basic types
such as crystals, metals, semiconductors, and others.
Band structure. Free-electron theory of metals.
Diffusion, defects and color centers in solids.
Specific heat. Electric, magnetic and Optical proper-
ties Of solids.

Modern PS-IIB (Chemistry Majors) (3 hours for each
area discussed):

 

SpectrOSCOpy I: UV, IR, Raman, Mossbauer, ESCA
SpectrOSCOpy II: NMR, ESR

Lasers and Chemical Lasers

Second year or beyond: Electronicsand Electronics
Devices (or Elect Dev.) (3 hours).--A course designed tO
provide the students with basic knowledge of electronics,
semi-conductor devices, and use Of such devices. Topics
include fundamentals Of electronics, vacuum tube and trans-

istor characteristics, amplifiers, oscillators, signal

265

detection and modulation, digital logic circuits. Ex-
periments are drawn from these topics and designed to
give the student a working knowledge of circuits and a

familiarization with electronic laboratory instruments

(Advanced Laboratory I).

Second year or beyond: Advanced Laboratory
(Adv Lab) I and II (2 hours each).--In the ideal case--
where facilities and equipment are abundant—-this
laboratory sequence should cover major aspects of Modern
Physical Sciences I, II and Electronicsand Electronic
Devices. In a less ideal situation (e.g. Cantho Univer-
sity), this laboratory course may restrict itself toswnu:

aspects Of Electronic and Electronic Devices only.

Second year or beyond: Electives: Mechanics
(Mech) I and II (3 hours each).--Newtonian mechanics of
particles and systems of particles in stationary and
moving frames of reference. Oscillatory motion. Elemen-
tary mechanics of deformable solids and fluids.

Lagrangian and Hamiltonian dynamics. Motion of
rigid bodies. Coupled systems. Vibrating strings. Small
oscillations and normal coordinates. Elasticity. An

introduction to the special theory Of relativity.

A Cultural Approach to Physics (CAP) (3 hours).--

A treatment of cultural and economic aSpects of Physics

266

in our life. The course stresses on the role Of physics
in engineering and industry (electronics, mechanics,
industries) as well as in bio-medical sciences (medicinal
treatment by physical methods, e.g. diathermy, radio-
therapy). A presentation Of important events in the
history Of physics--and a discussion of their signifi-

cance--is also part of the course.

Physics Requirements

 

The following table (Table 15) shows the number

of physics hours required for physical science majors:

267

TABLE 15.--Physics Requirements.

 

 

Credits in . Minor
Semester Hours Course Titles Program Program
10 Introductory Physics
I & II v
10 General Physics I & II v x
4 Intermediate Physics
I
4 Intermediate Physics
II
4 Intermediate Physics
III
3 Modern Physical Sci-
ences I x
3 Modern Physical Sci-
ences II-A
3 Modern Physical Sci-
ences II-B
3 Electronics and Elect.
Dev. x
2 Advanced Laboratory
I
3 to 6 Electives: Courses
or Seminars in
Physics or
Chemistry
Total Hours 20 16

 

Notes: (1) Major Program
(2) Minor Program

Program for Majors in Physics.
PrOgram for Minors in Physics.

268
A Minimum OrrMathematics Edupption for
Prospective Physical SCience Teachers

The necessity to possess a minimal mathematical
knowledge as theoretical support for both physics and
chemistry studies is not denied by anyone today. Thus,
the ninth recommendation Of a recent Council for Cultural
Co-Operation report on the teaching Of chemistry at uni-
versities reads: "The study of mathematic and another
science subject (preferably physics) should continue into
stage B--degree-course stage--and run parallel with the
study Of chemistry."19 The important role of mathematics--
viewed as "the chief tool of the physicist"20--has also
been evidenced in a recent UNESCO survey study about the
teaching Of physics at universities.21

The importance Of mathematics education--and the
corresponding rationale--being thus identified, one prob-
lem remains tO be solved, which consists Of determining
the amount of mathematical knowledge that is needed by
prospective physical science teachers in Vietnamese
secondary schools.

Thus, this section is an attempt to solve this
problem; it also tries to answer other questions that are

22 Should

pertinent to the tOpic, such as the following:
mathematics education for prospective physical science
teachers be geared Specifically to physics or chemistry
tOpics (i.e. should it be provided by physicists or

chemists) or should it be distributed by mathematicians?

269

What should be the apprOpriate time to teach

mathematics to future physicists, or chemists?

What Should be a Possible
Minimal KnOWIedge Of Mathe-
matics fOr PrOSpective
Physical Science Teachers

 

 

 

From an examination Of various programs Of educat-
ing physicists (through the first stage) and secondary
school teachers (Physical Science Majors) from various

23 it would appear that the following minimal

countries,
requirements in mathematics knowledge for prospective
teachers, are common tO all of these programs, namely:
1. Knowledge Of Mathematical Analysis
2. Knowledge Of Analytical Geometry
3. Knowledge Of Algebra (including Linear Algebra)
Thus, a sound program Of mathematics education for
prOSpective Vietnamese school science teachers (Physical
Science Majors), must be based on this world-wide trend.
The following gives broad content outline of pos-

sible mathematics courses for prOSpective Physical Sci-

ence teachers in Vietnam.

Basic Program (one to one year and a half).--

 

1. Mathematical Analysis, including differential and

 

integral calculus (one or many variables),calculus

of residues, differential equations.

270

2. Analytical Geometry
3. Algebra and Linear Algebra
An advanced program, which will help future teachers
to pursue successfully physics and chemistry studies at a
level beyond the four years of preparation in the Faculty

of Pedagogy includes the following tOpics:

Advanced Math Topics24

1. Advanced Algebra and Group Theory
2. Ordinary and partial differential equations
3. Special functions, e.g. Green's Functions
4. Integral Equations

What are the Appropriate

Approaches to Teadhihg

Mathematics tO:Physical
Science Majors?

 

 

The danger Of letting "pure" mathematicians teach
mathematics to future physicists (or future Physical Sci-
ence teachers) lies in the fact that most Often pure mathe-
maticians, delighted in their abstract pursuits, tend to
overlook the relationships between physical sciences and
mathematics. This tendency has been revealed by Courant
in the following words:

Since the 17th century, physical intuition has served
as a vital source for mathematical problems and
methods. Recent trends and fashions have however,
weakened the connection between mathematics and

physics; mathematicians, turning away from the roots
Of mathematics in intuition, have concentrated on

271

refinement and emphasized the postulational side of
mathematics, and at times have overlooked the unity
Of their science with physics and other fields. In
many cases, physicists have ceased to appreciate the
attitudes of mathematicians. This rift is unques-
tionably a serious threat to science as a whole.25

The other extreme is to charge "pure" chemists or
physicists to teach applied mathematics courses. These
peOple may develOp a tendency to sacrifice rigor for rele-

26

vance; the result could be "mathematical cookery" instead

Of mathematics education.

27 between mathe-

Thus, in order to strike a balance
matical rigor and mathematical relevance to chemistry and
physics (and allied sciences), the task of teaching mathe-
matics to future Vietnamese Physical Science teachers
should be entrusted only to those people who, besides a
thorough training in mathematics also possess some back-
ground in physics or chemistry.

What Should be the Appropriate

Time totTEach Mathematics to
Future PhysiCists or ChemiSts?

 

The earlier, the better. This teaching may pre-
cede some physics courses that require a knowledge in
calculus, e.g. electricity. It is here that coordination
between the mathematics professor and the physics profes-
sor is most needed. (Several years ago, while the writer
was taking at the same time a course in mathematics and a
course in physics [electrostatics], he had experienced

troubles in understanding physics, due to the fact that the

272

physics professor utilizes integral calculus at the be-
ginning Of his course while the mathematics professor
teaches this notion only near the middle Of his year-long
analysis course. The result was that the writer failed
both courses during that year.)
pinimal Knowledge of Recent LearnipgTheories

for ProspectivePhysicaITScience Teachers

The following briefly presents recent learning
theories and their important implications--especially those
which are particularly relevant to science and chemistry
instruction--that prospective Vietnamese Physical Science
teachers ought to know, in order to maximize their teach-
ing effectiveness, later in schools.
Recent LearninngheorieS and
Their Implications to the:PTe-
Service Education Of Prospective

Physical Science Teachers in
Vietnam

 

 

 

 

 

This section is limited to discussions about
Gagne's and Ausubel's theories in the context of struc-
tures in teaching-learning and Anderson's work on kinetic
structure. Piaget's Stages Of Intellectual DevelOpment
are also briefly described. The implications for the pre-
service education Of prospective Vietnamese teachers

(Physical Science Majors) are also included.

