A $TUDY OF FATEGUE AND NSORGANIZATION OF PERFORMANCE IN RELATION TO THE PHENQMENOLOGICAL VAREABLES OF DURATION. CHANGE AND MOVEMENT Thesis {or the Degree of DE. D. MECEEGAN STATE UNIVERSETY Thomas Morgan Nelson 1958 THESIS This is to certify that the thesis entitled A Study of Fatigue and Disorganization of Performance In Relation to the Phenomenological Variables of Duration, Change and Hovement presented bg Thomas Morgan Nelson has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for _P_h-D-_ degree mm r Major professor . Date March 12, 1958 O~169 LIBRARY Michigan State University A STUDY OF FATIGUE AND DISORGANIZATION OF PERFORMANCE IN RELATION TO THE PHENOMENOLOGIGAL VARIABLES OF DURATION, CHANGE AND MOVEMENT by Thomas Morgan Nelson AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Psychology 1958 Approved by: ABSTRACT. Abstract The thesis is divided into two parts. Part 1 dealt with problems involving phenomenal duration, phenomenal change, and phenomenal movement. All three variables were discussed and explicitly defined. Phenomenal duration re— ceived the most extended treatment since it is "time bound“ in ordinary thinking. The author attempted to disassociate phenomenal duration not only from concepts or time but also from non-phenomenal concepts of duration. Operational eq- uivalents of the acceptable phenomenal definitions were given. A fairly extensive review of prior experimentation relating phenomenal duration and phenomenal change, and, phenomenal duration and phenomenal movement was made. On the basis of the definitions and empirical results obtained by the prior investigators, 19 studies were undertaken. The eXperimental equipment used was designed not only to produce the requisite phenomenal variables but also to measure and control them. All studies employed psycho—phy- sical methods. The number of subjects used varied between 1 and 18 per study. The results of the experimentation confir- med a hypothesis stating that ”phenomenal duration is a func- tion of phenomenal change“ and disconfirmed the second which stated that "phenomenal duration is a function of phenomenal movement.“ Related facets of the study were also discussed, e.g. change and movement control, subjective reports concern— ing procedure, and success of the methodology. A theoretical statement termed the 1132931 9_1_‘ Phenomenal Duration was itssued. The theory states that "the experience of duration 1:3 a predicate of phenomenal change but not phenomenal con- tuinuity“ and that "phenomenal continuities are durationless although extended in phenomenal space while phenomenal changes BJPB both durations and extended in phenomenal space.“ This tlieory was applied to previous “time perception" work of sev— eral types. Part 2 dealt with the problems involving variables of Eflaenomenal change, phenomenal duration, fatigue, and task performance. The concept of fatigue was discussed and Bartley and.0hutes' definition accepted. This definition makes it mandatory to investigate tiredness and separates fatigue from what is called impairment (physiological fatigue) and work productivity (overt behavior decrement). The literature published since 1947 relating phenomenal variables to fatigue, and reaction time to fatigue was reviewed. The studies re- Viewed indicated that little was known concerning the rela- tionship. The study described was designed to investigate the relationship between ambient phenomenal change and ambient phenomenal duration and fatigue, and to test whether fatigue as defined had an effect upon reaction time. Three subjects were given nine individual trials each. Each trial required as rapid motor or verbal responses as they were able to give when visual targets embedded in the ambient phenomenal conditions appeared. The subjects worked until ‘ttmy were “too tired to go on.” The first hypothesis stating ’Nratigue will develop as a function of ambient change and dxaration' was confirmed. The eXperimental outcome, however, ‘Wlia not simple. It was found that when the ambient phenome- nal variables were of "rapid change" and "long duration" that time subjects performed differently than when the ambient Fflaenomenal condition was a “slow change" and "short duration". III the initial trials the “rapid change-long duration" var- ierbles produced fatigue most slowly, in the later trials more <1uickly. The slow change and short duration ambient condi- ‘tion.functioned somewhat differently. The initial trial re- sulted in rapid fatigue, the second in slow fatigue, and the third showed large individual differences between subjects. The 2nd hypothesis stating that "the emergence of fatigue will detract from the performance of a reaction time task" was also confirmed. Working under conditions of fatigue gave rise to a large increase and variability in reaction time. The onset of fatigue could not be predicted from the reaction time measures however. A definition of disorganization was given. A STUDY OF FATIGUE AND DISORQANIZATION OF PERFORMANCE IN RELATION TO THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL VARIABLES OF DURATION, CHANGE AND MOVEMENT by Thomas Morgan Nelson A THESIS Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of Michigan State University of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Psychology 1958 FOREWORD A casual glance at the table of contents shows that the dissertation is divided into two parts. In a sense, two dis- sertations will be presented, with the second being built upon the empirical relationships discovered in the first. In .Part 1, we will deal with the question "What is the relation— ship between phenomenal changes, movements and phenomenal dur- iations?" In Part 2, we will ask "What is the relation between the ambient conditions of phenomenal duration and the emergence of tiredness (fatigue), and, "What happens to performance when fatigue exists?" Both Part 1 and Part 2 have the same general structural plan. Thus, the initial chapters of each part deal with pro— blems of definition, the second chapters contain reviews of the literature, the third presentations of problems, hypotheses, eXperimentations and results, the fourth discussions of results and conclusions, and the last summaries of results. The only exceptions to this rule occur in Part 1. Here the first chap- ter is enlarged by a short discussion of meaning and the fourth by presentation and consideration of a theory to account for the empirical findings. The word "phenomenal" constantly occurs as a prefix for the variables. This may be disturbing either because one is uncertain of the meaning of the appended term or perhaps be- cause one actually identifies it with a particular philoso- ll phical outlook. If this happens, the term has been an un- fortunate selection. Nonetheless, I believe that the term "phenomenal' can do us good service if the meaning is care- fully denoted. It will be well, then, to spend a moment with this term now since it will not be discussed formally anywhere else. Immanuel Kant was probably the most influential philoso- pher to give the term a fundamental place within a philosophi— cal system. He is of far less direct importance for psychology than is Edmund Husserl, however. It was Husserl who first dis- tinguished an entire philOSOphiCal outlook as a "phanomenalogie," and hence Husserl whom one must consider most seriously. Ini- tially, Husserl conceived the task of the phenomenalogist to be that of providing a descriptive analysis of conscious pro- cesses. In this early stage the phenomen010gical problem was not markedly different from that of introspective psychology. By stages, however, philosophical phenomenology underwent re— definition and in the end existed solely as a method of probing into the "intrinsic nature" of subjective processes. Husserl, in these later stages of theory, pointedly divorced phenomeno- logy from actual individual experiences. The phenomenological observer endeavored to apprehend what was believed to be the fundamental character of the world. Ordinary ”worldly" exper- ience was treated as being but a reflexive consequence of some nucleus of subjectivity. The extent to which phenomenology was at this point alienated from empirical matters is eXpressed in iii Husserl's assertion that: ”What we demand lies along another line, the whole world as placed within a nature set- ting and presented in eXperience as real, taken completely ’free from all theory,‘ just as it is in reality experienced, and made manifest in and through the linkings of eXperience, has now no validity for us, it must be set in bric— kets, untested indeed but also uncontested." Programs such as the above, one might call "philosOphical _phenomenology"so as to distinguish them from "psychological" or "empirical phenomenology} It must be emphasized that the problems and eXperimental approach outlined in this dissertation have nothing particu— larly to do with Philosophical Phenomenology. On the other hand, they are integral parts of Psychological Phenomenology. Concerning the program of Psychological Phenomenology. the following may be said. 1. Psychological.phenomenological problems fit the fol- lowing criteria. They are problems that concern only what the subject personally observes concerning some aspect of the world. This means that they are problems that will yield data that can be eXpressed in some form of the personal idiom, i.e. "I saw it change,“ "The first interval had a longer duration than the last for me," "I experience this to be moving more rapidly than that," “I am so tired that I can not go on." 2. A psychological phenomenological experimental appro- §£_ emphasizes that the experimenter is pursuing a "subject centered" and not an "experimenter centered“ methodology. This means that the subject and not the experimenter is doing the 1.E.Husser1, Ideas: fig.lntroduction_£p—Pure Phenomenology.lNew York: The EEENIllan Co., I§BIl p. iv observing. The eXperimenter is present in the laboratory .merely to direct the subject to phenomena, to control and zfilter the experimental situation for the observer, and to record his personal responses. 3. The self-contained purpose 9: psychological phenome- ruilogy is the develOpment of what Peterman calls “non—con- atlmwctional theory." Non-constructional theory means a the— orwetical interpretation of the data which proceeds by esta~ lflxishing functional dependencies between phenomenal facts to idxich no ontological parallels are directly attributed. This interpretation proceeds by first determining the data, exactly and painstakingly, and then by recognizing the functional ten- dencies within the data from knowledge, as an experimenter, of the relationships within the experimental conditions. The necessity for incorporating some such outlook into contemporary psychology seems patient to me. Others, of Course, might doubt the validity of this judgment. While this is not a place in which we can consider any objection at length, let me briefly answer one criticism made. This cri— ticism is epitomized by the question, “Why bother about such matters?“ Anyone asking such a question evidently doubts that phe- nomenal problems are of importance. But, unless one wants to divorce psychology from all other well established scien- tific points of reference, the point is poorly taken. Con- sidering, as examples, only the phenomenal variables treated in this thesis, one can make obvious the insufficiencies in such an outlook. Does not the problem of change, according to Alfred North Whitehead, underlie two of the most important advances made in modern science, the doctrine of the conser- vation of energy and the doctrine of evolution? Is not the irature of time one of the most vexsome problems of our age, arui do not Albert Einstein, Bertrand Russell, and P.W. Brid— Epeman claim that the individual is the ultimate referent? Tfiie remainder, those who disclaim to see any merit in scien— tific psychOIOgy, and there are still psychologists who hold such views, are trapped by the question, "Is it true that fa- tigue incapacitates every last one of us sometime during the course of each and every day?“ Only a mystic can successfully deny the relevance of phenomenal eXperience. The contemporary psychologist often finds his chief delight in the manufacture of attitudes, personalities, "need S.Ystems," and responses. To a disturbing degree, we are be— coming exclusively preoccupied with "self defined" problems and with contrivances extraneous to our fundamental purposes I‘or existence. One finds no dearth of contemporary literature Concerning "ego blocking," "latent anxiety", "obstacle domi- nance", Rorschach responses, "authoritarian personalities", "drive discrimination", factored traits, etc. But, oddly enough, increasingly fewer investigations into factual pro- blems such as duration, change and fatigue. Even worse, when vi the attention of psychology is turned toward factual problems it too often terminates in an operationism that defines the problems out of existence. Hence, I do not think one should stop with just successfully defending the phenomenal position. I think the alternatives should be eXplored. I think that it should be made entirely clear that the long—standing problems of mankind are being increasingly shunted to the side for games linvented by some psychologists. We should become fully aware iflaat we are, as a discipline, becoming estranged from "mother ruature", from the world of concrete fact. We should recog- Iiize that we are in certain danger of progressing, by one of 51 number of paths, to a subject matter purely conceptual in (Huaracter, and that, unless something is done, we will continue to address ourselves more and more to a subject matter esoteric throm all other established points of reference. We have to (liscern that somehow, and however painfully, psychology must deal with basic problems. We have to somehow correct the pe- culiar aniseikonia which has afflicted contemporary psychology and which is perhaps responsible for our being in the midst of one of the dullest stages of psychological thought since the establishment of the first laboratory. vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I should like to acknowledge the help given me during the course of this research. I wish to express especial appreciation to Dr. S. Howard Bartley. His patience and confidence lasted over many years. For him, academic free- dom is more than a verbal concept. I would also like to express appreciation for the ser— Vices of the other committee members, Dr. .M. Ray.) Denny, Dr. Alfred Dietze, and Dr. Lewis Zerby. They and Dr. Donald JOhnson, who served as a committee member up to the time of his sabbatical leave, devoted many hours to a project that was not of central concern to them. I wish also to mention my indebtedness to my three paid subjects. Mr. David Bird- song observed 125 hours, Miss Virginia Dudley 89 hours, and Mr. Kenneth Rouse 30 hours on tasks that were in fact fati- Stung and disagreeable. Nor should I conclude without ack— nCurliedging the rapid and careful graph work of Mr. Malcome Oran son, and the general assistance given at every turn by Joyce Nelson and Mr. Charles Bourassa, the typing assistance or b0th Mrs. Victor Armitage and Miss Gloria Cheek. viii VITA Thomas M. Nelson candidate for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Final Examination March 10, 1958, 3 P.M., Room 15, Psychology Building Dissertatiog_ .A STUDY OF FATIGUE AND DISORGANIZATION OF PERFORMANCE IN RELATION TO THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL VARIABLES OF DURATION, CHANGE AND MOVEMENT Outline g£_Studies Major subject: Experimental Psychology Minor Subject: PhilosOphy Biographical'ltemg Born: August 13, 1921+, Negaunee Michigan Undergraduate Studies: Michigan State College, 1946-1949 (Eraduate Studies: Michigan State College, 1949-1958 Experience: Part Time Temporary Instructor, Michigan State College and Michigan State University, 1952-1957, Instructor- 1957—1958. ix TABLE Q§.CONTENTS Page FORWARD i-vi AC KNOWLEDGEMEN T S vi 1 VITA viii TABLE OF CONTENTS ix LIST OF TABLES x,xi LIST OF FIGURES xii-xvii PAPHT I: Phenomenal Duration, Change, and Movement CHAPTER I: Introduction 1—31 CHAPTER II: Prior Experimentation 32-46 CHAPTER III: Experimentation and the 47-160 Phenomenal Variables CHAPTER IV: General Conclusions. A 161-185 Theory of Phenomenal Duration, and Reevaluation of Previous EXperimentation. CHAPTER V: Summary 186-190 PART II: Fatigue and Disorganization g£_Perrormance. CHAPTER Vi: The Problem of Fatigue 191-202 CHAPTER VII: Contemporary Work on the 203-212 Problem of Fatigue. CHAPTER VIII: Experimentation 213-253 CHAPTER IX: Conclusions and Discussion 25n-260 CHAPTER X: Summary 261-262 APPENDIX 263—269 BIBLIOGRAPHY 270-275 TABL§§_ Table Number 1: 2: A Schematic Representation of Method Followed in EXperiment A Schematic Representation of Method Followed in Experiment A Schematic Representation of Method Followed in EXperiment A Schematic Representation of Method Followed in Experiment A Schematic Representation of Method Followed in Experiment A Schematic Representation of Method Followed in Experiment A Schematic Representation of Method Followed in Experiment Per Cent. Experimental 3. Experimental 4. EXperimental t’ J. Experimental 6. Experimental 7. EXperimental 5. Experimental 16. Which the Quartile Ratios of the First Half are Quartile Ratios of the En- tire Experiment. Per Cent. Score in the First Half. Which the Reaction Time Score in the Second Half of the Experiment is of the Average Reaction Time and Mean Variation in Thousands of a Second When Were Fresh. the Subjects Average Reaction Time and Mean Variation in Thousands of a Second When Had Already Performed. Estimated and Actual Clock Times for 3 Am- bient Conditions. the Subjects Overestimations and Underestimations with Trials of Various Lengths. 72. 73 80 84,85 86,87 88,89 100,101 145,146 207 208 211 211 xi Table Number 14. 15 16: Direction of Estimation of Clock Time for 3 Subjects Under All Conditions. The Effect of Various Levels of Filling Upon The Standard Error of Subject R's Reproduction. The Effect of Various Levels of Filling Upon The Standard Error of Subject Rd's Reproduction. 235 264 e xii LIST OF FIGURES Figure l: "The relationship between the various pieces of equipment described in the text." Figure 2: “A restricted and detailed front end view of the experimental apparatus shown in the previous figure." Figure 3: “The electric motor and belt and pulley arrangements used in the experiments." Figure 4: "A schematic representation of the change condition from the observer's point of refer- ence." Figure 5: "The relationship between the speedometer markings and the rotations of the shafts keyed to the drives.“ Figure 6: “The relationship found between the JND!s. of kaleidosCOpic change and the speedometer readings." Figgre z: “The distribution of responses around the D's of kaleidoscopic change shown in Fig. 6." Elgure 8: “A schematic representation of the move- ment condition from the observer's standpoint." Figure 2: "The relationship between the speedometer markings and the relations of the shafts keyed to these discs." {figure 10: “The relationship between speedometer measurements of physical input and phenomenal movement." EAgure 11: "The distribution of responses around the JND s of phenomenal movement shown in Fig. 9.II .Figure 12: ”The relationship between judgments of the phenomenal durations of phenomenal changes and the clock lengths employed experimentally.“ EAgure 13: "Three category judgments when phenomenal change of various clock lengths were employed." 54 \n \A 66 67 76 77 xiii Figure 14: “Three category judgments when phen- omenal changes of various clock lengths are experimentally employed." 92 Figgre 15: “The standard phenomenal change interval 93 set at thirty seconds and the comparison phe- nomenal change interval varied in clock length." Figure 16: “The standard phenomenal change interval 94 set at 90 seconds and the comparison phenomenal change interval varied in clock length." figure 12: "The standard phenomenal change interval 9" set at 180 seconds and the comparison phenome- nal change interval varied in clock length.“ IFigure 18: "Three category judgments when pehnome- 96 nal changes of various clock lengths were em- ployed.” Figure 12: “Three category judgments when phenome— 97 nal changes of various clock lengths were em— ployed." Figure 20: “Experimental standard fixed at a phe- 103 nomenal change rate for 90 seconds and compari- son set at fixed phenomenal change rate either 5 or 10 points below rate of standard--and clock lengths of presentation was varied.” Figure 21: "Experimental standard set a fixed pheno- 104 menal change rate for 90 seconds and comparison set at fixed rate either 5 or 10 points below rate of standard-—and clock length varied." Figure 22: “The relation between comparisons of the 108 phenomenal durations of phenomenal movements and the clock lengths employed experimentallya" Elgure 23: “Three category judgments when phenomenal 109 movements of various clock lengths were employed." Elgure 2“: “Three category judgments when phenomenal 116 movements of various clock lengths were employed." Figure 25: “Standard phenomenal movement interval set 117 at 30 and comparison varied in clock length." Eigure 26: "Standard interval set at 90 for phenome- 118 nal movement interval and comparison varied in clock length.” xiv Fflggure 27: “Standard interval set at 180 seconds for phenomenal movement interval and compar- ison interval varied in clock length." Figure 28: "Three category judgments when pheno— menal movements of various clock lengths em- ployed." figure 29: ”Three category judgments when pheno- menal movements of various clock lengths em- ployed." figure 30~A: "Experimental standard at fixed phe- nomenal movement rate of 90 seconds and com- parison set at fixed phenomenal movement rate of 5 or 10 points below standard——clock length of presentation was varied." Figure 30-8: ”Experimental standard set at fixed phenomenal movement rate for 90 seconds and com— parison set at rate 10 points below rate of standard on phenomenal movement scale --clock length of presentation varied.“ Figure jlqA: “Experimental standard set at fixed phenomenal movement rate for 90 seconds. Com-» parison set at fixed rate 5 or 10 points above rate of standard-~clock length of presentation was varied.” Eiggre 31-8: ”Experimental standard set at fixed phenomenal rate for 90 seconds and comparison set at fixed rate 10 points above rate of stan- dard—~clock length of presentation was varied.” Figure 52: “Experimental standard set at fixed phe— nomenal movement rate for 90 seconds. Compari— son set at fixed phenomenal movement rate 5 or 10 points below rate of standard—~clock length of presentation was varied.“ Elgure 35: "Experimental standard set at fixed phe- nomenal movement rate for 90 seconds and com— parison set at fixed rate 5 or 10 points above rate of standard ——clock length of presentation was varied." Figure 3h: "Phenomenal movement standard interval fixed at moderately rapid rate for 90 seconds and comparison accelerated or deoelerated."I 119 120 121 129 130 131 132 133 134 139 XV Figure 35: Experimental phenomenal movement stan— dard interval fixed at moderately rapid rate and comparison interval with movements contin— uously decelerated at rate of 2/3 miles/second." Figgge 36: “Experimental phenomenal movement stan— dard interval fixed at moderately rapid rate and comparison interval with.movements contin- uously accelerated at rate of 2/3 miles/second." Figure 32: “Experimental phenomenal movement stan- dard interval fixed at moderately rapid rate or at moderately slow rate and comparison in- terval with movements continuously decelerated and accelerated 3 times for a brief interval.” Figure 38: "Experimental phenomenal movement stan- dard interval fixed at moderately rapid rate and comparison interval with movements decelerated and accelerated 3 times for a brief interval." Figgre 32: "Experimental phenomenal movement stan— dard fixed at moderately slow rate and compari— son interval with movements accelerated and decelerated 3 times for a brief interval." Figgre 40: “Experimental phenomenal change standard fixed at moderately rapid rate or a moderately slow rate with comparison interval with change continuously decelerated and accelerated 3 times for a brief interval." Figure 41: "Experimental phenomenal change standard fixed at a moderately rapid rate and comparison interval with rate of phen. change continuously decelerated and accelerated 3 times for a brief interval.“ Figure 42: “Experimental phenomenal change standard fixed at a moderately slow rate and comparison interval with rate of phen. change continuously decelerated and accelerated 3 times for brief interval." Figure 43: “Movement standard interval fixed at mod— erately rapid rate and comparison interval ab- ruptions by continuously decelerating or accel- erating at rate of 1/3 miles per second.“ Figure 44: “Experimental movement standard interval fixed at moderately rapid rate and comparison interval with abruptions by continuously decel- erating at a rate of 1/3 miles per second.” 2.8.. 140 141 14',» 148 149 153 154 158 xvi lFigpre 45: “Experimental movement standard interval fixed at moderately rapid rate and comparison interval abruptions by continuously accelerat— ing at a rate of l/3 miles per second." Figure 46: "A representation of J.F. Brown's exper- imental set—up drawn to scale." figure 42: "Additions to the eXperimental equipment previously pictured: The time clocks and tel- egraph keys.“ Figure 48: WAdditions to the experimental equipment previously pictured: The target producing de— vices." Figure 49: I'Additions to the experimental equipment previously pictured: The target timer. Figgres 50,51,52: “Three figures showing the simple reaction times of individual subjects on sin- gle trials." Figures 53,54,55: "Three figures showing simple re— action times of individual subjects on single trials." Figgres 56,52,58: ”Three figures showing the simple reaction times of individual subjects on single trials." Eigurgg759,60,61: “Three figures showing the simple reaction times of individual subjects on single trials." filgures 62,63,64: "Three figures showing the simple reaction times of individual subjects on single trials. I Figures 65,66,62: "Three figures showing the simple reaction times of individual subjects on single trials." Figgres 68.62.20: "Three figures showing the simple reaction times of individual subjects on single trials.” Figgres 21,22: “Two figures showing the simple reac- tion times of individual subjects on single‘ trials.‘I 8"“8 160 183 221 222 223 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 xvii Figure 23:"Means of Simple Reaction Times and er al Reaction Times for one subject under Pre— and Post-Fatigue Conditions." Figure 24: ”Means of Simple Reaction Times and er a1 Reaction Times for one subject Under Pre- and Post-Fatigue Conditions.“ Figgre 25: "Means of Simple Reaction Times and Verbal Reaction Times for one Subject Under Pre- and Post—Fatigue Conditions.“ Figure 26: “Means of Simple Reaction Times and er al Reaction Times for All Subjects Under All Conditions." Figure 22: "Number of Minutes to Fatigue in the irst Experimental Run." Figure 28: "Number of Minutes to Fatigue in the Second Experimental Run." Figure 22: "Number of Minutes to Fatigue in the st Experimental Run." F1 ure 80: “Stand. Error of Estimate for Compari- son Intervals of Various Fillings." Figure 81: “Filled and Empty Intervals Necessary for Comparison of Equality.“ Fi ure 82: “Stand. Error of Estimate for Filled vs. Empty Intervals." 248 249 267 268 269 PA” I Phenomena;,Duration. Change, and Movement "Further in obedience to the principle of comprising within nature the whole termi- nus of sense—awareness, simultaneity must not be conceived as an irrelevant mental concept for immediate discernment a certain whole, here called a 'duration'; thus a duration is a definite natural entity." 'Durations have all the reality that na- ture has, though what that may be we need not now determine. The measurableness of time is derivative from the prOperties of durations. So also is the serial character of time.“ (A. N. Whitehead, The Conce t of Nature, Ann Ar- bor, Univ. of Mich. Press,— 1957, pp. 53. 55). "A perceived duration or temporal pat- tern is a psychological entity that is infer— red from and defined by certain operations of introspective report, which adequately imply the differentiation of the perception. This ”behavioral“ inversion of the point of view toward eXperience makes the perception, not a private immediate eXperience, but a psycholo- gical construct which (in a rat or a person or myself} is just as public as is any other convincing inference from data.” (E. G. Boring, "Temporal Perception and Operationism, “ Amer. J. Ps chol., XLVIII, 1936, p. 521.) CHAPTER I The Phenomenal Variables INTRODUCTION This paper concerns “phenomenal duration." For the [purpose of discussion prior to a formal Operational defi- nition, "phenomenal duration|| can be considered as the “For-me endurance of an externally localized event.” The approach taken to the problem of phenomenal dur— ation is experimental and the general aim.of the experi- lnents is two-fold. One, the experiments aim to discover, or'if you will, invent, phenomenal conditions under which :phenomenal duration can be shortened and lengthened, rela- ‘tive to the clock time dimension. Two, the eXperiments aim to measure the relative extent of any lengthening or dbortening of phenomenal duration achieved.by manipulation of the experimental variables. The primary variables selected for experimental mani- pulation are those of phenomenal change and phenomenal Inovement. The phenomenal change and movement variables themselves are of numerous sorts, as the later sections dealing with the experiments themselves will show.1 These Var1ables will be expressed by a physical measurement as Well. 1._ITEE'author in no way imSIies that'certain other non- experiential variables, e.g. physiological, social, physi- cal, or personal do not enter in any given situation. Phe- nomenal change and movement are simply the variables selec- ted for study. _ 1 _ - 2 _ The general implications of the terms duration, change, and movement will be discussed in chapters three, four, and five, and the terms phenomenal change, phenomenal duration, and phenomenal movement will be formally denoted in the same chapters. Before doing this, however, there will be a.digression in chapter two in the form of a discussion of xneaning. This has been done because in American psycholo- ‘gical circles all variables referring to experience are ob- jects of suspicion. -3... MEANING.AND EMPIRICAL MEANING CRITERION Any term may have cognitive meaning functions, such as factual, purely formal, and logical-arithmetical; and non—cognitive meaning functions, such as the pictorial, affective, and directive. Within this paper the discussion of meaning can be restricted to consideration of the ques- tion of what would constitute the empirical or factual fun- ctions for terms referring to experience, since the aim of this dissertation is to clarify the terms phenomenal dura- tion, phenomenal movement, and phenomenal change, experimen- tally. 2 Meaning of Experimental Terms: The current conceptions and criterion of meaning within philosophy of science in many respects vary from one school of philosophic analysis to another. Nevertheless, it is generally agreed that one must be able in some way to recognize the term asserted on an empirical level. If this cannot be done, the verbal 2. Attempté'at clarification of meaning are often sus- pected of being designed and employed by psychologists seeking to circumvent difficult problems, e.g., experience. At other times attempts at clarification are suspected to be part and parcel of a 'behavioristic' program, with the re- sult that little importance is attached to the results beyond this point. Although the method of clarification is almost certain to restrict the scape of application for the term, when this resulting scape is compared to the breadth of or- dinary common sense usage, and even though many logical ep- istomologists have marked sympathy for 'behavioristie' type systems of psychology, neither need be the case. .- 4 - expression is said to lack a factual meaning because it does not affirm anything widely intelligible. Hence, the question of the meaningfulness of scientific terms rests in the question of whether there is a factual referent. 3 3. Moritz Sihlick, for example, says,"Thus, whenever we ask about a sentence, 'What does it mean?', what we ex— pect is instruction as to the circumstances in which the sentence is to be used; we want a description of the con- ditions under which the sentence will form a true proposi- tion, and of those which will make it false. The meaning of a word or a combination of words is, in this way, deter- mined by a set of rules which regulate their use and which, following Wittgenstein, we may call the rules of their grammar, taking this word in its widest sense.‘ "Meaning and Verification Readin s in hilosophical Analysis, ed. by Herbert Feigl’and Wilfrid‘gellars (NewFYErk: Appleton- Century—Crofts Inc., 1949), pp. 147-148. Rudolf Carnap, somewhat in contrast, suggests that meaning resides basically in the formulation of observation sentences. He says regarding this, "A first attempt at a more detailed explanation of the thesis of verifiability has been made by Schlick in his reply to Lewis' criticisms. Since 'verifiability' means 'possibility of verification' we have to answer two questions: 1) what is meant in this connection by 'possibility'? and 2) what is meant by 'verification'? Schlick- in his eXplanation of 'verifiability'- answers the first question, but not the second one. In his answer to the question; what is meant by 'verifiability of a sentence S'c he substitutes the fact described by S for the process of verifying S. Thus, he thinks e.g. that the sentence Sl “Rivers flow up-hill', is verifiable because it is logically possible that rivers flow up-hill. I agree with him that this fact is logically possible and that the sentence mentioned above is verifiable- or, rather, confirmable as we prefer to say for reasons to be explained soon. But I think his reasoning which leads to this result is not quite correct. is confirmable, not because of the logical poss— ibility of he fact described in S , but because of the phy- sical possibility of the process 0 confirmation; it is possible to test and to confirm 51 {or its negation) by ob- servations of rivers with the help of survey instruments.” Testabilitz and MeaningDINew Haven, Conn. Yale University raduate PhilosOphy Club, 1950), p. 423. G. Lewis offers the following; ”The requirement of em- pirical meaning is at bottom nothing more than the obvious one that the terms we use should posses denotation. As this requirement is interpreted by pragmatists and positivists, 114 {III [I1]... I11... THE Any further specification, such as a requirement that the descriptions must be expressed as “purely physical processes", rests upon a personal conviction regarding the soundness and productivity of a particular theoretical framework within a particular science. In view of this, it is easy to see that the terms phe- nomenal change, phenomenal movement, and phenomenal duration, for that matter, any phenomenal experience is not intrinsi- cally less meaningful than the best accepted notions of the older sciences. Hence, one of the primary aims of the next chapter is to define these terms on the factual level. ¥ andfiothers who share the tendencies of thought which have een mentioned, no concept has any denotation at all unless eventually in terms of sensuous data or imagery.‘I Feigl, 9.2. Cit.. p. 140. .. 6 _ DEFINITION OF PHENOMENAL DURATION Two primary objectives will guide the course of this chapter. The first is to provide a clarification that will satisfy the formulation of meaning provided in the last chap- ter. The second is to provide a definitional product in ac— cordance with current usages of the terms. In the recent past, psychologists have paid a good deal of attention to the first objective, and justly so. The second, however, has virtually been ignored and this has often led to rather silly consequences.” When possible, we will place each par- ticular experimental definition within a wider context of meaning than the experiment itself provides. We will proceed by discussion of the general referents of duration. Duration: The terms “duration“, “change”, and “movement“ Present an obvious problem of definition, since they are all at One and the same time parts of the language of philosophy, PhYBics, psychology, and everyday vernacular. One source 4. One only needs a peripheral acquaintance with psycho- l°8¥ to be aware of the ingenious verbal magic practiced on many difficult problems. The 'olarification of meaning' has Provided a ready formula permitting i) the problem of hunger ‘0 become 'clarified', i.e. redefined directly, as food de- Privation, eating responses, statements of stomach contrac- 1°ns or blood chemistry; ii) the problem of thirst to be- come 'clariried', i.e. redefined directly, as water depriva- u°n. drinking response or tissue dehydration; iii) the problem of anxiety to be defined as finger tremor, a galvanic r'efiponse, a particular eXperimental task or situation, and 1111) the problem of fatigue to become one of work decrement, ‘ change in CFF, a physiological impairment or change, etc. - 7 - book, Baldwin's 2;;gionary g£_ggg;gggpgy.and Psychology,5 devotes about two thousand words to the term change, three thousand to movement, and nine thousand to the terms "dura- tion'I and “time“. These words are what Skinner might refer to as l'historical products, obese in meaning.“ The terms of physical science, such as wave-length, atom, electromagnetic field, appear in contrast to be largely free of such wide- spread referents. Accordingly, "duration'l may be considered, depending upon the point of reference, in one of several broad ways. "Duration“ can be considered as: i) a “time-dependent'term, .e.g. as an aspect of the form of continuity and externality of parts in all real process, such as a unit of “Newtonian time“ or 'psychological time" or “biological time" or as: ii) a term referring to some institutionalized cultural con- Vention allowing synchrony of social behavior, e.g. Easter- time or Eastern-Standard Time, or as; a term expressing some- thing psychological in the sense of: iii) eXperience, or of: 1111) the observed overt behavior of an organism. Let us consider each in turn. In doing so two things can be accom- plished, first, a latter Operational definition can be cor— rectly placed within a larger perspective, and secondly, and more importantly, in so doing the term will be separated from a manifold of extraneous implications. K; 5. James M. Baldwin (ed) Dictionagy g£_Philoso and Eazcnoiogymew York: The MacMillan 00., 1925‘)‘,"'v"oi. 1' TH r’s’X4 -3- Duration a__s_ g Ems Dependent Term: Duration is quite often considered to be an aspect or unit of “time". Such a reduction seems only to remove the problem of duration from a concrete to an abstract realm, and immediately involves us in a second problem, the problem of “what is time?" For this reason, if one is to utilize a "time" explanation of dura- tion, it seems necessary to agree on two things. One must agree that the question “what is time" can be answered in some satisfactory way. Secondly, one must also agree to in- clude only systems of time explanation in which "time" is defined independently of duration. This is to say, any an~ swex- to the question “what is time“ must assert “time“ in— dependently of “duration“ if it is to have any relevance V1’lettever to the aims of this discussion. Thus, a system in which time is stated to be constituted of a complex of mFlattions of duration and succession in the experienced or- 831? of events must be excluded, for such a system would beg the question of "duration". Having made these qualifications we can proceed. A num- bar of disciplines might be expected to provide absolute time 3F stems, and, as a matter of fact, do provide such systems. F03? the remainder of this section we will seek to refer dur- ation to absolute time systems within philosophy, physics, biology, and psychology. Philosogm Egg “Time“: A satisfactory discussion of ”time“ in a traditional philosOphical sense, with the aim °f Placing the term duration in its widest context, is beyond -9- my competence. However, it seems fair at the same time to point out that it is probably beyond anyone's present ability. So many fundamental cleavages seem to exist within ontologi— cal philosophies regarding this term that apparently even a moderately satisfactory metaphysical account of duration in terms of "time" is not at present possible. Within metaphy- sical systems time can refer to anything from a noumenal to an experienced object; and philosophical theories to account for this vary from those that are nativistic to those that are empirical. Physical _'I‘_.‘_L_x_n;g_: The physical sciences provide surpris— ingly little help toward the clarification of the term dur- 8113:). on via an answer to the question of "what is time.“ With the abandonment of Newtonian 'Absolute Time,’ for example, 8111 biological phenomena have been considerably divorced fJr'oxn the narrowed physical conceptualizations of "time". Time as now considered within physics is multiple. "Time” I‘eif‘ers to the occurrence and measurement of cyclic phenomena "1 thin particular systems. It is not held to be strictly meaningful to refer to “time” apart from a specific system. 7 Thus the biological and psychological significance of any physical “time“ measure must rest upon the validity of 1311': assMptions relating two separate systems. The wide- aDread speculations today regarding the effects of high vs- l"city interplanetary travel upon life processes which have "Suited in sharply conflicting conclusions regarding the human effects highlights the difficulties or doing this -10.. successfully. Actually, however, the problem of interdepen- dence of the two systems has always been with us in the form of actuarial tables which have an obvious inadequacy with respect to biological processes. For example, one can pre- dict natural death for individuals with only a very sizeable error. Biological Time: Failure to find a satisfactory form for the eXpression of biological phenomenon within the non— biological sciences has led to the formulation of purely biological time systems. The best known example is the attempt of Du Nouy, who on the basis of extensive study of the growth of cells in tissue cultures, posited the existence Of an “internal physiological time". This “internal time“ Of organisms does not flow at a constant rate within sidereal “"10. Rather, the “internal clock" governs the rates at which all vital processes unfold by dint of the fact that it 15 a manifestation of the specific evolutive cycle of the in- diviciual organism in question. Experienced duration Dr. Now held forth as an outcome, i.e., a division, of the whole re- gulated physiological aging process. His treatise, Biological '_l‘__i,m_g_,6 contains some experimen- tal data showing excellent relationships between both time estimation and physiological age, and time and metabolic pro- cesses. Nonetheless, his tenets are by no means convincing, \ 6. P. L. Nouy, BiolOgical Tim___g_ (New York: The MacMillan °°mPa~nyp 1937). p. 159 - 11 - because much of the subsequent experimentation does not 8upport his theoretical notions. Notably, Schaefer and Gil liland 7 failed to find any significant relationship be— twe en heart work, blood pressure, lung work, and breathing Fate and estimation of short time intervals. This was true de spite the fact that the physiological indexes were made to vary greatly during the experiment. Hence, on the basis both of"the small amount and the inconclusive nature of the evi- dence available, it would be gratuitous to identify duration with a biological time dimension. Psychological Time: Almost all the theoretical psycho- logical explanations of "time" that are in accord with fact deny the presence of a non-empirical time sense.8 The one 7. v.0. Schaefer and A.R. Gilliland, "The Relation of Time Estimation to Certain Physiological Changes," g&.