PROFESSIONAL AND SUBPROFESSIONAL COU’NSELORS
USING GROUP DESENSITIZATION AND INSIGHT >
PROCEDURES TO REDUCE EXAMINATION ANXIETY

Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. ‘
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
DONALD R. NEUMAN
1968

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LIBRARY

Michigan State
university

 

 

This is to certifg that the

thesis entitled _
RRnFESSIONAL AND SUBRROEESSInNAL”COUNSELQRS
USING GROUP DESENSITIZATION AND INSI”HT PROCEDURES
To REDUCE EXAMINATION ANXIETY

presented by

mNALD R . NFUMAN

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

PhD degree in Counsel ing, Personnel
SIerLEo and Educh onaIIP sychology

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Major professor

DE,te April IO, I968

 

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ABSTRACT

PROFESSIONAL AND SUBPROFESSIONAL COUNSELORS
USING GROUP DESENSITIZATION AND INSIGHT PROCEDURES
TO REDUCE EXAMINATION ANXIETY

by Donald R. Neuman

This study was designed to compare the effects of professional
and subprofessional counselors using group insight and group desensitiza-
tion techniques with high and low imagery arousal test anxious college
students.

Two professional and two subprofessional counselors met with
groups of three students for five interviews to administer insight and de-
sensitization treatments. Wait control and no contact control groups
were included to control for external interview influences and attention
effects. Dependent variables included the S-R Inventory of Anxiousness,
Test Anxiety Inventory, Observers' Checklist, Test Anxiety Rating Scale,
Pulse Rate, Thayer Activation-Deactivation Checklist, Therapists' Ratings,
and Client Ratings. High and low imagery arousal subjects were categorized
by degree of reported physiological anxiety when certain situations were
imagined when administered the Imagery Arousal Inventory.

The major conclusions of the study were:

(1) Group desensitization methods caused a significantly greater
decrease in mean change scores than group insight procedures. Several
criterion measures, the 8-H Inventory of Anxiousness, I and Test Anxiety
Inventory and Client Ratings clearly differentiated the two treatments. The

differences on the remaining measures were not as pronounced.

Donald R. Neuman

(2) Groups led by subprofessional counselors were in general
as effective as groups led by professional counselors. There was some
variability in the data however. The S-R Inventory of Anxiousness favored
the subprofessional counselors while the Test Anxiety Rating Scale indi-
cated that the professional counselors did significantly better. The remain-
ing dependent variables, the Test Anxiety Inventory, Thayer Activation-
Deactivation Checklist, Pulse Rate, and Observers' Checklist failed to
suggest an advantage for either group.

(3) High imagery arousal subjects did not show a significantly
greater decrease in change scores when compared with low imagery arousal
subjects. Low imagery arousal subjects did significantly better than high
imagery arousal students when the Observers' Checklist was the dependent
variable. It appears that the degree to which clients physiologically re-
experience images does not determine success or failure in counseling.
More sensitive techniques for assessing level of arousal need development.

(4) Both experimental groups showed a significant decrease in
mean change scores on all of the criterion measures when compared to

control groups .

PROFESSIONAL AND SUBPROFESSIONAL COUNSELORS
USING GROUP DESENSITIZATION AND INSIGHT PROCEDURES
TO REDUCE EXAMINATION ANXIETY

By

I

\.'

Donald R. i Neuman

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Counseling, Personnel Services and Educational Psychology

1968

.I"/v:' "I
'J'v /U

I certify that I have read this thesis and that in my
opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as
a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

 

Dr. Carl E. Thoresen, Chairman

I certify that I have read this thesis and that in my
Opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as
a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

 

Dr. Gwendolyn A. Norrell

I certify that I have read this thesis and that in my
opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as
a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

 

Dr. Lee S. Shulman

I certify that I have read this thesis and that in my
opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as
a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

 

Dr. Dozier R. Thornton

 

Dean of the Graduate School

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The author is sincerely appreciative of the help given him by
the following persons:

Dr. Carl E. Thoresen, Dissertation chairman, who willingly
offered encouragement, assistance and stimulation throughout the
investigation. Without his involvement this study would not have been
completed.

Dr. Gwen Norrell, Dr. Lee Schulman and Dr. Dozier Thornton,
who served on the dissertation committee.

Dr. Donald Davis, Dr. Milton Cudney, Mr. Tom Elzinga and
Mr. Richard Gay, who were the counselors in the project. Their co-
operation during the investigation was very helpful.

The many students at Western Michigan University who assisted
in gathering the data.

Mrs. Beverlee White, who provided invaluable help with endless
details during the study.

Mrs. Bobbie Schmitt, who gave much of her time in the final
stages of typing the manuscript.

And most of all, to my wife Pat, whose understanding and

support were instrumental in completing this investigation.

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...............
LIST OF TABLES . . .
LISTOFAPPENDICES. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chapter

I. PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Purpose and Introduction . . . . . . . .
Review and Discussion of the Literature

Insight and Desensitization Methods . .

Studies Comparing Desensitization and
InsightMethods.........
Toward an Integration of Insight and
Desensitization Methods . . . . .

Professional and Subprofessional Counselors .
Imagery Arousal Factor . . . . . . . . .
Multiple Criterion Measures . .

Hypothesis and Summary . . . . . . . . .
II. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND PROCEDURES .

Introduction...............
Methodology............

Orientation Interview and Arousal Measurement .

Instrumentation. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
S-R Inventory of Anxiousness. . .

GeneralDesign...........
Validation.............

Test Anxiety Inventory. . . . . . . . . . . .

GeneralDesign...........
Validation. . . .

Imagery Arousal Inventory .

GeneralDesign............
Validation..............

iv

Page
iii

vii

UIUII-‘H

11

13
16
17

19
21

21
24

24
25

25

25
26

27

27
27

27

27
28

TABLE OF CONTENTS--Continued

Chapter Page
Thayer Activation-Deactivation Checklist. . . . 28
GeneralDesign............... 28
Validation................. 28
TestAnxietyRating............. 29
GeneralDesign............... 29
Validation................. 29
Observers' Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
GeneralDesign............... 29
Validation................. 30
PulseRate................. 3O
GeneralDesign............... 3O
Validation................. 3O
Therapists' Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
GeneralDesign............... 31
Validation................. 31
ClientRatings................ 32
GeneralDesign............... 32
Validation................. 32
Sampling and Assignment Procedures . . . . . . 32
ControlGroups................ 33
Counselors.................. 34
Selection.................. 34
Qualification................ 35
Training. 0 I O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O 35
Observations of Subjects During Mid-term
andFinalExaminations............ 36
Treatment Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Group Insight Procedures. . . . . . . . . . . 39
Group Desensitization Treatment . . . . . . . 40
Summary 42

TABLE OF CONT ENTS--Continued

Chapter Page
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Research Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
AnalysisofData................ 44
Introduction. 44
Results of S- -RInventory of Anxiousness . . . . . 46
Results of Test Anxiety Inventory . . . . . . . . 49
Results of Test Anxiety Rating Scale. . . . . . . 50

Results of Thayer Activation-Deactivation
Cheeklist. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 50
Results of Observers' Checklist. . . . . . . . . 54
ResultsofPulseRate 54
Results of Therapists' Ratings . . . . . . . . . 57
Results of Client Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Post Treatment Analysis of Data . . . . . . . . 60
Control for Sex Variable . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Discussion................... 62
TreatmentFactor............... 62
Counselor-level Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Arousal-level Factor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
ControlGroups................ 67
Summary................... 68
N. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS. . . . . . . . . . 7O
summry O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O O 70
Implications....... 76
Suggestions for Further Research. . . . . . . . . 78
APPENDICES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 82
BIBLIOGRAPHY..................... 119

V1

Table

10

ll

12

13

LIST OF TABLES

Means, Standard Deviations and t Values for Mean
Difference Scores for S-R Inventory of Anxiousness
"You are entering a final examination in an import-
antcourse".................

Analysis of Variance Table for the Differences Between
Mean Difference Scores for S-R Inventory of Anxious-
ness 0 O O O O O O I O O O 0 O O O O I 0

Means, Standard Deviations and t Values for Mean
Difference Scores for Test Anxiety Inventory . .

Analysis of Variance Table for the Differences Between
Mean Difference Scores for Test Anxiety Inventory .

Means, Standard Deviations and t Values for Mean
Difference Scores for Test Anxiety Rating Scale

Analysis of Variance Table for the Differences Between
Mean Difference Scores

Means, Standard Deviations and t Values for Mean
Difference Scores for Thayer Activation-Deactivation
Checklist . . .

Analysis of Variance Table for the Differences Between
Mean Difference Scores for Thayer Activation-
Deactivation Checklist . . . . . .

Means, Standard Deviations and t Values for Mean
Difference Scores for S-R Inventory of Anxiousness -
Observers' Checklist . . . . . . . .

Analysis of Variance Table for the Differences Between
Mean Difference Scores for S-R Inventory of Anxious-
ness - Observers' Checklist . . .

Means, Standard Deviations and t Values for Mean
Difference Scores for S-R Inventory of Anxiousness -
Plllse mte O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O O 0

Analysis of Variance Table for the Differences Between
Mean Difference Scores -.Pulse Rate

Means, Standard Deviations and t Values for Differences
Between First and Fifth Interview Therapists' Mean
Ratings of "Client Anxiety" Level .

Vii

Page

47

47

51

51

52

52

53

53

55

55

56

56

58

Table
14

15

16

17

LIST OF TABLES--Continued

Means, Standard Deviations and t Values for Client
Ratings (3, 2, 1, 0) "Help with Test Anxiety" . .

Means, Standard Deviations and t Values for Client
Ratings (3, 2, 1, 0) "Help with Other Anxiety"

Means, Standard Deviations and t Values for Client

Ratings (2, 1, 0) "How Competent the Therapist" .

Means, Standard Deviations and t Values for Client
Ratings (2, 1, 0) "How Helpful the Approach" . .

viii

Page

58

59

60

61

Appendix
A

sz-Irxzmh'mmunra cow

"UO

LIST OF APPENDICES

S-R Inventory of Anxiousness .
Test Anxiety Inventory .
Cover Sheet to Pre-Treatment Test Battery.

Transcript of Orientation Interview Administering
the Imagery Arousal Inventory.

Imagery Arousal Inventory .

Observers' Checklist .

TestAnxietyRating . . . . . . . . .
Thayer Activation-Deactivation Checklist .
Cover Sheet to Post-Treatment Test Battery .
Therapists' Rating Sheet . . . . .
Systematic Desensitization Manual.

Summary Sheet on Relaxation Procedures.
Guidelines for Insight Methods. . . .

Explication of Reliability Computation for
Observers. . . .

Sample Test Anxiety Hierarchy .
S-R Inventory of Anxiousness .

Table I - Means, Standard Deviations and t
Values for Mean Difference Scores on "You
are going into an interview for a very im-
portantjob"............

Table II - Analysis of Variance Table for the
Differences Between Mean Difference Scores
on "You are going into an interview for a
very important jo ". . . . . . . . .

Table III - Means, Standard Deviations and t
Values for Mean Difference Scores on "You
are alone in the woods at night" .

ix

Page
82
84
86

87
88
9O
91
92
93
94
95
101
102

103
104
105

105

105

106

Appendix

LIST OF APPENDICES--Continued

Table IV - Analysis of Variance Table for the
Differences Between Mean Difference Scores
on ”You are alone in the woods at night" . .

Table V - Means, Standard Deviations and t
Values for Mean Difference Scores on "You
are entering a competitive contest before
spectators". . . . . . . . . . .

Table VI - Analysis of Variance Table for the
Differences Between Mean Differences Scores
on "You are entering a competitive contest
before spectators" . . . . . . . . .

Table VII - Means, Standard Deviations and t
Values for Mean Difference Scores on "You

are starting out on a sailboat on a rough sea" .

Table VIII - Analysis of Variance Table for the
Differences Between Mean Difference Scores
on "You are starting out in a sailboat on a
rough sea" . . .

Table IX - Means, Standard Deviations and t
Values for Mean Difference Scores on ”You
are getting up to give a speech before a large

group" .

Table X - Analysis of Variance Table for the
Differences Between Mean Difference Scores
on "You are getting up to give a speech before
alargegroup". . . . . . . . . . .

Table XI - Means, Standard Deviations and t
Values for Mean Difference Scores on "You
are crawling on a ledge high on a mountain
side"................

Table XII - Analysis of Variance Table for the
Differences Between Mean Difference Scores
on ”You are crawling on a ledge high on a
mountainside"

Table XIII - Means, Standard Deviations and t
Values for Mean Difference Scores on "You
are going to a counseling bureau to seek help
in solving a personal problem"

x

Page

106

107

107

108

108

109

109

110

110

111

LIST OF APPENDICES-~Continued
Appendix

Table XIV - Analysis of Variance Table for the
Differences Between Mean Difference Scores
on "You are going to a counseling bureau to
seek help in volving a personal problem" . .

Table XV - Means, Standard Deviations and t
Values for Mean Difference Scores on "You
are going into a psychological experiment" .

Table XVI - Analysis of Variance Table for the
Differences Between Mean Difference Scores
on "You are going into a psychological
experiment”................

Table XVII - Means, Standard Deviations and t
Values for Mean Difference Scores on "You
are going to meet a new date" . . . .

Table XVIII - Analysis of Variance Table for the
Differences Between Mean Difference Scores
on "You are going to meet a new date" . . . .

Table XIX - Means, Standard Deviations and t
Values for Mean Difference Scores on "You
are just starting off on a long automobile trip" .

Table XX - Analysis of Variance Table for the
Differences Between Mean Difference Scores
on "You are just starting off on a long auto-
mobiletrip".............

Q Post-Treatment Analysis of Data . .

Table XXI - Analysis of Variance Table for Post
Mean Scores on the Test Anxiety Inventory .

Table XXII - Analysis of Variance Table for Post
Mean Scores on the Test Anxiety Rating. . . .

Table XXIII - Analysis of Variance Table for Post
Mean Scores on the Thayer Activation-Deactiva-
tionChecklist...............

Table XXIV - Analysis of Variance Table for Post
Mean Scores on the Observers' Checklist . . .

xi

Page

111

112

112

113

113

114

114
115

115

115

116

116

LIST OF APPENDICES--Continued

Appendix
Table XXV - Analysis of Variance Table for Post
Mean Scores on Pulse Rate . . . . . . .
R Sex Variable

Table XXVI - Means, Standard Deviations and t
Values for Mean Difference Scores for All
Males (N=13) and All Females (N=50)

xii

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117

118

CHAPTER I
PROBLEM AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Purpose and Introduction

The main purpose of this investigation was to compare the effects
of group insight counseling and systematic desensitization procedures in
reducing test anxiety in college students. Another objective was to contrast
the effectiveness of counselor support personnel, i. e. , sub-professional
counselors, with professionally trained counselors. In addition, a client
characteristic involving level of imagery arousal was examined.

Problems involving stress and tension in taking examinations have
steadily increased during the last decade. This often results in inaccurate
assessment of student achievement, as well as in debilitating anxiety in
situations other than examinations (Alpert and Haber, 1963; Gordon and
Sarason, 1955; Grooms and Endler, 1960; and Paul and Eriksen, 1964). Yet
evaluations of systematic approaches to reduce the above maladaptive behav-
iors have been conspicuous by their absence, and only theoretical notions of
treating this condition have prevailed. Insight methods, stressing "deep psycho-
dynamic" procedures have traditionally been used by psychotherapists to change
any and all inappropriate behaviors, including examination anxieties. Fenichel
(1945, pp. 201-202) discusses the theoretical basis of test anxiety:

"A fear of examinations is closely related to. . . stage fright.
However. . . (the) authority, an external representative of the
superego, is about to decide whether one is accepted and per-
mitted to participate in certain privileges, that is, to obtain
the narcissistic supplies, or whether one is rejected and
sentenced to isolation and narcissistic hunger. The relation—
ship between modern examinations and primitive initiation rites
has been stressed (elsewhere). How a person reacts to this
situation depends both on his sexual feeling relationship to

authorities (to the father) and on his narcissistic needs. An
anxiety hysteria will result whenever the person sexualizes
the examination situation in the hope of thereby overcoming
his inferiority feelings and castration fear, and then has to
face the possibility of his efforts having the opposite effect.
Usually, conflicts around passive—feminine longings compli-
cate the situation in examination phobias".

Wolberg (1967, pp. 1100-1101) also presents some emotional causes for
failure of students to learn in school:

"A psychological inability to learn or to read is usually a
symptom which serves a specific purpose such as to punish
the parents, to defy authority, to refuse to grow up, to avoid
competition, or to punish oneself".

Frieda Fromm-Reichmann, (1959, p. 316), a psychodynamic therapist, sum-
marizes the goals for clients suffering from anxiety, which implicitly includes
examination anxiety:

"Therefore, the focal point of all psychotherapeutic. . treatment
of anxiety states is to help the anxious person uncover and under-
stand the unconscious reason for his helplessness and anxiety. .
the psychotherapeutic goal should be to help patients, for pre-
ventative reasons, uncover, resolve, and integrate the causes

of these anxieties, lest they lead to an expression by mental
symptoms which simultaneously are used as defenses against

the awareness of these anxiety states".

Psychodynamic practictioners therefore see understanding, insight and
integration of instinctual urges as essential processes in the treatment of anxiety.
They contend that if reasons for the maladaptive behavior can be brought into
awareness, change should occur in the form of anxiety reduction. In short,
psychodynamic treatment methods focus on underlying dimensions rather than
on the direct reduction of anxiety behaviors.

Recently, however, researchers and theoreticians have reexamined
these basic assumptions of behavior change. Laboratory investigations, based
on experiments with animal behavior, have led to behavioral approaches to
counseling which state that maladaptive behavior is environmentally learned.

These new approaches, reviewed by Grossberg (1964, p. 75) include:

"(1) Aversion therapy. Aversive stimuli are presented in con-
junction with the elicitation of a maladaptive response. . . (2)
Negative practice. The maladaptive response is elicited repeatedly
and frequently. . . (3) Qperant conditioning. Reinforcing stimuli are
presented which increase the frequency of responses whose low
frequency constitutes a behavior deficit. . . (4) Reinforcement
withdrawal. Positive reinforcing stimuli are withdrawn follow-

ing the occurance of a maladaptive response. . . and (5) Desensi-
tization. Stimuli evoking maladaptive responses are repeatedly
presented at low intensities which do not provoke a full-blown
response. Stimulus intensity is systematically increased until
even high intensities no longer evoke maladaptive responses. . . ".

 

 

 

The last model, systematic desensitization, developed by Wolpe (1958) and Wolpe
and Lazarus (1966), has recently been used to treat speech and test anxiety in
college students (Emery and Krumboltz, 1967; Katahn, Strenger, and Cherry,
1966; Paul, 1966; and Spaights, 1967). Desensitization is based on the principle
of reciprocal inhibition or counterconditioning which states that: "If a response
can be made to occur in the presence of anxiety-evoking stimuli, it will weaken
the bond between these stimuli and the anxiety" (Wolpe and Lazarus, 1966, p. 12).
This principle has led to many different methods of behavioral counseling tech-
niques of which desensitization is one. Other procedures, as outlined by Wolpe
and Lazarus (1966) include the use of (1) Assertive Training, (2) Thought-stopping,
(3) Sexual Responses, (4) Conditioned Motor Responses, (5) in Vivo Desensitization,
(6) Emotional Flooding, (7) Hypnosis, and (8) Exaggerated Role-Training.

To implement reciprocal inhibition in desensitization, the client is first
taught to relax using specific relaxation exercises. A ranked list of fear-evoking
stimulus situations is then constructed. The weakest fear situation on the hierarchy
is presented so that only a minimal amount of anxiety accompanies the image.
When the client can successfully visualize the graded anxious situation, without
anxiety, he then proceeds up the hierarchy, gradually imagining stronger fears at
each step, but pairing these images with a relaxed body state. The assumption is
made that these imagined emotional states, when accompanied by relaxation, gen-
eralize to the same external real-life situations, resulting in a decrease in anxiety
outside the therapy room. The purpose of this study is to evaluate group desensi-

tization procedures when compared with group insight counseling methods.

A review of the literature reveals that several studies have compared
desensitization with some other mode of treatment (Davison, in press, and
Lang, Lazovik, and Reynolds, 1965) but only the studies by Lazarus (1961) and
Paul (1966) have directly compared systematic desensitization procedures with
insight methods. No comparative studies have appeared using test anxiety as
the target behavior. This investigation seeks to partially replicate the studies
by Lazarus (1961) and Paul (1966).

Lazarus (1961) compared the therapeutic effects of group desensitiza-
tion and interpretive group psychotherapy with subjects whose fears were clearly
observable, such as fear of heights, enclosures, and other specific environmental
stimuli. However, the results must be considered as tentative since many facets
of a rigorous experimental design were not employed. For example, Lazarus
himself served as therapist and evaluator.

Lazarus concluded that his groups of five to seven subjects were only
minimally slowed down by other subjects unable to successfully complete the
hierarchies with the rest of the group. The group insight approach he used placed
heavy emphasis upon interpretation, awareness, and relationships. He found that
of 18 subjects treated by group desensitization, 13 improved significantly. Of
the 17 insight subjects only two improved significantly.

Paul (1966) compared the effectiveness of insight and desensitization
techniques using stress associated with public speaking as the target or observ-
able behavior to change. Ninety-six subjects were assigned to individual desensi-
tization, individual insight, attention-placebo, no-treatment control and no-contact
control groups. Five experienced insight psychotherapists administered both the
desensitization and insight treatments for five sessions each. Paul found that all
subjects receiving desensitization reduced their speech anxiety and that there
were no differences between the insight therapy and attention-placebo groups.

He concluded that: (1) insight therapy reduced anxiety more than no treatment
at all, (2) giving attention in a counseling relationship accounted for as much

anxiety-reduction as giving insight and understanding, (3) desensitization was

the most effective treatment in reducing speech anxiety, (4) observable criteria
were the most useful measures and (5) control groups must be included in future
research to accommodate changes resulting from attention-placebo effects.

The present study used only three subjects in the treatment groups
to compromise on the traditional group size of five to seven clients used in the
Lazarus study (1966) and individual counseling, thereby offering economy as
well as some of the individualized features of one-to-one treatment. Also, the
investigator was not one of the therapists in the study so that the bias factor could
be controlled. The group dynamic approach used in this investigation appeared
to be similar to that described by Lazarus. This study also followed the recom-
mendation of Paul (1966) that specific target behaviors be used, such as anxiety
over tests, for evaluative purposes. In order to replicate his design (Paul 1966),
a wait control was used instead of a no-treatment control group to compare non—
specific, or attention effects with the no-contact control group receiving no
attention.

The purpose of this investigation was to: (1) provide a partial replica-
tion of the studies by Lazarus (1961) and Paul (1966) in evaluating and contrasting
the efficacy of desensitization and insight methods, (2) compare differential
effects of using professional counselors and "counselor support personnel",

(3) evaluate treatment effects with a variety of outcome criteria and (4) con-

duct an experimental study using small counseling groups.

Review and Discussion of the Literature

Insight vs. Desensitization Methods

While a comprehensive review of the literature involving insight therapy,
often used interchangeably with such terms as "psychoanalytic", "relationship",
"dynamic", and "traditional", is not possible here, selective attention will be given

to reviewing the recent articles involving insight and desensitization procedures.

Before examining some of the work that has been done in these two
areas, a brief inquiry into their historical roots might prove helpful. The first
indications of a scientific approach to psychodynamic therapy began with Rogers
(1951, 1957, 1958) who used process evaluations by means of analyzing audio
tape recordings of interviews. Previously, Freudian theory, or depth psychology,
dominated the therapeutic literature. Objective evaluations were thought unneces-
sary. Dollard and Miller (1950), however, made the initial attempt to integrate
traditional psychotherapy with laboratory theories by trying to give concreteness
and rigor to clinical psychology while also using laws of learning to explain clini—
cal observations.

