COAL SPOILS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE
GROWTH OF PINE SEEDLINGS

Thesis for tho Dogm of Ph. D.

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

GeraId Lafayette Lowry
1961

 

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

SOME PHYSICO—CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WEATHERING
COAL SPOILS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE
GROWTH OF FINE SEEDLINGS
presented by

Gerald Lafayette Lowr'y

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

L degree in E are SI: Qt
IK 'Owur; (a/‘f //" 4/ ~ .5 thw

 

Major professor

Date Mal 11, 1961

0-169

LIBRARY

Michigan State
University

 

ABSTRACT
SOME PHYSIOO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
WEATHERING COAL SPOILS AND THEIR
INFLUENCE ON THE GROWTH OF PINE SEEDLINGS
by Gerald L. Lowry

Nineteen different coal spoils and one normal soil from.0hio were
studied to determine what effect soil-forming factors have on the rate
and magnitude of physical, chemical and biological changes. The effect
of site and soil factors on tree seedling survival and growth was also
studied.

Test samples were crushed, placed in plastic lysimeters and posi-
tioned in two rows alongside an underground observation cellar. The
entire installation was designed to duplicate as nearly as possible the
normal conditions of field weathering. As a test plant eastern white
pine (Ping; gtrgbug L.) was planted in each sample for each of two
summers.

At the end of 21 months of weathering it was found that spoil
reaction had the greatest effect on the rate of weathering. Reactions
of pH 2.1 to 2.8 were found to be related to the deepest weathering
whereas those of pH 7.5 and above showed the least. Samples exhibiting
the deepest weathering resulted in the most water loss through evapo-
transpiration and the least amount of leachate. Surface bulk densities
were significantly less in the deeper weathered materials but surface
runoff was greater.

Total soluble salt concentrations of the leachate were greatest
in the very acid spoils and were in excess of 7 percent on one case.
The occurrence of toxic ions of Fe, A1 and Mn were well correlated

with both high total salts and very acid soil reactions. Leachate

analysis indicated a domination of sulfates, particularly Ca and Mg,
with lesser amounts of Na and K. Significant quantities of toxic ions
occurred only below pH 3.0.

Mortality of test seedlings was correlated best with the presence
of Fe and Al in the soil solution. Complete seedling mortality occurred
above 400 ppm of toxic ions. Similarly, mortality was complete when
soil solutions contained more than one percent of total soluble salts.
Seedling growth and tissue nitrogen was well correlated with the amount
of nitrogen in the substrate. All seedlings growing on spoil exhibited
nitrogen deficiencies. No other nutrient deficiencies could be detected
by visual observation or tissue analysis although the level of phospho-
rus and potassium was sometimes low.

Mechanical analysis of the spoil materials showed a large number
of samples with high silt and clay content. In the clay fraction
illite was always present and usually was dominant. Kaolinite was the
second most common mineral, often with small percentages of vermiculite
and chlorite also present. The sand and silt fractions were composed
primarily of quartz. Smaller amounts of carbonates, feldspars and
muscovite occurred in the silt and sand fractions. Heavy minerals
constituted as much as four percent of the spoil in one instance, but
were not related to any biological observation. The type or quantity
of observed minerals was not associated with either growth or survival
of seedlings.

Temperature measurements at various depths indicated only minor
differences between spoils. No heat lesions were observed on seedling

stems.

Gas analysis of the spoil air taken at varying depths indicated
wide variation between spoils. Those spoils exhibiting wide variation
were also high in leachate toxic ions but not all toxic spoils showed
marked deviations in gas composition when compared to the normal soil.
Observed oxygen deficits were probably the result of oxidation of car-
bonaceous and sulfide materials whereas high carbon dioxide concen-
tration was attributed to the chemical breakdown of carbonates and
oxidation of minute carbon particles.

Some Physico-chemical Properties of Weathering Coal
Spoils and Their Influence on the Growth

of Pine Seedlings
by

Gerald Lafayette Lowry

Submitted to the School for Advanced Graduate Studies of
IMichigan State University of.Agricu1ture and
Applied Science in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the degree of

D 0 C T 0 R O F P H I L 0 S 0 P H Y
Department of Forestry

1961

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to extend sincere thanks to Dr. Donald P. White
who, as major professor, supervised the organization and writing of
this study.

Deeply appreciated is the financial support and physical facilities
made available by the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station. Special
thanks are extended to Dr. 0. D. Diller, Chairman, Department of
Forestry, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station for his encouragement
throughout the planning and operation of the study; the staff of the
Ohio Reclamation.Aseociation, Ohio Division of Reclamation and the
individual coal producers of Ohio for their assistance in the selection
and collection of spoil samples; the technical staff of the Forestry
and.Agronomy Departments, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station for
their helpful suggestions throughout the course of the study; Dr. C. R.
Weaver, station statistician; Mr. James H. Finney, agricultural tech-
nician for assisting in maintenance of equipment and laboratory analysis;
and Dr. Paul H. Struthers, Assistant Professor of Agronomy, Ohio
Agricultural Experiment Station for his assistance with chemical
analysis.

The author also wishes to thank the other members of the Graduate
Committee, Drs. A. E. Erickson, T. D. Stevens, J. W. Wright and J.

Zinn, for their helpful comments.

ii

V I T A
Gerald Lafayette Lowry
Candidate for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Final Examination; May ll, 1961

Dissertation: Some Physico-chemical Properties of Weathering Coal
Spoils and Their Influence on the Growth of Pine Seedlings

Outline of Studies:

Major subject: Forestry
'Minor subjects: Botany, Geology, Soils

Biographical Items:
Born, September 12, 1928, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania
Undergraduate Studies:

The Pennsylvania State University, 1948 - 1953
3.8. Forestry 1953

Graduate Studies:

Oregon State College, 1953 - 1955
M.S. Soils - Minor, Forestry 1955

Ohio State University - 1958
Special student

Michigan State University 1958 — 1959
ms. Forestry 1961

Experience: Fireman Lookout, USNPS 3 months
Park Ranger, USNPS 6 months
Forester, Oregon State Board of Forestry 6 months
Graduate Res. Asst., Oregon State College 18 months
Asst. Professor, Ohio State University 6 months
Graduate Res. Asst., Michigan State Univ. 12 months
Instructor, Ohio Agr. Experiment Station 5 years

Member: Society of.American.Foresters
Soil Science Society of America
Xi Sigma Pi

iii

T A B L E O F C 0 N T E N T S

ABSTRACT

TITLE RAGE

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

VITA

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF APPENDICES

INTRODUCTION

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE

MATERIALS.AND METHODS
Collection of samples
Processing of samples
Lysimeters
Observation cellar
Physical measurements
Mineral analysis

Chemical measurements

Biological measurements

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Physical Measurements

Bulk Density

Spoil Temperature

Hydrologic Factors

iv

Page

ii
iii
vi

viii

l3
l5
l5
l9

8

29
31
33
35
35
35
42

TABLE OF CONTENTS(CONTINUED)

Physical Measurements (continued)
Rate of Weathering
Spoil Color
Mechanical Analysis

Mineral Composition
X-ray Diffraction Analysis
Heavy Minerals

Chemical Measurements
Acidity
Leachate Salts
Rock Analysis
Spoil Gas Analysis

Biological Measurements
Seedling Survival
Seedling Growth
Tissue Analysis
Fish Trials

SUMMARY AND CDNCLUSIONS
LITERATURE CITED

APPENDIX

52
54
67
69
69
78
78
'78
82

99

99
103
105
111
117
122

126

3.
4.
5.
6.

8.
9.
10.
11.

12.

13.

15.

16.

17.

18.
19.
20.
21.

LIST OF TABLES

Sample area location and general description of samp1e
materials.

Changes in bulk density of spoils as a function of
time.

Changes in bulk density of spoil materials with depth.
Depth of weathering in relation to bulk density.
Summary of hydrologic observation of spoil materials.
Depth of weathering in relation to spoil acidity.
Munsell color notations of spoil samples.

Mechanical analysis of samples.

Mineral composition of the sand fraction.

Mineral composition of the silt fraction.

Clay mineral composition of spoil materials.

Dehydration of spoil in relation to type of clay
mineral. '

Heavy mineral analysis of spoils.
Seasonal changes in acidity of spoil leachates.

Seasonal changes in salt concentrations of spoil
leachates.

Summary of chemical composition of spoil leachates in
relation to white pine survival.

Total nitrogen and salt content of unweathered spoil
rock.

Survival and growth of white pine seedlings.
Nutrient element status of white pine seedlings, 1959.
Nutrient element status of white pine seedlings, 1960.

Occurrence of volunteer weed vegetation.

vi

Page
16

36

39
41
45
53
65
68
73
75
76

77

79
80

83

86

91

100
106
107
112

LIST OF TABLES (CONTINUED)
Table

Page
22. Weight of volunteer weed vegetation. 113
23. Summary of preliminary investigations into the 116
toxicity of spoil leachates to the blunt-nosed
minnow 0

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

15.

16.

17.
18.

19.

Machines used by the larger coal companies to
remove rock and soil overlying the coal.

Relief map of the State of Ohio.

Distribution of land stripped for coal in Ohio.
Aerial views of typical coal stripping operations.
Typical revegetation on marginal spoils.

Sample area locations.

Stages in the processing of samples.

Plastic lysimeters prior to installation.

Sectional view of plastic lysimeters and measurement
devices when filled with spoil.

Inner view of the observation cellar.

Stages in the construction of the observation
cellar.

Solu—Bridge conductivity meter as adapted for
temperature measurement with thermistors.

Temperature regime by depth of a representative
spoil.

Accumulative water use patterns of spoil materials
(samples 1-5).

Same (samples 6-10).
Same (samples 11-15).
Same (samples 16-20).

Two stages in the breakdown of spoil materials
(samples 1-3).

Same (samples 4-6).

Same (samples 7-9).

viii

Page

omb

C0

17
18
21
22

23
26

27

43

48

49
5O
51
55

56

57

LIST OF FIGURES (CONTINUED)

Figure

21.

22.

23.

25.

26.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

35.
36.
37.

Two stages in the breakdown of spoil materials
(samples 10-12).

Same (samples 13-15).
Same (samples 16-18).
Same (samples 19-20).

Coloration of spoil materials and white pine
seedlings (samples 1-8).

Same (samples 9-14).
Same (samples 15-20).

X-ray diffraction patterns of a sandy loam mineral
subsoil (sample 6).

X-ray diffraction patterns of a toxic sandy loam
spoil (sample 9).

Xéray diffraction patterns of a calcareous clay
spoil (sample 11).

Changes in the concentration of oxygen and carbon
dioxide of the spoil air (sample 4).

Same (sample 5).
Same (sample 10).
Same (sample 11).
Same (sample 17).
Same (sample 20).

Minnow trials showing tank, aeration system and
fish kill.

Page

58

59

61

62

63
64
7O

71

72

93

94
95
96

98
115

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix

1. Simple correlations.

2. Multiple regression analyses.

3. Changes in the concentration of sulfate ion in
the leachate.

4. Changes in the concentration of calcium in the
leachate.

5. Changes in the concentration of magnesium in
the leachate.

6. Changes in the concentration of sodium in the
leachate.

7. Changes in the concentration of potassium in
the leachate.

8. Changes in the concentration of iron in the
leachate.

9. Changes in the concentration of aluminum in
the leachate.

10. Changes in the concentration of manganese in
leachate.

11. Common and scientific plant names used in the

text.

Page
126
130

134

135

136

137

138

139

INTRODUCTION

Strip-mining, or surface mining as it is sometimes called, accounts
for the major part of the bituminous coal mined in Ohio. Deep mining
at the present time accounts for less than one-third of the total coal
mined. The change-over from deep mining to surface methods of coal
recovery was most rapid in the decade 1940 to 1950, in which the amount
of coal surfaceemined increased from.2ni to 60%. A somewhat slower
rate of change has occurred in the decade 1950 to 1960, but is still
rising according to the Ohio Department of Agriculture biennial report
of 1958.

The chief reason for the increase of surface mining is the lesser
quantity of thick veined coal suitable for deep mining and the availa-
bility of larger stripping machinery to remove deep—lying thin veins.
The larger shovels such as that depicted in figure 1 can transport in
excess of 50 cubic yards of rock and soil and effectively remove over-
burden up to 80 or 90 feet. Draglines similar to but larger than shown
in figure 1 can effectively remove up to 120 feet of overburden, but
bucket capacities are less. As a result of the larger machines the
tonnage of coal has steadily increased. A typical recent year (1957)
is estimated at having production in excess of 25 million tons. This
represents approximately 10,500 acres of land which was either stripped
or covered with soil and rock. This amount of stripping for a single
year is typical of the last lO-year period (1950 - 1960).

The total amount of land directly affected by strip-mining in Ohio
since its beginning in 1914 has not been exactly determined since area

estimates in the early years were not required by law.

 

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three 05 95.3.85 :8 use xoou opoaon 3 3.23930 deco hound.“ one .3 com: 35:er .H 0.53%

 

 

 

However, several reliable estimates made independently by Limstrom in
1948 and by Knudsen in 1954 when brought up to date place the affected

area as of June 30, 1960 at approximately 172,000 acres or about 267
square miles.

More important perhaps, than the total acreage affected is the
distribution of these areas. In Ohio, coal deposits are restricted
to the southeastern one quarter of the state, which coincides with the
western edge of the.Allegheny Plateau. In this province the strata
are essentially flat lying, dipping only slightly toward the south-east.
The coal fields are typified by moderate relief (figure 2) which is in
a mature stage of dissection.

Commercial deposits of coal are not evenly distributed over the
producing region but rather tend to be concentrated into several
smaller areas. Figure 3, taken from the work of Knudsen (1954),
illustrates the patchy nature of strip-mine operations.

