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Diliiv,1I1~1|'2\)\;l,lixrl'tl . . . . «.3. €»....¥:;\1‘«...\amm I pSoH.moHo ”momma wmflpp5011.m .wflm mm.» :1 create a great deal of controversy concerning silvicultural and managerial concepts. This piece of legislation put the reservation in the sawmill as well as the tree growing business. As can well be imagined, this brought a howl of protest from the existing sawmills which had been able to monopolize the timber flow from the forest, and therefore, to control prices for this raw material. This marked the end of the first management period. Results of management: 185%-1908- E. A. Braniff, the first forester to be assigned to the reservation, determined in 1908 that %39,785,000 board feet of logs had been sold on the reservation to that date. This volume excluded, of course, the timber lost through undiscovered theft. The areas cut approximated %0,000 acres, indicating an average per acre cut of about 11,000 feet. No estimate was made of the timber lost through fire. In a letter to Senator Robert LaFollette on December 9, 1908, J. F. B.“ indicated that an inspection of the former pine areas disclosed them to be largely barren wastes without tree growth of any kind. He attributed this situation to re- peated incendiary fires as well as legal and illegal cutting. He also described the great pine forests of the Menominee as being mostly destroyed, but that five or six full townships of mixed hardwoods, hemlock and pine still remained. According to Kinney (19%5), who came on the Menominee 1+Only initials were used in source, name unknown. 27 scene in about 1910, an area roughly equivalent to five town- ships had only scattered timber on it in 1908, bore only young growth that had come in on areas that had been logged, burned, or subjected to heavy windthrow, or was open barren plains. The remaining timber on areas roughly equivalent to five town- ships was principally hemlock and hardwoods; the hemlock con- stituted about 50 percent of the entire stand. He also reported that the more valuable pine had been removed from most of the hemlock-hardwood areas. These appraisals were subjective in nature since there was no cruise involved, and travel on the forest was limited because of inadequate access. 0f the nearly %%0 million feet out during the 185%-1908 period, 29% million feet were cut in the 17 years from 1890- 1907. Under the Act of 1890, which set an annual allowable cut of 20 million feet, approximately 17 million feet per year were cut. Thus, the main provision of the law was observed. Later growth studies have indicated a gross annual in- crement per year per acre slightly in excess of 200 feet on the average for the forest. In retrospect, the growth and acreage data would indicate gross annual growth of about %0 million feet. But this volume would have to be decreased greatly in determining net growth, because of the high mortal— ity in the overmature stands and the burned areas. Therefore, the 20 million foot limitation was probably consistent with the conditions prevailing at that time. Fire, not cutting patterns, was the greatest deterrent to forest renewal. 0f the eight townships that were covered by dense timber at the beginning 28 of this period, three had been greatly diminished in their forest resource. Period II: 1 0 —l 2 Development of the Sawmill-- The Act of 1908 stated that one or more mills should be built on the reservation for the purpose of sawing lumber. The responsibility of determining how many mills and where they or it should be located was placed in the hands of E. A. Braniff, the forester in charge of the reservation. Braniff was a member of the recently formed U. S. Forest Service. In the wording of the IaFollette Act, it stated that the operation should be supervised by the "forestry service." Since the Indian Service had no such division, the U. 8. Forest Service in the Department of Agri- culture assumed this responsibility. This arrangement continued until 1918 when the Indian Service initiated its own forestry division. The original idea was to use three small mills to do the sawing at three locations where the logs from the blowdown area were being decked. However, Braniff made the decision to build one large mill. This mill was constructed on the West Branch of the wolf River just east of the blowdown area. The present mill is still located on that site. The mill and a modern town, Neopit, were completed the winter of 1908-09. The mill was very modern; it possessed two band headsaws and all the necessary accessories. The West Branch was dammed to form a mill pond. Approximately 100,000 feet of lumber 29 (:ould be sawed in a 10-hour shift. On the basis of two shifts 21 day, a 5-day work week, and a 50-week year, the mill could ‘produce in excess of %0 million feet a year, which was the stated capacity. In view of the fact that the Act of 1908 continued the cut of 20 million feet specified in the Act of 1890, the mill apparently was too large. According to Chapman (1957): "This large mill, which Congress had not con- templated, saddled future operations under the Act with an unnecessary financial burden, since the restricted output of 20,000,000 feet per year would be required to bear fixed overhead charges incidental to a plant that was twice as large as necessary. It motivated subsequent administrations to seek to avoid the restrictions upon cutting contained in the 1908 Act." Transportation- The move to include hardwoods in the harvesting program that resulted from the 1905 blowdown nec- essitated a change in log hauling methods. The only other means available at that time was the railroad, since automo- tive travel was in its infancy. The Wisconsin and Northern Railroad first constructed a line to Neopit from Shawano. In the fall of 1908, a branch logging road was built to the western boundary of the reserva- tion, terminating near the town of Phlox. The railroad system was later expanded as the logging operation moved to the central and northern parts of the reservation. This expansion was a cooperative effort between the Wisconsin and Northern Railroad and the U. S. Forest Service. Stream driving was used to float lighter material from the 1905 blowdown area. For this purpose, the Little West Branch and West Branch had been improved, but, 30 after this effort, railroad logging dominated the operation completely. The heavy investments in the mill and the rail- road system greatly influenced managerial decisions during this period. Silyiculture- The early part of this period was dominat- ed by salvage cuttings on the blowdown area and the first attempts at selection silviculture. A large number of operators were put in the blowdown area with the objective of removing the dead and downed material. Because of the long period between the blowdown and the construction of the mill (over three years) a great deal of material was lost due to fungi and insects. This loss was part of the damages cited in a suit instigated in the 1930's by the Menominee tribe against the federal government, and was finally decided in 195%. The salvage objective was not followed very closely; J. F. B. (1908) indicated that all the jobbers had cut timber which was forbidden to be cut and left timber they were re- quested to cut. The estimate of the blowdown volume ranged between 35 and %0 million feet, yet the volume cut from this area in the years 1905-11 amounted to more than 103 million feet. Some of this was from the selection cutting area just northwest of Neopit in Sections 7 and 18 of 29-1%. Selection silviculture, necessitating the marking of timber, was an innovation in this part of the country. Raphael Zon had just initiated the experimental station pro- gram for the U. S. Forest Service in the Lake States region, so that recommended procedures resulting from research were 31 not yet available. A letter from E. E. Carter (1909), assistant forester in the U. S. Forest Service, to William Morris, one of the timber markers on the forest, discussed the challenge of marking on the Menominee: "The law requires the Forest Service merely to mark the timber which, in its opinion, should be removed for the good of the forest, and you must adhere to the letter and the spirit of this law, leaving all other matters, such as the selection of the areas to be cut, methods and seasons of logging and transportation of logs, disposal of brush and similar matters, to the discretion of the officer of the Indian Office in charge of logging operations on the Menominee. The aim which I believe must be the prevalent one, is to make an improvement cutting which will leave enough trees on the ground, sufficiently close together to protect them against windfall, to form in themselves a sufficient basis for a second cut, and at the same time to reseed the ground for future crops with the most valuable species on the reserva- tion. The other method of marking applicable to the Menominee is to cut clear with the purpose of securing quickly a second growth sprout forest." He indicated that marking had to be justifiable both from silvicultural and economic standpoints. He went on to describe that individual trees of poor vigor or in danger of windthrow should be marked. An interesting remark which he made was that elm and basswood were the most valuable species on the forest; he was probably referring to the hardwood species only. The question of how to properly handle these stands was complicated by the deterioration of rapport between the Depart- ments of Agriculture and Interior, probably as a result of the Pinchot-Ballinger dispute. The actual marking of timber was time-consuming, so that when charges of "light" marking ensued, 32 the quicker method of designating timber was substituted. The previously mentioned areas of Sections 7 and 18 of 29-1% were the only examples of actual accomplished marking. In his reports of experimental selection cutting the mid-1920's, L. O. Grapp (1929) reported that these areas marked by the U. S. Forest Service were in excellent condition at that time. He, therefore, recommended a return to this type of treatment which amounted to about a 70 percent removal out. Since the marked area was in close proximity to the mill, there was no transportation difficulty. An extremely severe fire season occurred in 1910, which, along with the factors already mentioned, changed the method and area of Operation. The most destructive fire burned the southern half of 30-15, the northern half of 29-15, and the eastern part of 29-1% (Nicholson, 1910). Mest of this area had been cut during the river driving days, so the fire further contributed to the poor condition of the area. The western sector of the burn involved a good timber area, and so a salvage cut became necessary. The entire operation, therefore, moved from the blowdown and selection areas to the southwestern corner of 30-15 and the northwestern corner of 29-15 (Fig. 3). An example of the marking rules that were prevalent at that time was issued in 1912 for portions of Section 31, 30-15, and Section 25, 3o-1%. "01d growth timber in all forest types, in- cluding the pure hemlock type, the mixed hemlock, hardwoods and pine, and the swamps, should be designated for cutting as follows: 1. All merchantable hemlock trees, except 33 those in groups covering an area of more than one- eighth of an acre, in which from 70 to 80 percent of the trees are of unmerchantable size. 2. All merchantable hardwood trees except shortbodied basswood, yellow birch, and rock elm (Ulmus thomasi) which contain only one merchantable 15:foot log or less. 3. All merchantable pine trees 15 inches and over in diameter at breast-height, standing on the N/2 of Sec. 31, T. 0 N., R. 15 E and 20 inches and over on the NE/ and the N/2 of the SE/% of Sec. 25, T. 30 N., R. 1% E. This variation of diameter limits has been made for experimental purposes in order to determine a method to cut white pine in these forest types, which will be practicable and at the same time will provide for leaving a reasonable number of pine seed trees for reproduction purposes. Wherever necessary for protection against wind, and it appears feasible, small groups of trees should be left around pine seed trees. %. All merchantable trees in swamps." A review of the cutting procedures used at this time was made by E. H. Frothingham, forest examiner, in the fall of 191%. His observations included the following: (1) Brush was piled during and after logging, and burned when dry the following spring. The heat was so great that the fire often spread and practically nothing of value remained. This was not done on all areas; where piling and burning took place during or soon after logging, good fire control was the result. (2) Marking rules seemed to have been carried out reasonably well. He believed that there were so few one-log or less trees to be left that this portion of the rules could be eliminated. In effect, he was recommending a commercial sawlog clear-cutting procedure in regard to hardwoods and trees in swamps. He found very little pine left, but he con- cluded it probably was not present before the cutting, rather 3% than the cutters ignoring the rules and cutting the pine illegally. Only groups of pole sized timber were given con- sideration for leaving. At this point, it is well to consider the unique situa- tion involved in timber management on Indian reservations. Reservations are really private lands, but they are administered by the federal government. The returns from the Menominee lands were invested by the U. S. Treasury, with the Indians receiving % percent interest on these monies. In a short time, the Menominees were one of the richest tribes in the United States. The Indians also benefitted from the wages provided as woods workers and mill workers. The residents and the mill and woods superintendents were, therefore, very much interested in operating at a profit, just as any private business is. From the woods operation stand- point, this meant that logging costs should be kept down. It was believed by some foresters (Chapman, 1957) that the U. S. Forest Service foresters were not given enough responsibility in the total picture and so were somewhat apathetic to the silvicultural aspects. They, therefore, deferred to the econo- mic motivations of the logging superintendents who were not particularly concerned with silviculture. This was exemplified in a letter to A. S. Nicholson, the reservation superintendent, from E. J. Brigham, the logging superintendent, on October 2, 191%. He asked for authority to cut on various portions of 30-1% for the chief reason that the area contained mature timber of a class in which the Menominee Indian Mills were then deficient, 35 and that it would be necessary to make this cut to achieve a good, well-balanced commercial stock of lumber. Nowhere in the letter did he make reference to silvicultural considerations. This program, which amounted to a clear cutting operation, was continued under the cooperative agreement between the U. S. Forest Service and the Indian Service until 1918 when the Indian Service formed its own forestry division. At this time the marking rules were completely eliminated and clear cutting prevailed unrestricted. The most common reasons given for this procedure were the high investment in the railroad, and the necessity to return to salvage the residual stands which were killed by exposure or fire. This situation prevailed until L. 0. Grapp was allowed to experiment with selection and seed tree cutting in the mid-1920's. This change in the program was supported by J. P. Kinney, the chief forester of the Indian Service. As a result of recommendations from Grapp, Kinney and William Heritage, the clear cutting practice was terminated, bringing to a close that phase of management on the forest. Tgee Planting- During this period, the need for a plant- ing program was noted. E. A. Braniff instigated the develop- ment of a forest nursery at Neopit in 1912. It was eventually moved to Keshena in 1925. The planting program fluctuated in size from year to year (Table 2). The program proved to be a frustrating experience due to various problems on the forest, chiefly fire and rodents. The nursery was finally terminated in 1933, and it was 20 years 36 Table 2. Species and areas planted on the Menominee Indian Reservation, l9l%-l95%. White Red Total area Planted area Year pine pine Spruce Nhsc. planted abandoned ----------- acres— - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 191% %5 %5 1919 l7 17 17 1920 2% 2% 2% 1925 61 61 %O 1926 % % 192% 170 170 170 192 133 l 3 133 1929 2%0 2&0 238 1930 208 208 1932 25 25 25 1933 22 22 22 1935 7 7 19%0 3 19%1 5 1 7 19%2 10 %0 % 16 70 16 19%3 37 38 191.14. 53 53 19% 81 81 19%6 75 75 M8 35 35 19%9 25 25 1950 7 7 1951 12 12 1952 15 60 75 1953 12 85 l 99 195% 39 69 108 Totals 573 1039 8 21 16%% 685 Source: A Plan for Continuous Forest Control on the Menominee before a planting program of any size was resumed. Forest enemies- ices and areas cut during this period. Indian Reservation. June, 195%. Lee Winner. Fire had a great impact on cutting pract- The 1910 fires led to the heavy salvage cut which later degenerated into the large- 37 scale clear-cutting program. The inadequate slash disposal methods made fire a chronic problem, and this resulted in a very negative impact on the reproduction and residual timber on the designated areas, and on the reproduction in the clear- cut areas. In 19%9, John W. Libby, forest supervisor, reviewed that period, stating: "During most of the period of heavy cutting, that is from 1909 to 1936, fire protection was in- adequate. The heavy cuts left heavy slash accumula- tions on the ground, drying of the site was excessive, the detection system was poor and accessibility was difficult. The inevitable result was disastrous fires that reduced much of the clearcut areas to brush lands. Block 13 in the center of the reservation is mute test'mony of this." He went on to describe the cutting areas that escaped fire: "At the same time, areas that escaped burning are today well-stocked with advanced reproduction and bear testimony to the fact that inadequate fire protection rather than poor silviculture is the primary reason for the present condition of much of Block 13." Another problem appeared in 1918 when white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola) was first reported near Keshena. It continued to spread after this first report until an inten- sive blister rust control program was initiated in the 1930's. The effects of partial cuts on hemlock were very drastic. x osure—killed hemlock was noted early, and discouraged many foresters from leaving any hemlocx that would be opened to potential drying and excessive sunlight. Along witn liTC and windthrow salvage, the necessity to return for dead herlock caused logging costs to increase and further encouraged cleCr-cutting. 38 Forest inventory- It was not until 1914 that the first forest inventory was conducted on the Menominee Forest. Pre- vious to that date, only subjective estimates of volume were made, and most of these were concerned only with the sawtimber sized pine. In 1911-12, the estimated volume was 1,750,000 M board feet, and stumpage value was set at $6,787,173. The 1914 cruise (Table 3) provided more tangible infor- mation concerning the state of the forest. This inventory was a 10 percent strip cruise conducted by experienced timber cruisers. The results showed a total volume of l,1#6,608 M board feet which included 2%2,54h M board feet of posts, poles, and cordwood, and 8%9,000 M board feet of sawtimber. The saw- timber volume was listed as 53 percent hemlock, 20 percent pine, and 21 percent hardwoods. The average volume was just under 5,000 board feet per acre. The result from this cruise was the only comprehensive information available until another cruise was made in the early 1940's. The information was compiled on a species and section basis. New Sawmill- A final incident in this period was the burning of the sawmill in 1925. A new mill was built promptly, with a capacity of about 20 million board feet a year, which made it more realistic considering the allowable out on the forest. This change-over resulted in a very low cut of 5,866 M board feet in 1925. Results of management 1909-26- In this period of 18 years, almost 400 million board feet were cut from the blowdown 39 .cwmoano .uouuoo ouuooum nauocmm .ofiwm moaasoaoz .o>wu¢>uemaoo oou an: mucuco>nw en» co>ewnon was we «madcap poem cases 2 coo.