The conditioning therapies on the other hand were inspired by the labora-
tory experients and theoretical accounts of Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, Guthrie,
Hill, Spence, Skinner, and Mowrer (Wolpe, Salter, and Reyna, 1964). The thera-
peutic implications of behavior therapy were gradually practiced in clinical settings.
Wolpe (1958), the originator of systematic desensitization, combined the principle
of successive approximations with imagery and relaxation to formulate a theoreti-
cal model of behavior change with humans.

A look at the Annual Review of Psychology publications of 1957 and 1967
permits an interesting contrast in the historical development of behavior or con-
ditioning therapies. The review of Winder (1957) considered the status of psycho-
therapy with no mention of learning theory approaches, behavior therapy, or
variations of them. The only term even resembling behavioral language was
"directive therapy". It was not described but merely embodied in a list of thera-
peutic techniques. The bibliography cited in the Winder (1957) review, while written
by a psychologist, contained references primarily from psychiatric and medical
journals. This reflects the youth of research in psychotherapy only a decade ago.

The latest review by Ford and Urban (1967, p. 366), however, presents
the changing status of psychotherapy research succinctly:

"The king is dead, long live the king. The picture of psycho-
therapy as a condition in which two people sit privately in an
office and talk about the thought and feelings of one of them with

the expectation that changes in these will automatically produce
changes in overt behavior outside that office has been shattered.
A new generation is emerging in the field of psychtherapy. A
much wider range of procedures is being used by people with a
variety of theoretical persuasions. Out of this innovative activity
will undoubtly come major theoretical changes".

Ford and Urban (1967) point out that advocates of psychoanalysis and
client-centered therapy, that is, insight models, have not provided the new direc-
tions so urgently needed to improve counseling processes.

The first national conference sponsored by the American Psychological
Association dealing with research in psychotherapy (Rubenstein and Parloff, 1959)
also was a significant though relatively unsuccessful attempt to bring order, inte-
gration and scientific language to the field. A basic issue of this conference was
whether rigorous scientific methodology could be applied to research in psycho-
therapy. Krasner and Ullmann (1965) have stressed that procedures leading to
effective behavior modification have only been m applications of laboratory
data and principles. Therefore a compromise between insight and learning theory
would be incompatible. These authors point out that insight therapies start with a
treatment procedure and bring in theory after the fact. Behavior therapy starts
with concepts of learning and develops a program for behavior change before the
fact.

Other writers have leveled strong criticism at the ineffective, unneces-
sary length, and unsystematic aspects of insight therapy (Wolpe, Salter, and Reyna,
1964); at the lack of objective experimental conditions offered by cognitive critics
of behaviorism (Weist, 1967), and at the myth that insight, or awareness, is the
independent variable that causes change (Hobbs, 1962). Grossberg (1964), after
reviewing research in behavior therapy, concluded that this approach has been
successful with disorders involving specific maladaptive behaviors; i. e. , phobias,
tics, anxiety reactions, stuttering and enuresis. Followup investigations seemed
to suggest long-lasting cures occurred with little evidence of symptom substitu-

tion as predicted by insight therapists.

Krumboltz (1966a, 1966b, 1967) has argued that the behavioral
approach to counseling is more humanistic by emphasizing the individuali-
zation of client goals. Carkhuff (1966b), in reviewing counseling research
for 1965, echos the call for criteria based on the goals of the client which
were not achieved without the assistance of a counselor. Carkhuff (1966b,

p. 479) points out paradoxically tha ". . . it takes a behaviorist (Krumboltz)

to establish truly client-centered criteria". The therapist applies a speci-
fically tailored treatment needed to help him change the maladaptive behaviors
in question. This is a radical departure from the insight therapy position
which relies seemingly upon one passive, relationship—type technique for all
clients. Subjective goals, difficult to measure and treat like "self-acceptance",
"self—fulfillment", and "self-actualization" are also part of the traditional
approach. Krumboltz sees understanding and warmth as necessary but often
insufficient interpersonal conditions for behavior change to take place.

Truax (1966) has succinctly reviewed numerous research studies
suggesting that accurate empathic understanding, nonpossessive warmth and
genuineness are requisite characteristics of effective therapists. He posits
that therapists manifesting these three behaviors are effective because they
are more potent reinforcers and elicit positive affect in the patient. In addi-
tion, he presents data showing that insight practitioners rely on several learn-
ing-based techniques but conceptualize their methods as one model. Using ex-
cerpts from tape recordings of therapy sessions by Carl Rogers, Truax (1966)
found that selective verbal and non-verbal positive reinforcement occurred in
spite of Roger's contention that "selective responding" would be damaging
rather than helpful.

Eysenck (1952, 1966) elaborately and longitudinally critiqued the
fields of psychotherapy. Some of his conclusions were (1966, p. 39):

"When untreated neurotic control groups are compared with
experimental groups of neurotic patients treated by means of
psychotherapy (insight), both groups recover to approximately
the same extent. . . patients treated by means of psychotherapeutic

procedures based on learning theory, improve significantly
more quickly than do patients treated by means of psycho-
analytic or eclectic psychotherapy, or not treated by psycho-
therapy at all".

Kiesler (1966) disagreed with the manner in which Eysenck reached
the above conclusions by reviewing in depth his generalizations. For example,
Eysenck (1966) proposed that studies consistantly indicated that about two-
thirds of severe psychoneurotics show recovery or considerable improve-
ment without the benefit of therapy; i. e. , "spontaneous remission". There-
fore, the implications suggest that therapy ought to be able to improve on this
"two-thirds" improvement rate. Kiesler, however, pointed out that the con-
trols and treatment groups used in the investigation were not comparable. He
also maintains that the two-thirds spontaneous remission rate is not a reliable
figure and that a five year followup may yield discrepant data. Kiesler con-
cludes that current investigations of the efficacy of psychotherapy are based
on inadequate paradigms and that certain "myths" need to be refuted to ade-
quately evaluate counseling. The present study seeks to gather data based on
a more rigorous research design. The use of two control groups and multiple
outcome criteria can permit more accurate conclusions to be drawn about the

effectiveness of two methods of group counseling; insight and desensitization.

Studies Comparing Desensitization and Insight Methods .

Several recent studies have indicated successful results using syste-
matic desensitization procedures with test anxious students. Spaights (1967)
found that five group desensitization sessions which also included group inter-
action resulted in significantly higher final examination scores and grade point
averages, less anxiety on a self-report measure and more favorable attitudes
toward testing. The counseling sessions appeared to be similar to the insight
methods used in the present study. The criterion measures, however, did not
include behavioral observations but only self-report indications of anxiety re-
duction.

In a pilot study, Katahn, Strenger, and Cherry (1966) successfully

used desensitization methods combined with group counseling to reduce test

10

anxiety and improve grade point averages of college students. They found that
the students perceived the group counseling discussion as more helpful than
desensitization methods. It was not clear, however, in this study and the above
study (Spaights, 1967) whether the group counseling or group desensitization
procedures was the causitive agent of change since both were combined in

each treatment session.

Lang, Lazovik, and Reynolds (1965) reported on snake phobic sub-
jects individually treated with desensitization and pseudotherapy (placebo)
where the tr eatment procedure was therapeutically neutral except for the
therapist-client relationship. The pseudotherapy subjects received the same
five training sessions as in desensitization but the treatment consisted of dis-
cussing non-fearful objects. A no-treatment control was included. Desensitiza-
tion subjects showed greater fear reduction than controls, while placebo subjects
changed no more than untreated subjects. The successful desensitization cases
were relatively independent of suggestibility effects and the desensitization of
specific fears generalized positively to other fears as measured by the Fear
Survey Schedule.

A study by Davison (in press) has shown that the effectiveness of
desensitization occurs from a counterconditioning process and is not derived
from the singular application of relaxation alone nor from gradual exposure
to imaginal aversive stimuli without relaxation. Snake phobic college students
receiving a graded series of aversive stimuli contiguously paired in imagina-
tion with deep muscle relaxation (desensitization), displayed significantly more
snake-approach behavior than matched subjects in the pseudo-desensitization
(relaxation and irrelevant hierarchy items), the exposure group (graded
aversive stimuli without relaxation) or the no-treatment group.

In all of the above studies, no direct comparisons were made between
insight and desensitization procedures nor were physiological and observational
criterion measures included. In most research studies of counseling adequate

research designs have not been employed. Paul's (1966) investigation, however,

11

seems to be an exceptional prototype in this area. By using multiple criterion
measures and several control procedures, his format may enable researchers
to more accurately measure the psychotherapy process. The present study
will attempt to incorporate knowledge gained from previous research to more
adequately evaluate what differences exist between insight and desensitization
methods.

Toward An Integration of Insighté and Desensitization

The seemingly diametrically opposed theoretical positions now
present in the field of counseling should not remain segregated. If clients
are to benefit from therapeutic services, these approaches need to be con-
solidated in some way. Several writers have proposed solutions.

Kanfer (1966) attempts an integration of the two approaches by
envisioning a time when a therapist will select a set of procedures (based on
content and process) with predictable effects for use on a patient with specific
symptoms and assets, to accomplish a clearly defined goal. The therapist
would then serve as a behavior engineer whose major skill lies in the proper
choice of known instruments for the change of behavior, and who programs
his own behavior and that of other people and events in the patients environ-
ment.

Truax (1966b) tried to show similarities of traditional psychotherapy
and behavior therapy by hypothesizing that therapists of both disciplines mani-
fest the same actual behaviors. For example, the traditional counselor uses
the human relationship systematically as a source for counterconditioning
but without acknowledging this intent.

"In S-R terminology, an affective stimulus serves as an un-
conditioned stimulus in automatically eliciting an affect
response which is in kind and proportion to the stimulus.

In the therapy situation, when the therapist communicates
warmth, he thereby tends to elicit warmth in response
from the patient." (p. 162)

In other words, the therapist controls and influences the positive

effects of warmth occurring in the client.

12

Wolberg (1967) calls for a marriage between insight-oriented
therapists who unwittingly use extinction but yet avoid using techniques with
patients who cannot benefit from insight methods, and the learning theory
therapists, who should recognize that not all forces operating in the inter-
personal relationship are identifiable and manipulatable. He suggests that
properly controlled comparisons are needed to solve the question of out-
come by arranging for such controls in psychotherapy, where the variables
are so great and extremely difficult. Also, no one apparently knows yet for
whom or when behavior therapy is most appropriately used. Wolberg goes
on to suggest that the behavior therapist ought to (1967, p. 210).:

". . . share the throne of empiricism with other therapists

whom they consider unscientifically steeped in the mystique

of their arts, and amalgamate their findings with those of
schools different than their own. . .out of this wedding of the
insight and behavior therapies, dynamic explorations helping the
individual to structure and refine his learning field, and condi-
tioning techniques expediting the unlearning of neurotic and the
incorporation of healthy patterns (may emerge). "

Wrenn (1966, p. 104) proposes the same synthesis when he states
that:

". . . perceptual (insight) psychology can contribute to the
examination and determination of meaningful ends or purposes
of a given counseling relationship, and that scientific behavior-
ism can contribute a significant method for producing desired
change in behavior or attitude".

He comments further (p. 106) by pointing out that:

"Perhaps it is not integration that is to be sought at all but
selective use of elements, whatever the source. The counselor
deals with a person who wants changes, and the counselor's
responsibility goes beyond the intellectual stages of dealing
with ideas and with disembodied facts".

The next section will deal with ways to implement some of the above
positions, namely, economical and efficient ways to serve clients by utilizing

counselor-support personnel.

13

Professional and Subprofessional Counselors

Many of the theoretical issues and, assumptions are apparent when
professional training is examined. The traditionalists stress rather long-
term interpersonal training programs. The behavioral oriented counselor
would include effective interpersonal behaviors in his repertoire but go
further and ask questions such as "What reinforcers are available 7", "What
are the consequences of my behavior 7", and "In what ways can the client's
environment be modified to promote relevant behaviors ?"

For example, Wetzel (1966) modified the compulsive stealing of
a 10 year old male in a resident home by using an older female cook to give
attention and "love" only when the subject did not steal. In this case, the
patient's environment was modified to elicit behavior change without the
(111301: intervention of a therapist, by using a "non-professional" person.

Urban and Ford (1967, p. 365), reviewing the professional prepara-
tion of psychotherapists, summarized a significant trend in training:

". . . psychologists should be trained in a variety of approaches

beyond one-to-one psychotherapy. . ".

This consideration, training in varied techniques, suggests that therapists
should use whatever methods, traditional or non-traditional, that bring about
relevant changes. It also implies that sub-professional personnel be con-
sidered to help in effecting change in clients.

An increasing number of writers are suggesting that the necessity
for elaborate long-term professional training may be questionable. Many
researchers are using auxiliary, or sub-professional personnel to achieve
certain types of behavior changes with certain types of clients. For example,
Poser (1966) suggests that effective therapy can be carried out by personnel
without professional training. He used undergraduate female students with no
training or experience in psychotherapy and found that in comparison with

professional therapists who treated matched patients, the undergraduates

14

achieved slightly better results. In a critique of his study, Rioch (1966, p.
290) urges that: ". . . professionals with traditional training identify them-
selves with the advancement of knowledge and leave more of the practice of
crafts to new categories of workers".

Carkhuff and Truax (1965) report that hospital aides, volunteer
workers, and industrial therapists, in training for four months to provide
high levels of accurate empathy, non-possessive warmth and genuineness
were able to have significantly positive effects on the behavioral and per-
sonality functioning of chronic hospitalized patients. No comparisons of
professional and subprofessionals were made, however, in this study.

Schlossberg (1967) calls for the use of subprofessionals as ways
to help the lower socio-economic class people achieve direction in life, re—
lieve the manpower shortage in guidance and provide certain types of
"helping" services for clients from socially deprived areas. This model
suggests that socio—economic class peers, functioning as subprofessionals,
may be more effective in changing behaviors than professionally trained
counselors from another socio-economic class.

Kanfer (1966) recognizes the potential of this untapped resource
and suggests that sets of therapeutic programs with predictable effects be
available for use with clients manifesting specific symptoms. The thera-
pist could then be seen as a "behavioral engineer" who uses his skills to
decide which techniques or behaviors he, or a trained technician, need apply
to achieve a clients predetermined goal.

Magoon and Golann (1966) have reported that women were used as
mental health counselors to assist in the current manpower shortage in the
helping professions. Mature, bright, socially-sensitive women were train-
ed for two years to do psychotherapy, under supervision, in mental health
settings. The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) pilot training pro—
gram directed by Rioch, Elkes, and Flint (1965) provided the intensive and

broad instruction in psychotherapy. Their work was evaluated by their

15

supervisors as being as effective as professionally—trained new therapists
and social workers starting their first professional experience.

To illustrate the concern for training subprofessional counselors
by professional organizations, a special Education and Training Committee
of Division 17 from the American Psychological Association (Krumboltz,
et al., 1966) recommended certain roles that the counseling psychologist
should take in developing counselor support personnel. Two suggested areas
of examination were concerned with what types of work can be done effectively
by support personnel and what types of training are most effective in pre-
paring these subprofessionals.

In analyzing the implications of the recent Project Cause, using
Counselor Aides and Youth Advisors for the poverty program, Gordon (1965,
p. 342) concluded that:

"There is a shortage of professional personnel, and the
models which underlie the structures of the professions
as presently constituted are inappropriate for meeting the
social needs. One solution to these problems lies in sub-
professional training, to implement a team concept which
may provide services more appropriate to the population
needing them and which can compensate for the shortage of
fully qualified professionals. The establishment of sub-
professional training requires attention to ways in which
helping work can be subdivided into subprofessional roles
which are effective and economical, the development of
techniques for supervision, the training of professionals
in supervision, attention to methods of in-service training
and the development of training skills in professional
personnel. . . "

The experience of the professionally-trained person may thus be
maximized by expanding his role to include that of a consultant or organizer
rather than restricting his abilities to include only one-to-one counseling.

In summary, the evidence of professional and subprofessi onal
counselors seems to indicate that subprofessionals can at least be as effec-
tive as professionally—trained personnel. Empirical data has not appeared

in the literature indicating that subprofessionals are ineffective or detrimental.

16

All the above writers have provided data to show that using counselor support
personnel can relieve the shortage in the mental health field while providing
helpful services to clients.

The purpose of the present study is to evaluate further the effec-
tiveness of the subprofessional counselor. By accumulating data concerned
with the methods or levels of training needed for treatment of specific behaviors,
such as test anxiety, a more valid scientific judgment of treatment procedures
may be made. This study seeks to investigate this potential resource by com-
paring the efficacy of subprofessionally-trained counselors with professionally-
trained counselors using changes in amount of examination anxiety as outcome

criteria.

Imagery Arousal Factor

Although studies suggest that desensitization procedures are effective,
there are certain restrictions that limit its application. One primary drawback
involves individual difference in clients due to variability in imagery arousal.
Some clients are able to remember past emotional experiences but cannot
conjure up reasonable vivid visual images when they do recall the anxiety-
producing scene. Counterconditioning cannot work without the original emo-
tional reaction being elicited during relaxation. For example, while imagining
the original aversive situation, panic on a final examination, the client must be
able to physically experience the original fear stimulus he felt in the classroom
the day he "blocked". The aversive stimulus must be paired with relaxation
responses to be "neutralized" or "desensitized".

Wolpe and Lazarus (1966, p. 95) discuss this need for imagery
arousal:

"There are a few people who are simply unable to conjure
up either visual or auditory images-at any rate in response
to the requirements of the therapist. Far more commonly,
the trouble is that while images can be formed they have

no sense of reality for the patient. Occasionally action taken

17

by the therapist leads to the difficulty being overcome.
The action is of various kinds - providing much verbal
detail of the situation to be imagined, inducing a 'deep'
trance in good hypnotic subjects, or getting the patient

to describe what he imagines. But, usually, such efforts
are without avail; and the therapeutic change must then
depend upon the use of real stimuli".

The author is not aware of any study investigating this aspect of desensitization
treatment or of any suggested method of assessing it other than a clinical judg-
ment. Ideally, imagery arousal should be assessed by physiological instruments
while the subject is reacting to emotional situations similar to the desensitization
process. This, however, could affect the ability of the person to concentrate by
creating an unnaturalistic setting.

To accurately and reliably record the arousal quality of a subject
seeking psychotherapy for specific disorders would aid in prognosis and assign—
ment to a particular treatment. Therapists would also be able to gather data
on possible ways of increasing a client's ability to visually imagine past
emotional experiences. The absence of any experimental data in this field
indicates a need to investigate this influential variable. Therapists of all
disciplines unwittingly use this behavior with no knowledge of its effects on
the client. Insight counselors rely on imagery to arouse catharsis and "work-
ing through" of transference and repression. Behavior therapists, other than
those practicing systematic desensitization, also need to have clients recall
the past emotional anxieties from which they seek relief. Therefore, the
intent of investigating imagery arousal is to provide general data concerning
this unexamined behavior of clients as well as to gather information on which
clients, high or low-imagery arousal types, succeed or do not succeed with

insight or desensitization methods.

Multiple Criterion Measures
The greatest problem today is psychotherapeutic research seems to

be the outcome criterion problem (Paul, 1967). In spite of the lack of validation

18

(Eysenck, 1966), research workers (Strupp and Luborsky, 1962) contend that
psychotherapy is effective but faulty instrumentation and unreliable dependent
variables have caused the negative findings.

Paul (1967) critiques the present state of research in psychotherapy and
offers helpful innovations to redirect investigations. He selects a factorial group
design approach with no-treatment and attention-placebo controls to restrain
confounding variables. He also suggests that (p. 111):

". . . the question towards which all outcome research should
ultimately be directed is the following: mt treatment, by

whom, is most effective for this individual with M specific
problem, and under which set of circumstances ?"

He does not expect a single study to answer this question but a collection
of factorially-designed studies, with the aid of computers, will be the only means
to achieve relevant knowledge to solve the above problem. The present study
attempts to provide some data toward arriving at the solution.

Krumboltz (1966) and Thoresen (1966a) amplify the position of Paul by
stating that no one type of criterion measure is appropriate for all clients due
to their differential characteristics and problems. It follows, therefore, that
no one type of counseling procedure is appropriate to modify client behavior.
These authors suggest that observable and individualized goals may take the
form of changing maladaptive behavior, improving decision-making behavior,
or presenting future problematic behavior. Therefore, evaluation of the "suc-
cesses" of therapy is really dependent upon the idiosyncratic client objectives.

Paul (19 66, 1967) has added to the construct validity of certain
measuring instruments by using multiple-measures of outcomes in his study.

He points out that objective and reliable observations of selected target be—
haviors, such as observation of response rate of test anxious behavior are
extremely desirable because otherwise bias enters into subjective instruments.
Physiological measures such as pulse rate, observational samples of specific
predetermined text-anxious behaviors, and self-ratings, specific and general,

constitute more promising criterion instruments than do current singular

19

outcome measures such as Q-sorts, Grade Point averages and self-reports.
Usingand analyzing the results of multi-dimensional assessment instruments

will be an important feature of this study.

Hypotheses and Summary

The criterion measures to be used in this study are:

(1) S-R Inventory of Anxiousness
(2) Test Anxiety Inventory

(3) Test Anxiety Rating

(4) Thayer Adjective Checklist
(5) Pulse Rate

(6) Observers' Checklist

(7) Therapist Ratings

(8) Client Ratings

The hypotheses of this study are as follows:

Hypothesis (he - Groups receiving systematic desensitization
procedures will show a significantly greater decrease in
criterion scores than groups receiving insight counseling.

Hypothesis 'I\v0 - There will be no significant differences on
mean change scores of groups led by professional counselors
when compared with groups led by sub-professional counsel-
lors.

Hypothesis Three - High imagery arousal subjects will show a
significantly greater decrease in criterion scores when
compared with low imagery arousal subjects.

Hypothesis Four - There will be no significant interactions
involving type of treatment, counselor-level, or imagery
arousal level.

Hypothesis Five - Experimental groups will show a significant
decrease on mean difference criterion scores.

Hypothesis Six - Wait Control or No-Contact Control groups will
not show a significant decrease or mean difference criterion

SCOI‘BS .

20

Summary

In summary, there is a definite trend in the field of psychotherapy

to investigate whatever innovative methods might cause relevant behavior
change in clients. Insight counseling procedures may in fact be effective
but the process is not clear nor is it systematic. Behavioral approaches,
however, offer many more clearly-delineated techniques that show much
promise, especially as to permitting empirical and experimental valida-
tion. Traditional forms of counseling have not changed much in the past
few decades.

The view is suggested that counselors, to be effective, may not
have to go through extensive training programs if they can demonstrate
positive behavior change in clients using specific therapeutic procedures.
There also is a growing tendency to investigate the differential character-
istics of clients which would aid in diagnosis and treatment. The investi-

gation of the ability of clients to vividly imagine emotional experiences is

a promising area. Finally, various outcome criterion such as physiological,

observational, and self-rating instruments need to be subjected to further

empirical investigation.

CHAPTER II

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND PROCEDURES

Introduction

This study was designed to investigate what differences exist
between counseling procedures termed insight and desensitization when
applied to the problem of examination anxiety. A second objective was to
contrast the effectiveness of professional and subprofessional counselors.

A final objective was to assess the differences between high and low imagery
arousal level subjects as to treatment effect. Figure I presents the ex-
perimental design of this investigation suggested by Paul (1966, p. 27).