273

Gagne's and Auspbel's Theories
in Relatipn to Structures in
Teaching-Learning
Recent learning theories which are related to
structures in teaching-learning, include Gagne's Theory

27

of Learning Hierarchies and Ausubel's subsumption theory

Of Meaningful Verbal Learning.28

Ausubel's Theory.--Ausubel has been mostly known
for his studies on cognitive subsumption. In his book,

29 he at-

The Psychology of Meaningful Verbal Learning,
tempted to Show that prior exposition to structured ab-
stract knowledge helps subsequent learning Of related
meaningful verbal material. Thus, according to Ausubel,

an ideal instructional sequence would begin with the
introduction of "advance organizers"3°--consisting Of
relevant organized statements--followed by the exposition
Of the verbal material to be mastered. For Ausubel, the
meaningfulness Of the material to be learned resides in
its relationship with related material that has been
learned earlier in time, or with the learner's existing
cognitive structure. Ausubel's subsumption theory is
particularly useful for Showing how the learning of organ-
ized bodies of knowledge, such as the "achieved" science,
can be made more effective. This effectiveness is achieved

through the participation Of the deductive capability of

the human mind in the learning process. The fact that

274

man is capable of hypothetico-deductive reasoning has
been evidenced by the epistemologist Jean Piaget, in his
studies Of the child and the adolescent.31
Today's importance Of Ausubel's theory is re-
flected in the considerable amount Of research work that
has been done to verify the consequences Of his theory.

Recently, Novak and his co-workers,32

in an analysis Of
156 researches done on Ausubel's theory have reached the

following conclusion:

In general, the data reported in the studies re-
viewed can be interpreted as consistent with expec-
tations from Ausubel's theory. Since proper experi—
mental controls, adequate description Of instruc-
tional methods and/or Clear description of the
evaluation instruments were lacking in most Of the
reports studied, all conclusions must be regarded as
Speculations which need further, better designed
research.3

Gagné's Theory.--Gagné has proposed the hypothesis
that the learning Of abstract material can be facilitated
when content is organized into hierarchical structures,34
i.e., when learning proceeds from simple learning to more
complex learning. Thus, for Gagne, the simplest learning
type is signal learning, which can-~by combination with
itself or with other more complex types Of learning--lead
to more complex learning types such as principle learning
or problem solving. The following diagram establishes a
hierarchical order between different Gagne's types of

learning.

275

Problem Solving

>.
.3 Pr1nc1p1e Learnlng
x
z .
*3: Concept Learning
2‘ 2‘
-3 8 Multiple Discrimination
e
3 g Verbal Association
0
,5 3 Chaining
n
m . .
g Stlmulus-Response Learning

 

Signal Learning

Gagne's theory Of learning hierarchies has found
applications in programmed learning, which consists Of
breaking down a learning unit into components that are to
be mastered one after another. Gagne's theory has another
potentiality: its capability to explain how mental and
intellectual skills--e.g., problem-solving skills in sci-
ence, which are organized into successive steps--can be
taught.

Ahderson's Work on Kinetic
Structure35

 

 

It is helpful--in dealing with structures in
teaching-learning--to distinguish between kinetic struc-
ture and static structure. The definition Of kinetic
structure has been given by Anderson as follows:

Kinetic structure is the serial order of pre-

sentation of information to be learned as prescribed

by a criterion list called an organizational
dimension.36

276

It is recommended to use a spatial organization dimension
whenever:

the terminal Objective Of the lesson is acquisition
of knowledge about spatial systems such as knowledge
of anatomy, geography, or the structure Of a
physical system.3

This Spatial dimension is Obtained by:
listing the components Of the system to be learned
in the same order as their occurrence in the
natural phenomenon.38

In other words, this list is

a criterion sequence wherein continuous items 39
represent Objects which are Spatially proximate.

Anderson has also distinguished between high and low
kinetic-structured lessons.

A high kinetic structured lesson presents informa-
tion in the same order as it occurs on the organiza-
tional dimension, whereas low structured lessons
contain information in a sequence different from
that in the organizational dimension.

Static structure is akin41 to Bruner's concept of
structure, as has been expounded in his "The Process of

42

Education." Here--in static structure--the focus is

on "the manner in which ideas are logically related than
the order in which ideas are presented."43
The notion Of kinetic structure in communicating
ideas has a practical importance. Thus, it has been found
that high kinetic structure in science lessons results in
greater knowledge acquisition than low kinetic-structured

presentations.44

277

Piaget's Stpges Of Cognitive
Development95

 

While Piaget's Theory is particularly helpful for
elementary science teaching, it is nonetheless applicable
to secondary science teaching in some of its aspects (see
below and also Chapter V).

The roots Of Piaget's thinking may be found in
religious or philosophic thinking. Thus, in the "Ecclesi-
astes," one may have found the same idea of developmental
stages in human growth:

TO everything there is a season, and a time to

every purpose under the heaven: . 46

A time to be born, and a tlme to d1e . . .

Hegel's concept Of developmental stages encompasses
broader areas: universal history, history of philosophy,
evolution of religion and evolution Of art. For Hegel:

l. The four stages of universal history include:

oriental, Greek, Roman and Christian worlds.

2. The three stages of history Of philOSOphy include:

general and abstract thinking, notion, idea.

3. The three stages of religious evolution of mankind
include: natural religion, religion Of the Spiri-
tual individuality, and absolute religion.

4. The three stages Of evolution of the art include:

symbolic, classic and romantic art.47

For Piaget, the world Of children and adolescents

Offers more satisfaction for an enquiring mind than Hegel's

278

rational world or Teilhard de Chardin's "élan cosmique."48

The study of DevelOpmental Stages from childhood to early
adolescence has been one Of his major interests. It is no
wonder that he has discovered the following stages in a
child's intellectual develOpment:

Stage I: Sensory-Motor Stage (from 0-2 years Old).--
During this period, the child's intelligence is concretely
oriented toward external Objects. The purpose Of the
child's thinking is the success in his actions, and not

to gain knowledge per se.

Stagp II: Pre-Operational Stage (2-7).-—There are
two substages:
l. Preconcpptual Thought (2-4): This substage is
characterized by the apparition Of the symbolic
function--which Piaget also called semiotic func-

49

tion (fonction sémiotique)--which is based on

mental representations of external Objects.

2. Intuitive Thought (4-7): This substage is midway
between preconceptual stage and the more advanced
stage Of concrete Operations. During this period,
the child is unable to understand the notion of

conservation.

Stage III: Operational Stage (7-16).--There are

two substages:

279

Concrete Operations Thought (7-11): This substage
marks the beginning of rational thought in the
child, as contrasted with a type Of logic--called

transductive50

--which characterizes the previous
stages and which differs from the logic Of the adult
(both inductive and deductive).

During the concrete Operations period, the
child is able to understand conservation concepts.
He is also capable to understand the notion Of
grouping and the relationships between various
concrete groupings. Piaget identifies nine types
of groupings, each Of which has the following

characteristics: closure, associativity,

reversibility and identity.

Formal Operations Thought (ll-16).--The substage Of
formal Operations is a continuation of the previous
substage, with only a modification in the nature Of
mental Operations that the child has been familiar
to, i.e., the child's thinking goes beyond the
level of factual thinking and reaches the level Of
prOpositional thinking at this substage. He can
now manipulate the hypothetical, the problematic
along with the empirical reality. Both aspects of
logical thinking--e.g., inductive and deductive--

are now at his disposal.

280

An important implication Of Piaget's theory
for science and chemistry instruction is related
to learning readiness. Thus, it has been found
that developmental age does not necessarily coin-
cide with chronological age and that by training,
one can fit both of these ages together.51 A con-
clusion which could be drawn from this study Of
Piaget's Theory is related to the formal Opera-
tions stage. In Chapter V, the application of this

aSpect of PiagetsTheory for teaching of chemistry

has been done.

Implications for Teacher

 

Education

 

1.

PrOSpective Vietnamese Physical Science teachers
should understand the importance Of both static
and kinetic structures in science and chemistry

teaching.

They (prospective teachers) should be taught how
to use both inductive and deductive approaches in

science teaching.

They should be familiarized with children's and
adolescents' "develOpmental ages" during their

pre-service period.

281

4. They should be taught how to provide opportunities
for students to familiarize themselves with induc-

tion and deduction in science learning.

Conclusion

 

It is hoped that these courses and minimal require-
ments could, not only help future teachers successfully
carry out their task, but also provide them with a back-
ground that is strong enough in Physical Sciences and in
psychology Of learning so that they can further carry on
in later years, the exciting enterprise Of continually
improving their science and chemistry knowledge, as well as

their knowledge of human behavior.

Summary

This chapter constitutes a logical implication of
the prOposal for a new chemistry program for Vietnamese
secondary schools, which was made in Chapter V.

General considerations related to the design of
an appropriate program Of pre-service education in Physics
and Chemistry for prospective Physics and Chemistry teach-
ers in Vietnam were provided in the first part of the
chapter. Then, Physics and Chemistry course outlines for
future Vietnamese science teachers (Physics and Chemistry)
were described; the Physics and Chemistry program struc-
tures as well as the number of hours required for each

subject-matter were also given. Education in mathematics,

282

the knowledge Of which was viewed as an integral part Of
the learning Of Physical Sciences, was discussed as to the
necessary amount Of mathematics which should be taught,

the teaching approaches which should be used and the appro-
priate time (earlier or later in time during the training
period) to impart mathematics knowledge to prospective
teachers. A brief presentation of recent learning theories
and their implications to the pre-service education Of
prospective Physical Sciences teachers in Vietnam consti-

tutes the last portion Of the chapter.

FOOTNOTES FOR CHAPTER VI

1F. J. Rutherford, "Preparing Teachers for Curri-
culum Reform," Science Education, LV (October-December,
1971), 555.