§§p, Psychol., XXIII (1938), pp. 545-552. . Woodrow in his chapter in the Handbook g£_§§perimental Psychology says the following regarding theories of time Perception: ”Time is not a thing that, like an apple, may be per~ ceived. Stimuli and patterns of stimuli occupy physical time; and we react to such stimuli by perceptions, Judgments, com— Parisons, estimates, etc. Whether some mental variable such as duration or protensity is an immediate property of our perception of temporal stimuli, or of mental processes in general, is a matter of some disagreement. If there is no such immediately given property, it follows that time is a concept, somewhat like the value of pieces of money, that attaches to perceptions only through a Judgmental process. The ease of apparrent immediacy of the temporal Judgment in certain cases might be explained as the result of practice, much of it occurring in the first few years of life, in the interpretation in terms of physical time of the numerous alleged temporal cues."(S.S. Stevens ted.) 7 Handbook of Experimental Psychology (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc, 1951). p. 1235). In a 1933 review article of psycholOgical studies of “time“ estimation, A.O. Weber stated: “The psychological problem involved cannot be explained on the basis of obJective time; rather the answer must be _ 12 _ possible exception to this rule is provided in the recent work of Cooper and Erickson titled “T;mg_Distortion ig_§yp¢ aggigf. These writers, perhaps somewhat carelessly, speak of an awareness of the flow or passage of time made possible by a time sense.9 In any event, the time sense concept does not seem to play a central role in the interpretation of their data nor does it seem to play a crucial part in their care- fully framed definition of “seeming duration". Egratigg.and Social Timg; All social life requires elaborate cOOperation, therefore, it is almost mandatory that societies employ some external devise to synchronize activity. In effect, some scheme defining simultaneity and duration is obligatory. Sturt in her volume, in; Psychology g£_gimg}o traces the evolution of social time from primitive societies sought for in the conditions that Operate directly upon our conceptions of time. A causal analysis of time perception can be made only through the discovery of those conditions that give rise to variations in our experience of time.'(Psych.Bgl . XXX(l930),pp.233-252). M. Sturt stated in 1925 the following: “I have sketched in earlier chapters various stages in the development of the time-concept, and have indicated some or its more important constituents. In this chapter the aim is to show that time is a concept, and that this concept is constructed by each individual under the influence of the soc- iety in which he lives.”(The Ps cholo 2;.Time,London: Hart- court Brace and 00., 1925, p. lfl). Finally it is worthy of note that Mach held the position as early as l897 that “time“ psychologically is of empirical derivation. He says: "The entire passage of time, in fact, is dependent solely on conditions of sensuous activity.“ (E. Mach, Contributions tg,thg_Anal sis of thg_$ensations trans C.M. Williams (Chicago: Open curt-Publishing 50.,1597} P. 110 . 9. L.F. Cooper and M.H. Erickson, Time Distortion ig_§%py Eggigl(Baltimore: the Williams and Wilkins Co., 195”), p. . lo. M. Sturt, The Psychology 2; Time (London: Hartcourt Brae. and oo., 1923')”, pp. 12-42. ' ' _ 13 - to the modern form. She points out two historical trends discernible in the evolution of social synchronizing devices. In one case there has been a movement away from utilization of purely personal expressions of duration, to the utiliza- tion of externally observable signs of change, and finally to employment of highly abstract systems. In the other case, there has been a transition from discrete to continuous time forms. Hence, in the Western world, '1ong' durations are com— monly referred to some calendar, such as the scholastic, the financial, the ecclesiastical, or the common twelve month calendar. 'Short' durations, in constrast, are referred to a single standardized device, the ordinary clock.11 Ordinarily, of course, a "social referent" is clearly intended when the word duration is used, for language itself is a social implement. Language itself clearly intends to coordinate social behavior. Thus, we usually say (to one another) ”two hours have passed for me“, rather than "this Job was (seemed) twice as long as that for me,‘I and we say (to one another) “That period was five years for me,“ rather than "That period was (seemed) longer than another period for me," etc. In the social sense "duration" is a certain block of minutes, years, seconds, ages, etc. This social applica- tion of the term yields a great intersubjective agreement among peOple in social situations because conclusions reached 11. Interestingly enough however, the evolution has not been completed, since the clock ordinarily measures the "twen- ty-four hour day'I in a confusing manner by marking off two tWelve hour periods, the A.M. and P.M. times”. An exception t0 this is the recently devised military or civil clock (civil time) which goes from 0 hour to the 2400 hour each day. -14- abomxt the positions of the hands on a clock, the date on the calendar, the transitions of the earth relative to a sun, etc., can.‘be very nearly perfect for all people. However, one con- celxrably could, and, in fact, occasionally does, use the phe~ nomenal forms, but in so doing the term duration is standing foz‘ a fact that is not available to others; in so doing we are not quite playing the social game, i.e. communicating op- timally to others. The foregoing points up an important fact with respect to "top-me“ durations. This fact is that even on a sheerly Operational basis ”for-me" duration has two very different referents. The first class of referents are the “social re- ferernts“, i.e. clock duration or calendar durations and the Be00nd class are the primitive referents, e.g., phenomenal duration. Hence, it is an oversimplification to define dur- ‘tion as "that which the clock measures." One cannot over-insist that social duration is only pre- sen}; as a concrete event in the presence of some timepiece and loecomes only an abstract social concept without it. Nei- the!‘ can it be over—asserted that neither of these have much at all to do with what has been named "phenomenal duration". 1(5po made the importance of the distinction entirely clear many years ago when he wrote the following: “The eXperiments published hitherto have un- fortunately paid but little regard to the different possibilities of Judgment; there has been a regret- tably strong tendency to consider obJective time relations as the natural obJects of subJective app- rehension. One of the consequences of this attitude TO — 1 .r)’ — may be mentioned, for the sake of illustration. Until quite recently, it has passed altogether unnoticed that the basis of comparison in a quick succession of three sound stimuli is not the dur- ation of the small intervals which they mark off, but the rapidity of succession of l and 2 and of 2 and 3. We now know that the observations made with these small times cannot be compared with those of longer times, in which the duration of the interval as such affords the material of es- timation. This and similar confusions render the task of exposition exceedingly difficult. In cer- tain cases it is quite impossible to discover what the obJect of Judgment actually was." Duration EEDOvert Behavior: It is conceivable that dur— ation might be studied by means of discrimination techniques hi both non-human and human organisms. We have known since the reports of the "delayed reaction" and "delayed alterna- l3 and the “trace conditioning" 14 tion” experiments by Hunter, and. "delayed conditioning” by Pavlov, that non-human or~ gani sms are able to deal discriminatively with conditions th 15 at are nonsimultaneous in the clock sense. 212. O. KUlpe, Outlines of Psychology(London: Swan Sonnen- ache in and 00., 18'9"5")',"'p'.' 3'82. 313. W.S. Hunter, "The Delayed Reaction in Animals and Children," Behav.‘ Monogr., II (1913). 1143 I.P. avlov, Conditioned Reflexes: §§.Investi ation Into £132 P§¥siological Activit of the CortexTL—_L_ondon: Oxford nIVeraity ress, 1927),‘ pp'.‘ Klein—8347‘s . , 3L5. Pavlov, however, referred to what we would call an °Vert behavior duration" as a “Temporal" discrimination. or example, let us take a successful trace experiment in "hickl an unconditioned stimulus is produced at some set rate, Such as food every t hour, and the organism begins to res- Pond_.°n about the same occasion as when food was previously presented. In such a case Pavlov would credit ”time" per 8° “firth being the "conditioned stimulus”. (Ibid.) -15- B.F. Skinner,l6 in fact, explicitly discusses two types of conditioning that might provide Operational definitions of "overt behavior duration”. One class "Type S" (respondent) occurs when an impingement is singled out for correlation with a reinforcement under arbitrary control of the eXperi— menter.l7 The other "Type R" (operant) is a conditioning occuring when the organism is allowed to respond freely to a continuous stimulus continuum but where ranipt of reinforce- ment;is contingent upon the response occuring at a particular Poillt on the continuum (i.e., 3o-uo seconds after presenta- tion of light). According to Skinner the "overt behavior dnxwitions" (”temporal discriminations" in his terms) are theresults of complex constellations of overlapping success- 1Ve stimulation functionally organized by reinforcement. l6. B.F. Skinner, The Behavior g§_0r anisms (New York: D. APPleton-Century-Croft Co., Inc., 193%}, pp. 266-307. 217. B.F. Skinner has questioned whether such experiments do 111 fact constitute instances of "temporal discrimination".. He rule concluded that a "unit of time" cannot acquire the Emperties of a conditioned stimulus. In one place he says, 3 I have previously noted, the appearance of a single pro- pert?’in.the position of a stimulus is a certain sign that the reflex is pseudo--that is, that the stimulus is discrim— 1rut-lyre rather than eliciting.” (Ibid., p. 269) In another In Pemarks"...the laws of latency, threshold, after-discharge, ”“1 so on, are intended to apply to reflexes generally but it We permit ourselves to write 8: interval 9; time. R as a reflex without qualification, they are meaningless when ap- pn‘d to such an entity. We have not only overlooked much of th' Process of establishing such a relation, but we emerge Kim} ‘31 entity which has usual properties and appears to be- thve anomalously.“ (Ibid., p. 270). Skinner clearly puts a1: Question of "temporal discrimination" apart from time lathHAgh.he might better have chosen a more suitable way of eling the discrimination. -17.. Several examples of what he considers to be temporal discrim— inations of "Type R" arising during periodic responding in rat a are discussed. He says however that,"I have no specially designed experiments to report on the subject". His state— ment is probably a good resume of the status of knowledge within this problem area. Many studies have been reported which might conceivably be interpreted as bearing upon "overt behavior duration". Such interpretations are far removed from the intentions of the original workers however. A re- interpretation without further research would certainly lead ’60 unacceptable generalizations. Duration 9:3. Eggerience: When duration is spoken of as experience it may have reference to experience in an “intro- Spective" sense or in a "phenomenal" sense. In the intro- 8IDecztive" sense duration most often refers to one dimension or sensation, or mental content, and in essense is an event localized within the self. In contrast, "phenomenal duration'I refers to an externally localized event, something that occurs out in the world and apart from the observor himself. The e8oI‘liest psychologists, the psychologists of content, used the word in both senses 18 but the use of duration as an att- Pibute is unique to them and we shall consider it now. Attributive W: Khlpe, Titchener, and Mach, as ex"mines, all considered quality, duration, intensity, and eMension as being the basic attributes of sensation. Kh’lpe \ 18. Kelpe, 92. gig. TH A ‘\..l. . -13.. more than anyone else lucidly formulated a position with respect to attributive duration. In his treatise, Outlines 9; Psychology, Kulpe distinguishes between attributive dur- ation and the other three sensory attributes as well as attributive duration and “interval". This work will be re- ferred to in the ensuing paragraphs. Duration was named as one of the attributes given in sensation and feeling, and, as such, was a universal attri- bute coordinate with quality and intensity. Duration as an attribute was defined only by its magnitude and never by its referent. According to Kfilpe, duration appears as " the Simplest temporal predicate - - - the attribute of a single conscious process."19 Attributive duration, unlike quality, intensity, and extensity was the only sensory attribute measurable by objective procedures.20 The interval, on the other hand, was one of the predi- cates of duration, the “endurance of something," i.e., in- terval was what we have called phenomenal duration.21 "Inter- val duration" was said to involve “temporal position", i.e., ”1 earlier or later place in the succession of conscious Processes, plus event frequencies, and event recurrences. We may quote Kfilpe to gain an understanding regarding the \ 19. Ibid. 20. Ibid., p. 280 21. Ibid. -19- relationship the new psych010gy assumed to exist between those related variables. “We do not mean, of course, that the Judg- ment of duration must, therefore, necessarily be the most original in the psychology of time, i.e., that it is chronologically prior to all the others and is the foundation of any one of them in the particular case. We believe, on the contrary, that all the different kinds of temporal Judgment which we have mentioned, - duration or interval, direction and rapidity of succession, number and period,- are capable 8f an equally direct or immediate applica- tion.“ 2 These distinctions no longer have especial importance because the systematic introspective programs of the psycho- logiea of sensation have all, to the present writer's know- ledge, been abandoned. 23 Hence, we will now turn to consi— der phenomenal duration. Phenomenal Duration: Early in the history of psychology Mach made an observation to the effect that durations are Organi zations of multiple and vastly different events, and that these organizations are not expressible solely by refer— ence to the recognizable constituents. The flavor 0f the phenomenal given is evident in the following passage trans- lated from Beitrage zur Analyse der Empfindungen: \ 22. Ibid. ”pig. KUlpe changed his views considerably after 1900 and mentisented a psyoh010gy more phenomenalogical and less ele- finalat 1c. E.B. Titchener later modified similar views. In "Give £01m duration as well as extension and intensity were (New ’1 as qualities. S stematio Psychology: Prolegomena durat ork: MacMillan o., 1929) Wundt never considered of Colon per 39. Rather, he referred to "time" as a “mode mplex perceptual organization.“ Sensation and Perception in 631% History 9__I_‘_ Ex erimental Psychologleew York: Appleton, by, Crofts, Inc., 19425, p. 574. -20.. "That a definite, specific time-sensation exists, appears to me beyond all doubt. The rhythmical identity of the two adjoincd measures, which vary utterly in the order of their tones, is immediately recognized. We have not to do here with a matter of the understanding or of reflexion, but with one of sensation. In the same manner that bodies of different colors may possess the same spatial form, so here we have two tonal entities which, acoustically, are di- fferently colored, but possess the same temporal form. As in the one case we pick out by an imme- diate act of feeling the identical spatial com— ponents, so here we immediately detect the iden- tical temporal components, or the sameness of the rhythm. " James made a pictorial but similar description. In one place he likens durations to a ship: "With a bow and a stern, as it were, — a rearward - f and a forward-looking end." J and 1:1 another he says that: '"we do not first feel one end and then feel the C>ther after it, and from the perception of the Enaccession infer an interval of time between, but we seem to feel the interval of time as a whole, With its two ends embedded in it."26 and in still another place he says; "It succession of feelings, in and of itself, is ‘HCJt a feeling of succession. :And since, to our 8thcessive feelings, a feeling of succession is added, that must be treated as an additional fact I‘equiring its own elucidation.“ 2? Hence both James and Mach in a way anticipated later molar o utlooka although in large part their psych010gies made re- f erence to elementary properties and the lays of their syn- theflla. 'tPEL- Mach, Contributions tg_the Analysis g£_the Sensaticns. lngg. O.M. Williams (Chicago: Open Court Publishing 00., 2 , p. 110. 5 pugglfiliiam James, Princi les gfnPsychology(New York: Dover 26. .1cations Inc., 1950;, p. 609. -21- The formal recognition of the duration as a phenomenally whole experience of course awaited the formulation of the theoretical principles laid down by the Wertheimer, Koffka, Kbhler school of Gestalt Psychology. Our formulation of dur_ ation as the experience of the "for-me endurance of an inter- nal event“ is phenomenal in nature and agrees with the Ges— talt formulation of sensory experience. Their fundamental re-orientation to problems of experience are too well known to require further elaboration here. The Gestalt position did not, of course, alter the facts of observation but served solely to place them within an adequate theoretical framework. Surprisingly enough, almost, if not all, the solid ex- perimental work related to phenomenal duration in the early Period of psychology, came from the psychology of the intro— 8Pectionists. Kfilpe's "duration of something“, i.e., the "interval", is identical to the phenomenal duration if the former. fact is stripped of systematic connotations. The early psychologists of sensation asked two questions regard- ing the “duration of something” and their answers are of con- cern to us because they provide the beginnings of an empirical frame 01‘ reference for the term. One of the questions had to do with the "least duration" discriminable and the other had to do With the possibility of establishing a functional clar- 1“cation of phenomenal duration. The answer given to the question, "what is the least duration discriminable?" seems to depend upon both the modal- it y and. the method used. K'ulpe points these difficulties out -22.... in considerable detail.28 Generally these studies agree to the fact that the least interval is smallest in the auditory modality and largest in the cutaneous modality. Most of the source books give an interval of 1/500 of a second for the ear, 1/20 of a second for the eye, and 1/20 to 1/30 of a sec— ond for impingements yielding a report of "moderate pressure". Technical reasons prevented study of other modalities. There is also some doubt that much of the least interval discrimin- ation studies have much at all to do with durations in a strict sense, because the methods at that time employed the "empty interval” technique. Customarily, the intervals Judged were Phyflcally empty periods bounded by well-defined signals, for example. in the case of auditory intervals, by clicks. K'ulpe pointed out the likelihood of these discriminations being not of duration but of "frequency" or “succession" of signals.29 The empirical classification of experienced duration offers more for us. Introspective psychologists were univer- sally aogreed by 1900 that the "durations of something" are of three distinct types, the "small interval" type (up to .5 seconds interval). the “moderate interval" (.5 to 3.0 seconds), and the, ”long interval“ type (plus 3.0 seconds). Kfilpe ex- plains the distinction as follows: "The temporal Judgment has three essentially dlstinct forms; one with 'small‘ intervals up to about 0.5 sec., another with 'moderate' intervals etween the limits 0.5 and about 3.0 sec., and yet 2 ' _ Mp0 0 e 011)., pa 379-3970 e .2. 3.1.— 29- Ibid., p. 2 -23- another with 'larger' intervals beyond 3.0 sec. TIn estimating the very smallest times we do not «compare the magnitude of pairs of two intervals, tfllt the rapidity of succession of two impressions. III estimating moderate intervals we really compare tflae time-lengths themselves. Neither method is or- éiinarily applicable to large intervals, and we con— sequently make our estimation of them by indirect means, - by the help of a subJective revival of ‘tlme limiting impression, or of the contents of the trims as it passes (phases of respiration or what nxat), etc. It is plain that these threg different cases are not by any means coordinate." 0 Ifiiis parting shot from Kfilpe concludes our general discussion of duration. Subsequent work will be reported in the section titled Prior Experimentation. @erational Denotation 9f Phenomenal Duration: We have Just ginven a general characterization of phenomenal duration. It is now necessary to describe possible experimental equi- valents of this term. A-:recent article discusses four Operational possibili- ties c=C>tnmonly used in investigations of "duration". The first cxr these, "the method of verbal estimation," requires the amDJect to estimate verbally the clock time elapsed during the Phenomenal duration. The second, the "method of produc- t1°n" demands that the subJect Judge a phenomenal duration ””1 to that of a standard clock duration. Under this con- dition, the subJect is typically instructed to signal the exPerlmenter when a given number of seconds or minutes have el‘PBedi The third method, named the "method of reproduction," requires the reproduction of a standard interval, the stan- dard being given as a concrete experience. In this case, the 30. Ibid. p. 3860 .3“... r‘ -24.. experimenter asks the subJect to attend to the duration of an event and then to reproduce an equivalent phenomenal duration. The remaining method, "the method of comparison", is similar to the third in that the standard interval is given as a con- crete experience. It is different, however, in that the ex- perimenter presents another concrete duration and asks the subJect to compare the two and report whether the second is longer, shorter, or equal to the first. The following can be said regarding these four methods; the first two methods are unacceptable empirically, because they must assume some sort of "time sense" existing apart from observation of a physical clock. That is a time impression is assumed to be the empirical referent for the directions. The questionable notion of an a-priori phenomenal time-sense owes its origin to Kant, and has been criticized by empiri- cists since the time of Wundt at least. While Bartley 31 dis- cuBees numerous aspects of human behavior, such as sleep and “king states, periods of ovulation in the female, tempera- ment Change, etc., that can be fairly eXpressed as cyclic man— ireata-tions, there is little or no empirical evidence support— ing 1:he notion of an "internal clock" in the sense of a me- ch‘nical internal regulating device. In addidition, one would seem to have absolutely no empirical reason to suspect that such a mechanism, if it did exist, would be coordinated with the N11va1 observatory time signals. 31- S.H. Bartley, Etigue and Impairment in Man (New York: McGray-Hill ook Oompany, nc., l947),pp.2u0-301. T! The third method, that of reproduction, is less desir— able than the method of comparison because the observor's point of reference is altered when the experimenter goes from the standard to the .variable condition. In other words, the ”method of reproduction" requires the subJect to passively wait for a standard interval to pass and then to actively I'epI‘Oduce an identical phenomenal duration. On the other hand, the "method of comparison“ provides the most satisfac- tory control of attitude by keeping the method of observation constant, i.e., the observor passively observes both durations. Hence, the Method 9_f_‘_ Comparison Lg t_<_>_ b__e_ considered _a_§_ LE. Wnal equivalgnt 9}; the term phenomenal duration. .. 25 _ SUMMARY On the basis of the foregoing discussion, we must ex- press regret that the term “duration" always implies "time". Enlarging upon the term in this manner brings about needless difficulty. The equating of duration with "time" is apt to elicit diverse and conflicting theoretical expectations for empirical studies of duration. Too often these eXpectations are apt to be quite “un-matter of fact" or remote from the Problem at hand. Durations that do not necessarily imply time are: 1) duration as a discrimination of experimentally set intervals, 11) duration as an universal attribute of mental elements, and, 111) phenomenal duration. however, the relation of discriminative duration to attributive duration and phenome- nal duration is not known at present, and the relation ,of at- tr“3-b141‘tsive duration to phenomenal duration is largely a matter 01‘ ecademic interest. Therefore, phenomenal duration should not be viewed as an aspect of an independent time, nor does it bear any known empirical relation to “clock time" or time discriminations measured by overt behavior. lit this point, phenomenal duration can be viewed posi- tively as a term standing for a rather isolated matter of fact 3 This fact is the experience of a "for-me endurance of ‘11 external event". The experience itself is phenomenal and lience is a molar experience existing in its own right and transcending the elements recognizeable within it. This -27.. endurance cannot be given a clearly defined lower limit on the clock scale, although the endurance can be given a three fold classification on a functional basis. Operationally, "phenomenal duration consists of reports of "for—me" endur— ances of external events via the method of comparison. .. 28 .. DEFINITION OF PHENOMENAL CHANGE The preceding distinctions and these to follow are not mere pedantry on the writer's part. It is solely on the basis of such careful phenomenal definitions that we are both able to usefully employ the phenomenal terms, and to clearly dis- tinguish one phenomenal variable from another. To do other- wise is to risk, if not invite, an irrelevant or nonsensical result. Change: Baldwin's Dictionary discusses the term change at; some length. According to the source, the term in the Widest sense denotes the presence of any variation or differ- ence, whether or not any identity is involved. This defini— tion includes what we commonly call movement, modification, SPOWth, development, etc., as well as more specific kinds of change. A somewhat less general usage than the above distin- 8111 shes two kinds of change conditions. First, a condition can be called a change if a distinguishable thing exists which ei ther did not exist at the immediately preceding moment, or does not exist at the immediately sucoeding moment. Secondly, “ Condition can be called a change when an enduring thing is ”id to have undergone an alternation.32 Since we are con- cerned with experimental conditions which involve an identity, 1'8' a we are concerned with the relationships of "phenomenal ck“Luge" and "phenomenal movement" with respect to the "for- me endurance of an external event," an instance of the second 32. Baldwin, 92. cit., Vol. 1, p. 171-173. -29- usage above will be selected as our definition of "change". Thus, "change" Lg defined g._§_ a_ condition in which some identifiable thing is; evolving. Lg such _a_ condition most _o_f_‘_ the parts, but not all. are the same 211 any two occasions 9_f_‘_ observation. Phenomenal Chang: A good example of phenomenal change 18 provided by a kaleidoscope in operation. Other systems analogous in principle but less complex in design and pheno- menal effect can also be used. Such a symplified kaleidoscope Will be described in the experimental sections. The most 1mportant is not the particular method employed, however, but the phenomenal end result is an on-going transformation occur— ing within a phenomenal whole. Thus a kaleidoscopic instru- Ilm alone will not suffice a priori as a satisfactory oper— ‘tl onal definition of "phenomenal change". It must for ex- mmPle be directly ascertained under the conditions of opera— tion that the physical effect produced is not eXperienced as ‘ System of moving things, each existing in its own right. The procedure must result in the experience of an identifiable unitary thing undergoing continual modification. The term Phenomenal change, therefore, will be given the following mean ing. $1.553; is observed and §_9_ reported ‘91 £3 observor 332 the _e_1_t_- Lel‘lmenter g; _a_r_1_ experimental getting. .. 3o .. DEFINITION OF PHENOMENAL MOVEMENT As the previous discussion pointed out, "movement" in a generic sense is a species of change. In a specific sense, however, the word “movement“ ordinarily serves to denote a Specific kind of change. Bearing the generic notion in mind, the following definition can be usefully made. Movement: Movement refers _t_o_ 5 system 9_f_‘ things i_r_1_ Lhich the things havg ; salient continuity and direction _r;_e_- m 32 one another. Such 1 system L; totally different 112011 any two occasions 9;; observation. Phenomenal Moveggnt: A good example of phenomenal move- ment is provided when a stationary light is projected through a POtating glass disc covered with cellophane confetti onto ‘1 Surface. If the pieces of confetti are of small enough Size, colors will start on one side of the surface, move to the other, and disappear in a never ending succession. Such a device will be described later in some detail. A warning similar'to that given in the case of phenomenal change appar- ‘tua.must be made here respecting the phenomenal movement ap- p‘ratus. It must be pointed out that any piece of equipment W111 suffice, providing the physical effect produced by this equipment is exPerienced by the subJect as a system of moving things, each existing in its own right. The denotation 18 aPplicable only to apparatus which in operation produces a I'9I30rt from the observer to the effect that he experiences -31.. the surface as being separate from the things moving. The term “phenomenal movement“ therefore will be given the following meaning. -*——_—_l———-—— movement Lg observed and pp reported py pp observer _t_c_>_ the experimenter i}; g experimental setting. Thus, the outstanding difference between phenomenal 0“rise and phenomenal movement is provided by the identifi- Ottion of phenomenal change with the constant evolution of a unitary thing and phenomenal movement with the transition of multiple things across a surface. CHAPTER II PRIOR EXPERIMENTATION UPON THE PHENOMENAL VARIABLES .. 32 .. II. PRIOR EXPERIMENTATION Over the years the study of "time" has taken various forms and has presented problems for workers in diverse fields. A good part of the research might fairly be said to provide re- sults that bear upon problems related to phenomenal duration. Investigations have considered the effect of filled versus un— filled intervals, individual differences in Judgment, the Con- tribution of body rhythm, organic and kinesthetic factors, the contribution of learned factors, and genetic variables. Still there has been a remarkable oversight. Despite the fact that ‘11 time systems and all durations always have to do with some kind or change, there is almost a complete lack of direct re- search into this relationship. For this reason the review of the 1literature will not be extensive and some of the material reviewed will not be as much to the point as one might desire. W W in}; gha__n_g_: The experimental work den-ing with short interval estimation and short interval re- prOdthlon has been centered around questions regarding the appllcgbinty of Weber's Law, the location of indifference zones, the effects .nd production of rhythm, the discovery of empirical crit§b1‘ employed by subjects in “time" estimation tasks, and the 3belation between physical events and the phenomenal res- ponaea. Since phenomenal change refers to an abruption in ‘ unified “for-me“ experience of an external event some of the work in the last two short interval categories will be reviewed. -33... The review will not be comprehensive for three reasons; i) the eXperimental results reported are not by and large inter- nally consistent; ii) the physical intervals reported are very short; iii) the manipulations made were often minor in nature and beside the point as far as the later research pro— blems of this thesis are concerned. Reports of the earlier work will be reviewed from secondary sources. Hall and Jastrow in 1886 reported results obtained by having subjects compare filled with empty intervals. The in— tervals were from 1 to 3 seconds. The filling consisted of a series of auditory abruptions in the form of clicks. The abruptions increased the phenomenal duration of the filled intervals when compared to the unfilled, although the presen- tation order of the auditory targets and the clock durations sometimes obliterated the abbreviation.1 EJner and Kraeplin, in 1889, filled intervals of 30 to 240 seconds with metronome beats and compared the phenomenal duration of these to empty intervals equally as long. They found tflae reproductions were consistently longer than the standalxis independent of whether the intervals were experimen- tally empty or filled.2 MeIaman in 1896 reported eXperiments relating temporal Values and various fillings of intervals to phenomenal dura- t1°n' Trhe standard intervals varied from 0.3 to 10.0 seconds, \. 1' 3D. Triplett, “The Relation Between the Physical Pattern and the Reproduction of Short Temporal Intervals," 2 Psychol. Mong. XLI (1931), p. 203, p. 210. ° Ibid., p. 204 -34.. and the fillings were achieved by smooth tones and clicks. He concluded that continuous filling by smooth tones led to a shortening of phenomenal duration in cases where the filled interval preceded the empty. With the Opposite order an empty interval followed by a continuously filled, an abbreviation re- sulted only in the middle range of temporal values. In con- ‘trast, to both of the above findings, the abruptions produced 'by clicks showed no order effect but produced a phenomenal shortening in the shorter range and a "lengthening in the case of the longer values."3 Gulliksen in 1927 attempted to ascertain the influence <3f various “situations" on time estimation. Two of his con- ciitions required the subjects to estimate the clock time of tiuditory units. One of these units was a clock interval of 200 seconds, filled with a metronome beating 66 times and a metronome beating 184 times per minute. The experimental re— lelts showed that both intervals were overestimated by clock 313andards and that the overestimation was greatest in the case ‘3f‘ the slow metronome. The average estimate was 223.? seconds for the slow metronome and 214.1 for the rapid. The standard deviations, however, were 92.4 and 85.2, respectively. Roelofs and Zeeman5 in 1949 published an account of an extended series of experimental investigations. The studies \ 30 Ib1____d_a pa 205 4. H. Gulliksen, "The Influence of Occu ationU nthe Perception of Time, E p. Ps chol., X 192 pr 52-59. 5. 0. Roelofs and W. P. 0. JZeeman The Subjective 7Duration of Time Intervals, l, " Acta Psychol., VI (1949), pp. 127-177. -35.. had to do with the effect of interruptions of various lengths on the phenomenal duration of visual targets with short ex- posure times. The method of comparison was used to express the experimental outcome. The subjects were required to com— ,pare the phenomenal duration of a continuously exposed lum- iJious square with the phenomenal duration of a similar square with the phenomenal duration of a similar square eXposed with iriterruptions. The standard intervals used varied from 420 msec. to 1,800 msec. They found that empty intervals of 1800 msec., i.e. an interval between two brief flashes of a visual target, were experienced as being shorter than continuously fiJlled intervals. The average shortening they report to be alaout 12.3% of the continuously filled interval. Interrupted irrtervals of 420 to 1800 msec. also resulted in shorter phe- nOmenal durations than those continuously filled. The effect 0f"the abruptions was enhanced as the temporal values of both intervals were increased. Thus, an interval of 1800 msec. "itll a break of 900 msec. when compared to a continuously ex- posed target, resulted in an average shortening of 24. 6% while a “20 msec. interval with a break of 210 msec. produced an average shortening of only 8%. The order of presentation af- feeted the reports. The first tended to be reported as shor- ter and the second as longer. This order effect was not so large as that produced by the abruptions in the duration. 6 In a later article Roslofs and Zeeman cite additional \ 6. 1mm, pp. 289-336. -36- experimental data using longer intervals. The experimental procedure was about the same as above. They report that with intervals of 3.200 msec., breaks of 400-640 msec. did not pro- duce differences in phenomenal duration. The order effect was also altered for longer intervals. With intervals shorter than 700—800 msec. the second in order tended to be reported as lon- ger, and with intervals of above 1600 msec. all biasing gra- dually decreased. Hirsh, Bilger, and Deatherage recently reported a study Concerning the changes in phenomenal duration accompanying C”Illiu'iges in experiential background. In a series of experi- ment; subjects were required to reproduce the phenomenal dur- a"51. ons of tones and lights when the context in which the tones and lights occurred was altered from ambient light or dark to ambient noise or quiet. Durations of 1,2,4, and 16 seconds were used and the results were clearcut. The ambient condi— tions of darkness or light had no influence upon the phenome- nal duration of either tones or light, while background. noise haB a marked effect. Reproductions of standard intervals of phenomenal duration of tones or lights were made much longer when the standard was presented in the quiet and the reproduc- tlon rendered in noise. This indicates that ambient noise 81'10rtens phenomenal duration. The opposite was true when the a“military targets were given as standards in the noise and re- produced in quiet. In this case ambient quiet served to len- gwhen phenomenal duration. Moreover, manipulation of amount - 37 _ of ambient noise showed that the response followed the noise level expressed in db's, the curve describing a curvilinear function. The authors acknowledge that the ambient noise con— ditions were not the phenomenal equivalents of ambient light conditions, since they did not correspond to one another on the visual-auditory scale of equivalence constructed by Ste- vens. 7 Phenomenal ngation and movement: Probably the earliest observations related to the problem were made by De Silva in 1928.8 His primary interest was the study of various factors contributing to maximal velocity in apparent movement. It was known then on the basis of Korte's 1919 research that there were certain strict relationships between beta movement and the distance separating the experimental targets, the size of the target, the time pause between target presentations, etc. De Silva's exhaustive extension of Korte's work need not con— cern us here except as if related clock time to phenomenal 8Deed, and related physical velocity to phenomenal duration. U31n8 the very short exposure times necessary for beta move- ment he found that the clock time element was most fundamen- tally related to phenomenal speed, and also that the angular Physical velocity was closely related to the "duration of sen- Batlonu . \ 7. I. J. Hirsh, R. C. Bilger, and B. H. Deatherage, "The Ef— fleet of Auditory and Visual Background on Apparent Duration,“ mer J. Psychol,, LIX (No. 4,1956),pp. 561-575. . H. R. DeSilva, "Kinematographic Movement of Parallel Lines, ” J. Gen. Psychol., I (1928), pp. 550-557. -38- The studies of Helson and King concerning the Tau Effect are the next studies of note. These investigators showed the importance of the time factor upon apparent movement on the cu- taneous membrane. Their results led to the conclusion that, "The temporal factor enters as an integral part of the causal complex determining the eXperience of Space.”9(p. 216). The time pauses used were fractions of a second and no mention was made of phenomenal duration or the phenomenal velocities asso— ciated with the movement.10 Brown reported a series of experiments in 1931 related to “maze of De Silva. His first study dealt with target and field ffilctors related to the production of increases in phenomenal Velxocity. His main findings related the effect of field pro— PCI'ties upon phenomenal velocity and hence do not concern us here. However, he did report that introspective reports of his ButtJects indicated a positive relationship between phenomenal Velxacity and phenomenal duration.11 In a later eXperiment Brownlzinvestigated the relationship bet“ween phenomenal velocity and phenomenal time (i.e. phenome- na1_ duration) directly. The method of comparison was used Witll intervals of around three seconds. The experimental pro- cedinre was to allow a subject to adjust the velocity of a moving \ 9. H. Helson and 5.14. King, “The Tau Effect-man Example of Psychological Relativity," ,J_. Exp. Psychol., XIV (1931), p. 216. 10. Ibid. pp. 202-218 F :11“ J.F. Rrown, "The Visual Perception of Velocity," ‘JEKSflQpl. Forsch., XIV (1931), pp. 199—232. F.112. J.F. Brown, "On Time Perception in Visual Movement J~elds,” P_s_ychol. Forsch. XIV(1931), pp. 233-248. ...39... field of black targets until the phenomenal duration of transit of a target across an aperture was judged as being equal to the phenomenal duration of an auditory signal. As— pects of the gestalt were manipulated, such as breadth of the field and illumination of the field. Brown hoped to demon- strate the equation phenomenal velocity = phenomenal space/ phenomenal time (u = s/t) is as valid a relation as the phy- sical equation V = S/T. In order to do this he had to show that where the traveling targets were eXperimentally exposed and observed, the phenomenal duration would balance with the phenomenal rate of movement and the phenomenal space values in the manner demanded by the equation. 0n the basis of his Previous work he knew how to realize eXperimental field con- ditions that would alter the phenomenal velocity by a measur- able amount. He reasoned that if he would, for example, de- crease the phenomenal velocity of the target a phenomenal 20% he should at the same time decrease phenomenal durations by 8 similar percent of the physical time of the standard dura- tion. The outcome of his eXperiments led to the generaliza- tion that "....the phenomenal time necessary for visually perceiVed movements to cover phenomenally equal spaces varies inversely with the phenomenal velocity."13 80me years later, D. Cartwrightlu W . 