This study utilized a pre- and post-treatment test battery of
self-report measures prior to mid-term and final examinations. In addi-
tion, pre- and post-treatment measures were taken immediately prior to,
during and following mid-term and final examinations. The purpose of
this extensive data-gathering was to control for the differences of measures
taken at different times. For example, evaluation of behavior two weeks
prior to examinations does not necessarily record behavior similar to data
gathered during examinations.

To indicate that change occurs in clients as a result of some
treatment, subjects have been used as their own control (Gardner, 1967).
Randomly-chosen control groups, however, are not included with this
approach. Base rates are obtained to determine behavioral changes follow-
ing treatment but the own control design does not take into account changes
caused by witholding treatment, passage of time, or extra—therapy influences.
To accommodate these extraneous variables, control groups therefore seem
to be an essential part of outcome research. Paul (1966) has used both a
wait control and a no-contact control group to hold the effect of these vari-
ables constant. In his study, the wait control group received the same

testing and attention from the investigator as the treatment group but no

21

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"counseling" was provided. His no-contact control group however received
only the test battery. The purpose of including these two control groups in
the present investigation was to control for external life experiences that
often result in behavioral change.

Figure 2 portrays the arrangement of the treatment and control
groups. The original assignment consisted of 12 subjects to each group;
that is, 12 subjects to the professional desensitization treatment groups and
12 subjects to the professional insight groups. The wait-control group con-

tained 10 subjects and the no-contact control group 11 subjects.

FIGURE 2

Counselor Level

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Professional Sub-Professional
N=24 N=24
Treatment No
Wait ContagL
Desensitization Insight Desensitization Insight Control Control
High Imagery
Arousal N=6 N=6 N=6 N=6
N=24
Low Imagery N-lO N—11
Arousal =6 =6 =6 =6
N=24

 

 

 

 

 

Desens itization N=24
Insight N=24

Seven Human Growth and Development classes, required for students

in education at Western Michigan University, were contacted by the investigator

to explain an experimental program offered by the counseling center to relieve

test anxiety in college students. Fifty-eight students volunteered for the study.

Six students, after assignment to treatment groups, dropped out because of

time limitations. All subjects completed a pre-treatment test battery two

24

weeks prior to their Human Growth and Development mid-term examina-
tions. This battery consisted of the S-R Inventory of Anxiousness (see
Appendix A), the Test Anxiety Inventory (see Appendix B), and a cover
sheet explaining the program (see Appendix C). An orientation interview
at the Western Michigan University Counseling Center was arranged by

telephone .

Methodology

Orientation Interview and Arousal Measurement

The investigator interviewed all 58 subjects individually, explain-
ing the purpose of the project but avoiding description of the types of treat-
ments involved. Essentially they were told that their counselor, carefully
trained for this program, would see them in groups of three for five ses-
sions to "help relieve their anxiety over taking tests". All questions were
answered in such a way so that the differential treatments would not be
disclosed. A typescript of the orientation tape is found in Appendix D.

Prior to the interview, all subjects filled out the Imagery Arousal
Inventory (see Appendix E) designed to assess the ability of each individual
to experience physiological arousal when imagining an emotional scene.
During the interview the subject was told to relax as much as possible and
keep his eyes closed to facilitate "imagining" behavior. The responses to
the six emotional situations in the inventory were then read to the subjects
in a somewhat dramatic fashion by the investigator. For example, "Think
back, the last time you kissed someone who really turned you on. . . imagine
yourself there with that person. . . ".

The subject raised the number of fingers on his right hand to indi-
cate the degree of physiological arousal felt when be imagined each of the
six scenes. Not raising any fingers indicated no anxiety felt while raising
five fingers indicated extreme anxiety arousal. The arousal score consisted

of the sum of the six ratings with the possible range from zero to thirty. It

25

is acknowledged that physiological measurement techniques would more
accurately determine the subjects' arousal level. Such instrumentation was
not, however, available. The present rating method seemed promising as

a rough screening device to determine arousal level.

Instrumentation

The Test Anxiety Inventory and the S-R Inventory of Anxiousness
comprised the pre-treatment test battery (see Appendix C for cover sheet)
completed by all subjects several weeks before their mid-term examinations.
Pulse rates for 30 seconds were taken on all subjects just prior to receiving
their mid—term tests. During the examination, the Observers' Checklist (see
Appendix F) was used to record the subjects' test-anxious behaviors. Im-
mediately following the test, the Test Anxiety Rating (see Appendix G) and a
modification of the Thayer Activation-Deactivation Checklist (see Appendix H)
were completed.

The post-treatment test battery included the Test Anxiety Inventory
and the S-R Inventory of Anxiousness, along with a cover sheet (see Appendix
I) asking all subjects in the treatment groups to complete an evaluation of their
counseling. These test batteries were passed out in class the week before
finals, after all subjects had terminated their groups. All but two batteries
were returned. An effort was made to achieve a 100 per cent return but it
was decided that extensive pressure on the students might adversely influence
their responses. Pulse rates were taken prior to the final examination. The
Observers’ Checklist was completed on the subjects during the test. The Thayer
Activation-Deactivation Checklist and the Test Anxiety Rating were also adminis-
tered immediately following the test. The no-contact control group was again

asked to complete the same inventories to "conclude the reaearch experiment".

S-Rlnventory of Anxiousness
General Design: This instrument, constructed by Endler, McV Hunt,

and Rosenstein (1962), consists of 11 situations to which subjects rate their

26

reactions, such as "You are entering a final examination in an important
course", and "You are going into an interview for a very important job".
(See Appendix A for format.) These 11 different situations yield 14 differ-
end response modes. Based on a five-point rating scale, these modes
represent three general ways in which subjects express their emotions:

(1) distress, disruption of action, and avoidance, (2) exhilaration, en-
joyment, and approach, and (3) residual autonomic responses. Examples
of these 14 modal items are ”Emotions disrupt action", "Seek experiences
like this very much", and "Heart beats faster".

The 11 situational scales are concerned with threats to inter-
personal status such as "You are going to meet a new date"; inanimate
dangers, for example, "You are alone in the woods at night", and another
factor whose meaning is unclear. Each of the 11 situations were separately
analyzed in order to evaluate the subjects' responses to the different stimulus
situations. Analyses of "modes" of anxiety were not conducted for the S-R
Inventory of Anxiousness.

Validation: Endler and McV Hunt (1966) have reported the re-
sults of two validity studies. One study found a negative correlation, -. 63,
between the situation described as "You are getting up to give a speech
before a large group", and frequency of pre-treatment recitations in class.
Another study found positive correlations, . 7 O to . 80,between the speech
situation item and student self-reports of anxiety while speaking. Endler
and McV Hunt (1966) concluded that validity of prediction from this instru-
ment is a function of the similarity of the 11 situations and other comparative
criterion situations. The first situation, "You are entering a final examina-
tion in an important course" was judged to have relevency as to the outcome
of the present investigation. The other items provided data on this study's
generalization effects; i. e. , anxiety relief associated with giving speeches,

going out on dates, and entering competitive contests.

27

Test Anxiety Inventory
General Design: The Test Anxiety Inventory (see Appendix B) is

 

a scale used by Thoresen (1966) and is a revision of a scale used by Emery
(1967). It contains items designed to measure degrees of reactions to the
testing situation, such as "My heart beats faster just as I start on an im-
portant test" and "During an important examination, I experience a feeling
of helplessness building up inside me". Subjects respond to these 34 items
by completing a five-point scale ranging from "Rarely or never experience
that feeling" to ”Always or almost always experience that feeling".

Validation: Thoresen (1966) revised the 18 item scale by Emery
(1967) used to discriminate test-anxious college students from a random
sample control group. Emery found that the test-anxious group scored
significantly higher on all 18 items when compared with the control group.
The 34 item revision of this scale by Thoresen (1966) was used in the

present investigation.

Imagery Arousal Inventory

General Design: This instrument, constructed by the investigator

 

for this study (see Appendix E) consists of six representative emotional-
arousing situations that most people have encountered during their lives.
The subjects wrote down their specific recollections to the situations so
that the examiner would be able to repeat back to the subject, while he was
relaxed, the specific environmental stimuli that aroused the anxiety. The
situations were worded so that both males and females alike would be able
to interprete the experience as having happened to them. Briefly, the
administration of this pilot instrument consisted of placing the subject in a
relaxed state (see Appendix D for transcript of tape recording) and verbally
presenting back to him, in a rather dramatic fashion, his reactions to the
six situations. The subject was then instructed to rate his accompanying

physiological reaction, or imagery, by raising his right fore finger if he

28

felt "just a little bit jittery", raising two fingers if he felt "a little more
tense", and raising up to five fingers for "really feeling tense and anxious".

The total possible for the six situations ranged from zero to
thirty. Actual scores ranged from three to twenty-eight, with a mean of
17. 24 and a standard deviation of 5. 76.

Validation: The only mention of any form of imagery arousal in
the recent literature was by Lazarus and Abramovitz (1962) who used "emo-
tive imagery" in treating children's phobias. Their study did not attempt
to systematically evaluate the arousal level of the subjects. It was concerned
only with eliciting "emotive imagery" and categorizing subjects for treatment
in a clinical setting. To date, nothing has been published assessing the

imagery arousal level of clients as a critical factor in desensitiation.

Thayer Activation-Degetiygtion Checklist

General Design: Thayer (1967) investigated self-report of what

 

he termed activation and deactivation adjectives as an indication of physio-
logical arousal. He categorized the adjectives into four factors: High Acti-
vation, General Deactivation, General Activation, and Deactivation-Sleep
(see Appendix H for categorization of factors). Only the High Activation
and General Deactivation factors were considered appropriate as criterion
measures for this investigation. The High Activation adjectives were:
clutched-up, jittery, stirred-up, fearful and intense. The General De-
activation adjectives were: at rest, still, leisurely, quiescent, quiet, calm
and placid. The latter adjectives were scored in the opposite direction as
compared with the High Activation adjectives. That is, a "very fearful"
(High Activation adjective) was scored four and a "very calm" response
(General Deactivation adjective) was scored one.

Validation: Thayer (1967) found that the four Activation-Deactiva-
tion factors correlated . 58 and . 56 with composite heart and galvanic skin

resistance measures. He concluded that controlled self-report is an

29

adequate alternative measurement form for physiological instrumentation.
The above four factors seem to have been empirically validated based on
predicted physiological changes that occurred during diurnal sleep-wakeful-

ness and an impending examination.

Test Anxiety Rating

General Design: This instrument (see Appendix G), administered

 

after the mid-term and final examinations, is an eight point rating scale
constructed by Thoresen (1967) based in part on a scale used by Emery (1967).
It is designed to measure the subjects' self—report of anxiety during five
stages of the examination; just before, at the beginning, in the middle, near
the end, and after completion of the test.

Validation: Formal validation data have not yet been reported. A
comparable rating scale has been used to significantly discriminate subjects
who report experiencing extreme anxiety on examinations from non-anxious

subjects (Emery, 1967).

Observers' Checklist

General Design: Paul (1966) suggested that research investigations

 

include direct observations of specific behavioral movements by reliable
raters as outcome criteria. Based on an observational checklist which he
developed to observe subjects in a public speaking situation, a checklist (see
Appendix F) was created by the investigator to allow recording of observable
body movement responses in test situations. For example, it was decided to
group specific behavioral manifestations of anxiety, like shifting of feet,
chewing a pencil, and wringing the hands, into categories such as legs,
facial, and hands. Observers in this investigation watched one preselected
subject for one-minute time spans, starting a stop watch when the subject
was engaged in anxious behaviors and stopping it when the subject no longer
manifested these behaviors. These trained observers recorded on a sheet

(see Appendix F), the total number of seconds during that one minute time

3O

span that the subject was observed engaging in anxious behavior. (he person
used a separate stop watch to determine the one minute observational spans.
The observers looked away from their predetermined subjects only to record
the data. When this was done, the observers then shifted to another pre-
determined subject and repeated the process. The checklist procedures are
discussed at greater length in the section dealing with observations of sub-
jects during mid-term and final examinations. The observers then shifted

to another subject and repeated the process.

Validation: An assumption was made that these behaviors do indi-
cate to some extent the presence of physiological anxiety. Relevant to this
assumption, Paul (1966) found significant positive correlations between change
on physiological measurements and change in observable behavior. He com-
bined Pulse Rate and Palmar Sweat Index scores to form a Physiological
Composite and reported that it showed a . 35 correlation with a Behavioral

Checklist, consisting of reliable observations of speech anxious behavior.

Pulse Rate

Generjal Design: In his study, Paul (1966) recorded pulse rates
from the radial artery of the subject's right arm immediately before each
speech test. The rates were timed by a stopwatch for 30 seconds and later
doubled to pulse rate per minute. This procedure was followed in the present
investigation except that the pulse rate for 30 seconds was used and not con—
verted to 60 seconds. Immediately before each subject began working on
their mid-term and final examinations, the investigator collected the pulse
rates for all subjects. This procedure consisted of the investigator firmly
placing the middle three fingers of his right hand on the subject's radial
artery of the right wrist. The investigator's left hand recorded the 30
second time span with a stop watch. An assistant recorded the pulse rate
on the Observers' Checklist sheet.

Validation: Paul (1966) found that use of pulse rate as a criterion

measure reached only the 10 per cent level of significance between desensitization

31

and insight groups, but the failure of seven control subjects to complete
post-treatment measures resulted in their being excluded from analyses.
Hence, the differences between treatment and control groups were seen

as underestimates of changes. Paul (1966) did point out that the mean pre—
post reductions in pulse rate scores for the desensitization group was
seven while the attention-placebo and insight groups showed a mean de-
crease of only one. The treatment control increased their mean pulse rate
change scores. Therefore, although not a significant discriminator, pulse
rate did show some differences between treatments. Therefore, it was
decided to use pulse rate in the present study to replicate Paul's (1966) find-
ings, to include some feasible physiological measurement and to determine
whether pulse rate can be used as a valid criterion measure in investigating

change in test-anxious subjects.

Therapists Ratinga

General Design: After each treatment session, professional and
subprofessional counselors rated the anxiety-level of each subject in his
group (see Appendix J for rating sheet). Mean difference scores were
computed based on counselor ratings of the anxiety-level for the first and
fifth interviews. For example, a subject's anxiety-level may be rated as
three on the five point scale for the first interview and two for the final
interview. His change score would be one.

Validation: Paul (1966, p. 52-53) states that:

"Even though the insight-oriented approach was the one
preferred by the other therapists prior to treatment
contact, the mean differences in prognosis ratings after
treatment showed that the desensitization group was

rated significantly higher than either insight or attention-
placebo for specific prognosis, and that desensitization
was rated higher than insight for prognosis in other areas".

Therefore, it seems clear that therapists ratings can be used as
significant outcome criteria despite the apparent bias of the orientation of

the therapist.

32

Client Ratinga

General Desigp: Subjects receiving insight and desensitization
procedures were asked to provide a rating of the extent to which (1) their
test anxiety was relieved, (2) anxieties other than test anxiety were relieved,
(3) their therapist was competent, and (4) the approach used was effective
or not effective. (See Appendix I for post-treatment test battery cover
sheet. )

Validation: In spite of the subjective nature in utilizing self-
report data, Koenig (1963) concluded that some confidence may be placed
in utilizing change in self-report of anxiety as a valid index of anxiety
change. Even though physiological measures may be more objective, self—
report data need not be excluded as outcome research. Walsh (1967) also
investigated the validity of self-report and found no differences between the
questionnaire, the interview and the personal data blank for collecting data.
He concluded that student information can validly be obtained through self-

report.

Sampling and Assignment Procedures

Subjects were first assigned to either a high or low group based on
their imagery arousal score. A score of 17 was used as a cutoff point. Sub-
jects whose scores were 18 or above were classified in the high imagery
arousal group and those whose scores were 16 and below were assigned to
the low imagery arousal group. Four subjects scored 17. These subjects
were randomly assigned to the low and high groups. A table of random num-
bers (Winer, 1962) was used to assign the subjects to the 16 different treat-
ment groups and the wait-control group (see Figure 3). Subjects were
notified by telephone when and where they were to meet their groups. All

sessions were held in the Western Michigan University Counseling Center.

33

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

FIGURE 3
Treatments
High Low High Low
Arousal 7 Arousal Arousal Arousal
Desensi ”igtinn Insi Tht
. High
Professmnal N=3 =3 N=3 =3
Arousal
Counselors N=3 N=3 N: N: Wait No
Control Treat-
. _ _ _ _ =5 ment
Subprofessmnal N—3 N—3 N—3 —3 Low Control
Counselors N=3 N=3 N=3 N=3 Arousal
. N=11
Walt
Control
N25
Total N=69

Control Groups

Paul (1966) has mentioned the need for two types of control groups
so that spontaneous remissions, or the changes that occur due to the passage
of time, can be controlled. The no-contact control group (N=11) was com-
prised of students randomly selected from a Human Growth and Development
class not previously approached about participation in this project. The 11
students were asked by their instructor to complete a test battery for a
"research experiment" prior to mid-term and final examinations. No inquiry
was made before selection of the subjects concerning their degree of test
anxiety. Examination of the pre-treatment mean scores for all groups showed
that the no-treatment control group scored lower on both criterion measures
completed, the Test Anxiety Inventory and the S-R Inventory of Anxiousness.

These data therefore provide an opportunity to limit, as much as
possible, the non-specific attention effects occurring in other types of control

groups. In addition, this group provided control for the effects of history and
the possible interaction of testing and treatment (Campbell and Stanley, 1966).

34

The original wait—control group (N=10), randomly selected with
five high imagery arousal subjects and five low imagery arousal subject,
were told by telephone that "because of space limitations, they would not
be able to be seen this semester but the next semester they were enrolled
in school, they would be contacted and the same type of group meeting would
be provided for them". They were also urged to help in the evaluation of
the experiment by continuing in the program. All 10 subjects cooperated
except that two students, one a high arousal subject and one a low arousal
subject, did not want to take the final examination in the one-way observa-
tion room again. They stated that it "made them too anxious". The final

wait-control group, therefore, contained eight subjects.

Counselors

Selection. The two professional therapists, Dr. Donald Davis, Director
of the Western Michigan University Counseling Center, and Dr. Milton
Cudney, Assistant Director, were selected because they were the only two
Ph. D. -level counselors in counseling psychology on the above staff when
the study was initiated. The two subprofessional counselors were chosen
from six members of a first year graduate course in a clinical psychology
practicum class. All had training in studying counseling theory but lacked
actual counseling experience or formal supervision. Four members of
the class volunteered to take part in the experiment and submitted tapes

of simulated counseling interviews in which each acted out "counselor-
client" roles with another member of the class. These tapes were then
rated by two advanced doctoral students at Michigan State University with
considerable counseling experience and supervision. The tapes were
ranked on the basis of warmth, empathy, understanding and other generally
accepted characteristics deemed important in insight procedures. The top
two students were selected. The two subprofessional counselors were paid
for their services. The two professional counselors were not paid but

integrated their groups into their regular work schedule.

35

Qualifications. Dr. Donald Davis, 50 years old, and a member of the

 

American Academy of Psychotherapists, received his degree from
Michigan State University in 1958, has published numerous professional
articles, has presented papers at various conferences, and is currently
active in several counseling research projects. Dr. Milton Cudney, 36
years old, received his degree from the Ohio State University in 1964,
has contributed several articles to the professional literature, and has
more than four years of post-doctoral experience as a psychotherapist.

Paul (1966) used Orientation Scales to describe the "school"
each therapist saw himself allied with. The scales may also be used des-
criptively to portray the two professional therapists' theoretical positions.
They both may be described as "insight and relationship" counselors who
view the following techniques as an essential part of their counseling:
reflection and clarification of feelings, interpretation of feelings, warmth
and understanding, permissive and spontaneous relationships, exploration
of client dynamics and actualized growth, and avoidance of conditioning,
manipulation and systematic reinforcement techniques. Both subprofessional
males were married, twenty-two years old and planning to pursue a Ph. D.
in Clinical Psychology. They expressed a preference for doing "depth"
counseling and "resolving" client problems by means of the above insight
procedures. Neither had participated as a client in counseling or psycho-
therapy nor had they experienced formal practicum training. They were,
however, very enthusiastic about the opportunity to be "counselors" in the
present study.
Training. Two training sessions of one hour each in systematic desensitiza-
tion procedures were conducted by Dr. Don Whaley, a member of the Western
Michigan University Psychology Department, who has had extensive exper-
ience in desensitization methods. Historical antecedents, relaxation tech-
niques, construction of hierarchies and specific behaviors were stressed

to facilitate counterconditioning. Each therapist also received a manual

36

based on Paul's (1966) study, describing how to administer desensitization
procedures (see Appendix K), three by five cards on which their clients
were to construct individual hierarchies, summary sheets with specific
instructions for their clients on how to relax (see Appendix L), therapist
rating sheets (see Appendix J), and guidelines for insight treatment tech—
niques (see Appendix M).

Dr. Davis, one of the professional therapists, conducted the two
hour-long training sessions for the insight therapy treatment. He discussed
theoretical aspects of the test-anxious student and ways of relating to them.
In brief, he emphasized that the client's emotional perception of life, needed
to be treated as well as his feelings about himself and others. Close,
"existential" relationships were encouraged and specific behavioral sugges-
tions were avoided. In addition, 40 tapes were available to the subprofessional
counselors to review and integrate the insight approach. Above all, both
trainers made an effort to avoid conveying the idea that desensitization or
insight was the "best" treatment. An elaboration of treatment techniques

will be included under treatment procedures (see page 38).

Observations of Subjects During Mid-term and Final Examinations

Paul (1966) suggested that observational data be included in the out-
come criterion analysis. Observing specific test-anxious behaviors in a
naturalistic setting has not been attempted previously. If the dependent vari-
ables in therapeutic studies are, in fact, changes in behavior, then it seems
logical that evidence of this change needs to be objectively recorded. Ker-
linger (1964) has pointed out that when inquiry utilizes observations, the
observer needs to know exactly what behaviors he is looking for as well as
reliably recording the behaviors. This is the intent of the observational data.

Ten graduate students from the Western Michigan University
Counseling Center volunteered to take part in the project as observers. Due

to these observers being available at limited times, and examinations being

given according to instructor's schedules, only a few observers were

37

available for each examination. All observers became familiar with the
Observers' Checklist (see Appendix F) and practiced observing other gradu-
ate assistant's role-playing test-anxious students.

Students in the study were notified they would be taking their
examinations in a room "more conducive for taking tests". That is, it
would be quieter and less distracting. Subjects were assigned a specific
chair to facilitate their identification while under observation. It was
casually mentioned that proctors were behind the one-way mirrors so that
apprehensions of the "unknown" were reduced. There was no evidence to
suggest that the subjects were aware of the main purpose of the testing
arrangement, which was to observe anxious behavior.

Generally, the students reacted favorable to the small test-
taking group situation. Two students in the wait-control group however,
said that the mirror distracted them and requested that they be permitted to
take their final examination in their original classroom. Other students
reported that they could concentrate better in the room with only a few
students around (between two to twelve subjects were in each observational
group) and when the visual as well as auditory distractions were reduced.

The investigator used a stop watch to record one-minute obser-
vational time spans by signaling "start" and "stop" commands to the ob-
servers. The time engaged in anxious behaviors observed for a particular
subject was then recorded and the next subject was then observed for a one-
minute span. All subjects were observed for at least six and not more than
20 one-minute spans. This variability occurred because of the varying amount
of time taken by subjects to complete the tests and the fluctuating length of
the different examinations. The mean number of seconds of anxious be-
havior was then computed for all subjects on the mid-term and final examina-
tions. Approximately 14 subjects were able to be observed by two or more
raters. Their scores were then averaged together. The remaining 40 sub-

jects were observed by only one rater during the examinations.