 

2Phan My-Linh,"PrOposalfor a Model Program Of
Science Teacher Education in Vietnam" (unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Michigan State University, 1972).

3Hans Halban, "Quelques Remarques sur 1' Organisa-
tion de la Vie Universitaire et de la Recherhe Scienti-
fique en Grande-Bretagne," Revue de 1' Enseignement
Superieur, IV (October, 1957), 71-78.

 

 

4W. T. Mooney Jr., "Opening the Doors to Chemistry

for All Students," in Selected Papers from Regional Con-
ferences (1966-1967), ed. by D. N. Marquardt (Phlo Alto,
Calif.: AD3, 1968), p. 75.

 

 

SU.S.A., National Academy Of Sciences, Chemistry:
Opportunities and Needs: The Weistheimer Rpport (WaShing-
ton, D.C.: National Academy Of Sciences, 1965).

 

 

6ACS and IUPAC, The Structure Of Chemistry (I):
Ereliminary Re ort of the International Conference on
Education in C emistry (Colorado, 1970), in Journal Of
Chemical Education, XLVIII (January, 1971), 6:l3.

 

 

 

7Ibid., p. 9. 8Ibid., pp. 9-10.

9Council for Cultural Co-Operation, The Teaching
Of Chemistry at Universitprevel: Education in Europe: I

 

 

(2) (Strasbourg: CounCil for Cultural Co-Operation,

I966), 43-44.

283

284

10Commission on College Physics, Preparing_High

School Physics Teachers: Excerpt from a Rpport by the

Commission on Colle e Ph sics (1968), in ScienceEducation,
LV (April-June, 197I), 260

 

 

 

llIbid., p. 251.

12Commission on College Physics, pp, cit.

 

13UNESCO, A Survey Of the Teaching of Physics at

Universities (Paris: UNESCO,’l966).

 

 

14Commission on College Physics, pp, pip,, p. 250.
15Ibid. lsipip,, p. 251.

17Ibid.

18

Council for Cultural Co-Operation, pp. cit.,

19UNESCO, pp, cit., p. 92.

20UNESCO, pp, cit., pp. 40-92.

21J. N. Murrell, "University Mathematics for

Chemists,” Chemistry in Britain, VII (August, 1971),
321-23 (adapted)}

22UNESCO, pp, cit., pp. 40-116.

23a) Advisory Council on College Chemistry (AC3)
and Committee on the Undergraduate Program in Mathematics
(CUPM), The Undergraduate Mathematics Program Of Students
in Chemistr : A Report Of a Conference sponsored by AC3
and CUPM (I967) (Palo Alto, Calif.: AC3, 1967).
b) EL W. Dettman, Mathematical Methods in

Ph sics and Engineering (New York: 'McGraw-Hill Eook Co.,
Inc., I962).

 

 

24R. Courant and D. Hilbert, Methods Of Mathe-

matical Physics: Vol. I (New York: ThtersciencePubl.,
Inc., 1953), V.

 

285

25J. N. Murrell, pp, cit., p. 322.

261. S. Sokolnikoff and R. M. Redheffer, Mathe-

matics of_PhySics and Modern En ineerin (2nd ed., New
York: McGraw-Hill BoOk Co.,il9 , VII.

27R. M. Gagne, The Conditions of Learnipg (New

York: Rinehart and Winston, 1970)] 35-66}

28a) D. P. Ausubel, The Psychologypof Meaningful
Verbal Learnipg_(New York: Grune and Stratton, I963).
b) D. P. Ausubel, "The Use of Advance Organizers
in the Learning and Retention Of Meaningful Verbal

Material," Journal Of Educational Psychology, LI (1960),
262-72.

29D. P. Ausubel, pp, cit. (ref. 28a).

30D. P. Ausubel, pp, cit. (ref. 28a and 28b).

318. Inhelder and J. Piaget, The Growth Of

Lo ical Thinkipg from Childhood to Addlescence (New York:
Basic Books, Inc., 1958).

 

32J. D. Novak et al., "Interpretation of Research

Findings in Terms of AESuSEl‘s Theory and Implications
for Science Education," Science Education, LV (October-
December, 1971), 483-526.

331bid., p. 519.

34R. M. Gagne, pp, cit.

35O. R. Anderson, Structure in Teaching: Theory

and Analysis (New York: Teachers Cellege, Cdlumbia
University, 1969).

36'400. R. Anderson, "The Effects of Varying

Structure in Science Content on the Acquisition of
Science Knowledge," Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, V, Issue 4 (1967-1968), 361-62.

286

41O. R. Anderson, "A Refined Definition Of Struc-
ture in Teaching,“ Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, IV, Issue 4 (I966), 290.

 

 

42J. S. Bruner, The Process of Education (Cam-
bridge, Mass.: Harvard University, I960).

 

43O. R. Anderson, "Structure in Teaching," pp,
cit., p. 290.

44A. L. Trindade, "Structures in Science Teaching
and Learning Outcomes," Journal Of Research in Science
Teaching, IX, Issue 1 (1972), 65-74.

 

 

45A comprehensive study Of Piaget's theory had
been done by Flavell who treated in detail such notions
as functional invariants (organization, equilibration
adaptation), and schemes, which form the basis Of
Piaget's theory Of cognitive develOpment and which also
reflects the man's dual background as a biologist and an
epistemologist. In this section, only a brief descrip-
tion Of Piaget's develOpmental stage is provided. See

J. H. Flavell, The Developmental Psycholo Of Jean
Piaget (Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand Co., Inc., I963),

See also: C. B. Stendler, "Aspects of Piaget's
Theory that have Implications for Teacher Education,”
The Journal of Teacher Education, XVI (September, 1965),
329-35.

A. L. Baldwin, Theories Of Child Develo ment
(New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., I967), 289-300.

46The Ecclesiastes, Chapter 3, in the Holy Bible.

47a) F. G. W. Hegel, Le ons sur la Philoso hie
de l' Histoire (oeuvre posthume , trans. by J. Gihelin
(Ehris: Vrin, 1946).

b) F. G. W. Hegel, Le ons sur la Philoso hie
de la Religion (oeuvre posthume , trans. by 3. Gihelin,
5 vOl. (Paris: Vrin, l9 .

c) F. G. W. Hegel, Lepons sur 1' Histoire de
la Philospphie (oeuvre posthume), trans. by J. Gibelin
(Paris: Gallimard, I954).

d) F. G. W. Hegel, Esthéti ue (oeuvre posthume),
trans. by S. Jankelevitch, 4 vo . Paris: Aubier, 1944).

 

 

 

 

 

287

48For Teilhard de Chardin, the different stages

in the general movement of the universe include the
following: biogenesis, anthropogenesis, noogenesis and
christogenesis. See: J. Carles, Teilhard de Chardin
(Paris: P.U.F., 1964), 2-135.

 

I 49J. Piaget and B; Inhelder, Les Ima es Mentales:
Traite de Ps chologie Experimentale: Fasc. , ed. by
P. Fraisse Paris: P.U.F., 1963), 65-108.

 

50J. Piaget, Etudes sur la Logique dei'Enfant
(II): Le Jugement etile Raisonnement chez 11 Enfant
(Eefis: Delachaux et Niestlé, 1963), 186.

51R. R. Buell and G. A. Bradley, "Piagetian Stud-

ies in Science: Chemical Equilibrium Understanding
from Study Of Solubility: A Preliminary Report from
Secondary School Chemistry," Science Education, LVI
(January, 1972), 23-29.

 

CHAPTER VII

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary of the Study

 

The three-fold purpose Of this study has resulted
in the organization Of the study around three major areas.
The first area dealt with the design of an Operational
Model which may be used either to develOp any science or
chemistry program, or to pinpoint loopholes in any seem-
ingly weak science program, based on sets of criteria
developed for every major component of the Model. The
Model has six components (in the case of a macro-design):

Component I: General Objectives Selection
Component II: Specific Objectives Selection
Component III: Pre-Assessment

Component IV: Learning Content Selection and
Organization (S.O.C.)

Component V: Learning Experiences Selection and
Organization (S.O.L.E.)

Component VI: PrOgram Evaluation
A brief description Of the characteristics and
functions Of each one of these components was provided.

TO every important component Of the Model--e.g.

288

289

Objectives Selection, Learning Content (or Learning
Experiences) Selection and Organization, Evaluation
PrOgram--was associated a set of criteria designed to
make the task of judging instructional programs, an Ob-
jective and rational enterprise. These criteria were
then applied tO the evaluation of the existing chemistry
program in Vietnamese secondary schools. It was found
that a majority Of shortcomings existing in chemistry
programs of other countries (before the Sputnik event),
are still lingering in the present chemistry program in
Vietnamese schools, namely:

1. A dogmatic approach to chemistry teaching re-

flected in present classroom practices and

textbook presentations.

2. A lack Of stated Objectives for chemistry educa-

tion in schools.

3. A complete neglect of relating chemistry learning
in schools with extra-mural life, in an era
where the cry for relevance has been getting
louder than ever, from primary schools tO uni-

versities.

4. A lack of concern for the non-science students,
which is reflected in chemistry courses which
are truncated or watered-down versions of

chemistry courses for science majors.