¢dm cu voumsnv¢¥ ”ouusom mmosmm comes umueml Namwa om ammwa moon ma:mu cones anus moom omun twas omstI sewnwn cumo~ ammowu meanwa mmmmuu mwumw: momma owe cmsm mmmnm awaan canon -mo¢ can: meow Oman ma: canmm «woo: coca gommm coma caved manom Namma on sawma moon nHumm desm one: «camm wwmm mmnmu aauom haven mommy ocean «whau aaxmw nmwma mnwmu omwm wmmm nu:¢m o~om~ «awn: canes mmwa mnumw 32. 43“ tom Em: 38m 62 33m 62 swag mo .92 acuoo mo .Oanoozcuoo amuse a .nzml nauseoum uamurm guano samoamm emu anon wean mug «mm mm sewn mauun Nomam menu «swam noes ommcm summed momma ammnmu Hausa gonna mu wow 3 Ha mmm emo~ sum :am an: mm: «mama New whwo msxmm mado~ .mml co co c~ omH comma omen oHnmN «Naomn emu chem comm «Na mow nu ‘mmlibowom fihficm «may mmumm muom‘mummm memmma momma sfimawm amumm! sawow mw «sad «us «H can new sacs can ammo wean mean semen hm ahcaa onion among m H N mu mm m on m: a any cmw meow wwwa naumm wafiuuu a m mom~ ~ Ha: an“: omwm new menu on moww «seen can wuamn mason News“ mu wow 3 an mam owed hum tau an: was wanna «an mama munmu nuanfim my «a cu mm owes sank #:55— man ounw~ mm mmmws mawmwa ~m: -mo~ aaucm co-o~ mm n: ma aan aNN can“ maam an“ omen ooh fined omouo owom sauna suamm ~HMN- m -m~ s cm sea «Noun nmucu aau mnu¢~ Ha «away mmmmm o :aoo «anon «yuan «my sag we 0 as" mane“ mmwnm eon Hmong MMNN ammo anmcm \mau magma «anew .md.» .26: a: 83 33.3 e82 38 SE SE mam-nu muufiml .onuz. havoc nooem Inca oununm xann saga gnu :nmam and manna. com conga xoo~EQMI znzuez ouwfiu a .nwml Hugh euuan z I osawmw .a~m~ .aowua>uoaou :uwunH mocwaeaez.n neuaawunm nonayv mo huuaasm .m canny area and the "clearcut" areas. This amounted to approximately 22 million feet a year, or in excess of the legislated allow- able cut. The years of excess cutting were primarily in the 1909-15 period when salvage of blowdown and fire-killed timber prevailed. The 103 million board feet of blowdown salvage was cut from 14,327 acres, for an average cut of about 7,000 board feet per acre. This area had received very little attention in previous cuttings so it probably was in essentially virgin condition. The early land survey appraisal had indicated abundant timber in the area. The 1914 cruise data indicated an average per acre residual volume of about 5,000 board feet on the blowdown area. The cruise data were considered conser- vative (Libby, 1949), so it is reasonable to estimate the average pre-blowdown volumes were about 15,000 board feet per acre. This would mean that the cut removed 50 percent of the stand, a light cut for that period. The present condition of the area and the fact that most of it has been cut once or twice since, indicate the salvage cut was probably a much- needed thinning. The clearcut areas, however, did not present such a des- irable condition. An appraisal of the cutting map for this period, and a correlation of volume cut to area cut provide a picture of the heavy cutting that ensued during the 1912-25 period. For example, in the salvage year of 1912, an area of 1,489 acres was cut with the volume removed totalling 37,068 M board feet. This amounted to an average cut of 25,000 board 41 feet per acre. The completeness of this cut was demonstrated by the re- sults of the 1914 cruise over that area. Section 29, 30-15, which was completely cut in 1912, contained only 20 board feet per acre according to the cruise data. Section 30 in that same township was almost completely out over in 1911—13, and the subsequent inventory showed no timber to be present. The total area cut in this fashion from 1911 to 1925 was 14,826 acres, for a total of 294,313 M board feet. The ave- rage cut per acre equalled just under 20 thousand board feet. A large discrepancy appears when the high cut per acre is compared with the 1914 cruise volumes. Sections that were completely out over in this fashion were indicated by the cruise data to have had less than 10,000 board feet per acre just prior to cutting. The cruise volumes were probably low, but a large part of this discrepancy can probably be traced to the volume picked up as salvage from cutover areas or areas not part of the designated cutting areas. Clear-cutting, as it was being practiced at that time, combined with an inadequate fire control program, resulted in little or no survival of natural and planted reproduction. Sustained yield was not being achieved; therefore, management policies had to change. This situation led to the experimenta- tion in partial cuttings by L. O. Grapp, and to the eventual adoption of such cutting methods. 42 Period III: 1926-1937 Transportation- In the previous management period, rail- road logging was practiced almost exclusively. Two state highways were developed on the reservation in the mid-1920's. The east-west Route 47 followed closely a path that had wound from Keshena to the settlement of Zoar near the west border. The north-south artery was built on the site of the old mili- tary highway along the eastern shore of the Wolf River. Both roads were hard-surfaced. These roads were utilized for some truck hauling relative- ly early in this period. The logging operations were being carried on by government camps and jobbers. The government used railroad logging, and extended spurs to most of the jobber areas. However, jobbers working in the northeast and east began to utilize trucks. This development of roads on the reservation had a great impact on the manipulation of the forest. The expansion of the road system followed the upgrading of automotive equip- ment in general, but most important was the development of units which could handle heavy materials such as sawlogs. By virtue of these factors, there was a continuing transition from railroad to truck logging until in 1936, it became a truck operation completely. The low cost of road construction compared to railroad construction was a major consideration, but the flexibility of movement that the trucks provided had the greatest impact. 43 The tracks had to be picked up and used in the most strategic places so as to obtain the greatest return from the invest- ment. The truck roads eliminated this problem; they could be installed with very little effort. A minor difficulty was the seasonal limitation on the use of roads built on finer textured soils. ,§;lvicu1ture- This period was characterized by several silvicultural practices. The first year marked an attempt at seed tree cutting. This was followed by a selection cut which removed 70 percent of the stand. Finally, the transition to a lighter 50 percent cut was interrupted by the necessity to conduct major salvage operations. The Nbshawquit Lake district in the southeastern corner of the reservation was the scene of the seed tree cut. This area was described by the early land survey as "plains" or "barrens" with scattered pine, aspen and oak. The 1914 cruise indicated the area contained only scattered pine of low qual- ity and some small groups of fair quality timber. In 1925, the area burned over. L. O. Grapp (1926) decided the only plausible course of action was to salvage most of the timber and to leave as many seed trees as possible in hopes of getting natural reproduction (Fig. 4). He, therefore, marked 386 trees on 3,114 acres as seed trees. The remaining merchant- able pine was removed, resulting in a volume of 4,719 M board feet and 118,090 lineal feet of piling. This amounted to about 1,500 board feet per acre. These volumes indicate the low stocking per acre on the area. 44 £5500 wuziozul mwm>fimm NNNW pamoamm on a owns 8% mMmHuomoH ”mammm meflpp5011.: .mfl Lu T Eu,» 45 The cutting would have left an average of about one seed tree for every 8 acres; however, many of the seed trees were also cut in the harvesting operation. The problem of obtain- ing complete cooperation from the loggers in regard to the finer aspects of silviculture was and still is an important limitation to achieving the objectives of good forestry on the anominee Forest. As a result, the reduced seed source was inadequate for the reproduction that followed to cope with the competing brush, grass, and scrub oak (ggercus ellipsoidalis). In the law suit which developed later, the Court of Claims apparent— ly also considered that the number of seed trees left was insufficient, for it categorized this area as having been clearcut. In the mid-1920's, Grapp (1929) had been given permission to experiment with diameter limit cutting. The limits were 12 inches at the stump and 10 inches at breast height. Results on 720 acres cut in this fashion were satisfying to Grapp and his cohorts. One specific area in the study was the northwest quarter of Section 3, 30-14, composed of a uniform stand of mixed hard- woods with a very small percent of hemlock. It was found that if cutting were regulated by taking all trees above the 14- inch diameter class, about one-fourth of the merchantable timber would be left. Grapp believed that this would provide sufficient seed and protection for the site, and that the danger from windthrow would be minimal. To use this method, he thought us would require the cutting over of an additional area each year amounting to a little over one-fourth of the area which would be harvested by clear-cutting. He also stated that the stands which were primarily hardwoods would be adaptable to the selection system, but warned that the stands of timber on the forest varied a great deal so that no one method could be applied universally. His economic justification for moving, at least partially, to selection cutting was three-fold: (1) Hemlock was being logged and manufactured at an average loss of $1.03 per thousand board feet. Under the selection system, less hemlock would be taken, removing only the high risk trees and concentrating most of the cut in the hardwoods. (He believed that hemlock would increase in value over the years, a fact which has failed to materialize.) (2) Selection cutting would not take the low value small logs that were so prevalent from clear-cutting opera- tions. He considered the 14-inch diameter as the optimal cut-off point; above that size, the area necessary to get the allowable cut would be too great from a cost standpoint. This of course, was still in the railroad logging period. (3) Under the clear cutting system, artificial regenera- tion was necessary. He believed the high cost of planting could be eliminated by dependence on natural regeneration which could be obtained under the selection system. By virtue of this line of reasoning, selection cutting was begun during 1927 and some form of selection cutting has dominated the Nhnominee picture ever since. 47 This transition was also aided by the fact that the Goodman Lumber Company of Goodman, Wisconsin had just switched to "selective" logging on a commercial basis. This gave rein- forcement to Grapp's idea and provided him with the necessary cooperation to launch the program. The marking rules as devised by Grapp for use in 1927-28 were as follows (Grapp and Heritage, 1929): 1. Use 14 inches as a guide to leave. 2. Attempt to achieve an even distribution of crown cover. a. Mark hemlocks in preference to hardwoods. . Mark both leaning and supporting trees. 5. Along streams mark only twenty—inch and over trees one hundred feet on either side. 6. Leave rock elm 18 inches or less if well-formed for square timber. 7. Mark all low vigor, overmature, dead and defective trees even if not merchantable. 8. Leave at least one extra tree (14 inches and over) on each acre for seed purposes until logging is completed. If the residual stand is adequate, then remove the extra tree. The 70 percent cut was restricted primarily to the north- central and northeastern portions of the reservation (Fig. 4). This allowed the use of the existing deployment of the rail- road. A review of this program in the Annual Report of 1931 indicated that the cutting was heavier than believed to be desirable. An average of 10,484 board feet per acre or 71 percent of the stand was being cut. The residual stand totalled about 70 trees or 4,949 board feet per acre. It was found that the great abundance of over-mature timber still presented a problem. Another troublesome element was the damage inflicted on the residual stand during harvesting 48 operations. A study made in 1931 showed that 43 percent of the non-merchantable trees were lost during logging, plus some of the unmarked merchantable trees. This initiated a policy of first marking and harvesting the hemlock, and then cutting the hardwoods to the desired density. As a result of selection silviculture, the 1931 report indicated that there were some noticeable trends developing. After cutting in the hardwood types, it was found that sugar maple and beech were assuming dominance. In the pure hemlock type, a conversion to a mixed hardwood-hemlock type was taking place, since hemlock was not reproducing. Another negative result of partial cutting was the reaction of some species to exposure, a situation that had been noted 20 years earlier. Hemlock and yellow birch suffered severe mortal- ity from this situation. The actual physiological response causing this mortality was and still is unknown. A regular pattern of returning to cut-over areas within a few years to salvage dead and dying trees was necessary. For example, in 1933-34, 2,671 acres were given a selection cut. The 1931 report also included a brief description of the forest. The timbered area was located in the western four townships and a strip along the north boundary to the north- eastern corner of the forest. There were small scattered areas of seconr-growth timber and mature pine, but the majority of the area in the eastern part of the reservation was covered with young reproduction composed of asaen, sugar and red maple Q5233 rubrum), elm, birch, and scrub oak with a scattering of 49 white and red pine seedlings. Quite a large area in the southeastern part of the forest was covered with scrub oak reproduction, with old pine standards scattered singly and in groups throughout. As pointed out previously, the heaviness of the 70 per- cent cut was being questioned. Therefore, in 1934, the Com- missioner of Indian Affairs appointed a committee of local lumbermen including R. B. Goodman of the Goodman Lumber Com- pany to study the situation. This committee recommended, in June of that year, that thereafter, 50 percent of the volume should be retained. The objective of the heavier residual stand was to reduce the mortality resulting from blowdown and exposure. The Goodman Lumber Company had been using this policy successfully, both from financial and silvicultural standpoints. The 50 percent program had received only a brief effort in 30-16 when a series of extremely severe windstorms disrupted the practice. It was still utilized where feasible, but the main effort then turned to a salvage operation which occupied the center of attention until 1938. When it was again possible to return to selection sil- viculture, the transition to truck logging had been completed, allowing an even lighter cut to be instigated. The introduc- tion of the 30 percent cut in the management plan prepared by Richard Delaney in 1938 signalled a new era of management on the forest. Sterling Report- In 1934, E. A. Sterling (Chapman, 1957), 50 made a survey of forest conditions as a consultant for the Mbnominee Tribe. His main objective was the evaluation of the clear-cutting practices that were applied prior to this period. He found that if the clear-cutting practice had been maintained at the 20,000 M board feet per year pace, the vir- gin timber would be depleted by about 1968. This would amount to 680,000 M board feet, or an amount in excess of that carried on the books at that time for the entire forest. Conse- quently, Sterling believed that since inadequate regeneration conditions had been prevalent on the areas cut during the river driving and clear-cutting periods, the occurrence of prompt and adequate reproduction beginning in 1934 would still result in a 50-year or longer gap after 1968 until rotation age (110 years) stands would be ready for cutting. Since fire control was still inadequate in 1934, even this prospect was unreal- istic. Sterling's study also showed that 23,013 acres or 10 percent of the reservation had been clearcut. Of this, he considered 19,776 acres to be in an unproductive condition. He attributed 14,095 acres of this area to cutting after 1911, ' which would place the remainder as having been clearcut during the river driving days. Forest Enemies- The year 1934 marked the occurrence of the last disastrous fire on the forest. The development of a comprehensive road system together with the erection of ade- quate lookout towers as a part of the Civilian Conservation Corps (C.C.C), Indian Division, program, made effective fire control possible. This program was followed closely by the 51 development of the Forest Protection Division of the Wisconsin Conservation Department which presently provides fire pro- tection for the forest. As a result of their efforts, there has not been an extra period fire in Wisconsin since 1937. The early part of this period was plagued by large fires. From 1928 to 1930, the area burned was .32 percent of the area protected, which, although it was above the desired maximum of .2 percent, was quite low as compared to areas burned in 1931 and 1934. Those two years saw 17,350 and 12,512 acres burned over, respectively. The fires were primarily in areas classed as open, but approximately 600 acres of timber were burned each of the two years, resulting in timber losses of about one million board feet each year, and greater losses, by value, of reproduction. After 193%, losses of timber to fire were neglible. Two other factors which created greater problems than fire during this period were a long term drought and the aforementioned series of blowdowns. The drought continued from 1930 to 1938. It had an unmeasurable but very noticeable impact on overmature timber, especially hemlock. The lack of moisture not only contributed directly to mortality but acted indirectly to reduce vigor and thereby created better conditions for other forest enemies. Foremost among these was the hemlock borer (melanophilla fulvoguttata) which contributed to the excessive mortality and consequently to a need for more salvage cutting. In his Annual Report on Forestry Activities in 1937, 52 Richard Delaney stated: "Aided by drought the Hemlock bark borer developed strongly and added Hemlock mortality. Activity of the insect was particularly healthy in the Camp 24 (29-13) and Camp 26 (30-13) areas with undeveloped virgin areas suffering equally heavy although less noticeable losses. Drought damage was by no means confined to Hemlock. Overmature stands of most other species, particularly White Pine experienced visible injury." Mere dramatic in their impact were the blowdowns of this period. The first storm occurred on June 8, 1933 and the resulting blowdown was concentrated in Sections 8 and 17 of 30-16. This storm was followed by one of greater magnitude on August 18, 193%, in the neighborhood of the 1905 blowdown in 29-13. The wind damaged approximately 30 million feet over a 6,500-acre area. Of the area affected, 2,017 acres had been cut over following the 1905 blowdown, and 2,980 acres were classed as virgin