Locally, the pattern of strip—mining is even more scattered,
often affecting only isolated hilltops or ridge sides. Figure 4
serves to illustrate the nature of typical shovel mining in the
northern and western portion of the coal fields. Further south, the
stripping tends to contour the ridges forming narrow sinuous bands
often extending for miles but being as little as 50 yards in width.
The larger deposits occurring in the eastern and northern portions
are more or less continuous and cover hundreds of acres in an area
without major interruptions.

The nature of the strata overlying the coal seems is one of
extreme variability. The period of geologic time involved is in the

neighborhood of 25 million years and involves strata of the

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Relief map of the State of Ohio

Figure 2.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

wommmcou.
m

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Distribution of land stripped for coal in Ohio

(after Knudsen 1954).

Figure 30

 

Figure 4. Aerial views of typical coal stripping operations.

Pennsylvanian and lower Permian systems. This great time span alone
could account for most of the regional differences found. But, even
within the strata of a single operation sharp contrasts exist between
the thickness, texture, and the mineralogy of the strata. The result
is a heterogeneous mixture of rock and soil which often makes it
difficult to predict the success of future plant growth on these areas
(figure 5).

In compliance with the present Ohio law governing surface mining,
stripemine operators are required to grade the resulting spoil banks
to an undulating topography and to revegetate the areas so affected
with trees, shrubs, fruits or herbs which ever is in agreement with
the land owner and the Ohio Division of Reclamation. It is the respon-
sibility of the latter organization to make recommendations relative
to suitable revegetation and reclamation and to inspect such areas to
determine whether compliance with the Ohio law has been met. Legal
difficulties in connection with strip-mine reclamation are not common

in Ohio.

 

 

 

 

Figure 5. Typical revegetation on very acid spoils.
Upper: Mixed hardwoods after three growing seasons.
Lower: Grass-legume seeding 6 months old.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Numerous articles and publications concerned with the rehabili-
tation of coal spoils have appeared since the end of World War II.
Newspaper editorials and conservation magazines have placed the prob-
lem before the general public. In Ohio, public pressure has forced
state and federal agencies to investigate the problems involved in
reclaiming stripped lands and to make recommendations for their
immediate return to a productive capacity.

The bulk of the research resulting from this public interest
has been carried by the Central States Forest Experiment Station, of
the U. S. Forest Service. With headquarters in Columbus, Ohio their
research team was first called upon to survey the over-all status of
land affected by mining and make suitable recommendations (limstrom,
1948). Headed by G. A. Limstron, a survey was made of nine central
states and acreages involved were estimated. In addition, site
conditions of Spoil banks were investigated and basic planting guides
for tree Species were formed. These early recommendations with minor
changes have persisted up to the present time.

In the meantime numerous workers in various states and abroad
have attempted to investigate problems peculiar to their own
locations. Beunis (1956), Bramble (1948,1955), Chapman (1944),

Clark (1954), Hunter (1953), Limstrom and Merz (1949), Lowry (1956,
1953), and Rogers (1951), and Tyner (1945) are only a few of the workers
who have added to the list of suitable plant Species for Spoil recla-
mation. According to Finn (1958) and LLmstron (1960) the technique

of revegetating Spoils has been generally solved. In brief,

calcareous silty clay Spoils reach their highest value as pastures,

10

whereas the more acid silty-clay materials allow mixed hardwoods to
survive and grow reasonably well. The very acid and sandy Spoils
are difficult to revegetate but mixed conifers appear about as good
as mixed hardwoods and in some cases are better.

The basic problems of why some plant Species do better than others
on certain.materials have been recognized (Limstrom, 1948). Studies
have been conducted to determine the nutrient element status of
selected rock strata (Limstrom, 1950a, 1950b; Limstrom and Merz,
1951a, 1951b), but considerable variation existed making it very
difficult to predict with.much accuracy the availability of these
elements to plants.

The effects of Spoil grading have received considerable attention
by'many'workers. Tyner et a1. (1948) found that grading may compact
certain Spoils to a depth of 18 to 24 inches. ‘Merz and Finn (1951)
found large differences of infiltration rates between graded and un-
graded spoils. Regarding survival and growth there appeared to be
slightly better conditions on ungraded banks but on some coarse tex-
tured Spoils no differences could be detected. (Clark, 1954; Deitsch-
man, 1950; Finn, 1952; Limstrom, 1952). Finn (1952) could find no
significant difference in nutrient content of tree foilage between
those Species growing on graded and ungraded Spoils. In general it is
felt that the future productivity of graded areas will be greater de-
Spite the slightly fewer surviving trees and somewhat lesser initial
growth.

Certain aspects of the relationship of Site and soil factors
on the establishment of forest Species have been investigated. Most
workers agree that soil acidity below pH 3.5 to 4.0 will preclude

growth of economically important plants. It is also well established

11

that the extremely acid conditions result from the oxidation of iron
sulphide and the result is a toxicity due to high iron, aluminum and/
or manganese in the soil solution. Specific studies designed to
measure the magnitude of these toxic elements in Spoil are lacking.
Likewise, applications of advanced statistical methods for correla-
ting site and soil factors with tree seedling survival and growth are
notably rare. Lowry (1960) found that soil acidity, sand content and
moisture equivalent were significant variables with respect to pine
survival. 'More important than the mere identification of the varia-
bles is the magnitude of these effects aS given in the prediction
equation which was presented. Of considerable value in future work
was the elimination of many Site variables thought to be important in
seeding establishment. Bramble and Ashley (1955) felt that the
percent of soil sized particles in the substrate, wind exposure, Slope
and surface soil temperature affect seeding survival. Other workers
(Clark, 1954; Limstrom, 1948; Potter et a1, 1951; Rogers, 1951)

have mixed opinions on these and other factors of Site. However,
there is general agreement that soil moisture and base exchange
prOpertieS are satisfactory, and most workers agree that nitrogen
availability is extremely low except where surface soil appears

near the Spoil surface. Such variables as volumedweight, and surface
temperatures have been investigated by Stiver l/ in Indiana, but

few conclusions could be drawn from the data with regard to survival

or growth of plants except the logical temperature differences

 

;/ Stiver, Edward N. Revegetation of Strip Coal Spoil Banks of
Indiana. Uhpub. Ph.D. Thesis. Purdue University, 1949.

12

ascribed to direction of exposure and spoil color. No lethal
temperatures were recorded on any of the materials observed.

Very little work has been accomplished with regards to micro-
organisms in coal spoils. Wilson (1957) and Wilson and Stewart
(1955, 1956) have probably contributed more than any others to a
better understanding of the Significance of micro-organisms on the
ammonification, nitrification, and aggregation of coal Spoils. Of
Special interest are the approximately equal numbers of organisms
in vegetated Spoil as compared to adjacent non-Spoil lands. Equally
striking is the occurrence of excellent aggregation on IOO-year-old
iron ore spoils which approached the values obtained for nearby
soils. Spoil areas as little as 10 years old lacked good aggregation,
but showed signs of the beginning stages eSpecially under grass-

legume vegetation.

OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE

The status of research completed and underway indicates a real
need for fundamental research in the field of strip-mine reclamation.
Most of the previous studies have been of an applied nature and much
of this by simple trial and error methods. This has been eSpecially
true for trials of different plant Species where insufficient repli-
cation has ended in inconclusive results. Of critical importance to
a better understanding of spoil revegetation problems is the identi-
fication of the Significant variables and the magnitude of their
effects on living organisms. Inasmuch as spoils are not static in
many of their characteristics but are subject to change as a result
of weathering it becomes apparent that the rate and magnitude of these
changes are also of importance. With this in mind a two-fold approach
to the present problem was adopted. Specifically these may be sum-
marized as follows;

1. To determine what effect soil-forming factors have on the
rate and magnitude of physical and chemical changes occurring
in spoil materials.

2. To determine what Site and soil factors affect tree seedling
survival and growth.

It must be borne in mind that only a limited number of factors
could be studied at one time. This is particularly true of the
second objective for which only those variables thought to be of im-
portance were investigated. Certain limitations of physical facil-
ities, funds, and time have dictated the intensity of this study.
Because of the time element a period of approximately 21 months was

selected as constituting the practical limit of the initial research

13

14

phase. It was hoped that significant trends could be established

with regard to the dynamic factors within this period. In the

planning of the experiment, suitable methods and materials were used

in order to permit an extension of time beyond the scope of this
initial report. Sufficiently durable materials in the form of

plastics and preservative treated wood were used to insure at least

a lO-year study period and possibly an even longer period should the
necessity arise. In view of preliminary results future studies may
require modifications with regard to instrumentation, kinds of measure-

ments or plant species involved.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Collection of samples.

 

After careful consideration was given to the occurrence and
economic importance of the various Spoil types, nineteen Spoils
were chosen. Selections were made to include as wide a range of
physical and chemical properties as was feasible with regard to
the physical limitations imposed on a study of this kind (table 1).
Figure 6 indicates the sample area locations in the order of their
selection. The numerals are hereafter retained for identification
and listed as the sample number. In addition to the nineteen spoils
selected, one normal soil, a Wooster Silt loam, with a sandy loam
subsoil was included as a control. This soil was selected as being
fairly representative of the soil found in the Experiment Station
arboretum.

In all cases Spoil was collected as fresh rock material. In
most instances the rock was freshly removed from the exposed rock
face (highwall) and in a few cases from machine operation which had
removed the rock a few days prior to samleg. In many instances
it was possible to load the spoil directly into the truck from the
stripping machine.

TranSportation of samples was by truck, with each sample being
contained in a separate box on the truck bed. In this way four
samples could be hauled at one time and carried to the Agricultural

Experiment Station at Wooster for further processing.

15

16

Table 1. Sample area location and general description of
sample materials (see also figure 6).

 

 

Generalized
Sample Associated Soil Textural Generalized
Number County Coal Seam Class Acidity Class g/
1 Coshocton 6 Medium Acid
2 Coshocton 6 Medium Acid
3 Perry 6 Fine Acid
4 Perry 6 Fine Toxic
5 Vinton 4a Fine Calcareous
6 Wayne Soil Medium Acid
7 Vinton 5 Fine Calcareous
8 Vinton 6 Medium Calcareous
9 Noble 9 Medium Toxic
10 Guernsey 9 Fine Toxic
11 Harrison 8 Fine Calcareous
12 Belmont 9 Fine Calcareous
13 Perry 6 Medium Marginal
14 Morgan 9 Fine Calcareous
15 Jefferson 8 Fine Calcareous
16 Harrison 8 Medium Calcareous
l7 Stark 5 Very Fine Toxic
18 Stark 4 Fine Calcareous
l9 Columbiana 7 Fine Calcareous
2O Mahoning 5 Coarse Toxic

3/ According to Limstrom, C.S.F.E.S., U.S.F.S., Tech. Paper 109, 1948.

 

17

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 6. Sample area locations.

18

 

 

 

Figure 7. Stages in the processing of samples.

Upper photo shows dual screens used to obtain final sample. Lower
p oto ndicates sample size and method of temporary storage.

19

Processing of samples.

 

All samples were removed from the transport boxes and shoveled
into a one inch mesh screen. Rock material failing to pass through
the screen were broken with a hammer until passage was possible
(figure 7). The rock was then screened on a one-quarter inch mesh
to remove the fine particles and those fragments held on the finer
mesh were retained for study purposes. Rock particles less than
one-quarter inch were discarded. By this method all samples could
begin weathering under more uniform.conditions and future comparisons
of physical and chemical properties would be more valid.

Spoil samples were stored temporarily in a closed shed with
paper covers to prevent dust accumulation. Samples remained in
this storage until time for their placement in the lysimeters
(figure 7). The entire collection and processing of Spoil samples

was accomplished during July and August 1958.

bysimeters

Prior to the collection and processing of Spoil samples plastic
lysimeters were constructed. Acrylic cylinders 2/ (Plexiglas) 12
inches in diameter, one-eighth inch in wall thickness and four feet
long were fitted into slotted plastic bases (figure 8). In each
unit a drain hole and chamfered edge were fashioned and a plastic
screen glued to the base. The cylinder was then cemented into the
Slotted base with aSphalt to insure a water tight seal for the

lysimeter.

 

3/ Supplied by Cadillac Plastic and Chemical 00., Cleveland 13, Ohio

20

The completed lysimeters were then filled with Spoil material
to a depth of 120 centimeters after placement of a quartz sand
filter layer on the bottom. Figure 9 indicates the position of
the various measuring devices installed at the time the spoil was
added. In addition to the placement of thermistors, gas analysis
tubes, and plastic volumedweight markers, the weights of spoil
increments were taken at each 30 centimeter level for volumeaweight
determinations. The filled lysimeters were covered with polyethylene

sheeting to await the beginning of the weathering period.

Observation Cellar

To house the batteries of lysimeters a frame was constructed
of wood (figure 10, upper). In order to extend the serviceable
life of the frame all wooden parts were soaked in a 2 percent c0pper
napthenate and fuel oil Solution. Between the rows of lysimeters an
observation corridor was made with individual doors opening into
each unit to allow observation and maintenance to be performed
(figure 11). The completed frame was lowered into an excavation
and partially backfilled to await placement of the Spoil—filled
lysimeters into their individual compartments.

The individual lysimeters were then lowered into position
and supported by blocks to allow sufficient room beneath for a
scissors jack. Settling of the Spoil mass was anticipated and it
became necessary to adjust the surface periodically to a uniform
level for all spoils. A standard automobile scissors jack was

effectively employed for this purpose.

21

 

 

 

Figure 8. Plastic lysimeters prior to installation.
Upper: Detached base showing circular slot and drain
hole. Lower: Completed cylinder with base attached.

 

 

‘ Depth tram
Sum” (cm-l v m TD SYMBOLS
0'0 ———— h-I
2‘5 8- Supporting Block
S D- Slotted Plastic Disk
150 G- o——T G . Gas Sample lube
‘ L-Leachate Drain Hole
M-Plastic Settling Marker
‘ E P Plastic Screen
l 30-“ 9" u-uumz Sand mm
A S - Spoil
l 1' ~ lhermistnr
450 °-"T V - Vacuum-Runoff Tulle
M
l 5110— a== U
‘ SCALE
mm
o a s 9 12
‘ in Inches
r—I—fi'—V—I—T'fi
u to 20 30
Centimeters
S
120.0
l22.5

 

 

Figure 9. Sectional view of plastic lysimeters and
measurement devices when filled with Spoil.