14- Ibid., p. 247 ' D. Cartwri ht, “On Visual Speed," Psychol. Forsch. XXII (1938 . pp. 320—342. challenged Brown's - so - conclusions maintaining that Brown's results were actually incompatable with his theory. His criticism need not occupy us here because a reply by Brown several months later 15 showed that Cartwright's criticism was poorly founded. The grounds that Brown should have been criticized upon, and was not, are the conceptual. Brown has no legi— timate reason, that he formally states, for expecting the isomorphic relation he tests. The physical statement v=S/T is an analytic (logical) pp£_pp empirical truth. The phy- sical statement is true pply_because of the way the physi— cist chooses to use his language, i.e. velocity is defined that way, as S/T. A quote from W. Westphal's 16 Kleines Lehrbuch Der Ppysik will make this particularly clear. He w says; "If a physical magnitude is to be measured, it must be known precisely what is meant by it, or one can also say an unequivocal meappring ppe- scription, must be given. One should never forget that a physical definition does not meet its pur— 'pose if it does not indicate exactly how the de- fined magnitude is to be measured. As it turns out the great majority of all jphysical magnitudes can be defined through a very small number of a-priori given basic magnitudes. It is actually arbitrary which magnitudes are cho- sen as basic magnitudes; they must only be inde- IDendent from one another, that is to say, none of them must be definable through the rest. All other Inagmitudes are derived magnitpdes. An example is \_ 15' J2. Brown, “The Dynamics of Visual Speed, Time, and 3930s: A Reply to Cartwright, K8hler, and Wallach," “ear. Psychol, VIII(1939). pp. 237-2%. g ‘N- ‘Westfall, fileines Lehrbuch Der Physik. (Berlin: pril’lger-Verlag, 1953), p. 2. -41- velocity, which is defined by means of the basic magnitudes distance and time, as the ratio distance:time. A system of such ba- sic magnitudes and the magnitudes derived from them is called a system of measurement."17 jBrown, on the other hand, treated p;;_p£_the phenomena; vaJdables pp_empirical. Thus, there can be no question of itsomorphism even though Brown's v-s/t g;g_function empiri- csally. This strongly suggests that Brown may have misunder- srtood the implication of his results. Another possible ex- Efilanation of his results will be entertained later. Cohen,18 and in another article, Cohen, Hansel, and Syilvester 19 report studies relating phenomenal duration arui spatial factors by the use of three visual targets timed tc> give beta movement. The study is thus analogous to that \ 2L7; Wenn man eine physikalische Gr3sse messen will, muss man zunachst genau wissen, was man unter ihr versteht. EE‘ muss von ihr eine ganz eindeutige Begriffsbetippumng (Def— L-nltion) gegeben sein, man kann ebensogut auch sagen: eine eindeutige Messvgppchrggg. Man vergesse nie, dass eine phy- Bikalische Definition ihren Zweck verfehlt, wenn sie nicht Sexiau angibt, wie die definierte Gr3sse gemessen werden soll. Er erweist sich, dass man die ganz fiberwiegende Mehrzahl del? physikalischen Grbssen durch eine sehr Kleine Zahl von ‘VDIFweg (a priori) gegebenen GrunggrSssen definieren kann. ‘wgflLche Grdssen man als Grundgr seen w hlt ist an sich will- kuI‘lich; sie miissen nur voneinander unabhén ig sein, d.h., ‘Dlié weiteren Grgssen heissen abge;eitete Grossen. Ein Beis- 11:},81 ist die Geschwindigkeit, die mittels der Grundgrb‘ssen a-1‘1ge und Zeit als das Verhflltnis Weglgnge: Zeit definiert ‘1313. Ein System solcher Grundgrassen und der von ihnen abgeleiteten Gr'o'ssen heisst ein Masssystem- Ibid. 18. J. Cohen, "The Experience of Time,” Acta Psychglg X(195u), pp. 207-2190 319. J. Cohen, C.E.M. Hansel, and J.D. Sylvester "A New Phenomena in Time Judgment," Nature, CLXXII (1953). p. 9010 , -42.. of Helson and King with respect to the Tau effect and uses very short time separations in the neighborhood of 0.5 seconds. The subjects in these eXperiments were required to divide the interval given visually into two equal phe— nomenally equal durations. The targets were seen as three horizontally located flashes of light, equal in brightness but differing in distance from one another. The distance from flash 3 to flash p was greater than the distance from E to or vice versa. By adjusting a lever the subjects 2: were able to control the timing of the center- flash and were instructed to adjust the light so that the time was the same between 5 and p as p and 9_. Cohen, Hansel, and Sylvester 20 have subsequently rep‘brted more carefully controlled studies that confirm their earlier results. Most significantly, the later studies indicate the spatial-phenomenal duration relations hold for targe 1: conditions not producing beta movement. In addition, the later studies indicate the effect- to be most pronounced in the downward direction and least pronounced in the upward direc tion."21 In 1951 Roelofs and Zeeman‘22 reported several eXperi- mental studies differing from those reported above in several . Cohen, C. E. M. Hansel, and J. D. Sylvester, Interdepen- gpnce of Space, Time, and Movement, " gota Psychol., XI(1955), 61- 72. 21‘ SegeraI additional studies on the relation of phenomenal guration and spatial factors were reported in the Japanese reloVJLrnal of Experimental Psychology by M. Abbe in 1936 and 9.3? These studies seem to have produced about the same aults as those reviewed, although the method used was that of parison. For this reason and because short temporal durations 22“ used, they were not ordered by inter-library service. 0. 0. Roelofs and w. P. C. Zeeman,“Inf1uences of Different C: -L',3.. respects. The experiments aimed to ascertain the influence of both spatial displacement and velocity, i.e., relative displacement per unit of time, upon phenomenal duration. They required the subjects to compare the duration of fixed to moving targets, and moving to moving targets. The targets were squares in all cases and the presentation time of the standard varied in steps from 3,200 to 200 msec. The die— placements and velocities associated with the different stan- dard times varied from a spatial displacement of 3 cm. at a velocity of 7.5 cm./seo. to a spatial displacement of 24 cm. at a velocity of 30 cm./sec. In some instances when the Spatial displacements were less than 12 cm., the velocity reached 60 cm./seo. The most clearcut funding was that moving presentations are eXperienced differently than stationery tar- gets. This relationship is somewhat complex, however. They found that; i) the longest standard time, 3,200 msec., brought about no differences between moving and fixed targets; ii) exp”sures between 1,600 and 800 msec. with higher velocities and larger displacements produced apparent lengthening of the cmnp“Elrison interval; iii) when the fixed target was set at 400 msec., the higher velocities and displacements produced an apparent shortening. This effect is the opposite of that found in the middle length intervals; iiii) setting the stan— dard at the shortest interval, 200 msec., resulted in an app- arent lengthening, the lengthening increasing as the displace- W . quuences 01‘ Optical Stimuli on the Estimation of Duration of a vet) Interval of Time," Acta Psychol., VIII(1951-l952).Pp.89—128. -44.. ments and velocities increased. These findings led the in- vestigators to conclude that velocity is the important feature with longer target intervals and that displacement is the im- portant feature with shorter target intervals. This would mean that velocity and displacement affect the experimental outcome in opposing ways. While this conclusion is in accord with the other finding reviewed in this section, they seem to be unwarranted by the data. The longest interval, i.e., 3,200 msec., brought about no differences and the shortest interval, i.e. , 200 msec., had an effect Opposing the conclusion. None- theless, it is important to recognize the possibility that phe— nomenal duration may perhaps be based on differing aspects from visual situation to visual situation even when the changes are relatively minor in a physical sense. Summagy: Most of the studies indicate that when abrup— 1310ns are introjected into eXperimentally given intervals, these affect the observer's Judgments of these intervals. Im— Dortantly, one study of Hirsh, Bilger, and Deatherage demon» strates the particular sensitivity of phenomenal duration to CliffeJf‘ences in the level of ambient auditory events. This out- come agrees well with experimental facts reported by introspec- tive. psychologists. The introspective psychologists showed the least interval to have the smallest value in the auditory modality. The uterature contributes disappointingly little, hoWeller, toward the formulation of general hypothesis regarding -45.. the effects of phenomenal change upon phenomenal duration. The reasons for this are the following; i) the results re~ ported are conflicting, ii) the results are dependent upon the short intervals used, iii) the results also seem to be too dependent upon the experimental method used, 1111) ex- ceedingly simple abruptions were ordinarily used, usually, for that matter, only single abruptions, iiiii) the physical abruptions were not given an adequate phenomenal definition. Studies have been made of the effect of movement upon short phenomenal durations. The studies ordinarily have used intervals around a length necessary to produce beta movement, 9-8. 600 msec. The studies generally indicate that if other factors are held constant, phenomenal duration will decrease ‘13 phenomenal speed and physical velocity are increased. That 13. the equation v I d/t is generally satisfied in empirical teat situations. This general finding is of restricted im- POI‘tanoe, however, if the task is that of framing a general ex'9<‘-’C:tation concerning the relation of longer and more com— plex phenomenal movements to phenomenal duration. Roelofs and Zeemans studies relating phenomenal speeds and physical velocities to phenomenal durations suggests that the effects or the as variables may be closely related to the short inter- vals ordinarily used in the eXperiments. They may be ineffec— tual or exert an opposing effect outside the short interval range. Obviously identical criticisms can be made of these 8“Miles as were made concerning those that related phenomenal ~46- change to phenomenal duration. Hence they will not be re— peated. CHAPTER III EXPERIMENTATION AND THE PHENOMENAL VARIABLES. -47- VII. STATEI‘ENT 92 THE PROBLEM: The purpose of the present study is to investigate the relation between several classes of phenomenal events. These events are phenomenal duration, phenomenal change, and phe- nomenal movement. Specifically, the present studies aim to test the hypothesis that l. phenomenal W w_i_];_l_ 15121. 13. .3. M g; phenomenal change. and that, 2. W duration Hill. 1521 §_s_ g function 9;; phenomenal movement. A more restricted set of hypotheses cannot be made because of the lack of a suitable framework of facts upon which to con- struct them. In order to determine whether the duration is a function 01‘ phenomenal change and phenomenal movement, certain prior conditions must be fulfilled. First, we will have to pro— vide an instrument that produces phenomenal movements and phenomenal changes that are in accord with the operational definitions of the variables given in the previous chapters. Secondly. we will have to construct scales for phenomenal Change and. phenomenal movement so as to be certain to avoid the pitfalls of "stimulus centered" approaches to psycholo- gical problems. Once phenomenal change and movement can be Proauced, measured and controlled, a wealth of experimental possibilitiea are open for empirical investigation. -ua- Scaling Phenomeng; Change Experiment 1. Pugpose: The experiment was designed to obtain a psy- chophysical scale for the rate of phenomenal change. Sub1ects: One subject was used. Apparatus: The equipment is pictured in Figure 1. This equipment consists of three panes of 3/8" glass mounted vertically to the floor. The mounting in all cases is accom- P11 shed by having a 5/8“ piece of hardwood dowling pass thr— Oug‘h the center of each glass and into a supporting bearing. The hardwood dowling is keyed to the glass discs so that the discs may be revolved by means of a driving mechanism applied to the shaft. The glass discs vary in size. The upper disc 18 24" in diameter, the center disc 36" in diameter, and the 1°Wer disc 24" in diameter. The supporting shafts are all h°1‘-‘Lzontal to the floor, and, relative to one another, fall in a line perpendicular to the floor. The first hardwood shaft rests 29" from the floor, the second hardwood shaft rests 48" from the floor, and the top hardwood shaft rests 58" from the floor. as the distances between the shafts are 1833 than the diameter of the discs, both the t0p and bottom disc overlap the center glass about 20". The small glass -49.. discs are set slightly to the front of the center disc and do not interfere with one another when in motion. The top glass is not used in this experiment. The lower disc is dri- ven via a Cenco mixer motor, a variable speed clutch whose shaft-end is fitted with a sprocket gear, two chains, and a 1400-1 Boston gear box. This arrangement is depicted in the lower drawing in Figure 2. An r.p.m. indicator is attached to the input side of the gear box via a flex cable as shown in the lower drawing of Figure 3. The range of the equipment matched the range of the speedometer. The relation between the measurement of physical input via the speedometer can be translated into a more general measurement by referring to Figure 5. The center disc is driven from the shaft of the lower disc by a simple v belt and v pull-up. This drive is shown in the upper-left drawing of Figure 3. Just to the rear of the overlapping section of the tOp and center discs 18 mounted a B and L projector. The projector is normally 9°81tioned at a distance that permits the beam to occupy the entire area of a screen 36" by 36" standing 6 feet away (see Figure 1). 0n the glass discs previously described, through which the beam from the projectors are passed, are mounted numerous tin? pieces of cellophane. These small pieces of cellOphans are of many colors and produce a “kaleidoscopic change" ef- 1‘th when the projectors are turned on and the discs rotated i n the same direction. Since the surfaces of the discs are -50.. moving in an opposing direction where they overlap the bits of cellophane merge and produce stronger colors than the single pieces and then the union suddenly dissipates as the bits cease to overlay each other. The drawings of Figure 2 represent the relation of the cellophane discs and light. A schematic dia- gram and phenomenal description of the effect on the screen is Provided by Figure 4. The screen onto which the kaleidosc0pe effect falls is the front of the large box-like structure shown in Figure 1. This box has an irregular shape. The box is 38" wide at both the tOp and bottom and 36" high in the front, but only 24" high in the back. Since the tOp of the box is horizontal to the floor, the bottom of the box is mounted on legs. The legs are t38.11 enough to accomodate an ordinary chair and torso of an Observer under the box. The hole is sufficiently close to the 8<-'::r'een so that, when facing the screen, the kaleidoscOpe occupies the entire visual field. The equipment is put into action by turning on the driv— ing motors and projectors. The speed of the shafts are var- ied by the speed of the driving mechanisms, they have a way to prodlice various changes in the velocities of displacement on the Screen. The noise of the apparatus is variable and considerable. Hence, it is necessary to mask it so as to assure that the diff- erences obtained were based upon visual observations. For this purpose a doorbell and Burgess electric paint sprayer were used. T hese are not pictured. -51. \ -_———A_“——————-——-_—- \ l." /_____. \‘I ::_____.._ @le e relationship between the various scribed in the text. 0 es of equipment dc Figure 1. This shows the pi e .onswau msofi>mum on» a“ atonm mnpauamma HapnwaauogNo an» no soap one peony coaampoc one oopoanumcn a mpnmmonmon many .N onswah w m m -53- .omdavqaoa eaoauuh on» can .noaqzoo acupuuon one nonoaoueonu .unmaa Hamman .nuoxoonqu and udaanw .Hop know nodaoacen cocoon Hoooea emu .nopsao coon» capeanob and nae: Hopes cannooao onv no an emoao a nanomonmen wdukunu Hosea enfi .enon conspoan won an as: noaoaep paenu> on» Hananoo on uouahoum nak.puoaewuanuu n4 .onad humped on» «o aoaaopon .n OHfimdh on» ewaeno on oeufi vaoaemquuue heaaun nae uaon on».a:on« wdakenu mean: one Figure 4. This is a schematic representation of the c ange condition from the observer's point of reference. Fl‘om his reference point vaguely defined areas of cOlor appear abruptly in every quarter, remain to SWirl briefly, then float gradually upward or down- Ward or lose their identity in a newer and stronger Omation. A salient feature is the unsystematio undulation of the screen itself. This produces at times a distinctive three dimensional characterization. ewnuoeon noaoseooonm cm 2. 00 on . o 0.2 eta Sm 8m on _ . . t H on on .. o." o m _ » .eonauoe «a cannon anyone» ones a can” noneauauun 09 00 IQQCHM HOPGH “a our UOHHOHOH nwdflvwmh HOROBOGOOQO Odo. newsman sauna mesa .oude gem on» one cane can as» none» uoapeaopon donanaoo 25 Ho owahobe one How nuance :nuuoocm a.“ 05»: coached menu one .uopane use on eosoa manage on» no meofipepon one one nwnaxnea Hopoaoooome on» venison mannnowpedon 08H. .m ousmfim w ,.oa ..oa [.on aloe ..on ruoo 1.oe 1'om ..oa I 00H success it ‘WIL l O .4 H l ONH .I ond to: Qua oea ON...” -55- Method: The method of limits or minimal changes was used. Procedure: The observer was seated in the viewing Position. He was instructed that when the kaleidoscOpic change occurred he should observe it carefully and instant- ly report any abruption in the rate. The report was made verbally or by a pre—arranged light signal. The experimenter started the equipment and varied the rate as follows. First, the rotation speed of the discs was set at the mean value for the operative range of speeds. The shutter on the pro- .180 tor was then opened and the kaleidoscopic change occurred fOr the observer. The experimenter permitted the subject to Observe the screen for a. few moments and then began to make gradual adjustments of the displacement rate, up or down. The Observer was not warned by the eXperimenter when0 the variable "8'8 to be manipulated nor was he told whether the manipula- tion would result in a more rapid or a slower rate of kalei— doScopic change. Each interval of the scale was established by 20 ascend- ing and 20 descending readings. The mean value served as the J°n.d. No more than 20 Judgments were taken at a sitting. Results: It was necessary to make 640 observations to eRhaust the range of the equipment. The 18 step psychOphy- a314ml scale resulting from the experimental procedure is pictured in Figure 6. The results seem to clearly describe .17.. a curvilinear function and an apprOpriate curve was fitted to the data by the free hand method. The distribution of Judgments around each point is shown in Figure 7. The data show that the J.n.d's of phenomenal change increa see with increases in physical change. The graph indi- cates that phenomenal change does not bear a simple linear relation to physical change, however. ~58— owa fie uwnaoeou newefiocoemm no gs ow mm ow eonosmuan wnueneoeoe 0+» own nods cones we and pan out obese one code sea one used code :on one cued oovu0>noo on duo n olwddcmOH hoaoabvoomu 080 one n.oQ 0% oh Dav doolfion ddflOH AdnUdOdaGHOH DAB .naaaaa no coupes one an eoeaoano can apnoaqun wuuvneoue uonuoa_uueareohh on» he .0 chum?“ on oonououek 9.3!: he on» «o smokers HIQOuveaoh ”Hanson HoaOEUUOOQn GAB emfleno canooeou«0Hefl Ho .0 cashew T C) Pi T.HH I.NH I U} r4 T ‘Q P. [.6H [.0H . I_ee GA to OIGOOGOPIOIax :0 s.'c 'n 'r Nu . t I . .I . all! train... Igll ‘ XUZ. lNl 0....0. , 1’!“ 11“) fl’l-O-I In? a.” 1 0| -50- Conclusigngs: The results indicate that we have a lab- oratory means of producing a continuum of phenomenal changes. This continuum of change has been satisfactorily scaled by an ordinary psychOphysical method. The presence of this law- ful relationship means that phenomenal change can be produced, measured, and controlled. This will allow phenomenal change to be used as a quantified variable in later experiments deal- ing W1 13h phenomenal duration. -61.. Scaling Phenomenal Movement Exge riment _2_. Purpose: EXperiment 2 was designed to obtain a psycho- phyeical scale for phenomenal movement. Subjects: One subject was used. Apparatus: The equipment was as previously described except for the following modifications. The center disc in this experiment was driven from the shaft of the lower disc by an X—ed v-belt and v-pulley set-up. This drive is shown in the upper right drawing of Figure 3. Because of the lack of availability of the desired belt length, a five inch Pulley was substituted on the shaft of the center disc. The original pulley was four inches in diameter, hence the con- Ver‘eion curve of Figure 5 is no longer applicable. A con- version curve for phenomenal movement is presented in Figure 9- This procedure also altered the phenomenal outcome. When the belt is so arranged, the surfaces of the discs move in the same direction where they overlap. This gives a constant unidirectional flood of color from the observer's right to left. A schematic diagram and phenomenal description of the “Marxism: effect is provided by Figure 8. Method: The method of limits or minimal changes was used. -62.. Procedure: The observer was seated in the viewing pos- ition. lie was instructed that when the system of movement was projected onto the screen he should observe it carefully and instantly report any increase or decrease in the rate of flow. The report was made verbally or by a pre-arranged light signal. The eXperimenter started the equipment and varied the rate as follows. First, the rotation speed of the discs was set at the mean value for the operative range of speeds. The shutter on the projector was then opened and the movement occurred for the observer. The experimenter per- mitted the subject to observe the screen for a‘few minutes and then began to make gradual adjustments of the rate of flow, Either increasing or decreasing the rate. The observer was “Gt vmrned by the experimenter when the variable was to be manipulated nor was he told whether the manipulation would result in a more rapid or a slower rate of movement. Each interval of the scale was fixed‘By, 20 ascending and 20 descending judgments. The mean value served as the 3.11.61. No more than 20 judgments were taken at a sitting. Results: It was necessary to make 560 observations to BXhauBt the range of the equipment. A 16 step psychophysical scale resulted from the experimentation and this scale is Pictured in Figure 10. The points plotted describe a cur- vilinear function. An apprOpriate curve was fitted to the data by the free-hand method. The distribution of judgments -53.. around each point is shown in Figure ll. The data shows that the j.n.d's of phenomenal movement increase with increases in physical movements. The graph indicates, however, that that phenomenal movement does not bear a suple linear relationship to physical movement. @nclusion: The experimental results indicate that we have a laboratory means of producing a continuum of phenome— nal movement. This movement continuum has been adequately scaled by an ordinary psychophysical method. The presence 01' this lawful relationship means that phenomenal movement can be produced, measured, and controlled. This will allow Phenomenal movement to be used as a quantified variable in later eXperiments dealing with phenomenal duration. -614- rims 8. This is a schematic representation of the movement condition from the observer's standpoint. 0 observer is aware of vaguely defined shadows and Mt! of color which are in continual transit across 9 surface. Sometimes the things in transit undergo {brupt changes in color. The movement appears to be nOar and constant. -55- ewdaoeom noposoooosm on ca 0 0 on as on on s 0.. a. o. _ _ _ _ . o .I OH 1.0» fil on I 00 I on I.oo I o» 'w .. em 7' T. 00 u .s m I oan I 0.3”! I oma .oonamoo «a canvas Housman shoals sand ,I one eoosaununu on on goods seven as on censuses «nuances « .3288on .5 3.“an as: .83 .3. 3» ea 83 3 son on» no need» someones sausages can no oneness one new season seduces: a“ cadet uoHoneH sane one .eeeue one enema so cehou saunas on» «o esouasoea one use mundane! Hanoi—vogue on» noekpon sensuous-wash ask .6 can 00H can 00H -6 6.. and.“ use." 9303.323 on as on 3. on on OH 0 p b , . p _ _ _ _ o _- TH .. In 3 1» - Iv . Ia .. lo . Is . To . r. [3 . Is :3 Jena-co rod .3” o and»: o» sensuous.» hp assesses assented 25 noon: on; :3 on» use on: so» on» you 392? h: .5 a. 8332.: 232.80 owes: o o a a 023.3 on use amuse?” nopoaouooAs can.“ ”Noumea“. demo—3:23 use some." Hosanna.— .we 3:23.932.— noaeaveoao monsoon announced: 25. renews»: H H .n H QUWOAOfl momuoqg Jo s.°a ’R ’f a; —67- . 114 W .14 . 1“ J‘JJI 4 l 4 a 1 1 IT I I l _ . m . _ f «I 2+ iv IT TIITIT IbuI; +IJI .41-». .t. . I 1- o A a. F .9 . 0g . . . . . . a . . _ , . . f 14" .9- 9 .AVIAY. +31 .ATIY.*- ¥|+IIIAY +.... v .0 -1 +1 ‘.‘+I -4. c w 9. o e *o u. - w . . . . . , . H . . TIT+I+ITI4-.+-+IW 0 l a & Val: L 9 o I? Y . e. eIY v . . . . a . . . s . . l _ . IHMH...4-+ 4-. +1.. . ..-t;r...IIIII% 4.4 a--l . s 4.. . . . . . . . w 4 J! “IT IT!” 0+ VILAII r .4. rTIOIITi L’j, +11 OII'IIO’IALII'I' I, .OIO! YIAr .e (I Q .0 F. . e 9 o . . _ . . i. a. IbI .4 « Af +. o. $ 9 f .4! 6 -5 4. oITleQ «:4. w 4 i . e a _ “4“» MI . . _ w . 1 G VTT+IIATT++. T.I.+T. T. ..i . .iiA ..... Wm“ ... .- . _ . . .. . . _ o :1 1 T Aw- «lvie no a. oIJ. + e 9. 51.9 .+ a 4 . v ¢ A . . o e . . . . . k . . . . _ _ , . . VI... o...r-.t r 4-? . .e L. a. s . o . L .- TI. L . . TiH . . v o . .R. . . . . . . Av” . . a . T. a I V .r P r 7 F I r t I M I T L I I F I r L i 14 i T 1 J 11 A 4 4 J r o e 7.5!? -e O. o e A §-i.e a slo.blo 4 w.-. e o . . 9 . 4 . . k . . . . o . . . _ p . v vile T I. A- .4 4, 9 v s!.4 . o T l7 VI; 0. e 4 «I e a w. * L a o . . . I . . o . . . . Av‘ + o o o . ¢ Y .4 AWI y 0 § AV 0 4 o + A e O o . A v e v H c . w e a e e . . . r T no + .. .? L & I+ A I .I e o . r v o f o c 9 a . . . o * . . ‘ - . . . . . _ . . _ a .4_ A I .w T W .F ItrIolIvlll v1» 1 v 4 lanItIT-iJITI I O-» I If I -I A I -I -s I L l I o .. AV“ fl 0 0 9 I 4 A b 0 4r . ‘ s e A 4: O 0 v t 9 o 0 * A v ~ . *I o . . F . ~ . . e K . , i _ I f .e o e 4 A a O Q o Af O O t O A T‘ 9 I. 0 av V a * A . v v v ~ 0 o . o v o n a o e . . . . _ . e o . s L e 9 9 O A e O s o r a 9 s 4 1 v . o + . o . . « fl . M . s v . ~ . . . Av” . I? a e f o y s d A o o- o e a o 9 ow . e a o v A . n . o . o . M . 0 s . a . . T [1 + F 4 L , Lrl 4 Q L + Ly ? Li } L 0 w J‘ I 4 } L7 0 .7 .1 . fi . a . _ I o e 9 ~ v o o e . A o e e o o 0 O 9 4 e e 6 A A o . e . . a . ~ o c v o . . o . . ~ . . . . . o o . . . . A o d . s — b s .v s 9 . a e e s o o a 9 . . . . o . o o * o. n . o A . v o A o q a . A e . . . n v o. . . m . a . l a o I. o s A a 4 s 6 e . t v T s . Q A e v ~ .. b . . . . . . . A e . 4 Q A s o I . 0 a e s o u M u . o w e . s e -o o a a . o. A 9 c e e 4 o v. I . J I o h 6 . . a . o i . . . . . . . goo ow M" fl 0 o v . w . . . . . u . . h . a . J Ajh . i . YIOOIYIQI‘YLrII I I’l‘ll'lliwllIi‘n + I? On ‘In tl .A 6.. 6| .' .III .‘ II. I A. ‘6'. v .k. IV.IOIITI.Av-O l...‘..‘0..IAY|‘uI .9. It- QIH'O'I.‘ MIL "LTil‘IIOI It: AT.LvI O I.‘ .t.‘ on" I Q YT?! . 1.9 # I I a I. Av II. I. v 4 VI I 0.. .A . o ”v o A . . o a ‘7 I o o o I” 1 . .- .I I a I . .. e . t o s . o .- .4 v . . f r A. c o e I o . . o . I w . . . . v o . a . . . w . . a. o . c o . ,. . 4 av . . . Y * . . c a I . o. . . s. o . g . e o a v . o o . A . v v . - o O o $ .A fl. WWW ~flm“ A w c . o o .. . a A v . ‘ . . . . . . ¢ . y . h o s. . . . .o I e I . u . b. o o. v 0 u . . v L c . v e p o o v A s a . a 9 o e e v o, a .9 A e 9 .. . 4 v . O . . u . a . . . * . . u . . a v A e o. o . a T o 0 WI . . t o v . .9 e o v s e v 1 A . b. o o o n e . A .1 o O o OI . . wnu A A o e .o f 9 v o ._ a . w < s . . w o c . w v . . 7 q I _T V Tr # IL . . r I W W I T I I kr . LT— I b I I .T i r T I I TL. rI “I .1 I? r r + 7 I W La... ‘ o s L . 4 A q o . a . a . o . w V v a, 0 4 . w I o a. O o . e A o A I I. «Q ~ OH . ~ 0 o . c . . s a o . . o . . . . a . . . . . w . . u . v o o . L A v v A v s . o o . . . . . e e s v 9 A .o 9 e. o. A e 6 IVI‘ ~ a A a o 9 . L o o v o o b o o A o A . . h. . . v . ~ . . . . . W . o m. _ . , . . . _ a o s . e e k a e T o e e o 0 Av o o a a- A o v o + v s v O O b e h « I‘mwmm ~ °°I~ o o o s o A I a 6 .I e o e 0 Av 4 s n . fi - o . . s a . o o . . . ‘ . . . . . . . . . C o v . . v k . 9 e 0 v -. e A . c o o 9 o o #. 0| P O 6. Afi 61- a . . . . a o a . o a . . . . o . o .o i . . c . a . . . . . h . a l a. _ 11111191,..k -JL salt..- I’ll *uloluArIIYT _r r T“ w .0 lLTILV r rir I4 4114 T L I :07 AT fEIij+1T++IO IO.-.¥:e e O. Y b -9 ‘ oIafl.Ollo -O--1-ArIIO. It . . ~.Iu‘ . r a o v . c u o 1 i 4. e o . + a . a 61A s o v k A o 4 fIfIA o TH‘ MWWAfiS 170- a: a o 9 o p . . s . o v s o . L . v o o o a A o . . a * a . . * . . . . . + . a . N‘ I . n , A . I . o o o A o .. 4I . A . O o 4 N . .0 o o A. s I . a v v. .0. o + A 4 iv e e: o 4 e Av v . . . b u o o. s . . A . . s o w . o o. 4 A s c c . v .. k . . .p . . ~ . . . . h e o o o. o . o . e v A o . a .. o v v a e A..fiI¢I . “9— 009 e o o. o A o a a 9 o . v . ii a o . 9 . s . a a I v a o o o o . ' ¢ . . * . . . . . $ . s s . I.“ . . . ‘ a e t A e. 0 O e V O o o u e y a y e e OI 'I ¢ 4v if m m m N w AT 0 v o 5 iv a a e o k e e e is v o a v V A 0 Y e e f o 4 e e d s a a o s . . o * w . o . I . . B! e s n 0‘ _ _ . . N I TL T I T TL F i T V I > r r ,T r& b T I I I > I T I Ly ? I r LI T f I? r I up IL I D" j J 1 a J J! T [T JI 114 1‘ .1 1‘ l4 4 a. { v I e . o . o e a a V 8 e e § N V" L 9: o (W A .4 a + o A a e o c A o e o o a 4 A 1 if 0 o o .e o . a a A a o e s e o . o o c o . o o . . n . . . . . a . ‘ . _ . . a .l o v . . fl 0 4. o O . ? Av +- 4 v s m* H .+ v b o a. . Afi v w v o A .. o . . a s v o A o . v o a . I o o . a w o e . o A o . . a w I . o . . . . . . o . . . . . . . . _ l . s o v a e f w . . P .+ * fl? 5 g A Av . u e T a s- . 0 fi Av . a 4 s u . . o o m 0 o A . . . . . e c . s o e . . o . w . O o b e s d t A o e A e k e . o a . . W o . o s a * _ V . TIQIIOll .1 “IX r I h. I # 4 H? L 1T1 I W {II‘I 0 0 OI . v IDIOT. O 1.41 3|, 5 tr t. Af ‘ ‘ TI... * I V v. 0. a s e . s v .+ L T o . e o o o O A o O o q l . s s I . . . * . . v . o . . e . :I r A . e o. + O 9 A e O J o v O o 6 s 4 o b I. A e . o o . . o I v . . o I . . I . . a o . o A+ a ~ o f- o A o a e o A a o . o . w c v v . — . . . . . . o . . \ . l . v u o v e V a A . . o 0 fl a .19 7-Afi a o 9 v a o r o . . . . . . I H . . I} FLL . r F . T P _ T LT +I_I .P T I n .r P ¥}rr I 4 4 _ J .1 l . v 5 a a v a a. . I9 1>¢ o a A . . . s . ~ . . . o . . . Wh‘ . _ . a a 4 i. 9 A O O a a I . é o T 0 ~35 Hg" 0 . s I. s g . . . . . _ . . — A T a- w. . . . . . . . . a . * . . . . .o . .. a . . I . . _ a . . k . L N ‘ v o I y c r f 9». v . It i I ufivsm. assesses ... .. .. . . \ Lilli? r v r av .Pl? 1-. 0 file. Delta'LvII 5 O 01 9 Is T 9 m I. O O Q ‘ aw HQ #34 pmflc 4 D s v 0 o e I t n v o. e. o A e e 1 o a” o e o . o . . a . c . \ Ho. 1 4 ¢ + 4 . WIAr. P.-. Ar. 8M0 ”Hg 35 ”Ho; e 4 .9 o . . o . . . . . . T v. . s. o e b ._ t“ 7...? .I4 d pf .. .L . . ~ rtI a--.A-a- .mw» 0“” Wg H“ M: a. . I- I I P-&§ I. I «I. ILL. III 411T-.. “I-“ 1 4 f +4 9 O M 4...! ‘IA o § 6 b fL * C . _ _. au,w.a.i.+q. ...I.A.+..+ .. ....i a o -+ w. L a o. 4 o .9 o- F ..». a no r «.9 A a, o, I. a . o .. o. . . ‘. . 4. f - -'-9 1,2:T.; 1 i+ + . I ii . Y +— o l I—q R... , I .. -‘_‘ '?-+- Q ~‘ \. a. . I a a . In! Wait. -68... Selecting the Exgerimental Interval 9;; Phenomena; Change Experiment 1. Pugose : In later eXperiments we hOpe to relate phenomenal change and movement to the experience of duration. This will be attempted by means of systematic application of the method 93; comparison, Use of this method makes it necessary to choose an experimental standard-win this case a standard clock length interval to which the variable interval can be °°mpared. From an eXperimental point of view, the ideally C’OI‘IVenient interval for use would be: a) an interval where there would be no biasing of response; b) an interval in w1134311 there would be complete reliability of comparison; 0) an interval sufficiently long to make manipulations of the experimental variables possible; and d) an interval not 8° long as to render the experiment impractically time con- Bum-ing. Our first purpose is to establish the interval of minimal biasing. The "indifference interval" might serve as one defini— t ion of minimal bias. This interval is defined as follows: “...that length of the variable at which the percentage of Judgments meaning that the variable seems longer than the standard remains the same irrespective of the order in which the 1.\ variable and standard are presented. II B. Woodrow, 'Time Perception," W of Rigger-imental M ed. b E.B. Stevens (New York: John Wiley and Qua, nc., 1951 , p. 12250 -59.. A fair amount of early “short duration" work was devoted toward discovery of this interval. Boring2 reviewed the early experiments of Vierordt, Horning, K3llert, Estel and Mehner. They reported that identical auditory intervals ranging from a fraction of a second to several seconds showed an indifference interval at 0.7 seconds. Separately, Estel and Mehner in later researches employing a greater range of clock lengths also found periodic auditory indiff— erence points although there was lack of agreement regarding the lengths or these periodicities. In contrast, Woodrow3 has recently summarized experimental data in which no audi- t”? indifference interval occurred and experinmntation in which an order error opposite to that earlier reported occurs. MoJ-”eover, other experimentation summarized by Woodrow5 indi- cated. that the physical characteristics or an interval are important determinants or the indifference interval. It thus seems evident that prior eXperimentation can n01; be relied upon to provide an experimental interval or phenomenal change. An empirical answer specific to our phe- n°mena1 change condition is needed. Experiments 3,4, 5,6 and \— 2’ E.G. Boring. Sensation and Perception in the History or Exgerimegtal [a cholo -TNew York: D. Appleton- aentury-(Trofts 00., 1952;, pp. 577-582. 2° B. Woodrow, "Time Perception,‘' 92. _c__Lt_:_., p. 1227. an ' Time order errors in studies or time perception” mean “derfect due to the order of presentation of the standard our c3C>Inparison intervals. With the procedure to be used in ,3 experiment, the order is said to be “positive' when the iagiiable is reported as shorter and ”negative“ when the var- in e is reported as longer and the intervals are identical Sclock length. ' H. Woodrow, ”Time Perception,‘| 22. 234., p. 1227. -70.. 7 were designed to select a clock interval of minimal bias for use as the standard interval. Subjects: Three subjects naive to the purposes of the experimentation were used. Two of the subjects, one male and one female, were college students. The other subject was a female in middle age. Apparatus: The apparatus was set up for the change con- dition, as described in experiment 1. The only modification made consisted of the removal of the doorbell. The Burgess Sprayer motor was used alone as a masking sound. Method: The method of comparison was employed and the standard interval always occurred first. Three category °°mparisons were allowed. The eXperimenter attempted to allow 7 seconds between the comparison and standard inter— vals and to allow 15 seconds betwun the experimental pairs. The standard and comparison intervals $1911}; each ex- Perimental pair were identical in all respects. The experi- mental pairs themselves varied with respect to clock length and Pate of phenomenal change, however. With respect to clock length, there were 6 pairs at 5. 10. 15. 2°. 25. 30. 4°- “5, ’60, 90, 120, 135, 180, 27c, 39c and coo seconds. with 1‘0 apect to rate of phenomenal change, eight presenta- “one, each differing from the other in clock length, were made at the phenomenal change rates (See Figure 6) of l, 2, 4’ 5' 6. 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15 and 16. - 71 - Table l is a schematic representation of the method followed. Procedure: The observer was seated in the viewing position. The following instructions were given: "We will start with the screen darkened. You are to watch the screen as it will become lighted. The screen when lighted will appear to change kaleidoscopically. You are to attend to the duration of this kaleidoscopic change. when the screen becomes dark again, this will be the signal that the standard interval has been concluded. When the screen becomes lighs ted again, this will be the signal that the second or comparison interval has begun. You will attend to this kaleidoscopic change Just as you did in the first case. when the screen becomes dark again, this will be the signal that the second or comparison interval has Just ended. At this point, you are to compare the second interval with the first and tell me whether the second was experienced by you as being "longer“, “shorter", or "equal" to the first. Remember, I want you to Judge the sec- ond relative to the first; if you make any other kind of comparison, do not fail to tell Ins. After the formal directions were given, the task was discussed informally with the subJect and any questions posed were an— swered. The experimenter emphasized to the subJect informally that the task of comparison was probably going to be difficult from the sub Ject' s point of view. The subJect was warned ag- ainst using any secondary criterion, such as counting, listen- ing to his pulse or looking at his watch. The subjects were al” diacouraged from using the equal category to express "un- c ertaintyu. It was strongly emphasized that a response of I equal" is Just as much a comparison as responses of “longer" an I: d Shorter". No subJect served longer than 50 minutes with- out a break. -72.. Table l A SOHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE METHOD FOLLOWED IN EXPERIMENT 3 Fate Stan- of’ dard 4 5 6 J 8 10 11 12 11+ 15 16 total 2 phe n. Compar- cases 2 1: chnge ison .L 1+ 5 6 7 8 101112141516 length Stand. 5 5 5 3 O f Comp. in 1: er- case a val a Stand. 10 10 in Comp. 10 10 seo- case p '3 3 6 ond a Stand. 15 15 Comp. 15 15 cases 3 3 6 Stand. 20 20 Comp. 20 20 capes 3 3 6 Stand. 25 25 Comp. 25 25 cases Stand. 30 30 Comp. 30 30 cases 3 3 6 Stand. 40 40 Comp. 40 40 cases 3 3 6 Stand. 4 5 4 5 Comp. 45 ‘45 cases . 3 3 6 Stand. 60 60 Comp. 60 6%) cases 3 Stand. 90 90 Comp. 9O 90 ca ses. 3 3 6 c3 tana. 125 125 c 6 3%235. 3130 1510 3 1 (3) 1 g an . 180 180 Comp. 180 180 6 FREE? 3 33(3) 270 0 270 -ases 3 3 U U 0‘ (continued on the following page) -73.. Table 1 (continued) rate Stan- of dard 1: 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 11 12 11+ 15 16 total phen. Compar- cases chnge ison .1: 2 Li 5 6 7 8 10 11 12 11a- 15 16 Stand. 390 390 Comp. 390 390 cases. 3 A 3 6 Stand. 600 600 Comp. 600 600 cases. 3 3 6 . 967 Total Cases 9 9 6 6 6 9 6 9 6 6 6 9 9 / 96 -74.. Results: In Figure 12, the average response at each time level is depicted. The responses were averaged by assign- ing each “equal' response a weight of two hundred, each "shor- ter” response a weight of one hundred and each “longer" res- ponae a weight of three hundred. The function does not show a single indifference point although a trend toward “longer" comparisons as the interval increases in length is evident. In Figure 13, the Judgments are plotted separately. It can be seen from Figure 13 that, no matter what range of clock lengths were used, the comparison intervals were consistently experienced as being longer than the standard. Somewhere be- tween 60 and 135 seconds this tendency becomes very marked, the "longer" comparisons outweighing the other categories “flee over. It can also be observed that the "equal“ and “Shorter“ comparisons decrease while the “longer“ comparisons increase as a function of clock length. Two subJects reported that they were unable to use the first interval as the standard. They reported that the sec- 0nd by reason of its “freshness" always asserted itself so as to render the prior duration a comparison duration. The pro- c“We was modified to accomodate their habit. QOnclusions: No single indifference point such as Vier— ordt found when he used intervals ranging from 0-3 t0 1.” a'i'K‘Ontis occurred when clock lengths varying from 5 to 600 89°“ (”“18 were used. Neither does there seem to be a single place -75.. on the continuum where errors change from positive to nega- tive. The findings indicate that as the experimental inter- vale become longer in clock time (plus 180 seconds) the com- pari eon interval was with increasing frequency eXperienced as being longer than the standard. The results thus indicate that clock lengths of plus 180 seconds are to be avoided in research relating rates of phenomenal change to phenomenal duration. .ooapepnocond Hepocfiuomwo nose paonwdonnp poops—doe cognac." open ewdcno 358303 on» one hemmed aeoac 5 Heads fine one: uanbnoaqa senescence com cheese: 28. .unonansdaoo o no ones on» 3.33.33 copped" 950m noun .haacooofinomwo ochoadae snows: xooae on» use commune aesosoaonm no 28.3926 Hcsosononn one no seesaw?“ sootpon massaged?" 15. 33 0.33» ucoooom 5 Huhnovnu .9325on no can. sweatshixfismsisi _ :fs The; wood V rhea m 0 m as G loom 9. 4 m o o m Imam W 0 0 0 0 103 r Inna recs .eopsonona name Hapnosauodwo nose you unconsoo no; open smudge acqoscaona one .npwaoa Macao ea asses one: aasbnowqa monfiusnaoo one caucuses “npwqoa mafia nose new oval one; muonanoAEOo o .uohoadam one: sapwood Mooao asoanep no smudge assoaooozq can: uvqcawesn haemopso conga .nd shaman accooom a“ HebnopoH Hepnoaauonwu no seas 8» m5 cm." and 8H 8 \sz e 0.9 _ we _ om . om _ om _ o 1 on enuu.o.nllo / a / . n // O m / I 3 a m. p w xx flow 1 X/ c e c o / / \\ / x -8 «Talk . o x / a ea apnea—muse Hosea .aopnonm O sagas—monk. daemon" known—9H X -78- Egperiment 1;. Experiment 4 is an extension of eXperiment 3. It is a further attempt to select a clock length for use as the stan— dard interval in later emperimentation involving the exper- ienced endurance of phenomenal change. SubJects: Nine college students were used as subJects. Seven were male and two female. All were naive respecting the purposes of eXperimentation. A. QEaratus: The apparatus is identical to that described for exp eriment 3 . MEthod: The method of comparison was employed with the standard interval always being presented first. Three cat- eBOPY Comparisons were allowed. The eXperimenter allowed 7 seconds between the standard and comparison intervals and 15 seconds between pairs. The standard and comparison intervals giggly; each pair presented were identical with respect to clock length. The pairs themselves differed from the standard to the compari- son interval. Thus, the eXperimental pairs varied in clock length I'rom 10 to 600 seconds. The standard and comparison intervals were 10, 15, 30, 60, 180, 390 or 600 seconds in clock length with 18 comparisons being made at each interval. Hi th respect, to the phenomenal change differences, the phe- no minal change rate of the standard (See Figure 6) was 2 and -79.. the comparison 12, the standard 7 and the comparison 12, the standard 2 and the comparison 7, the standard 12 and the com- parison 2, the standard 12 and the comparison 7, and the stan- dard 7 and the comparison 2 for 21 pairs each. In making the manipulations of phenomenal change Just described, 63 exper— imental pairs occurred in which a more rapid phenomenal change occurred in the comparison than occurred in the standard, and 63 cases in which the opposite was true. Also, this method produced 42 pairs which were altered 12 points and 84 pairs which were altered 6 points up or down from the standard to the comparison interval. A total of 126 comparisons were made in all. Table 2 provides a schematic representation of the method followed. firocedure: The procedure was identical to that followed in experiment 3. Results: Figure 18 is a plot of the comparisons made when the rate of the comparison interval was lowered from stan- dard to comparison. Figure 19 contains the data for the raised "”9- All the comparisons made in experiment 4 plus the com- Parisona of experiment 3 made ,using the experimental inter- vale °r 0/ are plotted in Figure 14. _ 80 _ Table 2 A SCHEMATIG REPRESENTATION OF THE METHOD FOLLOWED IN EXPERIMENT.4 Eengflski of 111-- Standard 10 15 3O 60 180 390 600 total terval].s Comparison 10 15 3O 60 180 390 600 cases in 8‘3C380 Rate of Stand. phen ome- Comp. nal cases, change Stands Comp. 0888!: Stand. Comp. 68888: Stand. Comp. 08888: Stands Comp. 08868: Stand. 