38

The data collected on each subject consisted of the mean number
of seconds that that particular student manifested overt anxious behavior.

The observer did not have to look away from the subject under observation
during the one-minute spans which typically happens with other types of
checklists; i. e. , they must look down to check a specific occurrence. After
the mean number of seconds of anxious behavior was determined for each
subject, the observer recorded it on his sheet before proceeding to the next
subject.

An intraclass correlation formula (see Appendix N for explication)
was used to assess interjudge agreement. Ebel (1951) suggests that "between
raters" variance be included in computing reliability of raters. Correlational
formulas, such as the Pearson r, consider only the a1£n_s_ of each rater,

rather than the agreement between raters for each individual trial. Ebel

 

(1951, p. 420) points out that the product moment correlational approach
"removes" between-raters variance in its computation and overestimates
relationships between raters by using averages rather than considering in-
dividual trials. Reliability coefficients ranged from . 84 to . 96 permitting
confidence to be placed in the observer ratings.

However, it must be pointed out that due to the uniqueness of this
measurement, ratings were probably not independent of each other. Obser-
vers viewed the subjects from a small room behind a one-way mirror and
the clicking of an observer's stop watch tended to cue the other observer to
start his stop watch. There were no other provisions such as separate rooms,

available at this time to control for this confounding variable.

Treatment Procedures

All groups in both treatments met for five sessions, each session
being about 45 minutes in length. The interviews were audio-taped with the
investigator periodically reviewing the tapes to insure adherence to treatment

procedures.

39

One of the reasons for arranging treatments in groups was to
investigate the potentialities of this economical method. Several studies
have indicated that group desensitization is an effective procedure. Paul's
(1966) study contrasted individual treatments of insight and desensitization,
showing desensitization to be most successful. Lazarus (1961) used groups
for a comparative study of insight and desensitization treatments but certain
methodological weaknesses were in evidence. For example, only a few
criterion measures were used and therapist bias seemed to exist in that
the investigator was the therapist for both treatments. Paul and Shannon
(1966) found that group desensitization combined with re-educative discus-
sion offered an efficient and effective treatment for social—evaluative anxiety.
Katahn, Strenger and Cherry (1966) combined group counseling and systematic
desensitization in successfully treating test-anxious college students. Grade
Point Averages and a self-report measure of test anxiety were the only
criterion measures used however.

The objectives of the present study do not include a comparison
of group vs. individual methods, but rather attempt only to investigate the

feasibility of these group methods using the selected criterion measures.

Group Insight Triatment

The insight counseling procedures cannot be adequately described
in the form of specific behaviors because they traditionally lack observable
and objective guidelines. Generally, the counselor seeks possible answers
to the question "Why 7", and attempts to reduce anxiety by helping the client
to gain insight into his problem. Therefore, the test-anxious situation would
not be focused on but rather emphasis placed on historical and interpersonal
antecedents such as "How do your parents feel about your progress in college 7".

Suggestions by the counselor of ways that clients might change their
behavior were avoided. Counselor responses took the reflective form such
as "What do you think you ought to do ?". Affective, feeling-type responses,

e. g. , "I feel confused. . . lost" were reinforced and their etiology examined.

40

Intrapersonal techniques and meanings were explored with the intent of
clients' gaining knowledge of their dynamic behavior. All the counselors
felt that insight was an important goal and that five interviews were ade-
quate for some change to occur. They stated that for some "difficult"
clients, more extensive treatment was needed. They were allowed to
continue to see the subjects as long as they arranged the appointments
after post-treatment measures were taken.

Appendix M, Guidelines for Insight Methods, lists the specific
behaviors that each counselor was to emphasize during the insight counsel—
ing interviews. Briefly, they were to talk softly, maintain eye contact,
lean forward frequently to attend to a client's verbalizations, and convey
understanding by repeating what the client had said. Counselors were
instructed to reflect, clarify, reassure, and interprete client responses.
All counselors stated that they felt comfortable and confident carrying out
this approach. All counseling sessions followed the same procedures and
students could generally discuss whatever they wished. No attempt was

made to systematically structure the sequence of content.

Group Desensitization Treatment

The desensitization treatment procedures were clearly defined for
the counselors (see Appendix K) consisting of a modified form of the method
advocated by Wolpe (1968). This technique of counterconditioning was
selected because it has been widely used and can be more easily applied

than other procedures.

Session One. This consisted of building rapport with the clients and explain-

 

ing the approach to be used. They were told that their emotional reactions
could be unlearned by first determining the situations in which they became
progressively more anxious, building a hierarchy from the least to the most
test anxious situations. These situations were then to be visualized while

deeply relaxed. Ten three by five cards were passed out to each client on

41

which individualized hierarchies were to be written by him, one situation
on each card. A sample test-anxiety hierarchy (see Appendix 0) was also
distributed for modeling purposes. The subject, however, were urged to
construct their own for what may be "arousing" for one student may not
necessarily be so for another. The remainder of the first interview was
devoted to instruction in relaxation. All subjects were given a relaxation
procedures sheet (see Appendix L) listing specific ways to practice relax-

ing in their rooms.

Session Two. In this interview relaxation methods were reviewed to see if

 

the subjects had in fact, practiced the exercises. The hierarchies listed
on the cards were also checked to see if all subjects constructed them
properly. They were then told to place themselves in a relaxed state, look
at the first card with the least anxious situation, close their eyes and imagine
it. The therapist would state common relaxation suggestions to all subjects
such as "imagine you are there. . . right now. . . relax. . . feel yourself in that
situation. . . ". If the subject became mildly anxious, he would signal by
raising the index finger of his right hand. Subjects were not allowed to go
past the first three situations during the second session. If some subjects
seemed to have trouble relaxing, and were unable to go beyond the first
hierarchy card, the counselor would do whatever he could to help that per-
son relax. The session closed with a few minutes of positive reassurance

and instructions for the intervening time until the next interview.

SessipasfiThree through Five. The remaining three interviews consisted of
imagining about two to three cards each session, depending upon the progress
of the group. Some hierarchies were replaced with more suitable situations
that aroused anxiety. The counselors were told to maintain a warm and
approachable attitude similar to the atmosphere in the insight treatment
groups but to ignore topics of an affective nature. Discussion of historical

or interpersonal difficulties was not permitted. All counselors felt that

42

most subjects could imagine all cards with minimal or no anxiety after the
five sessions. All groups therefore completed their hierarchies before
termination.

During treatment, two subjects from the high arousal insight
and two subjects from the high arousal desensitization groups dropped out
of the study due to time and emotional reasons. All four were from the

groups assigned to the professional counselors.

Summary

This investigation attempted to examine the differential effects
of two types of treatments, desensitization and insight, with high and low
imagery arousal test-anxious students. Wait control and no-contact control
groups were included to control for changes that might be attributed to time
or external conditions. Two professional and two subprofessional counselors
were trained to carry out procedures that were as representative as possible
of the different theoretical methods. Various types of outcome criteria
were used before, during and after mid-term and final examinations to
measure the efficacy of the above treatments. These criteria measures
included:

(1) Self-report-S-R Inventory of Anxiousness, Test Anxiety
Inventory, Thayer Activation-Deactivation Checklist, and
Test Anxiety Rating

(2) Physiological-Pulse Rate

(3) Objective Observations-Observers' Checklist
(4) Therapists' Ratings

(5) Client Ratings of Treatments

CHAPTER III
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Research Hypotheses

This chapter presents in detail the results of the study in terms
of the research hypotheses. The following hypotheses were tested statis-
tically by using a factorial analysis of variance design:

Hypothesis (he - Groups receiving systematic desensitization

procedures will show a significantly greater decrease
in criterion scores than groups receiving insight counsel—
ing.

Hypothesis Two - There will be no significant differences in
mean change scores between groups led by professional
counselors and groups led by subprofessional counselors.

Hypothesis Three - High imagery arousal subjects will show
a significantly greater decrease in criterion scores
when compared with low imagery arousal subjects.

Hypothesis Four - There will be no significant interactions
involving type of treatment, counselor-level, or imagery
arousal level.

Two subsidiary hypotheses were tested by means of comparing

test scores:

Hypothesis Five - Experimental groups will show a significant
decrease on mean difference criterion scores.

Hypothesis Six - Wait Control and No Contact Control groups
will not show a significant decrease in mean difference
criterion scores.

Partial replication of Paul's (1966) study comparing insight and

desensitization necessitated including self-report, observable, and physio-

logical measures. The S-R Inventory of Anxiousness, Test Anxiety Inventory,

43

44

Test Anxiety Rating Scale, Thayer Activation-Deactivation Checklist and
Client Ratings were used to assess subjective evaluations of the degree and
kind of client anxiety. In addition, objective motoric measurements of
anxiety were recorded by the Observers' Checklist. Pulse Rate measure-
ments indicated the degree of physiological anxiety felt by the subjects
during the examinations. Therapist's Ratings provided external judgments
of the level of client anxiety.

Acceptance or rejection of these hypotheses is dependent upon
which criterion measure is examined. Therefore, each dependent vari-
able was separately analyzed as to the effect of treatment, counselor-level,
arousal level, and control groups. Each of these four areas was then sum-

marized and discussed.

Analysis of Data

Introduction
Facilities at the San Diego State College Computer Center were
utilized to run a 2x2x2 analysis of variance on the data. Figure 4 graphically

presents the research design.

FIGURE 4

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

I
I /
High I
Imagery I
Arousal '. '1
LOW / /L .. M VSubprofessional
/ / Counselor
/ Professional

 

Desentization Insight

Treatment

45

Six subjects dropped out of the study during treatment; two from
the high arousal professional desensitization cell, two from the high arousal
professional insight cell and two from the wait control group.

Due to the different number of subjects in each cell, a 2x2x2
analysis of variance program was used by the San Diego State College Com-
puter Center. This procedure was derived from Winer (1962, 374-378) to
handle unequal cell frequencies and was developed by the statistical personnel
from the Institute for Developmental Studies at San Diego State College.

Because the control groups were not exposed to the same variables
as the experimental groups, they could not be included in the 2x2x2 analysis
of variance program. To evaluate the control groups effectiveness in con-
trolling for the passage of time and extraneous variables, t tests were
computed on the significance of the mean difference in pre-test and post-
test criterion scores. The t tests were then compared with the t tests for
the treatment groups by observation.

To assess the effectiveness of the treatment groups in reducing
test anxiety, tests of significance of mean difference scores (change scores)
between pre and post test measures were used to determine if improvement
for each treatment, counselor-level and arousal level group had occurred.
That is, did treatments cause a significant improvement, on the average,
for subjects involved? The direction of reductions was hypothesized prior
to the experiment. The t statistic used was from Guilford (1956, p. 220).
Mean difference scores were used because this study was designed to in-
vestigate which experimental factors, if any, resulted in significant reduc-
tions of measures of anxiety.

Thorndike and Hagen (1961, p. 191) have suggested that change
scores suffer from problems of low reliability because the error of measure-
ment is involved in both pre and post tests. This increases error variance,
due, in part to the elimination of common variance between measures(pre

and post) leaving a larger proportion of error variance as a residual.

46

McNemar (1962, p. 157) also agrees that change scores are unreliable

but points out that the standard error of the difference is progressively
reduced by the increasing rxy in the standard error of the difference be-
tween initial and final means. Paul (1966, 1967) maintains that the most
stringent test of treatment effects is based on an analysis of the change
scores from pre-treatment to post-treatment anxiety measures. Because
this investigation was a partial replication of Paul's (1966) study, change
scores were selected for the major analysis. A supplemental analysis
was made on the post-treatment means to determine if there was a signifi-

cant difference in group means after treatment.

Results of S—R Inventory of Anxiousness

An analysis of all 11 situations of this criterion measure was
made. As in Paul's (1966) study, an examination of significant t test
scores was followed by a discussion of the analysis of variance results.

Tables 1 and 2 present the t test and F ratio values for the S-R
Inventory of Anxiousness situation, "You are entering a final examination
in an important course". The purpose of including these measures was to
determine which specific anxiety-situations improved. This instrument
evaluates the subject's anxiety level for 11 specific situations. The most
relevant situation "You are entering a final examination in an important
course" shows that none of the F ratios reached the . 05 level of significance
but the desensitization and subprofessional groups did achieve a significant
decrease, at the . 05 level, in mean difference scores (Table 1). The re-
maining 10 situations are concerned with reactions to anxieties such as
intra- and interpersonal threats and are presented in Appendix P (Table I-XX).

Of particular interest is the fact that for all 11 situations the con—
trol groups accomplished their purpose of controlling for passage of time
and extraneous variables except for one situation, "You are starting out in
a sailboat on a rough sea" (Appendix P, Table VII). The no-contact control

group significantly decreased their mean difference scores on this variable.

S-R INVENTORY OF ANXIOUSNESS

47

TABLE 1

"You are entering a final examination in an important course"

MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS AND I: VALUES

FOR MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORESl

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Means Standard Deviations
Variables Pre Post Difference Pre Post 1
3|:

Desensitization 40. 15 35. 45 4. 7O 7. 39 7. 40 2. 56

Insight 39.35 37.45 1.90 9.49 10.13 1.17

Professional Counselors 38. 78 36. 42 2. 36 7. 30 7. 71 1. 68*

Subprofessional Counselors 40. 61 36. 47 4. 14 9. 38 9. 90 2. 09

High Arousal Level 39. 52 35. 76 3. 76 7. 73 10. 32 1. 76

LowArousal Level 39.91 36.95 2.96 9.04 7.72 1.99

Wait Control 43. 12 43. 37 -. 25 6. 79 5. 73 -. 18

No Contact Control 33. 72 32. 72 1,. 00 9. O6 10. 80 . 48

*

= p <. 05
1Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44
TABLE 2 .
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES ,
Varlance

Source of Variance Sum of Sguares Degrees of Freedom Estimate F Ratio
A Treatments 87. O7 1 87. 07 1. 46
B Counselors 27. 46 27. 46 . 46
C Arousal Level 4. 72 1 4. 72 . 07
AB 173. 34 1 173.34 2.91
AC 97. 17 1 97. 17 1. 63
BC 15. 42 1 15. 42 . 23
ABC . 01 1 . 01 . 00
Within 1901. 50 36 59. 42 1. 00
Total 2306. 69 43

48

The desensitization group improved significantly, either at the . 05
or . 01 level of significance, on nine situations. The two that did not reach sig-
nificance were "You are going into a psychological experiment" and "You are
starting off on a long automobile trip" (Appendix P, Tables XV and XIX). It
should be noted that all the other treatments did not show a decrease, or im-
provement, in mean change scores on these measures. Four of the six treatment
groups actually showed an increase in pre-post scores on the latter situation,
"You are starting off on along automobile trip" (Appendix P, Table XD().

Groups receiving desensitization procedures recorded significant
decreases at either the . 05 or . 01 level on all the remaining nine situations.
The groups receiving insight methods did not achieve a significant decrease
on any of the 11 variables.

The groups counseled by the subprofessionals showed slightly more
of an improvement than their counterparts, the professional counselors. The
subprofessional group results disclosed five situations that reached the . 05
or . 01 level of significance. The groups led by professional counselors did
not show any significant changes. Yet, F ratios between groups were in-
significant. There was little difference between the high and low imagery
arousal group results, both achieving significance on two different situations.

Table 2 shows that the most relevant variable "You are entering
a final examination in an important course" did not yield a significant F
ratio between treatments, However, on two situations "You are going into
an interview for a very important job" and "You are starting out in a sail-
boat on a rough sea (Appendix P, Tables II and VIII), F Ratios did reach
the . 05 level of significance, favoring the desensitization treatment. Two
other situations achieved the . 01 level in the direction of desensitization
treatment, but failed to reach the required . 05 level of significance.

Two interactions occurred, "You are crawling along a ledge high

on a mountain side" (Appendix P, Table XII), reached significance supporting

49

the subprofessional counselors using desensitization methods. Another
situation, "You are just starting off on a long automobile trip" (Appendix P,
Table XX) produced a significant F ratio in the direction of professional
counselors using desensitization methods with high arousal clients. It
should be noted though, that the F ratio for the latter situation, 4. 13, barely
achieved significance. No other F ratio reached the . 05 level of significance.

Three interpersonal situations, "You are going into an interview
for a very important jo ", "You are going to give a speech before a large
group", and "You are entering a competitive contest before spectators"
(Appendix P, Tables I, V, and IX), showed desensitization and subpro-
fessional groups to be slightly superior. No significant pattern however was
found in contrasting the high and low arousal groups.

In summary, analyses of the S-R Test of Anxiousness revealed
that on the most relevant siguation, "You are entering a final examination
in an important course", desensitization groups showed the most improve—
ment. The remaining 10 situations favored the desensitization and sub-
professional subjects but there was little difference between high and low arousal

groups. Both control groups controlled for external and attention effects.

Results of Test Anxiety Inventory

A summary of the results of the Test Anxiety Inventory is found
in Tables 3 and 4. Two-sided tests of significance for mean change scores
profuced significant differences at either the . 05 or . 01 level for all treat-
ments except the high arousal group. The wait-control and no-contact
control groups remained unchanged. This instrument was designed to
measure a subject's self-report of felt anxiety and physical reactions
associated with taking tests. Since the control groups remained the same
while the treatment groups showed significant decreases, it can be inferred
that the effect of external influences was held to a minimum. Furthermore,
some evidence of instrumental stability is provided. No significant F ratios

were found but two did achieve (2. 26 and 2. 02) the . 10 level of significance

50

in the direction of the low arousal and desensitization groups. In summary,
desensitization and low arousal subjects tended to do better than their

counterparts .

Results of Test Anxiety Rating Scale

Inspection of Tables 5 and 6 shows that all treatment groups
reached the . 01 level of significance on the change score analysis. Yet, the
wait control group scored essentially the same when the pre and post means
were compared. The no-contact control group completed only the S-R In-
ventory of Anxiousness and the Test Anxiety Inventory so that "contact"
and "treatment" could be held to a minimum, thus insuring a valid "no-
contact" control group.

Groups led by professional counselors showed marked improvement
(. 001) in change scores reflected by significant F ratio (Tables 5 and 6),
favoring the professional treatment when compared with the subprofessional
treatment. No other source of variance revealed significant F ratios, due
to the fact that all groups improved significantly from their pre to post
treatment measures. There is evidence that both desensitization and insight
treatments reduced rated anxiety in the actual test situation. The scale was
completed by subjects immediately after their mid-term and final exami-
nations. External influences were non-existant as demonstrated by the failure
of the wait control group subjects to significantly improve their mean scores.
In summary, the subjects assigned to professional counselors did significantly
better than those assigned to subprofessional counselors, although both groups

significantly reduced their test anxiety.

Results of Thayer Activation-Deactivation Checklist

This checklist also was completed by subjects immediately after
their mid-term and final examinations. Inspection of Tables 7 and 8 reveals
that all treatments significantly decreased their mean scores on this instru-

ment at the . 01 level. This change in pre-post mean scores could have

51

TABLE 3
1
TEST ANXIETY INVENTORY

MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS AND 1: VALUES
FOR MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Means Standard Deviations
Variables Pre Post Difference Pre Post 1
**
Desensitization 114. 35 99. 10 15. 25 16. 02 16. 96 5. 07*
Insight 118. 00 109. 19 8. 81 22. 82 29. 59 2. 23
*4:
Professional Counselors 116. 26 104. 47 11. 79 18. 83 20. 77 3. 38M
Subprofessional Counselors 116. 18 104. O9 12. 09 20. 76 27. 82 3. 29
C High Arousal Level 115. 11 107. 22 7. 89 18. 39 29. 65 1. 73**
Low Arousal Level 117. 08 101. 95 15. 13 20. 94 20. 00 5. 75
Wait Control N=8 121. 87 122. 25 . 38 21. 86 15. 11 -. 08
No Contact Control N=11 91. 45 89. 18 2. 27 22. 79 24. 93 . 96
**= pc. 05
1= p( . 01
Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44
TABLE 4
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES
Variance
Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Estimate F Ratio
A Treatments 583. 67 1 583. 67 2. 26
B Counselors 6. 07 1 6. 07 . 02
C Arousal Level 522. 66 1 522. 66 2. 02
AB 77.38 1 77.38 .30
AC 735.37 1 735.37 2. 85
BC 91.69 1 91.69 .35
ABC 14. 15 1 14. 15 . 05
Within 8497. 40 36 257. 49 1. 00
Total 10528. 39 43

 

52

TABLE 5
TEST ANXIETY RATING SCALE

MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS AND t VALUES
FOR MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES

1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Means Standard Deviations
Variables Pre Post Difference Pre Post i
**
Desensitization 18. 85 13. 61 5. 24 5. 44 2. 95 4. 19,”
Insight 22. 13 17. 27 4. 86 6. 58 6. 32 3. 76
***
Professional Counselors 21. 31 14. 26 7. 05 6. 51 4. 34 5. 94**
Subprofessional Counselors 19. 91 16. 45 3. 46 6. 02 5. 77 2. 85
**
C High Arousal Level 20. 78 15. 94 4. 84 7. 34 6. 56 3. 45“
Low Arousal Level 20. 33 15. 12 5. 21 5. 29 4. 04 4. 45
Wait Control N=8 23. 87 23. 12 . 75 4. 76 4. 25 . 38
**
***= p: . 01
1 = pt. 001
Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44
TABLE 6
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES
Variance
Source of Variance Sum of Smiares Degrees of Freedom Estimate F Ratio
A Treatments 3. 19 1 3. 19 . 08
*
B Counselors 150. 10 1 150. 10 4. 20
C Arousal Level 1. 26 1 1. 26 . 03
AB 2. 74 1 2. 74 . 07
AC . 35 1 . 35 . 00
BC 20. 88 1 20. 88 . 58
ABC 11.40 1 11.40 .31
Within 1250. 75 36 35. 73 1. 00
Total 1440. 67 43

 

=p(. 05

TABLE 7
THAYER ACTIVATION-DEACTIVATION CHECK LIST1

MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS AND t VALUES
FOR MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Means Standard Deviations
Variables Pre Post Difference Pre Post 1
**
Desensitization 32. 42 27. O4 5. 38 5. 29 6. 03 4. 10**
Insight 33. 19 27. 80 5. 39 7. 24 10. O8 2. 84
4*
Professional Counselors 32. 36 27. 89 4. 47 7. 35 6. 28 3. 34**
Subprofessional Counselors 33. 17 27. O4 6. 13 5. 38 9. 65 3. 46
4*
C High Arousal Level 32. 75 27. 40 5. 35 4. 90 7. 40 4. 13**
Low Arousal Level 32. 86 27. 45 5. 41 7. 42 9. O7 2. 91
Wait Control N=8 32. 12 31. 37 . 75 7. 23 6. 92 . 27
**
1 = p< . 01
Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44
TABLE 8
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES
Variance
Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Estimate F Ratio
A Treatments . 31 1 . 31 . 00
B Counselors 27. 24 1 27. 24 . 43
C Arousal Level . 00 1 . 00 . 00
AB 3. 77 1 3. 77 . 06
AC 23. 23 1 23. 23 . 37
BC 36. 22 1 36. 22 . 57
ABC . 51 1 . 51 . 00
Within 2132. 50 36 62. 72 1. 00
Total 2223. 78 43

 

54

occurred by chance only one time in a hundred. Again, the wait control
group scores remained essentially the same. It should be mentioned that
only the High Activation and General Deactivation adjectives were used

(see Appendix H for adjectives). No significant F ratios were listed as
achieving significance due to the overall and consistant improvement shown
by all groups. In summary, all the groups significantly improved their mean

scores to approximately the same degree.