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 10. Stages in the construction of the observation
cellar. Upper: Basic framework before lowering
into final position. Lower: Completed installation.

24

When all lysimeters were placed and adjusted the entire
cellar was back-filled with soil to coincide with the spoil surface
level. The soil surface was seeded and burlap placed around the .
exposed portion of the lysimeters to prevent rain Splash onto the
Spoil surface (figure 10).

The entire roof of the cellar as well as the individual
observation doors were insulated with rockawool batting to maintain
near normal soil temperatures. An insulated double door entry-way
was constructed for the same reason.

Necessary tubing and catchment flasks were installed in order
to hold the leachate as it accumulated. A suction system was also
constructed to withdraw ponded water automatically from the Spoil
surface. This system, consecutively selective for each Spoil,
withdrew water for 10 seconds once every 10 minutes and was started
by a mercury switch sensitive to .05 inches of rain per houru On
January 1, 1959, when all necessary measurement devices were
installed and operating, the plastic covers were removed from the

lysimeters and normal weathering processes began.

Physical Measurements

 

The rate and magnitude of settling in the Spoil column was
recorded in order to allow computation of bulk density for the
various samples by depths. The original weight of each BO-centimeter
increment was corrected to oven dry weight and volumes for the
various increments computed by averaging the areas of the two ends
of the plastic cylinder. Continuous measurements could easily be

made since individual spoil increments were marked with plastic

25

markers placed adjacent to the inside cylinder wall. These markers
were "L" Shaped with the long dimension perpendicular to the
cylinder wall. This arrangement allowed the marker to move with the
Spoil as it settled or expanded.

Temperatures were recorded weekly at four depths (figure 9).
For this purpose thermistors were employed having a resistance of
1000 ohms and were read with a precalibrated Solu Bridge Type RD
conductivity meter. The thermistors 4/were supplied with 6-foot
leads, calibrated in moist sand from -100 to l70°F. and unit correction
factors assigned. The face plate of the conductivity meter was then
replaced with a plate reading directly in degrees Fahrenheit, the
correction factors for the units being preset on the unit correction
dial prior to reading the termperature on the main dial (figure 12).

Factors of hydrologic Significance were recorded and computa-
tions made for precipitation 5/, runoff, erosion, percolation and
evaop-tranSpiration. Three weeks after weathering began, an
unusually high rainfall occurred at the study area, causing near
saturation of the spoil samples, and percolation began. Computations
of the above variables were begun commencing with January 23, 1959
after percolation from the previous rain had ceased. By beginning
hydrologic observations when all samples were at field capacity
better future comparisons could be expected. Quantities of leachate
and runoff were transformed to inches of water and that portion of

precipitation not accounted for was ascribed to evapo-tranSpiration.

 

éy'Model 31 TD 2, Gulton Industries, Inc., Metuchen, New Jersey
2/ Precipitation recorded by J. H. wilson, Experiment Station
weather observer.

 

 

26

 

 

Inner-view of the observation cellar.

Figure 11.

Detailed view of a single

Right:

General view.
cylinder Showing thermistor wires and gas sample tubes.

Left:

 

Figure 12.

27

 

- //

tu=v~e

\

  

‘9‘:

Solu Bridge conductivity meter as adapted
for temperature measurement with thermistors.

28

That portion of precipitation designated as runoff was withdrawn
automatically from the Spoil surface via a suction system designed
to pick up only water ponded to a depth greater than 2 mm. It was
fully realized in choosing this method that the observation would
serve only as a "relative index of runoff. Soil solids suspended
in the runoff water were oven dried and weighed and converted to
pounds per acre in order to serve as another index of erosion.

Periodic observations were made of the physical weathering
of the various Spoils. In addition, pictures on black and white
as well as color film were made (Kodak 35 mm. transparency). The
color photographs were taken of the Spoil surface together with the
pine seedlings during July 1959. Observations of depth to which
significant weathering had occurred were made at the termination of
the study period (November 1960) after 22 months of weathering. In
all cases soil was removed from around the plastic cylinder and the
observation was made through the cylinder wall with the aid of a
mirror. Significant weathering was arbitrarily chosen to be that
condition of physical breakdown of the rock materials to produce a
large proportion of soil Size particles(<2 mm.). In most cases little
difficulty was encountered in delimiting the boundary since the tran-
sition zone seldom exceeded 5 to 7 mm.

In addition to the photographs mentioned previously, color
measurements were made on Spoil Samples using standard Munsell color
ratings (USDA, Soil Survey Manual, 1951). For this determination
a representative sample was crushed to pass a 1.0 mm. screen and

colors noted both.dry and moist.

29

Percentage of dehydration was determined for all spoil samples.
Analysis was made gravimetrically using 105°C. as a base and measuring
the weight loss due to drying in a muffle furnace at 540°C until a
constant weight was obtained.

A mechanical analysis was made using a modification of the hydro-
meter method as described by the Forest Soils committee of the Douglas
Fir Region (1953). This modification eliminated the hydrogen peroxide
treatment since no free organic matter was present. The second modi-
fication necessary with calcareous samples required decanting the
supernatant liquid from the settling cylinder after complete floccu-
lation occurred. One decantation was usually sufficient. After the
percentage of sand, silt and clay had been determined, the three major

fractions were separated by decanting and retained for mineral analysis.

lineral Analysis

 

Mineral analysis of the sand, silt and clay fractions obtained
in the mechanical analysis were made using an Xray diffraction
apparatus. For this purpose a Picker Xray unit and goniometer 6/
were employed. Xray generation was Cu.K alpha radiation with 15
milliamps and 40 kilivolts supplied to the generating unit. The
goniometer was geared to rotate at2° per minute except when Slow
scanning at 1° per minute for feldspars. A pre-amplifier circuit
was used following the Geiger counter and secondary amplification

employed using a spectron sealer. Z/ The data were traced on a strip

6/ Picker'Xray Corporation, Waite Division, Cleveland, Ohio.
'_7_/ L a G Research Company, Cleveland, Ohio.

30

chart using a Brown Recording Potentiometer.§/

Identification of minerals in the sand and silt fractions was
made utilizing the data supplied by Bailey et al. (1957) and Hanawalt
et a1. (1938). Sand samples were ground with mortar and pestle to
pass a 300+mesh screen and mounted on a plastic sample holder for
irradiation. Silt samples were plated onto a glass Slide from an
aqueous suspension and oven dried prior to irradiation. Both sand
and Silt fractions were irradiated from 2 to 40 degrees (2 theta)
to allow proper identification of the carbonate minerals. All
samples showing any trace of feldSpars were rerun at a goniometer
speed of 10 per minute from 25 to 30 degrees (2 theta) to ascertain
the type of feldSpar.

Clay Sample suSpenSions were pipetted into a suction well and
plated onto a ceramic filter plate. After plating, the samples
were saturated with calcium ion, glycerol solvated and air dried.
Further drying over calcium chloride was done for one additional
day. The samples were then irradiated and returned to the suction
well for potassium saturation. Upon completion of the calcium
and glycerol removal and resulting potassium saturation the samples
were oven-dried at 105°C and irradiated again. The final treatment
of clay samples consisted of heating in a muffle furnace at 550°C. for
four hours. After cooling the samples were again irradiated. By
the above procedure it was possible to fix the lattice Spacing and
therefore allow positive identification of the clay minerals using

the data published by Grim (1953).

 

§/'Minneapolis-Honeywe11 Regulator Corporation, Brown Instrument Div.,
Philadelphia 44, Penna.

31

Heavy mineral analysis was performed, using bromoform as out-
lined by wahlstrom (1955). For this determination a fresh sub-
sample was ground to pass a lOO-mesh screen and diSpersed as in the
mechanical analysis in order to insure a good separation. Further
separation was made of the heavy fraction into magnetic and non-

magnetic minerals using a Small bar magnet.

Chemical.Measurements

 

Chanical analysis of the Spoil leachate was made through a
cooperative arrangement with the Agronomy Department, Ohio Agri-
cultural Experiment Station. Routine analyses were under the
supervision of J. H. Wilson and Dr. P. H. Struthers, whose procedures
are outlined as follows:

Total nitrogen by the Kjeldahl method as described by Jackson
(1958. pp- 183-192).

Phosphorus by the method of Fiske and Subbarow and outlined
by Jackson (pp. 149-151).

Potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium with a flame photometer
(Beckman DU) based on the principles outlined by Lundegardh and
Simplified by Jackson (pp. 445-465).

Iron by the orthophenanthroline method of Jackson (pp. 389-
391)-

Manganese by the Na-paraperiodate oxidation.method of Willard
and Greathouse and outlined by Jackson (pp. 102-106).

Aluminum by the Aluminon method described by Jackson (pp. 297—

300).

32

Total soluble salts by a gravimetric measurement of solids
dried to a constant weight at 320°Centigrade. The higher tempera-
ture was used to dehydrate the sulfate salts without driving off
free sulfuric acid.

Sulfates by the turbidometric method of Butters and Chenery
(1959).

Reactions using a Beckman Model N pH meter.

Spoil sub-samples as prepared for mineral analysis were
subjected to the following:

Total nitrogen as in above procedure.

Total soluble salts using a 1:2 soilawater extract and gravi—
metric weighings as above.

Reaction by the glass electrode method as described above,
using a 1:1 soil water mixture.

Gas samples of approximtely 100 cc each were removed from
the Spoil column periodically at four different depths (figure 9).
Gas composition was determined by the absorption method using a
Haldane-Henderson apparatus. This method differentially absorbs
acid gases (C02, 802, 803) and oxygen, leaving nitrogen as the
residual gas. In addition to the routine analysis several samples
with large amounts of acid gases were sent to the Chemistry Depart—
ment, 0hio.State University, Columbus, Ohio for analysis by the mass
spectrograph. The mass Spectrograph is eSpecially good for detecting

sulfur-oxide gases, but is only semi-quantitative.

33

Biological‘Measurements

During April 1959 three eastern white pine (Pinus strobus L.)
seedlings were planted in each of the 20 lysimeters. These seedlings
were supplied as 1—0 stock from the State of Ohio nursery at
Zanesville. These seedlings were observed periodically for survival
and growth and removed during February 1960 for tissue analysis.
In May 1960 new seedlings of the same Species were planted as
before, and subjected to the same Observations. In the latter
case 2-0 seedlings were used since smaller material was not available.
These seedlings were removed early in September of the same year
and retained for tissue analysis as above. In both cases great care
was taken to insure uniform plant material for all lysimeters.

Current year's needles from both the 1959 and 1960 white pine
seedlings were removed from the plant, immediately dried at 65° C.
and ground to pass a 20 mesh screen in a Wiley mill. Wet oxidation
of sub-samples was by the nitricperchloric acid method as described
by Jackson (pp. 331-334). Elemental analysis for phOSphorus,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, aluminum and manganese was made
according to the procedures outlined for leachate analysis. Total
nitrogen was determined on sub-samples of plant material by the
Kjeldahl method. All tissue analyses were completed under the
cooperative arrangement as described in the leachate analysis.

In addition to the plant measurements described above,
observations of volunteer weed growth were made. Counts of the
number of plants by species and their reapective weights were made

in August 1960 for the current year's weed growth. Insufficient

34

volunteer growth the previous year precluded,measurements that
year. For this determination the entire plant was removed, washed
and oven-dried at 65°C. prior to weighing. No attempt was made

to determine the nutrient element status of these volunteer plants
since great variation existed between the number and weight of
individual species.

In cooperation with the College of Wooster and under the
direction of the author, an undergraduate independent research
project related to this study was undertaken. Mr. Phillip B. Ackerman
was assigned the problem of determining the effect of various con-
centrations of spoil leachate on the survival of the blunt-nosed

minnow (Eyborhynchus notatus Rafinesque). Fish were supplied by the

 

Ohio Division of Wildlife from their Portage Lakes Hatchery near
Akron. These fish ranged in size from one to two inches in length
and were first acclimated to room temperature in local creek water
from a tributary of Killbuck Creek. After several days five fish
were transferred to each of twenty, three liter battery jars, using
95% creek water and 5% spoil leachate. After 5 days the leachate
concentration was increased or decreased according to whether the
fish lived or died in the initial concentration. New concentrations
were prepared at five-day intervals until the critical concentration
for the fish could be determined. In all cases aeration and feeding
were maintained at a satisfactory level. Reaction (pH) and salt
content at these critical concentrations was determined by the meth-

ods described under leachate analysis.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Physical Measurements - gal; Density

Settling measurements of the various spoils were made five times
during the 19 month study period. From the values obtained bulk-density
(volumedweight) was computed and appears in table 2. Due to the
movement of the lysimeter from the weighing platform to its position
at the observation cellar some initial settling occurred.(Aug. 1958 to
Oct. 1958). With the exception of samples 6 and 12, only minor changes
occurred and amounted to an increase of .02 to .04 Ems/cc in most
cases. Because of these initial changes due to movement the magnitude
of change was computed using the October reading as a base.

It is rather interesting to note that the percentage of change
computed for the entire spoil column was not always a positive value.
Contrary to common observations, certain spoil types actually swelled,
resulting in a decrease in bulk-density (samples 4, 10, and 17). This,
in general, occurred throughout the entire column and probably repre-
sents an extreme condition of clay hydration brought about by a very
acid soil solution working on spoil of high clay content although
initial moisture content of these samples may have had an effect.
Samples 9 and 20 were also very acid but were of sandy composition and
showed very little change throughout the study period. Similarly
sample 2 showed very little change during this period. In order to
test this hypothesis further, two simple correlation analyses were
made to determine whether there was any relation between the percentage

of clay or sand and bulk density in November 1959 (append 1,

35

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36

 

 

 

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37

 

 

 

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38

corr. No's 5 and 20). Neither of these tests yielded a significant
correlation coefficient (r). A third correlation analysis was attempted
to determine whether the initial bulk-density (Oct. 1958) had any effect
on the final bulk-density (Sept. 1960). Again there was no signifi-
cance noted (corr No. 57). This probably accounts for the fairly
uniform values obtained at the final computation. It should be noted,
however, that samples 6, 11 and 12 may be exceptions to this, but no
differences were detected by the statistical methods used.