1 Comp. 08868: 12 p: p: p: pa UPQTO \JIOhJ thrfl MJNHQ \JIONJ UFQPO p: \J‘QBJ \JDOBD \JDONJ \JPO\J \JBJN! MPQFO 12 F‘ D“ MJNNJ \DNHQ \J\JN F‘ P4 p: p: pa brflto \dTOB) \DBPQ MJNPQ MJNHV \finth p: pa 12 12 pi UPQIO \JIOhJ thrfl pa p: UPQIO \»FOBJ \ocrp MJNWQ \dl0N> thtO hhflto \JTOFS \JTONJ \fltuxJ \DBDND MPQTO P’ p: pa 12 pa UVQPO \JIODD \J!0\J \Jt0\3 \thNl UPQTO F‘ pa p: pa pl p: h) Tot “See... p: G) pa a> p: a> pa a: pa C3 pp a) 1 a) p: h) 0‘ \x p: h) 0\ —81- Several things are evident from these three figures. First, it is impossible to assign an “indifference point" in the sense the term was originally employed. Second, the interval of least bias seems to lie around the 60 sec- ond clock length. Third, the general decline of both fun- ctions on each graph indicates that the frequency of equal comparisons decreases as the experimental interval increases in clock length. Fourth, the longer comparisons increase relative to the shorter comparisons as the interval clock length increases. Fifth, the longer and shorter functions cross somewhere between the 30 and 180 second intervals and biasing becomes distinctly in the direction of a comparison of longer. Conclusions: It will not be possible to use the "in- difference interval" as the standard interval in the later Phenomenal duration experiments. No such interval has been found. The intervals functioning most like the “indiffer- ence interval" occurred within the 60 to 180 second range, 1'3! w11=hin this range the time order errors changed from positive to negative. Apparently it will be necessary to select a. standard interval from within this range. The in— terval Selected should be that interval showing minimal bias. -82- Experimentg 5_, p §_n_<_1_ Z. Pugpose: Experiments 3 and 4 have indicated that all inter-vale which are sufficiently long to make manipulations of eXperimental variables possible have constant errors. These experiments also indicate, however, that the biasing due to purely procedural characteristics will be minimal around an interval of 60 seconds. Bearing this finding in mind, experiments 5, 6 and 7 were designed to select a de- finite experimental interval of phenomenal change for use in the study of duration. Specifically, these three exper- iments aim to determine which of three possible experimen- tal intervals, 30, 90 or 180- seconds, will yield the great- est reliability of comparison. SubJects: In experiment 5, 12 subJects were used; 3 were female and 9 male. In experiment 6, 12 subJects were used, 3 female and 9 male. In experiment 7, 4 subJects were used, 2 female and 2 male. ‘23 Raratus: The apparatus was unchanged from that pre- Viously described for experiment 3. L‘ethod: The method of comparison was employed with the B1landard interval always occurring first. Three cate- gory comparisons were allowed. The experimenter attempted ‘70 allow 7 seconds between the standard and comparison ~83- intervals and 15 seconds between experimental pairs. The standard and comparison intervals of each pair presented in experiments 5, 6 and 7 were identical as regards phenomenal change. The standard and comparison intervals differed from one another as regards their clock lengths, however. In experiment 5, a 30 second interval was made 0, 5, 8, ll, l4, 17, 20, 23, 26 or 29 percent longer or shorter than the standard interval. In the experiment, a total of 250 observations were made with an equal number of comparisons occurring at every interval excepting the 26 and 29 percent levels. At the 26 and 29 percent levels, it was not necessary to take 39 many observations since there was almost no variability or comparison. Experiment 6 was identical to experiment 5 eJ'icept that a standard interval of 90 seconds was emp- loyed- In experiment 7, a 180 second interval was used as a standard while the comparison intervals were 0, 5, 8, 11' 1’4, 17, 20 or 23 percent longer or shorter than the 8“ridaaird interval. A total of 96 observations were taken at the 180 second interval with equal observations occurring for each experimental pair presented. The pairs were ran- domly presented in each experiment. Tables 3, 4, and 5 represent a schematic representa— ti on for the method followed. -34.. Table _3_ A SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE METHOD FOLLOWED IN EXPERIMENT 5 fit e of Standard 2 7 12 Phen omenal Total Change Comparison 2 7 12 case s Length of Standard 30 3O 30 In t e rval s Compari son {29%* {2 9% {29% in Seconds cases 3 4 3 10 Standard 30 30 30 Comparison {2 6% {26% {26% cases 3 4 3 10 Standard, 30 30 30 Comparison {23% {23% {23% cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 30 30 30 Comparison {20% {20% {20% casep 5 4 5 14 Standard 30 30 30 Comparison {17% {17% {17% cases ‘ ,5 4 5 14 Standard 30 30 30 Comparison {14% {14% {14% cases ,5 4 5 14 Standard 30 30 30 Comparison {11% {11% {11% cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 30 30 30 Comparison { 8% {8% {8% cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 30 30 30 Comparison /5% {5% {5% cases .5 4 5 14 Standard 30 30 30 Comparison 0% 0% 0% cases 5 4 5 14 Table 3 (Continued) - 85 - Rate of Standard 2 7 12 phenomenal Total change Comparipgn 2 7 12 cases Length of Standard 30 3O 30 in te rval s Compari son - 5% -5% -5% in seconds cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 39 3o 30 Comparison —8% -8% -8% casepf 5 4 5 14 Standard 30 3O 30 Comparison —11% -ll% —11% cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 30 3O 30 Comparison -l4% -14% -14% casepfi 5 4 5 14 Standard 30 3O 30 Comparison —l7% -l7% —l7% cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 30 3O 30 Comparison -20% ~20% —20% cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 30 30 30 Comparison -23% -23% ~23% cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 30 3O 30 Comparison -26% ~26% —26% cases 3 4 4 10 Standard 30 3O 30 Comparison- ~29% -29% ~29% cases 3 4 3 10 \v W wi Total. cases....... ‘87 5?: 7 2 O 250 N The comparison intervalsware eXpressed in terms of peI‘cent longer or shorter than the standard. -86— Table 4_ A SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE METHOD FOLLOWED IN EXPERIMENT 6 Rate of Standard 2 7 12 phenomenal total change Comparison 2 fl j 12 cases Lengtki of Standard 90 90 90 intervals Comparison {29% {29% {29% in seconds cases 3 4 3 10 Standard 90 90 90 Comparison {26% {26% {26% cases 3 4 3 10 Standard 90 90 90 Comparison {23% {23% {23% cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 90 9O 9O ' Comparison {20% {20% {20% cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 90 90 90 Comparison {17% {17% {17% cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 90 90 90 Comparison {14% {14% {14% casep__ 5 4 5 14 Standard 90 90 90 Comparison {11% {11% {11% cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 90 9O 90 Comparison {8% {8% {8% cases 5 4 5 1“ Standard 90 9O 90 Comparison {5% {5% *5} casep: 5 4 5 1” Standard 90 90 90 Comparison 0% 0% 0% 4 5 14 p _ cases 5 - 87 - Table 4 (Continued) Rite of Standard“ 2 7 12 phenomenal total change Comparison 2 7 12 cases Length of Standard 90 90. 90 intervals Comparison -5% -5% -5% in seconds cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 90‘ 90 90 Comparison -8% -8% —8% cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 90 90 90 Comparison —11% -ll% -ll% cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 90 90 90 Comparison -l4% -l4% -l4% cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 90 90 90 Comparison -17% ~17% ~17% cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 90 90 90 Comparison -20% ~20% —20% cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 90 90 90 Comparison -23% -23% -23% cases 5 4 5 14 Standard 90 90 90 Comparison -26% -26% -26% cases 3 4 3 10 Standard 90 90 90 Comparison -29% ~29} -29% cases 3 4 3 10 \ A total ._ c ~535¥L__.~__ 87 76 87 250/;50 _ 55 - Table i A SCHEB'IATIC dEPfLESENTATION OF THE METHOD FOLLOWED IN EXPERIMENT 7 rate of Standard 2 7 12 Phenomenal to tal chan ge ComparLegm 21 1 12 ca 313:; Lengt h o 1‘ Standard 180 180 180 interval a Compari son {2376‘: {23% 1‘23?6 in seconds cases 4 4 4 12 Standard 180 180 180. Comparison {20% {20% {20% cases 4 4 4 12 Standard 180 180 180 Comparison {17% {17% {17% cases __ 4 4 4 12 Standard 180 180 180 Comparison {14% {14% {14% cases 4 4 4 12 Standard 180 180 180 Comparison {11% {11% {11% cases 4 4 4 12 Standard 180 180 180 Comparison {8% {8% {8% oases: 4 4 4 12 Standard 180 180 180 Compari son {5% {5% /5% oasegfi_ 4 4 4 12 Standard 180 180 180 Comparison 0% 0% 0% cases 4 4 4 12 Standard 180 180 180 Comparison -5% -5% -5% cases 4 4 4 12 Standard 180 180 180 Comparison -8% -8% -8% cases 4 4 4 12 _ 89 _ Table (Continued) rate of Standard 2 7 12 phenomenal total change Comparison 2 7 12 cases Length of Standard 180 180 180 in t e rval s Compari son -11% -11% -11% in seconds. cases. 4 4 4 12 Standard 180 180 180 Comparison -14% -14% -14% cases: 4 4 4 12 Standard 180 180 180 Comparison -17% -l7% -12% cases. 4 4 4 12 Standard 180 180 180 Comparison -20% -20% -20% cases, 4 4 4 12 Standard 180 180 180 Comparison ~23% ~23% -23% Cases 4 4 4 12 total cames 60 6O 60 180/180 K as the comparison intervals are eXpressed in terms of percentage longer or shorter than the standard. -90... Procedure: The procedure followed was exactly the same as that employed in experiment 3. Results: The results from experiment 5 are depicted in Figure 15. The functions plotted in this figure are irregular in direction and the comparisons do not follow the temporal values in a predictable manner. Phenomenal equality occurs at a number of points that are quite widely separated. Since 250 observations were made, these fea- tures probably can not be accounted for in terms of the sample. Figure 16 shows a plot of the data yielded by eXper— iment 6. Although equal numbers of Judgments were made and 1"here was a large overlap of subjects, the irregularities 01‘ figure 15 are considerably lessened. The comparisons fOllow the temporal values in a regular way. Phenomenal equality is a point and not a zone on the clock length °°nt inuum. The point where the curves cross indicates that the comparison interval need only be 94% of the clock length of the standard interval to be experienced as equal. The data from experiment 7 is plotted in Figure 17. This data is plotted against clock time and the result is an irregular function. Several points of phenomenal equal- ity are evident. The zone of equality occurs farther to- ward the longer end of the clock length continuum than is the case for the 30 second interval. -91... Conclusions: The 90 second interval produced a point and not a zone of phenomenal equality, and this length in— terval did not produce periodic reversals of the psychophy- sical functions. The 90 second interval seems to be super- ior to the 30 and 180 second intervals for eXperimental use. The results indicate that the experimenter can expect a slight biasing of comparisons in favor of longer compar- isons when a 90 second standard is used. Experiments 5, 6 and 7 conform the findings of eXper— iments 3 and 4. As the clock time of the experimental in- terval was increased, comparisons of "longer" increased in flf'equency in all five experiments. . , .a you commenced «I eds .mae«Ap on» no you uousouooc .naooanuasoo em on» «o c you Hapaoaaa nouauoaseo on uneven»: song announce an: open 0 no Haaosonona age .npwqoa Macao ad Hosea ouot.nam>noana nonanuaaoo use canvases unawaoa osa» homo you aces one: unouaaoaaoo em ”Haapaoaanoano one unpmaoa xooao «sodas» Ho commune Hmaosoaona dogs nanoamusn haowopoo conga ncsooom na HaknoaaH Heanosauoanm no cage own man mma mo .\\£na mm p1 4H . 2... Eva .nopaonm O . / a . / / an: n «owned x \mfll .uoaoansu .ea agenda 0 to» .d 9 I 9 u a... P. w 100 Wm H 1. low .doaponau on» New on coma one: maooanoasoo one .naobnoana nooauoaaoo can onocnopa on» neon madame haaopnosduonno uncommon caoa no? open owsono amaosoqoaa one .andoa xooao ca downs» Hobaoauu omaoeo Hodosoaonm nooanoaaoo on» can muaooou hands» no new mo3.ao>nopaa owaono Honosonona unocnopo.oge .ma cannuh Hopaoan pudendum no mowaunooaom ad Hahnoqu uouanoasoo Ho newsoq xoodo . A mm ..nu 5H dd m w w Hm _ be _,nw am _ p .7 by; _ _ _ fl o _ . _ o a _ o _ r. 0 on o .d e I 0 T3 W _ u _ no a . . m 0., 23-..-.. .c . 23...... m aopnonm nomaoA wuoo m n nanoawcan Hanan .uowaog O upaoawean x o o o T 00 Hosea .Hopuonm o 0 . o .u o 00H .noapoudu 2.5 H: on cums on?» 233.3930 own .uHmZopua domaammaoo eeo choose: on». mac.» Nuance 3.23.32: tauomno pneumaoo go: no: open owqono Honoaononm one .nuwaoa 33.3 5 usages. Hobaopfl owaono Hugo lacunae nonunomaoo one use 3:003 00 no pom no; Happens.“ ownono Honoaononm vacuum: one .oa madman Hobaoqu cadogum .Ho homopsoonom a.“ HopaopaH domdnomaoo Ho hemmed Macao omnmbawflnonqsnnuom Lv____.__ ___—____,_. P _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ d O 1 hi 0* O 9 u a. nunsuun 9. .mw nopnonm m. m .I on m a. ' apnea—"moan Hosea 33934 O undo—emcee x F em «down .uovnonm OOH .3325." 2.» «am on So: coo; omonamomflo 3 31535 3383!. on. 533. .5 noon «53¢ 3435: anon—No 0333 go: not on...» ownono Hons-Eon," o5. Hanson 33.3 a." noun: gonna omflono Honou— aoaonn Honda-6o on» ado .333 cm." no poo no! good.“ owsono dong—8:23 anode-pa ofl. .5 9:3,: €235 3333 no a S flotsam 83.3an ya gonna “—8.8 ”N 0“ ed fid HH 0. a O a 0 AH #H ed ON 9” . L+._a_r i. r__re_ o u . _ 0 o o u . 1.0a . _ _ .d o u u “ 18w u _ 5. o . o m” 5...... .m .... .. T's“ QUOEOAU ROOIQH fl. , o 1.8 0 0 O O _ . . . . o 0 can ounofiwgn dong coo nowaou O nanoawofln Honda can hovucno X .opon odooo omnogo Houoaoaonn onoonopo on» soaop 33.09 ca no u hooopo o no: Hopnopg nooanoaaoo one mango opon 25. 4393..” 33.3 on Hosoo onoa odopnopdn noonnoaaoo coo onooaopo ”598a mooao nooo no oooa 933 303.3930 0 .vohoanao onok onpwgoa xooao ozonnob no oowqoao Honoaoqona non? oncogene knowopoo oonne .ma onamah nonooom an dobnoan Hopooannog no 258 ..|-..wo..nou\ momn\ kmma\ kmm \ \\om . pm _ o...” _ o A z. . m / m . r..o¢ P. / x m . V / a mo, \ Wl/IIIO . W _ \ / // Too gum .nopnonm O \ // /Ju, Honda .nowooA x \ / / \,1 \ / /V\ K X// \\ IQ . Tom // \ K N00.” .onon odooo ownono Hoaoaononn onoooopo on» opopo openom oa no n nooopo o oo? Hopnopon ooonnonaoo on» mango opon one sapwood mooao on Hosoo onos oaobnonnn noonnoneoo coo onooQopo unpwooa o5» nooo non oooa onos onoonnoaaoo o .oonoHQEo onoz onpwooa Macao meannob no oownono Hoaoaoaonn don: opnoawodn hnowopoo oonnn. .3” onfimfim nonooom on do>noan Hopaosnnonnfl no oaan. lav. \Bwkwxmfxe is .e. . too a o 1 o 13. w 0/ f / m ._, a /e a a 9 ill a . / / Too W Honda .nopnonm O / / / XIII$ Hosea .nowdoq x / / \ \ /x/ \< \ // \ / \ x m h 93. -98- The Exgerienced Endurance g§_Various Phenomenal Change§_Maintaining g,Constant Cadence Experiment 8, Purpose: The data from experiment 4 suggest that the rate at which phenomenal events change have an effect upon the experience of duration. The different rates of change have produced differences in overall variability and have produced differences in the distribution of Jud- gments of both extremes. It can also be seen from Figures 18 and 19 that there is a relationship between various rates of phenomenal change and the frequency of occurrence of various comparison responses. The purpose of experiment 8 is to investigate the relationship between various rates of phenomenal change previously scaled and the experience of duration. Subjects: Six subJects were used, 4 male and 2 fe- .male. All subjects were college students and all were naive I"aspecting the aims’of experimentation. Apparatus: The apparatus was identical with that em— ployed in experiment 3- Method: The method of comparison was employed, and the standard interval always occurred first. The clock length of the standard was always 90 seconds. Three -99.. category Judgments were allowed. The experimenter attemp- ted to allow 7 seconds between the standard and comparison intervals and 15 seconds between experimental pairs. The standard and comparison intervals of each pair differed as regards the rate of phenomenal change and as I'egards clock length. With respect to phenomenal change, 15he following variations were made. A total of 270 com- Parisons were made when the comparison exceeded the stan- dard in change rate; specifically, 90 presentations were made with the standard at phenomenal change 2 (See Figure 6 ) and the comparison at phenomenal change 12, 9O presen- tations were made with the standard at 2 and the comparison at 7, 90 presentations with the standard at 7 and the com- pa. rison at 12. Another 270 comparisons were made when the C>17>posite was the case, when the standard exceeded the com- Parison in change rate. Specifically, 90 presentations were made with the standard at phenomenal change 12 and the comp- 19LI‘lson at phenomenal change 2; 90 presentations with the 81Sandard at phenomenal change 12 and the comparison at 7; and 90 presentations with the standard. at 7 and the compar- J~Bon at 2. With respect to clock length, the following <1lfferences were present. The clock length of the compari- Eon interval was 0,5,8,11,l4,l7,20 or 23% longer or shorter 13han the standard interval. All 540 presentations were made according to a random plan. Table 6 is a schematic representation of the method fimployed. Table 6 Rat e of Stan- W pheno- dard 2 2 7 7 12 12 total menal Comp- case s chan ge. ari son 2 2 7 2 12 12 Leng th Stan. 90 90 90 . 90 90 90 of in t- Comp. {23%’ /23% 162375 2‘23?6 {23% 7‘23% erval 9 ca se 3 6 6 6 6 6 6 3 6 in teete- ond 8 Stan . 9O 90 90 90 90 90 Comp. /20% /20% /20% /20% {20% {20% cases. 6 6 6 6 6 6 36 Stan. 90 9o 90 90 9o_ 90’ Comp. {17% {17% {17% {17% /17% /17% cases. 6 6 6 6 6 6 36 Stan. 9O 90 90 90 90 90 Comp. /14% {14% #14% #14% /14% {14% cases. 6 6 6 6 6 6 36 Stan. 90. 90 90, 90 90 90 Comp . {11% {11% {11% {11% {11% {11% case a . 6 6 6 6 6 6 3 6 Stan. 9o 90 90/ 90 90 90 Comp. {873 {8% {879 {8% {8% {8% cases. 6 6 6 6 6 6 36 Stan. 9O 90, 90 90 90 90 Comp. {5% {5% {5% {5% {5% {5% cases. 6 6 6 6 6 6 36 Stan. 9O 90 90 90 90 90 Comp. 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% cases. 6 6 6 6 6 6 36 Stan. 90_ 90_ 90 90 90 90 Comp. -5% -5% -5% -5% -5% -5% cases. 6 6 6 6 6 6 36 Stan. 90 90 90 90 90 90 Comp. -8% -8% -8% -8% -8% -8% casesI 6 6 6 6 6 6 '36 _ - . ~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ~101- Table 6 (Continued) hate of Stan- pheno- dard 2 2 7 7 12 12 menal Comp- total change arison 2 2 j 7 12 12 cases Length Stan. 9o 90 9o 90 90 90 of int- Comp. 411% ~11% -1176 -11% -ll% -11% ervals cases. 6 6 6 6 6 6 36 in sec- onds Stan. 90 90 90 9O 9O ‘ 90 Comp. -l4% -14% ~14% —14% -14% -14% cases, 6 6 6 6 6 6 36 Stan. 90 90 90’ 9O 90. 90 Comp. -17% -17% ~17fi -17% ~17% -17% casesI 6 6 6 6 6 6 36 Stan. 90 9O 90 90 90 90 comp,, -2o% -20% -2o% -20% —2o% -20% cases. 6 6 6 6 6 6 36 Stan. 90 90 90 90 9O 90. Comp. '23% -23% -23% -23% -23% “23% cases, 6 6 6 6 6 6 36 Eta]. ‘ cases.... 90 90 90 9o 90 90 540/540 The comparison intervals are expressed in terms of Percentage longer or shorter than the standard. ~102- Procedure: The procedure was the same as that employed in experiment 3 . Results: Figure 20 shows the results when the rate of phenomenal change was slower in the standard than in the comparison intervals. Figure 21 shows the results when the Opposite was true. Both figures are clearly different with respect to the point of phenomenal equality. When the rate 01‘ Phenomenal change was increased, the point of equality fell on the long side of the graph. When the conditions were exactly reversed we find that the comparison had to be made about 7}} shorter than the standard if it was to be eXperienced as having an equal phenomenal duration. Conclusions: The eXperiment clearly shows that phe- nomenal duration is determined in part by phenomenal change. The results show that rapid phenomenal changes lead to longer Phenomenal durations than do slow changes. The experiment 1ndicates also that we have a way to vary the phenomenal duration of an event in a controlled fashion while holding the clock time of that event constant. .uonpoqsn opp Han op oooa snob 363.3930 can .oonnor ooh nonpopnooona opp no npwooa Moons opp ond odooo owsono dose—Saga opp no onouqopo on» no opon opp Egon opnnon on no r. nonpno opon owsono Honoaoaopa oounn o po poo ooh noonnoaolo ofl. .3333 cc non opon ownono Honoaonoaa oounn o po poo nobonoonopo Hopnofinnonno 05. .ON 956.: 7:35.. noonnomaoo no ppwsoa Macao . onemaem i. landlines. . a . . _ . . . o o u I on 0 . o c . . m. .n . J . r- 3 o o r . m . a... ..... z . "--'- Aa, nopnoam . o now—SA W. m , n w _ _ .l 8 a . u , o . n u - . o . o . (ow . 0 . h o . o _ r . _ con spoofing». doses .nowaoa O apnoomdoh x H6560 .HOHROflm r: . .nonpogn opp ch op oooa on!» unconnonaoo can own Joana» ooh nonpopsooonm opp no npwooa xooao opp oso odooo owoono Hosoaosopn opp so onoenopo opp no opon onp gob.» 3509 on. no a nonpno opon owqopo Hoooaooopa woman o po poo not soopnonfioo .5. .3300: on non opon owoopo Hosoaononn oouan o po poo ook onoonopo Hopnoadnonuo o5 .HN ondmdh HornopsH noonnonao no 533 M33 omomsmonnwmmmmwflomfiomom - u . n u loo _ n . u m 5; . u a m m m ...... loom o m. _ I _ . “ Ioo . . a ._ _ can pmoaw a HCSUMp unowmom O Eamnwnna x Selecting 9;; Experimentgl Interval g; Phenomenal Movement Egperiment 2. Pugpose: Experiment 9 was undertaken for exactly the same reasons as experiment 3. Previous experimentation does us no better Service here than it did there. An empirical answer' specific to the phenomenal movement condition is need— ed. Thus, experiment 9 was designed to determine the clock interval of phenomenal movement most satisfactory for use as the Phenomenal interval in later experimentation. Subjects: Six subjects naive to the purposes of the exDer'iment were used. All were college students in their twenties; 3 were male and 3 female. Apparatus: The apparatus is identical to that previously described in experiment 2 with one exception. During experi- ment 9 the doorbell was eliminated and the Burgess sprayer mOtOr was used alone as a masking sound. Method: The method was identical to that employed in exPeriment 3 except that phenOmenal movements were substituted f°r phenomenal changes. Table 1 can serve as a schematic representation of the experiment if the reader will substi— tute the word "movement" for “change" wherever the latter occurs. -106- Procedure: The procedure was identical to that employed in experiment 3 except that the word "movement" was substi- tuted for "Kaleidoscopic change“ in the directions. Results: The results are resumeed in Figures 22 and 23. Figure 20 was prepared from the average responses at each time level used. The responses were averaged by assigning each equal response a weight of 200, each shorter response a Weight of 100, and each longer response a weight of 300. Figure 21 contains plots of the separate judgments. The plots of the data in Figures 22 and 23 do not show a 8il’igle indifference point, although trends similar to those °°Curring in experiments 3 and 4 are present. That is, the tendency for the comparison interval to be experienced as being; longer than the standard increases as the length of the pairs increases. Considering just Figure 23, it can be seen that there are three points of phenomenal equality °°°urring between the 25 and 45 second intervals. Figure 23 8h°We that with few exceptions the comparison interval is eche:I:'-ienced as being longer than the standard, although some- Where between 60 and 135 seconds this tendency becomes very marked. Conclusions: Although there were several points on the clock continuum where little bias occurred, no interval was found which can be called the "indifference point". Neither was there a point at which the time errors could be said to -107... have changed from positive to negative. The judgments, however, became increasingly skewed as the intervals leng- thened. As the intervals became longer in clock time,they became more likely to be experienced as being longer than the standard. This is in agreement with the findings of the phenomenal change experiment 3. Systems of phenomenal move- ment , however, appeared to yield more variable comparisons of duration than did those of the analogous phenomenal change exp e Piment o .oonpopoooona Hopsoannoano nooo psonmponnp pooponoo coonoaon opon pooao>oa Hoooaonona opp coo npwooa goods 5 doses do 933 oHo>nopnn noonnomaoo oso enounopo one .osoonnoeaoo o no noos oep mpoooonaon ooppoaa pence zoom .nHHopnoannomxo c9335 onpwnoa pooao opp oso opooaobos Hoqoaooonn no moanponso Houoaooona onp no onoonnonaoo sooapoo. acnpoaon one .mm onsmg ooaooom an Hobnoqu Hopeofinoanm no can. Iw.odo\ man kw Hmg” ”mad. mud. Ho_m . o_o .\\lh om. _ om r om a odd _ 0 . r Sn ’7' to b H T O O -l 08- r no N queugpnp s§lsxsav T O I!) N new 0 con .oopoooona nnom Hopooannoauo nooo non poopoooo ooh opon psoao>os Hoaoaonona one .npwooa needs 5 Monaco 933 32535 noonnoaaoo coo onooqopo nnpmsofl oanp nooo non oooa onoB unconnonsoo o .oohonaao on!» oopmooa xooao oponnob no opsoao>oa Honoaooopn sons opooswosn nnomopoo oong .nm 0.33. oodooom 5.. H2535 Hopooapnoanm no can. @%kEE%\§olfio_popom_mm_o_n_ o x \/ \\ // \ / Q / Ion / / .d 9 $16!? .4. 0 .2. m 1. m _ 9 O n m roo m. uoo x xiii / \ / / x x / \ / / x / K 00H apnoamush aosun .nopnopm O apnoamuab .3st .nowflOA x - 110 - 1‘3er riment l_O_. Pugpose: Experiment 10 is an extension of experiment 9. It is a further attempt to select a clock length for use as the standard interval in later experimentation involving the experienced endurance of phenomenal movement. Subjects: A total of 6 subjects were used. All sub- Jects were college students; 4 were male and 2 female. All Were naive regarding the aim of the experimentation. Apparatus: The apparatus was identical to that dos- c=J:~ibed in eXperiment 9. Method: The method employed was identical to that described in experiment 4, except that phenomenal movements we re used in place of phenomenal changes. Table 2 can serve as a schematic representation providing the reader substitutes 13he word “movement“ for “change" wherever the latter occurs. Procedure: The procedure followed was identical to that employed in experiment 9. Results: The comparisons made when the rate for the c'bmparison interval was lowered are plotted in Figure 28. The comparisons for the raised rate are plotted in Figure 29. Figure 24 includes the total comparisons made for experiment 10, plus the comparisons of experiment 9 in which the appro— priate intervals were used. -111- These three figures show that in general the frequency of longer comparisons increases while the shorter comparisons decrease as the clock length of the intervals increase. These figures also show that it is not possible to assign an indif- ference interval in the sense the term was originally used, although, one would suspect that the interval of minimal bias lies between the 30 and 180 second eXperimental intervals. One may obwerve in the composite graph (Figure 24) that at 30 seconds the equal judgments are at their peak and comparisons of longer and shorter occur with equal frequency. In contrast, at 180 seconds, the graph shows the errors changing from posi- tive to negative. Figures 28 and 29 also show that there is a greater pre- ponderance of “short“ comparisons when the phenomenal movement is changed from a high standard to a low comparison than when the opposite is true. This suggests that the rate of pheno- menal movement may have some relationship to the experience or duration. W: A single indifference point was not found. Neither did there seem to be a single place on the clock len- gth continuum where the time errors changed from positive to negative. The point of minimal biasing apparently lies some- where between 30 and 180 seconds. Consistent with the find- lnga for phenomenal change in experiments 3 and 4, the 11k11Lhood of the comparison interval being experienced as ~112- longer increased as the eXperimental pairs increased in length. A specific interval for phenomenal duration exper- imentation should be selected from this range. The interval selected should be that showing minimum bias. -113- Experiments 1;, __2_ and 1.1. ngposes: Data from experiments 8 and 10 indicate that minimal biasing of response will occur somewhere between 30 and 180 seconds, when the method of comparisons is used for durations of phenomenal movement. Intervals lying between these limits would all be sufficiently long for our purposes. Bearing this finding in mind, experiments 11, 12 and 13 were designed to select a definite experimental interval for a system of phenomenal movements for use in the study of phen- omenal duration. Specifically, the purpose of these three eJcperiments is to determine which of three possible eXperi- mental intervals, 30, 90 or 180 seconds, will yield the great- est reliability of comparison. Subjects: In experiment 11, a total of 13 subjects were used; 3 were female and 10 male. In experiment 12, 13 8‘aflDJects were used; 4 were female and 9 male. In eXperiment 13. 6 male subJects were used. All subJects were college S1“Adents and all were naive regarding the purpose of the ex15> e riment s. Apparatug: The apparatus is identical to that des- orl bed for eXperiment 9. Method: The methods employed for experiments 11, 12 and 13 were identical to those described for eXperiments 5, ~114— 6 and 7 respectively, except that phenomenal movements were substituted for phenomenal changes. Tables 3, 4, and 5 may be used as schematic representations of the method used in eXperiments 11, 12, and 13 respectively, provided the word “movement“ is substituted for "change“ wherever the latter occurs. Procedure: The procedure was identical to that fol- lowed. in experiment 9. Results: Figure 25 summarizes the results of experi- ment 11. This graph shows a clear point of phenomenal equal- ity at the 30 second interval. The relative absence of re- versals in the functions indicates an acceptable reliability of comparison. Figure 26 resumees the results of eXperiment 12. The functions plotted in this graph show a clear-cut point of phenomenal equality also. The biasing and variability of comparison is somewhat greater than was the case with the 30 second interval. Figure 27 presents the results of experiment 13. rThis graph presents a complicated picture. Although several of the subJects used in experiments 11 and 12 served in exper- imem; 13, multiple points of phenomenal equality occurred and there was great variability of comparison. anclusions: Using extent of biasing and reliability 01' comparison as criteria, the results of experiments 11, -115- 12 and 13 indicate that either a 30 second or 90 second phenomenal movement interval will be satisfactory for use in a phenomenal duration study. The differences between the 30 and 90 second intervals favor the former slightly. It seems best to select the 90 second in preference to the 30 second interval for use, however. The reasons for this are: a) the differences between the 30 and 90 second intervals are not of much magnitude; ‘0) a phenomenal change interval 0f 90 seconds must be used for the duration experiment; and 0) a 90 second phenomenal movement interval will allow greater possibility of variations in the design of later experiments. A 180 second interval would be unsatisfactory for experimen- tal use due to instabilities in the comparisons. .a you commenced and .o sou commences .mnomdaaqsoo #m one no 0 you Hw>nopsa nonunmdsoo on sameness song announce mm3.opmn psosvboa Haqosononn one .npwsoa goods as Heads one: naebuopna nouaansoo use sameness “humans cad» some you coda one; muouaaansoo «a .eohoamso one: unsound aooao unease» no apnosuposnduqusononn nos: apnoswenw haemopoo conga .em oasmuh acnooom as HobnopaH Hapoosauoqum so cede thinking 5? . tom // m. / »/ r3 w. / .\ u / 1. . 0/ \ u“ / \\ // m” l / _ \AK / m \ fl 18 m Hanan .823...“ o X / a gun .333 x \\ // \\ x x \ \ d 18 38302 on» Han on coma one: 333.3950 omw .udezovaa domanmnaoo ado assesses on» neon. 3.30 5.335.330 anon—mace Son not open anoaoboa 3:28:23 one .530." goods as scans» dozens.“ puma noboa Hanoi—8:23 assume—Bo one use on as non not H233 vooaopoa Hanososona caucus: 2d,. .nm 933% Hahn-05 nonunemaoo no games 3003 mm n ma _ ma _ sang a m m P as a ma r mm, .« 1 o o u . . . n :.o« . o . . o . a _ I .. o o n .u ov “w . . m. N o o l a... _ n nnnnnnn 0 Inc.,... p. 3933 . 333 m . I on u . a... . . I . . . 0 spasms: . Hood” .3qu O n o undo—awash x . l om 1:3 .uofiosm “ o o .. _ o o c _ . O 0 0°." 50.30:?“ one NC on new: ouch «83:69:90 on: £3533 :ooaaaaaoo e5 chasm—“w" 23 $5.55 0:333 30: as! can: 9:283..— .no:oao:o:: 0:9 .533 Macao :« nouns» 7593:.“ woman: an on» 3: E35 3332: $5533: on» no.“ neuooou on a: no» not EH35 2.0.3:: can. on 9.3» 3,395 caduceus no a 5 anions: 8.23:8 no 59%: x88 aacnmzsapamem w mram_~PaFma_. o . a n . _ . I 8 . u _ . d . a . a o r o... w . u . o o " 0+ 8 f “H.“ Ii... 0 " .Inlaul.-.‘ m Hofioau “ Homdon 1. co m _ m. . o I o 0 0 n»:oawc:h ” .3.de .333 O . o 5:033; x _ T on gun £385 ” o o 0 0 _ . ‘ o l OOH ‘ 5030:?“ 0:» NC on 0:06 0:0) 0:035:30 co 33:35 535350 and «50330 05 50A may: 5:3 don—«5&0 0:000:00 .30: 02. can: 9:283: egos—05% 0a. .598." 300.3 5 c390». $5005 53:09-00 0:» 30 H535 0:052: 3:03:23 05 :0.“ 0:8 000 can 00 a0- 02» .3535 2:330 05. .5 0.33m €535 2353 no a 3 H533 83.323 no 53.: 300.3 seas..ma..~ .m xiii.» . . . . . . . H To» . . . .. o . H J . loco . e . U 0., u .. 1 f n. m m. . {00W . u u r. HIfihbam ” hfiwflafl . _ To: 0 0 . . . . n o o a 0 03 I “flog—mg." Had" .HOMHSO Danna—Quays H55” .hOHflOflm X .33 canon pnoagoa Hanoaononn unwuampm onp scams manaom 0H no a homopm a ma; ao>nopaa acmanmgaoo an» waannc away any .npwaoa £00.? a." H.230 who? 33.3qu nomaanaoo EB c.3283 gamma.” Macao nomo no.“ ouwa 933 233.8980 a .cohoamao mum? «5&qu mooao 262mb no munoaopoa Haqwaoaonn non; mpnoawuan homage 00.38 .mm ond—w: 32808 a.“ 43>:an Hmpaoflncnxm no 08.2. EEEE\%_ a _ a W xx [on / a \ / m 7/ \ / o \ / \ / I: m o \ K / r “W . / \ w m 3.3» «3.35 o < / m _ / / . 9 Adam .uomnoq x Vx\ / / [cm W / ole / \\\hW/ \ (x / \ // \\ 18 m {S .33 canon uaoaopoa Hanoaoaonn 335: on» opona 353 o." .3 r. human. a .2» H3395 33.3930 23 93.26 on: one .533 nooao 3 Hanan one: uaopnopg 33.3930 28 2028: unpmdoa Macao noun a: on 03a 090: 233.3280 9 .oohoamao 93:35qu £00.? 2623 no npqoaoboa duaoaononn non: 3339.3 flamenco 00.39 .3 93m: 3503 a.“ 3?”..qu daemon—«nag no 25.9 0.00 . no_on‘ nOm.” ‘ Ho_o “\qu L .OW pr cm 5 b 0 / / , row / / / a / 10¢ m o Mu, \/ . u / 2 . .323 .no _ \ / m, 2260 X /xl.l 03 4 M 4 .3de .9098A x \ / \\ Too .m. 9 \ Vilnox m. \ . \\ 10m \ \ \ x om —122- Th_e_ EXperienced Duration g_f_'_ Various Systems 9_f_ Phenomenal Movement Maintaining a Constant Pace Experiment 14 A. Purpose: Experiment 10 directly suggests that the experience of duration differs according to whether the duration is a slow or rapid phenomenal movement. Specifi- cally, the distribution of data in Figures 28 and 29 shows that when the standard interval features a rapid phenomenal movement (See Figure 10 for the phenomenal movement scale) and the comparison interval a slower phenomenal movement, that there is a much greater likelihood of the comparison being eXperienced as being shorter than the standard than When the Opposite order occurs. Experiment 14A constitutes an investigation into the relationship of phenomenal move- ment to the eXperience of duration. subJects: There were 10 subjects used in total; 2 were female and 8 were male. All were college students and naive to the purposes of experimentation. Apparatus: The apparatus is identical to that des- cribed in eXperiment 9. Method: The method of comparison was used, and the Standard interval always occurred first. The clock length -123- of the standard was always 90 seconds. Three category Judg- ments were allowed. The experimenter attempted to allow 7 seconds between the standard and comparison intervals and 15 seconds between pairs. The standard and comparison intervals of each pair differed as regards the rate of phenomenal movement and as regards clock length. With respect to phenomenal movement, the following variations were made. A total of 270 comp- ari sons were made when the comparison exceeded the standard in phenomenal movement rate. Specifically, 90 presentations were made with the standard at phenomenal movement (See Fig- ure 10) and the comparison at phenomenal movement 12, 90 presentations with the standard at 2 and the comparison at 7. 90 presentations with the standard at 7 and the compari- son at 12. Another 270 comparisons were made when the Oppo- site was the case, when the standard exceeded the compari— son in change rate. Specifically, 90 presentations were made with the standard at phenomenal movement 12 and the °°mparison at phenomenal movement 2, 90 presentations with the Standard at 12 and the comparison at 2. With respect t° clock length, the following differences were present. The c’leck length of the comparison interval was 0, 5, 8, 11' 14. 17, 20 or 23% longer or shorter than the standard interVal. All 540 pairs were presented according to a random ‘91 an, Table 6 can be used as a schematic representation of a" - -124- the experimental method, providing the word "movement“ is substituted for "change" wherever the latter occurs. Procedure: The procedure was identical to that employ- ed in experiment 9. Results: Figure 309. represents the responses made when the comparison interval was set at a phenomenal movement rate less than the standard rate. Figure 31a represents the res- ponses made when the comparison interval was set at a pheno- menal movement rate greater than the standard. The figures do not show a clear-cut difference in the Preponderance of either "longer'I or "shorter" responses. The "longer“ and “shorter" functions of both figures show rever- sals of direction. The variability of comparison in both cases does not permit the assignment of a definite point of pheno- menal equality. However, it is clear that the zone of phe- nomenal equality lies more toward the ”short" end when the comparison movement is rapid than when it is slow. gonclusiogg: The systems of phenomenal movement used in experiment 14A proved difficult for the subjects to com- pare as regards duration. No clear-cut point of phenomenal equalj, 1357 was found and the functions themselves show reversals or direction. The comparisons made were relatively unreliable. The differences that do exist indicate that a rapid rate of h P Gnomenal movement must have a somewhat longer clock length - 125 _ than a slow rate if the intervals are to result in an equal phenomenal duration. The results of experiment 14 can thus be contrasted with the findings of experiment 10. Experiment 10 shows that the general skewing of comparisons is in the direction of ”shorter“ while experiment le shows an opposite relationship. Moreover, there is poor agreement respecting the specific effects of rapid and slow systems of phenomenal movement. The results of experiment lnA are also in contrast to the results of experiment 8, which in all respects is an an— alogous phenomenal change experiment. In experiment 8, the comparison of “longer“ was in the greatest preponderance and rapid rates of phenomenal movement needed a considerably shorter clock length than slow rates if the intervals were to result in an equal phenomenal duration. The findings lend validity to the distinction between phenomenal change and movement. -126- Experiment 148. The results of eXperiment luA were not as clear-cut as might be desired. The production of a zone of phenomenal equality rather than a point and the occurrence of reversals in the functions were unexpected. Hence it is desirable to increase the number of observations and to increase the dif- ference in rates of movements distinguishing the standards from comparison intervals. SubIJects: A total of 28 subjects were used; 9 were female and 19 male. All were college students and all naive to the purposes of experimentation. Apparatus: The apparatus is identical to that des- cribed in experiment 9. Method: The method of comparison was employed and the standard interval always occurred first. The clock length of the standard was always 90 seconds. Three category Judgments were allowed. The eXperimenter attempted to allow 7 seconds betWeen the standard and comparison intervals and 15 seconds be“Ween pairs. The standard and comparison intervals of each pair dif— fered. as regards the rate of phenomenal movement (See Figure 10) and as regards clock length. With respect to phenomenal movement, the following variations were made. A total of 180 comPar-isons were made with the standard at phenomenal movement -127- 2 and the comparison at phenomenal movement 12, and another 180 comparisons were made with the standard at phenomenal movement 12 and the comparison at phenomenal movement 2. With re spect to differences in clock length, the comparison inter- val was either 0, 5, 8, ll, 11+, 17, 20 or 23% longer or short- er than the standard interval. All 260 pairs were presented according to a random plan. Table 6 can be used as a schematic representation of the ex— Perimental method provided the columns under "standard 7" are omitted and providing the word “movement“ is substituted for "ohange" wherever the latter occurs. Procedure: The procedure was identical to that employed in experiment 9 . W: Figure 30b represents the responses made when the comparison interval was set at a phenomenal rate less than the standard rate. Figure 31b represents the responses made When the comparison interval was set at a phenomenal movement rate greater than the standard. The figures do not show a clear—cut preponderance of either "longer" or “shorter" responses. The longer and shorter runcti.ona of both figures show reversal of direction. The Variability of comparison in both cases does not permit the "flannent of a definite point for phenomenal equallty- It seems evident. however, that the phenomenal equality lies —128- more toward the "long" end when the comparison movement is rapid than when it is slow. Figure 32 represents the total responses made in ex- periments 14A and 148 when the comparison interval was set at a phenomenal movement rate less than the standard. Fig- ure 33 represents the total responses made in experiments 14A and. lhB when the comparison interval was set at a phenomenal movement rate greater than the standard. Each figure repre- sents l+50 comparisons, but since the biasing occurred in dif- ferent directions from eXperiment 114A to 143 the plots do not show clear-cut points of phenomenal equality. Two subjects reported that they were unable to use ei- ther interval as the comparison interval but could only re- Port which of the two presented was longer or which was shor- ter. W: The results of experiment 14B show, as does experiment 14A, that phenomenal movement is difficult 101' the subJects to characterize as a phenomenal duration. N0 clear-cut point of phenomenal equality was found and the functions show reversals in direction. These facts again Bu33981: that the comparisons made were unreliable. Unrelia- buity is further suggested by the fact that rapid rates of ph°n°menal movement needed longer clock length than the slow rates to achieve phenomenal equality, where in experiment I“ the opposite was true. In this latter respect, however, th e be sults of experiment 1le are in good agreement with the P93 ulta of experiment 10. .coaponzu one New on some m, mnonannmaoo ohm .oo«nw> no; noupopcmmonm on» no npmnoa aooao on» one canon pqoaopoa quoaooonm on» r( cuaenovm one no open one Boaon nunaom 0H no m open peoam>os Houosouonn genau a pm pom nos_nomanonsoo one .ncuooon em you mean vsoauboa Heeosonona coma“ a pm pom nmz.onounmuo Hopnoaanonno any .4uon ondwah H¢>nounH pudendum no R a.