290

S. An emphasis on factual teaching to the detriment
of "teaching for understanding" concepts and

principles.

6. A de-emphasis on the heuristic approach to
learning, both in class work and laboratory

work (non-existent).
7. A lack of experimental work in chemistry learning.

8. A lack of an Objective and comprehensive evalua-
tion system; moreover the present examination
system stresses the retention of facts, no matter

how irrelevant they are.

The second part Of the study was a proposal for a
new chemistry program for Vietnamese secondary schools
(2nd cycle). This program takes into account both the
Vietnamese society's needs and demands, and the Vietnamese
youth's abilities, needs and interests. In the process
of selecting Objectives for the program, Tyler's scheme
was used, which consists Of analyzing the society (its
problems and needs) and its culture, and taking into con-
sideration the present state of knowledge in human be-
havior, the learner's characteristics and the nature
of the subject area. Following this selection of Objec-
tives for chemistry education, learning content and

learning experiences (e.g. laboratory activities), were

291

prOposed. Two major instructional sequences--Chem I and
Chem II--were designed to serve science majors and non-
science majors, respectively.

The last step in the design Of this program was
the prOposal for a new evaluation system for chemistry
education, which is based on recent developments in the
area Of instructional and curriculum evaluation and on
recent developments in the area Of behavioral Objectives
for science and chemistry instruction. Thus, guidelines
for the construction of tests for both summative and
formative purposes were proposed. Behavioral Objectives
for chemistry education were also selected from recent
works in this area. Relevant techniques of evaluation--
e.g. short-answer, multiple-choice, ”interpretive exer-
cise" tests--were recommended as appropriate means for
bringing into the present evaluation system more Objec-
tivity, efficiency and reliability.

The last part of the study dealt with the pro-
posal for a program Of physics and chemistry education
for prospective Physical Science Teachers in Vietnamese
schools. This program was designed for small-size
universities (e.g. CanTho University, Hue University) or
community colleges in MyThO, Nhatrang, although it can
also be applied to large universities. Considerations
for the design of physics and chemistry courses for

future Vietnamese teachers (Physical Science) were

292

derived from various studies of physics and chemistry
teaching at the university level, and also from the
economic realities that future teachers will probably
face. Together with physics and chemistry courses,
minimal requirements in mathematics knowledge were es-
tablished. It was also felt that a minimal knowledge Of
recent learning theories (especially those dealing with
structures in science teaching-learning) is very helpful
to prospective Physical Science Teachers, who will use
this knowledge to increase their teaching effectiveness.
Thus, recent learning theories--e.g. Ausubel's,Gagné's,
Piaget's,and Anderson's theories--and possible implica-
tions to science and chemistry teaching were briefly
presented. The following principle has emerged near the
end of this study: no matter how good or logically sound
a new program is, it could never be successfully imple-
mented if there is a lack Of well-prepared personnel to
help carry out the implementation part. Thus, the under-
lying philOSOphy Of this study may be summarized as
follows:

Any instructional program, in order to be a
successful program, should be based on: a sound selection
(Df instructional Objectives, learning content and learn-
ing experiences and an apprOpriate prOgram of preparing

'teachers for the new task (program implementation).

293

Recommendations Related to this Study
The following recommendations may be classified
into two categories: (a) recommendations for future
studies, and (b) recommendations for further improvement
Of chemistry and science education practices.

Recommendations for Future
Studies

 

It is recommended that:
1. Similar studies be done, which cover different
areas of mathematics and science education

(e.g. physics, biological sciences).

2. Studies be conducted to determine the number and
nature Of science (or chemistry) tOpics covered
both in secondary schools and universities in

order to avoid duplication.

3. Research be conducted on the design Of low-cost
science instructional materials and equipment

for both secondary schools and universities.

4. Research be conducted on the effectiveness and
efficiency Of using programmed textbooks in
science and chemistry teaching in Vietnamese

schools.

5. Research be conducted to determine Piaget's

developmental stages in Vietnamese children and

294

adolescents, so that the learning-teaching of
science could be facilitated, due to such a
knowledge of learning readiness in Vietnamese

youth.

Studies be done to investigate possible be-
havioral objectives in the affective domain in
chemistry instruction in Vietnamese schools and

colleges.

Studies be conducted to investigate desirable
patterns of in-service education for science

teachers.

Studies be conducted to investigate desirable
patterns Of integrating science teaching in the
first cycle Of secondary schools. Integrating
science teaching is an economical way to teach

science in schools.

Specific Recommendations Related
to Science and Chemistry
Edhcation Practices

It is recommended that:

Means be found to establish liaisons and co-
operation between universities and secondary
schools, and between secondary and primary
schools, with regard to science and chemistry

teaching.

295

Co-Ordination in teaching (or team teaching) be
encouraged among teachers of different subjects,
e.g. co-ordination between the mathematics teacher
(or professor) and the physical science teacher (or
professor), or between the geography teacher and
the chemistry teacher (the former being more able
to locate mineral ores in Vietnam but less able to
delve into extraction processes which the latter

could easily perform).

Co-Operation between psychologists, educators and
scientists be urged, since scientists and psycholo-
gists--dealing with means, mainly--need enlightened
educators to provide them with enobled visions or

worthwhile goals and ends.

Field trips to industrial or agricultural sites (or
to chemical or science laboratories) be organized,
to allow students perceive relevance of chemistry

and science learning in schools with life realities.

Heuristic approach to learning as well as vertical
learning be given a fair amount Of time in schools,
to impart to students this type of self-reliance
which only people with a touch Of creativity can
possess. The country presently needs more crea-

tive peOple than yes-men or bureaucrats.

10.

296

Science fairs and exhibitions be organized which
will provide Opportunities to sort out creative
minds, badly needed for the national reconstruction

period.

Science clubs and "soirées" be organized tO moti-

vate students in learning science.

Science Teaching Centers--which should include a
substantial learning resource center--be created in
each province, which will help science teachers who
at least may find some companionship in these
Centers; other advantages include:

(a) a locus for in-service summer institutes;

(b) a place for advice and consultations;

(c) a center for learning and (possible) research

in science teaching.

School trials of new school science programs--
e.g. the chemistry program prOposed in this
study--be conducted, to determine their effective-
ness in changing students' behaviors and to make

program re-adjustment if needed.

Periodic revisions Of school science and chemistry
syllabuses be organized, preferably at three-year
intervals, since knowledge advances proceed at a

faster and faster rate.

11.

12.

13.

14.

297

Science curriculum guides be prepared to help
teachers in their daily teaching, especially for

beginner-teachers.

National Science Assessments be organized, as
necessary steps to construct courses which will

suit the Vietnamese Youth's abilities and aptitudes.

School Science Supervision be organized in each
province or region to accentuate the important

role of science in schools.

A Vietnamese Chemical Association be created,

which will include a section on Chemical Education
whose role is to co-ordinate and improve chemistry
teaching both in schools and universities. Staff
members in this Chemical Education section should
have a dual background: both in Chemistry and in

Education.

298

Dedicated to Dr. Alexis Carre1*
for his grandiose scheme of
mankind reconstruction.

Conclusion

 

In these days Of systems science and systems philo-
sophy, the need for an integrated approach to Education
cannot be considered a luxury. Indeed, the need is a true
and legitimate one, stemming from the realization that the
only way to ease tensions within a nation or between
nations in the world community is to create, via educa-
tional means, more and more broad-minded citizens, capable
Of seeing similarities in apparently contradictory life
situations. Science education in Vietnam so far has been
planned by Specialists (or experts) for a Special and
privileged group of students--who will become, in the
future, experts in their own rights. The primary purpose
of this study is to reverse this trend, which is detri-
mental tO the country's harmonious progress and which is
responsible for chaos, divisiveness and explosive tension
in our society today. Thus, this study has attempted to
Show that by a judicious combination Of findings from

various fields of human knowledge, a synthetic approach to

 

*The author of Man, This Unknown (or L'Homme,
Cet Inconnu).

 

 

299

science and chemistry education can be elaborated, which
endeavors to create intelligent (in the full sense of the
word), "far-sighted," and responsible citizens, capable
Of making right decisions at the right time--decisions
concerning their living and learning environments, their
jobs, or decisions to bring about for their Offspring, a

more decent and humane society.

300

Epilogue

This study has been done in the hope and belief
that education--and particularly, science and chemistry
education--can be a powerful instrument tO national re-
construction and develOpment. Especially for Vietnam,
education can be more: it is, if properly carried out,
an effective means to throw Off outdated social-political-
cultural practices which might hinder the nation's social
and economic progress.