0f more significance than over-ell changes in bulk density are
the changes occurring within the various increments. Table 3 clearly
indicates that on the average significant increases in bulk density
occurred in the surface layer (0-30 cm) when compared to the other
three layers. Initially this is probably due to small particles
formed from mechanical breakdown being transported into the voids
between the larger rock fragments below. Upon extending the weather-
ing period to September 1960 another interesting point is observed.
It was found that a significant relationship existed between the depth
of weathering and the bulk density of the surface 30 cm of spoil
(table 4). This analysis yielded a correlation coefficient of -.724
which was significant at the 0.1 percent level and indicated that as
the logarithm of the depth of weathering increased the bulk density
decreased. (corr. NO's 44246). Similar relationships existed
between log median pH and final bulk density, but because acidity
and depth of weathering were in themselves correlated it is probably
acidity which affected weathering and weathering in turn affected
bulk density (corr. No's 78, 79). Since late summer of 1960 was a
very dry season, it is not likely that excess hydration of the spoil

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39

 

 

 

 

 

 

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41

Table 4. Depth of weathering in relation
to bulk density after 21 months
of weathering.

 

 

 

sample ‘.-Ig:lt).f1:ring Digger
No. Description (mm) (0-30 cm)
1 Acid Silty Clay Loam 26.3 1.35
2 Acid Sandy Loam. 21.0 1.37
3 Acid Silty Clay 25.3 1.34
4 Toxic Silty Clay 30.0 1.25
5 Calcareous Clay 23.3 1.40
6 Acid Sandy Loam 1200.0 1.25
7 Calcareous Silty Clay 12.7 1.45
8 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam 16.0 1.41
9 Toxic Sandy Loam 20.3 1.42
10 Toxic Silty Clay Loan 34.3 1.36
11 Calcareous Clay 12.7 1.47
12 Calcareous Silty Clay 16.3 1.54
13 Marginal Loam 12.0 1.42
14 Calcareous Clay 10.3 1.49
15 Calcareous Clay 18.7 1.41
16 Calcareous Clay Loam. 11.0 1.42
17 Toxic Clay 77.7 1.24
18 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam 15.7 1.42
19 Calcareous Silty Clam Loam 4.7 1.46
20 Toxic Sandy Loam 25.3 1.39

 

42

could account for this relationship, but rather that the first stages
of soil formation are operating to give a greater total pore space.

In the lower layers there is little evidence to indicate that compact-
ion due to the weight of the column was important (table 3).
SpgiL,Tempgrgtur§§

Spoil temperatures were recorded at four depths throughout the
study period for each lysimeter. Only seventy-four of the eighty
thermistors installed were still functioning properly at the end of
the experimental period. These failures were due in part to me-
chanical break-downs such as broken wires and in part to partial
disintegration of the thermister due to very acid soil solutions.
The latter cause was easily detected since a "fuzzy eye” was
observed in the meter. Enough good readings were available to
determine that the temperature regime for all cylinders was fairly
uniform. A representative spoil (sample 14) is graphically
presented in figure 13, eliminating the upper thermistor readings
to avoid confusion between lines.

In addition to the weekly readings depicted in figure 13
several daily checks of a dark (No. 17) and a light (No. 13)
colored spoil were made on an hourly basis. Several hot sumer
days were selected for this to determine if lethal temperatures
were encountered. No indication of such condition was found and
the highest reading obtained was 104° F. No attempt was made to
measure the surface temperature. Periodic checks of seedling
stems throughout the summer months failed to indicate any heat

lesions or seedling deaths due to this cause.

43

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Hydrologic Factors

 

Measurements of rainfall, leachate and runoff for the 20+month
study period were recorded periodically and appear graphically in
figures 14-17. The amount of evapo-transpiration was assumed to be
that portion of rainfall not accounted for by other measurements
and all water use data were recorded as inches of water.

The amount of water from.the lysimeters appearing as leachate
varied considerably between Spoils (table 5). The lowest value
noted was for the normal soil (sample 6) and the highest was for
sample 19 which turned out to be the least weathered of any Spoil.
In order to determine whether depth of weathering had any effect on
the amount of leachate a correlation analysis was made using the
cumulative percent of leachate and log depth of weathering at the
end of the study period. This analysis yielded an "r" value of
- .778 which was significant at the 0.1 percent level (corr No. 43).
An even better correlation was obtained analyzing cumulative
percent evapo-tranSpiration and log depth of weathering. In this
case the correlation coefficient was .834. In other words, as the
depth of weathering increased the amount of leachate obtained was
less. The reverse was true for evaop-tranSpiration. Since it has
already been established that a significant relationship existed
between bulk density and depth of weathering it was decided to test
this and other closely related variables to see if a better cor-
relation could be obtained or a more basic reason for the
correlation established. Ir1order to do this bulk density was
compared with percentage of evapo-tranSpiration and found to have

an "r" value of -.624 which was significant at the 1% level

45

 

 

 

Table 5. Summary of hydrologic observations of spoil materials
for the period January 24, 1959 to September 22, 1960.
Cumulative values as954Percent
Sample of Precipitation Total Solids
Evapo- in Runoff
_N9. t n ea te un S lbs acre
1 .Acid Silty Clay Loam 61.8 1.2 37.0 52
2 Acid Sandy Loam 57.1 - 42.9 -
3 Acid Silty Clay 58.2 1.2 40.6 309
4 Toxic Silty Clay 64.0 2.4 33.6 282
5 Calcareous Clay 47.4 7.1 45.5 1643
6 Acid Sandy Loam. 30.2 4.0 65.8 1245
7 Calcareous Silty Clay 54.9 3.4 41.7 565
8 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam. 54.9 6.3 38.8 608
9 Toxic Sandy Loam 49.6 4.0 46.4 604
10 Toxic Silty Clay Loam 42.7 11.5 45.8 3613
11 Calcareous Clay 53.4 6.7 39.9 811
12 Calcareous Silty Clay 72.9 0.1 27.0 116
13 Marginal Loam 65.6 0.1 34.3 13
14 Calcareous Clay 71.4 0.2 28.4 51
15 Calcareous Clay 61.1 3.4 35.5 800
16 Calcareous Clay Loam 67.1 0.1 32.8 39
17 Toxic Clay 42.9 8.5 48.6 3370
18 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam 71.1 - 28.9 -
19 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam, 76.4 - 23.6 -
20 Toxic Sandy Loam 53.0 0.1 46.9 155

 

46

(Corr No. 51). Bulk density was compared with % leachate and found
to have an "r" value of .596 which was also Significant at the 1%
level (corr No. 52). At this point it should be noted that in both
preceding pairs of correlations evapo-transpiration had the highest
correlation coefficient but apparently depth of weathering could
account for more variation than bulk density.

Pursuing the matter of evapo-transpiration further this variable
was compared independently with both percentage of sand and percentage
of clay in the samples. With clay no correlation was found, but with
sand a significant correlation was detected (corr No's 12, 28). In
the latter case the "r" value was .443 and was Significant at the 5%
level of confidence. This indicated that as the percent sand increased
(or silt plus clay decreased) evapo-transpiration increased. Since
percent sand and bulk density were not significantly correlated in
themselves it would appear as though both bulk density and sand content
are independently operating to influence the magnitude of evapo-
transpiration. It is difficult to Say at this point what is the cause
and effect relationship but probably the sand content influences the
rate of weathering and the stage of this weathering in turn influences
the magnitude of evapo-transpiration in a more direct manner by estab-
lishing a more continuous capillary water system in the surface layer.
No attempt was made in this preliminary phase to separate the effects
of seedling transpiration from that of evapo-transpiration as a whole.
Future investigations into this factor should prove worthwhile and
correlations between evapo-transpiration and dry matter production
of plants should be attempted.

From the data presented in table 5 it may be seen that the amount

47

of runoff and surface erosion in most samples was far less than the
normal soil. Only those samples exhibiting a puddled surface were
subject to high runoff and erosion. These spoils, with the exception
of the normal soil, were samples with a high silt and clay content.

Obviously weathering had not progressed to a point where runoff
and erosion would be important considerations. Then too, it is not
likely that samples with a high sand content would ever show a large
runoff or erosion value under the conditions of the experiment even
after a considerable weathering period. It should be brought out at
this point, however, that under field conditions runoff and erosion
may be markedly different timulwould be expected from the above
findings. It has been noted that where long slopes were left on
graded spoils, erosion was a serious problem. regardless of the
texture of the material. This would of course point up the added
value of plateau or flat-top grading to reduce erosion and increase
infiltration.

Referring to figures 14917 it may be seen that all samples
exhibited similar water use patterns for the first several months.
Not until.April or May did the samples begin to deviate significantly
one from the other. By late summer 1959 trends were evident and in
general continued throughout the study period. Also, by late
sunmer of the first year, runoff was beginning to appear from many
spoils and was the result of rains of heavy and short duration. The
proportion of precipitation appearing as percolation was of course
greatest during the winter months, but the over-all trends were

rather well established by the end of the first year.

48

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52

It should be mentioned that percolation from the various samples
varied somewhat in their time of initiation, depending on the initial
moisture content prior to rains. Once saturated, percolation con-
tinued until 24 to 36 hours after rain had ceased. The bulk of the
percolate (leachate) appeared within 6 - 10 hours following cessation
of rain.

Bit—e 31; Weathering

Various considerations of weathering have already been discussed
with reference to its effect on bulk density and hydrologic factors.
The only variable previously mentioned which.may have had an effect
on the rate of weathering was sand content but these variables were
not directly correlated (corr. No's 6 - 8). Similarly, clay content
was not correlated with rate of weathering (corr. No's 22-24). By
far the most significant factor affecting rate of weathering was
spoil acidity (table 6). When the normal soil was omitted from the
correlation analysis a significant relationship was obtained.
Analysis of log depth of weathering versus log median pH yielded a
highly significant (-.679) "r" value (corr. No. 39). It should also
be noted that when the extremely acid Spoils were omitted from the
analysis, no significant relationship was obtained as was the case
when all samples were included (corr. No's 38, 1.1). By graphing the
data prior to statistical analyses it was observed that deletion of
calcareous clay samples would not materially affect the relationship
found with correlation No. 39. This would indicate that extremely
acid conditions increased the weathering rate to a point where physi-
cal weathering was rather minor. How long this effect will last is

unknown but the result of rapid initial weathering under these

53

 

 

 

 

Table 6. Depth of weathering in relation to Spoil acidity.
Sample Depth 0f Median
No. Description ___ weizagiing PH
1 Acid Silty Clay Loam 26.3 4.20
2 Acid Sandy Loam 21.0 4.67
3 Acid Silty Clay 25.3 5-85
4 Toxic Silty Clay 30.0 2.80
5 Calcareous Clay 23.3 7.75
6 Acid Sandy Loam 1200.0 5.60
7 Calcareous Silty Clay 12.7 7.90
8 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam 16.0 7.60
9 Toxic Sandy Loam 20.3 2.70
10 Toxic Silty Clay Loam 34.3 2.65
11 Calcareous Clay 12.7 7.70
12 Calcareous Silty Clay 16.3 7.80
13 Marginal Loam 12.0 3.80
14 Calcareous Clay 10.3 7.90
15 Calcareous Clay 18.7 7.80
16 Calcareous Clay Loam 11.0 7.75
17 Toxic Clay 77.7 2.30
18 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam 15.7 7.70
19 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam 4.7 8.00
20 Toxic Sandy Loam 25.3 2.10

54

extreme conditions will undoubtedly be discernable for decades as a
deeply weathered solum.

Two stages of weathering, as seen from the Spoil surface, are
presented in figures 18 - 24. It can be easily seen.from the pictures
and table 6 that the degree of surface weathering agrees rather well
with the depth of weathering previously discussed. Only one exception
to the visual surface estimate of weathering rate is found in sample 5.
This is undoubtedly due to the very poor induration and initial low
pH of this sample (table 14). An additional intermediate stage of
weathering is shown in figures 25, 26, and 27. Upon closer examination
of the three stages mentioned it may be readily seen that an erosion
pavement is being formed. Particularly Significant in this reSpect
are the pavements formed on the surface of samples 2, 7, 12, 13, 16,

18 and 19. The degrees of induration of the rock materials probably
accounts for this, although it Should be pointed out that except for
the acid sandstones predominating in samples 2 and 13 the above samples
were high in Silt and clay with an alkaline reaction. Again it appears
as though reaction is playing an important role in the weathering
sequence.

M 2212!:

Color measurements of the ground Spoil SMples were made on both
dry and moist samples (table 7). In the dry condition colors ranged
from white (10 YR. 8/1) to gray (2.5 Y 5/0). Since the ground samples
were a mixture of different rock materials it follows that some com-
ponents deviated from the average color noted. Figures 25, 26, and
27 indicate the heterogeneous nature of certain Spoil samples. Samples

4, 8, 9, 13 and 19 were eSpecially heterogeneous since the samples were

[I ll ill. I ‘l .llul.’ur I‘ll

55

 

 

Samples 1

November 19

Two stages in the breakdown of spoil materials.
March 1959. Fight:

Left;
to 3.

Figure 18.

 

 

 

Samples 4 to 6.

cm
1
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[fl [I'll [All illl’l‘ (ll '

57

 

 

 

samples 7 to 9.

Right: November 1960.

Two stages in the breakdown of spoil materials.
Left: March 1959.

Figure 20.

Figure 21.