“ .350an nomanonaoo no gamma.“ aooao mm om-.. a «m fl m we a m J 4m 3 fl 4.. mm- " -4. o . . — x / n a n \ T om . \ _ _ _ k _ q n I o I o... m u a. m.” Hopnonm W l . m . .. o. m . a _ _ . . n I. 00 . . o . _ . . OOH Segment”. Honda .nomnoA 0 9.23395 Honda #25926 x x 9533a. macaw Mamaoodm O Hogan. manna. magmas POO] “ . _ . n u 001 u a n .u u m 81 u .m roams. “ muoneou J -nl'lv-' _ -nl-l---‘ m m .w “ vi #01 “ D4 . H . . \ _ o moi “ // x/ n , l . MVIIIAv “ a an __ rlrr. v _ mr er Kw. pr Hm r w m w v pm w» H« aw Immxle Show Hobmds o». ooBbmHHmou Hbdofldmw Hb N oh. manbngn Hbeoudmu. mwmcwwwwonw. are pooHHBoaemH negomuo 2mm now. on o anoo uuobosooou. 598583 Hmoo Hon co monouno. are p 05 2mm man me u HHNQQ vUonSobmH BedoSobd Hmao Ho wowbdm dopoi «Sm Hmno OH duo mambmmfln on due probofiobmH Bodmambe m , duo ovoow Hm Shoo do HPH duo ficnodmwww can ban: 0% duo paomobemdpou 2mm doHHmQ. How ooEpmHumoum SOHO -o€I- x 9—0238. “93H 5.59333 0 hon—mow. mace“. nauseous Pool " . _ . _ n 001 _ . _ u . m _ . no. u m u . MUOHdOH +u _ IIIIIII n _ e _ no . ” .pol “ o o P . o o o u o " NO] “ o . . _ . . . of , _ .. _ 4 _ two? F t. u. GHOQW Havana oQBUDHPIOfl Sum can we 9 Hwflon Bumbnaoubw Badmaobfl Hana OH 630 UUOUDBObmH Bbdoaovd uomHo mun duo oHOoW Hohhot o 5H0 5900 do HHN duo goon—.0”. wmmpwr p... a... wa/ on ooBunHHuon annnde.Hu 0H wemnnwnn anofidnH upmnuo HHJP. sue oueoupaobesw memuomun Ion use we a apnea vuoooaonmw Boqmaobu Hmdo now no accouou. are m on PO happen 03040 one Have an «on meouamnn H «Um pnomobdmuh05_fimm 498909. moo ooapsuquBu 'ICI- HoQJ 3 mol .t W m t 81 n e flv r e D. 8L moL oL,.I.-{ x moouemu. macaw «comaooam O Houmou. mpg acumamuam mvoudou a 1mm. Mo: Hr F pr. r w m mayhem. we Mode/l owoow Hobmdu 0H ooabmuumou HonoHdeHbsm on memsnpfln Hanofldpw ”Mano 3.1m. ego expoupaooamw mumuomuo 3mm mod on 9 Hanan pogo—nonmw Bodoaooe node flow mo mooObom. OQSvaHmob 2mm mod mu m Hpflon pueboaoumw Bo<flBobd Hmdo Ho woubdm mdo?qu onmcqaam no R a." .350an ”83.3930 no sumac..." moodo n... one a J; m i n. i m z a e e ll', lllllll! '. .0- __. __.._ T._i___--______1 O . . _ . _ _ _ . . _ .\ . _ . . _ 0 \ on \o / a o\ e I \ I3 m. . u - q . _ P. m nopnonm “ m. . _ m _ I on u . a... x _ .. _ _ _ . u I on . \ . u . . . 03 negggg Honda .HowQOA O mason—Evan Honda .aovnonm x ‘c‘ \JF‘II“: “runwvllfifi- u-Idra G‘Ingtnfl.~i-3NI.ONUH W4 Raid-.UAH Qcah ..;..”.:.....T........w........ «rid. “$2.4. 2 . .. .. . ....-. h..............,.......p . . ‘ A . .ll... .III.|.‘III..I¢| ‘1' H001 001 S .t m me 001 Hogan m m e C r. #01 e P MOL uponuo mono. oofiwoupoofl Sow wrobgouow Bod Shoo do HRH do x muonéou. whoop Hfimaobeo O boomed. mason. unamucoudo _ muondou N N H P» won me D HHNoQ puob OBoUoH mambo momHo moo ado OHOOK H O flcboowou. °-—________-_° ---___-_-__-__-___--c— grew when BedoSobd Hmdo Ho UOHbom UOHOS duo Hmno obmdfi 0% duo pHOmoSndeOu 2mm dmfluoa. owoow boomer on oovaHHmob Hbdowdou. Mb N mo won me o HPHOQ boouoaoumw Boqoaopu Hodo Hon co ooooboo. 850 r Hit a Ni... / 0H menbamfla Hbeoflefip OH nvo mumbnmfln on «no How ODSpoHHoOUm SOHO -o€I- Fool me: 3 .t m mo... m J t n e C u .8. P NO: wpmcuo ”WHIP. ooapmflpoob so on .050 fiUObg NU mo .55 OuUOHHBobnoH meounonn o oOd on o Huuom buonBouoH obmH Boiosoud momHo mun duo {OHO 8090 do HRH duo HdSOdHoflo or _ _ IL Hr Hh x muonamn. Macaw momma—one... O Harmon. memo”. «Swag—ea hm... awoow flown»: on oSGOHHuOH anondow up $523». .5. h HQ no a GM. Muhammad anouéwu. inn and no 9 HHHOD buggObB. 5043825 Hmdo Hon no oceanic. go who Hme 0% «no maounnfia 304823 Homo m on Ho hon—boo wooed oHooW Houmdb OH «so bnomobdmduob Sm m flmfihom. moo cosponumouu "ICI’ x $038.. enemy «someone. O Hoomou. whoop ugmaouao HooJ _ _ . . _ _ . _ 8 mol _ t _ m l m _ m a \ m 81 u \ w n r r " ... moondou r7... 6 . lulu-ii . P . .81 o H . o o o o u . . NQL _ n o o o _ _ . t l _ Fillir . E . _ . q , a ”.0 e z .w a ml .. 1. ”Vol unmado «Pam go on E a 8.an Hobmg 0H ooavonnmoo Huaoudow a: R a. m u: o a 955 cospoHHMOb bMH on ow odogoud zoo mod on o 6339 boo—9835?... Sodoaooe noon «mango Haeousmu Smm mO mu m finHon vUOboBobmH BodOBoad Hme Ho @9515 960.06 duo Hmdoo MMHnMM MMMMMMNM on dso proboso bop BodoBone mooHo o 336 Booo do SN 23 95050:. no go owoow Hammer on go enamonnmgon 3mm $33. you oosemfinuoau x muouéon. MESH 5595:: O Hon—mow. “Damp «gm—sou: wool o n . _ o u o _ 2.. l o o O n . nu o _ n s; l m . WU d H. . on O m hon—mom. " suntan: i..- o m o o e C 31 _ o r . o . P . u. . . o moL " . . o . . . o , _ _ . am my “v p. cw m u a w r. pm or Be my ew:::: Show boomer 0». 08633.3 Hen—«cg ”snowman“ “HO OHuOHHBOdeH nonhuman «in now an O HMHOQ 3530935.“. Hogan; HOuO Hon no 2393... 5:. On» «#0 6303825.... Scion—one OODHO mg duo oHOOK Roger 0H. «UO pHOoOneOuHOB 1mm dofiua. 1am no» on .- Nun!— uuouoaouo... 5048.25 Hone u g 580 .00 MPH QUO Eadhobo OH Ho bomb». UOHO‘ go HO». OH «be menus—OH." #WO OSHEMIOBI -€cr- C e . . a. O m 14 e ~ \ w I‘. no.0 PF Fr Fr. 0. 0% Nv u m ML. Ht. .HV hmu NM... ““00” hon—mg OH. Oghuuflck-ou H.“.Q.Hud“.flmfi 9 Hub!!! no ‘ ah E.B.mu‘Naflv a“ 0 a- -Nuungoadlp flu g g 1" AVA" 3-503-5n'.“ 5°‘ea-u HI.“- - 'Q on -\ Wmfl.-.» man... a M.» a one!» an Huh: um .‘ flammflmm: MSHHMTMaMMWB Moon“? WWW”... WNW“: My..- w 09 my” who“: “wanna? Mu... Jinn. 99. Warsaw... ‘1 lil'llllv"-fiill.'-'l ‘:-,l - vI -Vl -v. | .1- III. ‘ll..v»l 'l‘ll‘ x 9.3.4.3.. ups—ow Magma—open O H.953... macaw Momma—oboe Poo. I. u . o . _ . 0 mo 1 . o . . u I _ o .n... . e 00 l u m. . . e. Kb m 5.... _ ammo” i, .5 III!!! . m . o o C .3 I. _ o r . o — 0 P 0 . u u o o no 4 u . . . i. o _ . _ on no ow K t. a. a. a .m . _ i i m E. swoon Boomer on ogwonpnob Hangout Ho .3 Mo Ma «5.0 mu. go 05335535.... manna—ond Ion no." 90 n which vuoogeuow Badoaooe e H 53 005034500 .30 non me 9 H539 arousing Bodoaooe none 0 2.. Ho mono: meow.” Henchman” “Mann—Mu. mango; on «no macho—pong 30482:... compo who go ouoow Hogan on go enooopuoeuou non sonata. two ogvonhnobo SOHO Sumo «0 Huh «we Hgoapou. The Experienced Duration 2;; Various Accelerating 9; Decelerating g; Movements. Exgeriment 1.1. In experiment 14 it was concluded that a Purpose: system of slow phenomenal movement will be experienced as having slightly less duration than a brisk system of move— In this respect the outcome ment of the same clock length. 6 of experiment In is consistent with the findings of Brown and later of Cohen, Hansel and Sylvester7. The complexity 0f the functions and the occurrence of several points of phenomenal equality found in the psychOphysical functions 01‘ experiment 14 are not in harmony with prior experimental findings, however. The prior findings gave evidence that a rigid interdependency between phenomenal movement and pheno- menal duration exists. This discrepancy and the nature of the herothesis, i.e. that phenomenal duration will vary as a function of phenomenal time, both demand that a further invest31gation be made. The experimental equipment and method employed here does not limit us to simple serial movements and brief dur- ations. The possibility of extending the investigations to more complex systems and to longer phenomenal endurances is Open, Accordingly, the present experiment will investigate the duration associated with systems of movement which are \ilthge“ continually on the increase or continually on the decrease. ~F. Brown, Time Perception in Visuanovement m 7. %R- cit., pp. 233—248. or - Cohen, C.E.M. Hansel, and J.D. Sylvester,“Interdependence ace, Time, and Movement,“ Acta Psychol., XI(1955), pp. 361-372 ~136- SubJects: A total of 6 subjects were used, 5 male and 1 female. All subJects were college students and all were naive to the purpose of experimentation. The apparatus was identical to that des— Apparatus: cribed in experiment 9. Method: The method of comparisons was used and the standard interval always occurred first. The experimenter attempted to allow 7 seconds between the standard and exper- imental intervals and 15 seconds between experimental pairs. Three category comparisons were allowed. The standard interval was a constant stimulls, always 01‘ 90 seconds in length and always set at a rate of 12 on the phenomenal movement scale. The comparison interval differed from the standard in two ways. First, the compar- lson interval, with respect to phenomenal movement, underwent a Constant increase or decrease of rate throughout the whole comparison period. The method employed was the following: the phenomenal movement was begun at an arbitrary point and then according to the dictates of a randomized program of presentation was increased or decreased continuously at 2/3 miles per second throughout the whole comparison interval. Secondly, the comparison interval with respect to clock len- gth was either 0, 5, 8, 11, 1a., 17, 20 or 23% longer or s hortel‘ than the standard interval. _ 137 _ A total of 180 observations were made. Of this total, 95 comparisons were made with the movement constantly in- creasing and 95 comparisons were made with the movement con- stantly decreasing. Table 8 is a schematic representation of the method used. Procedure: The procedure was the same as that outlined in experiment 9 . Results: The results are summarized in Figures 3“, 35 and 36. Figure 34 presents the total data for experiment 15. Figure 35 presents the data for the constantly descend- ing phenomenal movements. Figure 36 presents the data for the constantly increasing phenomenal movement. All three graphs show multiple points of phenomenal equality, and in each case the graphs contain plots of mar- kedly periodic form. In this latter respect, the reversal 01' the functions at the extremes of the distribution are palm3101.121arly inpressive. .Sflppglpp;ppp: The experimental data again failed to Show a. close relationship between phenomenal duration and Phenomenal movement. The zone of phenomenal equality and the magnitude of the inflections in the curves exceed those found in experiment 14 (Figures 30. 31. 32 and 33% M ”119 Junctur'e we must question whether hypothesis 2 does Justice to the facts and whether prior investigators adequately -_ 138 .. abstracted the pertinent variables from their experimental situations. A possible reinterpretation will be discussed in the "General Conclusions“ chapter. At this point it seems fair to say, on the basis of experiments 11, 12, 14, 15 and the antecedent work of Brown and Cohen, Hansel and Sylvester, that: as the complexity of movement increases the human is less and less able to assign a specific duration to it. .e- ¢.VA .1 30302 on» Na.“ 3 came one: 283.3980 oma .2803 you «0.35 «Km no open a as vopmnoaoooc no cepmaoaooom hamsosflaqoo not mason—oboe Homoeoaonq we seem: each: one ashamed“ nomanuafioo one wag .uudoeom on no.“ NH added 333 oven 3am." 339369: a as can: no: danced: vacuum: escapees Hmnoaoaona 2H. .3 o «h 1:50an nomdnmaaoo Mo humus .uoodo an o... S 3 a m m «a a o... a _ _ l a a m w J _ _ in a m u o u . o . ” T8 0 o m . a o . O . 1 a T3 w _ . u mw iiiiiii . tttttt a. n .8225 .._ _. .833 w. . . . [cow a... o m 0 I . . _ o a o “ F8 . o _ . . o _ . a 3353:. 36” .HOMGOA O uvfloaflfih X Hafidfl .HOpkonm d .qoaaoqau can Han ca sensuous; anomanwasoo oo .cnoocm pom usage n\m no open a no coponoaeoou hamsozqapmoo no: maaoaoboa Home neocona uo sevens each: on» daemons“ nonhumasoo one madman .mcnooom 00 you ANA added canon. open canon haopmuocoa a pm cowau mmk.Hm>noan chansons womanhoa amnosoaona Hmpnoaauonno ens .nn unawah HdpuovaH aoeaneaaoo Ho hemmed Macao mm om ea dd H m m m w AH 4% ma .N mm p was . . . n o o o m I. . . . o . H . I _ [0‘0 . 9 3:33:11 _ _ Insult m. .w nopaonm ; a , nomuoq a. 1.. u m u a. _ aloe mp o n o o o o o 9 . . _ . 0 flow . . - _ . o ftoad macoewcah Honda .Homnofl nu musosmesu asses .nopnoam x .noapoqsu on» Man on odds one: enonaueaaoo oo ..caooon uoa undue n\« no open a as uoamnoaoooa mauaosnduaoe no: opnoaeboa Hugo unecona no acumen each! one Happened nomdaaaaoo on» magnum .ncnooou on new .ma aaaoa cameo. open canon haopenocoa a an candy not.ao>aouna caucuses wannabes Honosoaonn Huanoaanoawo any .on shaman . Hobuouam.nceanuaaoo no damned xooao mm on S” . v.” n 0 3” «A 5 o . _ _ r 3 w n. w _ a a _ _ .m o . . . . . o o o o u a To» . . . .a c u e . z . [0‘0 . e . u _ uuuunuu uuuuuu a. M nopuonm a. hemmed 9. 1 . m. . . w n 1.00“ o u o M . . . “ I8 x x u 0 av Q . _ _ . Fog nvuacnh Hanan .hownoq O sung—Hmong Hanan .Hovuonm x - 142 - Expgpgment IQ, Some of the prior experimentation, i.e. experiments 14A, 148, 15, have suggested that a phenomenally continuous increasing or decreasing system of movement is not readily experienced as having a well defined phenomenal duration. This eXperiment is a further research into the experienced endurance of complex systems of movement. In experiment 16, relatively brief and rapid increases and decreases will be introduced into an otherwise stable system of phenomenal movement. Subjects: A total of 6 subjects were used. Four were male and two female. or this total, 5 were college students and 1 a housewife in middle years. All were naive respecting the purposes of experimentation. Apparatus: The apparatus was the same as that described in experiment 9. Method: The method of comparison was used and the standard interval always occurred first. The experimenter attempted to allow 7 seconds between the standard and com— parison intervals and 15 seconds between experimental pairs. Three category comparisons were permitted. The standard.was exposed for 90 seconds and held at a steady phenomenal movement rate of 2 for a half of the trials and at a steady rate of 12 for the other half. The comparison -143... interval differed from the standard in several ways. First, with respect to clock length, the comparison was 0, 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, 20 or 23% longer or shorter than the standard inter- val. Secondly, with respect to rate, the standard intervals starting at 2 and 12 were paired with comparison intervals in which there was a reciprocating phenomenal movement. Speci- fically , the movement was changed continuously from point 2 to Point 12 and after a brief pause from point 12 to point 2, and after a brief pause from point 2 to point 12 again for one half of the presentations. The other half of the presen- tations were paired with comparison intervals in which the movement was started at 12 and decreased to 2 and after a brief Pause increased from 2 to 12, and after a brief pause decreased from 12 to 2 again. Thus each comparison interval contained either 2 increasing and 1 decreasing or 1 decreasing and two increasing systems of phenomenal movement. The in- creases and decreases were fairly rapid, about one point of the Phenomenal scale per second. The increases and decreases did not occur consecutively, but were spaced throughout the Comparison interval. A total of 180 comparisons were made. All presenta- tions were made according to a random series. The schematic representation of Table 7 can be used as a model for experi- ment 16 . * Results: Figure 37 contains a plot of all the obser- vati,°na ’ Figure 38 summarizes the comparisons made when the -1Lm— standard interval was set at 12. Figure 39 summarizes the comparisons made when the standard was set at 2. All three figures show that a large range of clock lengths will yield comparisons of equality. It is more fitting to speak of a zone than a point of phenomenal equal— ity under these experimental conditions. The figures, es- pecially 38, show periodic reversal of direction. These fluctuations seem to be of too large a magnitude to be accounted for by chance factor. Conclusiopp: The findings of experiment 16 using re- ciprocating movements confirm all the conclusions drawn from experiment 15. It would seem that as the phenomenal move- ment increases in complexity, it becomes increasingly more difficult to characterize as a well-defined endurance. - 145 - Table 7 A SCHEMATIC REPRESENTATION OF THE METHOD FOLLOWED IN EXPERIMENT 16 fists ofESLtandard 2 :2 112 1s phenom. total pgment. Comparison Append.’ hepcend.** Ago. Desc. case; Length Standard 90 9O 90 90 of Comparison {23% {23% {23% {23% inter— cases 3 3 3 3 12 val. Standard 90 90 90 90 Comparison {20% {20% {20% {20% cases 3 3 3 3 12 Standard 90 90 90 90 Comparison {17% {17% {17% {17% casep 3 3 3 3 12 Standard 90 90 9O 90 Comparison {14% {14% {14% {14% cases 3 3 3 3 12 Standard 90 90 90 90 Comparison {11% {11% {11% {11% cases 3 3 3 3 12 Standard 90 90 90 90 Comparison {8% {8% {8% {8% cases 3 3 3 3 12 Standard 90 90 9O 90 Comparison f5% /5% {5% #55 casep 3 3 3 3 12 Standard. 90 9O 9O 90 Comparison 0% 0% 0% 0% cases 3 3 3 3 12 Standard 90 90 9O 90 Comparison -5% -5% -5% -5% cases 3 3 3 3 12 Standard 90 90 90 90 Comparison -8% —8% -8% —8% cases 3 3 3 3 12 -l’+6- Rate of Standard fi-v 2 2 12 15 Table 7 (Continued) phenom. total mvt. Comparison Ascen. Desc. Ascen. Desc. casep_ Length Standard 90 90 9O 90 of Comparison -11% -11% -ll% -11% inter— cases, 3 3 3 3 12 val Standard 90, 90 9O 90 Comparison ~14% -1Q% -14% -14% cases, 3 3 3 3 12 Standard 90 90 90 90 Comparison -17% -17% ~17% -17% cases, 3 3 3 3 12 Standard 90 90 90 90 Comparison -20% -20% -20% -20% casep, 3 3 3 3 12 Standard 90 9O 9O 90 Comparison -23% —23% -23% ~23% casep. 3 3 3 ‘ 3 12 Total cases.... 45 45 45 45 180/130 e The designation “ascending" means that the movement during the comparison interval started at rate 2, went to 12, then from 12 back to 2, and finally from 2 to 12 again. See the text for a more complete description. 9. The designation "descending“ means the opposite pattern prevailed. The rate was from 12 to 2, then 2 to 12, and finally from 12 to 2 again during the comparison interval. use The comparison interval is expressed in terms of per— centages "longer“ and "shorter" than the standard interval. ‘9‘ on‘ .‘ .nOHponSH one Ram on some anoHpS>Aomno oma one: cache .uuooom nod moaaa m as "names has» up: uoaomaoaooom one scapegoaoooo ascendanoo no mean one .Hmpuopaa guano a you need» conga coponoaooos can oopoaoaoooo hamsosaapaoo no: mpaoampoa Hmaoaonona no seesaw each: one assumes“ nomaumaaoo one waaaon .ounooom on now an ended oasemv open roan adopmaoooa.s as no Ana venom cases. each canon haopmuoooa a as candy uaa.as>aopaa essences paoaopoa Hcsosoqona Hwenoaaaeano one .59 shaman HebuoaaH nomaamosoo uo newnoa Macao m on ad «H a m n m HA «a H on m c _ e [p J _ _ w PI ._ w a J o . . o . . . o o _ . luau . n _ . . u. _ no. a . no . ------- . ------ a W nepuonm " nowaoa 1 1.... n P. - o f.» w loom _ . o o o o m. . s . . " om " o a. . . i o o . . I ooH nvsoawgh Hanan .howuoa O uaaoawgh gem .Hoauoam x .soflosa 23 Ham on some macapmbaomno om one: cache .2303 non mega n as “can?" has» not scapegoaoooo one aoapoaoaooom no open 05. 25:90»: «of; a no.“ scan a ooasaoaooom can uousnoaoooo not nanoaoboa Home uaonoaa no aces: each: one phonon acauacaaoo on» 95.25 .noaooon oo sou “NH 030a canon. can." 3a: haoasuoooa u as con: not Hermann“ cascades puoaoboa Hades—cacao genosaoano 25. .9... mafia Hohhoan nomaaoaaoo «o humuoq uooao am on a...” «H AH m n n m a.” «A S on an O _ _ r .e r 4’ P _ w P O . . . . H To» . . . o . 0 Pd ” I 2.3!... 2...}... o O nouucnm m summon To u no. . . ... .... .Ol. m u w - . . m _ O . [00. W o n o I . _ low 0 0 0 . . _ . . 0 IOOH mason—moan Home" know—no.” O snoagh Hon—0M .Hoahonm X .GOHpoasm on» Nam on mafia unoapdpnmmno 0m who: opens .un00mm Hog moadfi m an “unmwn hue» ma: noapanoamoow aaosnupcoo «0 away one .ambnmpu« «camp a you mofiap n copauoaoooo can uopmnoaooom no; muqoabboa Haaoaaaonm uo acpmhu oaogs onp Huhuopua nomuuunabo on» mnundn .ucnooou on now am aaaom came». away scan maopwnocoa m an woman was unaunapo unusabqa Hanoadnonm Hmpaqaaucqno any .on onnwdm Hmbuoan nonunwnauo no dawned aooao mm .8 5H "v." H m 0 Q #H sun om 9N ._..J_J w . arL_ o . . . 0 O u “ TON . . d o o u u . o n g. m IIIIIII . IIIIII no . no no . nowdo p. m 9 am .. 1H w - . m . Too m . _ m. o u o p... o .. . . " low . o o o . _ " apnea—mafia Hanan 33$qu 0 uaagvfih Huaufl .HOpuoam x -150- The merienced Duratign 9_t_‘_ Various Phenomenal Changes into which Continuitigg Have Been Introduced. Experiment 11. Pug-pose: The data of eXperiment 8 demonstrated that the duration of a changing event is greatly affected by the rate at which it changes phenomenally. The results of ex- periments 11+, 15, and 16, on the other hand, indicated that dissimilar systems of movement are not easily compared as durations. Experiments 15 and 16 in particular indicated that complex movements are even more difficult to compare 88 duration than are systems of simple movement. In experiment 17, the aim is to study the experienced durati on of a complex containing both change and movement. SPe°1fica11y, this experiment will study the endurance of phenomenal change events into which continuities are intro— duced. .subljects: A total of 5 subjects were used; 4 were male and 1 female. All subjects were college students and all were naive to the purpose of the eXperimentation. A. Eparatus: The apparatus used was identical to that d escablibed in experiment 3. Method: The method used was identical to that employed in e)Cperiment 16 except that phenomenal changes were sub- st itlate-3d for the phenomenal movements. Table 7 can be used u? -151- as a schematic representation of the experiment providing the words "change“ are substituted for "movement" wherever the latter refers to the standard interval. Re sults: Figure 1+0 is a plot for the total data of the experiment. Figure 41 is a resume of the responses occurring when the phenomenal change was set at scale point 12 for the standard. Figure 42 is a resume of the comparisons made when the standard was set at phenomenal change rate 2. All three figures show that a large range of clock lengths will yield comparl sons of equality. The place where phenomenal equality occurs 19 more aptly described as a zone than a point. The 1‘mcthrls of all three graphs contain undulations. In this latter- respect, it is particularly interesting to note the reversals that occur at the extremes of these functions. Eonclusions: It is clear when we compare the results or experiment 8 to eXperiment 16 that the introduction of continuity into a changing event lessens the subject‘s ability t0 characterize that event as having definite duration. The Outcome of experiment 17 tends to substantiate the conclusions DPGViously drawn and again suggests that movement is not easily characterized as having a well-defined duration and that it will be necessary to question the adequacy of those experi- mental interpretations relating phenomenal movement to phe- Nominal duration. .noapondu on» Man on news one? mnomflnsmsoo oma .unooom non sodas n as acumen has» no: soapsuoaooos ens scapegoaoooe nsosaaunoo uo open one .Hdbaopna Hogan a non mesa» n copwnsaooos one copsnoaoooe mamsossdpuoo as: owswno Hwnosoaonm no open one Hs>H0pu« somfinsasoo on» weaken .ucuooom on you Am usaom mason. open scam maopsaoeoa a as no ANA pauom oasomv open canon haopsnocoa m as cough mm: caucuses ownmho Hmsoaonoam aspnosauoano one .oe chewam asenopuH somansgsoo no apmnoq acado smomwdwawm 4 mmaamsmownm o “ _ . . . _ n Tom . . . _ o .d e 1.o¢ .i no a e a '----I-- "---- w m» nopuonm nowqu 4. w. I co m e u m . . . . o . fl .. 8 o o . . u o o o . . V ooa nanoswush Hosea .nownOA nv nanosmcsh Honda .Hopnonm x adrift-Pusan)” A SIN! : .u.n ’I 9!. 1.. II c :::.:t .noapousu on» . Huh ow ocoa_ouok onooanomaoo om .caoooo non ooaae n no “canon hue» no: soapouoaoooo one qoavoao uaoooe ososnapsoo no opoa one .Hobuopna.uo«nn o you mosap a cowonoaoooo duo coconoaoooe haososaav taco no: omuoso Honosoaona no opon on» Hoenoauu goodnoasoo one madman .oenoooo on non Ana anaoa oaoooa open canon haoaonoeoa o no couau not uncommon omqono aoqosoqonn Hopsosauonno one .He oasmah HobnoanH nooanonsoo no npwnoq xooao was”... a W amassiaa . _ . . . O 0 F * < r8. . . m r3 m .w u U. 000..-!- Isluul i. . Sancho noose.” m m loo m «.7 .. 0 o O a Tom 0 O o . . . . _ foo” oasoawudh Honda .HOEOA O manages». Honda .nophoam x '0.ul.‘-.-uruolil.iil .l lhIl-JUN '0‘-“ Llalullflnu. 50305...“ on» H: on 366 one: ouooanoqaoo on .333 non node n no moans... hues. not ouaouoaoooo ens noauonoaoooo oooosaouoo no upon one .Hobnopqa moans o sou mesa» n ooeouoaoooo and venous aaoooo 3325330 not owaono Hoooaooonn «o ooon one .3535 nooauooaoo on» 955.5 .033: oo no.“ «a undoo oHooo. upon to: haoponooos o as con: not assess: omuoao dong—ocean Hopnoauomko one .3. 0.33.— 3.3an noouuoqaoo «0 god Mooao . . osmaoama sleazaso . . _ _ . . 0 . m -a u o o n m. _ . nu _ n.o¢ m u a. . ccccc I. . all!!! We hon—Loam ... o Hows—on W. _ . .m . e _ fl 8 W . . u .. . . . . r.oo . 0 . . _ . . o . o o o o fiIOOH 9.52535 Honda .8080." O 3339:. Hosea .uoosoam x -155- The Experienced Duration o_f_'_ a System 9;; Movement into which changes have been Entroduced. Experiment 18. Purpose: At this point, it seems Justifiable to say that change is more readily eXperienced as having a duration than is phenomenal movement. It has been experimentally shown that as the system of movement becomes increasingly more complex that at the same time the system becomes in- creasingly difficult to express as a definite duration. More- over, experiment 17 demonstrated that when continuities are introduced into a changing phenomenal event that that event becomes difficult to experience as a definite duration. In experiment 18, the procedure will be reversed and the effect of introducing change into a system of movement will be studied. If the conclusions drawn in previous ex- per'j-men‘tation are adequate summaries of the facts then this procedure should cause the system of movement to become more identifiable as a duration. W: A total of 9 subjects were used, 3 female 8. nd 6 male. All were college students and naive to the aims o f expePimentation. QEEaratus: The apparatus was identical to that described 1‘ or exDerimen‘l: 14. -156- Method: The method of comparison was used and the stan- dard interval always occurred first. The experimenter attemp- ted to allow 7 seconds between the standard and comparison intervals and 15 seconds between experimental pairs. Three category comparisons were allowed. The standard was a constant stimulus,always 90 seconds in length and always set at rate 12 on the phenomenal move- ment scale. The comparison intervals differed from the stan- dard interval in two ways. First, with respect to rate, in 90 presentations the comparison intervals were started at an arbitrary point on the scale and continuously increased at the rate of 1/3 miles per second. In another 90 presentations, the comparison intervals were started at an arbitrary point on the movement scale and decreased at the rate of 1/3 miles Per second. These increases and decreases of rate are too slow to be experienced as continuous accelerations or deceler- ations and instead produce regularand abrupt shifts either up or down in the phenomenal movement system. Secondly, with respect to clock lengths. the comparisons were either 0, 5. 8: 11. 11+, 17, 20 or 23% longer or shorter than the standard. A total of 180 comparisons were made. The eXperimental pairs were presented according to a randomized order. Table 8 can be used as a schematic representation of the method used Providing the words "phenomenal change“ is substituted for the Words “phenomenal movement" when the latter refer to t he °°mpar1 son interval. -157... Procedure: The procedure was identical to that des- cribed in experiment 14. He sults: Figure 43 is a resume] of all of the compari- sons made in experiment 18. Figure 0.4 summarizes the com- pari sons made when the abruptions resulted in slower systems of phenomenal movement. Figure 45 summarizes the comparisons made when the abruptions introduced led to a more rapid sys- tem of phenomenal movement. Phenomenal equality occurs at a Point in all three figures. The functions are fairly constant in direction. A comparison of figure 44 with figure 45 in- dicateg that intervals which contain abruptions leading to increased rates of movement are experienced as being longer in duPation than those in which abruptions lead to slower 8Ystem3 of movement. Conclusions: Experiment 18 indicates that imposing abruptions upon a system of movement enhances the subject's ability to recognize the event as having a definite endurance. The re Stilts again suggest that it is change rather than con- tinuity that gives events their endurance. The results in addition suggest that abruptions which increase the activity Within an endurance result in that endurance being eXperien- 0 ed 8‘3 longer than when the abruptions lead to a decrease or a ”hit? within the duration. .3333 23 Man on ooos one: unconnon aloe own .930: non moans a)” no onon o no wannonoaoooo no gnonodoooo haosoadnndoo no. onaosflhoa Hoaoaonona no. sonoho onn onnn ooosoonnon onot oaonnaonno Hdbnonnn noonnoaaoo onn man—5 .933: 00 non “NH nanoo oaooo. onon canon nnononoooa o no counn not Hobnonnn onoodono nnoaonoa one .3 ondwdh HobnonnH noonnonaoo no anode.” noodo Woman fi.flto._a7% w m an .m an mum» .a o . . _ . o w o u _ low 0 . . _ u n 1 o o _ 1 co m n .. a :23... _ ..--...... r U nonnonm " nowsoA m. . u T on w _ u _ o o . o 0 O _ T oo . 0 O _ u c . . .. 8n onnoswoph Honda .nowfloA O nongonmwwsw am x a .oonnonsn onn Man on ooosnonox unconnon undo ca .3003 non moans n)” no onon o no mannonofioooo nausoaannaoo ho. onaoaonoa Honoaononn no aonono can one.“ ooosoonnan ono! moonnasnno Honnonnn noonnoaaoo onn wonnsn .ooaoooo oo non ANA nanon oaooo. onon goon naononooos o no oonnn not Hobnonon onoooono nooaonoa Honaoannoano o5. .3 93»: HobnonaH noonnoasoo no nnwdoA.Mooao m...a...._..__. a Janene. . . . _ . . o o o . Tom . . . o o o o _ H . a _ _ IS m nonnonm m nownoq f — 5 u m - u 9 . 8 .u. u o o o o s . . . . [Om . o o . . n . . o 0 Foo.” unnoamoflh Anson .nowuoq O unnoawosh dozen .nonnonm X .aonnoqan onn Man on oooa onos odomnnoa asoo om .uooooo non moans n\a no onon o no wannonoaoooo naoooodnnooo no onnosoeos nonosouona no sonono onn anon ooosoonnan onok ononnaanno Ho>nonun noonnoasoo onn mannan .ooaoooo co non “ma nnnoa onooov onon onaon naononoooa o no oonnn oo3_ao>nonan onoooono nooaopoa Honooannoano ona .no onsMHM HopnonaH noonnoasoo no anwooa Macao aeeee a. 4.. amenaao . n . . . o . u " Foo m o < J.* ) m u 13. m a n w 5 9.----- .. . -3--- 1 1m. HOQHOAW “ HOMCOH m. . m _ To. m tr u n . m g. u . . . . . roan onaoawog. Honda .nowaoA O onooamosu Hosea .nonnoam x CHAPTER IV GENERAL CONCLUSIONS, 9: Theog 93; Phenomena; Duration. and Reevaluation 93: Previous merimentation - 161 - G E N E R.A L C O N C L U S I O N S The preceding research aimed to provide two things. First it aimed to provide a means for producing, measuring, and controlling phenomenal change, duration and movement. We will appraise the success of this work by considering: a) the general experimental findings regarding phenomenal change, movement and duration; and b) the general findings in light of our hypothesis. Second, it aimed to provide a general understanding of phenomenal duration, change and movement. Toward this end, we will a) issue several broad and more or less acceptable generalizations regarding pheno- menal change, movement and duration; and b) discuss the gen- eral findings in light of previous research work. Producing. Measuring, and Controlling The PhenomenngVariables Phenomenal Change: The production of phenomenal change was accomplished through invention and use of a kaleidosco- pic change instrument. This instrument was equipped with a variable speed clutch and.ttachometer. The clutch allowed the experimenter to achieve and maintain steady rates of change within wide limits and allowed the introduction of additional changes or continuities into the existing pattern of changes. - 162 - The tachometer served to indicate the presence of a parti- cular phenomenal change, and also, after the scaling was completed, to indicate its phenomenal magnitude. The means of measurement used was the psychophysical method of limits (minimal change). This means was used because it allows one to characterize human experience as a continual phenomenal distribution. The measurement undertaken in Experiment 1 resulted in a phenomenal change scale of 16 points. figppp, §_means for production and §_phenomepal_scalp_featuring pp: terval measurement are present. and these indicate that the basis for controlled phenomenal change ip_also present. Phenomenal_Movement: The phenomenal movements were produced and meagured by devices completely analogous to those described above. The measurement made in Experiment 2 resulted in a phenomenal movement scale of 18 points. Hence, 3 w :21; production app a phenomenal pas}; £2; interval measurement gpp_present, gpg_ppppp_indicate ppgp.ppp.ppp;p_§pp_ controlled phenomenal movement pp,also present. Phenomenal Duration: gppduction of phenomenal duration was accomplished by means of the phenomenal change and phe— nomenal movement apparatus, a shutter device, and through use of a timing clock. The phenomenal change and.phenomenal move- ment apparatus allowed the experimenter to generate durations comprised of many types of visual changes and movements. _ 163 _ The shutter device allowed the eXperimenter to create well-defined intervals or different clock lengths. The timing clock permitted the eXperimenter to renew a particular pheno- menal duration, and to express, in a non-phenomenal sense, the magnitude of the duration once it was measured. The measurement was based upon a psychophysical procedure distinct from that used for phenomenal change and movement. The means employed was a modification of the “method of constant stimuli", and named the “method of comparison“. The method of comparison provided a physical ratio scale and not a phenomenal interval scale to express phenomenal events. The method allowed measurement of phenomenal durations in terms of experienced deviations ("lon- ger" or ”shorter") from a single standard phenomenal duration, the 90 sec. clock length interval.1 These phychophysical scales do not give a basis for mea- surement of phenomenal duration in terms of other phenomenal events and for this reason the potential control is of a different sort that provided for the phenomenal change and movement variables. Hence from a phenomenalogical viewpoint these psycho-physical scales can be expected to lead to phe- nomenal duration control of a very gross sort and one must I In our experimental method, the standard interval always occurred first and the comparison interval second. This was a modification of the “method of constant stimuli" since in the traditional psychophysical method the standard interval occurs randomly. As we were not concerned with the psycho- physical problem, the definition of the "stimulus“, we could do this and reduce the number of observations necessary appre- ciably. Hence, the directions always specified that the sec- ond presentation was to be compared to the first and that the first was a “standard" duration. -164... conclude that the possibilities of phenomenal duration con— trol are greatly inferior to those of phenomenal change and movement. Eggp_p§.phenomenal.duration control gpg_ppp_pypothesisz The bulk of the research Just reported had to do with the effect of phenomenal changes and movement upon phenomenal duration. We were seeking to control phenomenal duration. We‘were seeking to control phenomenal duration independently of clock time by means of manipulating phenomenal change and movement rates. The results of this research admits of simple summary and provides the test for the two hypotheses suggested earlier. The experimentation clearly indicates that phenomenal duration control can be achieved by means of phenomenal change control. It has been found that through manipulation of phe- nomenal change alone, phenomenal duration can be extended or 2 This shortcoming was inherent in the problem selected. There must be something to scale before any attempt to scale can be practically undertaken. Previous experimenta- tion was far from convincing in this respect. In fact, Woodrow says in his review of “time perception“ experiments, “Whether some mental variable such as duration or protensity is an immediate prOperty of our perception or temporal stimuli, or mental processes in general, is a matter of some disagree- ment.'(”Time Perception," o . pi£,, p. 1235). The conflict in experimental conclusions, the utilization of very short in- tervals and very restricted experimental conditions, the ob- session with theoretical problems of introspection or isomor- phism, the lack of agreement regarding the indifference inter- val and time order errors, and the effect of interval length, the presence of unexplained and unreproducable periodicities in duration experience all suggested that the existence of functional connections between phenomenal change and phenomenal movement on the one hand, and phenomenal duration on the other, might be doubted. -165... contracted and hence, controlled independently of clock length. This conclusion has been drawn on the basis of the following facts: 1. The interval of phenomenal equality was different when the phenomenal durations were based upon rapid rates of phenomenal change as compared to slow rates of phenomenal change. These differences seem to be stable (Exp's. 4, 8). 2. The introduction of phenomenal changes into a phe- nomenal system known to have a poorly defined phenomenal dur- ation resulted in a well-defined phenomenal duration (Exp. 18). (The introduction of a phenomenal change led the change to be attended to or selected out by the subject at the expense of movement. The brief discreet impressive series of changes emerge so to speak as “figure“ while the longer, less discreet phenomenal movement receded as "ground" and duration was “gain— ed“). Thus, in the terms originally used in exposition of the problem, one would say that, "The for-me endurance of an ex- ternally localized event is ascertainably determined by the rate at which that event is changing.“ In crude common sense terms, one would say that a vigorously changing situation ”seems to make time go by faster“ than a languorously changing situation. The hypothesis that “phpnomena; duration varigp with phenomenal change" has been confirmed. — 166 - The eXperimentation strongly suggests that phenomenal duration control cannot be achieved by means of phenomenal movement control. This conclusion has been made on the basis of the following specific facts: 1. The interval of phenomenal equality was unstable when the phenomenal durations were based on phenomenal move- ments, i.e. rapid systems of movement were not reliably diff- erent than slow systems of phenomenal movement. Specifically: a) Slight alterations in methodology reversed the effects of rapid versus slow systems of phenomenal movement (Exp's. 10, 14a, 14b). b) Reversals in the interval of phenomenal equal- ity occurred when phenomenal durations of rapid systems of movement were compared to slow systems of phenomenal movement, and vice versa (Exp's 143, 14b, 15, 16, 17). These multiple intervals of phenomenal equality occurred.when analogous ex- periments using phenomenal change had shown clear cut effects (Exp. 8, 18). c) The reliability of comparisons did not in- crease as the sample size and disparity between rates of move- ment were increased (Exp. 14a, lflb). 2. The comparisons became more variable, the zone of phenomenal equality tended to increase, as the complicity of movement was increased from standard to comparison interval (Exp‘s 12, 14a, 14b, 15, 16). 3. 'The introduction of phenomenal movement into a phe- nomenal change event known to have a well—defined endurance - 167 - resulted in an ill-defined endurance (Exp. 1?). (The sudden introduction of movement as attended to or selected out by the subJect at the expense of change. The brief discreet impressive continuity emerged so to speak as “figure" while the longer less discreet phenomenal change receded as “ground" and duration were ”lost“.) This outcome is in direct contrast to the experiment in which phenomenal movements were interrup- ted by change (Exp. 18). Thus, in the terms originally used in exposition of the problem, one would say that, "The for-me endurance of an ex- ternally localized event is not ascertainably determined by rate at which the event is moving.'. In common sense terms, one would say that phenomenal movement tends to be aduration- a1. TppDQypothesis ppngEppppomenal,duration pgpiep_with.phe- nomenal movement“ has not been confirmed. Qpalitative Characteristics p§_Phenomena1 Duration Con- trol: It was found that not all subJects were able to make the comparison required of them. Two subjects could not use either duration present as the standard. They could only re- port which of the two durations was the “longer“. Apparently the presentations formed a single event which could not be referred to other than as polarities. Two other subjects were able to use only the second as a standard presentation..They reported that the later duration was more “fresh“ and “asser— ted itself“ so clearly as a "standard“ that the earlier dur- ation was bound to be measured by it. These findings are in - 168 - substantial agreement with the findings of Benussi and Kas— tenholz summarized by Woodrow.3 Protocols such as these emphasize the necessity of ascer- taining the subJect's approach to the task before proceeding to collect data on phenomenal duration. Introspective re- ports, given after several comparisons have been made, prove indispensable aids in controlling for work habits. Theory 2£_Phenomenal Duration. Up until now the facts uncovered have been discussed and organized in terms of the two hypotheses. This is the most restricted way in which the findings may be used. In the pre- sent case the functional dependencies established appear to be sufficiently consistent and numerous to Justify an inter- pretation extending beyond the “region of hypotheses.” Thus, at this point the facts will be put into a theoretical context. This theory will be called the Theogy g§_Phenomena1 Duration. The theory,as any other, will find Justification only so long as it is rigorously in accord with definite empirical data, provides an acceptable organization of other related data, and is fruitful of further hypotheses. Inasmuch as this is so, the most immediate task is to establish the theory within the realm of well-defined fact. 3 H. Whodrow, “Time Perception,” 92, cit., pp. 1227-1228. - 169 - figatement ang_Evaluation 9; Theory: The usual scien— tific interpretation of experienced duration utilizes ”time” concepts of some sort. Theorization on this basis will be avoided here because, as we have seen, mankind is largely confused about the nature of time. Time concepts would introduce an indefensible weakness into the theory. The theory will be constructed on a basis that is entirely obser- vational. Starting with only phenomenal facts present in the ex- periments Just conducted, it seems possible to state that the experience 9;.duration is g_predicate g; phenomenal_change —-. §g__ng£_phenomenal_continuity, The facts indicate that Egg: nomenal continuities tend tg_b§.durationless although_exten— ggg_in_phenomenal_§p§gg. These facts are: 1. All the facts reviewed in the section titled "Mode of Phenomenal Duration Control.