Amidst the tumult and chaos which characterize
our society today--where the whispering voice of "Gentle
Wisdom" is likely to be quieted down by the thundering
voices Of the cannons in the battlefields--these hOpes and
beliefs may look like intellectual "mayas" or utopian
thoughts. But in Vietnam today, where each day may not be
passed without further adding to the previous one a bit of
bitterness and profound despair, where the "De Profundis"
is the most cherished prayer, any "Utopia" should deserve

at least some consideration, if not a warm welcome.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

SUGGESTED PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES FOR

CHEMISTRY I AND CHEMISTRY II

APPENDIX A

SUGGESTED PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES FOR

CHEMISTRY I AND CHEMISTRY II

The following practical activities are drawn
from:

1. The MCA Scientific Experiments in Chemistry (a)
2. The CHEMS Laboratory Manual (b)
3. The Semi-Micro Experiments for CHEMS (c)

These practical activities are selected according
to the following criteria: (1) they are relatively low-
cost experiments; thus semi-micro versions of CHEMS' ex-
periments are used as intensively as possible; (2) they
are relatively simple, i.e. they suit both the average
Vietnamese student's abilities and the average Vietnamese
teacher's abilities; (3) they are relatively safe to
perform; thus, potentially dangerous experiments--e.g.,
the preparation of DDT, which appear in the MCA's labora-
tory manua1--are discarded.

The ideal case in organizing laboratory work for
chemistry courses would be the design of different sets
of experiments for different kinds of students (Chem I

and Chem II students). Unfortunately, this practice

321

322

seems unrealistic at the present time, due to the small
size of our nation's school budgets. Thus, it is recom-
mended that experiments be selected in such a way that
they may serve both kinds of students. Another alterna-
tive consists of putting emphasis on individual or group
projects, e.g. two-thirds of the suggested practical
activities could be chosen in the area of projects planned

between students and their teachers.

A. Suggested Laboratory Activities

 

Area I: Introduction to Chemistry; Basic Science Processes
and'Skills in Chemistry; Energy and Matter.

 

 

1. Scientific Observation and Description (2: Exp l)*
2. Combustion of a Candle (2: Exp 4)‘
3. Lighting and Adjusting a Gas Burner (2:
Appendix I)
4. Working with Glass (2: Appendix II)
5. Heat Effects (2: Exp 5)
6. The Melting Temperature of a Pure Substance
(2: Exp 3)
7. Composition of a Mixture (1: Exp 1)
8. Mass Relationships Accompanying Chemical Changes
(2: Exp 8)
9. Reactions between Oxides and Water (1: Exp 5)
10. Findings Molecular Weights (1: Exp 6)
11. Combining Number (1: Exp 7)
12. Making a Solubility Curve (1: Exp. 8)

 

* A

Notes: The first number in the parenthesis
refers to the number assigned to one of the three sources
mentioned above.

No. 1 refers to the MCA's Scientific Experiments

No. 2 refers to the CHEMS Laboratory Manual

No. 3 refers to the Semi-Micro Experiments for

CHEMS

Thus (2: Exp 1) means Experiment No. l in CHEMS Labora-
tory Manual.

323

Area II: Structure and the Periodic Table; Chemical

Bonding.

1. Construction of a Logical Model (2: Exp 24)

2. The Packing of Atoms or Ions in Crystals (2: Exp
27)

3. Chemical Properties of Metals (1: Exp 27)

4. Qualitative Analysis (2: Exp 34)

5. Some Chemistry of Iodine (2: Exp 31)

6. Some Chemistry of the Third-Row Elements (2: Exp 32)

7. "Fingerprints" of Elements and Compounds (3: Exp 33)

8. Flame Tests for Metals

Area III: Solutions and Ionization; Acids and Bases

l. Neutralizing Phosphoric Acid (1: Exp 14)

2. Conductivity (1: Exp 9)

3. Volumetric Estimation of Chloride in Solution
(1: Exp 13)

4. The Heat of Some Acid-Base Reactions (3: Exp 22)

5. The Determination of [H+] of Solutions Using
Indicators (3: Exp 23)

6. Titration of an Acid and a Base (3: Exp 24)

Area IV: Electrochemistry; Reduction-Oxidation

. Oxidation-Reduction (1: Exp 22)

An Introduction to Oxidation-Reduction (2: Exp 20)
Electrochemical Cells (2: Exp 21)

Reactions Between Ions in Solution (2: Exp 22)

waH

Area V: Chemical Dynamics: Kinetics, Energetics, and
Equilibrium

 

1. Effect of Concentration on Rate of Reaction
(1: Exp 16)
2. Effect of Temperature on Rate of Reaction (1: Exp

18)
3. Effect of Weight of Catalyst on Rate of Reaction
(1: Exp 20)

4. Rate of Reaction as Determined by Strong and Weak
Acids (1: Exp 11)

S. A Study of Reaction Rates: The "Clock Reaction"
(3: Exp 15).

324

 

 

 

Area VI: Applications of Chemical Principles to Various
Chem1ca1 Systems

1. Study of Rubber (l: Exp 29)

2. Estimation of Vitamin C in Fruit Juices
(1: Exp 30)

3. Reading: Vitamin C and the Common Cold, by
Linus Pauling

4. Investigations of some of the properties of a
pair of Cis—Trans Isomers (2: Exp 26)

5. Some Reactions of Hydro-carbons and of Alcohols
(2: Exp 28)

6. Methods of softening hard water

B. Suggested Research Projects:
Indiv1dual or Group Projects

Group Projects

 

(All of these are borrowed from one source: Course

of Study for Secondary Chemistry and Physics (S. Dakota:

Department of Public Instruction, 1960).

B.

Suggested Projects for the Students

1.

Write a report on the problem of prejudice and
tradition and obstacles to progress. In the
tOpic, use an illustration from the history of
science.

Write an article on why a housewife, farmer, or
merchant should have some knowledge of chemistry.
List as many ways as you can in which applied
chemistry influences modern transportation
methods.

Do scientists enforce laws of science as law
officers enforce government laws? Explain.

Make a collection of samples of common elements
and prepare a display. Common compounds of these
elements might also be included.

Many of the materials in the home may be danger-
ous. Tell how the danger from poisons in medi-
cines, friction matches, cleaning fluids, etc.
may be reduced.

See if you can find several illustrations of
combustions not involving oxygen.

10.

ll.

12.

13.

14.

325

Antoine Laurent Lavoisier once said, "We must
trust in nothing but facts. These are presented
to us by nature and cannot deceive. We ought in
every instance to submit our reasoning to the
test of experiment. It is especially necessary
to guard against the extravagances of imagina-
tion which incline to step beyond the bounds of
truth." What is the importance of this state-
ment? What are its implications for everyday
living?

Back in the dark ages people called alchemists

wanted to keep their works unknown from the rest

of the world, and so used strange symbols and
mysterious language.

a. Name two groups of people who are modern
equivalents of the alchemists.

b. Tell how they keep their knowledge to them-
selves and clothe their activities with a
veil of mystery.

c. What are the reasons for their secrecy?

Devise a method for separating each of the

following mixtures:

a. Sawdust and sugar

b. Charcoal and coal dust

c. Sand and sulfur

d. Salt and sand

e. Iron powder and charcoal powder

f. Manganese dioxide and powdered carbon
(graphite, lamp black, etc.)

"Matter cannot ordinarily be destroyed but sub-

stances can be." What does this statement mean

to you? Give examples to illustrate your ideas.

The electronic theory does not account in a simple

way for the fact that iron may sometimes have a

valence of two and sometimes three. Should we

discard the theory for this reason? Explain.

What is the difference between inductive and

deductive legic? Which of these logics is the

basis of scientific laws?

Arrange styrofoam spheres of the same size in a

close-packed layer. Place a similar layer on top

of the first one. Note that a third layer could
be put directly above the first layer, or in
another position; the second of these alterna—
tives, repeated, leads to the structure of the

copper crystal. Repeat this process to build a

triangular pyramid. Note that this pyramid is

a regular tetrahedron.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

2o.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

326

From what you know about phases and vapor pres-
sure, do you think that there exists a tempera-
ture and a pressure at which ice, water, and water
vapor can be in equilibrium with one another?

Make diagrams or models of various crystals to
show the arrangement of the ions. Make a report
to the class.

Make a chart using strong tea and water in which
highly colored vegetables have been cooked to make
home-made indicators for acids and bases. Use
vinegar and household ammonia to test these indi-
cators and fill in the chart as to the reactions

that occurred.. Try to determine the end-point.
Make a table list1ng some common indicators that

may be used to determine the pH of solution. Show
the ranges in which they operate and explain

to the class how they might be used.

Using litmus paper, make a list of foods that
react as acids or as bases. What do you conclude
from your test? Report findings to the class.
(Use pH paper if available).

Make a report on the importance of pH measurements
to an agricultural chemist or a medical research
man.

Find several examples of oxidation-reduction
reactions in everyday life and designate, in each
case, the oxidizing agent and the reducing agent.
Set up a procedure to recover the gelatin from a
mixture of gelatin and sugar in warm water. Make
a diagram of your equipment and explain procedure
to the class.

Why will a filter clog if the filtrate is passed
through it several times and why will some filter
residue disappear if it is washed several times?
Make assumptions and determine the several factors
involved in each case.

Make a study of solutions, colloids, and suspen-
sions as to the particle sizes and the charac-
teristics of each. Prepare a chart to show the
relationships that characterize each and report
to class. Determine quantitatively, if you can,
the amount of soap that must act as a water soft-
ener in city water before it can act as a cleans-
ing agent. Report to class.

Can you devise tests to show the merit of several

selected soaps and detergents? Report to the
class.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

327

Coagulate rubber from latex by adding dilute

acetic acid. Half fill a small beaker with latex,

and then add a convenient amount of acetic acid.