Results of Observers' Checklist

Examination of Tables 9 and 10 discloses that the desensitization
and low arousal groups were the only groups to reach the specified . 05
level of significance on this motoric scale. Both professional and subpro-
fessional groups did achieve the . 10 level, while the insight group reached the . 20
level. The clear constrast between the high and low arousal groups is reflected
in the significant F ratio of 6. 11, which favors the low arousal group. The
high arousal group actually increased their mean change scores while the
low arousal subjects' post mean score was one-half of the pre mean score.
The wait control group remained about the same, showing a t test score of
only . 64. This figure might have been different if the two subjects who dropped
out of the study due to the "stressful circumstances", has been included. With
future refinements this objective but crude measure of behavioral movements
may yield different results. In summary, the low arousal and desensitization
groups showed the only significant improvement. The low arousal group did

significantly better than the high arousal group.

Results of Pulse Rate

Tables 11 and 12 indicate that Pulse Rate was the only criterion mea-
sure in which the insight group showed more of a mean decrease in change scores
than the desensitization group. Both groups showed a significant decrease in
change scores than the desensitization group. Both groups showed asignificant
decrease but the insight group reached the . 01 level of significance. The only

group that did not reach at least the . 05 level was the low arousal group,reaching . 10 level.

S-R INVENTORY OF ANXIOUSNESS

55

TABLE 9

1

OBSERVERS' CHECKLIST
MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS AND t VALUES

FOR MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Means Standard Deviation
Variables Pre Post Difference Pre Post 1
*

Desensitization 13. 83 8. 05 5. 78 11. 27 6. 57 2. 19

Insight 14. 00 11. 13 2. 87 7. 88 10. 88 1. 36

Professional Counselors 14. 47 9. 23 5. 24 9. 57 10. 43 1. 76

Subprofessional Counselors 13. 52 10. 13 3. 39 9. 51 8. 44 1. 78
C High Arousal Level 12. 83 12. 94 -. 11 7. 69 11. 50 -. 04*

Low Arousal Level 14. 81 7. 13 7. 68 10. 74 5. 91 4. 07

Wait Control N=8 13. 12 11. 25 1. 77 7. O7 7. 47 . 64

a:
**= p( . 05
= p( . 01
Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44
TABLE 10
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES
Variance
Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Estimate F Ratio
A Treatments 78. 76 1 78. 76 . 76
B Counselors 19. 00 1 19. 00 . 18
:l:

C Arousal Level 630. 99 1 630. 99 6. 11
AB . O9 1 . 09 . 00
AC 48.36 1 48.36 .46
BC 27. 47 1 27. 47 . 26
ABC 38. 14 1 38. 14 . 36
Within 3404. 36 36 103. 16 1. 00
Total 4247. 17

 

*
=p<.05

*

56

TABLE 11
S-R INVENTORY OF ANXIOUSNESS

1

PULSE RATE

 

MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS AND t VALUES
FOR MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES

*

**

 

**

 

 

Means Standard Deviation
Variables Pre Post Difference Pre Post 1

Desensitization 44. 81 41. 09 3. 72 5. 68 7. 30 2. 3O“
Insight 43. 59 37. 86 5. 73 6. 52 5. 95 3. 81
Professional Counselors 43. 60 38. 40 5. 20 5. 95 6. 01 4. 44*
Subprofessional Counselors 44. 7 O 40. 37 4. 33 6. 27 7. 37 2. 42
High Arousal Level 45. 9O 39. 10 6. 80 6. 34 7. 49 4. 74
Low Arousal Level 42. 79 39. 79 3. 00 5. 59 6. 27 1. 90
Wait Control 42. 37 39. 12 3. 25 7. 99 5. 35 1. 39

 

*
**= p< '05
1: pc .01

Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44

Source of Variance
A Treatments
B Counselors

C Arousal Level

AB
AC
BC
ABC

Within

Total

Sum of Squares

60.16
10.66
143.40
.16
8.16
58.07
121.50
1894.50
2296.61

TABLE 12

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES

Degees of Freedom

1

I-‘I-‘I-‘I-‘I-‘H

36
43

Variance
Estimate F Ratio

60. 16 1. 14

10. 66 . 20
143. 40 2. 72
. 16 . 00

8. 16 . 15

58. 07 1. 10
121. 50 2.30
52. 62 1. 00

 

57

Again, the wait control group did not significantly improve, thereby controlling
for passage of time and external influences.

Even though this physiological measure produced significant t test
scores showing improvement in the treatment groups, the F ratios (Table 12)
did not reach the . 05 level of significance. The ratios however were in a
different direction compared with prior criteria, in that the insight, pro-
fessional and high arousal groups slightly out-performed their counterparts.
In summary, the insight, professional and high arousal groups were shown

to be slightly more effective in reducing physiological anxiety.

Results of Therapists' Ratings

This measure consisted of the difference between the first and fifth
interview mean ratings of client anxiety level. The t test is computed by com-
paring the mean differences of the two treatment groups. Inspection of Table 13
shows that there were no significant differences between treatment, counselor-
level or arousal level groups. It should be pointed out, however, that the insight,
professional and high arousal groups recorded the greatest mean change in ratings
of anxiety level. Perhaps the contaminating effect of the professional counselor's
orientation contributed to this difference. Even thoughafive point scale (see
Appendix J) was used by the counselors, more first interview ratings were about
three. Fifth interview ratings averaged about two, resulting in a very small
spread. Significant differences would be extremely difficult to achieve in this situ-
ation. In summary, the professional counselors' ratings showed more client

anxiety reduction than subprofessional counselor ratings.

Results of Client Ratings

Observation of Table 14 reveals a significant difference for stu-
dent ratings of the degree to which they had been helped with their anxiety
over tests. Students rated desensitization methods as significantly more
helpful at the . 01 level than students rating the assistance of insight methods.

No other comparisons of mean ratings were significantly different.

58

TABLE 13

MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS ANDt VALUES FOR
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FIRST AND FIFTH INTERVIEW THERAPISTS'
MEAN RATINGS OF "CLIENT ANXIETY" LEVEL1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Group Means Standard Deviations 1
Desensitization 1. 13 . 88 . 00
Insight 1. 36 1. O3
Profess1onal 1. 30 . 8O 1. 01
Subprofessional 1. 00 1. 06
High Arousal 1. 25 . 85 70
Low Arousal 1. 04 1. O4
1
Total N for Groups = 44

TABLE 14
MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS AND t VALUES FOR 1
CLIENT RATINGS (3, 2, 1, 0) "HELP WITH TEST ANXIETY"
Group Means Standard Deviations 1
. . . **

Desensmzation 1. 75 . 85 2. 87
Insight 1. 04 . 66
Professional 1. 31 . 74 51
Subprofessional 1. 45 . 91
High Arousal 1. 50 . 78 72
Low Arousal 1. 3O . 87

 

:Total N for Groups = 44
= p< . 01

59

Table 15 shows a similar pattern in that subjects who received
desensitization methods rated "Help with other anxiety" significantly higher
than the ratings made by subjects in the insight group. This is particularly
meaningful because advocates of insight counseling claim that their goal is
to treat the "whole person" and not a specific anxiety. The mean improve-
ment rating for the insight group was 1. 14, lowest of any of the treatment
groups. There was no significant difference between the mean improvement
ratings of any of the other groups. It is interesting to note that subjects
assigned to subprofessional counselors rated both "Help with test anxiety"
and "Help with other anxiety" slightly, but not significantly, higher than

ratings by subjects assigned to professional counselors.

 

 

 

TABLE 15
MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS AND t VALUES FOR 1
CLIENT RATINGS (3, 2, 1, 0) "HELP WITH OTHER ANXIETY"
Group Means Standard Deviations 1
. . . *
DesenSItlzation 1. 75 . 96 2. 39
Insight 1. 14 . 57
Professional 1. 42 . 83 12
Subprofessional 1. 45 . 85
High Arousal 1. 50 . 78 72
Low Arousal ' 1. 30 . 87

 

{Total N for Groups = 44
= p<.05
However, the professional counselors received the highest mean
improvement (Table 16) when subjects rated the "competency-level" of their
counselors. The t test comparing the mean rating given professional coun-
selors with the mean rating given subprofessional counselors, only reached

the . 25 level. Failure to achieve significance may be explained by the shift

60

to a three point rating (2, 1, 0) as compared with a four point rating (3, 2, 1, 0)

for the two previous student ratings. This tendency to rate professional counselors
as slightly more competent was to be expected because of their age,
experience and status. They exhibited the essential characteristics of
"competent" counselors. Yet, observation of other more objective data

in this study does not show them to be more effective than subprofessional

counselors.

TABLE 16

MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS AND t VALUES FOR
CLIENT RATINGS (2, 1, 0) "HOW COMPETENT THE THERAPIST"

 

 

 

Group Means Standard Deviations 1
Desensitization 1. 65 . 48 . 41
Insight 1. 57 . 67
Professmnal 1. 73 . 45 1. 26
Subprofessional 1. 50 . 67
High Arousal 1. 55 . 51 50
Low Arousal 1. 65 . 64

 

lTotal N for Groups = 44

The last Client Rating, "How helpful was the approach", is pre-
sented. in Table 17. The professional counselors received the highest mean
improvement rating of 1. 36 but it was not significantly different from the
subprofessional group ratings. Overall, the three groups did not show any
significant differences in mean ratings. In summary, clients rated desen-
sitization methods as significantly more helpful with test, and other anxiety

than insight procedures.

Post Treatment Analysis of Data
Appendix Q, (Tables XX through XXV) presents the analysis of

variance data on post-treatment mean scores, rather than on mean change

61

TABLE 17

MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS AND t VALUES FOR
CLIENT RATINGS (2,1,0) "HOW HELPFUL THE APPROACH"1

 

 

 

Group Means Standard Deviations 1
Desensitization 1. 30 . 57 74
Insight 1. l4 . 72
Professmnal 1. 36 . 59 1. 33
Subprofessional 1. 09 . 68
High Arousal 1. 27 . 46 48
Low Arousal 1. 17 . 77

 

1Total N for Groups = 44

scores. These analyses were run because one of the objectives of this study
was to determine if there were any significant differences between treatment
groups after exposure to the treatments. Even though the subjects were
randomly assigned to the groups before treatment, it was not known whether
or not there were significant differences before the treatment was adminis-
tered. Therefore, analyses of variance were computed on all pre criterion
measures except the S-R Inventory of Anxiousness.

Examination of Appendix Q (Tables XX-XXV) revealed only one F
ratio reaching significance. The post-treatments variancefor the Test
Anxiety Rating Scale did show a pre measure F ratio of 3. 14, also favoring
desensitization. There did seem to be a tendency, prior to treatment, for
subjects assigned to the desensitization group to show superior mean scores
on this one criterion measure. It should be noted though, that F ratios
throughout investigation were computed using glinga scores. In summary,
pre and post analyses of variance on the Test Anxiety Rating Scale favored the
desensitization treatment. The remaining criterion measures, the Test Anxiety
Inventory, Thayer Activation-Deactivation Checklist, Observers' Checklist, and

Pulse Rate, showed no significant F ratios on post-treatment analyses of variance.

62

Control for Sex Variable

To investigate whether differences of sex produced a contaminating
effect on these data, t tests were run on the mean of the differences between
pre and post-treatment measures for males and females. Appendix R (Table
XXVI) presents the t test scores comparing the male difference scores with
female difference scores. There were no significant differences between
male and female scores on all criterion measures. The females generally
had higher change scores but this difference was not significant. Even
though females (50) outnumbered the males (13), and all treatment counselors
were males, the sex factor did not seem to adversely influence the results

of the data.
Discussion

Treatment Factor

The principle hypothesis tested in this investigation, Research
Hypothesis One, stated that groups receiving systematic desensitization
procedures will Show a significantly greater decrease in criterion scores
than groups receiving insight counseling. The data presented above provide
support for accepting this hypothesis. Desensitization methods produced a
more consistent measureable reduction in the cognitive and motoric aspects
of anxiety, when compared with insight procedures.

Acceptance of this hypothesis is qualified however for the physio-
logical measurement, Pulse Rate. Insight procedures apparently produced
slightly more of an improvement than desensitization methods when Pulse
Rate is used as a criterion measure. This was a rather unexpected out-
come considering the physiological relaxation exercises emphasized by
desensitization techniques.

The only other measure in which mean scores favored the insight
treatment was the Therapists' Rating Scale, which showed a slight superior-

ity in rated effectiveness, 1. 36 to 1. 13. This resulted in a t value of only

63

. 00 though a difference could be anticipated because all four counselors ac-
knowledged prior to treatment that they viewed client change as resulting from
"being aware of one's relationships with others". Yet, all four counselors re-
ported that they also noted a "remarkable change" in clients who were assigned
to their desensitization groups.
On all criterion measures tested, except the two listed above,
groups receiving desensitization methods tended to improve their pre-post
mean scores more than groups receiving insight techniques. Analysis of vari-
ance data indicated that desensitization procedures resulted in significant F
ratios on two situations of the S-R Inventory of Anxiousness while all of the
remaining nine situations Showed F ratios in the direction of desensitization.
None favored the insight method.
The remaining primary dependent variables, Test Anxiety Inventory,
Test Anxiety Rating Scale, Thayer Activation-Deactivation Checklist, Obser-
vers' Checklist and Pulse Rate, did not show significant F ratios between treat-
ments, {while t values indicated that both the desensitization and insight groups
recorded significant decreases in their change scores. The desensitization treat-
ment mean change scores were greater on all measures except Pulse Rate.
Student ratings supported the acceptance of Hypothesis One by yielding
significant differences in mean ratings of help with test anxiety and help with
other anxiety. Counselors reported that clients in the desensitization group
described how they had been less anxious when on dates, giving speeches and
talking with their parents as a result of learning systematically, less anxious
ways of responding. This generalized effect was not reported for the insight group.
Perhaps the differences would have been more distinct if more inter-
views and a larger number of subjects would have been included in the design.
Also, in place of accommodating the biases in favor of insight methods, using
skilled practioners in systematic desensitization to administer both treat-

ments might cause an even greater discrimination between procedures.

64

Because eight criterion measures were used in this study, no one
dependent variable can be used to accept or reject the research hypothesis.
However, desensitization techniques were superior when self-reports of
specific and generalized anxiety and behavioral manifestations of anxiety
were evaluated. That is, six of the eight dependent variables showed de-
sensitization groups improving more than insight groups. Insight subjects,
though, slightly outperformed desensitization subjects on the lone physio-
logical measurement, Pulse Rate, and on Therapists' Ratings.

The overall analysis of the data suggests that the desensitization
method produced a significantly greater decrease in criterion scores than
groups receiving insight counseling, thereby permitting Hypothesis One to

be supported and accepted.

Counselor-level Factor

Research Hypothesis Two, stating that there will be no significant
differences in mean change scores between groups led by professional
counselors and groups led by subprofessional counselors, is accepted with
some qualification. On all situations of the S-R Inventory of Anxiousness,
there were no significant differences between professional and subprofessional
groups. However, the mean change scores showed Slightly greater de-
creases favoring the subprofessional counselors. Yet, the Test Anxiety
Rating Scale yielded a significant F ratio (4. 20) in the direction of the pro-
fessional counselors. Therapists' Ratings also favored the professional
counselors but perhaps experienced counselors tend to overrate their suc-
cess as compared with inexperienced counselors. Client Ratings "How com-
petent the counselor" and "How helpful the approach" presented some sup-
portive data for the professional group. On all the other criterion measures,
Test Anxiety Inventory, Thayer Activation-Deactivation Checklist, Observers'
Checklist, and Pulse Rate, there was negligible differences between the two

groups.

65

One explanation for the higher ratings by subjects treated by the
professional counselors is that they were quite competent and experienced
when contrasted to uncertain counselor-trainees. Presenting a relaxed and
confident model does permit the counselor to have a settling and positive
effect on clients. In addition, the professional counselors were older, and
mentioned to their group that they were "Dr. Davis" and "Dr. Cudney",
staff members at the Counseling Center. The contrasting implicit creden-
tials of the professional and subprofessional counselors suggest that the
professional counselors should be more effective due to their "experienced
counselor" image. This difference, of course, was not validated in the
present study. These findings do point out the importance of using multiple
outcome criteria. The question also emerges as to whether Client Ratings
of "competence" and behavior change are related.

In summary, the data presented do indicate that the differences
between the professional and subprofessional groups were so minute that

Hypothesis Two would have to be accepted.

Arousal-level Factor

Research Hypothesis Three states that high imagery arousal subjects
will show a significantly greater decrease in criterion scores when compared
with low imagery arousal subjects. This hypothesis is rejected. In fact,
the low arousal subjects slightly but not significantly, outperformed the high
arousal subjects.

The only clear differences between the two groups appeared on the
Observers' Checklist and Pulse Rate. Observation of motoric aspects of
stress-induced behavior, mid-term and final examinations, produced a
significant F ratio of 6. 11, indicating that the low arousal subjects materially
reduced their anxious movements while taking tests. Observation of the Pulse
Rate measures showed that high arousal subjects substantially, but not signifi-
cantly, improved their pre-post mean physiological scores while taking exami-
nations. Improvements on the other criterion measures were minimal and

insignificant.

66

One apparent criticism of the arousal factor is that the method
used in chosing the subjects for the high and low groups was not objective
and distinct. Subjects raised the number of fingers that indicated the
"degree" of anxiety felt when an emotional situation was presented to them.
Objective measurement of this factor was, and is, difficult. The manner
of assessing the degree of arousal would lead to a within-subject ordinal

scale and not a between-subject scale. Idiosyncratic perceptions of a

 

"great deal of anxiety" vary considerably between subjects. Also, high
arousal subjects clustering around the mean were in fact little different
from similar subjects who were assigied to the low arousal group. The
ordering of the subjects was not a clear and discriminative process. This
may well account for the lack of differentiation between the high and low
arousal subjects, as theorized by the Research Hypothesis. Suggestions
for improving the selection process are presented in Chapter N.
Assuming that polarity did exist in arousal level, the high arousal
subjects' improvement on the physiological measurement, Pulse Rate,
could have occurred because they had a wider range of anxiety to improve
upon. The high arousal subjects showed a t test score of 4. 74, Sigiificant
at the . 01 level. The F ratio did approach significance (2. 72). Physio-
logical improvement seemed to be greater with high arousal subjects because
they were more anxious to begin with. Yet, they apparently didn't manifest
the anxiety, as evidenced by the slight increase in the Observers' Checklist
means. The low arousal subjects might have been more cognitively oriented
and not able to "show" their anxiety as much. The explanations are Specula-
tive and need further empirical data to validate them. There were no indi-
cations that either the high or low arousal subjects tended to benefit more
from desensitization or insight methods because interactions were nonexistant.
Therefore, Research Hypothesis Three is rejected indicating that
the high arousal subjects did M improve significantly greater than low arousal
subjects. The suggestion is made that low arousal subjects even Slightly

outperformed the high arousal subjects.

67

Research Hypothesis Four stating that there will be no signifi-
cant interactions involving type of treatment, counselor-level, or imagery
arousal level, is rejected. Two interactions did occur, both on the S-R
Inventory of Anxiousness. An F ratio of 5. 03 was found for "You are crawl-
ing along on a ledge high on a mountain side", and was in the direction of
subprofessional counselors using desensitization methods. The other
interaction achieved an F ratio of 4. 13 on "You are just starting off on
a long automobile trip". This favored the subprofessional counselor using
desensitization methods with high arousal subjects.

Research Hypothesis Five stating that the experimental groups
will Show a significant decrease in pre vs. post mean criterion scores is
accepted unequivocally. Inspection of t test scores indicates that treatment
groups either showed improvement or reached the . 01 or . 05 level of signifi-
cance for all of the criterion measures. Professional and subprofessional
counselors using desensitization and insight procedures for five interviews
can significantly improve criterion scores of high and low imagery arousal

subjects, meeting together in groups of three.

Control Groups

The proposal that neither the wait control nor the no contact control
groups will show a significant decrease in pre vs. post mean criterion scores,
Research Hypothesis Six, is clearly accepted. Inspection of Tables 1 to 11
reveals that both the no contact and wait control groups successfully con-
trolled for passage of time and extra-interview influences.

The no contact control group, responding only to the S-R Inventory
of Anxiousness and the Test Anxiety Inventory, were told only that the battery
was for "research purposes" so that the effect of non-treatment procedures
could be limited. This control group did not have to be exposed to attention—
giving situations like interviews, phone calls, assignments to groups, ex-

planations of the program, assessments of imagery arousal level and a

68

general promise of "help". Their mean scores were slightly lower than the
wait control and treatment groups because they did not seek out help for test-
anxious behavior. One situation "You are starting out in a sailboat on a rough
sea" did reach significance at the . 05 level (2. 82) but the remaining measures
indicated no significant change from pre to post mean scores.

The wait control results were even more uniform and unchanged.
Two subjects dropped out prior to the final evaluation because they felt that
taking the final examination in the special room made them too anxious. If
they had been included in the final analysis, they may have influenced the
group mean scores in a different direction. Also, with only eight subjects,
considerable error enters into the analysis of the data. Further experimenta-
tion would dictate a larger number of wait control subjects.

It is surprising that being interviewed for the program, tested for
level of imagery arousal and promised future treatment, they did M signifi-
cantly improve as several authors have suggested (Paul, 1966, and Eysenck,
1966). Their pre-post scores were remarkably consistent, even increasing
in some instances. Research Hypothesis Six, stating that the control groups'

scores will remain the same, is therefore accepted.
Summary

The results of criterion measures have been presented comparing
professional and subprofessional counselors using desensitization and insight
methods to reduce test, and other, anxiety, in high and low imagery arousal
subjects. These data indicate that:

(1) Subjects receiving systematic desensitization procedures showed
a significantly greater decrease in mean scores than subjects assigned to insight
methods when the S-R Inventory of Anxiousness, the Test Anxiety Inventory, and
Client Ratings were the dependent variables. The other criterion measures

did not favor either the desensitization or insight treatment.

69

(2) Groups led by professional counselors did not Show Signifi-
cantly greater improvement in mean scores than the groups led by the
subprofessional counselors. The results were variable however. On the
S-R Inventory of Anxiousness, the subprofessional counselors showed con-
sistent, but minimal advantages. (m the Test Anxiety Rating Scale, the
professional groups were significantly superior at the . 05 level as evidenced
by the F ratio of 4. 20. The remainder of the criterion measures favored
neither group.

(3) High Imagery Arousal subjects did not Show a significantly
greater decrease in change scores when compared with Low Imagery Arousal
subjects. In fact, Low Imagery Arousal subjects tended to do slightly better
than High Imagery Arousal subjects. This was indicated by a significant F
ratio of 6. 11 on the motoric Observers' Checklist, favoring the Low Arousal
Group.

(4) There were two interactions, both on the S-R Inventory of
Anxiousness, in the direction of subprofessional counselors using desensi-
tization methods, one of which (AxBxC) also favored this combination but
included high arousal subjects.

(5) All experimental groups Showed a significant decrease in mean
change scores with most of the criterion measures.

(6) The no contact and wait control groups did not significantly
decrease their mean pre vs. post scores, thereby achieving a control for
extraneous influences and the passage of time.

Chapter N will summarize, conclude and present implications and

suggestions for further research concerning this investigation.

CHAPTER IV
SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS
Summary

This study was designed to compare the efiect of professional
and subprofessional counselors using group insight and group systematic
desensitization techniques with high and low imagery arousal test anxious
subjects. The basic plan was to determine if test anxiety could be reduced
for all treatment groups, and to ascertain to what extent which treatment,
group desensitization or group insight, administered by which type of
counselor, professional or subprofessional, assisted clients in reducing
test anxiety.