“ 2. The fact that all of the phenomenal change and move- ment intervals had to be founded by change to become dura- tions. Had not the phenomenal change and movement intervals occurred and ceased, there would not have been durations available for comparison. The on-off changes provided the condition for the existence of duration. As will be seen later, this basic fact can account for whatever and all dur- ation phenomenal continuities possess. The entire endurance of continuities per se appears to be given by their onset -170- (the recognition of their existence) and offset (realization that continuity no longer exists). 3. The fact that the ratio of “long" to “short" com— pari eons was 1.00 to .55 respectively for both phenomenal durations of phenomenal change and movement when the control of the variables was such as to lead to a prior prediction of equal occurrence (Exp's. 3, 9). Since the Judgments can not be attributed here to differences between the intervals being Judged, it is possible that the impression results from a comparison of the standard and comparison intervals to factors within the experimental setting itself. If this is the case, the re aults are as might be expected since the standard and comparison intervals to factors within the experimental setting itself. If this is the case, the results are as might be ex- Pected since the standard and comparison intervals embody a m°r° rapid rate of change than the "dead" laboratory situation.4 ’4- ‘I'he fact that phenomenal change intervals produced a larger bias toward the "longer" end than phenomenal movement intervals when the change and movement experiments were anal- Ogoue. A breakdown of the differences between Experiments 3, 4 on the one hand and Experiments 9, 10 on the other, show fairly large differences in this regard. The ratio of "long" to "Short" is 1.00 to .64 and 1.00 to .88 respectively. Since Wous experimenters have sugge—Bted that this biasing in Ibigeneral is due to feelings of "strain" or “anticipation... \o s p. 1229.. -171— the phenomenal movement durations yield less biasing toward the ''long“ end than the phenomenal change durations, it in- dicates a “loss of endurance" for the movement condition re- lat ive to the phenomenal change condition. 5. The fact that the data from phenomenal movement experiments 11 and 12 resulted in typical phenomenal change curves (In Figures 22, 23). The points of phenomenal equal- ity are clear and the biasing that occurs is toward the long end unlike all other phenomenal movement functions where clock length is varied). The typical change results are to be eXpected when one realizes that the movement condition provided edge changes as the colors entered and left the screen. The longer the clock length of the movement inter- val, the greater the magnitude of edge changes producedand, hence, the “longer“ the eXperience of duration, while the shorter the clock length of the movement interval, the less the magnitude of change provided and the "shorter“ the ex- perience of duration. (The edge changes are ordinarily in- consequential, but with movement held constant and clock length Varied, differences in the magnitude of phenomenal change is produced.) There are no facts within the 20 experiments reported "huh 8eI‘lously threaten the adequacy of the theoretical stat ement a made. -172- Theoreticgl Reinterpretation 9£_Prior “Time Perception“ Experimentation 5 The introspection experiments of Vierordt, Kollert, Estel, Mehner, Mach, and Meuman demonstrated that definite differences in comparison can be expected to follow definite differences in interval "filling". Gestalt-oriented psychology provided experimentation by Korte, Senussi, Husler, Xastenholz, Desilve, Brown, Cartwright, Hansel, Cohen, and Sylvester, in which definite differences in comparison followed definite differences in field factors such as distance and velocity of movement, and attitude. Even though this abridgement omits from consideration numerous contributions of various ”un- committed" investigators, the results are impressive. Hence, the introductory statement from Woodrow's chapter “Time Per- ception“ in Steven's Handbook to the effect that the out- standing characteristic of prior research is "...the conflict- ing nature of the findings" is not quite accurate. Woodrow was guilty of immoderation. Woodrow, among other things, over- looked two important things: 1. The fact that eXperimentation has consistently pro- vided psychology with the means for production of phenomenal durati on o —§fiThis extension of the theory is attended with extreme difficulty since the various factors which we have been dealing with were ordinarily not satisfactorily isolated in the reports given by earlier workers. -173... 2. The fact that the basis for control of phenomenal duration has been present for many years. What he might perhaps better have said was that prior experimentation failed ig_§gg§_to control phenomenal duration to any significant degree. Such a restatement is in better accord with the scientific tradition since it provides two fresh questions. These questions are: 1. What is the significance of the differences prior experimentalists obtained between compared intervals? 2. Why did the earlier experimentalists fail in fact to control phenomenal duration when the means of production and measurement were present? Our reinterpretation, as any other, must be oriented toward providing answers to these two questions. 111;; Significance 9;; "Mai-99.131129." 5212113336 Using this technique, two intervals, each formed by two consecutive 1mPingements, e.g. clicks, flashes, pricks, etc., are compared. The intervals are termed "filled“ when experimental variables are introduced between the two bounding impingements and ter- med "unfilled'I when nothing but the two bounding impingements are experimentally provided. Hence, one will note that thg_ £12222.22.9roduction and measurement 2; "time perception” using ‘ 6. ‘ In answering the first question, we will primarily deal With the research reviewed earlier (Chapter 2). We will aBaume that these investigations are fairly representative. -174- the “filled-unfilled" technique ip ip all basic respects the same as that followed in the phenomenal duration experiments M de cribed pippp 1133 W 933 defined '91 phenomenal Change. According to the theory, if two intervals, one filled and one unfilled, of equal clock length, should be compared as regards duration, the filled interval should be experienced as being longer than the unfilled since it represents a greater magnitude of phenomenal change. [hp theogy m _t_q adeguat- .911 32.23.5293; the facpg,7 pippg: 1. Hall and Jastrow reported that ”...with ten clicks, the following interval to be Judged equal to it must be ex- I: ended to the time of 14—18 clicks; 15 seemed equal to the tj-me from 16 to 19." 2. EJner and Kraeplin reported that unfilled intervals mu. at be continued longer than intervals filled with metronome beg";t8 ‘30 a.chieve phenomenal equality. 3- Mmunan reported that intervals filled with discon- tin, 110‘“ Bounds showed a reliable positive constant error, i.e. a by ‘33-‘18 toward “longer“ comparisons when the discontinuously ‘/ 7' In addition, C.S. Myers, the only authority to so review I; file time perception problem, says that “...when two sound Shim 4‘11 limit a given interval, and one interval is compared “it‘s. an equal interval, the error of estimation increasing up to a ‘grtain point with the number of sounds filling the inter- val, 18 same holds for a visual and still more markedly for tact-41,91 81311111111." I; Textbook pg Ex erimental PsychologJBrd ed.; flew York: Longmans Green and 50., 1928) p. 297. .21..- --175-- filled variable occurs first, for clock lengths around 10 sec. when these are compared to unfilled intervals were un- reliably compared to unfilled intervals. 4. Gilliksen reported that intervals of 30 sec. filled with metronome beats are overestimated by clock standards. 5. Roloff and Zeeman reported that intervals containing visual targets periodically interrupted were experienced as I'longer" than unfilled intervals. 6. Brown concluded from his data that intervals con- taining movement were experienced as being longer than un- filled intervals. Evidence to be considered possibly against the theory 8 the following: 1. Rosloff and Zeeman reported that a continuously 3 jown Visual target is experienced as having a longer cura- ti, on than a visual target interrupted once during the inter- van—:1- 2. Meuman reported that the difference in the pheno- meflfll durations of filled and unfilled intervals becomes in- are 298111815’ smaller and finally disappears as the clock length of vhe intervals increases. derg cult This agreement is made more impressive when one consi- that the short interval studies provide the most diffi- teet since uncontrolled variations, that under ”longer Late/val" Circumstances would be considered to be of minor -176... importance, are bound to loom large in the results. The Sippiificance 9__f_ the Apparent Movement Results: In Cohen, Sylvester, and Hansel's study,9 three light flashes were consecutively introduced at a rate that produced beta movement. The subJect's task was to compare the phenomenal duration of the movement produced by the flash of the first and second target, to the phenomenal duration of the movement formed by the flash of the second and third target. Thus, we have in effect two filled (filled by "apparent‘I movement) intervals which vary in distance of the movement between ab- ruptions. Hence, one will note that the means pg; producing m measuring duration; 9; apparent movement 1.3 fundamentally the same as that used in the "filled-unfilled“and phenomenal *“*_‘-_— duration studies previously discussed, since the durations are being defined ‘21 @enomengl change. The experimenters found that as the distance of (apparent) movement increased, the clock time between flashes had to be decreased to achieve phenomenal equality, i.e. if the move- ments were disprOportionate in distance but equal in clock length, the greater movement would be experienced as "longer." \ the A f1he confirmation of this statement and the general buteregical reinterpretation of earlier "duration as an attri- "Visuzl the stimulus" studies is to be found in : M. L. Nelson' 8 This Btu Estimate of Time" (Psychol. Rev., IX(1902),o p.p 4474.59) conveni which came to the attention too late to be included "nunfille tly in the manuscript prOper, used long "filled" and ed" intervals. For a description and brief discussion of ”1;“ Bgudy, see Appendix 1. - °hen Sylvester, and Hansel, “Interdependence of Space, T ime, and Movement, " pp. cit. -177- This is what we would expect from the theory _sLince the change $9.. 29.11.2229. 2:33. EELS. 22.5.3.3. L9. 21; w magflitm}: than the garage in realise m the. M 2332. ___close _t__osether.1° “mu" Brown' 3 “time perception“ experiments,11 a black target, square in shape, was inked on a continuous belt and the belt rotated at various rates behind a screen into which various shapes and sizes of apertures had been cut. (The reader should note here that the square does not move across a field “but that the field moves with the target.) The sub- Jects were seated two meters away and were required to ad- Just the velocity of the black square seen moving through a bounded field so that the square seemed to have a duration equal to that of a standard "unfilled“ interval. The nature of the fields was a primary variable since Brown hoped to show that field factors affecting the values of v would have an inverse effect upon t, i.e. that the equation v- s/t would h01d. For this reason some of the crucial field-tar- get s“file-time described by Brown have been drawn to size in 10. COhen, Hensel and Sylvester's eXplanation in terms of movement is weak at best, anyway. It is a well-known em— ptrical fact that one cannot manipulate distance and hold 0 her fGlctors experimentally constant without changing the 333111;? of the beta movement. Korte's laws show apparent congfint to be a result of a complicated interdependence of over long. Cohen, Hansel and Sylvester varied distances the sean 18" range and nowhere mention controlling for any of that tractors. Therefore, it is more than barely possible uall 1:38 quality of movement was not constant, that is, eq- 11' JyF good", for all distances compared. 0 ° - Brown, "On Time Perception in Visual Movement Fields," 1' “\t., pp. 233-248. -178- Figure 46.12 Thus. we have in Brown's experiments: a) an unfilled-filled technique since the duration of a phenomenal (real) visual movement is being compared to the duration of a standard interval given by flashes or clicks; and b) a filling being provided by phenomenal (real) movement and the more subtle ”field factors". Hence, one should note that the means for production and measurement 21; ”time perception" employed pp the “real” movement technigue ip it; impprtant respects the same pp those followed 3;; all the previous p9;- periments discussed lines the compared duratiopp are being defined p1 phenomenal change. According to the theory, the experienced duration of the movement should reflect the magnitude of change it re- presents. Most of the evidence published by Brown on the basis of his experiments indicates that the theory adequately represents the facts, Particularly: 1. In all cases the moving fields were experienced as having longer duration than did the “empty" intervals to which they were compared. To make certain the reader under- stands this important finding, let it be put in another way. Every one of the fields pictured in Figure 1+6, and some not pictured, contained moving black squares. In every case the intervals defined by the appearance and disappearance of these squares constituted a comparison interval. These "filled" 12. In the duration experiments of Brown, the targets moved upwards rather than to the left as shown when Figure 46 is normally oriented as a page. -179... intervals were compared to a standard interval which was de- fined by 2 clicks separated by 2 seconds (the "empty" inter- val ) . In all cases the interval ”filled" with movement and defined by the appearance and disappearance of the square had to be eXposed always somewhat less than 2 seconds (the ex- posure time was cut by increasing the speed) to produce an experience of equal duration. _I_.._e__s_s_ _important evidences in this direction are that: 2. An average of 1&5 seconds of movement (it subJects) was required in condition A (Figure l+6) to match a 2 second “empty“ interval when the field was brightly lighted, while 1.78 seconds was required when the same field was dimlylighted. In order to understand why the brighter condition should pro- duce a longer phenomenal duration than a movement in the dim- mer field, we need to recall that (a) the ground is in motion 88 well. as the target and that (b) the brightly lighted field W111 PPOV1de for a more pronounced background texture and steeper light gradients at the borders than the dimly lighted field.1:3 Since this is so, the texture and target leaving the field bounds will produce progressively greater changes as the field-target situation is brightened because: (a) the borders and teXture of the field become progressively more articulated; and (13).. the contrast between the moving field with its target b ecomes progressively greater. Hence, the theory fits the T.\ .3.__ — 3 J'J- Gibson, The—Perception pg the Visual World(B08t0n= Houghton Mifflin Co., 1950). PP- 77-115- -180- facts because the greater change accompanying the movement in the brighter field yields an experience of longer dura- tion than an equal length movement in the dimer field.14 3. An average of 1.36 seconds of movement (3 subJects) was required in field D to match the 2 seconds "empty" inter- val, as against .96 seconds when the width of this field was held constant and the length doubled, as against .52 seconds when the width was constant and the field was quadrupled in length. To understand why the phenomenal duration should vary with the field length, we need only recognize that there was in essence an increase in the magnitude of change in the sys- tem as the distance of movement was increased since the same texture and edge gradients are in effect here as in the ex- periment discussed above. Hence, again we find a general agreement with the theory since an increase in the magnitude of change in the system again has occasioned a consistent increase in phenomenal duration of the movement. 4. An average of 1.46 seconds of movement (3 subJects) 1.4. was required in field A to match the 2 second "empty" interval, This ex lanation is rendered even more likely by the fact that Kulpes' summary of the early studies of duration includes the statement to the effect that an interval which is bounded by two more intensive sound impressions will be taken to be shorter than identical clock interval bounded by weaker sounds. (0p. cit., p. 388). also lends credence to the theory. later work by Woodrow (1928) For example, when he inves- tigated the influence of duration of the initial and terminal sounds upon estimation of short empty intervals he found that lengthening either the initial or terminal sound caused the interval to be Judged longer. ("Behavior with Respect to Short Temporal Stimulus Forms, " 1. Exp. Psychol. , XI(1928),PP.167—193. ) i1] --181- as against 1.16 sec. for field B. It can be seen that field A has double the dimensions of field B while the target re— main of constant size. Hence, the findings are in general agreement with the theory sincea change of target position in B is of greater magnitude relative to the system than an analogous change in A and since this difference leads to a "longer" phenomenal duration in field B. (We are assuming here that the target has prepotence over the ground, i.e. the tex- ture gradients.) Minor evidence possibly against the theory are the fol- lowing facts: 1. An average of 1.74 seconds of movement (3 subjects) was required in field A to match the 2 second “empty” inter- val, as against 1.66 seconds for field D, as against 1.68 seconds for a field midway between A and D. Since the targets are reduced proportionately from one field to the other, phe- nomenal change would be equal relative to the systems and one would predict on the basis of the theory that identical values would be obtained under each condition. Hence, the small dif- ferences, since they are reliable, seem to stand against the theory. These differences, however, might be accounted for by doubting the assumption that prOportional reductions have been in fact made. This doubt is bolstered by the fact that Brown reports that decreases in the physical size of the apertures were not followed by identical decreases in the phenomenal size of the openings. - 182 - 2. An average of 1.71 second (3 subjects) of movement was required in field A as against 1.95 seconds in field 0 to match the 2 second "empty" interval. This result seems to run counter to the theory since the duration marked by the targets in condition C would seem to subtend a larger mag- nitude of change than a similar occurrence in field A. How- ever, there is reason to doubt that we are in fact dealing with analogous systems since the targets in C cannot be clearly distinguished from the border at the distance used for observation.15 15. A recent study by Smith and Sherlock lends support to our contentions. They reproduced Brown‘s condi- tion for the study of velocity and concluded that the phenomenal velocity of movement was determined by the frequency at which the objects left their bounded fields. Smith, O.M., and Sherlock, L., A New Explanation for the Velocity-transposition Phe- nomenon, Amer. J. Psychol., 70, 195?, 102-105. -183- .edeon on 85.3 $703 39:653.“. «.855 .h .h we ncaauanoneuaen 4 .3 earn - 184 - Significance g£_Part Failures 9£_Phenomena1 Duration Control: The answer to the question, "Why did the earlier experimentalists fail in fact to control phenomenal duration when the means of production and measurement were present?“ Can now be answered. The answer does not lurk too far beneath the surface. The failure appears to be closely related to the psychologists assumptions that “time" is the central and important psychological problem, not phenomenal duration. Speaking bluntly the questions asked seem, at bottom, to have been either,'Why doesn't man behave like a clock?" or ”In what way is man like a clock?“ The Gestalt oriented psychologist, expounding the thesis of psychophysical iso- morphism, sought to demonstrate in the most spectacular fashion possible, the multitude of possible correlations between clock-time on the one hand and experienced durations and field factors on the other hand. These variations of course demanded a particular “dynamic" psychology to explain. The psychologist of introspection on the other hand, questing for mental elements to rebuild experience embraced the second question and searched for a mental unit of ”time“. On the ‘basis of the facts one might reply to the question in a gen- eral way by saying that the failures are rooted in the in- ability of all concerned to distinguish between problems of psychology and physics, i.e., duration and clock time. This failure, as we have seen, inevitably led to inappropriate investigations, inability to appreciate the significance _ 185 - of the bulk of experimental data and, consequently, failure to control the relevant variables. The implications of this criticism will become clearer after the relationship between time and duration have been explored. This topic is to be considered on another occasion. omp'rss v SUMMARY ~ 186 - Summary Surveying the inquiry as a whole we find that it has had a two-fold character. The main consideration has been adequate description and discussion of a complex series of experiments. The secondary consideration has been of a more general nature, namely, that of appraising the overall scape of the problem of phenomenal duration. The secondary problem was closely related to the first however, for by fulfilling the secondary aim we hoped to clarify our position with respect to the problem of duration in a way that would allow for the possibility of a positive, self-sufficient approach to the empirical data. The second problem necessarily re- ceived priority in order of treatment. Adequate definition of the phenomenal variables of du- ration, change, and movement was the initial problem faced. Inquiry into the various alternatives indicated that: l. A phenomenal term can be self-sufficient, i.e. refer to a fact, providing that it is possible to recognize the term asserted on an empirical level. 2. Phenomenal duration can not in fact at present be satisfactorily defined in any other way, i.e. neither in terms 1xf‘time concepts nor in terms of introspective or overt be- havior concepts of duration. _ 137 _ 3. Adequate definitions of these variables had not been made upon an empirical level. Once the general possibility of direct phenomenal mean- ing was allowed for, specific possibilities were posed and the following three definitions were decided upon. 1. Phenomenal duration was taken to mean “the for—me endurance of an external event.” 2. Phenomenal change was taken to be "a condition in which some identifiable thing is evolving. In such a condi- tion most of the parts, but not all, are the same on the two occasions of observation.“ 3. Phenomenal movement was taken to be "a system of things in which the things have a continuity and direction relative to one another. Such a system is totally different upon two occasions of observation.'I These empirical meanings were then given Operational re- ferences. The experimental problem itself dealt with the possible interdependence between phenomenal change and duration on the one hand and phenomenal movement and duration on the (other. Prior research was not, for a number of reasons no- ted, of much value in framing expectancies concerning the relationship. - 188 - Two hypotheses were put to the test. These hypotheses were: 1. Phenomenal duration will vary as a function of phe- nomenal change. 2. Phenomenal duration will vary as a function of phe- nomenal movement. In order to test these hypotheses an instrumental means for producing various phenomenal changes, movements, and dur- ations was necessary. The instruments invented, provided a means for measuring and controlling as well as producing the phenomenal variables. Nineteen studies were reported in all. In these studies a modified “method of comparisonI was used. Considering these studies in order, they concerned: 1. The scaling of phenomenal change. 2. The scaling of phenomenal movement. 3,4,5,6,7. Selection of a standard interval of pheno- menal change. 8. A study of the interdependence between rate of phe- nomenal change and phenomenal duration. 9,10,11,12,13. Selection of a standard interval of phe~ nomenal movement. 14A,1QB. Studies of the interdependence between rate of phenomenal movement and phenomenal duration. -189... 15,16. The phenomenal duration of movement systems into which accelerations or decelerations have been introduced. 17. The phenomenal duration of a kaleidoscOpe when var- ious continuities are introduced. 18. The phenomenal duration of a movement system where various changes are introduced. The results of these studies lead to the general conclu- sions that: l. Phenomenal change, movement, and duration can be produced and measured in experimental situations. 2. That phenomenal change, movement, and duration can be controlled. 3. That one mode of controlling phenomenal duration is via phenomenal change control. Thi§_confirmed hypo- thesis ;. 4. That phenomenal duration can not be effected via control of phenomenal movement. This disconfirmed hypothesis 2. Generalizing from these results a theoretical statement termed the Theogy g§_Phenomenal Duration was made. This theory stated two things: 1. The experience of duration is a predicate of pheno- menal change but not phenomenal continuity. _190_ 2. Phenomenal continuities are durationless although extended in phenomenal space while phenomenal changes are both durations and extended in phenomenal space. The Theogy g§_Phenomenal Duration_was then put to the test. It apparently can successfully account for lack of harmony in the results of prior "time perception“ studies which used: 1. The filled-unfilled eXperimental technique. 2. The apparent movement experimental technique. 3. The real movement experimental technique. Despite a rather lengthy treatment, neither the empiri- cal nor the theoretical aspect has been exhaustively treated. There are many additional studies yet to be undertaken. More- over our criticism of alternative out1ooks did not lead to a satisfactorily elaboration of the relationship of phenomenal duration to "time". Nonetheless we have encountered impor- tant facts, suggested several principles, and proposed a theory to account for these principles. PART II FATIGUE AND DISORGANIZATION OF PERFORMANCE -191.- I venture the guess that there is not a member of this association but has made fatigue the subject of dir- ect, indirect, or projected investigation. Certainly few psychological subjects have so widely interested investi- gators in the allied sciences. Few seem to have at once such far-reaching bearings on psychological theory and the conduct of human affairs. Few present such a bewil- dering literature, with such an array of apparently mu- tually contradictory experimental results. None is more confused with an equal pressure for practical working rules. Raymond Dodge Presidential address before the American Psychological Associa- tion, New York meeting, December, 1916. CHAPTER VI THE PROBLEM OF FATIGUE - 192 _ Introduction The second part of this paper concerns the personal variable1 fatigue (tiredness). Primarily, it is an inves- tigation into the relation phenomenal duration and change, bear to fatigue. The assumption is that the phenomenal relationships established within Part I have something im- portant to do with the emergence of fatigue within a situ- ation. If this assumption should hold, then, because these phenomenal states are measurable, it could for the first time open the way to the possibility of expressing a gen- uinely personal experience in a strictly quantitative non- qualitative way. Moreover this measuration will have taken place, as we shall see by the definitions to follow, with- out having taken recourse at any point to specious redefi- nition of any variable, personal or phenomenal. Incidental to the main problem, this part of the pa— per will also deal with the relation of fatigue to two overt behavior variables, the work performance variables of discrimination rapidity and accuracy. This excursion T. An extended discussion of the matters of fact with which a scientific psychology must deal has been made by T. Nelson in an unpublished paper titled, "A Factual Basis for the Sys- tematization of Scientific Psychology." This paper attempted to distinguish and provide useful and epistemalogically,res- pectable foundations for "personal,“ "phenomenal," and "overt behavior” variables. Briefly, the “personal“ responses are experiential events localized.within the observer, the ”phe- nomenal" responses eXperiential events that have reference to external non-organismic occurrences, usually to "objects" of some sort, and the “overt behavior" responses are non-ex- periential events, that can be observed in other organisms by a qualified observer. -193— was made for two reasons. First, it was made because the relation between fatigue and work behavior is highly uncertain if not unknown. Secondly, it was highly desir- able, if not imperative, to use a common reference point for the subjects' report of fatigue. An obvious and use- ful point of reference is a task of some sort and this task may as well be of a kind that will yield useful data on another dimension of the human problem. DEFINITION Q§_FATIGUE Ordinarily providing a scientifically satisfactory definition of a personal variable, such as fatigue, would occasion difficulties at least as great as we found to be the case for duration. There can be no doubt that through the years the term has come to do too many services.2 2. Orderly growth and permutation, the important and commonly accepted distinguishing trademarks of fruitful scientific concepts, are conspicuously absent here. S.H. Bartley and Eloise Chute within the classic of this area, Fatigge gag Impairment ig_Man, have pointed this out. They say the following regarding the plethora of reference: "In the history of experimental study of fatigue, several trends have been obvious. The first of these is toward a variety of diverse viewpoints. Much of this di- versity has arisen from the variety of branches of science represented by the investigators. Fatigue, for the physio— logist, was something pertaining to muscle and nerve acti- vity. Fatigue, for the biochemist, also pertained to the tissues, but was studied in terms of chemistry. Fatigue, for the psychologist, had more varied interpretations, per- haps most commonly pertaining to performance, studied in terms of work output. Occasionally, in psychology, fatigue was seen as being somehow allied to the subjective. Fatigue for the physician, especially for the psychiatrist, was usually seen as subjective, although its basis was often sought in physiology. Thus instead of all branches of _ 194 _ Research published by Bartley and Chute greatly modi- fies the anticipated difficulty, however. This source, Fatigge §3g_Impairment i§_fl§g,3 constitutes an investiga— tion into fatigue as a matter of fact and into fatigue as a theoretical tool, i.e. into fatigue as a concept. The end result has been the production of a clear-cut, suffi- ciently broad, provisional definition for the term. Hence, the criteria quoted below satisfy the present requirements of scientific psychology directly and these will be the distinctions that will serve us here. Fatigue: This is what Bartley and Chute say of the most impor- tant factual referent of fatigue: "Fatigue as an unpleasant experience has entered into the life of everyone. For the one who is tired, the feelings experienced §§g_the fatigue. This is how they describe the larger organismic event char- acterized by this eXperience: "Fatigue i§_§_p§§§.9§.the iggévidual's stance with reference to activity, whether the activity is vigorous exertion, the assump— science actually studying component phases or aspects of a single phenomenon, many kinds of fatigue came to be assumed. In many instances these assumptions with such definitions as were made had little to do with each other. There was also a trend toward applying the term fatigue to all sorts of systems, and even to inanimate objects, such as metals.” Bartley, S)H. and Chute, E.(New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1947 p. 2 3: S.H. Bartley and E. Chute, Fatigue and Impairment ;E_y22_(New York: McGraw Hill Book Co., 1947). 4. Ibid., p. 1 -195— tion of an attitude toward a proposition, the maintenance of a posture, or merely the need for staying awake, etc. Fatigue involves aver— sion and a feeling of unwillingness and inade- quacy for activity. This aversion, when analy- zed, can be seen to arise out of personal con- flict and to be an expression of frustration.5 Fatigue ggbpersonal. Fatigue pertains to the individual as a whole. Fatigue is consis- tent with the individual's ideals, goals, etc., and with his evaluation of himself. Conditions for fatigue are unique to the individual. The dynamics of fatigue cannot be adequately des- cribed in other than personal terms. Fatigge is an outcome of conflict. The or- ganization of the individual is not so simple as to constitute singleness of desire or ten- dency. Conflicts are constantly developing, and at any one time many conflicts exist in an indi- vidual. Conflict cannot be avoided in active situations, and conflict thwarts action. Many conflicts find resulution in appropriate action, others are very poorly resolved, and still others fail to find resolution at all. Pervasive bodily discomfort is one of the most frequent outcomes. Following its onset the individual becomes in- creasingly certain of the apprOpriateness of changing his present behavior. When relief of bodily discomfort is prevented and action is thwarted, fatigue commonly develops.7 Fatigge ig_cumulative. Fatigue arises at a level of organization which must be dealt with in terms that reach beyond the immediate situa- tion. Fatigue developed on one occasion is lékely to be revived when a similar occasion arises. Fatigue' 8 onset and recovegy gay_be sudden. While impairment is a condition that is more or less gradually reached and recovered from, this is not always the case with fatigue. It is com- mon knowledge that individuals do suddenly feel 6. 7. 8. Ibid. Ibid. Ibid. -196... tired and quite as quickly experience release from fatigue. Fatigue can come and go nearly as rapidly as an individual is able to shift from one frame of mind to a different one.9 Fatigue is never specific to a given bog1_ member. It, in other words, isfl never localized, but is general. Bodily sensations, such as feelings of discomfort, can, of course, be 10- calized, but it is only the individual as such that can eXperience fatigue.” It should be noticed here that "fatigue" and "tired— ness" are not necessarily identities. This mistaken inter- pretation is habitually made. Bartley and Chute were not merely arguing about the use g§_§_word, rather they were urging psychology to face an important and neglected matter of fact. The two terms can be separated in the following manner.11 Tiredness is the eXperienced component of the organ- ismic event "fatigue". This experience is the manifestation and the nave of a peculiar organismic occurrence. Thus, one can say that there is no fatigue without tiredness. Fatigue, on the other hand, while it must include tiredness, includes as well the organic strains produced by the "dis- organization" occurring with the central nervous system (what Bartley calls "stress" or "conflict of dominance", or sometimes "dual dominance“), the energy exchanges taking 10. Ibid. . 11. In all fairness, it must be said that Bartley and Chute did not make this distinction clear in Fatigge and Impairment in Man. Personal conversation with the senior author however, indicates to me that in the present, and in his case at least, some such discussion is desirable if not absolutely mandatory. _ 197 - place at a receptor cell level between the organism and the external world, and finally, the specific or characteris- tic external situation itself accompanying the tiredness. Other Variableg: In addition, Bartley and Chute distinguish between fatigue and impairment, work output, boredom, and monotony. ing: Regarding impairment and fatigue they say the follow- ”...........impairment will p__used tg_refer §g_speg;fic tissue conditions. Impairment is a physiological change in tis— sue which reduces its ability to participate in the larger aspects of organic functioning. Im- pairment is identifiable only through the methods of physiology and biochemistry. Reduction in the ability of the organism, as a whole to perform, is no criterion for the presence of impairment. Unlike fatigue, impairment is never directly experienced. The presence of impairment, like that of other physiological changes, cannot be deduced introspectively. It is well known that bodily functions may become diminished or distor- ted, and that even pain may arise, in the absence of tissue impairment. Despite this, it has been customary even among sOphisticated individuals to deduce the presence of impairment from overt behavior or from bodily feelings. The bodily com- ponents that form a part of the experience of fa— tigue are ng accurate sign of the presence of im- pairment."l Regarding work output and fatigue they say this: "The term work output has been identified both with impairment and with fatigue. Although there is little confusion about the meaning of 12. Bartley and Chute, 92, cit., p. 48-49. _ 193 - the term itself, many difficulties lie in the broad applications of the concept. Work 9337 pg£_includes §;;_overt activity that ;§_measured either in the laboratory or in industry. Work output is of immediate interest only in practical situations. In studies of produc- tivity, external conditions may be systematically varied and the changes in work output noted. How- ever, inferences about the organism made from studies of this sort are not justified. In deal- ing with fatigue and impairment, we are attempting to come to a knowledge of the individual organ- ism. Since work output can give little clue to what is happening within the organism, it is un- fortunate that productivity has been used as a measure of fatigue and impairment. When the at- tempt is made to relate organismic behavior to external conditions, it must be recognized that the overt response of the moment may not be re- is lated to the physical world in any simple way.13 , Regarding boredom and fatigue this is said: Frequently when fatigue is used synonymously with impairment, the experiential aspect of the indi- vidual's response to certain situations is termed "boredom". Introspection reveals that a bored individual attributes his state to environmental events, whereas a fatigued individual lays the blame for his condition on himself. It is felt that merely escaping the situation will alleviate boredom and that it is therefore more transient than fatigue. It might be said that both boredom and fatigue are stances taken by the individual toward situations confronted. Fatigue, however, is by far the broader term. While boredom may form a part of the fatigue picture, the reverse is not possible."14 They say of monotony: “The term “monotony" suggests sustained and unpleasant gameness. Both intricate and simpler tasks can become tedious, but is is usually sim- ple, repetitious tasks that become monotonous. 13. 1212:. P- 49 14. Ibid., p. 55. - 199 - Monotony is a general characteristic that may be imputed to the work at hand. It is a term used to label the individual's perception of his surroundings, and although often spoken of as belonging to the situation, can imply no fixed relation between situation and experience. Work is characterized as monotonous by an indi- vidual, and that which is monotonous for one may be quite interesting for another. Any sort of work at one time or another may become unplea- sant, tedious or monotonous. Our purpose here is not to further identify monotony, but to analyze it in order to see how it contributes to fatigue. Work is judged tedious or monotonoug when it loses its importance to tho worker."1J Qperational_definitio§_g£_fatigue: A general characterization of fatigue has been given. It is now necessary to describe possible experimental eq— uivalents of the term. In the past, experimenters have relied upon either periodic introspective reports during a task performance or periodic reports of degrees of feeling tone as expres— sed on a quantitative scale of some sort.16 Neither of these methods is very satisfactory from the present writer's vieWpoint, for many reasons. The introspective method suffers in three ways. First, the assumption seems to be that fatigue is always a condi— tion that is gradually reached and from which one slowly 1’. Ibid., p. 340. 