Collect on the end of a stirring rod. What are

some other types of coagulation that are of value?

An example of a colloidal suspension in water is

black drawing ink. Suggest ways of preventing the

carbon from settling out as a precipitate.

Make a carbon dioxide cycle chart incorporating

as many ways as possible that carbon dioxide is r
added to and removed from the air.

Conduct a study of the literature of recently
developed methods of synthetic photosynthesis.
From the information you can gain, try to predict
the possible impact of this new develOpment on the
food and fuel problems of the world.

Explain why the stopper used to cover the H2504
bottle in a soda-acid fire extinguisher is made of
lead. Lead is above hydrogen in the activity
series. Why can we use it?

Make a study of the mineral and oil deposits in
Vietnam and the present uses made of them. Do
some research and make suggestions for making
better use of these deposits in the future.

Do some research on hard and soft coal. Determine
the advantages and disadvantages of each as a
fuel. Make a report to the class.

Make a study of destructive distillation of coal.
Find out about the products and by-products formed
and the economic importance of each.

Make structural models of different forms of
carbon. Use these models to demonstrate to the
class the properties of these different forms of
carbon.

Construct an ammonia fountain and demonstrate to
the class. Determine how you can seemingly defy
the Law of Impenetrability with this device and
explain this to the class.

Make a study of soil fertility and fertilizers.
Then make a series of soil tests on various sam-
ples of soil collected in your area and make
recommendations for adding fertilizer to this soil.
Study the historical impact made on civilization
by the development of explosives. Make predic-
tions as to what will be the future of these same
explosives in both peaceful and wartime, now that
nuclear energy has entered the picture.

It has been said that many great scientific dis-
coveries were made by accident. The vulcanization
of rubber is one of these. Explain.

 

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

328

After studying calcium compounds, what industry do
we have in Vietnam that makes use of these com-
pounds? Find out how much this industry contri-
butes to the economic growth of the country. Pre-
pare a report on the preparation of the product.
Determine the hardness of natural waters by
titrating samples of them with a standard soap
solution.

Why do poultrymen add calcium carbonate to the
diet of laying hens? Investigate the procedure
and write up your data.

If grease is burned in an aluminum frying pan,

can it be cleaned with washing soda, strong soap,
or concentrated nitric acid? Explain your answer.
Many c0pper-covered roofs turn green after a few
months. Explain this.

Obtain a badly tarnished silver spoon and put it
in a warm dilute solution of salt and baking soda
in an aluminum pan. Explain why an aluminum dish
must be used and why a gold dish could not be
substituted. Could a porcelain-lined dish or a
"tin" dish be used? What substance is more fre-
quently responsible for blackened silver? Suggest
substances which may have been responsible for the
tarnishing.

Make "Milk of Magnesia" by adding 100 ml of 10%
sodium hydroxide solution to a large flask. Add
10% magnesium sulfate solution, a little at a time,
as long as a precipitate is formed. Shake the
mixture and allow it to settle. Pour off the clear
solution above the white precipitate. Fill the
flask with water, shake, and allow it to settle
again. Now pour off the clear liquid to wash away
the excess of either magnesium sulfate or sodium
hydroxide. Repeat the washing process several
times. The milky precipitate left is a suspension
of magnesium hydroxide which is called "milk of
magnesia." Do not use this milk of magnesia
because it may still contain harmful alkali.

After studying the properties of carbon compounds
and the properties of water, determine why so many
carbon compounds are insoluble in water but are
readily soluble in benzene. Report to the class.
From your studies of structural formulas and
isomers, make a large chart to show the structure
of the 18 isomers of octane. It may be helpful

to consult a college text.

48.

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

329

Consult your text and other sources of information
about mineral Spring water. Account for the fact
that this water is carbonated in nature. Secure
references and make a study of the differences in
hard and elastic rubber. Determine which will
last longer as insulation on an electric extension
cord. Point out what difference in vulcanizing
causes these variations. Are there chemical
reasons for this? If so, what are they?

Consult any fuel dealer in your community and find
out the cost of various kinds of fuel that are
available.

Secure samples of the various grades of coal
available from your coal dealers. Devise a method
to test the moisture content in these samples.
Prepare a graph showing the comparison between
these samples.

Have your classmates bring to class samples of the
different synthetic detergents used in their homes.
Take these samples into the laboratory and devise
a method for testing the pH of these detergents

in water solution. Collect data and report the
results to the class.

Gasoline is given various "octane" ratings. What
is meant by an "octane rating" of 75 for a parti-
cular gasoline? What does an "octane rating" of
110 mean?

Prepare 3 dimensional models of the molecules of
various carbon compounds. Tinker toys or corks
and wire may be used as materials.

From all available references look up and report
to the class on the means of measuring the strength
and dosages of vitamins and antibiotics. Also
report to the class on the use of sodium benzoate
and potassium nitrate as food preservatives.

Make a collection of various plastic articles.
Devise a method of determining the kind of plastic
used in making each article.

You have often heard that some filling stations
mix water with the gasoline. From your study of
carbon compounds, why is this illogical? How-
ever, if the dealer actually did this, devise a
method by which you could detect the water in the
gasoline. Study information on the making of
soap. Collect the necessary equipment and mater-
ials to make some samples of soap in the labora-
tory.

Examine the luminous dial on a clock or watch in
the dark with a magnifying glass. What do you
note about the glow? What assumptions can you
make if you know zinc sulfide is present on

the dial?

330

58. Read the book, Madame Curie, written by Eve Curie.
What contributions did she make to the world?
Discuss particularly the personal traits which led
to her contributions.

59. Why is there, at the present time, a poor prospect
of using nuclear fission for providing the neces-
sary power for driving automobiles?

60. Write the formulas for the different kinds of
water molecules theoretically possible if the
isotopes of hydfogen and oxygen are indicated
as follows: 1H , 1H2, 1H3, 3016, 3017, 3018.

61. The sound of a clap of thunder travels at the
rate of 300 m per second. Compare this Speed
with that of an alpha particle.

62. The statement that "lead is the graveyard of
radioactive elements" is often made. What
explanation can you give?

63. Study diagrams of atomic piles. From wood and
other materials, make a model of an atomic pile.
Use care to make it realistic and label parts.
Display to class and use it to explain the
Operation of an atomic pile.

64. Consult available information on the uses of
nuclear materials in medicine, eSpecially in the
field of cancer research. Make a report as to
the extent of the contribution of these nuclear
materials in aiding to gain control of this
dread disease.

 

 

Notes:

(a) Manufacturing Chemists' Association (MCA), Inc.,
Scientific Experiments in Chemistr (New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, Inc., .

 

(b) CHEMS, Laboratory Manual for Chemistry (San
Francisco: Freeman andSCo., 1963).

 

(c) J. F. Schaff 22.3l' Semi:Micro Experiments
for the Chem Study Program (Boston: D. C. Heath and’
Co., 1966).

 

 

 

APPENDIX B

AN ALTERNATIVE FOR NON-SCIENCE STUDENTS: A

COURSE IN INTEGRATED PHYSICAL SCIENCE

APPENDIX B

AN ALTERNATIVE FOR NON-SCIENCE STUDENTS: A

COURSE IN INTEGRATED PHYSICAL SCIENCE

Set 1: Science, scientists and society; scientific
methods and tools; limitations and values of
science.

2: Composition and structure of matter: atomic
and molecular structure.

3: The periodic law and the chemistry of elements;
nuclear chemistry.

4: Dynamics of vibrations; periodic phenomena in
Optics and electricity.

5: Thermodynamics and its applications to chemical
systems; chemical reactions.

6: Interaction of energy with matter; conservation
laws.

7: The chemistry of carbon compounds; the physics
and chemistry of life.

8: The study of the changing earth (sea, land, air).

9: The dynamic universe.

331

10:
11:

12:

332

Science ecology concepts.

Chemical industries and their relationships
to the human environment and the national
economy.

Energy sources and their domestication. The
need for an "enlightened" national policy of

energy domestication.

 

APPENDIX C

DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME CHEMISTRY COURSES (E.G.
STRUCTURAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY, PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY I)
TAUGHT IN THE FACULTY OF SCIENCE

(UNIVERSITY OF SAIGON)

 

APPENDIX C

DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME CHEMISTRY COURSES (E.G.
STRUCTURAL ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, INORGANIC
CHEMISTRY, PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY I)
TAUGHT IN THE FACULTY OF SCIENCE

(UNIVERS ITY OF SAIGON)

"PROGRAMME DU /
"Certificat d'etudes Superieures
"de
”CHIMIE ORGANIQUE STRUCTURALE *
"(5 heures / semaine)

"Premiere Partie:
"THEORIE ELECTRONIQUE DE LA STRUCTURE

”Structure atomique:
onstituants principaux de l'atome. Distribu-
tion des electrons. Forme des orbitales atomiques.
Niveaux d'energie et ordre d'occupation des orbitales.
Configuration electronique.
"Structure moleculaire:

"Liaison ChimIque: Valence. Types de liaisons.
Formule electronique.