Desensitization methods were initially formulated by Wolpe (195 8)
as a counterconditioning procedure designed to extinguish inappropriately
learned fears. This procedure consists of repeatedly presenting weak
fear-evoking images to a relaxed client so that only a minimal amount of
anxiety is elicited. The client is taught systematic relaxation excercises.
With the counselor the client constructs a list of specific fear-evoking stimuli
and rank-orders this list as to degree of intensity. The weakest item on the
list is presented so that the client can easily pair a relaxed response, rather
than an anxious response, while imagining that item. The client proceeds
through the hierarchy, gradually imagining stronger fears at each step.
This approach hypothesizes that anxiety states are inappropriately learned
responses and are unlearned through systematic counterconditioning.

Insight, or psychodynamic approaches view understanding, com-
munication of empathy, awareness of the reasons for behavior, and intense
emotional relationships with the counselor as necessary and sufficient con-
ditions for behavior change to occur. Traditional treatment methods search
for "deep" historical and symbolic meaning rather than attempt to remove

70

71

the "symptoms". The counselor typically asks "How do you feel?" more
often than "What should be done ?", stressing emotional rather than rational
content.

Two recent studies (Lazarus, 1961, and Paul, 1966) have com-
pared the effects of desensitization and insight treatments using fear of
height and fear of making speeches as the outcome criteria. Lazarus (1961)
used group rather than individual methods as in Paul's (1966) study. Both
found that desensitization procedures were superior. The present study
has been a partial replication of the above investigations using test anxiety
as the target behavior.

The use of carefully selected, trained subprofessional counselors
has been considered as a means to accommodate the increased demand for
counseling services. The necessity for elaborate long-term professional
training is being questioned. Gordon (1965), Kanfer (1966), Krumboltz,
et al. , (1966) and Poser (1966) have supported the hypothesis that counselor
support personnel can directly relieve observable symptomatic behavior
with as much effectiveness as professionally-trained counselors. This
study attempted to compare the relative efficacy of professional and sub-
professional counselors. Conclusive empirical data indicating that sub-
professional counselors are less effective than professional counselors has
not appeared in the literature.

A client prerequisite of being able to physiologically re—experience
past emotional situations in the desensitization process model has drawn
attention to an imagery arousal factor (Wolpe & Lazarus, 1966). That is,
unless clients can conjure up vivid visual images during desensitization,
the original fear will not be elicited for extinction to take place. The
hypothesis of this study was that clients with a high degree of imagery arou-
sal, e. g. , the ability to experience physiological anxiety when the original
fear is imagined, would show a greater reduction in test anxiety than clients

with a low degree of imagery arousal.

72

To more objectively evaluate the effects of counseling, extra-
therapy influences need to be controlled such as the passage of time,
intercurrent life experiences, and promise of treatment and attention
effects. Therefore, various control group procedures such as control
and no contact groups need to be incorporated into research designs. In
addition, multiple criteria measures of selected target behaviors are
needed to evaluate studies of counseling effectiveness (Paul, 1966). Oh-
servations of samples of specific motoric test-anxious behaviors, pulse
rates, self-ratings and therapists' ratings were all included in the present
investigation so that a variety of behavioral data could be gathered to eval-
uate treatment effects.

Fifty-eight test anxious college students were categorized as
high or low imagery arousal subjects based on scores on the Imagery
Arousal Inventory, a scale which pooled student ratings of the degree of
physiological arousal they experienced when they recalled five emotional
situations. Subjects were then randomly assigned to group insight or group
systematic desensitization treatments by professional or subprofessional
counselors, or to a wait control group (N=10). Subjects were also assigned
randomly to a no contact control group (N=11) so that attention effects could
be controlled.

All subjects completed the pre-test battery (S-R Inventory of
Anxiousness and the Test Anxiety Inventory) prior to taking their mid-term
examinations. At the time of their mid-term examinations, pulse rates,
observer ratings of the number of minutes engaged in anxious behaviors
(Observers' Checklist), and self-reports of anxiety (Thayer Activation-
Deactivation Checklist and Test Anxiety Rating Scale) were gathered as
pre-treatment measures. Following the mid-term examination groups
of three subjects met for five interviews. Post-test and post-treatment
measurements were again taken after treatment. The Test Anxiety Rating

Scale, Observers' Checklist, Pulse Rate, and Thayer Activation-Deactivation

73

Checklist were readministered during their final examination while the
Test Anxiety Inventory and the S-R Inventory of Anxiousness were given
a week before the final examination.

The two experienced Ph. D. -level professional counselors were
selected because of their credentials and availability. The selection of
inexperienced subprofessional counselors was based on blind ratings of role-
playing counseling interviews by four students in a beginning masters-
level clinical psychology class by two doctoral students in counseling and
guidance. The professional and subprofessional counselors underwent four
hours of coordinating and training for administering the insight and desen-
sitization treatments.

Six subjects dropped out of the study. Two from the high arousal
professional desensitization group, two from the high arousal professional
insight group and two from the wait control group. Reasons given varied
from "too threatening" to "not enough time to participate in the program".
The no contact control group members were asked to take the test batteries
for "research purposes" and the wait control subjects were promised treat-
ment the following semester. The latter group completed all criterion
measures but did not receive the group insight or group desensitization
treatments.

The five treatment sessions, 45 minutes in length, were tapere-
corded and reviewed to insure conformity to prescribed counseling pro-
cedures. Counselors also rated the anxiety level of each client after the
first and last interviews. Clients rated the "Help received with test anxiety",
"Help received with other anxiety", "Competency of counselor" and "Help-
fulness of the approach used". A 2x2x2 analysis of variance was used for
major analyses and t tests were computed for all groups to assess change
of the treatment groups as well as effectiveness of the control groups in

controlling for extraneous variables.

74

It was hypothesized that:

1. Groups receiving systematic desensitization procedures would
Show a significantly greater decrease in criterion scores than groups receiving
insight counseling.

2. No significant difference would be found in mean change scores
between groups led by professional counselors and groups led by subprofes-
sional counselors.

3. High imagery arousal subjects would show a significantly greater
decrease in criterion scores when compared with low imagery arousal subjects.

4. No significant interactions would be found involving type of
treatment, counselor-level or imagery arousal-level.

5. Experimert al groups would Show a significant decrease in mean
difference criterion scores (pre vs. post).

6. Wait control and no contact control groups would not show a
significant decrease in mean difference criterion scores.

The findings of this study demonstrated that group systematic de-
sensitization counseling techniques were more effective in reducing test, and
other, anxiety in college students than traditional, psychodynamic group
counseling methods based on client awareness and insight. Also, the use of
subprofessionally-trained counselors was effective in treating students with
examination anxiety. The ability to physiologically arouse anxiety when
emotional scenes are imagined did not appear to be a requisite character-
istic of successful clients in either desensitization of insight counseling models.

The major conclusions of this study are as follows:

1. Group systematic desensitization methods caused a significantly
greater decrease in mean change scores than traditional group insight procedures
on the following measures: The S-R Inventory of Anxiousness, the Test Anxiety
Inventory and Client Ratings of the "Help received with test anxiety" and "Help
received with other anxiety" clearly favored the group desensitization treatment.

While the group insight methods did produce a significant reduction in change

75

scores on Pulse Rate, Test Anxiety Inventory, Test Anxiety Rating Scale and
Thayer Activation-Deactivation Checklist, only Pulse Rate favored, but not
significantly, insight procedures when the two treatments were contrasted.

2. Groups led by subprofessional counselors were in general as
effective as groups led by professional counselors. There was some vari-
ability in the data however. The S-R Inventory of Anxiousness favored the
subprofessional counselors while the Test Anxiety Rating Scale indicated
that the professional counselors did significantly better. The remaining
dependent variables, the Test Anxiety Inventory, Thayer Activation-
Deactivation Checklist, Pulse Rate, ad Observers' Checklist failed to
suggest an advantage for either group.

3. High imagery arousal subjects did not Show a significantly
greater decrease in change scores when compared with low imagery arousal
subjects. In fact, low imagery arousal subjects tended to do slightly better
than high imagery arousal students. It appears that the degree to which
clients physiologically re-experience images does not determine success
or failure in counseling. More sensitive techniques for assessing level
of arousal need development.

4. Experimental groups Showed a significant decrease in mean
change scores on all of the criterion measures. Therefore, the group
treatments can be interpreted as being successful in reducing test anxiety
in college students.

5. Effects of giving attention to some students, for example,
in assignments to groups in testing, and in a general promise of relief
(wait-control procedures), were not found. Scores for these students
remained essentially the same. Passage of time and other external in-
fluences were controlled due to the absence of change in the no contact

control group mean change scores.

76
Implications

While student pressures and anxieties connected with taking
examinations seem to be increasing in our colleges and universities,
clearly defined therapeutic methods to deal with this problem have been
largely non-existent. Theoretical assumptions concerning behavior
change, such as reducing test, or other anxiety, have been based generally
on the psychodynamic, traditional approaches which stress insight. This
study however was designed to evaluate in part, the feasibility of follow-
ing specific treatment methods based on principles of social learning to
relieve test anxiety in college students in comparison to more general
treatment methods based on insight and understanding.

Information is needed to supplement Paul's (1966) seminal study
in ascertaining whether therapeutic procedures, like desensitisation, will
result in a significant reduction in test, and other types of anxieties. Re-
ports of group approaches using desensitization methods have been sparse.
By using counselor support personnel to apply specific techniques, profes-
sional counselors will be available for more complicated activities. In
addition, data and experimentation is needed concerning various types of
criterion measures so that the success of counseling can be more objectively
evaluated. Motoric, physiological and traditional self-report measures
need to be compared and contrasted.

The results of this study seem to present the following implica-
tions: .

1. Counselors without prior training in systematic desensitization,
nor preference for it, can effectively carry out the treatment resulting in
significant improvements in stated, observed and measured behaviors.

2. When the behaviors to be changed are clearly delineated,
evaluation and treatment are more successfully carried out.

3. Personnel not trained professionally in a traditional sense
are able to effectively change students behavior without going through ex-
tensive and often irrelevant training programs now in existance. Profes-
sionally-trained counselors can therefore give their attention to more

unique and difficult problems presented by clients.

77

4. Counseling for behavior change can be a systematic pro-
cedure rather than a disorganized and extensive venture. It has been
shown that changes can result from a limited treatment time of five
interviews, casting doubt on the necessity for long term counseling
contacts.

5. Group procedures can effectively produce behavior change.
This permits more economically using professional and subprofessional
counselor time. With the increased demand for counseling services in
our colleges and universities, more efficient methods are needed to
accommodate client demands.

6. Evaluative measures Should not rely exclusively on self-
report of client satisfaction but rather multiple criterion measures should
be utilized. Even though clients report that they were "helped", they may
in fact not really know to what extent and how their behavior has changed.

7. Counselors need to ask the question "What type of treatment
is needed for this type of c1ient,to accomplish what?", rather than use
essentially one method with all clients regardless of the specific problem.
Because of the uniqueness of humans, different methods are needed to
change different types of client problems.

8. Counselor educators can successfully teach systematic
desensitization methods to counselors in training, in addition to the
standardization and traditional models of psychodynamic procedures now
almost exclusively emphasized in graduate training. By providing trainees
the interpersonal experience of teaching relaxation and desensitization
methods, experience is gained by trainees which reduces their usual
anxieties accompanying counselor-client contacts.

9. Practitioners should consider viewing maladaptive behavior
and emotional disturbances as being successfully treated via emotional
re-education and behavior techniques, rather than applying psychodynamic

models in counseling, to the exclusion of alternative methods.

78

10. A reduction in client anxiety level tends to reduce other
anxious behaviors in client's lives. Therefore, when subjects experience
a reduction in anxiety in one specific situation, they tend to apply the

methods to other similar stresses in their lives.
Suggestions for Further Research

The results, conclusions, and broad implications of this investi-
gation have presented many questions which need to be answered. Data on
which systematic and specific counseling model, produces what type of
client behavior is just beginning to be gathered. This knowledge is urgently
needed if counselors are to successfully provide help to an increasing
number of students who seek a reduction in their anxiety—level, whether
it be caused by maladaptive learning, "identity" problems, or academic
difficulties. The dilemma of effective goals and techniques of counselors
currently in existence in counselor-education circles can be resolved by
further research similar to the design of this study. The following specific
suggestions for further experimentation can help resolve this dilemma:

1. Replications of this study are needed with a larger number of
professional and subprofessional counselors, a greater number of subjects,
and more data On the subjects.

2. More precise criteria Should be used for selecting subprofes-
sional counselors. The use of a variety of assessment techniques would permit
discovery of variables which may be Shown to be highly correlated with effec-
tiveness.

3. Various lengths of treatments should be contrasted. For ex-
ample, compare five sessions with 10 or more sessions, especially for
"insight" procedures. ’

4. A replication of this study is needed but comparing other pro-
cess models, i. e. , implosive therapy, rational-emotive therapy, existential

therapy, or some other form of behavior therapy such as in vivo desensitization,

79

self-management contingencies, flooding techniques, or aversive therapy.
The exact behaviors needed to implement each method would have to be
determined prior to treatment. Various types of client problems could

be represented in the design. Maladaptive client behaviors such as un-
assertiveness, fear and lack of skill in social relations, homosexuality,
frigidity, impotency, lack of self-control, and a general "too much anxiety"
state, may be included so that data could be gathered to help determine

the most successful type of treatment for a particular problematic behavior.

5. Longitudinal and followup studies are needed to produce
information on enduring effects over an extended period of time. Knowing
what specific and general changes occurred with which clients one or two
years after treatment can aid in productive treatment. Also, the principle
of partial reinforcement, "fading out" once effective habits are established,
could be tested by means of spacing interviews at appropriate times during
treatment. During the initial stages of counseling, several interviews
could be held each week. Subsequently, the number of interviews per week,
or month, would diminish.

6. The use of a variety of counselor characteristics is suggested,
such as age, sex, verbal behaviors, mannerisms, gestures and physical char-
acteristics such as appearance and size to compare their success rates with
different types of clients. Significant differences apparently exist between in-
dividuals in their receptivity to certain counselor characteristics. Matching
the most appropriate counselor to "fit" the needs of a particular type client
should produce a higher success rate in counseling than presently exists.

7. Objective measurements similar to the Observers' Checklist used
in this study, needtobe developed and refined. Decide what behavior is to be
changed, then, depending upon the chosen behavior, create or select an objective,
observational instrument to record motoric data. If a client wishes to change a

specific behavior, some method to assess such change is essential, Further

8O

refinement of the Observers' Checklist could be accomplished by using the
sa_m_e_ trained rater to observe all subjects, thereby eliminating inter-rater
variance. If several raters are needed, their reliability should be assessed
by having them independently observe and record a particular subject's be-
havior, rather than permitting between rater movement and "cues" to affect
their ratings. For example, raters could use two separate rooms, if avail-
able, to accomplish this purpose.

8. Replication of this study is needed using different target behav-
iors. The behaviors to be changed could include assertive behavior, dating
behavior, "uncommunicative" behavior with a parent, or any broad range of
difficulties presented by clients. By being innovative, a variety of techniques
can be developed to permit assessment of client behaviors. Observations of
those life situations in which the client experiences difficulty is cruc al. For
example, electronic devices can gather relevant data by being attached to
the client's body so that physiological data may be recorded daily.

9. The evaluation of a combination of various treatment techniques
is urged. Many counselors state that they are "eclectic" and use a variety of
methods. Investigations based on examining a sequence of various procedures
derived from existing rationales ("insight", desensitization, rational-emotive,
etc.) could be innovative and helpful.

10. Investigation of the historical antecedents of the client's behaviors
is proposed. Extensive case histories could be compiled which would include demo-
graphic data such as academic, medical, social, educational, vocational and
familial factors. These variables may yield computerized patterns of behavior
with which a certain type of treatment may show a high probability of success.
For example, a student with a high grade point average, high scientific as-
pirations, few friends, high frequency of "psychosomatic symptoms", and
high family goals, might respond better to, and show a greater reduction in

anxiety with conditioning procedures rather than "insight" methods.

81

11. The generalization factor needs to be examined in greater
detail. Few studies have investigated the "self-reported" behavior of clients
outside the counseling office nor have many investigations been made to
evaluate systematically the behavior changes other than the original "pre-
senting problem". Too often the self-report of client progress is invalid
and ambiguous therby causing the counselor to change or retain a certain
type of clinical approach based on insufficient and inaccurate evidence.
Rarely do studies followup the external behavior of clients or use that
observed objective data as primary criteria.

If counseling is supposed to help solve problematic behavior,
and reduce anxiety, then its generalized effects need to be examined. For
example, if a female client's goal is to reduce the amount of anxiety she
feels when she is around males, a reduction in anxiety may occur but a side
effect may be that she finds herself becoming more indifferent, disinterested
and "cold" with males leading to fewer male contacts.

Clients in the present study indicated that they were Significantly
helped in "other" general areas by desensitization methods. Individual
analyses and followup in this area can provide answers to the questions
"In what specific way has your behavior changed ?", "How often does this
new behavior occur ?" and "What was there about the treatment that resulted
in this unexpected behavior to occur “P". The rigor of generalization research
is lacking but due only to its infancy. This generalization approach is needed
so that clients do not get "worse" in their everyday lives while showing a

successful counseling "experience".

Appendix

An S-R Inventory of Anxiousness

A

"You are entering a final examination in an important course"

PLEASE DO NOT MARK THIS BOOKLET

Mark on the ANSWER SHEET one of the fihnzalternative degrees
of reaction or attitude for each of the following 14 items,

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. Heart beats faster 4 l 2 3 4 5
Not at all Much faster
2. Get an "uneasy feeling" 1 2 3 4 5
None Very strongly
3. Emotions disrupt action 1 2 3 4 . 5
Not at all Very disruptive
4. Feel exhilarated and 1 2 3 4 5
thrilled Very much Not at all
5. Want to avoid situation 1 2 3 4 5 :
Not at all Very much
6. Perspire l 2 3 4 5
Not at all Perspire much
7. Need to urinate ‘ l 2 3 4 5
frquently Not at all Very frequently
8. Enjoy the challenge 1 2 3 4 5'
Enjoy much Not at all
9. Month gets dry 1 2 3 4 5
Not at all Very dry
10. Become immobilized l 2 3 4 5
___ Not at all Completely
11. Get full feeling in l 2 3 4 5
stomach None Very full
12. Seek experiences like this 1 2 3 4 5
Verv much Not at all
13. Have loose bowels 1 2 3 4 5
None Very much
14. Experience nausea ’ l 2 3 4 5
LiNot at all 'Much nausea

 

PLEASE RECORD YOUR ANSWERS ON THE ANSWER SHEET

82

 

v -—--.—..—»_ ~

The
respond

(2)"You.

(5)"You
(11)"Y0U

(5)"You

(6)"You~

(7)"on
(8)"You

(9) "You

(10)"You are going to mtet a new date"

format is the same for the remaining tcn situn

Appendix A (Continued)

An S-R Inventory of Anxiousness

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to but tte situations change to:

are
are
are
are
are
are
are

are

going into an interview for a very important job"

alone in the woods at night"

-fl—

entering a cementitive contest before spectators"

starting out in a sailboat onto a reugh sea"

going to a counSeling bureau

L
I

0 seek help in solving

getting up to give a speech before a large group"

. v

crawling along a ledge high on a mountain side"

going into a psycholog

Ical

experiment"

(ll)"You are just starting off on a long automobile trip"

.83

a personal problem'

i

Appendix 8

Name
Date
TEST ANXIETY INVEA‘ORY

This form is composed of statements regarding your feelings of tension and
stress (anxiety) in taking an important test, After each question circle the letter
which best describes your present feelings. Think back to your most recent important
test on which you experienced tension and stress. Work quickly and don't spend
much time on any one question. Your first impression of each question is most
important. Now go ahead, work quickly, and remember to answer every question.

Circle the letter which represents your present feeling.

 

 

 

Always or
Rarely or Never Infrequently Occasionally Frequently Almost Always

R I 0 F A
1. While studying for a test I feel tense and nervous. R I 0 F A
2. I feel tense when I see the words "midterm" and "final" R I 0 F A

on a course outline when studying.

3. My thoughts become confused and jumbled when I am taking R I 0 F A
a test.

4. Right after taking a test I feel that I have had a pleasant R I O F A

experience.
5. I get anxious when I think about a test coming up. R I 0 F A
6. I have no fear of taking a test. " R I 0 F A
7. Although I am nervous just before starting the test, R I O F A

I soon settle down after starting on the test and feel
calm and comfortable.

8. I look forward to taking a test. - R I 0 F A

9. When the instructor announces a test in class I can R I O F A
feel myself getting tense.

10. My hands tremble when I am taking a test. R I 0 F A

11. I feel relaxed while taking a test. R I O

12. I enjoy preparing for a test. R I O

13. I am in constant fear of forgetting what I have studied. R I 0

14. I get anxious if someone asks me something about course R I 0
material that I do not know.

15. I face the prospect of taking a test with confidence. R I 0

16. I feel I am in complete possession of myself while R I 0
taking a test.

17. My mind is clear when taking a test. R I 0

18.
19.

20.

. 21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.
33.

34.

Appendix 8 (Continued)

I do not dread taking a test.
I perspire just before starting a test.

My heart beats very fast just as I start an important
test.

I experience considerable anxiety while sitting in the
exam room just before the test has started.

Certain parts of my body feel very tense and rigid
while taking a test.

Realizing that only a little time remains on a test
makes me very tense and anxious.

In taking a test I know I can control my feelings
of tension and stress.

I breathe faster just before starting a test.

I feel comfortable and relaxed in the hour or so just
before taking a test.

I do poorer on exams because I am anxious.

I feel anxious when the teacher announces the date of
an exam.

When I have trouble answering a question on a test, I find
it hard to concentrate on the questions that follow.

During an important examination I experience a feeling
of helplessness building up inside me.

I have trouble falling asleep the night before an impor-
tant examination“

‘My heart beats very fast during an important test.
I feel anxious while the test is being handed out.

During a test I get so nervous I forget facts I really
know.

85

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something about anxiety yvu exocrionce, please indicate in the space below.

. -.ii: . ., c - it t . . -rn- I”, Av . - A t . .2
Orchrux ily, lln,se shrvzc»¢.\myald C‘Si rgueilruni-,;O for rmnnqstuuents but \Jlii
be free for stud nts DPTiiCimniin. lf you are interested, you will receive
five interviews witn a trained Schialibi. In addition, an hour interview
will be needed. The total time Spent y you will be about six hours. We know

you will benefit from your participation and we are most interested in

helping you learn how to be more calm and relaxed conco"ning examinations.

l wish to particunate in this project to reduce my test anxiety

APPENDIX D

TRANSCRIPT 0F macaw AROUSAL memory TAPE

Now, because imagery is important in reducing anxiety, I would like to see
how well you can imagine experiences that have probably happened to all of us...
and the extent to which you actually FEEL the experience you picture....to help
you imagine these experiences, I'd like to have you get in a relaxed position...
that's right...relax...stretch your arms and 1egs...get in a comfortable position..
move around until you feel your muscles loosen up and your body relax...good...
let your muscles go...relax...sit back...close your eyes...slowly...relax...
close your eyes...take a deep breath...and let the muscles go in your stomach...
neck...arms...shoulders...relax...that's it...try not to think of anything else
but just listen to me and I'll present your six reactions to situations you
wrote out just a few minutes ago. I'd like to have you imagine them as vividly
and completely as possible...just as if you were there...1et yourself go and
experience the feelings that accompany these situations...All the feelings...
I'll ask you to indicate how anxious, tense or nervous you feel...that is, your
physical reaction to these situations...by raising one finger of your right hand
if you feel just a little but jittery...two fingers if you feel a little bit
more tense... three fingers if you feel even more...four fingers for a great deal
of anxiety...and raise all five fingers if you're really tense and anxious...if you
don't feel any anxiety at all, don't raise any fingers...0.K.? Remember...relax,
let your mind concentrate on these situations and keep your eyes closed...(read
selections from anxious situations).