timber. The salvage operations were hampered by inclement weather, heavy snows, and rains which temporarily broke the drought, so that this phase of the program was continued into 1936. Since truck hauling was being used, the condition of the roads during the various seasons had become a concern. The harvesting operations were now concentrated in the hardwood-hemlock areas, which are characterized by finer textured soils with good water- holding capacities. Precipitation, therefore, caused and still causes hauling problems in these areas. Tree marking during the salvage program was confined primarily to damaged and dying trees, and isolated individuals that were likely to be windthrown or die from exposure. An 53 fl average 01 four to six thousand board feet per acre was re- moved, leaving about three thousaLd board feet as the residual stand, with higher densities being left in the virgin stands. Chapman (1957) indicated that the blowdown on the selection cut areas was comparable to that on the virgin areas. The completion of salvage operations in the 1933—3% blow- downs appeared to be in. sight when a third storm occurred on July 11, 1937. Its effects were noticeable all over the forest, but it struck most intensely on 6,000 acres in 30-13. The main damage was done on a strip from Section 11 to Section 27. It was estimated that 20 million board feet were blown down. The cutting operations, therefore, were still largely confined to downed material. There was some non-sal age cutting, but on a relatively small scale. This was necessary to acquire materials to ma'ntain balanced species inventories and to retain markets for certain species. White pine and red oak were notable examples of this situation. These species were not abundant in the blowdown areas, and had to be cut elsewhere. The 1937 salvage operation covered 5,175 acres and yielded almost 30 million board feet. The cut per acre varied from complete removal to a very light out, averaging four thousand board feet. By 1938, the salvage job was largely completed, and the opportunity was developing again to return to selection silviculture. Results of khnagement, 1926—1937- With the exception of the seed tree cutting in 28-16 in 1925-26, most cutting was confined to the northern and western townships on areas which 5% were virgin in nature, except for the cutting done on the 1905 blowdown area. A total of 29,%88 acres was cut, yielding 227,9%3 M board feet or 7,700 board feet per acre. The cut per acre varied from clear-cutting to very light salvage cuts. The annual cut averaged 19,000 M'board feet with a low of 3,681 M board feet in 1933 and highs of 31,51+8 M board feet and 29,8%% M board feet in 1936 and 1937. The low volume cut in 1933 was the only noticeable effect of the great economic depression on the cutting program. Actually, the reservation was in better economic condition during the depression than the surrounding country. This attracted many non-Indians to the reservation at that time. The high volume cut in 1936 and 1937 were the result of the heavy salvage cuttings in the blowdown areas. L. O. Grapp's effort in the Nicholson-Grapp plan of 1931 is generally considered as the first attempt at a management plan for the forest. In many situations, uncontrollable fac- tors arise which force either abandonment or drastic adjust~ ments in a forest management plan. In this case fire, blowdown, and drought combined to frustrate the proposed program. Unlike the easily observed effects of clear cutting, the effects of the cutting during this period were much more subtle and ap- peared later. Aspects of these effects will be discussed in a later section. In the 1936 Annual Report, some comments were made con- cerning the earliest selection cutting area on the forest in the northern half of Section 18, 29-13. Grapp (1929) also 55 discussed this area in his selection research report. The 1936 Report indicated that a sample of 18 one-fifth- acre plots was taken in the area to assess the 1936 cut. The yield that year amounted to %,000 board feet per acre with a residual merchantable stand of 3,500 board feet per acre. The area was well stocked with saplings, poles and reproduction. It was observed that a large amount of defect from breakage and scraping existed in the stand. ‘Wolf trees were numerous, but growth appeared to have been excellent. Many of the maple stumps that were examined showed a diameter increase of six to seven inches in the 25 years since the original cut. Period IV: 1238-1250 Transportation- A comparative study of truck logging costs and former railroad logging costs was presented in the Annual Report of 1938. The study concerned railroad logging from Camp 23 in fiscal years 1931, 1932 and 1933, and truck logging from the same camp in 1938. The railroad operation removed 70 percent of the volume, or slightly more than 10,000 board feet per acre over a 2,000-acre area. The truck logging removed %,000 board feet per acre over a 2,575-acre area, which amounted to a 30 percent cut. Various differences concerning maintenance and repair were believed to offset each other in the two operations. Broadly, then, the entire logging chance, save for lighter cutting, was deemed similar. The results indicated that the truck operation produced logs for $2.79 less per thousand board feet than was possible 56 I with the railroad system. It was pointed out that $1.7% of this amount was saved before actual transportation began. This was mostly accounted for by the fact that larger logs in general were being handled in the lighter cuts made possible by truck logging which resulted in less time per thousand for the felling, bucking, and skiddizg. The 1938 cut showed an (1 se of eight logs per thousand board ieet as against eleven LI avera per thousand board feet for the earlier years. The move to truck logging was now complete. New management Plan- The forest was subdivided into 13 blocks prior to 1937. The lines were established along topo— graphic features, old cutting boundaries and blowdown areas (Fig. 5). The blocks were developed as the units for control- ling the area of the cut. Richard Delaney revised the 1930 Nicholson-Grapp man- agement plan in 1938 and introduced the concept of the cut- ting cycle into his plan. The cutting budget from this plan is presented in Table %. The new plan was, therefore, pre- mised on the legislative allowable cut of 20 million board feet and a lO—year cutting cycle which was controlled on an rea basis through the block system. However, the plan was ,0) still based on the information gathered in the 191% cruise. Some additional plots were taken for supplementary information, but the total inventory carried on the books was the 191% vol- ume less the cuts of the succeeding years, without making ad— justments for growth. For example, the 1938 Annual Report showed a total commercial timber (sawtimber) volume of only %97,766 M board feet, approximately half of the volume indicated 57 >._.230o wuziozm! w m w m L m m m m _ la» a. .5. 3,25 pmoaomwsfla Mooamnlfi .mflrm n..:- 5.0...» «vi; '19; in the inventory 23 years previously. gilviculture- Primarily because of the switch to truck logging, the forestry division of the Indian Service recom- mended a further reduction of the volume removed in selection cutting. The recommended maximum cut was 30 percent of the volume present, which made the average cut approximately 3,000 board feet per acre (Libby, 1949). The following instructions for marking were to be used during the period, and were listed in the Annual Report for 19%2: 1. Dead hemlock will be marked, but if merchantable will be tallied. 2. Tree must have at least one merchantable log to be marked. 3. High risk trees should be marked, if desired volume to be out can be achieved in dead or defective trees; do not cut healthy trees. n. Minimum size limit guides for healthy trees (in inches); Beech. . . . . . . . . . . Birch. . . . . . . . . . . I . . 20 lbple, Basswood. . . . . . . . . 2H 'Pineo oo o o o o o o o o 36 5. Mark hemlock as lightly as possible, marking only high risk and stunted individuals. In mixed stands, attempt to leave hardwoods. 6. As a rough guide, 7-10 trees per acre should be cut. Salvage cutting continued to play a very important role in the silvicultural program. In some years, more volume was cut in salvage operations than by selection. An example of this occurred in 19H9 when 13,295 M board feet of the total of 21,312 M board feet were the result of salvage cuttings. The salvage material resulted from many frustrating causes. Small scale blowdowns, some fire damage, insect and disease victims, logging damage, and the reaction of hemlock and yellow 59 Table H. Cutting budget for the Menominee Indian Reservation, Year Location of Area Volume to be Total V01. cut acres cut, M board ft. for period, M board ft. 1937-38 Camp 23 2,500 10, 000 Dead Evian Lake 3, 000 Camp 28 Blowdown h ,000 Rhsc. Salvage 8,000 25,000 1938-39 Dead Man Lake 8,640 50, 000 19a - Op. 28 Blowdown 6,000 18,000 1940-E1 Misc. Areas & 8 19 1- 2 Salvage 30,000 9 ,000 1942- :2 West of 800 10, 880 0 000 19% Askenett 2,560 20,000 19 Misc. Areas & 19u5-h6 Salvage 12,000 92,000 19H6-fi7 T30, R.13 17,280 60,000 19H7-k8 Misc. Areas & 60,000 1948-k9 Salvage Total 275,000 Source: Delaney (1938). birch to partial cuttings--all contributed to the problem. As this period of management progressed, the task of maintaining the selection program of harvesting the high risk trees and remaining keeping up with the salvage demands, while still within the legal limits of the allowable cut, became almost intolerable t0 the people in charge of administering the forestry program. In the 1948 Report, John w. Libby, Forest Supervisor, indicated his concern after receiving the first reliable growth data that had become available from a 2-year remeasurement 0f the first plots established on the 60 forest. He found the loss from mortality to be extremely high, and yet the curtailment of the salvage program was necessitated by the limitation of the allowable cut. He also stated that some of the salvage operations were quite light, thereby in- creasing the harvesting cost per unit of volume. This discour- aged a more complete salvage program. Libby believed that with the mobile logging techniques available, there was no longer a justification for an annual loss of perhaps two million board feet or more because the salvage areas were "too light". He, therefore, made the following recommendations: (1) To manage old-growth hemlock and birch stands on the Menominee Forest, remove all old-growth trees as rapidly as possible and still maintain adequate ground cover to prevent excessive drying and consequent deterioration of the site. This means removing the old-growth with a succession of partial cuts, deferring the final cut as long as practicable. The frequency of cut will depend entirely on the rate of mortality: probably every two years during dry periods, possibly every five years during wet periods. (2) Regardless of volume or frequency of cutting hemlock stands, operate in hardwood and other types on a 10- year cutting cycle, the volume of cut to be as dictated by good silviculture, rather than by an archaic law that has out- lived its usefulness. He realized that the cut might exceed the growth for a period of years, but since there was little or no net incre- ment, this concern was only academic. Such a period would 61 probably be followed by one requiring a reduced cut until the forest became more "normal" in its structure. That same year, Walter Ridlington, forester, indicated another area of question, that of the stocking which should remain after selection cutting. He reported: "I have heard said that our stands should never be reduced to a net volume of growing stock less than 5,000 feet per acre. Someone also came out with a figure of 100 square feet of basal area to be the minimum to which we should cut. What our minimum should be is still uncertain and I believe it may vary from one type to another. Perhaps our growth study plots will give us the answer to this question." Both of these reports indicate that during this period, the foresters were still handicapped by a lack of information concerning the forest itself as well as research results in regard to handling the forest types present, and by legisla- tive and economic pressures. Planting- The planting program on the forest, begun in 1912, was terminated in 1933, primarily because of almost complete loss of the plantings due to various destructive agents, mostly fire. By 1942, it appeared that the fire threat had been suf- ficiently reduced to encourage the resumption of planting. The program begun that year was largely a token project, con- sisting of a "Tree Planting Day", in which men, women and children participated. Annual areas of 82 acres or less were planted during the remainder of this period. Dwindling interest resulted in a continual decline until only seven acres were planted in 1950. 62 A total of only 385 acres was planted from 1942 to 1950. Red pine was used almost exclusively, and was obtained from the U. 8. Forest Service since the forest nursery was not re-established on the Menominee. The almost complete success of the plantings during this period motivated the establish- ment of a full-scale planting program starting in 1952. By-products— Practically all the forests in the Lake States had been cut over twice by 1938. First the pines had been removed in the late 1800's; then, from 1900 to about 1930, the hardwoods had been harvested. These operations, plus fire, had reduced the forest resources to aspen and second growth hardwoods and pine. With few exceptions, the big saw- mill was a thing of the past. The Connor mill at Laona, the Goodman mill at Goodman, and the Menominee mill at Neopit were among the few large mills left. There was (and still is) very little diversification at the Menominee mill; the chief endeavor was the manufacturing of lumber. Therefore, unlike most woods products industries, it was strictly oriented to sawtimber. Unlike the situation in the surrounding area, any trees that could not be considered in terms of board feet were of minor importance. Pole-sized timber and swamp conifers that could be utilized as posts, poles, ties, pulpwood, shingles, etc. were blanketed under "by-products," as opposed to sawtimber and veneer trees. This roundwood material returned very little stumpage after all production costs were deducted. Therefore, this phase of timber production was minor, and the forest types 63 consisting of this material received little attention. De- spite the fact that these types made up a sizeable portion of the forest, it was not until comparatively recently that in— ventories have been concerned with these areas. The sawtimber types were estimated to cover about 132,000 acres in 1950, which indicates that about 90,000 acres would have contained by-products materials. Yet in 1949, of the 22,700 M board feet reported cut, only 784 M board feet was not scheduled for processing at the mill. Inventory Program- Because almost 30 years had passed since the only inventory of the forest, a cruising program was begun in 19%1. The method was a line-plot system with 20 one-fifth-acre plots tallied per forty for a 10 percent cruise. The objective was to cover an area each year comparable to the area cut over that year. As indicated in the 1948 Report, it was hoped that the forested area of the Menominee would be completely cruised by the end of the second cutting cycle. In 1996, Parker Arthur, the forester directing the in— ventory program, called upon Cal Stott of the U. S. Forest Service for advice concerning the establishment of a perman— ent inventory plot system. As a result, a continuous forest inventory program was begun. This program resulted in the establishment of 387 permanent plots considered to be represen- tative of 132,000 acres of old-growth hardwood and white pine sawtimber. I. B. M. mark sensing cards were used in compiling the data. The plots were pre—stratified in regard to timber type. The first remeasurement was made in 195% (Stott, 195%). 64 By the end of this period, 65,096 acres were covered by the 10 percent cruise, 16,640 acres by the permanent plot cruise, and 16,000 acres in Block 5 by a light "one-shot" cruise. The total area covered was 97,736 acres, supporting a volume of 900,713 M board feet, or an average volume per acre of about 9,200 board feet. The portion of the forest left uncruised was reported to be 77,264 acres, with an estimated 180,087 M board feet. The combined cruised and estimated volumes would have put the total volume of the forested area at slightly over 1 billion board feet. This volume compared favorably with the 1914 cruise total of 850,000 M board feet and was slightly more than double the volume of 497,766 M board feet listed at the beginning of this management period in 1938. So, despite cutting, blowdowns, fire, and other losses, the forest was apparently more than holding its own in volume. Forest Protection- Fire damages during this period were comparatively slight. Suppression costs plus timber and reproduction losses exceeded $1,000 in only three years, 1946, 1947 and 1949. The spring of 1946 was reported as the driest in 56 years, and the fire season the worst in 10 years. This was the only year that a noticeable loss of timber was reported aggregating 130,000 board feet of white and red pine in the Keshena and South Branch areas. This reduction in fire damages was due to a general upgrading and updating of the entire fire control program, and the access made possible by the expanding road system. 65 New forest insects made their appearance during this period. Walking sticks (Diapheromera femorata) began causing injury, especially to the red oaks in 1943. The populations seemed to peak during odd-numbered years with increasing in- tensity. The area involved amounted to about 2,500 acres, primarily in the eastern part of the reservation. Direct mortality due to insects was not great, but the weakening effects eventually led to mortality from recurrent attacks or other factors. A spraying program was developed in the latter part of the management period. Saratoga spittlebug (Aprpphora saratogensis) was noted for the first time in 1944 in young jack pine and red pine plantations. LeConte's sawfly (Neodiprion lecontei) began making its appearance in red pine plantations in 1949, but its presence on the reservation had been noted many years be- fore. The hemlock borer continued to be a problem as a result of the long term effects of the 1930-38 drought. These pro- blems were kept within bounds by a spraying program which varied as insect population intensities fluctuated. The largest control program on the forest, aside from fire, was for white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola). Despite the heavy cutting of the river driving days, and later cutting, white pine remained an important component of the forest, making up close to 20 percent of thexolume. Blister rust was first noticed in 1918 and, according to R. W. Dickinson (1951), a Bibes eradication program was in- augurated in 1921 on a limited scale, and was expanded in 1931. 