58

\

‘ ‘fi'iilfiiih .In-m-nl—nh-n.a- ‘-

 

Two stages in the breakdown of spoil materials.
Left: March 1959. Right: November 1960. Samples 10 to 12.

‘ ‘.-.f 4-

 

59

 

 

 

Figure 22. W0 stages in the breakdown of Spoil materials.
Left; March 1959. Right: Novanber 1960. Samples 13 to 15.

 

 

Figure 23. Two stages in the breakdown of spoil materials.
Left: March 1959. Right: November 1960. Samples 16 to 18.

61

 

 

November 1960. Samples 19 to 20.

Two stages in the breakdown of spoil materials.
March 1959. Right:

Left:

Figure 24.

62

 

Figure 25. Coloration of Spoil materials and white pine seedlings
midway through the first growing season (July 1959).
Samples 1 to 8.

63

 

dway through the first growing season (July 1959).

Samples 9 to 14.

Coloration of Spoil materials and white pine seedlings
mi

Figure 26.

 

Figure 27. Coloration of spoil materials and white pine seedlings
midway through the first growing season (July 1959).
Samples 15 to 20.

65

 

 

 

 

Table 7. hunsell color notations of Spoil samples
ground to pass a 1.0 mm sieve.

No. 1/5 sample Description __ Dry MOiSt'

1 Acid Silty Clay Loam 10 YR 6/4 2.5 Y 4/4
2 Acid Sandy Loam 10 YR o/2 10‘ YR 3/3
3 Acid Silty Clay 2.5Y 7/4 2.5 Y 5/4
4 Toxic Silty Clay 10 YR 5/2 10 YR 2/2
5 Calcareous Clay 10 YR 6/1 2.5 Y 4/2
6A Acid Silt Loam 10 YR 6/3 10 YR 3/3
68 Acid Sandy Loam ‘ 10 YR 5/6 10 YR 4/4
7 Calcareous Silty Clay 2.5Y 7/2 2.5 Y 5/4
8 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam 2.5Y 6/2 2.5 Y 4/2
9 Toxic Sandy Loam 2.5Y 7/2 2.5 Y 4/2
10 Toxic Silty Clay Loam. 2.5Y 6/2 2.5 Y 3/2
11 Calcareous Clay 2.5Y 6/2 2.5 Y 4/2
12 Calcareous Silty Clay 5 Y 7/2 5 Y 5/2
13 ‘Marginal Loam 2.5Y 7/2 2.5 Y 4/2
14 Calcareous Clay 10 YR 8/1 2.5 Y 6/2
15 Calcareous Clay 2.5Y 6/2 2.5 Y 4/2
16 Calcareous Clay Loam 2.5Y 7/2 2.5 Y 5/2
17 Toxic Clay 2.5Y 5/0 2.5 Y 2/0
18 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam 2.5Y 7/2 2.5 Y 4/4
19 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam 2.5Y 7/2 2.5 Y 5/2
20 Toxic Sandy Loam 2.5Y 7/2 10 YR 5/2

 

1/ 6A = A2 Horizon, 6B = 82 Horizon; Wooster Soil Series

66

taken from thin-bedded formations. It would be well to caution the
readers at this point regarding colors as depicted by photographs.
Exposure and light quality have a great deal to do with the color ob-
served. In the case of figures 25, 26 and 27 it will be noted that
slight under-exposure has resulted in a bluish tint. This in effect
tends to mask the yellows and reds and adds a blue hue to the gray
colors. In reality, then, samples appearing nearly white were more
yellowish and/or reddish and resulted in an over-all light brown or
light gray. Upon the addition of moisture nearly all samples retained
their original hue and chrome and shifted only in color value becoming
darker than before wetting. Upon wetting changes in chroma were noted,
but these were always small and represent borderline decisions in which
personal judgement may have been in error.

Effects of color on other physical chemical properties were limited
to differences in temperature and gas composition. The darker Spoils
(samples 4 and 17) were 3 to 10°F warmer than the average at the 2.5 cm
level. Light colored Spoils were only slightly cooler than the average
for the same depth. Temperature differences due to color were primarily
restricted to the surface 15 cm of spoil. Temperatures deeper in.the
sample were surprisingly similar from one Spoil to the next. These
same two dark Spoils also exhibited marked differences in gas compo-
sition, especially sample 17. These deviations probably reflect the
oxidation of carbon materials which in turn are the primary reason for
the dark color. Einspahr gt g;. (1955) associated the dark gray and
black shales of Iowa with toxic Spoil conditions and for the most part
this relationship holds for samples used in this study. However, the
dark colored spoils need not be the only materials which would result

in toxic conditions. A fuller discussion of this matter may be found

67

in the section entitled "Spoil Gas Analysis".
Mechanica1.Analysi§

A mechanical analysis of all samples was performed by the hydro-
meter method. More exacting techniques were not considered worth-
while since sampling techniques were of necessity, somewhat crude.
Results of this analysis appear in table 8 together with the basic soil
textural class for each sample. Analysis of data revealed a Signifi-
cant relationship between percent sand and percent clay regardless of
the number of samples included (corr. No's. l - 4). This would indicate
a rather uniform amount of silt in each sample and may be one of the
prime factors operating to produce satisfactory moisture relationships.
It should be noted that in only one case did a particular soil separate
exceed 65 percent, thus ruling out general adverse conditions of site
due to extreme mechanical properties. Of special interest is the
relationship of sand content to soil reaction (corr. No. 11). When the
normal soil and toxic Spoils were removed from the analysis a highly
significant relationship resulted. In other words as the sand content
increased, spoil reaction decreased. This type of relationship was
more evident when comparing clay content and spoil reaction (corr. No.
27). The exact reason for this is not Clear but it may be due to the
high Ca and.Mg content associated with the clay fraction Since the
latter correlation with clay is better than with sand.

No relationship could be detected between survival or growth of
tree seedlings and either sand or clay (corr. No's l6 - l9 and 32-35).
This result was somewhat surprising in view of the fact that opinions
of many workers in the field stressed the importance of these mechan-

ical properties. In the light of previous investigations by the author

I! 1 llllillll lull. [I |

 

 

 

Table 8. Nechanical analysis of samples as determined
by the hydrometer method.
Sample Soil Separate (%) Basic Soil
Number Sand Silt Clay Textural Class

1 11.1 58.6 30.3 Silty clay loam
2 61.8 22.6 15.6 Sandy loam

3 6.0 53.1 40.9 Silty clay

4 1.7 51.1 47.2 Silty Clay

5 2.4 39.8 57.8 Clay

6 59.2 22.8 18.0 Sandy loam

7 8.2 50.8 41.0 Silty clay

8 17.4 49.6 33.0 Silty clay loam
9 59.2 26.0 14.8 Sandy loam
10 14.6 46.9 38.5 Silty clay loam
11 3.3 36.4 60.3 Clay
12 2.1 40.3 56.6 Silty clay
13 43.8 29.2 27.0 Loam
14 4.5 39.2 56.3 Clay
15 10.5 35.2 54.3 Clay
16 38.1 23.5 38.4 Clay 10am
17 0.8 20.6 78.6 Clay
18 13.8 48.2 38.0 Silty clay loam
19 12.9 51.0 36.1 Silty clay loam
20 62.9 22.0 15.1 Sandy 10am

69

(Lowry, 1960) it seems that growth and survival are being influenced
more by chemical properties than by physical properties in these first
few years of weathering. The possibility also exists that certain key
variables have not been measured and therefore a more intensive investi-
gation may reveal additional information. As weathering progresses
better agreement may be obtained with previous investigations made on
older Spoils. Only by a continuation of the present study will this
question be solved.

Mineral Composition - 5:531 Diffraction Analysis

Soil separates obtained from the mechanical analysis were retained
for analysis by X-ray diffraction methods. Some representative dif-
fraction patterns are presented in figures 28, 29 and 30 and represent
the average of two determinations for each size fraction or clay treat—
ment. It should be stressed, at this point, that all diffraction data
were recorded to merely characterize the mineral composition of the
various samples. Preliminary investigations of this type do not permit
more than rough estimates of mineral proportions Since no X-ray
intensity - mineral composition curves were prepared.

In all samples except No. 12 quartz dominated the crystalline
minerals of the sand fraction (table 9). Amorphous materials dominated
in only two samples (8 & 17) but in the latter case constituted such a
small proportion of the entire sample that it is probably of little
consequence. No attempt was made to investigate this further except
as discussed later in the heavy mineral analysis. Carbonates and
muscovite were well represented as secondary components of the sand
fraction. A wide array of feldspars was also present in many samples

but constituted only a minor proportion of the entire sample.

7O

 

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SAMPLE A
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2.7 29 3 3233 5 72 10 H IT
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Figure 28 .

X-ray diffraction patterns of a sandy loam mineral
subsoil (Sample 6).

71

SAMPLE ;
9

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Figure 29. X-ray diffraction patterns of a toxic sandy loam Spoil.
(sample 9).

72

SAMPLE 3
II 2121933213 5 12 II] 1417
I I l I I I I1

SIZE FRACTION

._______ I
TREATMENT fl

II

 

    

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Figure 30. X-ray diffraction patterns of a calcareous clay spoil.
(sample 11).

73

Table 9. Mineral composition of the sand fraction as
measured by X-ray diffraction methods.

 

 

 

Sample Mineral Composition
No. Dominant Accessory Others
1 Quartz Muscovite FeldSpars
2 Quartz Na FeldSpar, K FeldSpar,
Muscovite
3 Quartz Muscovite K FeldSpar
4 Quartz Anorthite
5 Quartz Na FeldSpar
6 Quartz Nuscovite
7 Quartz Muscovite
8 Amorphous Quartz Muscovite
9 Quartz Na FeldSpar, Muscovite
lO Quartz Anorthoclase
ll Quartz Calcite Dolomite
12 Calcite Dolomite Quartz, Magnesite
13 Quartz K FeldSpar, Na FeldSpar,
Muscovite
14 Quartz Calcite Dolomite, Na FeldSpar
15 Quartz Na Felspar, Calcite
16 Quartz Anorthoclase, Calcite
l7 Amorphous Quartz
18 Quartz Calcite Na FeldSpar, Magnesite,
Muscovite
19 Quartz Na FeldSpar
20 Quartz Na FeldSpar, K FeldSpar,

Muecovite

7A

Especially common was Na feldspar although K feldspars were not uncommon.
The origin of these feldspars is uncertain but due to the type of geo-
logic strata involved it is entirely possible that these are partly of
secondary origin and were formed insitu from chemical elements present
in the strata or supplied by circulating waters.

Analysis of the silt fraction again showed quartz to be the im-
portant crystalline mineral, in this case for all samples (table 10).
Secondary and accessory minerals found tended to duplicate or complement
the array of minerals in the sand fraction. In no case could any of
the iron sulfide or phosphate minerals be detected. This is not sur-
prising since this type of apparatus is not capable of defining small
quantities of minerals. This, of course, in no way rules our the
possibility of their presence, but rather indicates that a different
analytical method would be required to establish their presence. In
general, than, it appeared as though most samples were well supplied
with calcium, sodium and potassium.

Clay minerals present in the spoil materials tended to be well
crystallized and easy to identify. Illite was present in all samples
and was dominant in two-thirds of the cases (table 11). Kaolinite was
the second most common and dominated in the other one-third of the
samples. Vermiculite and chlorite also occurred in many samples, often
interstratified, but generally in smaller quantities than either illite
or Kaolinite. Montmorillonite, if present, occurred in such small
that positive identification was questionable. According to Grim.(l953)
sediments of this kind (Paleozoic) would only rarely contain this
mineral. Sepiolite was found in only one sample. No mineral associa-

tions could be established between any of the minerals present in the

various size separations.

 

 

 

Table 10. Mineral composition of the silt fraction as measured by
X-ray diffraction methods.
:ample _ k Mineral Composition ;

No. Dominant __ Accessory Others

1 Quartz Calcite, Dolomite,

Na FeldSpar

2 Quartz Na FeldSpar,‘Muscovite
3 Quartz Muscovite

4 Quartz

5 Quartz

6 Quartz Muscovite

7 Quartz Musocite

8 Quartz Muscovite

9 Quartz Na FeldSpar, Mumcovite
lO Quartz Na Feldspar
ll Quartz Calcite Dolomite, Na FeldSpar
12 Quartz Calcite
13 Quartz iuscovite, Na FeldSpar
l4 Quartz Dolomite Na FeldSpar, Calcite
15 Quartz Na Feldspar, Muscovite
l6 Quartz Calcite Na FeldSpar
17 Amorphous Quartz Na FeldSpar
l8 Quartz Muscovite
19 Quartz Muscovite
20 Quartz Na FeldSpar ‘Muscovite

Table 11.

76

by X-ray diffraction methods.

Clay mineral composition of spoil materials as measured

 

Clay Mineral Composition4é/

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Sample

No. Dominant Accessory, Others

1 Illite Kaolinite Vermiculite - Chlorite (RI)

2 Illite Kaolinite Vermiculite

3 Illite Kaolinite

4, Illite Kaolinite ‘Vermiculite, Chlorite
Chlorite

5 Illite #anlinite Vermiculite - Chlorite (RI)

Vermiculite -

6 Illite Chlorite (RI) Vermiculite, Kaolinite (7)

7 Kaolinite Illite
Chlorite

8 Kaolinite Illite Chlorite - Vermiculite (RI)

Vermiculite -

9 Kaolinite Chlorite (BI)_ Illite IMontmorillonite 7
Vermiculite - Chlorite (BI)

10 Illite Kaolinite Chlorite
Vermiculite - Chlorite (RI)

11 Illite Kaolinite

12 Illite Chlorite
Tablorite,Ԥepi01ite (?)

13 Kaolinite Illite IMontmorillonite (?)

14 Illite Mbntmorillonite (Z)

15 Illite Kaolinite

16 Illite Kaolinite Vermiculite - Chlorite (RI)

17 Illite Kaolinite Vermiculite - Chlorite (RI)

18 Illite Kaolinite Chlorite (7)

l9 Kaolinite Illite Chlorite

20 Kaolinite Illite Chlorite

 

1/ (RI) indicates random interstratification.
(7) indicates uncertainty with regard to its presence.