87

APPENDIX E

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Please complete this inmediately after taluitg he exam before you leave the exam
room.
‘Type of Exam: Multiple Choice _
Essay '
, Multiple Choice and Essay
Please indicate how you were feeling 195C bzfore (Within 10 minuteS) the exam.

 

(Circle one number). _-

1 ' 2 > 3
Coupletely Calm and Mild Tension—
Relaxed Comfortable ‘figg‘Bothersome

6
Anxiet ~Medc
Disturbing

ratel"

. ‘ow you were feeling at
1 2 3

l Mild Texsion
Egg Bothers age

‘ ‘

ty-Moderetely

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1 lie

deicate hOJ you were feelin g‘in

Please

4 ' A 5

Mild nRLlCL] - a Lnxiety - Somewhat
Little .:thersone Disturbing

7 8 ‘
1“.

Intense nxiety Very Intense Anxiety-
Very Disturbing Extremely Di.stuilmitg

dautefi of the

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Mild AUALQLY “u uflthty - Someunat
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Intense Anxiety Very Intense Anxiety
Very Disturbing Extremely Disturbing
the middle of the exam.

 

l ' 2' 3
Completely. Calm and Mild Tension -
Relaxe Comfortable Not Bothersome

Anxiety-l 'c
Disturbing

Please indicate how you were feeling nee.r

Anxiety ~ Somewhat
Disturbing

Mild Z.nxiety -2
thC13 BOLHQCSONC

nnxiety ~ Very In ense Anxiety-
turbing Extremely Disturbing

Intense
.Very Dis

the end (last 10 Minutes) of the exam.

 

1 2 ~ 3 .
Compl.etely Ca lm and Mild Tension-
Relexed Not

Comfortable Bothersome
6
Anxiety tladeretely .

Disturbing

Now ply 3e indicate how you were
1 2 - 3

Completely Calm and' Mild Tension-

Relaxed Comfortable lot Bcihei‘soie

R

eeling

4 - 5
iii ld Anxiety - 3 Anxiety - Somewhat
Little Bothersome Disturbing
7 C
Intense “fix iety - Very Intense Anxi iety -
Very Disturbing Es'tremzly Disturbing
after you have completed the exam.
4 5
Mild Anxiety ~a Anxiety -Somewhat
Little Dotlm rs om: isturbing

 

7 R

_-APPEHDIX

THAYER ACTIVATICH-DEPCTIVATICN

 

CHECKLEEZ

 

W v 7 no : definitely feel
vv v, 7 no : feel slightly
-. vv v {3} no : cannot decide
'W v 7 @‘ :_ definitely do not feel

*High Activation
**General Deacfivafion
***General.Acfivafion
f***Deacfivafion-Sleep

 

carefree ‘vv v 7' no

serious vv v 7 no
***peppy vv v 7 no
pleased vv v 7 no
**placid vv v 7 no
##1eisurely vv v 7 no
.****sleepy VV .V ? no
*jittery vv v 7 no
1*intenee vv v 7 no
grouchy vv” v 7 no
***energetic nv v 7 no

- egotistic vv v 77 ‘no

**ca1m vv v 7 ‘no

***susPicious vv ‘v '7 no

****tired. vv v 7 no

regretful 'vv v 7 no

*stirred-up vv v 7 no

***warm-hearted vv v 7

\ u

*§*vigorous vv v 7 no

no

engaged-in-thought .vv v 7 no
**et fest vv y 7 'no
*e*elated vv v 7 no
****drowsy vv v 7 no

witty vv v 7 no

***aroused vv v 7 no
*fearfol vv V 7 no

**f1ive1y'lvv v 7

no
*istill vv v 7 no
self-centered vv v 7 no
‘***wide-awake vv v 7 no
skeptical vv v 7 no
***activated vv v 7 no
sad vv v ‘7 no
'¥¥*fu11-of-pep. vv' v.77 no
**¥affectionate vv v 7 no
*iquiet vv v 7 .no
concentrating vv v 7 no
ff**sluggish vv v 7' no
-“¥*¥overjoyed .vv v 7 no
' I4‘=’|<*quicl< vv v 7 no
nonchalant vv v 7 no
**quiescent vv v 7 no
. *clntched-up vv v 7 no
***wakeful vv v 7 no
***rebellious vv v '7

no
***active vv v 7 no

blue vv v 7 no

defiant

vv v 7 no

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you report for your final examinaiion in Eduaaiion 250. See below.'

Dafe Room

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9b

APPENDIX K

SPECIFIC DESENSITIZATION PROCEDURES

1. Exploration of history and current status of symptoms. This phase will
serve primarily as an "icebreaker" and as a period in which to establish rapport.
Determine (a) how long the subject has experienced test anxiety, (b) to what
degree test anxiety interferes with functioning, and (c) whether other social or
evaluative situations also arouse anxiety. This should be completed in no more
than 10 minutes of the first session. '

 

2. Explanation of rationale and course of treatment. It is important that
each subject understand and accept the treatment process. Both the theory and
course of treatment should be briefly explained and repeated if questions arise.
It should be made clear that anxiety is a result of learning, and that treatment
is a learning process. If any subject seems to have trouble understanding, re-
phrase your explanation in language he can understand. The following brief ex-
planation usually suffices for introductory purposes. ‘ ‘

 

"The emotional reactions that you experience are a result of your previous
eXperiences with people and situations; these reactions oftentimes lead to feel-
ings of anxiety or tenseness which are really inappr0priate., Since perceptions
of situations occur within ourselves, it is possible to work with your reactions
right here in the office by having you imagine or visualize those situations."

"The specific technique we will be using is one called desensitization.
This technique utilizes two main procedures--relazation and counterconditioning‘,
-to reduce your anxiety. The relaxation procedure is based upon years of work
that was started in the 1930's by Dr. Jacobsen. Dr. Jacobson developed a method
‘of inducing relaxation that can be learned very quickly, and which will allow
you to become more deeply relaxed than ever before. Of course, the real advan-
tage of relaxation is that the muscle systems in your body cannot be both tense
and relaxed at the same time; therefore, once you have learned the relaxation
technique, it can be used to counter anxiety, tenseness, and feelings like those
you experience in the anxious test situation.

 

 

"Relaxation alone can be used to reduce anxiety and tension, and I'll be
asking you to practice relaxation between our meetings. Often, however, relaxa-
tion is inconvenient to use, and really doesn't permanently overcome anxiety. '
Therefore, we combine the relaxation technique with the psychological principle
of counterconditioning to actually desensitize situations so that anxiety_no longer
occurs."

"The way in which we will do this is to determine the situations in which
you become progressively more anxious, building a hierarchy from the least to the
most anxious situations with regard to taking a test. Then I will teach you the
technique of progressive relaxation, and have you practice this. You will see how
this Operates in a few minutes when we actually start training. After you are
more relaxed than ever before, we will then start counterconditioning. This will
be done by having you repeatedly imagine the specific situations from the anxiety

95

APPENDIX K(Confinued)

hierarchy while under relaxation. By having you visualize very briefly, while you
are deeply relaxed, the situations that normally arouse anxiety, those situations
gradually become desensitized, so that they no longer make you anxious. We

start with those situations that bother you the least, and gradually work up to ,
the most anxious moment. Since each visualization will lower your anxiety to the
next, a full-fledged anxiety reaction never occurs."

"These procedures have been used on many different types of clinical problems,
including students with performance anxiety, with excellent results. Most of
these procedures will become clearer after we get into them. Do you have any
questions before we continue?"

3. Construction of the anxiety hierarchv. The anxiety hierarchy is one of
the most important aspects —of this treatment. The object is to determine
situations related to test anxiety which run from very slight, controllable amounts
of anxiety to the most extreme anxiety attendant upon the actual test situation.

It is not necessary to determine every instance, since generalization from one
instance to another will bridge the gap. It is necessary to determine situations
close enough together to allow generalization to occur.

 

 

3a. The basic test anxiety hierarchv. Based upon interviews with students
and analysis of the situation, the following temporal hierarchy might form a basic
framework, this reducing the time involved. Here is an example of a test hierarchy.
Construct your own based on your individual experiences:

 

(1) Beginning of quarter, instructor hands out course outline. ‘On
glancing over outline you see the words "mid-term" and "final"”
and how much each is weighted in grading.

(2) Sitting down to study the third week of the quarter, having
difficulty concentrating, think about an important mid—term
coming up. '

(3) While sitting in an important class the instructor mentions
that the mid—term will be on Thursday.

(4) You have started to look over a chapter in your testbook for
a test in a few days. You realize that the material is very
difficult and hard to understand and start thinking about the
test coming up.

(5) The day before an important exam your roommate asks you a question
about material to be covered on the test. You don't know the
‘answer. i '

(6) You are lying in bed the night before the final trying to go to
sleep.

(7) You are sitting in the exam room, watching the clock, looking
at your notes, and trying to memorize certain facts, trying to
anticipate what is going to be on the exam.

(8) The instructor has just handed you the final. You glance at
the first question.

(9) You have just read a test question slowly and carefully. You
don't understand it so you reread it but still don't seem to
understand it.

(10) Upon looking at the test you realize that you did not study for
these questions.

96

APPENDIX K(Confinued)

(11) Sitting in the room taking the final you glance up at the clock
and realize that only a little time remains.

This hierarchy is to serve only as a guide; each subject should make out his
own 3 x 5 cards. The procedure is as follows: First explain that you wish to I
determine specific situations from the least to the most anxiety producing. Ask
the subject when he first notices feelings of tenseness and anxiety; then work
through each of the 10—15 items to determine if some items should be excluded or
others included. Have them write down on the cards the specifics associated
with each item, so that you may better control the imagery of the subject, (where
they get anxious). Subjects may replace non-anxiety arousing items from time to
time with more anxious items.

4. Training in progressiye relaxation. This is a most important procedure,
and one that should be mastered. It should be eXplained to the subject that this
technique will take some time (20—25 minutes) at first, but as he learns, the time
for inducing deep relaxation will be shortened. Training begins by having the
subject systematically tense his gross-muscle systems, holding them tense until
you say "relax", at which time the subject lets go immediately. If the muscles _
are first tensed, they will relax more deeply when they are relaxed. Explain that
you want the subject to focus all his attention on each muscle system as you work
through the various groups, so that after practice he will not have to tense the
muscles first in order to achieve deep relaxation.

 

 

4a. The Method. Seat the three subjects in comfortable chairs. Legs should
be extended, head resting on the back of the chair, and arms resting on the arms
of the chair. No part of the body should require the use of muscles for support.
Have the subjects close their eyes to minimize external stimulation. The room
should be quiet and lights dimmed if possible. *

 

(1). Instruct the subject to "clench the arm of the chair with your dominant
hand (usually right). Tense the muscles of your (right) hand, forearm, and biceps.
Tense until it trembles. Feel the muscles pull across your fingers and lower part
of your forearm". Have the subject hold this position for 5 to 7 seconds, then
say "relax", instructing him to just let his hand go: "Pay attention to the muscles
of your (right) hand and forearm as they relax even more until your arm and hand are
completely relaxed with no tension at all, warm and relaxed".

Continue until subject reports his (right) hand and forearm are completely
relaxed with no tension (usually 2--4 times is sufficient).

(2) Instruct the subject to tense his left hand, forearm, and bicep. Proceed
in the same manner as above, in a "hypnotic monotone", using the (right) hand as a
reference point, that is, move on when the subject reports his biceps feel as com-
pletely relaxed as his hand and forearm.

Proceed to other gross-muscle groups (listed below) in the same manner, with
the same verbalization. For example: "Note how these muscles feel as they relax;
feel the relaxation and warmth flow through these muscles; pay attention to these
muscles so that later you can relax them again". Always use the preceding group
as a reference for moving on.

APPENDIX K(Confinued)

(3) Frown hard, tensing muscles of forehead and tOp of head (these muscle
often "tingle" as they relax). -

(4) Clench teeth, feeling jaw muscles and cheeks
(5) Tighten chin and throat muscles, feeling two muscles in front of throat.

(6) Tighten chest muscles and muscles across back—-feel muscles pull below
shoulder blades. '

(7) Tighten abdominal muscles-—make abdomen hard.

, (8) Tighten muscles of right leg and calf-~push down with toes and arch--
apply pressure on ball of foot. \

(9) Tighten muscles of left leg and calf-~feel muscles on bottom of left
calf.

For most muscle groups, two Presentations will suffice. Ask the subject if
he feels any tension anywhere in his body. If he does, go back and repeat the
tension-release cycle for that muscle group. It is often helpful to instruct the
subject to take a deep breath and hold it while tensing muscles, and to let it go
while releasing. Should any muscle group not reSpond after four trials, move on
and return to it later. Caution: some subjeCts may develop muscle cramps or
Spasms from prolonged tension of muscles. If this occurs, shorten the tension
interval a few seconds, and instruct the subject not to tense his muscles quite
so hard.

Although the word "hypnosis" is not to be used, progressive relaxation,
prOperly executed, does seem to resemble a light hypnotic-trance state, with the
subject more succeptible to suggestion. Relaxation may be further deepened by
repetition of suggestions of warmth, relaxation, etc. Some subjects may actually
report sensations of disassociation from their bodies. This is complete relax—
ation and is to be expected. Subjects should be instructed to Speak as little as
possible while under relaxation.

In bringing subjects back to "normal", the numerical method of trance term-
ination should be used: "I'm going to count from one to four. On the count of one,
start moving your legs; two, your fingers and hands; three, your head; and four,
open your eyes and sit up. One-~move your legs; two--move your fingers and hands;
three--move your head around; four-~open your eyes and sit up". Always check to‘
see that the subjects feel well, alert, etc., before leaving.

The subject should be instructed to practice relaxation twice a day between
sessions. He should not work at it more than 15 minutes at a time and should not
practice twice within any three-hour period. He should also practice alone.
Relaxation may be used to get to sleep if practiced while horizontal; if the
subject does not wish to sleep, he should practice sitting up. PrOperly timed,
relaxation can be used for a "second-wind" during study.

By the third session, if the subject has been practicing well, relaxation may

08

APPENDIX K(Confinued)

be induced by merely focusing attention on the muscle groups, and instructing
the subject to "concentrate on muscles becoming relaxed", "warm", etc. However,
if any subject has difficulty following straight suggestions, return to the use
of tension-release.

.5. Desensitizgtion proner -- working through the hierarchy under relaxation.
Preparatory to desensitization proper, usually at the end of the first session,
the subject's imagery should be tested. This may be done by asking him to visual—
ize item (1): On the hierarchy. "Describe what you see. Do you see it clearly?
Do you see color? Do you feel as if you were there? All right, now stOp visual-
izing that and go on relaxing". Some subjects may report clear, distinct images,
as if they were watching a movie; this is fine, but not necessary. The minimum
requirement is that their visualizations be as clear as a very vivid memory. Des-
cribing these visualizations as a dream is often helpful. With more practice,
images will usually become clearer. It is also important that the subject can
start and step an image on request, and this should be determined. If difficulties
arise in any of these areas, present a few more common, nonanxious images, des-
cribing for the subject just what he should experience; for example, entering the
office. It is important that the subject visualize situations as if he were there—
Eg£_watching himself!

 

Before inducing relaxation in the second session, explain exactly what you'll
be asking the subject to do, since his verbalizations are to be kept at a minimum.
Tell him that if anytime duripg the session he feels any tension or nervou ness
whatever,_to signal by raising his (right) index finger. This important, and
should be made clear from the beginning.

 

 

After relaxation is induced, presentation of images begins with item (3) "Now
I want you to visualize yourself sitting in class at the beginning of the semester,
and the instructor mentions when the mid-term and final will be (10 seconds). StOp
visualizing that, and go on relaxing". Ask if the subject felt any tension and if
he was able to start and stop the image on request. Then repeat item (3) again.
"One more time, visualize yourself, sitting in class at the beginning of the semester
and the instructor mentions when the mid-term and final will be (10 seconds). StOp
visualizing that, and go on relaxing-~completely relaxed, no tension anywhere in
your body, warm and relaxed".

Follow the above paradigm throughout the hierarchy if the subject does not
become anxious: etgg, present each item in the hierarchy, specifying all major
aspects of the image. Allow 10 seconds to elapse after each presentation, then
instruct the subject to "stop visualizing that, and go on relaxing". Continue
suggestions of warmth, relaxation, lack of tension, heaviness, etc. for 30 to 45
seconds, and again present the image. Present each item in the hierarchy at
least twice. If the subject does not signal anxiety, and the therapist does not
detect anxiety during two lO-second presentations of an item, move on to the
next item in the hierarchy.

 

 

_ If, on the other hand, the subject signals anxiety to the therapist, immediately
instruct the subject to "stop visualizing that, and go on relaxing". Then continue
with suggestions of relaxation (at least one minute) until the subject reports as
deep a relaxation as before. Then inform him that you will shorten the presentation

99

APPENDIX K(continued\

so that anxiety will not occur. Present the same item again for a period of only

3 to 5 seconds. If anxiety is still aroused, drOp back to a lO-second presenta-

tion of the previous item in the hierarchy. If, however, the 3-to 5-second
presentation does not arouse anxiety, give 30 to-4S seconds of relaxation suggestions,
and present the same item again for 5 seconds, then 10 seconds, then 20 seconds. If
the item can be presented for 20 seconds, move on the the next item in the hierarchy.

It is precisely at these points that clinical sensitivity must guide the pre-
sentations; one must know when to go back, when to construct new items, and when to
move on up the hierarchy. However, the above guides should handle most situations.
Some items may require as many as 8 to 12 presentations of differing time intervals,
with lower level items interSpersed. Most items will be handled successfully in 2
to 4 presentations.

Never end a session with a presentation that arouses anxiety. Approximately
5 to 10 minutes before the end of a session, either stOp with a successful item, or
go back to the previous item in the hierarchy. "Awaken" the subject, and discuss
the session with him, reassuring him about any difficulties that may have come up.
If by some quirk, any of the presentations are nullified, or they do not carry over
into real life, rapidly repeat those items in the next session. Normally, each
session will begin with a single presentation of the last successfully completed
item. All subjects should easily complete the hierarchy in the five sessions.

 

 

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I ' k . -,-~!- ' '. f ' £‘m«' \“ "' - v' "4 ‘,. ""\ C . ‘ . AA v r‘” -.~.’ r‘. — “ .-
C>\C€’rC,IE--z.‘n l:».lu’.,~_.‘ (1 (:my f9. (1:40;. lL'n lulflhltiw. qll in c) ukJMJOl Ic‘lult’

chair or lie in led.

I . hialzév a f 59‘? vxii F: )tni;r r chal' lzanncio 1 C121!) lle n u{7{:l(32; C‘f y;)zhf

J J,
J

llffll , fr>fc>er‘la ;;ncl iii 32;):: Llfll’ll I h;:y i: in file 0 the l flue i13r13<‘ru?53s; c:f flto

. h . .. , _ .. . . . 3' A . N r ., '. .~ . . .
leSC I C 5(5-7 bftfrl'lj‘n" . Nah Ii: 1 5‘." (and 12.-,1 a" - fC‘l I lu; hwy r {3 l (#2:.
Renee? several lim33 null! you can feel ihnw relax,

~—.- -5.-

0
r
J
‘H
‘l
r"
'l
-0
—
a
-

uv ‘ - k ’ ‘\ a I‘ . ’ I‘V
hand, {Offi‘ui fl. c':l(J tilCt.’::;)
. . - ,: - , , V I , . .

i‘€;«‘1?:, java; murals.“ and

5‘ \N re
0

C‘ \n
O O
O n
3" on.
—- (1
'3 :3
n) Er-
'3
'\
"9'
.7
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0
IT
I
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fit
4
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’W
{I
r x
7?

murcls;

Abdominal mu clcs

-e
I

f

8. Flighf l<rg, «znl: arr} ftxul. E7xlcwwd {Jld re lax
9. Leff leg, Calf and feel. Exien and flex

Precfice :firxelching and yxxwiing fhroughoul ix? day....Vher )flfl‘

slarl lo fenst Up, THI'K RELAXATION.

o...“ J

4..-- ‘ A4-__‘-,..-..,,L- ,-.._.z_.r......fi_ ‘ .-‘_. '

APPENDIX .M

TRAINIKS S7SSIOU FOR INSIGHT THERAPIST

The behaviors listed below are to be emphasized and practiced:

1.
:2.
3.
h.

‘Focus on the client..be intense..and interested in the client

Talking in a deep, soft tone. Speak slozz :ith e"e contact...in a thoughtful way...
Exhibit ca nmne s. ..be relaxed but interested.
Respond to feelir rzs..nod often..be concerned...use frequent "hm mmmm's

Convey to the ch mat that you understand...check with them to seo'if you under-
stand what they are saying...don't "beat them to the punch."

Lean forward once in a while. Give himeour attention.

Help the client discuss his historical and current problems so that he may achieve

' meaning and insight into the reasons for his anxiety. (college nd family pressures,

goals, etc.)

RevieW'tapes in tape library.

I
In summary, emphasize client self-reiercnce statements and what they mean to him.
Affective rather than cognitive statements are to be reinforced.

'02

APPENDIX N
EXPLICATION OF RE LIABILITY COMPUTATION FOR OBSERVERS

Interclass Correlation of Observer's Reliability
based on Ebel's Revision of Hoyt's Analysis of Variance

 

 

Trials (One minute time span)

 

Seconds of Seconds of
anxious anxious
behavior behavior
Rater #1 Rater #2
2 2 Sum 2
X X Y Y XY XY
1. 21 441 17 289 38 1444
2. 10 100 19 361 29 841
3. 7 49 11 121 18 324
4. 17 289 25 625 42 1764
5. 12 144 12 144 24 576
6. 11 121 17 289 28 784
7. 28 784 34 1156 62 3844
8. 13 169 9 81 22 484
9. 13 169 15 225 28 784
10. 8 324 20 400 38 1444
11. 3 9 2 4 5 25
153 2599 181 3695 334 12314
Sum2 (23409) (32761) (111556)
56170
Individuals g Sum of Squares Variance

-1
(rows) R SS zé (gCX)2 (g $_CX)2 S2 =SS /R-1
R C ' RC R R

CR2 RC2

 

Raters C-l ss = Jail-wi- 32 =83 /C—1
C R RC C C
(columns)
2
Error (R—1)(C-1) ssE — SST - ssR - ssC sE— SSE/(R—1)(C-1)
' C 2
Total RC-l 85 = R sz-Lg—g—E—
T RC
= = 36
ssR 1087 ssC
SSE = 101 Total = 1224
S2 _ S2
Reliability of raters r“: R E or 1087 -101 = r = L99
2 1087 "‘-

' . ‘ . ' ‘1'”: f " 1‘ . ""\ .~"’ ' ' ’r"-‘ 'vi "‘."‘ ~ "\"-. "c‘ "v/ I
TIII'.) '3 ("fl (’93:! :‘I (1) 0‘ (.g l'..‘.:I (Wr‘«\va'l I‘ II ~‘_l Ci, CII‘I'g C(.)ll-.‘1'U(,f ) ‘,.I 00.. ti’w \"(.