16. A.B. Bills, "Studying Motor Functions and Efficiency,“ Methods QQDPsychology, ed. by T.G. Andrews (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1948), pp. 459-467. - 200 - recovers. This confusion is natural if one thinks of fatigue as a manifestation of impairment rather than disorganization. Nonetheless, the fact is that the on- set and recovery of fatigue is very often sudden. Thus, methodological artifacts are introduced by the collection of periodic introspective reports. Fatigue can occur and wane without being reported, and, once reported, may not persist simply because the task is continued. Second, the procedure of periodic report also demands that some assumption be made regarding the effect of these "laborb atory interruptions" upon the continuous work. We have already seen that abruptions or change have an important effect upon experienced duration and what reason is there to suspect that these same factors will have no effect upon fatigue? Then, there is the ancient semantic problem to consider. Just what fact does the observer refer to vflden he is forced to report and says "tired"; "a little tired"; "very tired"; etc.? There is, of course, no poss- ibility of knowing whether he means the same thing each time he uses a given description, particularly as the task continues. A shifting of reference is one of the acknowledged dangers of unstandardized introspections. The use of rating scales is widespread and lessens the semantic danger referred to above. Poffenberger 17 17. A.T. Poffenbergera "Effect of Continuous Work on Output and Feelings, J. Appl. Psychol., XI (1928), pp. 459-497. - 201 - and Thorndike 18 used "feeling tone" scales to express fatigue in their studies. No doubt a 5 or 7 point graphic scale, ranging from "the greatest aversion to continuing work I have ever felt", to "the least aversion to contin- uing work I have ever felt," presents less ambiguity and greater reliability than uncontrolled report. Nonetheless there are serious problems to be confronted here too by the experimenter who decides to use this method. The ex- perimenter must take into account errors in rating. Even— tually the ratings must be translated into a common distri- bution in order to make the results comparable from one subject to another. Fairly, large numbers of subjects must be used. The problem of application of the normal sistribution curve to fatigue descriptions must also be resolved. When and if these problems are satisfactorily met, we still have the two introspective problems before us. When shall the reports be obtained during the work session so as not to serve as a "distraction“ and so as not to ”interrupt" the "continuity" of the task? What assumptions about fatigue are necessary before one can make use of these scales? In the present case the attempt will be to limit the description of fatigue to a single simple, clearly under— stood fact. The individual will only have to rate his ‘personal stance once and this will be in a way universally 18. G.L. Thorndike, "Curve of Work and Satisfyingness," g5 Appl. Psychol., 1 (1917), pp. 265-267. - 202 - understood. The subject will be required to indicate when he becomes too tired to continue. Under this plan the eXperiment need not be interrupted for reports. There will be no attempt to measure fatigue directly by means of any rating device. We shall see later that this decision does not exclude fatigue from the category of measurable phenomena however. Through the years, the physical sciences have succeeded quite well using indirect quantitation. ngrationally-§hgg, fatigue gi;l.pg_consideg§d.tg_ pg §h§_compliance 9§_the subject $§_§2_experimental set- Eigg 3:3 the foljlcowing instructions, "_Y_g_u_ gag 33 M §._1_;_ 2.13.1.3. M until, by reason 9_f_ tirednessjlqg 93;; 391 32 on." We will now turn to review previous work related to the task outlined in the Introduction of Part II. CHAPTER VII CONTEMPORARY WORK ON THE PROBLEM OF FATIGUE _ 203 - Prior Ex2erimental_Work. The lack of agreement concerning the empirical ref— (erent of fatigue severely reduces the literature poten- tially available for review. It was a major contribution of Bartley and Chutel to show that most of the publications, purporting to deal with fatigue, have nothing at all detec- table to do with tiredness. On the basis of a later re- view by Bartley 2 in 1956, and on the basis of a personal independent review of the literature written after 1947, the year Fatigue and Impairment ;3_M§g.appeared, and in spite of a noticeable improvement in the situation, this must still be said. The area was, and is still hamstrung, by a specious and misguided operationalism that precludes the bulk of work from haVing any relevance to fatigue as a matter of fact. We will assess the literature available in two ways. First we will consider the phenomenal correlates of fati- gue. Secondly, we will consider motor discrimination and reaction time and fatigue. Phenomen§l_variables correlated.with fatigge: There is no experimental work reported that relates phenomenal duration, change, or movement to fatigue as a l. Bartley and Chute, gp, cit. 2. S.H. Bartley “Fatigue and Inefficiency,“ Egzsiol. Rev., XXXVII (1957 . PP. 301-324. - 204- personal variable. Moreover, the researches relating any sort of phenomenal variable to fatigue are disappointingly limited. What there is will be briefly summarized. The phenomenal variable, most frequently used, has been that of flicker fusion. Typically, workers have at- tempted to show that the flash rate necessary to produce an eXperience of steady illumination will undergo some con- tinuous and characteristic modification, which will permit the fusion level to be used as an index of the individual's self appraisal of his ability to continue in the performance of a task, or as an index of the task performance itself. Bartley and Chute reviewed the CFF work reported prior to 1946, especially the work of Lee and of Simonson, Enger, 3 and Blankenstein, and were not able to discover any such system of relationships. Neither did the later experimental reports of Bujas, Petz, and Krhovica show CFF to be reliably related to fatigue. Researches that have related fatigue to a more general phenomenal situation, rather than to some isolated, simple perceptual discrimination have been somewhat more success- ful. In this connection, Gross and Bartley5 report the results of interviews with a group of six housewives who 3. Bartley and Chute, pp, p;§,, pp. 161-162. 4. Z. Bujas, B. Petz, and A. Krhovic, “Can the Critical Flicker Frequency of Fusion of Interrupted Electrical Stimulation of the E e Serve as a Test of Fatigue,I 5gp. Egg? Rada., 111(1952 , pp. 428—438. 5. I.H. Gross and S.H. Bartley, “Fatigue in Houseoare,“ g, App . Psychol., XXXV(1951), pp. 205-207. complained that “great fatigue“ was attendant with their household work. Their interviews showed that these women were characteristically “bewildered" by household clutter. In another study, LittleJohn6 studied occular tiredness associated with typewriting. He found a relation to exist between certain selected degrees of angle of typewriting capy and ocular tiredness. Despite this, 50 of the on sub- Jects did not eXpress a consistent preference for any one of the three “non-flat copy" positions. Neither did the data show any clear superiority in terms of fewer errors of angle over another. Motor response latency, agguracy Q§_discrimination. and fatigue. We stated in the Introduction to Part 2 that, in addi- tion to the primary phenomenal variables, certain overt be- havior variables are to be related to the personal variable fatigue. The variables selected have been those of reaction time and discrimination accuracy. The literature dealing with reaction time is copious and has been periodically reviewed. In all, there are well above 200 separate article references, with many of the ol- der references encompassing several studies, as well as 6. V.T. LittleJohn, “Relationship Between Selected Degrees of Angle of Typewriting Copy and Ocular Fatigue in Type- writing," Abstracts g£_Doctoral Dissertationg, 1948, university of Pittsburg, pp. 290-301. - 206 - numerous whole chapters in eXperimental handbooks and man- uals.7 Nevertheless, the literature available for review in our case is surprisingly limited. Host of the early liter- ature seems to be concerned with theoretical introspective problems, problems of mental structure and function, while more recent work attempts primarily relate to work produc- tivity, aging, nerve physiology and alterations of response. time. Some of these studies will be referred to later in another connection. For the present, however, several com- paratively early studies are all that merit attention. The work of Wells, Kelley and Murphy8 is most notable in this respect, although poorly reported and probably poor- ly controlled. Their procedure was simple. A.“non-exhaus— 7. The best of the general reviews of reaction time are provided by: H.K. Johnson, "Reaction time measurements,“ gpychol. Bull. XX(1923), pp. 562-589; R.H. Woodworth, Experimental—Psychology (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1938); W.H. Teichner, Recent Studies of Simple Reaction Time,“ Psychol. Bull., LI(1954), pp. 128-149. An excellent review of the early history of reaction time is provided by V.A.C. Henmon in "The Psychological Re- searches of James McKeen Cattell,“ Arch. Psychol., IV,No.u, pp 0 1-34 0 Two other specialized reviews have also been made. They are: J.L. Fenau, S.C. Finan and L.D. Hartson, é_Review 2;, Representative Conditionp_Related pp.Aircraft Flight. Day- ton,0hio, U.S. Air Material Command, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, IV(1949), U.S.A.F. Tech. Rep. No. 5830,; and G. Forlano, J.E. Barmark, and J.D. Coakley, “The Effect of Am- bient and Body Temperature upon Reaction Time,“ Special §g£r vices Center Report No. 151-1-13, 1948. 8. F.L. Wells, 0.x. Kelley, and G. Murphy, “Effects Simu- lating Fatigue in Simple Reactions,“ g, Egp, Psychol., _ 207 - ting" reaction task was used. The subJects were required to press a telegraph key when an eXpected signal, either visual or auditory, appeared. The experiment was divided into halves, both halves requiring the subjects to make 54 reactions to light and the same number to sound, a to- tal of 108 responses per half. The signals were not given rapidly since they report that “about 40 minutes" was re- quired for the total experiment, including a mid-point ”pause of perhaps 90 seconds.'..This means a signal on the average, every 11 seconds. The simple reaction times recorded from 13 subjects and the 2 experimenters (K. and W.) during the first half of the experiment, were compared to the reaction times recorded during the second half. Their resume of the response time data appears in tables 8 and 9.9 Table 8 PER CENT. WHICH THE QUARTILE RATIOS OF THE FIRST HALF.ARE QDARTILE RATIOS OF THE ENTIRE EXPERIMENT. SubJects A—Group K W AVsococoooooosooooosooeoosco 49.9 50.2 49.8 MVOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 1.2 .7 .4 — 208 — Table 9 PER CENT. WHICH THE REACTION TIME SCORE IN THE SECOND HALF OF THE EXPERIMENT IS OF THE SCORE IN THE FIRST HALF Subjects A-group (13 persons)#t’ AW . ................. 104. 105-1. 106-3 fi'........................... 4.? 4.8 3.5 These response time data were in turn related to introspec- tive reports given by one subject (w) and to general obser- vations of the overt behavior of the remainder. The experi- menter, as subject ”H“ reported that he experienced increas- ing "logeyness' and found it “the most ennuyant of eXperi- ments"1°. The overt behavior observations, gathered showed “increasing sommolency, yawning or stretching, etc.“ This led the experimenters to conclude the following regarding the latter part of the experiment: ---"In sum, the present experimental condi- tions are such as to make the reaction times in the second half of a forty-minute experiment, av- erage 105 per cent of those in the first half. These conditions, with their moderate work and ample rests pretty well exclude exhaustion in the lower nervous arcs and allow a monotony effect to appear in relatively pure form.“1 Cattell's early work (1885) at Leipzig is also of in- terest. Cattell made two rather extended investigations, 9. Charts taken from Ibid., p. 138 10. Ibid., p. 139. 11. Ibid., p. l#1 _ 209 - using himself and another student (B) as subjects. The first study used simple reactions to lights and sounds and a discriminative reaction, reporting the names of letters. The first eXperiment was conducted as follows: Three task lengths were used for each type signal. One series was comprised of 16 units, another of 26 units, and another of 200 units. Each series of each length was repeated 30 times and averages taken. The published results generally support Cattell's conclusion that the response latencies increased with time. His tables show that the first reactions of each series were the shortest, although these differences were "not great." Percentage-wise the final reactions in Cattell's light leries average 122 per cent of his initial reaction time, although B's show no appreciable increase. Neither show any differences in the sound series. In the discrimin— ative reactions both show relatively large reaction time in- creases. Cattell's are 113 per cent and 8'3 131 per cent of those recorded in the initial series.12 Cattell in the same article also reports the results of an investigation into the effects of long periods of work upon reaction times. The tasks consisted of signaling when a light, letter, or sound appeared and of naming a letter, word, and color. Excluding short interruptions for meals 12. E.B. Cattell, “The influence of Attention, Fatigue, and Practice on the Duration of Cerebral Operations,“ Mind, XI (1886). pp. 534-538. - 210 - each subject made 1950 reactions. Cattell began at 7:30 A.M. and stopped at 1:30 A.M., while B began at 7:30 A.M. and stopped at 11:00 A.M. No introspective reports were publis- hed but the tables show a slight increase in reaction time for Cattell on each task late in the day and a general but slight increase for B.13 or greater interest is the fact that when single repeat series were fun at 8:30 A.M. and 8:30 P.M. the next day and the day after, the response laten— cies generally remained well above the previous starting and stopping limits. In one type of reaction B's time was still about 117 per cent above the beginning point. Cattell says regarding these results that: ”The brain substance concerned in the simple reaction seems to have been so far ex- hausted that his reaction time remained abnor— mally long for two days.'1“ Finally, Woodrow15 in a 1914 monograph, TQpDMeasurement p§_Attention, contains data related to our problem. The re- search referred to did not directly concern fatigue and re- action time but rather concerned the relation of simple re- action time to the length and character of the preparatory period. Reaction times were studied via the following two procedures. Under plan “A“ response time measurements were made to 30 visual signals with a 2 second preparatory period. This activity was followed by a brief rest. The rest was 13. For some reason no reports were published of reaction times after 8:50 P.M. l4. Cattell, pp, géjp,p. 538. 15. H. Woodrow, ”The Measurement of Attention,“ Psychol. 5219, V (1914). 158 pp. - 211 - was followed by a sequence of 30 additional visual signals with preparatory intervals varying.from 4 to 20 seconds. Un— der plan "B“ the Opposite order was used (the irregular pre- paratory periods preceded the rest period). Each of these experhmental sequences, including the rests, occupied an hour. A total of 72 separate sequences were run on 2 prac— ticed subjects (36 per subject). This made available 4,320 responses for averaging. This countervalanced design allows one to compare the reaction times under a given type of pre- paratory interval both.before and after a period of perfor— mance and rest. The averages of these 2 subjects are pre— sented in tables 10 and 11:15 Table 10 AVERAGE REACTION TIME AND MEAN VARIATION IN THOUSANDS OF A SECOND WHEN THE SUBJECTS WERE FRESH. W 2 sec. Prgparapipn_ eregplgr_ firgpgpapipn_ - Eezn- - -Mean-Y_. Mean Mean L Subject 1 205 19 309 31 Subject 2 193 20 281 27 Table 11 AVERAGE REACTION TIME AND MEAN VARIATION IN THOUSANDS OF A SECOND WHEN THE SUBJECTS HAD ALREADY PERFORMED. .2.fi§9af:.2?§P§?§5l92._;£PESBJEP_NEFEP§?3tipéfl. Mean Mean 2, Mean Mean _, Subject 1 227 21 325 g 37 Subject 2 205 22 286 30 15. Both tables prepared from Woodrow's data, Table XVII, Ibid., p. 130. - 212 - If one compares the data from the "fresh“ to "already performed” condition, a small increase in both reaction time and mean variability is readily apparent for both sub- jects (205 to 22?, 19 to 21, 309 to 325, etc.). Other data Woodrow presents shows, however, as did Cattell's, that a regular increase did not occur when an auditory rather than a visual reaction signal was used. We will now turn to a more detailed statement of the present problem.16 16. The relation of general work productivity to fatigue has been the object of more direct and intensive study. An investigation by C.T. Yaokum in 1909 includes 7 pages of in- trospective reports given by subjects after short intervals of work.('An Ex erimental Study of Fatigue,” Psychol. 321., XI, No. 3(1909) . T. Arai's work in 1912 is generally con- sidered as a classic in this area(“Mental Fatigue “ Teacher's Colle e Qplumbia, Contributions pp_Education. LIV(1912),pp. 1-1151. E.L. Thorndyke in 1917 published a short paper iving the results of a direct investigation into the problem %“Curve of Work and Satisfyingness,” g, Appl. Psychol., l(l9l7).Pp. 265—267). B. Muscio did the same type of prOblem in 1921, ('Feelingtone in Industry," Brit. g, Psychol.,XII(1921),pp. 150-162). This was followed by a similar study by A.J. Pof- fenberger in 1928, ("Effect of Continuous Work on Output and Feelings,“ g, Appl. Psychol,(l928). pp. 459-467). A short general review of some of this earlier work is provided by A. Bills in 1934, (General EXperimental Psychology.(New York: Longman, Green, and Cb., 1933). More recently, work on this tapic is reported in the fol- lowing articles: Z.L. Huxtable, M.H. White and M.A. McCartor, “A re-performance and Re-interpretation of the Arai Experiment in Mental Fatigue with Three Subjects, Psychol. Monogr. XXII (1946), pp. 181-192; D.B. Tyler,“The.Effect of Amphetamine Sulfate and Some Barbituates on the Fatigue Produced by Long Wakefulness," Amer. Jour. Ppysiol., CL(1947), pp. 253-260; M.E. Bitterman,“Transfer of Decrement in Ocular Tasks,“ Amer. ,1. Psychol, LIX(1946), pp. 422-438; J.W. Griffith, W.A. Kerr, T.B. Mayo, and J.R. Topal, ”Changes in Subjective Fatigue and Readiness for Work During the Light Hour Shift," g, A 1. Psychol., XXXIV(1934),pp. 163-166; T.M. Nelson, and .H. Bartley, "Feelings of Fatigue, Rest, and Boredom During Work Days of Varying Lengths, (unpublished). CHAPTER VIII EXPERIMENTATION _ 213 - Hypothesis 1. Since the time of VonEhrenfels, Cornelius, and Lipps, psychologists have been aware of the fact that behavior always occurs within a context. Gestalt Psychology gave a formal place within theory to this fundamental fact. Early in the century, Kbhler wrote that:1 “....a description of what is given in sensation must remain incomplete, and untrue to the reality, so long as the familiar var- iables of our sensory psycholOgy are deemed to be adequate for the purpose; that, more- over, in the customary descriptions, a large and important part of the properties of per- ception is neglected. This actually retires to the background in the extreme instances achieved by isolation; but from the point of view of the psychology of perception, is often more important than the current moments of sen- sation, as soon as, in addition to the peri- pheral conditions, the remaining factors also exercise their influence, namely, in the psy- chical correlate of manifolds of stimuli, es- pecially in the perception of things, as in ordinary life.“ Indeed, everyone in psychology today, laboratory behavior to the side, gives service to the rule that every figure is "ground determined“ and every ground “figure determined". Consequently, fatigue must have something to do with the context in which it occurs. ’ (This thesis raises a very grave methodolOgical question for the experimentalist, however. It is obvious that if l. W. Kohler, “Uber unbemerkte Empfindungen und Urteil— stausechungen, 'Zeitschrift far Psychologie, LXVI(1913), pp. 79-80 quoted by B. Peterman, the Gestalt Theory_and the Problem of Configgration (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, Ltd., 1932). - 214 — this principle is sound, then it is a reasonable procedure to consider the ambient conditions first and the parts of the context, specific experiences such as tiredness or be- haviors such as reaction time, secondly. Hence, the exper- imentalist, here as elsewhere, must be prepared to answer at least two questions on the matter of fact, i.e. the lab— oratory, level. The first question asks, "What is the im— portant context?“, and the second, "How can the ambient con- ditions be characterized?" In the research to be prOposed, it seems possible to answer both questions unequivocally because of the work re- ported in part one. In part one, the reader will recall that phenomenal duration, change and movement were given defini- tions that remained true to everyday fact, but that, at the same time, provided operational equivalents which per- mitted the facts to be observed experimentally--to be ob- served in a way consistent with scientific necessities. Once these facts were within the scape of laboratory treat- ment, controlled experimentation gave to them a more full, precise and consistent empirical characterization. This prior characterization, so far as it has been sufficiently complete and successful, will provide ambient variables with the unique advantages of being precise, legitimately defined, and organism centered. Hence, in the present study, phenomenal duration, change and movement conditions are to be used as the ambient con- ditions for the performance of a task leading to fatigue. _ 215 _ In using these variables, it is assumed that the overall system of change, movement, and duration, which always exist in some form as a background for activity, are con- tributors to the individual's change in stance toward the activity. The approach of the present study implies that fatigue will develop more rapidly under some ambient con- ditions than others. Specifically. ppp_§;ppp_pypothesis to be tested ;p_that fatigue on a given ta§§_p;;; develop EDfunction 92 the ambient conditions p£_duration. — Hypothesis 2. One of the oldest and most puzzling problems facing psychology has been that of the relationship between exper- ience and overt actions. Within the area of fatigue and work, the eXperimental outcomes have been especially disappointing. Previous ex- perimentation has been able to show only a very poor rela— tionship between energy expenditure, the amount of work done, and the emergence of fatigue. Research oriented to- wards studying the effect of fatigue on work output has been equally unsuccessful, although in neither case does anyone seem prepared to deny that a relationship exists. Ordinary observation insists that some tasks produce fatigue more rapidly than others and that a condition of fatigue can not long exist without producing changes in one's performance of a task. - 216 - Specifically, pp will test the hypothesis that the emergence p§_fatigpe will detrag§_from the adequacyp§_ performance 9; 3 reaction pime task. The Experimental Investigation Pugpose: The eXperiment was designed to provide an empir— ical test for hypotheses one and two. In order to test hypothesis one, two ambient phenome- nal change conditions leading to "long" phenomenal durations will be pitted against a phenomenal change condition pro- ducing “short" phenomenal durations. The hypothesis will be considered to be confirmed if the two conditions lead- ing to a ”long" duration both result in the production of fatigue, either more rapidly or more slowly than the single “short“ duration phenomenal change condition. In order to test hypothesis two, a measure of simple reaction time will be made before and after the onset of tiredness. The hypothesis will be consideredto be confir- med if the simple reaction time measures occurring before fatigue are both more rapid and less variable than those occurring after the onset of fatigue. Subjects: A total of three subjects were used. Subject D was a 20 year old female. Subjects B and R.were males, 27 and 19 years of age respectively. All three subjects were college students and naive to the purpose of the experi- ment, although subjects D and B had extensive experience comparing durations in the experiments of part one. The subjects were paid for their services since the experi- ments were somewhat unpleasant and extended in length. Apparatus: The apparatus described in eXperiments 3 and 9 of part one were used to produce the ambient conditions for this task. The provision of a fatiguing task and the mea— surement of reaction time necessitated several additions to be made to the equipment. The additions will now be described. Wide lines about 6 inches in length were inked on the edge of the screen at “12 o'clock", "3 o'clock”, "6 O'clock", and '9 o'clock" positions. These lines allowed the subject to identify the position of colored targets which were flashed on the screen as "hours". In figure 48 the light sources producing the colored targets are pictured. The right light source is a navy spot lamp equipped with a blue filter and 20 watt special purpose bulb. This source was fixed in position, and went on and off by manual Operation of a knife switch. When the switch Operating this lamp was closed,a discernable'M"-shaped target, blue in color, fell on the center of the screen. A stopwatch was used to mea- sure the clock-length of this exposure. The left source pictured in figure 48 is a simple flashlight placed in a - 218 - holder fastened to a platform which in turn is fastened to a ball joint. The socket of this light housed a five- cell bulb which was connected to five large dry cells. At the distance used, the light made approximately a 3“ spot of ill-defined contour. The color Of the targets could be changed. The colors were changed by putting filters in front of the lens. Three colors, blue-green, red, and amber were used. Because of the ball joint arran- gement the experimenter could project the target anywhere on the screen. The light was actually aimed only at the extreme edges Of the screen, however, and occurred only at the 12 hour positions of the clock. The positioning of this source was accomplished by the track device pic- tured to the rear of the platform. The left target light was shut Off and on by a semi-automatic device pictured in figure 49. The device was made up of two micro-switches, a 4 rpm Telechron motor and a knife switch. With the knife switch in closed position, the motor shaft and attached arm made one revolution every 25 see. A cord attached to the revolving arm extended to the micro-switch trips. During a fraction of the 25 sec. intervals, the cord would become taut enough to close both switches. The micro-switch which regulated the left target light was closed 3.60 sec. each revolution and, hence, each of the ”12 hour“ targets were exposed for 3.60 sec. A Standard Clock measuring clock _ 219 - length to one-hundredth of a second was also included in the circuit completed by this micro-switch. This clock was wired to stOp when the signal light was on and run when the signal light was Off. This arrangement permitted the experimenter to measure accurately the time between target presentations. The second micro-switch pictured started a second Standard Clock. The second Standard Clock was wired to go on 1.80 see. before the left target light and stay Open 1.80 sec. after the target light went out. Hence, it was Open for 7.20 sec. in all. This arran- ., gement was made so as to allow the experimenter to record “anticipatory“ reactions and to measure reactions of very great latency, i.e. responses occurring after the light had gone out. It also served as an alerting device for the subject since the microswitches made distinct on and Off clicks.2 Two telegraph keys, equipped with microswitches for fast action, were wired into the second timing clock circuit. One key was mounted on the observer's chair as shown in figure 47. The other key was mounted on the table in front of an eXperimenter. (Figure 47 also). Both .keys were in the closed position normally. Pressing either of the keys stOpped the timing clock. Hence the subject could respond to the target by pressing his key and the 2. This accounts for the very short and sometimes nega- tive reaction time values to be reported (see figures 50 through 72). - 220 - experimenter could "hold” the clock until his reading was made by pressing the other key. Several sets of random numbers, data sheets, a ther— mometer, a wet bulb device to measure relative humidity, and a household electric clock completed the additions to the equipment. Method: Three experimental conditions were used. The only distinguishing feature between the three conditions was the ambient phenomenal change rate featured. The ambient change variations used to distinguish the experi- mental conditions were those known to produce definite effects upon phenomenal duration. In condition one, a phenomenal change set at rate 2 (experiment 1, part 1), occurred on the screen. This ambient change is the change found to be most effective in producing “short“ durations (experiment 8, part 1). In condition two, a phenomenal movement rate was set at 15 (experiment 2, part 1) initia- lly and decreased two points every 12% minutes. This de- crease was very gradual and hence phenomenal changes were periodically introduced into the continuity, (experiment 18, part 1). In condition three, the ambient phenomenal change rate was set at phenomenal change rate 12 (experi- ment 1, part 1). The effects of this latter ambient con- 1 dition upon duration was investigated in part 1 (experiment 8). Conditions two and three provided change conditions -221- one J ////.g / .nhox smenwoaop and exooao 05p “poaapgm 3350.393 93:5ng Hepnofiaoauo on» on 28.3.33 .3. 0.33m .moeaboe mnaodeonq pownea one "venouo«a hHuSOfiboan unmamaado_aepquaaaomwo any on mnoavficu< .me enema» \ xx 3. / -22 2.. {35' i I i i -"i . -223- . .9259 woman» 23. S35v3“ hamsoabona passages Havana—«Sana on» on 2.83303. .2". 0.3m?" __ fl d:- — 224 - effective in producing "long" durations. It is not possi- ble to make a sharply detailed description of the relation- ships between the three experimental conditions because, as it was pointed out in chapter 6 Of part one, the graphs represent frequency distributions of responses made under different conditions,3 and because phenomenal scaling pro- cedures were not used for the measurement of phenomenal duration. The original plan required each subject to serve on 9 trials. The 9 trials were to equally represent the three ambient phenomenal change conditions, each condition being repeated three times per subject. The 9th trial in each case was to be extended well past the point of fatigue. The original plan featured a counter-balanced design with the experimental conditions following a prescribed pattern for each subject. As it worked out, however, an extra trial was needed for each subject.4 The revised plan necessita- ted 10 trials per subject. The new plan required 3 repetitions Of two experimen- tal conditions and 4 repetitions of the third condition. The final orders were as follows: for subject D, the pattern 3. Figure 20 is based on a standard interval set at phe- nomenal change rate 12, Figure 21 is based on a standard in- terval phenomenal change rate of 2. Figure 22 is based on‘a standard interval phenomenal movement rate of 12. 4. Subjects B and C were unable to comply with the direc- tions once each. These trials each had to be rerun. subject A was run 10 times because the pre—fatigue part of the ninth trial proved to be so long that it did not allow the experi- menter to include the “post fatigue” condition within it. _ 225 - was 3,1,2 - 2, l, 3 - 2, 1, 3 - 2; for Subject B, the pattern was 1, 3, 2 - 3, 2, l - 2, 3, 2 - l; and for sub- ject R, the order was 2, 3, l - 1, 3, 2 - 3, 1, 2 — 3. On each of the 10 trials the three subjects performed on two tasks. From the subjects' point of view, however, there was only a single task since the directions stipulated that when any visual signal appeared on the changing screen the subject was to (a) push the signal key as quickly as possible and then (b), to report on color and position of the target. These two tasks were different from the eXper- imenter's point of view because they yielded different mea- sures of reaction time. Task 1 was provided by the left target source previously described. (Figure 48). Using this source an experimenter flashed targets on the screen allowing: (a) the clock time between presentations to vary randomly from 10 to 100 sec., (b) the color of the targets to vary randomly from blue-green to red to yellow, (c) the target positions to vary randomly over the twelve "clock" hours. Task 1 yielded a measure of motor reaction time, the time required to push the signal key and hence break the circuit. This response was measured to the hundredth .of a second. Task 2 was produced by the right target source previously described (Figure 48). Using this source, an experimenter flashed the blue “M” on the center of the screen at irregular intervals, ranging from 2 to 15 minutes - 226 - during the pre-fatigue part of the experiment, and at intervals ranging from 2 to 7 minutes apart during the post-fatigue condition. This target remained on the screen until the subject gave the desired verbal res» ponse.. Task 2 yielded a measure of verbal reaction time, the time required to report the color and position of the target on the screen. This response was measured to the twenty—fifth of a second. Records of qualitative responses were also kept. First, records were kept of spontaneous personal and task evaluations occurring during the pre-fatigue part of the experimental trial. The subjects' shift in atti- tude toward the task, changes in feeling tone, experience of strain, discomfort, nervousness, tension, etc., were recorded immediately as they occurred during the experi- ment. Secondly, records were kept of the answers given in a post-eXperimental question period. During this period, the subjects were questioned primarily as to pre— cisely why they felt that they could "not go on,“ as to what other, if any, experiences they had besides tiredness, and as to the course of develOpment of the fatigue. The subjects were also asked upon this occasion to make a gen- eral evaluation of their task performance, to estimate the number of minutes they had served as subjects, and to el- aborate upon the spontaneous reports given during the experiment. _ 227 - Records were kept of the ambient relative humidity and temperature, since it was necessary to conduct the experiment during a warm time of year in a building with insufficient ventilation. Procedure: The subjects were seated in the viewing posi- tion and given the following instructions each time they served: "The screen is now dark. When the screen becomes lighted, that will be the signal that the trial has begun. Past this point we will not converse with one another un- der any circumstances. You will work by yourself as though' no one is present. Since we cannot interrupt the task for any reason, it is important that you allow me to answer any questions you may have now and important that you make ceru tain that you are not thirsty, that you have your cigarettes and matches and so on, before we proceed. (Pause). This is what you are to do. You are to attend to the lighted screen which will appear to change kaleidosOOpically. Eventually a signal light will suddenly come on. When this happens, you are to press the signal key on the chair as rapidly as you are able. After you have done this, immediat- ely report the color and position of the light you saw. The signal lights will appear both on the upper edge of the screen and on the very center. Those lights appearing around the edge of the screen will either be blue-green, red, or yellow, and will be flashed at one of the "clock-hours". You will notice that the screen has been marked with a "12 o'clock", a "3 o'clock", a "6 o'clock,“ and a "9 o'clock" mark to make your task of reporting easier. The signal light falling in the center of the screen will always be blue and shaped like an “M". Make your report simple. Reports such as “yellow at six o'clock", or ”blue center" are all that are required. Do you understand what you are to do? (Pause) A11 right--two more very important things before we start. First, you are to continue working at this task until you feel that you can not go on any longer because Of tiredness. When you give this report, we will stop for the day. It is important that you do not stOp for any other reason before this point occurs. Secondly, during the time you are working, you may experience shifts in your attitude toward the task, some sort of organic discomfort, or you may feel awkward, nervous or restless, sleepy, or you may well — 228 - eXperience minor and transitory tiredness. In any case, anything that you eXperience of this sort I want you to report immediately. Just talk out loud and describe the change as accurately and completely as you can and I'll make a note of it. (Pause). Remember now, you are to report the presence of a target by pressing the signal key as quickly as you are able, then you are to report the color and position of the light. You are to continue doing this until you feel that you are too tired to continue. Remember, do not stOp before this point occurs for any reason." After the formal directions were given, the task was dis- cussed with the subject on an informal basis and any ques- tions he posed were answered. The experimenters then started the apparatus, set the ambient conditions of phe— nomenal change, recorded the time, and ambient conditions of temperature and humidity. During the 10th trial, the procedure followed was identical to that just described. However, when the sub- ject became fatigued the experiment was not concluded. At this point, with the apparatus running, the following in— structions were given: “It will be necessary to continue the trial somewhat longer tonight even though I know that you want to stop now. I would like you to continue responding to the tar- gets just as you have been doing and to do one additional thing. Periodically, I will ring a desk bell, and at this point, you are to report the intensity of your tiredness, any feelings of strain you may have or of discomfort, ner- vousness, etc. I would like you to estimate the length Of time you have already served now, and then, if there are no questions, we will continue." The subject was not warned beforehand of this post-fatigue experimental condition. - 229 - Results: The relationship between the ambient conditions of change and the emergence of fatigue are presented graphi- cally in Figures 77,78,79. The most general statement that can be made is that the ambient conditions have an effect upon the number of minutes a subject can work at a homogeneous task before becoming "too tired to go on." This becomes obvious when the graphs are studied indivi- dually. In all but one instance the fatigue produced in conjunction with the specific conditions cluster at a well defined place on the minute scale. In figure 77 the "phe- nomenal change 2“ condition responses cluster at the low position of the scale, the “phenomenal change 12” condi- tion at the high position of the scale, and the “phenomenal movement descending" condition responses at a position be- tween the preceding. Graphs 78 and 79 show definite struc- turing according to the ambient phenomenal condition also. The responses of the subjects to the phenomenal change 2 condition of Figure 79 is the only exception to this rule. .Another very general thing to be observed is that the con- dition bringing about the shorter duration, i.e. phenomenal change 2, is ordinarily very different in effect from the two conditions resulting in longer durations. This is xnost evident in Figures 78 and 79. In these two figures _ 23o _ the "phenomenal change 12” and "phenomenal movement des— cending” conditions both occupy positions that are similar to one anOther and distinct from ambient condition "pheno- menal change 2.“ Third, one should observe that very little variability exists between subjects regarding the number of minutes they are able to perform under a particular ex- perimental condition of a particular experimental run, i.e. each sequence of trials in which the subject has served under each of the three conditions. The one exception again to this occurred during run 3 when the ambient con- dition was phenomenal change 2. Here we see a dispersion of performance that will be remarked upon later. Despite these similarities however, an overall des- cription of the interdependence between the ambient phe- nomenal variables on the one hand and the emergence of fatigue on the other is not easily made. The effect of the ambient conditions vary considerably from one experimental run to another. While this is not surprising since the same subjects were used throughout, it does make description of the phenomenal contribution less simple. It will be necessary to consider each run independently. The results of the let run (Figure 77) show that with phenomenal change 2 as the ambient condition, fatigue emer- ged most quickly for each subjgct and that conversely, am- ‘bient phenomenal change 12 provided the condition featuring - 231 - greatest immunity to fatigue for pgpp subject. The second run (Figure 78) shows a reversal for pgpp_subject and for each ambient condition with one very minor exception. In this case it is phenomenal change 2, the "short“ duration condition, that is related to the latest occurrence of fa- tigue and phenomenal change 12 becomes the ambient condi- tion most conducive to fatigue. The third trial run (Fig- ure 79) shows that the ambient conditions corresponding to “long" durations are about as effective as they were in the second run but that the phenomenal change 2 condition responses are too variable, to be characterized en toto. The measurements made of temperature and relative hum- idity make it seem unlikely that the patternings can be accounted for by these ambient physical variables. The records reproduced to the sides of the plots do not show any patterns suggestive of those occurring within perfor- mance. Nor does an artifact in procedure seem to be invol- ved since each subject served as his or her own control, the eXperimental orders were balanced, and each run for a given subject occurred during the same time of day. One thing of minor interest is the correspondence be- tween the subjects' estimations of the number of minutes of performance and the ambient phenomenal conditions em- ployed. - 232 _ Table 12 below shows that 7 out of 10 of the estimates were underestimations when the condition was "phenomenal change 2,“ the condition yielding shorter durations, while 7 out of 10 of the estimations were overestimations where the condition was “phenomenal movement descending,“ and 5 out of 9 overestimations when the condition was “phenomenal change 12,“ the latter two conditions yielding longer dur— ations. _ 233 _ Table 1_2_ ESTIMATED AND ACTUAL CLOCK TIME FOR 3 AMBIENT CONDITIONS. A. “Phenomenal change 2“ (a condition producing "short durations"). Direction of Subject Trial Numbgp: Actual Estimatgg Estimations a 10th 101 95 - ( 6) B b 6th 132 120 - (12) 0 let 108 95 - (13) a 8th 164 115 - (49) D b 2nd 95 105 f (10) c 5th 153 130 - (23) a 8th 124 120 — ( 4) R b 4th 160 145 - (15) c 3rd 116 120 f ( 4} d 10th 129 135 f ( 6) B. Phenomenal movement descendingf' ing “lon ng“ durations.) (a condition produc— a 7th 77 65 - (12) B b 5th 126 145 f (25) 0 3rd 123 135 f (12) d 9th 133 150 i (17) a 3rd 113 120 f ( 7) D b 4th 110 120 f (10) c 7th 142 116 - (26) a let 134 120 - (14) R b 9th 143 150 f ( 7) 6th 94 100 f ( 6) *0. IPhenomenal change 12II (a condition producin g filong durations). a 2nd 147 130 — (17) B b 4th 105 110 f ( 5) c 8th; 123 150 f (27) a 6th 115 65 1 - (50) D b 1st 141 long time ? 0 9th 129 125 - ( 4) d 10th 80 90 f (10) a 2nd 136 90 - (46) R b 5th 87 105 f (18) c 7th 133 135 f ( 2) } overestimations «- underestimations :1. Subject unable to give an estimate,"time has no meaning to me here.