77

 

 

 

 

Table 12. Dehydration of Spoil in relation to type of clay material.
Sample Percent Clay in Sample 2.] Degas-2:31:12 /
No. Description Total Illite Kaolinite Misc. % _
1 Acid Silty Clay Loam 30 15 15 4.6
2 Acid Sandy Loam l6 8 8 1.5
3 Acid Silty Clay 41 21 20 4.9
4 Toxic Silty Clay 47 26 16 5 6.6
5 Calcareous Clay 58 35 20 3 5.7
6 Acid Sandy Loam 18 10 4 4 2.5
7 Calcareous Silty Clay 41 16 25 4.6
8 Egégareous Silty Clay 33 10 18 5 5.5
9 TOXic Sandy Loam 15 4. 10 1.9
10 Toxic Silty Clay Loam 38 19 15 4 5.0
11 Calcareous Clay. 60 51 6 3 4.4
12 Calcareous Silty Clay 58 55 3 2.5
13 Marginal Loam 27 8 16 3 3.5
14 Calcareous Clay 56 56 1.8
15 Calcareous Clay 54 43 11 6.3
16 Calcareous Clay Loam 38 23 15 2.5
17 Toxic Clay 79 43 36 7.7
18 Calcareous Silty Clay 38 23 15 5.1
Loam
19 Calcareous Silty Clay 36 14 22 5.2
Loam
20 Toxic Sandy Loam 15 4 10 l 1.7
Clay t e and preportion estimated from.X-ray diffraction data.

JTotal c ay determined by the hydrometer method.
2/ Dehydration computed from 100° to 540°C.

78

In order to characterize the study spoils with regard to the clay
minerals present, samples were dehydrated in a muffle furnace. The
amount of weight lost between 100 and 540 degrees C. was compared with
total clay, total illite clay, and total kaolinite clay content (table
12). For this purpose it was necessary to assign approximate percentages
to the various clay types but fully realizing that, at best, only a
crude estimate could be made. with total clay a highly significant
correlation was obtained whereas with total Kaolinite there was an even
better correlation than with total clay (corr. No's 21,36,37). This
better correlation is undoubtedly the result of abrupt moisture loss at
500 to 600 degrees C. for Kaolinite, whereas with illite a more uniform
moisture loss occurs upon heating from 100 to 540 degrees C. These
relationships makes it possible to estimate somewhat crudely both total
clay and percent kaolinite in a given sample. However, considering the
limitations mentioned earlier, together with so few samples included in
the analysis and the resulting large standard deviation, it was consid-
ered impractical to compute a prediction equation for either of the
significant correlations.
sex: W

Results of heavy mineral separation failed to show any association
with observed plant response despite the face that iron sulphides would
be included in the separation. Considerable variation existed between
the percentage of heavy minerals in the sample and the relative pro-
portion of magnetic and non-magnetic constituents (table 13). Within
samples of similar texture and appearance no associations could be
established.

QM Mgsggents - Acidity
Certain aspects of acidity (pH) have already been discussed with

79

 

 

 

 

Table 13. Heavy mineral analysis of Spoils as
determined by bromoform separation.
Sample Heavy'Minerals_(§) 1/
No. Description Nonemagnetic iagnetic Total
1 Acid Silty Clay Loam. .444. .019 .463
2 Acid Sandy Loam .666 .710 l .376
3 Acid Silty Clay .579 .011 .590
4 Toxic Silty Clay .176 .203 .379
5 Calcareous Clay .081 .919 1.000
6A Acid Silty Loam .409 .018 .427
6B Acid Sandy Loam. .281 .018 .299
7 Calcareous Silty Clay .417 .063 .480
8 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam 4.247 .007 4.254
9 Toxic Sandy Loam. .043 .009 .052
10 Toxic Silty Clay Loam .645 .322 .967
11 Calcareous Clay .886 .173 1.059
12 Calcareous Silty Clay .058 .009 .067
13 'Narginal Loam. .640 .259 .899
14 Calcareous Clay .117 .016 .133
15 Calcareous Clay .120 1.585 1.705
16 Calcareous Clay Loam .082 .009 .091
17 Toxic Clay 2.226 .087 2.313
18 Calcareous Silty Clam Loam 1.247 .081 1.328
19 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam 2.344 .151 2.495
20 Toxic Sandy Loam 1-162 .056 1.218

 

1/ Based on the original spoil material.

Wooster Soil Series)
Wooster Soil Series)

Note:

6A sample is the A2 Horizon é
68 sample is the B2 Horizon

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82

reference to effects on rate of physical weathering, association with
dark colored spoils and relationship to mechanical properties. Just as
important is the relationship of acidity to time of weathering (table 14).
Starting with the original rock and following through with the leachate
it may easily be seen that most spoils developed an equilibrium acidity
within the first few months of weathering. Samples 1 and 13 were the
only exceptions to this requiring nearly 9 months to reach approximate
equilibrium. .Lfter this initial period only minor fluctuations of pH
were observed, most of which were the result of disproportionate amounts
of total leachate. In other words, during periods of low evapo-trans-
piration a dilution effect on the chemical properties of the leachate
was observed. .Acidity of the original rock turned out to be a poor
estimate of the resulting spoil acidity. This finding agrees with
that of Einspahr gt 9.1.. (1955).
Leachate figltg

The occurrence of salts in the spoil leachate showed wide variation
between spoils and with time of weathering (table 15). In general,
total salt concentrations during the first month of weathering were tied
closely to acidity. Subsequent measurements served to verify this con-
clusion. During both 1959 and 1960 a highly significant correlation
was obtained between average pH and total salts when all samples were
included (corr. No's. 58, 68). However, when toxic samples were re-
moved from the analysis this relationship became less significant or
disappeared (corr. No's. 59, 69). When only the normal soil was re-
moved from the analysis a much better correlation was obtained (corr.
No. 81). This latter correlation was entirely justified since the normal

soil was originally well weathered and leached. Samples exhibiting
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85

continued to increase in salinity even though pH remained nearly con-
stant. Two exceptions to this were found in samples 4 and 20, which
probably represented cases in which the supply of easily oxidized
materials was beginning to be exhausted. Non-toxic samples tended to
remain about the same in salinity but several samples showed increases
and several decreases in total salt concentration (samples 5,7,8,11 & 13).
More detailed leachate analysis indicated that sulfates of calcium
and magnesium.dominated over other compounds (table 16). In general,
calcium was in greater supply than magnesium except in those spoils
labeled as toxic (4,9,10,17 & 20). In these cases the reverse was true,
with as much as twenty times more magnesium than calcium (sample 17).
The reason for this reversal is undoubtedly the result of extreme acidity
but the exact mechanism.involved is not clear. An extension of the
present study would probably shed more light on the matter. Sodium
appeared to be in ample supply for plant growth and always was present
in amounts greater than potassium, the latter being in low quantities
in many cases. Since composition of the leachate probably also reflects
the base saturation of the clay fraction it would be logical to assume
that potassium.may be a limiting factor for good plant growth. Since
nitrogen and phosphorus were undetectable in leachates it is likely that
plants may benefit from additions of these elements in field planting.
Of considerable interest is the high concentration of iron, alums
inum and manganese in certain samples. Where the combined levels of the
three elements exceed 400 ppm no tree survival was recorded. Correla-
tion analyses using these three elements alone and in combination
showed significant relationships for each analysis when comparing

concentration with 1959 survival (corr. No's 107, 117, 122-125).

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88

The best correlations were noted when comparisons included either
aluminum or iron plus aluminum. The erratic appearance of manganese
in solution probably accounts for the poorer relationship found with
this element. The reader is cautioned at this point not to misinterpret
the complete mortality of sample 19 in terms of the preceding discussion
since this sample exhibited such a slow rate of weathering that seedlings
may have died from lack of water brought on by improper root-soil contact.

Mechanisms involved in bringing iron, aluminum and manganese into
solution are fairly well understood. In brief, the more acid the
medium the more will appear in solution. The same is generally true of
other mineral elements. In order to test the magnitude of this effect
certain analyses were made using both average and log median pH. From
these analyses it was found that leachate aluminum was better correlated
with acidity than was leachate iron (corr. No's. 60-63, and 70-73) even
though both exhibited good correlations. Various other correlations
were made between acidity, salts of various kinds and total salts
(corr. No's. 80, 86-89, 96, 97, 1029105, 114 and 115). As a result of
the very close interrelationship of these variables it is quite clear
that as acidity increases, the quantity of total salts and individual
elements increases. Because of the very close relationship between
total salts and individual toxic ions (Fe, Al, Mm) it is difficult to
say which is the more important cause of mortality of seedlings,
salinity or toxicity.

Changes in leachate salt concentrations as a function of time al-
ready have been discussed. However, changes in individual elements or
ions is of equal importance. In general, patterns of sulfate ion

concentration closely paralleled that of total salts (appendix 3).

89

This was true for all samples regardless of their sulfate concentration.
Calcium tended to remain about the same in all samples with the except-
ion of the toxic ones (appendix.4). In these cases a marked reduction
was observed (samples 4, 9, 10, 17, 20). Extreme acidity is obviously
dissolving the calcium salts early in the weathering process. With
magnesium.a somewhat different result is apparent (appendix 5). .Al-
though the general trend is about the same as calcium, the toxic spoils
remained about the same or increased in magnesium.content thereby caus-
ing a significant change in the calciumsmagnesium.ratio. Sample 20,
however, is a notable exception in that the ratio of calcium to
magnesium remained about the same and both elements experienced a
reduction of 50 percent in concentration. This loss of bases from the
spoil was attended by a resulting increase in aluminum.as will be seen
later.

Sodium concentrations over the study period reflect its high
solubility in that significant reductions occurred in most cases
(appendix 6). In only one-fourth of the samples did this element re-
main unchanged and in no case did it increase more than temporarily.

No special trend was evident where extreme acidity was concerned. It
may be that sodium feldspars are supplying this element in certain
samples. Potassium concentrations, on the other hand generally remained
about the same with only minor shifts up and down (appendix 7). Notable
exceptions should be taken with respect to the toxic spoils since rapid
reductions occurred in samples 4, 9 and 10. Samples 17 and 20 were
already at such a low level that major changes would not be expected.

Concentrations of iron, aluminum.and manganese in the leachate

were small or lacking in nearly all mildly acid or mildly alkaline

9O

spoils (appendices 8, 9 and 10). Only in the extremely acid leachates
were considerable amounts of these elements present. In these cases
both iron and aluminum tended to rise with the exception of sample 20
which showed a slight reduction in iron. Manganese was virtually
absent in leachates above pH 5.0 and increased in substantial amounts
as the pH dropped. One notable exception to this may be found in
sample 5 which showed a low pH during the first few months of weather-
ing. Later the acidity shifted to alkalinity and as a result manganese
concentrations gradually diminished. Of particular interest is the
steady reduction of manganese in sample 20. This, together with a
slight reduction in iron and a substantial downward trend in total salts
for the 21-month study period, would indicate that within the next
year or so plant life may be established on this type of spoil.
MW

Chemical analysis of the unweathered spoil rock indicated very
low levels of total nitrogen (table 17). Only the normal soil showed
a substantial difference in this respect. This matter will be dis-
cussed in more detail in that section concerning seedling growth.

Total soluble salts of the unweathered spoil showed considerable
variation between spoils but no valid association could be established
between this variable and subsequent salt concentrations of the
leachate. This would indicate that original salinity of the sample
had little to do with its final chemical properties but rather would
indicate that salts appearing in the leachate were primarily the
results of chemical breakdown insitu as a result of weathering.
Smilfismllaia

Chemical analysis of spoil air was done to further characterize

91

Table 17. Total nitrogen and salt content of the
unweathered Spoil rock.

 

 

 

 

Sample Total
No. Description -— Nitiogen 83%t8
1 Acid Silty Clay Loam. .030 .007
2 Acid Sandy Loam .024 .012
3 Acid Silty Clay .010 .008
4 Toxic Silty Clay .064 .210
5 Calcareous Clay .016 .063
6A Acid Silt Loam. .162 .044
6B Acid Sandy Loam .014 .004
7 Calcareous Silty Clay .051 .020
8 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam .048 .063
9 Toxic Sandy Loam. .006 .036
10 Toxic Silty Clay Loam .050 .284
ll Calcareous Clay .081 .158
12 Calcareous Silty Clay .026 .018
13 Marginal Loam .020 .026
14 Calcareous Clay .018 .016
15 Calcareous Clay .065 .027
16 Calcareous Clay Loam .024 .024
17 Toxic Clay .068 .393
18 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam .046 .018
19 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam .024 .012
20 Toxic Sandy Loam .015 .024
Hgte: 6A sample is the A2 Horizon (Wooster Soil Series)

6B sample is the Bz Horizon (Wooster Soil Series)

92

the samples with respect to their chemical activity. Results of these
analyses clearly indicated that gross deviations in chemical properties
occurred with certain spoils. Data presented in figures 31 through 36
are only for those samples where differences were great enough to
warrant further consideration. In only two samples (10 and 17) did
oxygen concentration reach a critically low level for plant growth.
Even so, this critical level was recorded at and below the 60 cm level
which is somewhat below the normal rooting zone of many plants. In
samples 4, 5, and 17 depletion of oxygen was undoubtedly due in part

to oxidation of finely divided carbon particles making up the carbonac-
eous shale. The same is true to a lesser extend in samples 19, 11 and
20 but in these latter cases fragments or streaks of coal were the
probable cause. This hypothesis is further strengthened by the
simultaneous rise in carbon dioxide concentration. Since gas absorption
methods of analysis could not distinguish between carbon dioxide and
other acid gases several samples of 10 and 17 were analyzed by the

mass spectrograph. Since no sulphur gases were detected it is assumed
that these gases, if formed directly are immediately dissolved in the
spoil water phase and appear later as sulfates.