66 By 1950, almost 28,000 acres of young white pine were under protection. The mechanical removal of Bib§§.was eventually replaced by the use of herbicides such as 2-4-5 T. The program was confined mostly to the six eastern townships, especially the southeastern four townships (Fig. 6). The Annual Report of 1949 reported that blister rust was under control. Mortality continued to be high in hemlock and yellow birch as well as in overmature individuals of other species. Yellow birch "die-back" was a major problem, and its cause was unknown. In 1948, an experimental sanitation cut on 40 acres in Sections 15 and 16, 29-14 was made. Nothing of con- sequence resulted from this project. In the Annual Report of 1948, foresters reported their frustration in dealing with hemlock. After years of field experience and extensive research literature concerning hem- lock, there was still inadequate information as to how to mark hemlock for a light selection out. A modified group selection was considered the most applicable, since even the vigorous trees would windthrow or succumb to disease if ex- posed considerably. Windthrow was also a problem in this period, even though there were no blowdowns comparable to the 1905 event or those of the 1930's. For the most part, mortality from this cause was a chronic nagging problem. A storm on October 10, 1949, caused a general blowdown in small pockets throughout the forest, necessitating a general salvage cut. Even before this incident, the salvage program became so great that special 67 go wuzinvZNI . . u' m . :mma whomm HonpqOo pmsm Hopmflfimll.© .man 2 + a 4 68 legislation was requested to increase the allowable cut to maintain the cutting schedule and cope with the salvage job. This request was approved when Congress increased the allow- able cut to 25 million board feet for the fiscal years of 1949, 1950, and 1951. Results of Management, 1938-1950- At its inception, Richard Delaney's management plan was designed as a 10-year plan. It had to be extended, however, for two additional years primarily because of excessive mortality and the con- servativeness of the 1914 cruise data. At a conference held in 1950 concerning the problems affecting practices on the forest, forester Walter Ridlington listed the following: 1. Excessive mortality in decadent timber, especially hemlock. 2. High cost of scattered logging. 3. Excessive damage to reserve stands by logging. 4. Unbalanced species production disrupts marketing program. . By-products harvest is going on without a management plan. . lost logs. . log deterioration. \70\\n The cutting during the period took place mostly in vir- gin areas in the northwestern part of the forest and along the northern border (Fig. 7). The total cut during the 12- year period was 231,654 M board feet, an average of 19,304 M board feet per year. This cut was spread over approximately 50,649 acres, for an average of 4,570 board feet per acre. The selection cutting areas were covered by a 30 percent removal cut. The necessity to salvage cut-over areas as well 69 as areas damaged by fire, wind, etc. certainly obscured the L1,. relationship of the 30 percent cut guide to the 4,570 board feet out per acre. Statements from the Annual Reports of this period indicate that the selection cut was conservative. For example, the 1942 Report indicated an average leave volume of 10,850 board feet per acre and an average cut of 4,000 board feet. Other Reports (1945, 1946 and 1950) indicate cuts of between 3,000 and 4,000 board feet per acre. It would seem logical to con- clude that the cut averaged more than a 30 percent removal due to salvage. A review of the cutting systems and their effects on the forest was made by John Libby in 1950 (Libby, 1950). The following description is taken from the cutting budget prepared by him. Block 1 Today there is little apparent difference between the 50 percent and 70 percent selection-cut areas. Reproduction is well established and considerable popple (aspen)is inter- spread through much of the area. The mature timber present is largely decadent. A number of formerly State-claimed forties are well stocked with good stands of largely over- mature hardwood and hemlock. Silvicultural treatment of these so-called State forties is overdue, and the residual stand in the rest of the area must be harvested in the not too distant future if it is not to be lost. Block 1A This area was covered by a light selection cut in 1938. Periodic salvage of dead hemlock in hemlock and hemlock- hardwood stands has continued ever since. Today many places in this stand resemble the area mentioned above in Block 1, except that the reproduction is not as well established or as advanced in growth. The pine and red oak stands are in very good condition as are some of the other mixed hardwood 7O >250 muziOzul amend wqflppSoll.n .mH T E 71 areas. On the other hand sone of the selectively cut hard- wood areas are poorly stocked with low quality stands of beech and maple. Block 2 (Including 2A) This stand is generally in better condition than 1A. It was selectively cut in 1939 to 1941. A part of this area was hit by a sporadic windstorm in 1943 which leveled several limited areas of timber. Scattered blowdown resulted over a considerable area. In addition more or less continuous salvage of dead hemlock and birch has been necessary throughout the H and MH types. Today much of this latter area presents a ragged appearance and the mature timber still remaining is rapidly deteriorating. Block 3 This area presents the same general picture as Block 2 and the same logging pattern has developed. Originally covered with a selection cut in 1941 to 1945, it has been recovered twice with salvage operations. Block 4 Selection cutting has proceeded in this Block from 1945 to date, and will be completed by June 30, 1950. Mbrtality has not been as severe as was anticipated, prob- ably because of a generally heavier soil than is found in other areas. Some blowdown has occurred and this together with moderate mortality of hemlock and birch has necessitated light salvage operations. The big problem here has been mortality too scattered to provide an attractive logging chance but still heavy enough to constitute a considerable loss in the aggregate. The timber stand as a whole is in good condi— tion, however, and it is hoped that heavy salvage will not be required between now and the time this area is scheduled for cutting during the 2nd cycle. Block 4A This area was hard hit by blowdown in 1936. Mbst of the area was covered by salvage operations in 1937 and the rest of it by a light selection cut in 1939 and 1940. A small part of the block was recovered with a light out in 1946 and a small area in 1949. The area is in remarkably good condition considering the rough treatnent it has had. While much of the blowdown area has little merchantable timber remaining, reproduction is well established throughout and a good part of it still bears merchantable volume sufficient to provide for one or 72 more cuts in subsequent cutting cycles. Selectively cut areas are in much the same condition as other such areas in adjacent blocks. Block 5 This is for all practical purposes, a virgin stand of timber, covering sone 16,000 acres. It is well stocked with an estimated vollme of nearly 250 million feet, of which approximately 60 percent is white pine. In many parts of the block, the stand is too dense and the first cut will be largely a cultural operation to thin and to remove defective or other~ wise undesirable trees. Block 6 This block too, was devastated by blowdown. Part of it was hit in 1905 and most of it again in 1934. Part of the area was accordingly logged in 1908—1910 and practically the entire area in 1935 and 1936. A cruise of the area is cur- rently being made and the volume now present is proving to be in excess of expectations. Here as in most of the other blow- down areas, reproduction is well established over most of the area. Considerable areas that were not too hard hit by the 1935 blowdown are in good condition and ready for a light selection cut during the next cutting cycle. Other areas present a poor appearance with mature trees, left during sal~ vage operations, deteriorating rapidly. One such area, around Burney and Hemlock Lakes is scheduled for cutting dur- ing the current fiscal year, to harvest this decadent timber while it is still merchantable and at the same time release the reproduction undergrowth. Block [A This area was hit by blowdown and drought in 1935. Mertality in hemlock was heavy and salvage was effected in 1936. Subsequent salvage operations in succeeding years culminated in a final or release out over most of the block in 1947 to 1949. Today the area is covered with reproduction from whip-sized saplings to young merchantable hardwood. No further cutting is contemplated in the major portion of this block for at least thirty years when a light cut should be feasible over a considerable part of the area. Block B This area is a small block of hemlock and hemlock-hardwood which has followed the pattern of similar stands in other blocks. It was originally logged with a light selection cut in 1941 to 1943. The entire area was recovered in 1947 with a salvage operation. It presents the same picture today as 73 stands in Block 3 and elsewhere. Block C This stand is practically a virgin stand, similar in composition to Block 5. There is damage from fire where it borders Block 13 on the north and damage from exposure where it borders Block 7A on the south. Generally however, the stand is in good condition but overdue for silvicultural treatment. Block 8 This block is a conglomeration of timber types and conditions. Parts of it were logged in 1928 and 1930; another area in 1936 to 1938, and still other areas in 1940 to 1945. There remain other areas still in need of cutting and some of those cut between 1928 and 1945 are ready for another cut. Block 9 Some cutting occurred in this block in 1923 and 1927. Starting in 1945, a selection and improvement cut was started in the area and has been conducted progressively since. The area of merchantable timber will have been completely covered by JUne 30, 1950. Except for a few hemlock forties, the stand will be left in good condition and can be partially recovered during the second cycle. A considerable part of it, however, has had what amounts to a release cut and will not be ready for another cut for at least 20 years and it might well be left alone for 40. Block 10 There has been no systematic cutting program in this block. The Nbshoquit Lake area was given a seed tree cut in 1926. Subsequent fires have kept back reproduction on much of the area. Soil and moisture conditions are such that establishment of natural reproduction could be expected to be slow under the most favorable circumstances. The soil is extremely light and dries rapidly. A series of wet growing seasons coincident with a good seed year would be necessary to establish any appreciable amount of natural reproduction. At the same time, much of this area is covered with scrub oak that affords strong competition to the sun-loving Norway pine seedlings. The north and west sides of the block present a somewhat more favorable picture. There is a considerable area of relatively young pine south and east of Keshena. Part of this stand has been and is being covered with an improvement 74 cut to effect a thinning where needed and remove defective or otherwise undesirable trees. Further north in the block, small blocks of pine together with scattered individuals are gradually seeding in a consider- able area. Nest of such areas are now receiving protection from Blister Rust and will eventually make up an important part of the commercial stand. Block 11 Block 11 is an area of variegated conditions. At first glance, much of it appears near worthless from a timber production standpoint. Some few such areas are, but many others are seeding in quite well to white pine. A large swamp area in the southeast corner bears little of present commercial value over most of its area. Interspread through this swamp, however, are belts and islands of pine, both white and Norway, together with some hardwood and hemlock, that adds up to a considerable volume. Some of these areas have been covered by an improvement cut. Some excellent stands remain to be treated. In the vicinity of LaBelle Tower there are some 2,000 acres of timber waiting to be cut. A large part of this is virgin timber, which will go as high as 30 M ft. per acre. The rest of this stand is a two-aged forest of hemlock, through- out which veteran white pine, thirty or fifty inches in diameter at breast height, occur singly or in small groups. The west side of the block is spotted with white pine of all ages, occurring singly or in small blocks. Much of this area is seeding in to white pine reproduction and, if protected from fire and blister rust, will eventually comprise a considerable area of good pine forest. Many of the existing stands, such as the one at the mouth of Minnow Creek, are in need of thinning and improvement cutting. Block 12 This block was logged during the period from 1922 to 1930, and most of it was covered with a 70 percent cut. Today we have no real data on the present timber stand, but random inspections indicate that much of the original, residual stand has disappeared and that the remainder is no more than holding its own. On the other hand, there is a considerable area in the block that bears an excellent stand of young hardwood with a scattering of mature trees throughout. An early cruise of this block is planned and it is anticipated that a cut will be made therein during the second cutting cycle. The type and volume of cut cannot be definitely 75 determined until the cruise has been made. However, the indications are that part of the block will have to be covered with a final or release cut to remove the remnant of the original stand still present and merchantable, while the re- mainder will be covered with a light selection cut. In this latter case, it is heped that the area so cut can be fitted into the regular working circle. Block 13 This block lies in the center of the reservation and is of little present importance from a timber production stand- point. There are isolated patches of mature timber within the boundaries as well as some areas of well established and well-stocked hardwood poles. Also there are several areas where white pine is seeding in quite well and which will eventually form commercial stands assuming, of course, that it is protected from fire and blister rust. For the most part, however, Block 13 is covered with immature popple and pin cherry (Prunus pennsylvanica). Some of this popple appears to be of fair quality and should ulti- mately produce a considerable volume of box belts or small saw logs. Nest of it, however, is of low quality, is cankerous and slow growing and will, at best, produce nothing but pulp- wood, excelsior belts or similar products. The site over most of the block is definitely poor as the result of repeated fires during the period from 1917 to 1934. Some of the area is Open and could (and probably should) be planted. The popple and brush cover is too thick over most of it, however, to make for good conditions and the cost of establishing plantations under such conditions would be prohibitive, at least from the strictly economic viewpoint. At this point, with the exception of Blocks 10 and 13, the forest was in fair to excellent productive condition. Block 10, due to its very light soil, had not recovered from pre—reservation blowdown and fires. Block 13 had received the most punishment during the river driving and clear-cutting periods, primarily due to fires following the logging. Libby also pointed out that experience gained during the 1938-50 period in selection cuttings in overmature stands in— dicated that a change in approach had to tak« place. It was 76 recommended that the 10-year cutting cycle be supplanted by a light to moderate selection cut over a 15—year period in the hardwood and pine stands. At the same time, the hemlock type would be handled by a 5-year cutting cycle. The general objective was to liquidate the old-growth hemlock as rapidly as possible with mortality kept at a minimum. This was the first noticeable attempt to manage the varying timber types with different treatments. Period V: 1951-1964 After the first cutting cycle of the 1938 management plan was completed two years later than the lO-year length first prescribed, experience dictated that some alterations be made in the next cycle. Some of these changes have already been mentioned in Libby's summary of the management situation in 1950. Essentially, the objectives that evolved were (1) a lighter cut in the hardwood and pine types allowing more com- plete coverage of the forest in 15 years, the time period chosen for the cutting cycle; (2) a 5-year cutting cycle in the hemlock type to most efficiently salvage mortality which occurred as an aftermath to cutting operations in the type; and (3) the inclusion of the by—products cut in the cutting budget in a nore organized fashion. Along with these aims, a stepped-up planting program, an improved protection program, and the introduction of timber stand improvement prescriptions were vital components of the plan. 77 The 1951 plan was simple, little more than a cutting budget, but it was kept flexible to cope with changing eco- nomic conditions and physical factors which might necessitate alterations in the operation, a desirable requirement of any forest management plan. During this period, however, an event occurred which resulted in drastic alterations of the l—J p an before the cycle was completed. Tgrmination- On September 3, 1935 (49 Statute l085) Congress had granted and conferred jurisdiction on the U. S. Court of Claims to hear a case involving the Henominee Tribe of Indians and the United States. The Tribe asked for damages which were alleged to have occurred from mismanaging the Menominee forest. The points of concern were (1) the loss suffered when the timber blown down in the 1905 windstorm was not salvaged for three years or longer, and (2) the use of "clear-cutting" from 1911 to 1925 which was alleged by the plaintiff to be in opposition to the dictates of the Act of 1908. On January 9, l95l the Court awarded the tribe $896,208.78, a compromise lump sum settlement based on the damages and interest deemed to have accrued. In 1953, the tribe asked Congress to authorize a $1,500 per capita payment. The Senate, however, had reservations concerning this request. There was a philosophy prevalent at that time in Congress that the reservation status of all Indian Tribes should eventually be terminated. To set a precedent in this direction, the Senate agreed to support the per capita payment if the Tribe would 78 agree to the renoval of federal responsibility on the reserva- tion. The Tribe agreed and so the termination act (Public Law 399, 83rd Congress) was passed on June 17, 1954. The original date set for termination was December 31, 1958, but it was later changed to December 31, 1960. After considering many alternatives, well described by Harkin (1966), the reservation became Menominee County. Almost all the as- sets of the county were placed in the newly formed Menominee Enterprises, Incorporated. The stockholders were the enrolled members of the Tribe at the time the termination act was passed. Each member was granted one share. These assets, of course, included the sawmill and the forest. By virtue of this action, tLe administration of the forest by the Bureau of Indian Affairs was ended, and all Congressional restrictions were lifted. Forest management, therefore, was open to complete over- haul if desired. The only qualification present was one de- manded by the Tribe, which was added as an amendment to Public Law 399: requiring that the forest be Operated on a sustained yield basis. The state of Wisconsin recognized that the new county had many obstacles to overcome because of its unique features, such as its almost complete dependence upon the forest resource and the sawmill. Because of this, the state conducted comprehensive studies to determine the needs and potentialities of the county. The Wisconsin Department of Taxation made an appraisal of the Henominee lands, its forest and other resources for tax 79 and legislative purposes in 1957 (A Plan for Continuous Forest Control of Menominee Enterprises, Inc. Lands 1961). This resulted in a total assessed value of about $35,000,000. The Wisconsin Conservation Department