"Orbitales moleculaires et liaison covalente.
Hybridation des orbitales. Types d'orbitales dans les
composes organiques (molecules simples, molecules con-
jugees, composes aromatiques) Aromaticite et regle de
Huckel. Orbitales hybrides des atomes possedant un
doublet non-apparie. Orbitales liantes et non liantes.
Longueurs, angles et energies des liaisons.

"Stereochimie:

"Cofiformation des composes acycliques.

"Conformation des composes cycliques: Stabilite
relative des Composes cycliques. Composes monocycliques
(etude particuliere du cyclohexane et de ses derives

 

 

333

 

 

 

334

substitues, du cyclohexene et de la cyclohexanone). Com—
poses bicycliques (decaline, hydrindane). Cycles pontes.

"Isomerie geometrique: Composes possedant une
double liaison carbone--carbone, carbone--azote, azote-—
azote. Composes cycliques.

"Isomerie Optique: Activite Optique. Composes
possedant un ou plusierus atomes de carbone asymetriques.
Formes racemiques. Configuration relative et configuration
absolue. Composes cycliques. Composes ne possedant pas
de carbone asymetrique (cumulenes et composes apparentes,
isomeres atropiques). Composes possedant un centre
asymetrique qutre que le carbone.

"Effets electroniques:

"Effet inductif: Polarite des liaisons. Polarisa-
bilite des liaisons. Effet inductif et proprietes
moleculaires. Effet inductomere.

"Resonance ou mesomerie: Stabilisation par
conjugaison, energie de resonance. Formes mesomeres,
hybride de resonance.

"Effet mesomere et electromere.

"Hyperconjugaison.

"Acides et bases:

T eor1e d'Arrhenius, de Bronsted et Lowry, de
Lewis. Force des acides et des bases. Influence electro-
niques sur l'acidite et la basicite.

 

 

"Deuxieme Partie:
"MECANISMES DES REACTIONS ORGANIQUES

"Reactions organiques:

“CIassificaEIon des reactions organiques: Types de
reactions. Types de rupture de liaisons. Intermediaires
reactionneles (ions carbonium, carbanion, radicaux libres,
ions-radicaux, carbenes, systemes deficient en electrons).
Formation des liaisons chimiques. Reactions homolytiques
et reactions heterolytiques.

"Mecanismes reactionnels: Energies des reactions.
Cinetique chimique.

"Etude experimentale des mecanismes reactionnels:
Identification des produits de reaction. Detection et
identification des intermediaires. Utilisation des
molecules marques, methode des isotopes. Methode stereo-
chimique. Methode polarimetrique.

"Substitution nucleophile aliphati ue:

"Reactions SNl,SN2:IDefinition. Mecanismes.
Stereochimie.

"Mecanisme SNi.

"Reactions des halogenures d'allyle. Mecanisme
SNI', sN2'.

"Participation des groupes voisins.

"Influence de la structure et du solvant sur la
reactivite.

 

335

"Elimination:

"Reactions E1, E2. Definition.Mecanismes.Stereo-
chimie.

"Mecanisme Ech.

"Eliminations cis.

"Orientation dafiE—les reactions d'elimination.
Regles de HOFMANN et de ZAITSEV. Influence de la struc-
ture, du solvant et de la base sur la reactivite.

"Elimination des halogenes.

"Elimination
"Additionsur les doubles liaisons carbone - carbone:

"Additions eIectrophiles: Addition d'halogenes.
Addition des reactifs dissymetriques (hydracides, eau,
acide hypochloreux, chlorure d'iode, chlorure de nitro-
syle....). Hydroxylation. Ozonisation. Alkylation et
polymerisation. Oxymercuration.

"HydrOgenation.

"Addition de carbenes.

"Addition sur les doubles liaisons conjuguees
(addition d'halogenes, d'hydracides, reaction de DIELS-
ALDER, polymerisation).

"Addition nucleophile sur les doubles liaisons carbone-
oxygene:

"Additions simples (eau, alcool, tiol, bisulfite
de sodium, acide cyanhydrique, hydracides, ammoniac....).

"Additions complexes : Addition suivie d'elimination
d'eau (ammoniac, amines primaires, hydrazine et arylhydra-
zine, semicarbazide, hydroxylamine, hydrazide....).
Addition d'ions hydrure (reduction par LiAlH4, reduction
de MEERWEIN-PONNDORF-VERLEY, reaction de CANNIZZARO,
reaction de TISHCHENKO). Reactions avec les metaux
(reduction pinacoliques, reduction des esters, reduction
de BOUVEAULT-BLANC). Reaction avec les organometal-
liques (reaction de GRIGNARD, reaction de REFORMATSKY,
ethynylation).

"Stereochimie des reactions d‘addition sur le
groupe carbonyle. Regle de CRAM.

"Reactions de condensation du groupe carbonyle avec les
carbanions:

fiAcidite des hydrogenes . Halogenation des
aldehydes et cetones. Halogenation des acides et
chlorures d'acide.

”Alkylation des composes carbonyles. Enamines.

"Aldolisation et condensations apparentees : Aldo-
isation catalysee par les bases et les acides. Crotonisa-
tion. Reaction de CLAISEN-SCHMIDT, Reaction de PERKIN.
Condensations avec les composes nitro, les nitriles,
certains composes aromatiques et heterocycliques.

"'7

336

"Reaction de CLAISEN et condensations apparentees:
Condensation des esters (reaction de CLAISEN et reaction
de DIECKMANN). Condensation des esters avec les cetones
ou nitriles, les hydrocarbures acides.

"Condensations Speciales : Reaction de STOBBE,
reaction de DARZENS, reaction de KNOEVENAGEL, reaction de
MANNICH, reaction de WITTIG . Benzoination .

"Addition sur le groupe carbonyle conjugue:

"Additions electrophiles : AdditiEn d'eau, d'alcools
de tiols, d'hydracides.

"Additions nucleOphiles : Addition d'eau, d'alcools
et de phenols, d'acide cyanhydrique, de bisulfite de
sodium, d'ammoniac et derives. Reaction de GRIGNARD,
reaction de MICHAEL.

"Reaction de DIELS-ALDER.

"Reduction : Hydrogenation catalytique. Reduction
par l'hydrogene naissant. Reduction de MEERWEIN-PONNDORF-
VERLEY. Reduction par l'hydrure de lithium et d'aluminium.
"Substitugion aromatique :

"Substitution electrophile : Mecanisme. Nitration,
halogenation, sulfonation, reaction de FRIEDEL-CRAFTS
(alkylation, acylation), chloromethylation, formylation.
Orientation. Cas des composes aromatiques a noyaux
condenses et des composes heterocycliques.

"Substitution nucleophile : Mecanisme (complexe
intermediaire, SN', benzyne). Cas des composes hetero-
cycliques.

"TranSpositions moleculaires:

flTranSpositions sans modification de la chaine
carbonee : Transposition allylique, transposition des
alcynes, transposition de WILLGERODT.

"Transpositions avec modification de la chaine
carbonee : Cas du carbone deficient en electrons (trans-
position de WAGNER-MEERWEIN, tranSposition pinacolique,
transposition benzilique, transposition de WOLFF, trans-
position de ARNT-EISTERT). Cas de l'azote deficient en
electrons (transposition de HOFMANN, de CURTIUS, de
LOSSEN et de SCHMIDT, transposition de BECKMANN). Cas de
1'oxygene deficient en electrons (transposition de BAEYER-
VILLIGER). Cas du carbone riche en electrons (trans-
position de STEVENS, de WITTIG, de FAVORSKII).

"Transpositions aromatiques : Transpositions inter-
moleculaires de l'azote et de 1'oxygene vers le carbone.
Transpositions intramoleculaires de l'azote et de 1'oxygene
vers 1e carbone.

"Reactions radicalaires:

"Formation, detection et conformation des radicaux
libres . Stabilite.

"Reactions radicalaires : Substitution (halogena-
tion, oxydation, arylation). Addition (halogenes,
hydracides). Polymerisation . Transpositions.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

*Universite de Saigon, Faculte des Sciences, 1972.

337

"CERTIFICAT DE CHIMIE MINERALE*

 

"lere PARTIE.-
- Stereochimie des molecules et des ion polyatomiques
- Oxydation et reduction.
- Acides et bases.
- Nomenclature.
- HydrOgene et ses isot0pes.
- Groupe O: Gaz rares.

- Groupe VIIA : Fluor, chlore, brome, iode et astate.
— Groupe VIA : Oxygene, soufre, selenium, tellure et
polonium.
- Groupe VA : Azote, phosphore, arsenic, antimoine et
bizmuth.
- Groupe IVA : Carbone, silicium, germanium, etain et
plomb.

"2e PARTIE.-
I.-Structure cristalline des metaux.
2.-Liaison metallique - Theorie de Drude et de
Lorentz. Theorie des bandes d'energie.
3.-Proprietes de metaux - Solution solide.
4.-Methodes de preparation.
5.-Les complexes - PrOprietes generales des complexes
Structures et isomeries des complexes.
6.-Nomenclature des complexes.
7.-Theories des complexes -Therie de Pauling - Theorie
du champ cristallin - Theorie des orbitales
moleculaires.
8.-Stabilite des complexes - Influence de H, G et Q/r.
9.-Activite et Mecanisme des complexes dans :
- Les reactions de substitution
- Les reactions d'oxydation et de reduction.
lO.-Elements de transition : Fer, Cobalt, Nickel.
ll.-Groupe IB : Cuivre, argent, or.
12.-Groupe IIB : Zinc, cadmium, mercure."