Not all of the oxygen deficit can be explained by carbon oxidation.
Similarly, not all carbon dioxide can be explained in this manner. In
the case of the former, and particularly toward the end of the study
period, low oxygen concentrations of samples 10 and 17 were probably
the result of continued sulfide oxidation. The appearance of high
quantities of sulfates in the leachates of these samples substantiates
this point. Further validation of this view may be seen with samples

4 and 20. Both of these samples showed a gradual decline in salt

93

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zOD

 

 

 

ON 0.5—Em

 

99

content towards the end of the study period (table 15). At the same
time, near normal, gas concentrations were also observed for this
period. Sample 11 showed a somewhat different reason for abnormal
carbon dioxide concentrations, i.e. the chemical breakdown of carbon-
ates. Under the action of carbonic acid supplied in rainfall the so-
lution of small quantities of calcite and dolomite would be expected.
An additional interesting point to consider is the fact that sample 9,
an extremely acid and saline sample as measured by leachate analysis,
failed to show any abnormal gas concentrations. The open, porous nature
of this sandy spoil may have allowed diffusion of gases to proceed at a
high rate. A continuation of this study may help to explain this
observation.

The fluctuations of gas concentrations merit consideration. It
can clearly be seen that deviations of greatest magnitude occurred
during the warmer months. In comparing these deviations with tempera-
ture for the same period one can easily see the relationship which
temperature bears to chemical activity. Biological activity, on the
other hand, is not likely to contribute much toward abnormal gas
concentrations since easily oxidized organic matter is absent from
these materials. The effect of temperature on chemical activity is
not a new principle but the magnitude of this effect is worth

mentioning.
W M__:.____ea urement - W Siam;

Measurements of white pine survival for both 1959 and 1960 were
in very close agreement (table 18). In neither year was there any
direct correlation between survival and physical properties with the

exception of complete mortality on sample 19 attributed to the coarse

lOO

 

 

 

Table 18. Survival and growth of white pine seedlings (1959 & 1960)
Sample Survival (%) Average Height
Growth gem.)
No. Description 1959 1960 1959 l960__
1 Acid Silty Clay Loam 100 100 6.90 1.60
2 Acid Sandy Loam 67 67 6.85 4.85
3 Acid Silty Clay 100 100 6.63 2.60
4 Toxic Silty Clay 0 100 - 2.33
5 Calcareous Clay 100 100 7.33 3.30
6 Acid Sandy Loam 100 100 15.53 4.17
7 Calcareous Silty Clay 100 33 6.50 1.90
8 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam 100 100 7.27 2.97
9 Toxic Sandy Loam 33 0 6-90 -
10 Toxic Silty Clay Loam 0 0 - —
ll Calcareous Clay 100 67 5.97 3.15
12 Calcareous Silty Clay 100 100 5.80 3.27
13 Marginal Loam 100 100 5.17 2.87
14 Calcareous Clay 100 100 6.43 2.93
15 Calcareous Clay 100 100 8.63 4.50
16 Calcareous Clay Loam 100 100 6.00 3.67
17 Toxic Clay 0 0 - -
18 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam 100 100 6.40 2.63
19 Calcareous Silty Clay Loam 0 100 - 2.53
20 Toxic Sandy Loam 0 O - -

 

lOl

nature of the unweathered rock. By far, the most significant effects

on seedling survival were caused by chemical factors. When average pH
for the growing season was compared to seedling survival for that same
season highly significant correlations resulted (corr. No's. 66, 76).
Similarly, when log median pH for the entire study period was compared
with survival approximately comparable results were obtained indicating
that survival was less as the pH became lower (corr. No's. 82, 84).
Although these correlations would indicate a linear relationship
between the two variables, in reality there is probably a very narrow
critical range of acidity below which no survival could be expected.
Above this range excellent survival would be anticipated. From the
data in table 14 it would appear as though pH 2.7 to 3.0 would
adequately describe such a range. This range is somewhat lower than
was reported by other workers.

Just as important as acidity and closely correlated with survival
was the concentration of salts in the leachate during the individual
growing seasons (corr. No's 76, 84, 92, 131, 132). This was particul—
arly true for 1960 since all seedlings lived in sample 19. In this
particular case spoil weathering had proceeded far enough to insure a
favorable substrate during the second year. Sample 4 exhibited no
survival in 1959 but complete survival in 1960. Chemical properties
of this sample remained about the same. Therefore it is possible this
represents a border line case. Since the close inter-relationships
between acidity, salinity and specific toxic ions have already been
established an extended discussion of this subject may be omitted.
Leachate iron concentration was as well correlated with survival as

was leachate total salts (corr. No's. 106, 108, 109). A slight but

102

non-significant improvement was obtained (as measured by a "t" test
comparing the individual correlation coefficients) when leachate alumi-
num was compared with survival (corr. No's 116, 118). This latter
correlation probably owes its higher value to its readily available
supply in most earthy substances. Soil acidity is still a practical
measure for prediction of survival even though salinity or toxic ion
concentration remain the real cause of seedling mortality. The inter-
fering effect of other ions such as calcium and magnesium on the uptake
of iron, aluminum and manganese make it very difficult to predict the
critical levels involved. However, when iron, aluminum and manganese
were considered collectively, a level of about 400 ppm in the leachate
appears to describe this critical level.

The only remaining variable which exhibited a significant relation-
ship with seedling survival was log depth of weathering (corr. No's 47
and 49). Previous discussions have already pointed up the effect of
acidity on the rate of weathering so that this relationship is surely
an indirect one.

Levels of substrate nitrogen, final bulk density and percentages
of spoil sand and clay failed to correlate with seedling survival
(corr. No's 54, 55, 126 and 129). Apparently these factors were not
critical with respect to survival during the first two years of
weathering.

when certain of the above variables were considered collectively
in the form of multiple regression analysis a slightly different
picture evolves (appendix 2a, 2b) . As before, percent sand, percent
clay and final bulk density failed to have any significant effect on

Survival in either 1959 or 1960. But, for 1959 survival, log depth of

103

weathering reversed its trend (from negative to positive) and together
with log median pH resulted in a highly significant multiple correlation
coefficient (appendix 2a, equations 1 and 3). It must be remembered
that this statistical method removes the effect of inter-correlation
and tends to assign the proper effect to the causal agent. For this
reason, in the latter equation, the full effects of acidity as being

the prime cause of mortality become more lucid. It should also be
mentioned that log median pH gave a better correlation than average pH
(appendix 2a, equations 1 and 2).

By the following year (1960) effects of weathering became insigni-
ficant as a result of over-all rapid weathering of nearly all spoils
(appendix 2b, equation 1). This left only acidity as the major cause
of mortality (equation 1 and 2). However, as may be seen from equation
2 concentrations of iron and total salts gave a high enough “t" test to
warrant inclusion in a third equation. This third equation clearly
indicated that by the second year iron and salts were the real cause of
seedling mortality and pH alone was shifted to an insignificant role,
that of a secondary agent (appendix 2b, equation 3). Also, from this
latter equation it may be seen that salinity tended to be somewhat
closer related to mortality than iron concentration.

WM

With regards to seedling growth it must be remembered that 1959
seedlings were l-year-old when planted, whereas in 1960 two-year-old
seedlings were used. One should also hear in mind that comparisons
of growth with other variables were made to include only those samples
in which one or more seedlings survived. Because of this latter reason

factors such as percent sand, percent clay, final bulk density, pH,

104

leachate salts and toxic ion concentrations failed to correlate with
growth even though excellent relationships were found with respect to
survival (corr. No's 56, 67, 77, 83, 85, 93, 107, 110, 117, 119 and
133). The only correlations which showed real significance when
compared to seedling growth were log depth of weathering and percentage
of spoil nitrogen. However, these were only significant for the 1959
data and not for 1960 (corr. He's 48, 50, 127, 128 and 130). It is
entirely possible that by the end of the first year initial weathering
had progressed to a point where adverse soil-root conditions had been
largely eliminated. This point is further substantiated in view of the
fact that log median pH failed to correlate with log depth of weather-
ing when the same number of samples were included in each analysis
(corr. No's 41 and 48). The excellent correlation between 1959 growth
and percentage of spoil nitrogen was the result of late season growth
of seedlings in sample 6. During August 1959 a favorable growing
period occurred which nearly doubled the growth occurring earlier in
the season (table 18). Further proof of this appears in correlation
No. 129 which differs from correlation No. 128 in having sample 6
removed. Apparently nitrogen was in such short supply that all spoils
exhibited about equal seedling growth. When one considers certain of
the above variables collectively in the form of a multiple regression
analysis, a similar result is obtained with the 1959 growth data
(appendix 2c). Equation 1 clearly indicates the effect of weathering
whereas equation 2 shows the effect of substrate nitrogen. When
combining both variables in equation 3 it was necessary to omit sample
6 and the result was an elimination of nitrogen significance. This

substantiates the above findings from simple correlations.

105

Due to the complete absence of significant simple relationships
with respect to 1960 seedling growth these data were also handled by
multiple regression methods (appendix 2d). From equation 1 it becomes
clear why log depth of weathering has lost its significance when come
pared to the 1959 growth data. Obviously, weathering had progressed to
a point where the percent of sand and clay were, in themselves, the
important features. In equation 2 both leachate iron and leachate
salts showed a significant depressing effect on seedling growth. But,
when the most important variables from equations 1 and 2 are combined
into a third equation the result is not significant even though two
separate variables (percent sand and percent N.) show significance.

The sudden loss of significance of iron and salts cannot be easily
explained. Neither can the loss of percent clay as an important variable
be explained readily. Such complex relationships as have been discussed
will, no doubt, clarify themselves at a later time when soil-forming
processes have had ample opportunity of expression.

Tissue Analysis

Chemical tissue analysis was performed on seedling needle tissue
for both 1959 and 1960 seedlings. Results of these analyses appear
in tables 19 and 20. Particularly striking with regard to the
nutrient element status of the needle tissue is the very low level of
nitrogen present. This is especially true for the 1959 seedlings
which with the exception of sample 6 were all in the region of the
minima as described by Mitchell (1939). For the 1960 seedlings all
samples fell into the minimal range, which accounts for the variable
effects of substrate nitrogen when compared with seedling growth.

When a correlation analysis was performed using spoil nitrogen versus

106

Table 19. Nutrient element status of the current year's needles of
white pine, 1959-

 

 

 

 

fNfitrient‘Elements12§_‘
sample
Number N P K Ca Mg Fe Mn
1 1.00 .215 .383 .577 .295 .0177 .120
2 0.78 .108 .260 .727 .401 .0134 .159
3 0.68 .134 .377 .447 .303 .0159 .066
4
5 1.00 .129 .355 .557 .415 .0162 .091
6 1.96 .185 .350 .626 .237 .0128 .286
7 l .18 .120 .279 . 568 .304 .0115 .007
8 1.00 .156 .366 .495 .341 .0138 .043
9 1.13 .400 .721 .160 .214 .0427 .049
10
11 0.94 .098 .572 .717 .286 .0179 .017
12 0.83 .118 .324 .785 .248 .0136 .008
13 1.04 .155 .378 .674 .246 .0192 .169
14 0 .49 .099 . 314 .832 .274 .0149 .008
15 0.80 .127 .348 .890 ..248 .0154 .017
16 0.59 .275 .355 .830 .180 .0170 .017
17
18 0.66 .170 .354 .754 .260 .0155 .065
19
20
Nursery 7‘
stock as 2.65 .295 .511 .362 .119 .0253 .067

received

 

107

 

 

 

 

Table 20. Nutrient element status of the current year's needles
of white pine, 1960.
Sample Nutrient Element (5:; _ L
No. N P K Ca Mg» _> Fe Mn. A1
1 1.19 .228 .540 .620 .220 .024 .098 .035
2 0.67 .084 .284 .698 .189 .024 .099 .029
3 1.26 .181 .504 .447 .168 .024 .054 .031
4 1.05 .152 .390 .534 .190 .033 .046 .043
5 1.01 .144 .535 .574 .202 .028 .071 .065
6 1.22 .135 .400 .510 .185 .019 .127 .023
7 1.32 .291 .439 1.077 .339 .027 .042 .044
8 0.99 .113 .492 .502 .177 .020 .064 .025
9
10
11 0.81 .102 .474 1.044 .220 .026 .070 .041
12 0.77 .098 .340 .659 .155 .024 .070 .038
13 0.89 .114 .467 .667 .172 .023 .106 .042
14 0.74 .085 .331 .757 .192 .022 .042 .028
15 0.79 .094 .447 .740 .152 .025 .040 .040
16 0.75 .088 .299 .764 .150 .026 .040 .037
17
18 0.72 .092 .305 .814 .165 .021 .065 .026
19 0.98 .134 .295 .775 .180 .018 .069 .026
20
Nhrsery
stock as 1.79 .244 .663 .644 .155 .030 .123 .050

received

108

tissue nitrogen for the 1959 tissue data, a highly significant relation-
ship was found, thus further substantiating the above conclusions

(corr. No. 125). Foliar symptoms of nitrogen deficiency were widespread
in all samples except number 6 for the 1959 season. These symptoms
began to appear by midsummer and were fully developed by late fall.

The same results were observed in 1960 except that sample 6 was also
somewhat yellow in appearance.

Tissue phosphorus levels were also at a relatively low level. In
only two cases did the phosphorus level increase over that of the
original seedlings as received from the nursery (sample 9, 1959 and
sample 7, 1960). This is to be expected in view of the higher fertil-
ity levels of most nursery soils. In general, serious reductions were
observed, and, like nitrogen, these levels were in the minimal region
described by Mitchell (1939). When one considers the fact that phos-
phorus was virtually absent in the spoil leachate as a result of its
immobility it is not surprising that such low levels of tissue phos-
phorus would result. Even though all seedlings appeared to be well in-
noculated with mycorrhizal fungi, present knowledge indicates these
fungi are most effective in making available organic phosphorus sources
and limited availability of inorganic sources would be expected.
Despite the low levels of phosphorus, no visual symptoms of this de-
ficiency could be detected.