interpreted and field- checked aerial photographs from which a complete cover-type map was made. The state became involved in the management of the forest, and state forestry personnel worked closely with foresters hired by Menominee Enterprises, Inc. This responsibility of the state arose from the special tax computation methods required for forest lands obligated by federal law to be man- aged on a sustained yield basis. The following is a pertinent excerpt from the statutes which defines the term "sustained yield management" (Section 70.335 of the Wisconsin Statutes.): "Sustained-yield management means that land axed under this section shall be operated in a manner which will provide for a continuous annual harvest of high quality forest products on a permanent basis. Cutting practices used shall be such as to improve the quality of the residual stand and increase the production capacity of the lands on a permanent basis. The average annual cut shall be determined on the basis of studies of present volume, growth, degree of maturity of the forest, and it will include normal mortality, which is that timber which normal— ly dies or is damaged each year as a result of natural causes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . It is recognized that under sustained yield manage- ment the amount of timber cut will vary from year to year, but it shall not exceed the average annual allowable cut as specified in the forest management plan by more than 7 percent for any one year, or by more than 3 percent for any 5-year period, or by more than 2 percent for the cutting cycle." The termination, therefore, resulted in changes in the 80 management plan during this period, as well as in he admin- istrative staff and its philosophies. The cutting cycle and enough basic considerations were maintained in the changeover, however, to consider this period as a unit for discussion. Egansportation and Logging- The improvement in logging equipment during this period allowed for much more flexibility in the management program. Portable loaders replaced A-frame loaders in the early part of the period, and these in turn were replaced by loading units on the trucks themselves. Increased logging damage created problems in the transition period as new forms of logging equipment were being introduced. Power saws, originally tried with little success in the early 1980's, became standard equipment during this period. Increased skidding power also contributed to offsetting increased logging costs. The logging costs were increasing partially because of the trend towards harvesting smaller logs since the overmature stands had nearly all been covered by at least one cut. This trend was reversed somewhat, however, as the lighter cuts made it feasible to out only the larger trees (Table 5.). Table-5. Trends in Log Size, 1945-1952 Year Logs per M board ft. Year Logs per M'board ft. 19MB 8.70 195 11.05 19h6 9.60 195 11.38 1947 9.40 1955 11.78 1948 9.50 1956 10.9% 19u9 11.25 1957 10.22 1950 10.22 1958 9.96 1951 10.93 1952 11.02 Source: Annual Report (1952). 81 The trends in increased logging costs were, by comparison with lumber prices, very minor. From 1939 to 1951, logging losts increased by 98 percent (up from $11.68 to $23.06 per M board feet), while in the same interval lumber prices climbed 178 percent (up from $28.04 to $78.18 per M board feet). Present logging costs have increased to $33 per M board feet and the average lumber prices to $9H.5% per M board feet. The latest percentage increase in lumber prices was more than double the logging cost increase. Regulation of the Cut- Ever since the original Congres- sional edict which set the allowable cut of 20,000 M board feet in 1890, the job of forest regulation had been largely elimin- ated except for locating the cut on the ground. Traditional methods of determining the allowable cut over the years were not needed, and new pragmatic programs that could have been developed for the local situation were also avoided. The only deviations from the arbitrary allowable cut volume were minor and short-termed, and even these had to receive a congressional stamp of approval. The first year of this period was still affected by one of these modifications, the 3-year increase to 25,000 M board feet which was passed so the forest administration could elimin- ate a backlog of salvage material. The 1951 cut totalled 24,238 M board feet, of which 8,773 N board feet were considered as salvage. The following year the regular cutting maximum of 20 M board feet was restored. From increasing amounts of growth data provided by the 82 CFI system, “t was becoming more and more evident that the 20,000 M board feet allowable cut restriction was too con- servative. Although the foresters on the Menominee believed this to be true earlier, the CFI data provided real evidence for requesting an increase. Therefore, in 1957, the allow- able cut was increased to 20,000 M board feet of sawtimber and 2,000 M board feet of by-products. These allowable cut volumes were followed until termination. By-products continued to be a problem in this period as described in the 1958 Annual Report by Lee Winner, the Forest Manager: "Our primary shortcoming, and it may be one for which we will have no detailed or reinforced answer by termination, is in the matter of a by- products management plan. If this should happen, it will be because there is not now and never has been either a sound market for sale or a sound program for harvest. Volumes, areas, and expected yields we can now report; a schedule for harvest remains a mystery." The New Management Plan- January 1, 1961 signalled the beginning of the opportunity to use more realistic methods for regulating the forest. Preceding this date, however, much work was done to prepare for this Opportunity. The Bureau of Indian Affairs, the U. 8. Forest Service, and the Wisconsin Conservation Department combined efforts to develop "A Plan for Continuous Forest Control of Menominee Enterprises, Inc. Lands." The new plan continued to use the existing block system as the control for volumes to be cut and for the woods oper- ators, although some boundaries were losing their identity. 83 The cutting budget was based on a 7-year program (1961-67) and was designed to apply to the area remaining in the 15- year cycle from the 1951 plan. CFI data were the basis for determining the allowable cut of sawtimber. As the plots were tallied, the trees were classified into four cutting priority classes. Those trees in classes one and two were considered, on the basis of risk and vigor, to have high cutting priority. The volume of class one and two trees was expanded to a total forest basis. This volume was then increased by the total volume of over- stocking, and this sum was then divided by 15, the number of years in the cutting cycle. By this procedure, an annual allowable cut of 30,297 M board feet of sawtimber was det- ermined. Until the post-termination plan was initiated, the regu- lation of the cut in by-products was pragmatic in nature. The combination of aerial photos, and a series of 100 per- manent one—seventh—acre plots in by-products types provided necessary volume, area, and expected yield information upon which to build a sound program in the new plan. The by-products types were characteristically even-aged, as described later in this section. Therefore, even-aged area control methods were recommended for those types which were not potential sawtimber areas, and uneven-aged volume control was recommended for the remaining types. The follow- ing is the portion of the 1961 management plan dealing with these types. 84 Even-aged Area Control- to be applied to 0X (scrub oak): P5 (330k pine), A (aspen), and A (saw) types. 1. OX — this type to be liquidated, i1 _ssib1e, within 15 yea rs. Total acreage divided by 15 veers and cords per acre of stand a0 plied to a this a1nua1 he rvest area. 8 acres . lg7years x 5.5 cd. eqS/A.= 323 cd. eq/yr. from ‘0 C” L) 58 acres. 2. Pj - reserve 25 percent of are: as being potential sawt1‘0e1 stands. Remaining area less durable species to be liquidated in 15 years. This acre- age, divided by 15 years and cords per acre of th1is species ap111ed to this annual harvest area. Species considered for removal: white birch, aspen, balsa1n, and jack pine. x -, 14 ac es . (' 75 $5'yga rs l )3 :2. 2 ed. eq/A.= 211 ed.eq/yr. from 96 acres. 3. A - reserve 25 percent of are: as b ing po ential sawtimber stands. Rena aining a1ea 1 ss dur ble species to be liquida ted in 15y ' divided by 15 years and cords per a species applied to fi1is annual harv considered for removal: whi ce birc ch, a‘, and jack pine. (_25 Y 21.926 80 1'92) 15 :‘j ears . Species «n, balsam 7'7 Cd°eq/A-= 8:439 cd.cq/yr. 4. A (saw)- aspen EC"El ber a1 ca scheduled to be cut in the rei'iains seven yeeis 01 this cycle. Divide a1ea total by s ven yezrs and multiply result m1t m1nual ac1e£ge y cord equivalent volume pe1 acre (only 75 percent of white birch, all of balsam, and all of aspen-~other species not included in this vol/A. figure, since they U‘b generally re- main for type convers :10n or at least narraaing Volume per acre for cutting made up of 5”-12” DBH classes aspen, balsam, and white birch. 13,794 acres r 1 0 1,970 acres L’tu (DO It will be noticed th; involves 13,794 acres for 1 _ c than 18,758 acres Dray Ofis,y sh wn 1 A (Saw) Scd. eq. = cord equival n t(2. 2 cords/liBF for hdwd; 2.4 cords/HRF for conifers). 85 Areas determined from 1955 aerial photos established basic acreages for all types. However, sone of this acreage has 388D treated since the beginning of the 1950 cycle. The figure of 13,794 acres represents A (Saw) type remaining for treatment in this cycle from 1961-1967. Uneven-aged Volume Control- to be applied to Cs (swamp conifer), NH (northern hardwood), SH (swamp hardwood), and P (pine) types. All species were considered for harvest in proportion to their existence in these types. 1. Cs - total area this type multiplied by .33 cds/growth/ acre/yr. to be harvested annually during 15-year cycle. 12.Z%5&::§:S 848 acres/yr. at rate of 84892c;2:§%% _ 4.9 cds./acre harvest 2. 1H, H, P - total combined area these types multiplied by .333 cds/growth/acre/yr. available for harvest annually during 15-year cycle. 8,008 acres X .33 Cd. eq. gr/A./yr. = 2,667 cds. eq./yr. from 8,008 acres 15 years = 534 acres/yr. at rate of 2,667 cd. eq.[yr. 534 acre/yr = 5.0 cd. eq./acre/1arvest For the remaining years of the cycle, it is annarsnt that growth (Table 6.) was not used as a factor in determining the allowable cut except in the uneven~aged volume control por- tion of the by-preducts program. Table 6. Net Annual Growth, 1953-1960 Timber type Annual growth, board feet per acre Hardwood 215.06 Hemlock 222.41 Pine 208.02 Aspen 236.78 Average per acre 220.57 Total forest 281718 M Source: A Plan for Continuous Forest Control, 1961. 86 The authors of the plan explained this policy as follows (p. L+8): "It was felt that since omission of this growth accrual was in the direction of conservatisg, it would help to offset a possible minus statistical error with which this sampling effort might unknow- ingly be plagued. Too, since the pattern of area designation for cutting is an orderly progression from the oldest cutting to the most recent cutting, it stands to reason that the higher limits of basal area range for an overstocked condition class will be out first. meanwhile, the most recently cut areas or lower limit of the basal area range for any condition class, will be deferred toward the end of the cycle. It is these areas upon which accrual growth will tak place and, in fact, may serve to bring these deferred stands up to the average basal area level indicated in the stock and stand tables." Mest of the species involved in the by—products category are intolerant pioneer species. Because of their even-aged char- acter, these forms were to be managed by even-aged treatments such as clearcutting andstmflterwood. This prescription ap- plied primarily to aspen-white birch, jack pine, scrub oak, and swamp conifer types. Other types in the by-products cat- egory, such as pole-sized pine and hardwoods stands, were to be controlled by basal area levels with the ultimate objective of developing sawtimber types. The selection marking policies in the plan reversed a trend towards lighter cuttings, utilizing basal area as the indicator of desired stocking densities. The Bitterlich cruising method made this practice possible. Optimut basal areas recommended per acre for the main types were: Hardwood type— ---------------------- 70-80 square feet 87 Pine type- ----------------------- 130 souare feet Hemlock type --------------------- 90 square feet at re-entry. In summary, understocked stands were marked primarily on a high risk, low vigor basis, while basal area became an additional guide in the overstocked stands. In 1961, an area of pole-sized white pine in Section 30,29-14, was clearcut because of a high incidence of red rot due to an overstocked condition. This was a deviation from the recommended cutting pattern, and was not continued. One general objective in the marking program was to favor the hardwood, white pine, and red pine components. Hemlock was definitely to be discriminated against, as it had been previous to this period. The low value of this species dictated this policy. Inventory Program- The cruising program evolved into a complete dependence on the Continuous Forest Inventory system. By 1958, all CFI plots had been installed and at least the initial data computed. Approximately one-third of the plots in sawtimber types had been remeasured and the data computed for determination of allowable annual cut (Annual Report, 1958). A new development in the inventory program was the use of aerial photos. Photo interpretation for the forest was begun by the Wisconsin Conservation Department in January, 1957. The interpretation and ground check were completed by May of that year. By August, the first complete and up—to-date cover type map of the forest was available. The 1958 CFI data were correlated with forest condition classes on the aerial 88 photo maps. After some experience with the CFI results, it was found that the program was unsatisfactory. The plots had been locat- ed on a random basis, and this caused some difficulties as the CFI system evolved with use. Therefore, after termination, the CFI installation was redone under the guidance of Cal Stott, the Wisconsin Conservation Department, and the newly employed Menominee Enterprises Forester. This effort involved 950 one- fifth-acre plots located on a systematic basis, which were post-stratified according to timber type. This inventory resulted in some surprising information. The present forest area (Table 7) is listed as 225,5H6 acres, with a sawtimber area of 1%4,h95 acres, and pole-timber, 57,007 acres. The areas by timber type and condition class are listed in Table 8. The total volume was 1,527,381 M board feet and 1,973,000 cords. The volume is almost equally dis- tributed between softwoods and hardwoods, 49.9 percent and 51.1 percent. The leading species by volume a e hemlock, 24.1 per- cent, wLite pine 21.2 percent and sugar maple, 17.3 percent (Table 9). The overall average volume per acre is approximately 7,000 board feet and nine cords, or equivalent to about 11,000 board feet per acre. Forest Protection- Previously strong fire prevention and control programs became even stronger when tne responsibility for them was transferred to the Forest Protection Division of the Wisconsin Conservation Department in 1961. Total area burned in any year was less than #00 acres and with three 89 Table 7 Changes in Area by Land Use or Condition Classes Bhnominee Forest, 1930-1963. 1939 1940 1955 1963 Land Use or Area Perm'Area Per+ area Per Area Par: Condition Acres cent Acres cent Acres cen Acres cent Sawtimber 91,623 39 93,973 no 131,312 56 148,495 62 By-products 32,891 14 79,878 38 85,480 19 57,007 24 Nonmerch. 96,323 #1 46,986 20 an,oas 19 24,048 1o' water %,097 2 4,097 2 4,097 2 4,097 2 Agri. & Other Indust. 8,968 4 8,968 4 8,968 4 4,259 2 Total 233,902 100 233,902 100 233,902 100 233,902 100 Source: A Plan for Continuous Forest Control (1961) and current files of menominee Enterprises, Inc. exceptions, less than 200 acres. The total of suppression costs and damages did not exceed $3,000 in any one year. This situation was primarily the result of improved communications, hazard reduction programs, and cooperation of the public. White pine blister rust continued to receive a great deal of attention in this period. The area of concern totals 25,375 acres. The cost for the white pine blister rust program far exceeds fire suppression and fire damage costs. Historically, the largest white pine grew in the river bottoms and along the margins of swamps, but these heavier soils areas are also the 90 more common Ribes sites. Therefore, most of the control efforts are diverted towards the areas with lighter soils. The other major forest disease problems of the Lake States, Dutch elm disease (Graphium ulmi) and oak wilt (Chalara guercina), are either non-existent in the forest or of minor concern at l the present time. The insect problems are currently under control. These include the walking sticks in the low value scrub oak, Sara- toga spittle bug and LeConte's sawfly in red pine plantations, and hemlock borer in the old growth hemlock. Mbdified cutting methods and aerial spraying have been the chief tools in the control program. Trespass grazing by domestic livestock has created some problems in boundary areas. Since termination, the deer pop- ulation has increased to the extent that tree reproduction is being adversely affected. The deer problem has develOped be- cause the residents who were allowed to hunt without restriction before termination have now come under Wisconsin hunting regu- lations. It is believed by many observers that the bountiful yellow birch reproduction on the forest is the result of the low deer population prior to federal termination. Wind, while still a nagging problem, has not resulted in any recent dramatic losses as in the past. Timber Stand Improvement and Planting- Timber stand improvement work has been primarily restricted to plantations, and has included pruning, shearing, release woik, and non- commercial thinning. 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When tribal funds were being used, this program was intermittent. After termination, how- ever, Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service funds became available on a cost-sharing basis so that the continuing program, while not large, has had some consistency. The planting program, phased out in 1933, and renewed in the 1940's as a token program, was re-established as a lO-year large-scale endeavor in 1952. Success in fire prevention and control was a major reason for the renewal of planting. Pre- vious to 1952, l,#60 acres had been planted, and of these, 686 acres had failed. Most of the successful plantings were made in the l9HO's. It was determined that 15,000 acres in abandoned farms, clearings and poorly stocked stands were in need of planting at the beginning of the lO-year program. The one- millionth tree was planted in the spring of 1959. With the onset of federal termination, many cleared areas were claimed by residents for agricultural land. Therefore, the planting program shifted to clearing scrub oak land which, along with natural forest oueiidns, provided the annual plant— ing sites. SLice 1952, the annual area planted hes ranged be— tween 80 acres and 150 acres. red pine. The management plan calls for ‘he maintenance and possible expansion of the annual lOO-acre alancing UlOPlufi, on a 3 to 1 ratio of red pine to white pine. The plami ing has been concen crated la -rgeL* in Blocks l3 (clearcut area), 10, and ll (southeastern sandy soil area). 