“ _ 234 - These results show that the conditions that should be producing long and short durations are actually doing so. These results in a way provide an independent validation of the experimental findings of Part 1. However, although the results in general are harmonious with what one would expect, on the basis of our Knowledge of the effect of the ambient phenomenal condition, the theoretical importance of the find- ings are doubtful. Aside from the technique, i.e. asking the subject to pretend he is a clock, there is the obvious fact that the estimations showed considerable variability in “amount of error.” For example, in the shorter duration condition 85% of the “error" was underestimation (122 minutes underestima- tion and 20 minutes overestimation, -122/142 = -85%), while in the longer duration condition the “error“ was 62% overes- timation ({84/136 = {62%) and 65% underestimation (-117/l79- ~65%) respectively. Also Table 13 shows that the overestimations and underestimations are related to the clock length of the trial. @213. OVERESTIMATIONS AND UNDERESTIMATIONS WITH TRIALS OF VARIOUS LENGTHS Minutes ifiirection Minutes Direction Minutes Direction to of to of to of fatigge Estimation fatigue ggtimation fatigue ggtimation — (12 115 - ( O l ( 2 38 f (10 n. f (54 1%) 1‘ (1L. 87 / (18 120 f (25) 136 - (46 94 f ( 6) 123 f (12) 141 wanting * 95 #-(10) 123 *-(27) 142 -(26) 101 -( 6) 124 -—( 4) 143 +( 7) 105 f ( 5) 129 "( 4) 147 e-(17) 108 -(13) 129 f-( 6) 153 -(23) 110 f (10) 132 -(12) 160 -'(15) 113 1‘ ( 7) 133 7‘ (1?) 164 "' (49) {- overestimation ..underestim§;;on 1. Subject unable to make an estimateiitime has no meaning here“. —235- Table 14 suggests that no one subject made an especially large or small contribution to the variance. Table 1.4 DIRECTION OF ESTIMATION OF CLOCK TIME FOR 3 SUBJECTS UNDER ALL CONDITIONS Trial Numer Subject B Subject D Subject R 1 -(13) wanting ‘fi' -(l4) 2 -(17) {(10) -(46) 3 f(12) f( 7) %( 4) 4 %( 5) {(10) -(1S) 5 f(25) -(23) {(18) 6 -(12) -(50) f( 6) 7 -(12) -(26) {(24) 8 /(27) -(49) —( 4) 9 f(17) —( 4) f( 7) 10 -( 6) f(10) f( 6) i'overestimation - underestimation 1. subject unable to give an estimate, "time has no meaning to me here“. The results of the measurements of reaction time are shown.in figures 50 through 76. Figures 50 through 75 show the simple reaction time for various subjects during the pre- fatig'ue condition. Since the subjects worked for varying numbers of minutes from trial to trial the responses are ex— ;pressed.as Vincent curves. The mean reaction time Ior each interwal is plotted. Spontaneous pro-fatigue reports of «miscomiort, restlessness, etc. are also entered at the appro- Ixriate places. The post-experimental protocols (Figure 50 'through.72 only), the ambient physical conditions, and the _ 236 _ number of minutes occurring during each trial are included at the side. Comparing the pre-fatigue plots to one another does not produce anything approaching what could be called a “typical" pre-fatigue curve even though in a few cases the reaction times show a steady increase (Figures 52, 69, 75 most notably) or a steady decrease (Figure 56 especially). The plots of Figure 76 make this even more evident. Here we have graphed the mean of both the simple reaction times and verbal reaction times for all subjects under all conditions and find a notable lack of direction in both cases, an ”averaging out“ of the irre— gularities prominent in the individual figures. Similarly, peaks and troughs of response latency occur throughout the record without occupying a predictable position nor do the spontaneous reports appear to have a close relationship to the changes in reaction time. This is particularly evident when the three responses just anteceding a spontaneous report indi- cating tiredness are compared to the three made just after the same report. The preceding responses (shown in figures as small closed triangles) are of greater average latency in 7 of the cases and of less average latency in 9 of the cases relative to the responses made after the report (indicated by a small x). Nor can the reaction time preceding the point of fatigue be said to characteristically increase or decrease for the population. The small triangles associated with the 10th interval shows this clearly. Eleven of the averages are below, _ 237 - 10 are above, and 3 are identical to the mean of the last interva1.. Looking at the data subject—wise, it is apparent that some individual differences in simple reaction patterns are present. Plots for subjects B (Figures 50 through 57, 74) and R (Figures 65 through 72, 75) vary appreciably between trials. Subject B sometimes responds consistently early and R occasionally very late. In contrast, the plots showing subject D‘s responses (Figures 54 through 64, 73) present a more homogeneous picture. There is typically a slowness about midway in the trial coupled with equally adequate responses at the beginnings and ends of the trials. Temperature, relative humidity, and clock length of the trial again have no apparent effect, either upon the responses en toto or upon the responses of individual subjects. The post-eXperimental protocols are interesting in that they point up the number of manifestations that may accompany fatigue. Difficulty in focusing, feelings of restlessness, “nervousness," tenseness, sleepiness, inadequacy and confine— ment are mentioned. The pre-fatigue reports, moreover, show that the symptom finally prevailing need not reflect those anteceding it. The symptoms in fact frequently shift locus. .Also the fatigue complaints do not occupy anything approaching a fixed position either in terms of the trial as a duration of activity or in terms of minutes of work. The symptoms _ 23a _ appearing pre-fatigue do not seem to have predictive value. The post-fatigue trials produced markedly different response patterns from those of the pre-fatigue trials. In all 3 subjects (Figures 73 through 75), the average time for the simple and verbal reactions is both longer and the per- formance more erratic than those preceding fatigue. Each subject shows an initial increase followed by a re-adjustment to the fatigue which is in turn followed by an abrupt increase in reaction time. In all cases there is visable a marked inadequacy of performance at the point at which the trial was discontinued. AHPN 6' rd .mdmanp odwfim so spoofing 39356:“ no mean? c6366?" 3953 one 33.2.3 @933“ 66.29 .6939 ponunqoouom no unoaopoa 62»on .3 693.309 .528: 333 2633-5 5 63.2.8359 .939; 253 cad 0H m m a. o m ¢ 0 m H as new on copes: dd we.“ 66an _ _ _ _ a _ p F a _ . v + 8' mmoapmon flash \\7/ w .. I. I .\\)<){( /\_ a“. s .5: on.” 359 ion I . "Sam .Hom .oaa "may m." .H .625 Ia .Hsaoao (on L 62E “fleece 666313 I? . .9» Sage .m 6835 I8 .6936. posuumnoapmoa knob ”away“ an 0.2.5:" .mcamgou 13.33.“an e 70...... u./ \\/0/\)) . . TAMHI Ml, \ /))/\l))) .. . . lo .8 .5s 63 "as: a3 \ Ina a "sum .Hmm . ea "dame . . («page 3 H325 [on I comm 3:280 ”amass Ind . .91 13.5 .m 33.85 6 .mmeapmoa pod Jason (0 on 03639.; case non .brmon nohm «momamm mason an 92%.: Illnlnvmsoou “c6 .Huaa Iona .5s «3 35a. is... .3 a a « I3-.. “sum .Hom . om “mace w Happen m opus owns 0 H2380 / . \. 1— . To .8 .665 3386 2325 . //\ In”, :1 Bra. .n 6835 .\ /\\/l ms 0 (x d . )8 7W 9 .m .m vouapupmom .. , 2 . .9 .m .m 66.3»)on . ”3.; Foo, on. .m cm 502 . on 933.... vuooos I 30 snapupunu-souo .333 mama: so mwmwmgpawsgbuug no mean» segue?" 035m wadsomn mosswau cone. nowdoa warm: nogpop mdmbnepna .59» .35 333.33 page .opos 6» 635.. 33.3 9.033-on n w h e a 538.“ 3 633.83 p.633 a m s o n w a m a e r a r a _ F _ _ .S IIIIIIIW 8| an In? . Io "1 .3... Sign“. £3 \ Is.H "sum . $.03 "mess .ma 6 ammo Hmnoao Ton -amfiupaocoo 966354 . I «a Sea. .m 2633 Fww .ngosogimma 23 53 $263.36 on .fi 66 $3.82 as. H 38 6.3.... 3 25m: IIIIIIIIIV '8' TI . . man 8 .5... Sauvofia «so To . “59321.68 "macs 366092 assess Ir...” mu 66533666 6835 , \/\ I .m .31 gram poonpsm on . .aooamm Hawk on wnfiow as 3 H seem... a o. .3... t ”as; in... n can .35. an 6.33m “gm.aom.onm «gash. IIIIIIIIv _Ion.. . .369: quoao “/2, / In.” x... .\., II S o // (\J/II \ -I I)-l.d)IIIIIII|-o O Iaoaméaonoo £5,384 ./.3\ I/\ We 8 R Hora. .m poonnsm an . Ion n. .s.m.m uohpupuom . In... on. I“ on uohp'é C fig 6.x. 5.. m 3. 895m: passes s 10 mpupunq-suo .maaaup odwqaa no saucepan Hasuabauaw no mesa» sodpouon oaaaam one wsfixoaw monzwaw sonny .oawnmnpoH.ceomomeoamp paou .uouae OH 0 0 .cas no "case .aow “85m.aom.omm "game .m omnmno Hmnoao -aogausaeeoo pee ps4 mm Heaps .6 poompsm _ _ _ unease o5»«a~u-asm wwwam IIIIIIIv k no.3» 080669 on meapnapm M\\\\IIIIIIIIIII/, .mmauHSoHuuae enhance“ oz .mmosmmoapmon on .mmonpnmmmoaqns Hogan on .as new 3 census €0.39 .5a 34 "as; .5... "sum 431.65 "asap .NH owsmno HmnoEo -emgaupaeeoo pecans4 ma Hausa .m pomfipsm llllv v\\\\I. .mcamsoou cansouu 02 .quH numb deacon upownmw noosuop nawpuopqfl .nopnmfiun new on coammm doouou .xcfina p.ncaaoo .3s 9: 35a. in» “ssm.aom . «6 “mass .ma ownamo assess -noamupasnoo encased ca Hanna .m poonpsm .9.m.m condolvmom .9 .m .m UOHHOIQBH .9 .m .m a... .mmonuonap Hands: qmv adv III/\ anamuoam 33 1 unwaaoou ashamea I—“T u) # oo In H I FUOOOS a JD suapozpunubouo on shaman .mamwnp camsfim so mpoonpsm Hmsoapavcfi mo mafia» :ofipomon oaqsam on» weaSomm menswau conga .neenom can as xooa 0» panoanuam .Eonp an no; came nmsonp mm aaom mohm .pmmd awn» mamas» onuuamucoam 2623 $52. 33: 6 Bacon 622. 3 a m 4 w 4. A m w « puooos I 30 summit-0110 _ a _ on- s In? ms .5s 3” “as; {S Io 1 "ssmflom .cmm ages II.\\II\I// /\/ 3 . Inc . ommm S “Macao .Ion mm.vau .o p ans< .Iov ma. Hera. a 683.6 . F om .mmoapmonn.po>o can» amppomunumuaa Ho ohdwah , III!) Ion- $ maoodr one: .IMHI S .53 3H 35.2. .an \\/ I "amméom .mom "mule . on "1 . a m ewswno H3050 1.3 -esfiufiecmo 1.835 mm F8 ma Hanna 6 poonnsm .psaHCOp spawns» «mam soosuop asap mcoan .couap menu oo oaswah I...) 1.090 .55 93.101.13.36 73.. "Edméom ooh. "mace S .« ownmno Hmnoao No . 1853386 2635 IIII\\./\I/ \\/ IS 3 £1 229 .n 6335 . _ /(\ . I8 .1 damn 663...»qu .. I3. .9 .m .m uohpufim . Woo .8 .m .m use: . an ogwuh .namanp eHmnHm so mpoonp=u Hmscabacna Ho mosap ceapooon oaqsam emu wdazonu nondwau manna .waaqaopm ououop sHaoessm setup as. gas .auoapnom assay» osmapuu-6nm a i H m w m 2. w w _ m .4. ._ IIIIIIIIV 8| .53 n: 359 in... IE. ms “55m .Hom .omm “mama . 0 ma .NH emnmno Hmnoao \\\ rund .1 Iqoaupfldcou ”qmfips [VOW o o .611 SE. .6 3633. Wow w .uopwH Hmofimmna on m. $6.: 83 page .623 3363186 3 6.33m m. I IIIlIw flow. a . _, P 3 a I... m . .58 «ed “083. .fi: 66.25:.«25 No m6 M ."ssméom .osm “dens . . ma ma I ..oqu .2 Hmnuao IIIIIIIIIIK\\\\)////IIIIIIIIII\\\\\IIIII////J [Ion .1 s 56515386 6535 I9. . w .1. SE. .6 36316 I m .mcapnoaom on» an“; oaons on m. m we a: oeuuuconwapmu haamnenou no oaswah .5s 0: 3.5.1. in... Illlv Ion- 25m .321 .62. file In? ..ouoa .2 Hmsoao $655386 611635 Io s :1 H32. .a £33m /)I\/ ,. . In." a .s.m.m 1.33.531 .. 13. .u. .m .m 837on . Foo 09H. 0 o a o m m cola mo onswqh .mamanp camswm so mpoonpsm Hmscabauda no mesa» soapowos oaqaam on» wdazonm mouswah means means 66 mean wsfinpzsm wean 9.:oasoo .psonm mamas» onmapsannm a . amen sagas so: canon adopoad ca 6 m a o n e n m a (ECO .sas odd "asap .ao¢ ”sum.amm .omm “game .m owmmso quoao -nmgmupaecoo peoaps< .ma Hausa .m pomqpsm .mouw op copes; .conaa .5s 63 "as; £8 "sum .Hmm .uom “mass .m owcmco Hacoao $685386 €633 .«a amass .m poofipsm -2111)- .eas odd "page .mnn "ssm.aum .omm “aqua .N smudge Hosoao Inasmupaeuoo pecans4 na Heaps .m pooqnam .a .m .m couap-snom . .e .m .m emsHSIonm . .s .m .m use: . omsaoep condone .oommmuwn paoh I. p. _ r r P a, . _ k on) 1— Illllllw CL .8 OS canon Heaven wsfiupoo ||l|||1\\\\o/ .( /) 4 0| I I) )I\ 1) I.m¢ I.oo be enswdm uuu~eun IIIIIII. a haeoam mappaa msflaeom l IT <3 0‘ OH .8 passes a JD SQQDGJD .anoz .uzo>uon any .hmoe .mmmmam no: .mdonoadnm HDJM w a e mmoapmom on museum 1.. on- I 3.. .l S O o m I.mH mu ////1 .Ion nu mooam ..n¢ 2. a A .V Foo no euswah mmoavnom H .oaoano onsfio no npoonnzn Honuubaucd no ooEaa someones oagafin on» wdfiSOAn nondeu oonna .nuoHQSOo p.53 25 6:62. 38. e83 36s 33.5 8363.8." q .mnudaopo no“ sonoonucocfip .a: com ma 4 w a m. m M. m 4 « 'S '8 III) . I on- n7 6 . IIIIIII fIna .5s 3.. “2:9 .mnn I..// Ion "26.31 .onn "duos . / I .NH ownoso Hosoao qxv filnd Icons 5386 6:635 . on .m% Hanna .m pomnnan .oscapaoo op< nso>uoc can mmooam oop .vouda on ounwah IIIIIIIV .Ionn . i I T :3. . h oon man 4 ad: mg” .083. .R8 3.. "saméom .ono "asap. $36.5 so 36 m 662 To ..onoa .3 Honoao haooam duo hmooam .I Iconaupficcoo psoapsd oso>nou mdfippoo P. a nsobnoz DA . fl. mm Hofina .m poonpam .haooao nnoa ha . oaooop son.» who whosoboe one dd 13 ”MW oawmwm . .. If). Ton omcono o yo oaoeo oeooop pap nwzounp Gav szx\\e/ . . rlnd hoSoas uouas .poon on» u on .qHB «a "oaaa .mmn. no photo .couua mo ondwah “Edm.aom .oma “QSoB IIIIIIIv MHonI ..oooo .2 Honoso H van ESE "6386 2835 5&4 To .o% House .m poonnsm onoapnom “Had \II/IIII/llI\\\\\/IIIIIIII) on . . . .. . \\ I a m n 8.59-668 . / as \ Fno .9 .m .n eohpafim. . on .e .m .n 53.. on 6.33pm '8 CL 08 poses 6 yo superman-cue 'H 'S 'L .mdmanp oawcam no muoownam stuapaonfi no moan» qofipomon mamaam one wnazonu nonamfiu 039 mamaup onwapmmuo9m 09 o m 9 o n w n m a _ _ _ _ 9 _ _ _ 1; _ fil .mpzmfia wchmHB pdonm 6099mnns mswomm .9mmoaw 99m>umdo>90nueqwmaoamnp w. .:9a and “0999 .finn .IIIIILV e 1.0». Q “sum .a¢m .omm “mama runHI .NH owamno chvao msobnmz o -amgm "pfivcoo paoape< flung .9 Hofin9 .m poofipsm on % .Hw9mqmm c9 xmwp. ////\\\\L\\\\X\\\\$////J\\\\¥\\\\$/II/1 .Ihfi mnp psocmzonnp cmnaa .commopm H amp: .I mmmaamo9 hampsoa .x»«» on» no 9mwaoa on man opm9pnooaoo p.nca:oo m9 madmah .caa 9m "0599 .um¢ v. e e 1109: "Esm.Hom .099 “game . mdobnm Inna .NH omnmno Hammao z o naobnmd 09950 I. -cuau “paucoo unmana< 99 .nm Ho9n9 .m pomfipsm on .Ihfi .9 .m .m coufip-omom. .1 .9 .m .m 933-89 .. on .9 .m .m uaoi.* H9 «fiawah . So 3938 3339.339 a: 1.59 909.3 pomnnqfi an: 90.9 «259. cofipowom H.392? can moan. coapowvm oamfim 90 name: as. 9335 oswauahupmom mound:— muoa9om camupmhnobm mm mm om 9998mm om90¢om n ca 0 0H 0H m F9M____9h__§~_wbw _m_w_omflmm_._n . hmooam 6 uoxwaom 6 . lmwn brawn comm e ”Madam e I S @935 knob a: a 9.30 o . to»: cuom e uwfla .303” J memo @0936 mo 0 @093. l. l - .3 % uncapmome 9.09.3 3.25 m é on . moamh m n mum hqooam / M 4 lg 3593 % Q... m [8 .ga omuoaw 959. human Lamb one 08 A. no.3 A, 9.. 99 «a .naa om ozmauch \ . jooa -5659 ix. WEflHé Mono \. 4% 3m “9 mam \ , 10.3 9.. team 59 «a , wanes 9 J0 sqqpezpunq-euo 09928 3:33 .,, .. .. . $39 3380 ,:. \ \ /.._ F03 9535 .3 . f \ \.,., \ / x m . . . \ 9399 a 93926 \ / \ \ \ \ //..u1 loam a , \ ,_.. / . 09 cm om . \ . ..._ 1W oswupuMupmom x M x / \ __, ruoow . o O o ,.\. _ oswumeIwum . / ,,_ .B.m.m nova. . N a rloon . /, K ... . x x // .\ lot.“ , N. x . Fawn .3033300 033997309 23 noun... 9 93.5 983.5 one. 90.... $59 nogoaom Hup9o> 93.3.59 9833mm 395m no magma «.9 unswah 3mapmhupmom .3932: 3099mm mamaumhaonm on 88933003 om 3 can 3 m o a. m . __r__:_.___ .M9»9M.M_M on... e w .12.. Ms W 0289. h ooamuon .9 .I H e u 9:. e @9853 w o . _ Ina L 60259. 602909. mama mm .../f \. I . \\\ \\ . ./\ on e 3.39 «pnwuamg /\ r9 HHWflNM 91v. flm§nk#§3... fiIOO v m I 03 a. m. 4 \II/ F. n/.. / o: r \\ 7 x. N /<\\ I.-- \ M .IOQH. A \\ ‘ O W. \ \ H .5... on esp-9.939559 . . Wow... . a? «S gauge-9.5559 .. x .5 .30 .55 .93. .m! . 93.959 .on a... .5 18m .959. .« owwaso .3350 52$ .328 983.5 ._ .3 H.599 .m 983.6 M \ on _. Ca om 0m . m \ 2.339-309 . .. «m. I O-H- 0m 0 3329....mm. 931.... QJ .2... \ on .9. .m .m #60:. k . . I I \ \\\ (x ( \ unanozbunu-aun EEOOOS B IO . 28 3.3a on cam“ nah: anew can: can .8an 3033 2,3 909 .383. 833.3. Huang vac 3.59 no 323m 033m 90 mag: 2. 93th camapmmupmpm mmpnnfia muofiuom oswfipm9-onm oo muonn¢ Qwfionmm ONnHOH m Odo m 800 .vn NH 9 9 _ _ PLL _ _ 9 93. _ b _ _ g _ _ P 9 b on: e .hmeo m 1|an ouom 9 mean mwphwa 4 o om mo -993“ e .10 e e 9%»? IA 9 :2..on +523 359% i ng. {$90on 6??on hqmoam 0.... 9.3” .x\\\../.\\/ on \ 5MO0Hm $$JO HO 50H” / .- TIW¢ good? .33 on ma M has . 3“ om idea \/\ .. .. 103 x/ . .. ,, _. Iowa ._ ,. _. 300 .INJI .0 1+0- \\ < . :I/ .7 . . .. . . , . \\ / \./< \ /. 1dmm .38 on . 3w.“ ppm .. _.. \ 1309-259 . .59. on." ._ / \ \ Idem . 9.3 $9.. 89.....59 £2. . / I _. 0 . .a:m.. Ham .oom pagan m . .9909 .m 098:0 H0923 . \ -85 .328 «835 " Icon .09 Hafln9 .m aoonnsm _ .. 33 9.m.m o:m.pu9-pmom. \ . . . aw n. m m oamfiaahloumd a xv.“ [.009 .H. .m .m duo—a. mass 9 JO sqapeapunq-eno Om OH 0A -250- .mno«3unoo find .395 unconnsm .34 you moan. dowpoaom Hannah 98 moan. qofipoaom oamfim go 280: cs. 93th muoauom 0:3 pwhuoum 3 a m ~. 0 0 ¢ n a a _ _ hp; _ _ _ __ mam“ on... . Ind. 8 lo a Ina 1.. Ion . 19. f8 18." 1 o: Toma u. loan m. "w {i pm»: 3 JO “[1me -251- m 3033 x n 3033 O m 3033 U .::m Handmaaummum pmnah man aw mdwfipmh op mmpaqfis no 909352 up ouawwm uofiuaocoo Hmuamednmmwfl «H .o .a.s m .o .coJm.nme .anm i .;xfl :zil: _ o _ _ m “ fIon _ . . H ono . _ . F: “ Au on " nu Au _ x .u mg " cud x x _ Au _ nu _ 1. " ond _ . _ VI _ ooa . _ . «I can OnSIQBJ o; seqnutn m a n m .nnsm nacho a n m a .fin:Mapnma nanmnnn m n H m .naun no o¢ on m .nnam zpa nuflasm am an ow a .fipam opfip HQ Hom on on an m .npsm no mm mm m .ppam do mm mm a .npsm . .pqaoa no $0 ooa m .npsm «a .o .omoa .2 m.o um- mgoaufiunoo Haqoacaogm paoapaa .qdm Hapumsnoqum oqooom 05 a“ mzwapwh on mopsaas no 90252 E. ondmfim 833:8 H985 Henna ma .0 .93 m .0 .85.85 .55 _ V . H .I . o . H u w n o v m .npsm guano _ Won 0 a. n a .33 in w “ L85 " , « n o m .fipsm -nqum . . m . _ H W8 _ w m b; x n m 3 an no m .35 -35- m. x " Ioo m 3 .8 no a .33 3.3 a... G u s an mm an m .nnsm Index a... O . o O D . r! I . . oma w _ D a.“ u m E «a 8 m .35 u 0 Iona mm 2. 2. a .33 £989 . .. x mm 3 on m .36 _ n T . . . . . omH NH O ome E N o _ _ m poo—55m x . 3533500 Hammaonmnm anodes a 3035 O _ loam m 3033 D .53 339533” $3 3» 3 osmium 3 3332 go 8252 2. 8:33 no H3980 Huggednomnm NH 00 09.5 N no .35 62E 52E _ _ b H o H H .HmeoHO " Ion § a m m .33 H3 . a p m n .fipsm -qoaH " m m 3 m .35 Jsea " . _ rl. M on . R u m. _ W Fa “ loo 9 on no 3 m .35 -355 a». _ m. a 3 3 S a .35 $3 Me n m. .B 5 mm m .35 -aaom . H u . Y' m _ x om.” m. m. u .m 9 m." ” 103 mm mm mm m .35 . 3 mm mm a .35 .338. u 0 sm om mm mépsm . _ r03 a. . u , ma .0 .omma.s m.o . 00 .9 m a no. m x n 2333300 Hanan—283m £82.54 a 3033 o _ rag m poonpzm D CHAPTER IX CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION Conclusiong.and Discussion: Hypothesis 1 states that, "fatigue on a given task will deve10p as a function of the ambient conditions of duration." Since it is empirically known that the experience of duration is dependent upon the particular conditions of ambient change defining the duration (part 1), this is equivalent to saying that fatigue will develOp as a function of the phenomenal conditions of change imposed. The bulk of the data shows that this was the case in fact. In the eXperiment Just reported each of the 3 experi- mental runs utilized 3 conditions of phenomenal change as the background conditions for a task. Two of these conditions were of a type that were known to produce "long" durations and one that was of a type that produced a "short'' duration. Although the information we have concerning the functioning of the conditions with respect to duration is not of the best sort, apparently the ambient variables had the predicted effect. That is.to say, the ”long" ambient conditions did impose overestimations of time and vice versa. Granting this, the relationship between the ambient phenomenal conditions and the emergence of fatigue shows the anticipated interde- pendence. In every case the response to the ambient condi— tions imposing "long“ phenomenal durations are distinct from that imposing a "short" phenomenal duration. In the first run the rapid phenomenal changes brought about fatigue more slowly, in the second run more rapidly, and in the third run the “long” conditions functioned more homogeneously than the “short" duration condition. Secondly, the invariance between the conditions with respect to order reflects an independence. It was mentioned before that although the method followed did not permit fine comparisons to be made between conditions, the “long" duration condition ”phenome- nal movement descending“ would probably be somewhat less effective in producing long durations than the condition “phenomenal change 12.“ We find that this is borne out in the data of the graphs. The effectiveness of the phenomenal movement descending condition always lies somewhere between ‘the two conditions. Thus, in the first run where the long duration conditions were ineffective in producing fatigue, it lies below phenomenal change 12. And, in the second and third runs, as the "long" ambient conditions become more effective in producing fatigue, the phenomenal movement des- cending condition lies above the phenomenal change 12 con- _ dition. These facts lead to the conclusion that hypothesig ;_has been configmeg, The structure of the data points out that we are dealing with a subtle relationship however. Despite the confirmation of the hypothesis, apparently the data does not tell us much about the general nature of the interdependence between phe- nomenal change and the emergence of fatigue. The study is too fragmentary to venture even a hypothesis. A thorough— _ 256 - going understanding of the relationship between phenomenal change and fatigue must await further study. In this regard particular attention should be directed to the following things: a) fixing the functional dependencies by using ad- ditional subjects, b) investigating the tremendous shift in the effectiveness of the ambient phenomenal conditions, i.e. the change in performance resulting from practice, by running more trials per subJect, and c) a test of the hypothesis under simpler eXperimental conditions, e.g. producing changes, durations, and fatigue using an intermittent visual stimula— tion. On a theoretical level the study points out the feasi- bility of employing a purely phenomenalogical approach for the study of problems of this sort. Experience need not be "subjective“ and without a place in science nor need it be thought of as a ”byproduct" having no place in a casual chain leading to an understanding of human activity. Perhaps one should go even further and say that it points up the necessity of approaching personal behavior by a mapping out of the interdependencies within experience. One should not lose sight of the fact that, whatever the limitations of the study are, and, even though the study is essentially incom- plete, it is probably the £i§§§_successful investigation ever undertaken into the mechanisms underlying fatigue itself. Moreover, this approach would seem to open the possibility of measuring processes such as fatigue. It does not take a great leap in imagination to see that a thoroughgoing know- ledge of the interdependencies between phenomenal change and fatigue would in fact allow for measurement, since phenomenal change is eminently capable of measurement. Nor does it de- mand wild fantasy to understand that measurement would in turn allow for the eventual statement of fatigue in terms of ex- ternal situations. The relationship between external events and phenomenal change present no insurmountable scientific problem. Also, if one would establish the proper interdepen- dencies it might allow for a statement of and a study of personal inadequacy in terms of physiological functioning. In the present instance, a thoroughgoing knowledge of the relationship between fatigue and phenomenal change such as single flashes could mean that, via well established labora— tory techniques, one might get direct information regarding the basic neurophysiology of fatigue. Phenomenal changes are essentially abruptions occurring somewhere within the organism. Flashes are related in turn to patterns of neural discharge that have been actually extensively studied at the eye (by several techniques) within the optic nerve, and at the optic cortex.1 Through the use of intermittent visual stimulation having various phenomenal characteristics, i.e., various rate of change and producing various patterns of nervous discharge and abruptions in the pattern during prolonged 1. See S.H. Bartley, "Thelfsychophysiology offiVision,“ in Handbook gf_Experimental Psychology, ed. by 3.3. Stevens (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1951), pp. 921-984. activity, one might arrive at the "ultimate" scientific understanding of fatigue. Hypothesis 2 predicts that "the emergence of fatigue will detract from the adequacy of performance of a reaction time task." The results reported indicate that in every case the two types of reactions both greatly slowed and be— came much more erratic than those preceding fatigue. Because this is so, ;§_i§ concluded §hg£.gypothesis §_h§§.been con— firmed. This is in accord with what one might have inferred from the studies previously reviewed under the heading Motor res— ponse latency, accuracy 22.discrimination. and fatigue. It is however probably the first time that the deterioration of an overt response has ever been successfully related to tired— ness in an empirical situation. Ordinarily, symptoms of in- adequacy found in performance are a priori defined as fati- gue, or, a priori defined to be resultants of impairment of peripheral or central nervous structures (i.e. as "local" 2 or “mental fatigue'.) Bartley and Chute have elsewhere discussed the violence that such definitions have done to 2. Bartley and Chute, 92, cit. q to the progress of psychology as a science.’ Aside from confirming the hypothesis, the results of the reaction time measurements confirm several of the conten- tions held by Bartley and Chute regarding the overall char- acteristics of the fatigue process. The frequent shift in locus of the spontaneously reported symptoms and frequent lack of relation between the pre-fatigue and fatigue symptom Justifies their contention that "Fatigue is never specific to a given body member.'“ The measurements also indicate that there is in fact a disorganization associated with fatigue. This is clearly manifested in all the results since the post-fatigue performance of every subject fulfilled the directions must less adequately than that preceding fatigue g£_ggy_given point. The results of this part of the experiment permit us to go somewhat beyond Bartley and Chute's initial statement of 3. A puzzle Lincoln posed to a group of ardent reformers makes this point in a.homey way. Failing by argument to show what he considered to be the lack of merit in a legal prOposal to solve a pressing problem, he asked, "Now if I have a cow and add an extra leg how many legs will the cow have?" To the unanimous reply of “five" Lincoln said, "No, No, No, Gentlemen, the cow would still have four. My deci- sion can make no difference to the cow at all." While one may grant that the definition of words is not the province of any one individual, and granting that any science is simply the problems that its members choose to investigate, still common words, overlapping and awkward as they are, must have somewhere had an empirical content prior to psychology. Definitions dealing with well established ”matter of fact" signs might better aim to clarify rather than wholly create meanings. ' 4. Bartley and Chute, 92, cit., p. 55. - 260 - disorganization, however. We shall do so because in sci- ence it is always desirable to make implicit meanings ex- plicit. Disorganization in a psychological sense can well be defined as “the occurrence 9; response, behaviors; g£_ otherwise. m £1 r_1_<_>;c_ compatible mg t_h_e_ expressed 9; Q- served intention g; the organism." The degree of disorgan- ization can be said to be low when the probability of finding a number of such responses is negligible and high when the probability of finding incompatability approaches certainty. The words “expressed or observed intention“ should be taken to refer to some standard operationally definable such as the acceptance of a set of instructions in the case of ex- pressed intention, or to something such as a productivity criterion in the case of observed intention. CHAPTER X SUMMARY - 261 - Summagy Fatigue is one of the oldest and most difficult pro- blems faced by scientific psychology. Over the years var— ious definitions and investigations of ”fatigue” have been made. Nevertheless it has only been recently that Bartley and Chute separated this problem from the related phenomena of impairment and performance decrement. In the investi- gation undertaken here Bartley and Chute's criteria for "fa- tigue“ was put into service. This criteria demands that any investigation into fatigue must deal with the presence of ”tiredness”. Starting from this point fatigue was ap- erationally defined as the point at which the subject re- ported that he was 'too tired to go on.“ Other possibili- ties of operational definition were discussed and discarded. The aims of the investigation were two-fold. The studies aimed to investigate whether 1) the emergence of fatigue could be related to ambient phenomenal conditions of duration and change, and, 2) the emergence of fatigue has a counterpart in overt performance. The tests were conducted in a laboratory setting fea- turing 1) an apparatus known to produce various phenomenal changes and durations at various levels of operation and 2) an apparatus producing a task. The change-duration mechanism was in fact a large kaleidosOOpe whose effect was projected on a screen. The kaleidoscope was adjusted - 262 - in two of the eXperimental conditions at a rapid change rate and in one condition at a slow change rate. The rapid change rates were known to produce long durations and the slow change short durations. The change on the screen served as the ambient phenomenal condition for the fatigue producing task. The task was produced by a device projec- ting various types of visual targets on the same screen. The task elicited overt performance that was expressible as simple and verbal reaction times. Three paid subjects were used and the pattern of their responses confirmed both hypotheses. The results showed that l) fatigue did develOp as a function of ambient con— ditions of change-duration, and that 2) fatigue did lead to inadequate performance on the task. These represent the first successful studies of fatigue. In the case of the let hypothesis the structure of the results both raised a number of questions answerable only by further experimentation and pointed up the desir- ability of attacking such problems via the establishment of functional interdependencies within experience. The ramifications of such an outlook were discussed. In the case of the 2nd hypothesis the results also lead to additional conclusions. They both indicated that certain of Bartley and Chute's notions of fatigue were adequate and also allowed for an explicit statement res- pecting the functional characteristics of disorganization. APPENDIX - 253 _ Appendix M.L. Nelsonginvestigated the effect of change upon reproduced durations. In her experimentation the subjects were required to reproduce an “empty" interval having the phenomenal duration of a standard interval embodying various, levels of change. The changes in the standard intervals were achieved by interrupting a lighted aperature 2, 3, 4, or 5 times. The intervals so interrupted were of 6 diff- erent clock lengths, namely, 3, 6, 12, 18, 30, and 60 sec- onds. The results for her two subjects are given in Table 152 and 163. In the columns headed "average“ are recorded the effect due to filling. This effect was found by sub- tracting the constant error, when both the standard and comparison were empty, from the error in comparing when one of the intervals were filled. Ten reproductions were taken for each character of filling under each interval length. It will be noticed that all the errors are posi— tive, indicating ——as per the ”Theory of Phenomenal Dura- tion"—- that "filled“ intervals were always phenomenally longer than those unfilled. It can also be noted that as the filling increased so, in general, did error. Figure 80qportrays in graphic form the regularity of the relation- ship. 1. nit. Nelson,thisual Estimate of Time,W7Psychol. Rev., 1v<1902), pp. 447-459. 2. Ibid: p. 456. 3. Ibid: p. 457. 4. 1513: Data from pp. 456-457 ~264- Table 15 THE EFFECT OF VARIOUS LEVELS OF FEELING UPON THE STANDARD ERROR OF SUBJECT R's REPRODUCTION. Subject R. Interval No. of Average M.V.% Median M.V.% Lightg: 3 secs. 2 3.94 10 4 9 3 4.24 24 4 25 4 4.71 15 4.7 l4 6 secs. 2 6.28 16 6 16 3 6.88 20 6.5 20 4 8.82 16 8.4 16 5 8.80 15 9.2 14 12 secs. 2 10.62 17 9.8 17 3 10.96 13 10.4 10 4 12.88 9 12.2 9 18 secs. 2 13.24 16 13 15 3 13.46 22 13.3 21 5 14.10 9 13.6 8 30 secs. 2 20.04 16 19.1 17 3 20.22 23 19 20 4 19.66 20 16.6 29 5 24.'8 26 23.9 22 60 secs. 2 32.84 26 28.7 26 3 35-90 35 30.9 37 4 39.76 19 40.1 19 5 35.56 19 32.7 16 Table 16 THE EFFECT OF VARIOUS LEVELS OF FEELING UPON THE STANDARD ERROR OF SUBJECT Rd's REPRODUCTION Subject Rd. Interval No. of Average M.V.% Median M.V.% Lights 3 secs. 2 3.74 19 3.8 18 4 4.28 10 4.4 10 6 secs. 2 4.80 8 4.8 6 3 6.68 17 6.9 16 4 7.44 16 7.1 15 5 8.36 12 8.7 12 12 secs. 2 10.07 14 10 14 3 10.34 19 9.3 9 4 11.11 22 9.9 11 5 11.48 16 11.6 10 18 secs. 2 11.05 12 10.3 14 3 13.83 11 14.35 9 4 12.76 14 13.8 11 5 15.35 12 15.3 10 30 secs. 2 17.41 14 16.3 14 3 18.17 13 17.75 13 4 17.99 18 16.35 16 5 18.63 11 19.4 16 60 secs. 2 30.64 12 30.4 11 3 34.56 16 34.3 17 4 30.71 11 29.9 11 5 33.54 17 34.2 16 - 266 - Nelson also studied the effect of filling in longer intervals. Intervals of 30, so, 120, 240, 360, and 600 seconds were "filled" by having a light flashing every half second in the observed aperature. These intervals were used both as the standards and as comparison materials for "empty" intervals. The results were rather inconclu- sive as graph 81 and 82 5 will testify. She mentions that the experimentation using the longer intervals was gener- ally unsatisfactory because of the difficulty in maintaining attention. We of course found the same thing true when intervals long in clock length were used. M.L. Nelson was sharply criticized for using intervals longer than 4 or 5 clock seconds without providing something to keep their attention occupied.6 5. Ibid: Data from pp. 449-453. 6. W. Lay, "Imagry," Psychol. Rev., X(1903), pp. 422- 425. .unoodndaaoo on nasooeaacn naoa neon .naoonnsu a scan .4 even .veoa £2. Bums: ESE e es. «:2 «o 333 «.62....» .32."an Dad 3 stance 9s. aunt—35 SS: ace. 333.8 28.5. 233a .8328 .8 5&8 ncaeoon ad HohhoncH a . a a a ma - 257 - «an. 9 95:.— fiufi m . mafia...— Safl a . 933C 53.. n . msaaaah panda w . wH Nn ~10“! Disputes snowed .uuooqnwu m some as name .usoaqunao 0H oncogenes added meow .685 she egg x093 33.2; no case»: 2553 son: heads—am 0260.5 on 33300: .3533” souahsaaoo Hm cad.— .eaooon as Hepnopaa essences 9% ham 3m, 111%,mwimwmw m . Win. Won Ya. . 18 . c I . ONH O . Icam m a . m 2 u . I t w . 9 8a m T. T! . u . n o o u p ' Q C Q F.00M .o eoaaaa ..m hpdaax .8. ondgl—O o a o .CMIdoHI D H G UOHHHLC LII! .l.‘ -llllillul I- .I. .ehr. .cL I It-:..“.,.~‘H \U .mte‘do- D‘.‘ D ousuuru. m0? 45'0qu. -269- . subject D a Subject R x subject 6 ‘O \h -__.. --..__J 75 .a, 45—1 ”-4 1.5—1 . A 3 x .30 o 56 63 150 2b 330 650 Intervals in Seconds tigurs 82. Standard Errors Resulting When Filled Intervals were Compared.tc Unfillsd and Vice Versa. Six interval lengths were used. Data is from 3 subjects. Each point represents 10 observations. _ 270 _ B IBLI OGRAPHY Baldwin, James M. (ed.) Dictionary 9§_Ph11030phy and Psychology. 2 vols. New York: The MacMillan o., 1925. Bartley, S.H. "Fatigue and Inefficiency," Physiolo- gical Reviegg, XXXVII (1957), pp. 301-324. Bartley, S.H. "What Optometrists Should Know About Fatigue,” Michigan Optometry, XXXI (1952), pp. 10-12. Bartley S.H. and E. Chute. Fatigpe and Impairment ' gg-Man. New York: 0 raw 111 00k 0., Bills, A. General Experimental Ps cholo . New York: Longmans, Green andfiCEZ, 1934. Bills, A. "Studying Motor Functions and Efficiency," Methods 9; Psychology, ed. by T.G. Andrews, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1948. pp. ’459-4970 Bitterman, M.E. "Transfer of Decrement in Ocular Tasks," American Journal 2; Psychology, LIX (1946), pp. 422-438. Boring, E.G. Sensation and Perception ;Q.the Histogy g§.§§perimental Ps cholo . New York: Apple- ton, Century,fCrofts, Inc., 1942. Boring, E.G. "Temporal Perception and Operationism," American Journal g§_P§ychology, XLVIII (1936), pp 0 319-5 0 Brown, J.F. “The Dynamics of Visual Speed, Time, and Space: A Reply to Cartwright, Kohler, and Wallich,“ Journal g£_Psychology, VIII (1939), pp. 237-246. Brown, J.F. "On Time Perception in Visual Movement Fields," Psychologische Forschung, XIV (1931), pp. 233-24 . Brown, J.F. “The Thresholds For Visual Movement " P y s— chologische Forschung, XIV (1931), pp. 249-2 8. _ 271 _ Brown, J.F. "The Visual Perception of Velocity," Psy- chglpgieche Forschung,XIV (1931), pp. 199-232. Bujas, 2., B. Petz and A. Krhovic "Can the Critical Flicker Frequency of Fusion of Interrupted Electrical Stimulation of the Eye Serve as a Test of Fatigue,“ Arhiv g3 Higjenu Rada, III (1952), pp. 428-438. Cairns, D. "PhenomenolOgy," Dictionary 9£_Philosophy. Edited by D.D. Runes. 1955. Carnap, R. Testability_and Meaning. New Haven, Conn: Yale University Graduate hilosOphy Club, 1950. Cartwright, D. "On Visual Speed,‘| Psychologische Forschun . XXII (1938), pp. 320-342. Cattell, E.B. I'The Influence of Attention, Fatigue, and Practice on the Duration of Cerebral 0p- erations,“ Mind, XI (1886), pp. 534-538. Cohen, J. ”The Experience of Time,“ Acta Psychologica, X (1954). pp. 207-219. Cohen, J., C.E.M. Hansel and J.D. Sylvester "Interde- pendence of Space Time, and Movement," Acta Psychologica. XI (1955), pp. 361-372. Cohen, J., C.E.M. Hansel and J.D. Sylvester "A New Phenomena in Time Judgment," Nature, CLXXII (1953), p0 9010 Cooper, L.F., and M.H. Erickson Time Distortion yg_gy27 nosis. Baltimore: The Williams and Wilkins 000, 1954. De Silva, H.R. "Kinematographic Movement of Parallel Lines," Journal 9; General PsychOIOgy, I (1928) pp' 550-5570 Feigl, H., and W. Sellars (eds.) Readings ;p_Philoso- hical Analysis. New York: Appleton-Century- Crofts, nc., 1949. ' Fenau, J.L., 5.0. Finan and L.D. Hartson A.Review 23_ Representative Tests Used £23.3hg_gualitative Measurement g£_Behavior Decrement Under Congyr tions Related §2_Airc§aft Flight. Dayton, Ohio: U.S. Air Material Command, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, IV (1949). U.S.A.F. Technical Report No. 5830. - 272 - Forlano, G., J.E. Barmak and J.D. Coakley "The Effect of Ambient and Body Temperature Upon Reaction Time," Specia1_Serviceg Center Report No. 1.51-1-13 , l 948 0 Gibson, J.J. The Perception of the Visual World. Bos- _—w ton: Houghton Mifflifi'COI, 1950. Griffith, J.W., W.A. Kerr, T.B. Mayo and J.R. Tapal "Changes in Subjective Fatigue and Readiness or Work During the Light Hour Shift,“ Journal ggbApplied Psychology, XXXIV (1934), pp. 163- 1 . Gross, 1.8. and S.H. Bartley "Fatigue in Housecare," Journal g; Applied Psychology, XXXV (1951), Gulliksen H. "The Influence of Occupation Upon the Perception of Time,“ Journal 33 Experimentg;_ Psychology, X (1927). PP- 52-59- Helson, H. and S.M. King "The Tau Effect-~ an Example of Psychological Relativity,“ Journal QEDEXp— erimental Psychology. XIV (1931), pp. 202-218. Henmon, V.A.C. "The Psychological Researches of James McKeen Cattell," Archeives 92 Psychology, IV, No. 4 (1914). pp- 1-3 - Hirsh, I.J., R.C. Bilger and B.H. Deatherage “The Effect of Auditory and Visual Background on Apparent Duration," American Journal 2§_Psychology, LIX No. 4, (1956), pp. 561-575. Hunter, W.S. "The Delayed Reaction in Animals and Chil- dren," Behavior Monograph, 11 (1913). Husserl, E. Ideas: General Introduction_§g Pure Phe- nomenology. Translated by W.R. Boyce Gibson. New York: MacMillan Co., 1930. Huxtable, Z.L., M.H. White and M.A. McCartor "A Re- performance and Re—interpretation of the Arai Experiment in Mental Fatigue With Three Sub- jects," Psychological Monograph. XXII (1946), pp. 181-192. James, William Principles 9£_Psychology. New York: Dover Publications, 1950. _ 273 - Johnson, H.M. "Reaction Time Measurements," Psycholgr gical Bulletin, XX (1923), pp. 562-589. Kantor, J.R. Prigciples gf_Psychology. Vol. 1. Bloom- ington: The Principia Press, 1924. Kfilpe, O. Outlines of Psychology. London: Swan Sonnen— schein and CE}, 1895. Littlejohn, V.T. "Relationship Between Selected Degrees of Angle of Typewriting Copy and Ocular Fatigue in Typewriting,“ Abstracts 9£_Doctore;_Disser— tations, 1948. University of Pittsburg, pp. 290-301 0 Mach, E. Contributions §2_the Analysis 9;.the Sensa— tions. Translated by .M. Williams. Chicago: Open Court Publishing Co., 1897. Morgan, C.T. Introduction £2_Psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1956. Muscio, B. "Feeling Tone in Industry,“ British Journal 2£_Psychology, XII (1921), pp. 150-162. Myers, C.S. §.Textbook g§_Experimenta1_Psychology, 3rd ed. New York: ‘Longmans, Green and 0., 1928. Nelson, M.L. "Visual Estimate of Time," Psychological Review, IX (1902), pp. 447-459. Nelson, T. "A Factual Basis for the Systematization of Scientific Psychology," unpublished. Nelson, T.M. and S.H. Bartley "Feelings of Fatigue, Rest, and Boredom During Work Days of Varying Lengths." unpublished. Nichols, H. "The Psychology of Time," American Journal 9£_Psychology, III (1891), pp.453-529. Nilsson, M.P. Primitive Time-Reckoning. Lund: Berling- ska Boktrychteriat, 1920. Nofiy, P.L. Biologice; Time. New York: The MacMillan 00., 1937. 180 p. Pavlov, I.P. 99nditioned Reflexeg: Ag.Investigation Into the Physiologica;.Activity 2;.the Cortex. Landon: Oxford UniversityPress, 1927. Peterman, B. The Gestalt Theory and the Problem 93_ Configuration. London: Routledge and Regan Paul, Ltd., 1932. Poffenberger, A.T. "Effect of Continuous Work on Out- put and Feelings," Journal 9§_Applied Psycho— lssx. 1928. pp. 459- 7. Roelofs, 0.0. and W.P.C. Zeeman "Influences of Differ- ent Sequences of Optical Stimuli on the Esti- mation of Duration of a Given Interval of Time," Acta PsychOIOgica, VIII (1951-1952) pp. 89-128. Roelofs, 0.0. and W.P.C. Zeeman "The subjective Dura- tion of Time Intervals, 1,“ Acta Psychologica, v1 (1949). pp. 127-177. Schaefer, V.G. and A.R. Gilliland "The Relation of Time Estimation to Certain Physiological Changes," Journal 9; Experimental Psychology, XXIII (1938), pp. 555‘5520 Skinner B.F. The Behavior of Organisms. New York: ' D. Appleton-Century:Crofts Co., Inc., 1936. Smith, O.M. and L. Sherlock "A New Explanation for the Velocity- transposition Phenomenon,“ American Journal 9; Psychology, LXX (1957), pp. 102-105. Stern, W. General Psychology From the Personalistic Standpoint. New York: Macmillan Co., 1938. Stevens, S.S. (ed.) Handbook g§.Experimental Psychology New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1951. Sturt, M. The Psychology 9;.Time. London: Hartcourt Brace and 0., 1925. Teichner, W.H. "Recent Studies cf Simple Reaction Time," Psychological Bulletin, LI (1954), pp. 128~149. Thorndike, G.L. "Curve of Work and Satisfyingness," Journal g£_Applied Psychology, I (1917) PP. W2 5-2 7. ’ - 275 - Titchener, E.B. Systematic Psychology: Prglggomena. Tyler, D. Washburn, Weber, A. Wells, F. White, M. —— New York: The MaEMillan 00., 1929. B. "The Effect of Amphetamine Sulfate and Some Barbituates 0n the Fatigue Produced by Long Wakefulness," American Journal 22.3217 siology, CL (1947), pp. 253-260. M.F. "Notes on Duration as an Attribute 0f Sensations," Psychol. Review, X (1903), pp. 416~422. 0. "Estimation of Time," Psychological Bull— etin, XXX (1930), pp. 233-252. L., O.M. Kelley and G. Murphy "Effects Simu- lating Fatigue in Simple Reactions,” Journal 9£_E erimentg;.Psychology,' IV (1921), pp. 57- 2- The Age 2;.Ana1ysis. New York: New Ameri- can Library, 1955. Whitehead, A.N. The Concept of Nature. Ann Arbor: University of MichigaH'Press, 1957. Whitehead, A.N. Science and the Modern World. New Woodrow, York: Macfiillan 00., 1925. H. “Behavior With Respect to Short Temporal Stimulus Forms," Journal 9§_Experimenta1 Psychology, XI (1928), pp. 167-193. Woodworth R.H. Ex erimental Ps cholo . New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1938. YoaKum, C.T. “An Experimental Study of Fatigue " ngchological Review, XI, N0. 3, (1909). W‘- W... r 3T . .. :‘T.‘~‘Mr ”71111111117111inMiliffllfiiflyiflflliir‘t“