 

*Universite de Saigon, Faculte des Sciences, 1972.

338

*
"PHYS ICAL CHEMI STRY I
"LECTURE

"I. Thermgchemistry: (2h per week)
l-Ideal’gas and real gases
2-Kinetic theory of gases
3-First law - Application
4-Entr0py and probability

 

S-Second law and Third law - Application
6-Work function and free energy 1
7-Partial molar quantities ‘1

8-Chemical equilibrium
9-Phase rule
lO-One component and two component systems
ll-Ideal and non ideal solutions we
lZ-Colligative prOperties of dilute solutions
lB-Three-component systems
"II. Chemical kinetics: (lb per week)
l-Order andiMEIecularity. Intermediate and
activated complex
2-First order, second order, third order reactions,
Complex reactions
3-Transition state theory - EntrOpy and Enthalpy of
activation Reaction mechanisms.
4-Catalysis
S-Photochemistry
"III. Electrochemistry: (lh per week)
‘IPConductivity of electrolytes
2-Thermodynamics of electrolytes - Debye Huckel
theory
3-Electrochemical cells
4-Ionic equilibrium
"IV. Atomic and molecular structure: (lh30 per week)
"A. Atomic structure
l-PErtIcles and’waves - Schrodinger's equation
2-Hydrogen atom
3-Polyelectronic atom
"B. Molecular structure
l-IDnic bonding
2-Covalent bonding
Homonuclear diatomic molecules
Heteronuclear diatomic molecules
Polyatomic molecules
Conjugated molecules
3-Hydrogen bonding - Vander-Waal's forces
4-Metallic bonding
S-Pr0perties and molecular structure"

 

 

 

 

*University of Saigon, Faculty of Science, 1972.

"1.
2.
3.

4.

339

*
'LABORATORY WORK

 

«(4 hours per week)

Determination of heat of reaction

AzeotrOpy

Determination of thesolubility of naphtalene in
benzene

Spectrometric determination of the distribution
coefficient of iodine in CCl4 and a solution of
KI

Phase diagram of a ternary system

pH metry

Potentiometry

Conductometry

Colorimetry

Kinetic study of the bromination of a cetone in
basic medium

Determination of the activation energy of a
reaction

Study of the prOperties of covalent and ionic
compounds"

 

*University of Saigon, Faculty of Science, 1972.

 

APPENDIX D

AN OUTLINE OF THE EXISTING CHEMISTRY PROGRAM IN

VIETNAMESE SECONDARY SCHOOLS (2ND CYCLE)

APPENDIX D
AN OUTLINE OF THE EXISTING CHEMISTRY PROGRAM IN

VIETNAMESE SECONDARY SCHOOLS (2ND CYCLE)

"Sections A and B
"(Mathematical and Experimental Sciences)

 

"Grade 10: Atomic and Molecular Structure; The Chemistr
of Non-Metals and’TEeir Derivatives (1.36 Er
per week).

 

"A.-Theoretical Foundations

"I. - Atomic Structure - Elements
- Fundamental constituents of atoms.
- Bohr's atom model.
- Atomic Number - Mass Number - Isotopes.
- Definition of element.
"II. - Description of Mendeleev's Periodic Table.
""III.-- Molecules; Simple Substances and Compounds; Pure
Substances and mixtures.
"IV. - Chemical Bonding : ionic, covalent, and coordi-
nate bonds; Van der Waals forces.
"V. - Distinction between Metals, Non-Metals and
Metalloids.
"VI. - Acids, Bases and Salts : Arrhenius's Definitions
of Acid, Base and Salt; Properties of Acids,
Bases and Salts - Berthollet's Law.

"B.-Non-Metallic Substances

"(Select only a number of important properties and
explain these properties, if possible. Be concise
about preparation part.)

"I. - Oxygen and Oxides.
"II. - Chlorine and Some of Its Derivatives (Hydrogen
Chloride, Hypochlorites, Chlorates).
"III. - Sulfur and Some of Its Derivatives (Sulfur
Dioxide and Sulfites; Sulfuric Acid and Sulfates).

340

341

"IV. - Nitrogen and Some of Its Derivatives (Ammoniac
and Ammonium Salts; Nitric Acid and Nitrates).

"C.- Analytical Chemistry
”Acid-Base Titration.

"Grade 11: Principal Reactions of Inorganic Chemistry;
The Chemistry of Metals an T e1r Deriva-
tives (1:30 hr per week).

 

 

"I. - Oxidation and Reduction : definitions of
oxidation and reduction; redox reactions.
"II. - The Role of Energy in Chemical Reactions : an
Elementary Introduction.

"III. - Equilibrium Reactions and Rates of Reactions:
Definitions; Influences of Concentration and
Temperature on equilibria and on reaction rates;
Catalysts; Applications.

"IV. - The Role of Water in Chemical Reactions :
Hydration, Solubility and Hydrolysis.
"V. - Bronsted's Definition of Acids and Bases: pH;
Strengths of Acids and Bases.
‘"VI. - Major Classes of Inorganic Reactions, A Brief

Study : neutralization, redox, exchange and
heat-decomposition (or combustion) reactions.

"C. -Analytical Chemistry
Qualitative Analy31s : flame tests; precipitation
reactions; identification of common ions, e.g., chlor-
ide, sulfate, iron, COpper, etc.

"Grade 12: Chemical Bonding in Organic Compounds and the
Chemistry of Organic Compounds (2 hrs per weék).

"A.-Theoretical Foundations

"I. - Review Of Atomic Structure and Chemical Bonding
(Grade 10).

"II. - Simple Concepts on the Representations Of
Chemical Bonds : Atomic Orbital Representation;
Representations Of mono-, di-, and tri-valent
bonds.

"III. - Polarization of the Single Bond : Inductive
Effect (definition and applications).

"IV. - Polarization of the Double Bond : Mesomeric
(or Resonance) Effect (definition and applica-
tions; conjugated bonds).

"V. - Hydrogen Bonds.

 

 

342

"B.-Organic Chemistry

"I. -

"II. -

"III. -

Organic Analysis : chromatographic techniques

of separation; qualitative and quantitative
analysis; molecular weight measurements.

Organic Compounds; radicals and functional
groups; plane isomerism; elementary introduction
to stereochemistry; descriptive organic chemis-
try including methane and alkane homologs,
ethylene and alkene homologs, acetylene and alkyne
homologs, benzene and mono- and polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons, ethanol and alcohol
function, ethanol and aldehyde function,

ethanoic acid and acidic function, ethylamine
and amine function.

Elementary Introduction to Natural Substances
and Man-Made Compounds: carbohydrates, terpenes,
and alkaloids; dyes, antiseptics, defoliants,
vitamins, detergents and polymers.

"C.-Some Concepts in Nuclear Chemistry

Commonly Used IsotOpes in Chemistry : Applications

"Sections C and D

"(Letters : Classical andForeign Languages)

 

 

"Grade 10: LAtoms . Molecules . Physical and Chemical
Transformations (172 hr per week)
"I. - Atomic Structure.-

"II. -

 

- HistorICal evolution Of the concept of atom :
atomic theory, fundamental constituents of
atoms, isotopes.

- Atom models : Thomson, Rutherford and Bohr.

Egaracteristic Properties of Atoms and the

PeriOdic Table

"The Mendeleev's Periodic Table.

 

 

 

 

"III. - Mglecules; Simple Substances; Compounds;
Pure Substances; Mixtures.

"IV. - Physical andiChemICal Transformations (based on
the arrangement of atoms in molecules).
- Transformations in physical states of matter.
- Chemical reactions.

"Grade 11: Chemical Bonding (1/2 hr per week).
"I. - Classical Conceptions Of Chemical Bonding.
"II. - Chemical Bonds. -

 

- Ionic Bonds.
- Covalent and Coordinate Bonds.
- Hydrogen and Van der Waals Bonds.

343

"III. - Some Applications Of Chemical Bonding.-
- Explanation of different states of matter
- Distinction between metals, non-metals
and alkaloids.
"IV. — Elementary_Introduction to the Role of Energy
in ChemiCal Reactions.
- Exothermic and endothermic reactions; solu-
bility.
- Activation Energy.

 

 

"Grade 12: Stereochemistry (1/2 hr per week).

"I. - The Origins of Stereochemistry.
-Inadequacy of plane formulas and the need for
stereochemistry.
-Concrete examples Of spatial representations
of chemical compounds.
"II. - Quantum Mechanics - Concept Of Chemical Bonding.-
- Atomic Ofbitals
- Molecular Orbitals.
- Single, Double and Triple Bonds : PrOperties;
examples.

 

 

"III. - Stereochemical Struggures of Some Simple
Molecules : Ethane, Ethylene, Acetylene, Water.
"IV. - Elementary Introduction to the History of

 

Organic Synthesis. — Man-Made and Natural Com-
pounds."

 

Source: Vietnam, BO Giao-Duc, Chuong-Trinh Trung-Hoc.
Vietnam: Bo Giao-Duc, 1970, pp. 128-34.