9% Results of Management: l951-l96h- Drastic change in management policies occurred during this period as a result of termination proceedings. More refined techniques in all phases of forestry made possible the develOpment of a more intensive and sophisticated program on the forest. Protection methods had been successful in keeping damage within reasonable limits; inventory had provided the information necessary for the development of desirable regulation systems; harvesting tech- niques had become flexible enough to pursue any desired type of silvicultural system; and the Bitterlich cruising method had provided an efficient, accurate means to control stocking, ‘whether even-aged or uneven-aged management was being pursued. It would seem that technically the control of the forest was, relatively speaking, well in hand. The factors that still pose major problems are either economic or institutional in nature. These aspects will cer- tainly influence the technical program as it continues to evolve. The cutting program was very widespread during this period, covering approximately 130,000 acres (Fig. 8). Block 13 was avoided completely, but, with the exception of large areas in Blocks 1 and 11, almost the entire forest was given some cutting. This acreage presented quite a different picture from the 1911— 25 cutting area, when, over a similar period only l#,826 acres were cut. The total volume out during the period was 304,690 M board feet. This produced an average cut per acre of approximately 2,3HO board feet. This per acre volume portrays the trend towards lighter cutting that characterized the major part of this period. 95 .4 ......... .i ~ ,— . \ , ’i- , ' a, ,7 ." I .-L5""‘" I' a _. I“ ‘ : E ’13,“?- 5' ~ I 7 n, ‘ ~ 7, IA Q; T . > / , ‘ . ~ A, V , .. " \ j i. g‘o . , ' r f, - a Q.’ 8‘“ ,5" y €i..- 4' ,0; i " ' " _ ‘ a ‘ 2‘03" t1}. "" e 'l ’Ea3‘ A v'..‘*’1“"r‘ g £391 .... . a. , - 7H,... ,4 ‘2‘" ‘11: .‘AV 4H ' v‘ D , In}: “'17 fi’Nnfi’J’lfluuz ' o'nuou l/‘ V \r - .1. 5 5 5E 8.-Cutting A ea 1" 3% IIENOIIINEE COWI V MANAGEMENT RESULTS FOR 110 YEARS A major objective in compiling and reviewing the history of the Menominee Forest was to determine the results of various cutting practices applied over a relatively long period. The attainment of this objective, however, has been hampered by the masking effect of fire. The first 80 years of governmental cutting restrictions were accompanied by inadequate fire con- trol. The bulk of the cutting during this period took place on the somewhat droughty loamy sand soils. These areas sup- ported the white pine and hemlock-hardwood stands, and, there- fore, attracted the early softwood cutting. They were also the scene of the disastrous 1910 fire which initiated the "clear- cutting" period from 1910 to 1925. Coincident with the advent of adequate fire control in the 1930's, cutting shifted to a single tree selection basis, and with the exception of some heavy salvage cuts, it has been light, amounting to 30 percent of the volume or less. This, plus the fact that most of the light cutting has taken place on the more mesic, fire-resistant areas, has contributed to the better condition presently found on areas lightly out than on those which were clearcut. A meaningful comparison of the long-term effects of light selection silviculture with those of heavy selection cutting or clear-cutting is more difficult because of fire influence, than it would be if we had to con- tend only with the ever-present variables of site and forest type. Despite these obstacles, comparisons are made, utilizing 97 the earliest (191%) and the most recent (1963) inventory information. The species and volume differences in the two inventories for sample sections were related to the number and types of cuts as determined from cutting maps. Areas Cut During the River Driving Period- Some areas of the forest were out only during the period before 1908. The cutting during that time was not based on any silvicultural system, but was "high-grading" at its worst. Clear-cutting and group selection are probably the cutting systems which re- semble, somewhat, the activities of those early days. Adequate slash disposal methods were not common in the heyday of the Lake States pine logging period, and the unsupervised logging on the Menominee was no exception. Consequently, most of these areas were burned repeatedly, and have not produced a harvest- able timber crop since. This situation is most prevalent in the north-central portion of the forest, especially in the southern half of 30-15, and the northern part of 29-15. The 191% cruise described Sections 30 and 33 (30-15) as having no timber, and Section 35 as having 30 M board feet of which 23 M board feet were white pine. The 1963 inventory showed that Section 35 now supports approximately one million board feet. The species making the best growth have been Hill's oak, red oak, and hemlock. Pole sized timber has also increased from an initial volume of 13 cords of hardwood pulpwood to 8,3hl cords of hardwood and softwood. In Section 18 (29-15), white and red pine have shown the most resurgence. The "no timber" designation has been replaced by almost two million board feet, 98 of which three-quarters consists of pine, plus 2,700 cords of pulpwood. The areas discussed above were probably denuded by the fire of 1910, which means they have had 53 years at most to recover, and conceivably less time than that. For the same two sections described above, the annual growth has averaged 150 and 100 board feet per acre net (based on 54 years of growth on 640 acres). The average volumes per acre of 7,500 board feet on Section 35 and 5,100 on Section 18 are now at or above stocking levels recommended by Harkin (1966) for the hemlock and pine types which most characterize these sections. He arrived at his recommended stocking levels through a marginal analysis of annual growth to growing stock volumes for the three major types on the Menominee Forest. He recom- mended levels per acre of 4,500 board feet for the hardwood type, 6,000 board feet for the hemlock type, and 5,000 board feet for the pine type. These guides are at variance with the optimum stocking levels listed in the A Plan for Continuous Forest Control (1961). There the recommendations show 8,500 board feet for the hard- wood type, 9,700 board feet for hemlock, and 17,700 board feet for pine. Sections 25 and 35 (30-16) were both logged only in the river driving days; both are developing as pine types but at different rates. Section 25 now supports an average of 4,300 board feet per acre, while Section 35 has an average of only 2,300 board feet. The bulk of these volumes on both sections is in pole-sized timber, mostly aspen. 99 There are twenty sections out prior to 1908 which have not been cut again. A sampling of the composition on these areas indicates that pioneer species are predominant, with white pine and aspen making up most of the current volume. The volumes are beginning to attain respectable levels in most instances. In his vegetational analysis of the anominee Forest, Goff (1966) found much of the aspen to be about 35 years old and of sprout origin. These stands apparently became established after the cessation of widespread fires. He found an understory of l5-to 20-year-old white pine to be quite common, indicating the successional trend. There are still extensive areas of upland brush found on this part of the forest, although some of them have been converted to plantations since 1952. The area cut during the river-driving period has responded in varying ways, depending not so much on the type of cutting but on the number and intensity of the fires that followed. Where there were even just a few seed trees left, reproduction is making progress. Where the seed source was inadequate, Goff (1966) found that several generations of aspen sprouts have suc- ceeded each other until degeneration to extensive openings has taken place. He believes that perhaps only one white pine seed tree per two acres would be adequate to assure regeneration of that species in this situation. Productivity has been at a low level, but the major cause is quite evident. Those stands not making a comeback necessi- tate a helping hand in the form of planting or site preparation 100 .0 and broadcast seeding. Ii white pine is the species to be considered for establishment, the influence of blister rust should be first weighed carefully. Clear—cutting: The cutting practice from 1910 to 1925 was primarily a merchantable clearcut. From 1910 to 1919, this system was not actively pursued, but instead was consid- ered to be a selection system. The marking rules, as described earlier, involved diameter—limit cutting or the leaving of groups of young trees. The uncut trees, however, suffered so much from fire, windthrow, and exposure that the salvage cuts that followed completed the removal of the residual stand. Ac- cording to Kinney(l9h5), the total area clearcut by virtue of salvage, selection and salvage, and clear-cutting amounted to lh,025 acres. A comparison of recent timber type maps with the cutting maps of the 1910-25 period show that the area in question is now dominated by low density pole-sized stands and medium to well-stocked seedling and sapling stands. Aspen predominates while a heterogeneous mixture of tolerant and intolerant species plays a secondary role. 0n the loams and silt loam soils, there is a greater concentration of northern hardwoods accompanying the aspen. Red oak is one of the chief members in this group. Only two sections were clearcut in their entirety after the 191% cruise. They are Sections 11 and 1% of 30—14. They were cut over by 1921. Section 11 supported 8,691 M board feet and 5,700 cords before the out. It now has 631 M board feet and 5,684 cords. If the possibility that fire retarded growth 101 is ignored, approximately %0 years of growth has taken place with an average annual growth per acre of 25 board feet and .22 cords, or a total equivalent of 135 board feet. Section 1% has not been as productive since it contains a much greater non-forested area. Formerly the section sup- ported 12,301 M board feet and 2,260 cords, while today it supports only 257 M board feet and 2,111 cords. If the 160 acres of non-forest area are excluded, the average annual growth per acre for %0 years has been about 6% board feet. There is no doubt that a lack of seed source and a series of fires have contributed to the generally poor condition of the clearcut areas some forty years after the out. An interesting topic is the condition of areas which were clearcut without subsequent burning. This is of special con- cern because woods labor is becoming increasingly scarce in the United States. Any reasons for encouraging the clear- cutting system might bring it into wider use, along with its permissible greater mechanization and less need of manpower. In defense of clear-cutting, Libby reported in 19%9 that areas which had escaped burning were then well-stocked with advanced reproduction (Libby, 19%9). He believed this indicated that the poor condition of the clearcut areas was due to inade- quate fire protection rather than inproper silviculture. In his study of the vegetation on the Menoainee Forest Goff (1966) analyzed four 1- to 2—acre plots taken in clear- cut areas that showed no evidence of fire. The original vege- tation, determined from stumps, was primarily hemlock-hardwoods 102 with some large white pine. The present stands are characterized by a relatively pure hardwood overstory, primarily yellow birch and sugar maple, with hemlock and tolerant hardwoods forming the understory. These clearcut areas are located on fine textured soils which supported mesic conditions. The average diameters of the 55- 65-year—old trees on the plots ranged from eight to twelve inches. 0n the basis of these findings, Goff concluded that yellow birch, a very desirable species commercially, requires near clear—cutting of hemlock-hardwood with a canopy reduction to 20 percent, but leaving a yellow birch seed source. Scarifi- cation would also enhance regeneration. menominee Enterprises and Wisconsin Conservation Depart- m nt foresters stated that their experience with heavy cuttings, including clear-cutting, on the Menominee Forest was negative. Even with fire excluded, regeneration has not been dependable, or has tended to be of low value speci s or low quality hard— k woods with a preponderance of one—log trees. In discussing their unpublished research on evel—aged management of northern hardwoods, Carl Tubbs and Rodney Jacobs, silviculturalists with the United States Forest Service's Northern Hardwoods Laboratory, agreed with the Iknominee Foresters. Their results following strip clear-cutting on the Argonne Experimental Forest, located about 50 miles north of the Menorinee Forest, have provided little support for this system. They indicated that Canadian efforts had been more .0 . ° - - A . ' p. a . 4— 4¢ — ,. J— (.1 SUCCESSlhl in the more nu 10 area east or the Great axes. Their studies on the Dukes Experimental Forest also brought out the tendency of new trees to fork excessively following heavy cutting, thereby reducing the number of high quality logs. This they said was the rost undesirable result of any (D cutting system which removes nor than 50 percent of the stand, especially where sugar maple is a major component. The varying results following clear-cutting on the Menominee Forest and in adjoining regions, especially in northern hard- woods, would appear to indicate that any return to the use of ‘ o [Dc-.813 0 this method should be rude on a conservative Seed Tree Cut- In the only purposeful attempt at use of the seed tree method in 1925-26 by L. 0. Grapp, the operation was restricted entirely to 28—16, the least productive township on the forest. With the exception of a light selection cut over most of this township for improvement purposes in the 195%-63 period, the 1925-26 seed tree cut was the only harvest operation in this township. Since many of the trees marked by Grapp to be left were cut anyhow, tLe Court of Claims regarded this area as part of the clear-cutting. The 191% cruise showed very low volumes present on the sandy soils of this area. lbst sections supported less taan 300 M board feet of sawtimber and very little cordwood. Only Six sections along the southern border exceeded this volume, and of these, only two had gore than one million board feet. The average per acre volure for the entire township at that time was only %50 board feet and 0.3 cords. six sections out of the township showed H) A random sample 0 10% that there has been a reasonable increase in volumes according to the most recent inventory. The average per acre volume over these randomly selected sections equals 3,900 board feet and 6.2 cords, with a low of 260 feet and 3.7 cords on a section which contains a large area of non—forested land. This section was completely within the seed tree cut area. Red pine showed the greatest decline in volume. A large part of the volume in the township is in Hill's oak and aspen, but in some areas, especially the western and southern portions, white and red pine are achieving some re- spectable volumes. The combination of recurrent fires, both before and during the management period, the xeric conditions, and the lack of adequate seed sources has resulted in the pre- sent low degree of productivity in this general area. Where red and white pine seed sources were present, Goff (1966) found pine seedlings to be established in significant numbers. Perhaps if more of Grapp's marked seed trees had been left, the area would be in much better condition today, although the sandy outwash plain is a great fire hazard. Heavy Selection Cut- This system was the first attempt at uneven—aged management on the forest with the exception of the brief trial in 1909—1910 just northwest of NeOpit. The good condition of that area 17 years later prompted Grapp to emulate the cutting system, which amounted to a 70 percent removal on a selection basis. This system was used for six years, from 1927 through 1932, when the heaviness of the cut was questioned, and the 105 move to truck logging allowed a reduction of the cut to 50 percent. The harvesting program from 1927 to 1932 was restricted mostly to 30-14 and l3-16, with some scattered snall areas further south, and involved roughly 16 sections. With the exception of some overlap with the river drive cutting area, most of the area was cut for the first time. Since the areas concerned have sandy loam to loam soils, they supported rela- tively heavy volumes, ranging from 9,000 to 15,000 board feet per acre. The cutting maps indicate that even though host of the 70 percent area has been cut over once or twice since the in- itial cut, the types now present are primarily small sawtimber and large sawtimber size classes with medium to high densities. The 70 percent areas that appear to be in the poorest condition are located in the eastern part of 30-l6, where outwash sands predominate and where some clearcutting had ensued in neighbor- ing areas, a combination of factors conducive to serious fires. Also, granitic rock outcrops are prevalent in that area which would contribute to windthrow in stands cut by heavy selection. To obtain a comparison between former and present volumes on areas that have received this heavy selection cut, conditions on Sections l and 2 of 30-14 were analyzed. They were both cut in 1928 or l929, and both also received a 30 percent cut in the mid-1950's. The volumes in 1914 averaged 11,500 board feet plus about five cords per acre. Current volumes average approxinately 106 8,000 board feet and five cords per acre. It was reported earlier that an average of 10,484 board feet per acre was removed in this type of cut, indicating that approximately 15,000 board feet was the initial stocking. With an allowance for growth and the acknowledged conservativeness of the 191% cruise, the volume before cutting compared favorably with the original volune. In the 30 to 35 years since the 70 percent cut, the sampled area indicates that despite the heavy cut on most areas, followed by a light (less than 30 percent) cut, a resurgence in volume has taken place, until present volumes amount to about 55 percent of those before initial cutting in 1927. The growth, excluding the light cutting of the 1950- 1963 period, has averaged 100 board feet per acre per year. A large part of the area is ready for another cut, with the present volumes far exceeding Harkin's (1966) recommended eco- nomic stocking levels. It would appear that much of tie area has responded suf- ficiently well to this heavy cut to consider heavier cuttings in northern hardwoods and hemlock-hardwoods than those being made currently. The Northern Hardwoods Laboratory silvicultural- ists recommend a 50 percent cut in well-stocked stands. They believe that this puts more growth on fewer trees, thereby short- ening rotation periods without jeOpardizing quality. Salvage Cuts- The 50 percent removal cut program never had the opportunity to really be used; the windstorms of the mid-1930's were the influentitl factors in interrupting this program. 107 A brief review of major salvage areas due to windstorm is made at this point to determine if a1y trends re apparent. p) This is difficult because of the lack of pattern in nature. A windstorm sometimes achieves the equivalent of a prepara- tion cut in the shelterwood system, or clear-cutting in small to medium patches, or leaves only seed trees, but most often achieves effects equivalent to the selection system. The four western townships suffered the most concentrated windthrow damage, although a rather large area in central 30-16 was also affected in 1933. A conparison of present type maps and the salvage cutting map shows that a great preponderance of the area is now in the large sawtimber-heavy density condition, either in northern hardwoods or hemlock-hardwoods. At least one, and in most cases, two light selection cuts have been made on these areas. 