J ”‘ o ‘ ‘{.\'.rivv- I ( 'mpv .-. w.»
Of‘ 270‘}! II K I v I .'..’ “Hr crlpl...‘ TI.
‘ . ’ . r o 9' 1" "-" . " ‘u-v~J,'I—‘ >9. '.~ '.I - ur /‘ ‘- ' .'¢ :-
(l). ErnInn:hq Or ca~ .n., Inslrcrlh. hy,n. c:i to .t, QJIIIM“. CA
.. o _ ._ _n 0 .. r A . _., v, I?) n . -—.v _!i n I I'.’_ o -- II 'n J g, ..
g' \.‘I'I<:.I\':i O\' fr C’b": I II. ‘I'CT‘! f \C‘ Ii‘;_‘ I..'o' r) “-I\oi"‘I .\ I. (7’1'. I II"'I ()I:II I .o I .I'il

.,J..
“".(I

each i

m

.
,.
. \"I
/ ..
\

\-
o

\3

(.l Siilinr C)HJ to Sivdy 1h? ihlrd rvri of fin an ricv, h‘virj difficnliy

I
concentrating, lhink .‘ cl {I ilIfifl .l IiC T‘ . .. irj RD.
(5) hhile sitting in an inparltni Glens, the insirueicr L niiemx lhai ih~

n;i(L-lerfia trill LC‘ or; Tlu9rtnfnyl,
(h) You huvv Sic lee lo look over a chanlpr in yin“ laxity k {or a test

i r1 £1 f (in: ‘zzy'F: . \'C3 .: I'C: ;' l i ;?.i 1* l 31 I:I i l.:} I. rai'i E" l 3' l I :; \ T‘i“ (’i f I i (:2: l l z.‘x (l l1 ;;r'él i C)

tHldOleiCuid (51d :.I:m‘i il iIfi inf; ahtnll ilm‘ ie;;i (fivniIig tqi.
( f) ) 'l llé‘ (3 .:3/ LI.) 5 ’i; (T {;ll i r ;\C>: i (til i (r >t.".: y':>;‘t' I r'r;.f-' 2:: i'l' a.=-l; :; 5'.UIJ {a (3‘:(' :; i i C‘il

"\
r.-
0+
/\
V
i,.
n
I'N
.1
I
,-
-V
I"

aifiull the r aleri twi the if 3i. anI don't iWKVfl ihb aim: at.

((3) i223 ark? I)’i[ Q irI inacl ilr? n lC Ii h:gf(”‘€ line { irlzl i: )'i{~§ it) Seliw g».

going to l? on the xar.

(9) The irvsirueior lwq; jusl tnwwind you 15x2 final. \knl glznun? at the firfn‘
queslion,

(9) You have just rend a iesl question slowly and carefully. You don't
unctncsfarml if SQ; yo;IIW3re.mi if IAJi sii ll (knj'i Emmi. IL) untki‘sirumd it.

(l0) You are looking hi The est and realixe lhai you did not study for
These qaeslions.

a ’

(ll).Sit1ing in It: room taking the final you glance up at the clock cue

realized ihnt only a little fine FOTOIHS.

I014

APPENDIX P
TABLE I
S-R INVENTORY OF ANXIOUSNESS

1

"You are going into an interview for a very important job"

MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND t VALUES
FOR MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Means Standard Deviations
Variables Pre Post Difference Pre Post _t
an:

Desensitization 35. 95 29. 75 6. 20 7. 61 7. 4O 3. 08

Insight 35. 75 34. 25 1. 50 10. 39 9. 88 . 96

Professional Counselors 33. 57 31. 42 2. 15 7. 98 8. 66 1. 16*»:

Subprofessional Counselors 37. 90 32. 52 5. 38 9. 54 11. 33 2. 97

*

C High Arousal Level 33. 11 28. 47 4. 64 8. 10 9. 52 2. 12*

Low Arousal Level 37. 86 34. 60 3. 20 9. 25 9. 8O 2. 00

Wait Control (N=8) 40. 12 40. 25 -. 13 6. 87 3. 99 -. 05

No Contact Control (N=11) 31. 63 33. 18 -1. 55 9. 57 12. 27 -. 84

a:
H: p< . 05
= p( . 01
Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44
TABLE II
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES
’ Variance
Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Estimate F Ratio
*

A Treatments 322. 09 1 322. 09 5. 47
B Counselors 57. 65 1 57 . 65 . 98
C Arousal Level 25. 62 1 25. 62 . 43
AB 229. 83 1 229. 83 3. 90
AC 162. 09 1 162. 09 2. 75
BC 1. 44 1 1. 44 . 02
ABC 188.47 1 188.47 3.20
Within 1882. 36 36 58. 82 1. 00
Total 2869. 55 43

 

a:
= 13¢ 05 105

TABLE HI
S-R INVENTORY OF ANXIOUSNESS1
"You are alone in the woods at night"

MEANS, STANDARD DEV IATIONS, AND 1: VALUES
FOR MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Means Standard Deviations
Variables Pre Post Difference Pre Post _1;
*4:

Desensitization 39. 45 34. 55 4. 90 12. 27 12. 75 3. 90

Insight 37. 75 37. 10 . 65 12. 26 12. 15 . 33

Professional Counselors 38. 68 36. 42 2. 26 13. 62 13. 08 1. 23*

Subprofessional Counselors 38. 52 35. 28 3. 24 10. 98 11. 97 2. 04

High Arousal Level 37. 70 34. 17 3. 53 10. 54 11. 80 1. 62

Low Arousal Level 39. 26 37. O4 2. 22 13. 40 12. 88 1. 65

Wait Control (N=8) 37. 25 43. 25 -6. 00 16. 59 9. 66 -1. 30

No Contact Control (N=11) 41. 27 37. 63 3. 64 12. 9O 12. 85 1. 77

*
Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44
TABLE IV
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES
Variance

Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Estimate R Ratio
A Treatments 221. 00 1 221. 00 3. 78
B Counselors . 87 1 . 87 . 01
C Arousal Level 20. 82 1 20. 82 . 35
AB 103.79 1 103.79 1.77
AC 52.53 1 52.53 .90
BC 2. 47 1 2. 47 . 04
ABC 12. 17 1 12. 17 . 20
Within 1886. 05 36 58.31 1.00
Total 2299. 70 43

 

106

TABLE V

S-R INVENTORY OF ANXIOUSNESS

"You are entering a competitive contest before spectators"

MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND 1: VALUES

FOR MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

 

Means Standard Deviations
Variables Pre Post Difference Pre Post _t_

Desensitization 39. 60 33. 10 6. 50 8. 69 10. 94 3. 6

Insight 38.40 34.40 4. 00 8.78 10.50 1.4

Professional Counselors 37. 42 34. 84 2. 58 8. 47 10. 73 1. 51

Subprofessional Counselors 40. 42 32. 7 6 7. 66 8. 76 10. 65 2. 9

High Arousal Level 37. 00 31. 70 5. 30 6. 73 10. 59 2. 4

Low Arousal Level 40. 47 35. 26 5. 21 9. 70 10. 58 2. 1

Wait Control 39. 12 39. 00 . 12 8. 04 7. 85 . 04

No Contact Control 37. 45 36. 72 . 73 9. 20 9. 57 . 45

**= p< . 05

1 = p( . 01

Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44
TABLE VI
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES
Variance

Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Estimate F Ratio
A Treatments 69. 67 1 69. 67 . 61
B Counselors 248. 41 1 248. 41 2. 19
C Arousal Level . 17 1 . 17 . 00
AB 211.23 1 211.23 1.87
AC 28. 41 1 28. 41 . 25
BC 31. 20 1 31. 20 . 27
ABC 22. 73 1 22. 73 . 20
Within 3614. 71 36 112. 95 1. 00
Total 4262. 53

 

 

 

107

TABLE VII
S-R INVENTORY OF ANXIOUSNESSl

"You are starting out in a sailboat on a rough sea"

MEANS, STANDARD DEV IATIONS, AND t VALUES
FOR MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Means Standard Deviations
Variables fie Post Difference _P_r_e Post _t
*

Desensitization 34. 9O 30. 00 4. 90 12. 59 11. 68 2. 79

Insight 35. 55 35. 85 -. 30 9. 57 11. 02 . 16

Professional Counselors 34. 21 31. 68 2. 53 8. 96 11. 18 1. 39

Subprofessional Counselors 36. 14 34. O4 2. 10 12. 79 12. 12 1. 07
C High Arousal Level 36. 35 32. 47 3. 88 11. 52 13. 56 1. 59

Low Arousal Level 34. 39 33. 26 1. 13 10. 87 10. 21 . 79

Wait Control 29. 12 32. 75 3. 63 10. 9O 10. 16 -2. 01,.<

No Contact Control 41. 54 35. 72 5. 82 12. 12 11. 61 2. 82

a:

1: p( . 05

Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44
TABLE VIII
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES
Variance
Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Estimate F Ratio
a:
A Treatments 318. 89 1 318. 89 4. 85
B Counselors 10. 45 1 10. 45 . 15
C Arousal Level 59. 41 1 59. 41 .90
AB 16. 41 1 16. 41 . 24
AC 142. 23 1 142. 23 2. 16
BC 13. 08 1 13. 08 . 19
ABC 81. 67 1 65. 73 1. 24
Within 2103. 38 36
Total 2745. 52 43
*
= p< . 05

108

TABLE IX
S-R INVENTORY OF ANXIOUSNESSI
"You are getting up to give a speech before a large group"

MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND 1: VALUES
FOR MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Means Standard Deviations
Variables Pre Post Difference Pre Post _t
*1:
Desensitization 38. 95 32. 80 6. 15 10. 53 11. 00 2. 89
Insight 42.05 39.25 2. 80 11.66 13. 64 1.24
Professional Counselors 40. 63 37. 10 3. 53 9. 34 11. 87 1. 78*
Subprofessional Counselors 40. 38 35. 04 5. 34 12. 68 13. 55 2. 23
High Arousal Level 37. 76 34. 23 3. 53 10. 20 13. 79 1. 14“
Low Arousal Level 42. 52 37. 34 5. 18 11. 48 11. 89 3. 41
Wait Control 48. 37 48. 37 . 00 8. 97 9. 80 . 00
No Contact Control 37. 81 37. 36 . 45 10. 19 9. 72 . 15
*
**= p< . 05
1 = p< . 01
Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44
TABLE X
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR THE DIFFERENCE
BETWEEN MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES
Variance
Source of Variance Sum of Sflares Degrees of Freedom Estimate F Ratio
A Treatments 154. 37 1 154. 37 1. 58
B Counselors 36. 40 1 36. 40 . 37
C Arousal Level 12. 08 l 12. 08 . 12
AB 342. 59 1 342. 59 3. 52
AC . 37 1 . 37 . 00
BC 1. 90 1 1. 90 . 01
ABC 194. 84 1 97. 21 1. 00
Within 3110. 80 36
Total 3853. 35 43

 

109

S-R INVENTORY OF ANXIOUSNESS

TABLE XI

1

"You are crawling on a ledge high on a mountain side"

MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND t VALUES

FOR MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Means Standard Deviations
Variables Pre Post Difference Pre Post 1;
**

Desensitization 47. 05 41. 90 5. 15 8. 97 12. 62 2. 83

Insight 47. 20 47. 10 . 10 11. 21 10. 54 . 04

Professional Counselors 46. 84 45. 10 1. 74 8. 72 12. 57 . 66* ,

Subprofessional Counselors 47. 38 43. 95 3. 43 11. 28 11. 29 2. 08
C High Arousal Level 45. 11 42. 47 2. 64 8. 78 12. 49 1. 25

Low Arousal Level 48. 60 46. 00 2. 60 10. 79 11. 26 1. 22

Wait Control (N=8) 46. 12 42. 50 3. 62 9. 47 10. 12 1. 43

No Contact Control (N=11) 47. 63 42. 85 4. 78 8. 60 9. 16 1. 03

3|:
**= p< . 05
1 = p( . 01
Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44
TABLE XII
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES
Variance
Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Estimate F Ratio
A Treatments 311. 17 1 311. 17 3. 60
B Counselors 11. 91 1 11. 91 . 13
C Arousal Level 3. 20 1 3. 20 . 03
*
AB 434. 13 1 434. 13 5. 03
AC 5. 29 1 5. 29 . 06
BC 17.79 1 17.79 .20
ABC 36. 09 1 36. 09 . 41
Within 2759. 16 36 86. 22 1. 00
Total 3578. 74 43
2|:
= p(. 05

110

TABLE XIII
S-R INVENTORY OF ANXIOUSNESS1

"You are going to a counseling bureau to seek help in
solving a personal problem"

MEANS, STANDARD DEVLATIONS, AND 1: VALUES
FOR MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Means Standard Deviations
Variables Pre Post Difference Pre Post _t_

Desensitization 34. 25 30. 00 4. 25 7. 47 9. 00 2. 50

Insight 35. 4O 35. 05 . 35 11. 13 10. 31 . 15

Professional Counselors 32. 26 30. 89 1. 37 7. 66 8. 53 . 73

Subprofessional Counselors 37. 14 34. 00 3. 14 10. 33 10. 98 1. 44

High Arousal Level 33. 58 32. 17 1. 41 8. 95 10. 25 . 52

Low Arousal Level 35. 73 32. 78 2. 95 9. 78 9. 84 1. 89

Wait Control (N=8) 39. 75 38. 75 1. 00 8. 43 7. 97 . 37

No Contact Control (N=11) 33. 90 34. 27 -. 37 10.06 10. 82 . 13

*
**= p{ . 05
1 = p( . 01
Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44
TABLE XN
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES
Variance

Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Estimate F Ratio
A Treatments 147. 77 1 147. 77 1. 77
B Counselors 24. 98 1 24. 98 . 30
C Arousal Level 15. 80 1 15. 8O . 18
AB 242. 80 1 242. 80 2. 91
AC 28.96 1 28.96 .34
BC 19. 00 1 19. 00 . 22
ABC 2. 71 1 2. 71 . 03
Within 2662. 45 36 83. 20 1. 00
Total 3144. 47

 

 

 

111

TABLE XV

S-R INVENTORY OF ANXIOUSNESS1

"You are going into a psychological experiment"

MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND t VALUES

FOR MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

 

Means Stande Deviations
Variables fie Post Difference 3119 Post _t_
Desensitization 30. 10 28. 90 1. 20 6. 69 9. 07 . 86
Insight 32. 25 32. 20 . 05 10. 15 9. 76 . 02
Professional Counselors 30. 94 27. 63 3. 31 8. 81 6. 61 1. 89
Subprofessional Counselors 31. 38 33. 19 -1. 81 8. 52 10. 92 -. 97
High Arousal Levels 29. 88 29. 94 -. 06 7. 95 11. 17 -. 02
Low Arousal Levels 32. 13 31. 00 1. 13 9. 02 8. 19 . 64
Wait Control (N=8) 33. 62 33. 25 . 37 11. 41 9. 66 . 22
No Contact Control (N=11) 24. 00 25. 18 -1. 18 7. 66 5. 91 -1. 10
1Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44
TABLE XVI
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES
Variance
Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Estimate F Ratio
A Treatments 49. 60 1 49. 60 . 80
B Counselors 231. 00 1 231. 00 3. 72
C Arousal Level 3. 72 1 3. 72 . 06
AB 5. 23 1 5. 23 . 08
AC 204. 60 1 204. 60 3. 29
BC 89. 23 1 89. 23 1. 43
ABC 180. 49 1 180. 49 2. 91
Within 1984. 28 36 62. 00 1. 00
Total 2748. 15

 

112

S-R INVENTORY OF ANXIOUSNESS

”You are going to meet a new date"

TABLE XVII

1

MEANS, STANDARD DEV IATIONS, AND t VALUES

FOR MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES

 

 

 

 

Means Standard Deviations
Variables £39 132st Difference P_r_e_3_ Post i
Desensitization 34. 00 29. 35 4. 65 7. 64 9. 89 2. 37
Insight 30.75 29.90 . 85 6.58 7.39 .58
Professional Counselors 31. 26 28. 36 2. 9O 7. 54 6. 54 1. 96
Subprofessional Counselors 33. 38 30. 76 2. 62 6. 96 10. 18 1. 31
High Arousal Level 30. 17 28. 17 2. 00 6. 93 9. 56 l. 10 .
Low Arousal Level 34. 00 30. 69 3. 31 7. 15 7. 90 1. 91
Wait Control (N=8) 31. 70 31. 90 -. 20 5. 79 9. 17 -. 05
No Contact Control (N=11) 28. 18 25. 72 2. 46 6. 09 5. 95 1. 21
*
1= p< . 05
Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44
TABLE XVIII
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES
Variance

Source of Variance

Sum of Squares

Degrees of Freedom Estimate F Ratio

A Treatments 149. 64
B Counselors . 22
C Arousal Level 10. 79
AB 61. 40
AC 22. 00
BC 16. 00
ABC 131. 47
Within 2027. 55
Total 2403. 07

1

l-‘l-‘l-‘l-‘l-‘H

36
43

149.

64

.22

10.
61.
22.
16.
131.
63.

79
4O
00
00
47
36

2.
. 00
. 17
.96
.34
. 25

2.

1.

36

O7
00

 

113

TABLE XIX

S-R INVENTORY OF ANXIOUSNESS1

 

 

"You are just starting off on a long automobile trip"

MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS, AND t VALUES
FOR MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Standard Deviations
Variables Pre Post Differences Pre Post _t_

Desensitization 22. 15 21. 8O . 35 5. 43 6. 01 . 23

Insight 21. 26 22. 31 -1. 05 4. 77 6. 07 -. 98

Professional Counselors 19. 83 20. 05 -. 22 4. 39 4. 54 -. 17

Subprofessional Counselors 23. 23 23. 71 -. 48 5. 15 6. 55 -. 40
C High Arousal level 22. 37 21. 31 1. 06 5. 43 5. 58 1. 09

Low Arousal Level 21. 22 22. 63 1. 41 4. 84 6. 29 -1. 09

Wait Control (N=8) 21. 00 23. 25 2. 25 6. 14 . 82 -. 72

No Contact Control (N=11) 20. 00 15. 45 4. 55 10. 80 6. 89 1.36

1Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44

TABLE XX
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR THE DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES
Variance
Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Estimate R Ratio
A Treatments 28. 80 1 28. 80 1. 02
B Counselors 1. 71 1 1. 71 . 06
C Arousal Level 59. 91 1 59. 91 2. 12
AB . 66 1 . 66 . 02
AC 22. 78 1 22. 78 . 80
BC 1. 98 1 1. 98 . 07
*
ABC 116. 80 1 116. 80 4. 13
Within 847. O3 36 28. 23 1. 00
Total 1079. 67 43
*
= p< . 05

114

APPENDD§ Q
TABLE XXI

POST TREATMENT ANALYSIS OF PATA
TEST ANXIETY INVENTORY

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR MEAN SCORES

 

 

 

 

 

 

Variance
Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Estimate F Ratio
A Treatments 1262. 98 1 1262. 98 2. 13
B Counselors 53. 35 1 53. 35 . 09
C Arousal Level 378. 27 1 378. 27 . 63
AB 105. 33 1 105. 33 . 17
AC 278. 85 1 278. 85 . 47
BC 1629. 35 1 1629. 35 2. 75
ABC 1140. 66 1 1140. 66 1. 92
Within 19528. 69 36 591. 77 1. 00
Total 24377 . 48 43
1Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44
TABLE XXII
TEST ANXIETY RATING1
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR POST MEAN SCORES
Variance

Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Estimate F Ratio
A Treatments 170. 21 1 170. 21 6. 44*
B Counselors 54. 04 1 54. 04 2. 04
C Arousal Level 1. 26 1 1. 26 . 04
AB 10.52 1 10.52 .39
AC 14. 24 1 14. 24 . 53
BC . 73 1 . 73 , . 02
ABC 16. 32 1 16. 32 . 61
Within 924. 58 36 26. 41 1. 00
Total 1191. 40 43
1Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44 *= p<. 05

115

TABLE XXIII

THAYER ACTIVATION-DEACTIVATION CHECK LIST1
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR POST MEAN SCORES

 

 

 

Variance
Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Estimate F Ratio
A Treatments 7. 44 1 7. 44 . 09
B Counselors 8. 19 1 8. 19 . 10
C Arousal Level . 01 1 . 01 . 00
AB 1. 81 1 1. 81 . 02
AC 93. 20 1 93. 20 1.5.19
BC 8. 97 1 8. 97 . 11
ABC . 01 1 . 01 . 00
Within 2655. 86 36 78. 11 1. 00
Total 2775. 49 43
1

Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44

TABLE XXIV
OBSERVERS' CHECKLIST1
ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR POST MEAN SCORES

Variance
Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Estimate F Ratio

 

A Treatments 128. 55 1 128. 55 1. 61
B Counselors 21. 53 1 21. 53 . 26
C Arousal Level 260. 64 1 260. 64 3. 26
AB 145.30 1 145.30 1.82
AC 12. 53 1 12. 53 . 15
BC 92. 64 1 92. 64 1. 16
ABC 1. 87 1 1. 87 . 02
Within 26. 32 36 26. 32 1. 00
Total 689. 38 43 689. 38

1

Total N for Variables A, B, and C =44

116

TABLE XXV
PULSE RATE1

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE FOR POST MEAN SCORES

 

 

 

Variance
Source of Variance Sum of Squares Degrees of Freedom Estimate F Ratio
A Treatments 143. 40 1 143. 40 3. 07
B Counselors 35. 85 35. 85 . 76
C Arousal Level 4. 73 1 4. 73 . 10
AB 6. 01 1 6. 01 . 12
AC 21.41 1 21.41 .46
BC 46. 30 1 46. 30 . 99
ABC 75.83 1 75.83 1.62
Within 1676. 19 36 46. 56 1. 00
Total 2009. 72 43
1

Total N for Variables A, B, and C = 44

117

APPENDIX R
TABLE XXVI

MEANS, STANDARD DEVIATIONS AND t VALUES FOR
MEAN DIFFERENCE SCORES
FOR ALL MALES (N=13) AND ALL FEMALES (N=50)

Males Females
Criterion Measure Mean S. D. Mean S. D. t Score

 

S-R Inventory of Anxiousness

"Final Exam" 6. 84 9. 73 2. 88 13. 12 1. 00
"Interview for Job" 6. 61 13. 54 3. 4O 13. 72 . 74
"Alone in Woods" 2. 61 9. 40 3. 38 17. 78 . 14
"Competitive Contest" 6. 92 15. 81 5. 15 16. 00 . 35
"Boat on Rough Sea" 1. 61 10. 09 3. 42 13. 80 . 43
"Counseling Bureau" 7. 92 14. 76 2. 59 14. 49 1. 16
"Speech with Group" 7. 76 14. 39 3. 98 15. 85 . 77
"Mountain Ledge" 9. 38 14. 50 5. 21 17. 40 . 78
"Psychological Experience" 5. 30 13. 28 . 17 11. 62 1. 36
"Meet new Date" 4. 61 10. 29 2. 00 11. O3 . 76
"Automobile Trip" 1. 46 9. 50 1. 23 10. 63 . 07
Test Anxiety Inventory 14. 69 27. 55 14. 48 28. 36 . 02
Test Anxiety Rating* 2. 07 4. 13 4. 78 6. 64 1. 38
Adjective Checklist* 3. 92 5. 38 6. 89 9. 39 . 51
Therapists' Ratings Checklist* . 53 . 87 . 82 . 96 . 96
Observers' Checklist* 6. 33 17. 88 4. 78 16. 32 . 28
Pulse Rate* 4.08 7.39 5.16 11.10 .31

 

*
The 11 subjects in the no contact control group (3 males, 8 females) did not
take these measures.

118

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