'With the exception of a minor amount of cut- ting during the river driving period, the salvage cuts were the first made on these areas and likely were much needed im- provement cuts. The Henominee Forest has been subjected to many wind- storms in the past as indicated ov the number of shallow pits and mounds, called "cradle—knolls" by Hole and Schmude (1959). G. A. Nielsen reported (Soil Survey of Menominee County, 1967) that the vegetation on silty soils in the four western town- ships is much more susceptible to windthrow than that on coarser textured soils. He counted an average of 141 cradle-knolls under mature hemlock—hardwood forest on the Henominee as com- pared to only four per acre under jack oine on sandy soils. J. 108 Windthrow brings about conditions different from those of a cutting in that not only are openings created, but a great deal of mineral soil is also exposed. This is conducive to the regeneration of hemlock and yellow birch, and to seedling regeneration more than to Sprout growth. Ronald Perry, Henominee Enterprises forester, reported higher quality trees regenerating on areas Opened by windthrow than on areas opened by heavy cutting.6 The comparison of species composition and volumes in 1914 and 1963 on almost all sampled sections shows a noticeable in- crease in the volume of all species. Mest of this area had been out shortly before the 191% cruise to salvage tLe 1905 blowdown, so the volumes would have probably been at a low point. An exception to this was Section 14 in 30-13. This complete section was covered by a salvage cut that had been necessitated by the windstorm of 1937. This was followed by a light selection cut begun in 195% and completed in 1957. This section had a total of %,740 M board feet in 1914, and now has approximately 3,500 M board feet. There is much more sapling aspen area in this section than in the surrounding sections, about 200 acres. This area reduces the volume total, since the remaining timber types are mostly large saw timber stands of medium to heavy density. The cordwood volume has increased by 5,000 cords, so the total equivalent board foot volume actually shows an increase. 6Personal communication. 109 Light Selection Cutting- From 1938 to 1950, a program of light cutting ensued with the objective of removing approx- imately 30 percent of the volume in well—stocked stands and to make improvement cuts elsewhere. As the transportation system improved over the years, an even lighter cut was made. In this final stage of development, all virgin portions of the forest received two outs in most instances, and much of the remainder of the forest was cut again. A check of several sections cut only in this light fashion shows a much higher volume today than was listed in the 191% inventory. In 29-16, an area of such poor condition as to exclude all but a limited amount of cutting for salvage purposes during the river driving days, much of the township was covered with one or two light cuts. Five sections out only in this fashion Show an average volume of 3,000 board feet today, whereas in 191% they averaged only 900. The cordwood volumes also have increase tremendously, from an average of one-half cord to 5 cords. All species seem to have responded well to the light cuts. In 29-13, the sampled sections increased from an average of %,000 board feet to 14,000, and from two cords to alrost nine cords per acre. On these heavier soils, sugar maple has shown the greatest increase as a result of this treatment. Hen- lock and elm have also benefitted fron the cuttings. In 30-13, an average of 2,300 board feet per acre had in- creased to 1H,500, an astounding increase since the area was cut over twice within the past 20 years. The amounts cut in 110 the pre—l950 30 percent era ranged from 2,000 to %,000 board feet per acre according to Libby (19%9). The more recent cut averaged about 2,300 board feet per acre. The areas subjected to only hese light cuts are still in a very heavily stocked condition, most of W1 far e goeeding the available recommended silvicultural levels. The species which has benefitted.2 ost has definitely been sugar maple, although all species now exceed their early volumes. It is questionable whether these light cuts are justifiable from either silvicultural or econOL :ic Viewvoiit , especially when dealing with h igh density sawtimber stands. Volume Distribution by Species on the Henominee Forest, l9lH-l963e Table 10 provides an excellent picture of the effects of management on species coaposition over the past fifty years. In spite of the probably cowl vat ive nature of the 1914 in— ventory, and the possibility of bias against certain species LT such as aspen to point that they may have been ign iored, overall changes in species and Moe 1 volumes are very marked. The most impressive change is the gain in total volume. The l963 sawtimber volume shows an increase of 70 percent over that in the 191% survey. The pole-sized timber gained even more in this period, with the 1963 cordwood volume being almost 9 times as large as the lth volume. If the cord volure is converted to its equivalent in board feet (2 cords = 1,000 board feet), and added to the sawti ber volune, the net increase over the 50 years has been approxi i1: y 1,502,761 M1 oard feet, or a net per acre annual increase of aQODOXi'CtCly l60 board 111 Table 10. Volume Distribution by Species, 1914 and 1963. Sawtimber 1914 .. 1963 ‘Species "volume CM board feet) Percent VOIume CM boggd feet)’ Percent white pine 155,626 17.3 324,076 21.2 Red pine 20,131 2.2 30,528 2.0 Jack pine 102 - 3,621 .2 Hemlock 491,538 54.7 367,093 24.1 Cedar 3,630 .4 30,971 2.0 Spruce (black . and white) 350 - 4,101 .2 Balsam fir 131 - 788 .1 Tamarack 4,904 .6 860 .1 .A11 Softwoods 676,412 75.2 762,848 49.9 Sugar maple 62,597 7.0 263,753 17.3 Red maple 16,324 1.1 Yellow’birch 60,738 6.8 105,623 6.9 Basswood 54,641 6.1 93,745 6.1 Elm (all) 28,998 3.2 115,780 7.6 Red oak 8,006 .9 69,945 4.6 ‘White oak - - 14,890 1.0 Beech 4,046 .5 27,219 1.8 .Ash (all) 2,590 .3 14,122 .9 ,Aspen 58 - 34,050 2.2 Miscellaneous 75 - 9,281 .6 fill Hardwoods 221,749 2538 764,732 50.1 Total 898, 161 100 . o 1:52”? ,"s""'sof“ foo . o Viole Sized Timber 19111 1963; rou Cords wfigcent 'Cords Percent Ha: Erdwoi £86512" ‘Tzo ,1L52 92.0 1,329,617" 37.1; Softwoods 18,165 8.0 643,383 32.6 fetal W ,31 10 '."'""'“9"'"‘66""""o 1, 73,0 1““oo.o"""‘" Sources: 1914 data -'Menominee File, Federal Records Center, Chicago. 1963 data -'Menominee Enterprises, Inc., Neapit. feet. During tl1i 5 same period a1~rOV1 971,188 M board feet were harvested, for an eve1ege of 90 board feet per acre over the entire forest. Thus, net increose plus cut equals 250 board feet per acre per year, for an average annual prod- uction of pprox11r telr 56, 000 M board feet. The species shorirg the greatest changes over the years are heulock and sugar maple. Hemlock volune decreased 123,635 M board feet, and its percent% 2c of the to cal volume dropp oed from over half to less than one-fourth. Sugar maple increased by approximately 260,000 M board feet. The early cruises lumped sugar and red maple, but red maple probably played a sm- 11 role in the earlier st-1ds. Suge maple increased from 7 percent to 17.3 percent of the volume. Among other 35 ecies , white pine, red oak, elm and assen have hade considerable gains in volume. COT'jEG 11 so 111th Surrounding forest Area- To co pare the ‘esults of nanag ment on the Hononinee Forest with that of the surrounding forested area, ‘he Eagle Rivei district of the ,1 I) (D _J (D <3 (T) {:11 {—1. E3" I (‘1‘ (‘1‘ H. I J (D Nicolet National Forest was chosen. It differences between the two areas, are predomina11tly due to cutting practices and fire, rather than ther eiiviron entel factors. The Hicolet was forned in the 1930's, and therefore, las been under manageuent approxigately 30 years. The district is composed of about 110,000 acres, or approximately one- -half that of the Henoninee ?orest. According to Gcrgr Koeppen, the district ranger, the allow- able cut on the district is 10 illion board feet.7' Of this, 7Persona1 co 1:1un1 cation. 113 1 approximately one million feet is sawtimber, an: the other nine million is pole-sized timber. The LEnoninee, with twice the land area, has an allowable out four times greater than the district, and a sawtimber cut thirty tines greater! The by-products cut is about equal. The Eagle River district is fairly typical of the forest land in the northern lake States which has been receiving some management, and therefore, this comparison shows that the Rbnominee Forest is an island of predominantly sawtimber in a region of second growth hardwoods and aspen. 114 CON C LUS IONS (l) The history of the Henominee Forest very closely parallels the general history of forestry in the United States, especially the Lake States region. The sequence of events exemplified on the lbnouinee Forest was as follows: (a) The pine cutting era was char cterized by high grading and river driving. (b) A switch to hardwood cutting took place after the bulk of the pine had been removed. This period lasted from about 1900 to 1930 and was dominated by clearcutting and salvage cutting. Partial cutting was practiced minimally, and research on this system and in northern hardwood management in general, was not begun until 1926 (Eyre and Zillgitt, 1953). The Goodman Lumber Corpany, of Goodman, Wisconsin, is given credit for first practicing sustained-yield. Under the Nicholson-Grapp plan of 1930, the Nenominee Forest soon followed suit. (c) Selection silviculture prevailed after 1930, and with the replacement of railroad logging by trucks, the cut became progressively lighter. The introduction of trucks and a widespread road system created better access, and with a greater public awareness of the damaging results of fire, ef- fective fire prevention and control programs made positive forest managenent possible. (d) During the past decade, the development of more so histicated techniques and equipment for regulating and har- FC5 vesting the forest has occurred. Basal area control using the 115 Bitterlich cruising system, growth determination by continuous forest inventory, stock and stand information provided by aerial photography, and management guides resulting from research, all have contributed to a more intensive management program. (e) In the current period, Lake States foresters in general and the Menominee foresters specifically are in a state of soul-searching. The rising costs of management and harvest- ing, complicated by a labor shortage, have created an economic crisis which threatens to cause alterations in the biological aspects of the management program (wambach, 1966). Increased mechanization with its lower cost per unit of volume produced has been necessary to offset higher labor costs and lack of manpower. Macon (1966) indicated that the necessity to mechanize would result in more clearcutting and prescribed burning, since the larger machines need sore space for maneuver— ing and cause excessive damage to the residual stand. .r to that of most Lake r“) (2) Despite a history somewhat simil States forests, the Menominee Forest is unique in that well over 50 percent of the forest area, lhh,#95 acres, is in saw- timber types. The volumes and allowable out are much higher than on any similar area in the Lake States. The overriding factor which has caused this situation was the conservative— ness of the allowable cut over much of the forest's history. A fact which has been determined by hindsight. The allowable cut from 1890 to 1960, set by Congr ss with no volume or growth basis, was 20 million board feet per year. C) 11 The net total of growth and cut determined by this study in- dicates a possible annual cut of 56 million board feet, while determination made on other ba es by Toole (1957) and Harkin (1966), show long-run sustained yield possibilities that range from annual cuts of 35 million to 59 mi_lion board feet. The 1954 CFI program, replaced in 1961 because of its inadequacy, revealed that annual growth in sawtimber types was about 28 million board feet. When pole-sized stands are considered as well, the cut could be close to #0 million board feet (A Plan for Continuous Forest Control, 1961). These data iLdicate that the 20 million board foot allow- able cut was permitting the growing stock to build up, despite fire, windstorm and questionable silvicultural practices, which was a luxury the remaiLder of the forested areas in the Lake States did not enjoy. (3) A historical review of the Henominee Forest did not permit an entirely satisfactory comparis n of the long-term results {'1‘ _’7 of various cutting practices. he 80 years of uncontrolled, severe fires from 185% to l934 have modified very s effects of ‘Le various silvicultural syStems used during that time. The bulk of ale pro—193% cutting took place on the more 0 xeric sit-s of sand and loamy sands. These sites are much more vulnerable to fire (Bax lw66). Most of the post—193% cutting was done on sites with finer textured soils, which are gore o l934 was, of course, C:- fire-resistant sites. The cutting prior dominated by the heavier cutting systems such rs clear-cutting, 117 seed tree, and 70 percent selection, while the cutting since then has been a light selection for the most part. 0 (H) The sueCies benefitting the most my the heavy cutting and subsequent fires during the ecrly period were, as would be expected, the more intolerant pioneer speCies. Aspen, red oak, and white pine are examples. Red oak and aspen show the greatest liant cutting in the later period has been sugar maple, which has increcsed i's presence were than any other species. A continuation of the light cutting of the 1938 to 1960 period would only maintain or right even diminish some of the valuable intolerant species tLat occur on the forest. (5) Severrl species and forest types still present complex silvicultural treatment problems. Hemlock has been reduced by over 50 percent from its initial inventory level. It for- merly made up 57 percent of the forest volume; at aresent it composes only about 25 percent. Because of its low commercial value and its degenerating influence on a site (Baxter, 1966), its reduction can probably be considered as desirable. iowever, its aesthetic value, and its potential in the pulpwood narket, as well as a probable upswing in the framing market8 portend a more optimistic future for this species. If so, the decline in 8Personal report from Wayne Lewis of the Wood Products ‘1 laboratory, Aadison, Wisconsin. 118 hemlocn is a problem. Its sensitivity to e::_posure has always made it vulnerable following partial cutting, and yet its tolerance would seen to indicate that this type of cutting should favor its reproduction. hus far, research has contrib— uted little in regard to the manasement of this species. u b l Yellow birch still poses an eniggn1a, and because of its 1 ~L. value, is attracting more a :ention. To obtain regeneration, opening the stand and scarifying in the presence of a seed source is generally a.g reed to be the bee t practice. Foresters on the Henominee, however, still find that yellow birch reacts negatively to exposure in the same fashion as hemlock. Seed tree cutting, as recommended by Goff (1966) might be most “listic, since only a few trees would be left to suffer from Xposure after their seed dispersal was accomplished. However, quality in the new y esta Mli ed stand might suffer from ex- cessive forking. Other forest types presenting problems are the scrub oak type in 28-16 and 29-16, and the swamp types. The former is a low value type dominated by Hill's oak that has been main- t' —, ~ ’ . I I .4 .— tained by sprou g after the fires frequenting the outwash plain. The oaz‘: even out-cowpet es the higher value aspen and supplemented by Carex meadows, also prevents pine regeneration in areas where pine seed sources occur. This type, which covers ll,%O% acres, should be converted to others which are more productive, such as red pine on the drier sites and aspen on the more mesie ones. The swamp types, both hardwood and conifer, pose very 119 complex problems. These types occur on about 23,000 acres, or about ten percent of the forest, witL conifers covering about 19,000 acres of this area. The Menominee Enterprises forestry staff has found the rates of growth in the swe.np hardv IOOdS to be so low that they are being by—passed in the present manage- ment plan. Swamp conifers have presented a problem in regene- ration over the La‘ice States in genera (MCCulley, 1963), and from the conpa ison of inventories, it appears that the high valued spruce and balsam fir are not making much progress. Commercial clear-cuts in th he 1930's, followed by aartial cut— y"; .1. tings, have not produced a desirable response according LO { 7 Benzie (1963). His studies of various cutting systems lead him to recommend c0}? uplete cle arcut areas of a size that assures seed coverage from sources on the sides. In the swamp conifers, cedar is responding the most vig— orously. The comparative inventory cata indicate this situa- tion, aid 'ml ey are reinforced by st telnents ma -de by the Menominee Enterprises forestry staff. The present economic plight of this species, however, is dl"COUT"°lH This situation was made quite evident at he Swa121p Con ° fer management Seminar held in Eagle U) by the Lake States Council of Industrial Fore ster River, Wisconsin in 1963. (6) The pr marr objectLve of management h.s been the produc- tion of raw material for processing in the sawmill. Since the sawmill has a capacity of between 20 and 251illion board feet a year (with the use of portable mills, this capacity nears 120 the present day sawtimber allowable cut of 30 million), and the forest has a yield potential in excess of 40 million feet, this single-track program of management seems inefficient. This under-harvesting results in the building up of an already overstocked condition. his takes on added significance when the current cost-price squeeze on sawmill operators is taken into consideration (Church and Niskala, 1966). 121 RECOMMETDATIONS The following recommendations, based on the preceding conclusions, emphasize the paintenance or alteration of cur- rent practices with the objective of gaining more efficient use of the wood fiber potential for Henominee Enterprises Incorporated. Adoption of these recommendations should up~ grade the economic productivity of the forest without diminish- ing its silvicultural aspects. (1) The first and most important recommendation is that Menominee Enterprises should diversify its program to obtain more benefits from the abundant and varied raw material base. This diversification should begin with an alteration in the management plan. The most obvious point in this regard is the desirable deviation from almost pure sawtimber management and processing. The forest productivity already exceeds the capacity of the Hill, and with an expected increase in product— ivity because of more intensive management and continued forest protection, tLe sawmill's production should be a major objective, but not the only one. If the better sites, the silt, silt loa , and better sandy loam soils, were utilized for sawtinber production, the average growth per acre determined by the first CFI program of 2l8 feet per year could conservatively be raised to 250 feet (a value approximating the average deternined from 50 years of growth L.) and cut data). With this yield, only 120,000 acres would be __J . -°- ,. J.! '1 .. ,- -‘.. 13,-, F. 2.3 qu 1 needed for reetlng Lfle uiil's needs includiau the port ale 122 mills now in use. This wo;l d leave appr; LuaLely 100,000 acres for a short- er rotation program pro Hd1ci11g material cessing plant. At oresen there is a by-products cut of 25,000 cords annually, as Null as a l%~ton residue per 1,000 board feet of sawmill production that is being sold as chip naterial. The latter ca .te gory eiccludes the residue fro: hemlock, oak and basswood. This tremendous amount of wood fiber is providing the least possible return since stumpage is the only value involved in this exchange. The 120,000 acres suggested Ls a sawtimber working group (‘13 would involve roughly the four western townships plus the northern half of 30-16 and 30-15. The other half of the for- est would be managed with other species and shorter rotations in mind. The reco.needed processing plant would be of the particle board-fibreboard type. ‘Wayne Lewis (1964), of the Forest Prod- ucts laborato ory at Lhdison, Wisconsin, indicates this type of plant efficiently utilizes fiber and presents a n1n11ai problem in regard to water pollution. 0n the basis of the current by-products production, and the residue :m1 iliulc fro. n the will, it would aspen“ that the forest could support a 200-ton capacity board plant. With an estinated required investuent of $3 million per 100 tons, this \ V would necessitate an investment of about p6 3111103. Hark:Ln (1966) has :eviewed possible sources of capital for this type or development. One grouping Schwartz prac tically heterogeneous L81 0 - (.1 in and species can be used in this type of oroceCSins, but that an individual mill usually his to 0e fairly selective in the species it uses. TLis would seer to indicate a need for managing the short rot-tion area for two or three species only, probably aspen and pine. These are the lo3ica1 species to reduce on the ads and sandy loan of the eastern half of the fore t from a silvicultural standpoint, anyhow. A tudy of the part cle board narket in by Duncan (1965) indicated a need from also, the Study s1owed y firms to be intC'; bozrl CS F substitute r curre1t materials The sales force of the Ieno ;inee Ente 3 a better pos1tion with both lumber and partic portfolio. For those ““ 15 not usable in board plant, it is re ended that they being sold to the eulo and paper ind11stry. in the woods efficiently ”ltfl advance ent in 1" thereby allow 1 1966) . or the lowering of (lhcon, The res submarginal stands into cc"nerci 1 assets. (2) Silviculturally, it is recommended that 12% the southeast or on the La: -rariseSM1 be chipped This cxui'be pulpwood quality stan ult will be the conver the Nor' h Central such plants. -bv ested in particle '1 ‘ ,.. being used. .- ould be in be rd in its 1 the ticle yqn 11 ‘_‘L ._'_ before ( ”.4 technology, an dards sion of currently guides (Arbogast, 1957) now being used should be continued in the sawtimber working groups. These guides have resulted in cuttings as Lea vy as the 70 percent cuts of 1909 and 1927- 1933. However, this is a desirable change fro on the light cuttings of the 30 percent and lighter "ris ‘1: and vigor" days. It is suggested that the guide, now in force, which allows cuttings up to one—fifth-acre in size be emphasized. Not only should this allow more mechanization such as using rubber- tired skidding equipment to keep costs down, but it will favor intolerant species like yellow birch to a greater degree. Group areas larger than this apparen.t1‘ have c eated problems {/4 in regeneration and subsequent tree quality. Groups not to exceed one-fifth—acre are probably the best answer to yellow birch regeneration and quality problems and its susceptibility to exposure. Various forms of even-a aCed nagement should be used for the non-sawtimber working groups. Clear—cutting should be used in the aspen and swamp conifer types, seed-tree in the red pine type, and shelterwood in the white pine type. The scrub oak, upland brush, and Carex meadows should be converted to a1ore productive conditions as soon as ieasible. This probably should be done by prescribed burning in the sum- mer, as indicated by Buckran (1962), and by cutting where appropri- as in merchantable oak stELnds. If an appropriate seed 1' ate, sucl source is lac kiwi , planting will be necessary. Red pine is the logical species to plant at the present time. 125 (3) A great asset of the forest, which is still not reeting its potential, is ts recreational value. At present, hbnominee Enterpris scharges fees for hunting and fining, and is grant- ing leases for summer cot ages on a fee basis. Also, various programs for maintaining the Wolf River in its present form as a "wild river", and the acquisition of land along its shore for a state park are being discussed. The Wolf River Valley Planning Coami sion under the leadership of Gordon Bubbolz of Appleton, Wisconsin is attempting to upgrade the recreational potential through the training of county residents as guides and naturalists, as well as the development of a nature inter- pretation center. TLis analysis would recommend a discontinuance of the sunmer cottage s be leasing program. The valuable shore line property should be retain ed for publis use on a fee basis allow- ing for a greater turnover of users and flexibility for control. The nearness to population centers and the overcrowding of nearby public cam grounds indicate that well developed facilities would attract tourists and campers to the forest. To realize the potential revenue attracted by the forest, M Loninee Enterprises or forest residents should pr wvide services such as grocery stores and service stations in concentrated areas (’i‘ to lose the wilderness environment. Facilities such 5 O 0 {IS U) as that advocated by the Wolf River Planning oim1ssion sliould be free or administered on a low fee basis so as to encourage the retention and return of visitors. Excessive 1rices WOLlld fl divert people to national and s 'te ICC cili farther north. ri- 126 To enhance the potential recreational use, silvicultural practices should be modified along all roads and bodies of water to maintain an environment that is consistently pleasant I .- iOL out based on 0 tree sele (D ingl U) to the a sthetic sense. A O _ risk and vigor would be the logical system ior such areas. Such a cutting systen should be applied for a distance of approximately 200 feet on either side of a road, and for about 1,500 feet from a body of water. The roadside band would be wide enough to provide a "wilderness" atmosphere for sightseers in cars, while the wider zone along the river would diminish possible erosion from skid trails as well as to provide for more desirable side trips for canoeists taking respites. 127 LITERATURE CITED Annual Forestry Reports, Menominee Forest. 1931, 1936—39, 19%2, 1948-49, 1952, and 1958. Henominee File. Federal Records Center, Chicago. Annual Reports of Menominee Indian Agents. 1865, 1869-70, 187%, 1882-83, 1885, and 189%. Henominee File. Federal Records Center, Chicago. Arbogast, Carl. I957. Markinnguides for Northern Hardwoods under the Selection System. Lake States Forest Experiment Station Paper No. 36. US Forest Service, St. Paul. B. . . . . , J. F. 1908. The Government in the Lumber Business. lbnuscript of proposed magazine article sent to Senator R. M. LaFollette. lhnominee File. Federal Records Center, Chicago. Baxter, Paul. 1967. "Genesis of Upland Soils of Menominee County". Soil Survey Bulletin of anominee County. Soil Survey Div- ision, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. University of Wisconsin, Hadison. Benzie, John W. 1963. Cutting Methods Studies in Swamp Conifers. Paper presented at the Third Annual Seminar of Lake States Council of Industrial Foresters. Eagle River, Wisconsin. Brigham E. J. 191%. Letter to A. S. Nicholson Concerning Cutting Au hority on Menominee Forest. Nhnominee File. Federal Records Center, Chicago. Buckman, Robert. 1962. Two Prescribed Summer Fires Reduce Abundance_gpd Vigor of Hazel Brush Regrowth. Tech. note No. 620. “kc States Forest Experiment Station. U. S. Forest Service, St. Paul. Carter, E. E. 1909. Instructions Regarding the marking of Timber at Menominee. Menominee File. Federal Records Center, Chicago. Chapman, H. H. 1957. The Henominee Indian Timber Case. Agricul- tural Library. University of Wisconsin, Madison. Church, T. W., Jr. and Niskala, G. R. April, 1966. "An Elixer for Sawmills: Cut Cants". The Northern Logger. 14: 18-19. Davis, Kenneth. 1960. "Progress in Forest lhnagement". American Forestgy: Six Decades of Growth. Society of American For— esters. Washington. 128 Delaney, Richard. 1938. Need for Definite Operating Poligy, Menominee Forest. Forestry File 339.7. Neopit, Wisconsin. Dickinson, R. W. 1951. Personal letter to Willard C. Howe, Portland, thine. Menominee File. Federal Records Center, Chicago. Duncan, E. N. 196%. Particleboard Market Analysis, North Central Region. Industrial and Agricultural Development Department. Great Northern Railway. St. Paul. Eyre, F. H. and Zillgitt, W. M. 1953. Partial Cuttings in Northern Hardwoods of the Lake States. Lake States Forest Experiment Station Technical Bulletin No. 1076. U. 8. Forest Service. St. Paul. Frothingham, E. H. 1914. Report on Inspection of Recently Cut- over Areas on the Menominee Indian Reservation. Menominee File. Federal Records Center, Chicago. Goff, F. Glenn. 1967. "Upland Vegetation of Menominee County". Soil Survey Bulletin of Menominee County; Wisconsin. Soil Survey Division, Wisconsin Geological and Natural History Survey. University of Wisconsin, Madison. Grapp, L. O. 1926. Report of the Feasibility of Selective Logging and Brush Disposal on the Reservation. Menominee File. Federal Records Center, Chicago. and Heritage, William. 1929. Report on Area Logged Selectively and to a Diameter Limit from l92h~28. Menominee File. Federal Records Center, Chicago. Graves, Henry. 1911. Principles of Handling Woodlands. John Wiley and Sons, New Yorc. Grieber, Clarence L. 196%. "Vocation Training Sought for Menominees". Green ay Gazette-December 22. Green Bay, 'Wisconsin. H. . . . . , J. A. 1907. Report on Logging in Recent Years on the Menoninee Indian Reservation, Wisconsin. Menominee File. Federdl Records Center, Chicago. Harkin, Duncan. 1966. Issues in Eeonouic Development: The HenOKinee County Wisconsin, Case. Unpublished PhD. Dissertation. D .t. of Agricultural Econofiics. UniverSity I} J I .. ‘P A .I \D O O -!_ >0 ‘ - '— '0 .0 Hole, FrenCis end Schnude, Keith. 1959. 80-1 Survey or Oneida ' ' -'. “,7,“ -—°-: :,. 1.1m. .. '-,-, r1_ c"? County, Wisconsi_. Soil Suite; DIVLSLQ disconsin aeolegicrl T} A ---r‘, -_- a: -..’J. 7.4"1-. and Naturcl listery Survey. UHIVGfT; JRUISOD- 'H T- H. F4 A‘ rm . -‘~ 0.- ‘.‘I-‘_ ,CULI; 1., \J . .r -- ,. -. ”x tn' 7' 1 -14. -1 n -F-‘ " ’~ 'hees1ng, FcflgL-. 1,39. ‘Usue.-eno;1nee 11111nr3«a1 W1sco1sin". Memoirs of the Anerican Philosophical Society. Vol. 10 Independence Square, Philadelphia. Kinney, J. P. 1911. Section of Report on Menominee Indian Res ervation QR Edw rd E. Ayer. Member of Board of Indian C031 ssioners. St te Hi -torica1 Society. Madison, Jisconsin. . 19%5. Report on Menominee Indian Forest for Robert E. infironey ,chief, rial Section, Dept. of Justice. U. S. Govern ent Fri iting fice. We1h11gton, D. C. . 1951. Indian Fores WasLington, D. C. Land Survey Field Notes. 1353, 1o90. Field notes concern1,g 28-15;_1@ 29-13. 1%. 15, 16; 3o-13 1h 15, 16. State find Sb wr ey Off ice. Capitol Bldg. Ma ison, Wisconsin Lewis, W. C. 1964. Board Meterials fron Wood Residues. U. S Forest Service Research Note. FPL~O77. lhd1son, Wisconsin. and Schwartz, S. L. 1965. Insu11ating Boa r , Hard- board, and 0* her Structu a1 Fibreoo rds. U. 3. Forest Service Reseaich Note. FPL~O77. 1131s01, Wisconsin. Libby, John W. 19%9. The Fore 3t 1anaee1ent Probl of the Menominee Indian Forest. OlOmlflGG Euter011scs File 339.AK3. Neopit, Wis cons 11. . 1950. A Review of F01est Co ale 0 - Menominee File. eecr.1 Records Celter, Cg‘ Little, E. L., Jr. 1953. heck List of Native and Faturalized Trees o1 t1 e United Stctes (Includi1 g r1a111). U. S. Dept. of lcri culture. Agriculture Handbook No. M1. ILcon, J} W. 1966. "Sore Mo ces Shapin I1sOOISLW‘s Forests". Talk given to Wisc0131n C01scrv1tion De1a1t ent. lhdison, ‘Jis cons n. McCulley, R. D. 1963. An Introdcc tion to Swa p Conifer Ennage- ment. Paper presented at the Third Annua.1 Seminar of the Lake Sta'es Counci f it ustri: 1 Force ers. Eagle River, Wisconsin. Plan for Continuous Forest Control of Menow 1 s Incorporated Innds. 1961. Menominee An erlr' es, Inc. lilo. Neopit, Wisconsin. 130 Ridlington, I c r. 1950. A Review of Problems AffectingAGood Forest Practices on the Menominee Reservation, Lbnominee File. Federal Records Center, Chicago, Illinois. Soil Survey Bulletin of Henominee County, Wisconsin. 1967. Soil Survey Division, Wiscons'n Geological and Natural History Survey. University of Wisconsin, Mhdison. Stott, Cal. 1954. Forest Control by Continuous Inventory. U. S. Forest Service. hhlwaukee, Wisconsin. No. 9. Toole, Arlie. 1958. Industrial Potential of the Timber Resource of the Menominee Indian Reservation. Preliminary report for University of Wisconsin. Business Advisory Committee on Industrial Development Problems. Lake States Forest Experiment Station. St. Paul. U. S. Census of Population. 1961. Wisconsin: General Social and Economic Characteristics. U. S. Government Printing. Office. washington. University Extension Division. 1956. Report to the Menominee Indian Study Committee. Bureau of the Government. University of Wisconsin, Endison. pp. 1-9. Wambach, R. F. 1966. The Effect of Mechanization on Silviculture. Paper presented at Sixth Annual Seminar, zcke States Council of Industrial Foresters. Eagle River, Wisconsin. 131 ADDITIONAL REFERENCES Annual Forestry Reports, Henominee Forest. 1932-35, 1940, Federal Records Center, Chicago. Annual Reports of Henominee Indian Agents. 1866, 1871-73, 1875-76, 1879-81, 188%, 1886-93. Ebnominee File. Federal Records Center, Chicago. Annual Statements of Menominee Indian Hills. 1908-25. Menominee File. Federal Records Center, Chicago. Anonymous. . A Brief History of the Henominee Nation. Forestry File 339.3 Neopit, Wisconsin. Peters, J. G. and Murphy, L. S. 1911. Designation of Timber for Cuttizg, Henominee Indian Reservation. Menominee File. Federal Records Center, Chicago. Stott, Cal. 1955. Letter Concerning CFI program on Menominee Forest. Forestry File. 339.7. Neopit, Wisconsin. Uhler and.1Mrray. 1908. Report to E. A. Braniff of Available Timber Resources in43O-l6, and Sec. 1,330-15; Henominee File. Federal Records Center, Chicago. Valentier, R. G. 1911. Letter to A. S. Nicholson Concerning Pronosed Reduction in Production at henominee. Menominee File. Federal Records Center, Chicago. Winner, Lee. 1955. Historical Review of management on the lbnoninee Forest. Forestry File 339.3. Neopit, Wisconsin. 132 PERSONAL INTERVIEWS Allworden, William. 1966. Wisconsin Conservation Department Forest Technician on Menominee Forest. Keshena, Wisconsin. Becker, Robert. 196%~66. Former Wisconsin Conservazion Department Laision Forester on the Henoninee Forest. Keshena, Wisconsin. Lewis, Wayne. 1967. Civil Engineer at Wood Products Laboratory, U. S. Forest Service. Pbdison, Wisconsin. Perry, Ronald. 1965-67. Menominee Enterprises, Incorporated Forester. HeOpit, Wisconsin. Tubbs, Carl and Jacobs, Rodney. 1967. Silvicultnralists U. S. Forest Service Norther: Hardwoods laboratory. Lhrquette, lfichigan. Stott, Cal. 1966. Advisor of CFI program on Menominee Forest. U. S. Forest Service (Ret.) Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 133 Appendix I. Volumes and values of Timber Cut -1850-1960, and Areas of Timber Cutl ~1908-1960 Fiscal Area Cut Volume Cut Stumpage Yhar Acres ‘MBF value 1865 600 $ 1,800 1872 2,000 6,000 1873 2,500 7,500 1870 2,000 6,000 1875 5,000 15,000 1876 13,175 39,525 1882 5,200 15,600 1883 6,000 18,000 1880 0,000 12,000 1885 5,200 15,600 1886 300 900 1887 0,000 12,000 1888 8,300 20,900 1889 18,218 50,650 1890 25,692 77,076 1891 22,770 68,310 1892 20,000 60,000 1893 20,000 60,000 1890 13,330 39,990 1895 17,000 51,000 1896 17,000 51,000 1897 17,000 51,000 1898 16,000 08,000 1899 16,000 08,000 1900 15,000 05,000 1901 15,000 05,000 1902 15,000 05,000 1903 15,000 05,000 1900 20,000 60,000 1905 20,000 60,000 1906 12,500 37,500 1907 40,0002 17,500 52,500 1908 08,500 105,500 1909-11 10,327 50,609 205,700 1912 1,089 37,068 166,806 1913 1,795 36,900 166,230 1910 2,506 26,663 119,983 1915 1,050 22,911 103,099 1916 898 19,997 89,986 1917 500 19,190 86,355 1918 309 15,532 69,890 1919 006 18,021 82,890 1920 195 17,525 78,862 IAreaa involve only nonpealvage cuts; except for those years dominated by salvage. 2Approximate area cut: 1865-1907 130 Appendix 1., Continued Stumpage Fiscal Area Cut Volume Cut leer Acres MBP value 1921 2,017 17,800 $ 80,100 1922 1,669 10,070 05,315 1923 376 23,078 105,651 1920 982 22,850 102,825 1925 506 5,866 26,397 1926 5,787 12,859 57,865 1927 1,902 27,676 120,502 1928 1,672 20,111 90,099 1929 1,079 20,582 92,619 1930 1,180 10,876 66,902 1931 1,510 18,113 81,508 1932 1,508 17,903 80,563 1933 520 3,796 17,082 1930 1,620 18,182 81,819 1935 2,977 23,216 100,072 1936 3,016 31,508 101,966 1937 5,825 29,800 130,298 1938 2,755 27,079 279,736 1939 3,100 10,707 150,120 1900 0,160 20,801 211,750 1901 5,153 20,006 200,068 1902 5,211 20,309 102,979 1903 0,300 19,980 150,189 1900 5,102 20,181 187,063 1905 0,183 19,960 215,758 1906 3,086 20,735 228,068 1907 0,702 20,775 300,932 1908 5,035 17,556 011,733 1909 3,885 21,916 060,602 1950 6,760 23,671 021,550 1951 0,288 20,238 279,020 1952 7,200 18,658 015,227 1953 10,368 19,628 053,636 1950 8,080 19,890 065,305 1955 11,179 20,536 077,383 1956 8,930 20,103 089,602 1957 11,180 21,056 558,560 1958 10,027 21,059 532,700 1959 6,698 16,158 381,903 1960 6,901 21,871 532,528 1961 0,983 17,210 025,908 1962 6,500 25,028 629,303 1963 6,753 26,100 606,070 1960 9,971 32,351 800,687 Totals 270,101 1,600,257 10,620,667 Source: Annual Reports - 1865-1960. .0nwn xoen can .ocan cues: .ouam con nonsmoaaw .uuaa came eaaqa mnmqw omm.n mm on” an non ma“ ume cam «mm mm~.~ no mean asun~-om .smoa nowa>aam . - os~.a - z - mom on: emo.~ . can can.~ mmH amaa .mmuamaa "aoauoaaom mac.“ m0~.m mum.” on man mag an” ea» can.“ awn new man so moan .mma~ , m-n~-a~ .Haumoa_ noma>~um - coa .ma~.~ . - - gem new we“ a mum “ma am sue" -wmoaanaomvcoauooaom cno ma~.« mah.m aw an“ a «so.~ «ma wo~.~ an: :«m «as oma mega y'aa-om «Naunfimmuv aoauooaom . one." gun.“ a u u see «ha.a om: . cow “mm.“ umm.« ago” .mm-~ma~ “coauuoaom cum can." 803 a a a u - n o - «a «a» «033 -no~-m~ .o«a~ “coup noon emu - inmwm . - I swam ago" ona “an.“ as: an e on «a as am an an ow aw mama .muaa .uaunaoa caganaow .ausuuaaao - mow sum.~ . - . me, aw aw - mag nmm.~ aa~ aaoa mm~ who,” “mu we - - so a a as an em a mead .Hmmu .m~-m~a_ cauaaaom “usauuuaw . cow.“ "on.~H . u . hm mum «mm a mn~.~ nmm.m mum.“ sums can afloum fine «mm - N "3 MN an on m a" mu mega .aaoa .a~-o~a~ -1¢~uon «usauaoao oom.~ oo~.a ~80.» . - . mmmv "an.“ 003.3 . aha." ~05.” can cams m~0.~ ee«.m on» can u e an a nu mu n ma aum mead .aoa~-mowa munoauom "ao>aue uo>am mag co “a - - n s - n - - a a" aMMH ma~.H amass auo.~ - o as a mw n: «ma we “mg on“ nom— .~oa~-moma mm-m~uon ":o>auu uo>mml - my mm - u n - - - u - n ma age" ah«.a «as H omega «as m an mm an em a: an an mmn.~ mead .Acaanmoma maumasoa u:o>uuu uobwm : 3 1m. 1 n I I u u a s s : amok 923» .25 £8 2:33 an: :3 Ba .32 0388 e00 oops «use aga. coo: ago gonna noon «can can ago «a 00mm. -ummm .uacn_ auumm 00304 1:00»: paeem sum -oaam «Haas. wax .u. -aun cyan: 90:00:99 .ucoauaupa unusuazow>~fim ucuuuaoa a w=w>wooom muowuoom no Amomu one sumAV «daemon hendz.uo Goaaudmaoo os=~o> .HH xaceoaa< -m.~ ammaaa mmm.a ea was an ume awn oom.~ New “an mne.¢ can mama .aozamma muaagon .maaa "aoauooamm, : mew ~H0.e . - s “as am: mom u on: soa.a cm :33“ con.~ nam.a «No.3 an" ma ea" am an cam «my mau “no nom.~ moaa .amu~-omaa anseanom "uoaaooaom - on“ oa~.~ - - u - a s a aa men.~ a~n.~ caaa mma.~ oaauw mom.- mm am no awn on" "as man dam ewe." 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