Potassium in the needle tissue showed a general reduction in
concentration when compared to the original seedlings. This was true
for both 1959 and 1960 seedlings. Foliage potassium in 1960 was
generally higher than 1959 but was still well below Mitchell's (1939)

region of the minima. Despite the generally low levels of foliar

109

potassium no deficiency symptoms could be detected. It is entirely
possible that nitrogen deficiency symptoms overshadowed any potassium
deficiency symptoms. Then, too, it is also possible that sodium was
being utilized in lieu of part of the potassium requirement. Future
studies along similar lines should include foliar sodium levels in order
to clarify this point.

Calcium levels in the foliage of both years seedlings were
extremely high. In fact, nearly every measurement was in the region
of toxicity as described by Mitchell (1939). This result is not
surprising in view of the high levels of calcium encountered in the
leachate. Similarly, magnesium levels were at or above the deficiency
levels described by Stone (1953). These generally high levels of
calcium and magnesium may be one factor contributing to the generally
low levels of potassium.described above. In order to test whether
tissue calcium.and magnesium.where affected by leachate concentrations
of these elements two correlations were made being leachate concentrat-
ion versus tissue concentration (corr. No's 94, 95). Neither of these
analyses were significant but the latter, with magnesium, was very
close to significance at the .05 level, indicating a possible relation-
ship.

Tissue concentrations of iron, aluminum and manganese appeared to
be about normal since those seedlings affected by abnormally high
leachate concentrations of these elements died prior to the end of the
growing season. The highest level of manganese recorded for any seed-
lings was for those growing in the normal soil (sample 6). Inasmuch
as this occurred both years and these were also the healthiest looking

seedlings in each case it may be assumed that toxic levels of this

llO

element are above those found. With regard to minimal levels it would
also appear that these seedlings were well supplied with all three
elements in view of the results reported with Scotch pine by Goslin 2/.
Two correlation analyses were performed in order to establish
‘whether nutrient contents of iron and manganese in the leaf tissue
‘were related to leachate concentrations of these elements. (corr.
No's 101, 120). With respect to manganese no relationship was
established. However, with iron a very significant relationship was
found which indicated that levels of foliar iron were well correlated
with leachate concentrations of this element. No correlation between
leachate aluminum and tissue aluminum was attempted but since leachate
iron and aluminum were well correlated in themselves, it is highly
probably that the uptake of aluminum is similar to that of iron
(table 20).
In order to characterize the spoil samples further with regard
to their ability to support herbaceous vegetation, a count of all
volunteer weeds was made in August 1960 (table 21). The complete or
nearly complete absence of weeds on samples 4, 9, 10, 17, and 20
coincided exactly with results of seedling survival. Unquestionably
those spoils unfavorable to white pine seedlings were also unsuited
to the establishment of weeds. The most numerous species encountered

in this study were crabgrass species, fall panicum.and prostrate

 

97’ Goslin, William E. Effects of deficiencies of essential else
ments on the development and mineral composition of seedlings
of Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). Unpub. Ph. D. Dissertation,
Ohio State University 1959.

lll

spurge which were well represented in the nearby vegetation. More
important than the number of weeds was the general color and vigor
of the plants. On all samples except the normal soil, vegetation
'was small and yellow indicating an obvious lack of nitrogen. Only
on the normal soil did plants have a healthy green color and exhibit
normal vigorous growth. Table 22 gives some indication of the
general growth pattern of the observed species. From a more applied
aspect it would appear as though the presence and vigor of volunteer
vegetation may serve as able criteria in classifying spoil areas
for future revegetation with more valued species. These, together
‘with determinations of field acidity, would allow non-technical
personnel to predict future survival of areas to be planted or
seeded.
Fi Tria s

As a preliminary investigation concerning the effect of spoil
effluent on fish life the blunt-nosed minnow was subjected to varying
concentrations of spoil leachate. After a suitable acclimation
period the fish were placed in a 5 percent leachate solution using
local creek water as the bulk medium. Results of this initial concen-
tration are depicted in figure 37. Within a few minutes after
transfer to the leachate solutions fish began to show sluggishness
in sample 17. Within a few hours all fish died in this sample. By
the end of 16 hours all fish were dead in samples 4, 9, 10, 17 and
20. This coincides with the unfavorable effect noted for these
samples with respect to seedling survival and herbaceous weed estab-
lishment. By further dilutions the maximum critical leachate concen-

tration was established. At this point some fish died and some

112

August 1960.
Number of Individual Weed Plants

Occurrence of volunteer weed vegetation by species and

Spoil sample.

Table 21.

 

mEmB MO
nonasz Hobos

 

15

20

57
59
65

39
7O

63

28

13

 

assoc 8.8a
-csoam .onaz

 

acadeunea

 

escapee:

 

mmenmeoam

 

essence
cacao

 

Hakeem c003
soaaew

 

 

A meaeoam

bosons

 

 

ewmwmm
efioupmonm

18

 

savanna
Hash

 

moaoemw

arm mmehmpeno

15

22

11

39

59

28

 

madmam
Haonm

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10

 

11

 

 

 

 

l5

 

l6
17
18
19
20

 

 

 

 

 

 

l/ Camnon and scientific plant names appear in Appendix 11.

113

Table 22. Weight of volunteer weed vegetation by species and spoil
sample.

2 1 Weight of Weed Plants (grams 0 65° 0,)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

:1 n as a

0 30 99

n 0 a 0) C: 0 0H
s. += .. . n m '3 s a: as
0 a0 a a0 +30 gm q'f‘I ED 0 03 .3 Hg
an .93.. eggs as .g . s a 0.3:.
2.5 as 21:5 °.. .22. '33 a. 3. ° g “a s...
m om a. 31m >0) has our. m .2 2H E-«0
#1, 0.27 0.27
2 0.01 0.01 0.02
3 0.44 * 0.44
4 0
5 0.55 0.55
6 16.56 2.79 0.11 0.41 19.87
7 0.09 0.18 0.27
8 0,67 0.67
9 0.01 0.01
10 0
11 0.92 0.03 0.95
A 12 2.52 0.03 0.03 0.1.4 0.01 3.03
13 1.42 0.02 0.01 0.14 1.59
14 0.43 * 0.23 0.01 0.08 0.75
15 0,06 0.02 0.01 * 0.09
16 0.1.3 .1 * i 0.01 0.01. 0.53
17 0
18 0.04 0.04
19 0.10 * 0.10
20 0

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1/ Common and scientific plant names appear in.Appendix 11.
Note: .Asterisk denotes less than 0.01 gms.

114

lived through the five-day test period. These critical values
together with a partial leachate analysis appear in table 23. With-
out the benefit of statistical analysis it would appear as though
high toxic ion concentrations were the major cause of fish mortality.
These findings are in general agreement with those of Riley (1960)
who used both blue gills (W Q. We, Rafinesque) and
common shiners (Ngtzgpus ggrnutus ggggtgli§,Agassiz). In this study
Riley noted rapid(20-22 min.) death of fish at acidities of pH 2.1.
to 2.6. However,Moulton (1957) points out that total acidity is a
better measure of toxicity than acidity alone. The toxic ion
hypothesis is the most logical one since fish in this study were able
to survive total salt concentrations in excess of 2400 ppm.when toxic
ions were absent, a value far above the total salt concentrations
when toxic ions were present. It is difficult to assign the specific
levels of toxic ions necessary to effect a complete kill of fish.
However, in this study it would appear as though a range of 6 to 26
ppm iron plus aluminum fairly well described the upper limit of

survival.

115

 

 

 

Figure 37. Minnow trials showing tanks, aeration system and fish
kill on initial trials at 5 percent leachate.

116

Table 23. Summary of preliminary investigations into the
toxicity of Spoil leachates to the blunt nosed
minnow (Hyborhynchus notatus Rafinesque) .

 

 

Max. Critical was gfl 921ng nghgjg

 

Sample Leachate Tot. Sol. Salts Acidity Fe + Al
NO' Concegtration ppn pH ppm
4 4.0 12,972 2.7 62.0
9 1.3 14,900 2.5 2,420
10 0.5 33,572 2.6 1,620
17 0.25 71,376 2.2 2,760
20 0.5 15,850 2.0 1,210

 

Note; Only the five most toxic Spoils are included.

 

 

 

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

After 21 months of weathering, coal spoils were found to be
affected most by acidity. The more acid spoils exhibited the deepest
weathering and the highest concentration of salts in the leachate.
Depth of weathering also had a significant influence on the hydrologic
properties of the spoils. The deeper-weathered samples exhibited the
greatest moisture loss due to evapo-transpitation and consequently
yielded the smallest amount of leachate. The greater evapo-transpir-
ation was probably the result of a more continuous capillary moisture
system within the spoil column. This, in turn, allowed greater surface
evaporation to occur. When compared to the normal soil included in
this study, spoils yielded from 141 to 253 percent more leachate.
Initial weathering resulted in an overall increase in bulk density of
the upper-most part of the spoil; however, certain samples which
were deeply weathered showed decreases. No significant difference in
bulk density could be detected in the lower three-fourths of the
column. Surface runoff and erosion were not serious in most samples.

Temperature measurements throughout the column indicated no
serious abnormalities and failed to produce readings which would be
lethal to plant growth. Differences of temperature due to spoil
color were generally small.

Basic spoil textural classes ranged from sandy loam to clay
with silt and clay predominating in most samples. In only one case
did a particular soil separate exceed 65 percent. Further analysis
of sand, silt and clay fractions were made by X-ray diffraction
methods. Quartz generally dominated the crystalline minerals in both

the sand and silt fractions. IMuscovite and feldspars were present in

117

118

many samples, but in smaller quantities. Carbonates were generally
uncommon, but when present exerted a strong influence on chemical
properties. Clay minerals tended to be well crystallized and easy to
identify. Illite was present in all samples and dominated in two-
thirds. Kaolinite was second most common and dominated in the other
one-third of the samples. 'Vermiculite and chlorite occurred in many
samples but only in small quantities. Adverse physical properties of
spoils tended to be influenced more by acidity and salinity than by
the type or total amount of clay.

Leachate chemical analysis showed extremely high salt and toxic
ion concentration at acidities below pH 3.0. Leachate salts were
dominated by sulfates. Calcium and magnesium.were the most common
cations with calcium dominating the nonrtoxic samples. iMagnesium
tended to be much higher than calcium in the spoils below pH 3.0.
Significant amounts of toxic ions (Fe, Al, Mn) were present in
samples below pH 3.0. Nitrogen and phosphorus were not detected in
leachates. Sodium and potassium concentrations were generally low
but sodium always appeared in greater quantity than potassium.
Significant trends were evident with regard to changes in salt
concentration over the study period. ‘Very acid samples tended to
increase in salt content while mildly acid and alkaline samples
tended to show reductions. Salt concentrations tended to be higher
in the summer and lower in the winter as a result of differences in
the amount of rainfall appearing as leachate. Total salt analysis of
the original rock proved to be a poor indicator of subsequent leachate

salt concentrations.

119

Chemical analysis of the spoil air showed marked differences due
to time of year and type of spoil. Greatest deviation from that of
normal air occurred during the warm.months. Carbon-dioxide concentrat-
ions were greatest in the dark carbonaceous shales, especially when
extreme acidity was also present. Oxygen concentrations deviated most
from normal when samples were extremely acid or contained carbonaceous
materials. The oxidation of sulphides accounted for the majority of §
oxygen depletion, especially towards the latter part of the study period. ?
During this latter period carbon dioxide concentrations were returning
to normal. No free sulfur gases were detected in the study.

Seedling survival was most affected by spoil chemical conditions.
In the first year of weathering extreme soil acidity could account
for most of the mortality. Depth of weathering also had an effect
on survival presumably by allowing more satisfactory root-soil
relationships. In the second year the effect of initial weathering
was lost and instead of a direct effect of acidity on seedling
survival, this variable was almost entirely replaced by equally
adverse conditions of salinity and toxicity. These latter conditions
were of course the result of acidity.

With regard to seedling growth both depth of weathering and
percentage of substrate nitrogen were important. The deeper weather-
ed materials and most highest in total nitrogen were most favorable
to growth during the first year. ‘Very complex growth relationships
were encountered during the second year, making it more difficult to
assign significance to any factor. However, after one year's weather-
ing, it would appear as though spoil texture was beginning to

influence growth in lieu of depth of weathering. During the second

 

120

year the percentage of spoil nitrogen was still important. There is
the possibility that adverse effects due to high salinity and toxicity
were also important.

Results of chemical tissue analysis confirm.the low levels of
substrate nitrogen, since foliar nitrogen was relatively low in all
seedlings growing on spoils. Likewise, generally low levels of
phosphorus and potassium were found despite the lack of deficiency
symptoms for these elements. Calcium and magnesium levels were quite
high in most seedlings, reflecting adequate substrate availability.
Of these two, only magnesiwm showed a possible correlationship with
substrate-tissue correlations. The appearance of iron in the tissue
was well correlated with substrate availability. It is assumed that
uptake of aluminum.and manganese would follow a somewhat similar
pattern.

The occurrence and growth of volunteer weed vegetation on the
spoil samples mirrored the findings of the white pine data. Spoils
unfavorable to pine seedlings were unfavorable to volunteer vegetation.
The vigor of these weeds also reflected the 1959 seedling growth
again showing the great need for nitrogen.

Investigations into the effects of spoil effluent on fish life
clearly indicated a toxic effect due to extreme acidity conditions.
Total acidity rather than acidity pg;,§g is likely to be the govern-
ing factor with respect to fish survival since the quantity of toxic
elements in solution appears to be related to fish survival. As in
the case of plant life, fish were unable to survive in leachates

coming from toxic spoils except at very low concentrations.

 

 

121

Results and findings of this study indicate that Ohio coal
spoils weather quite rapidly. Many changes in the chemical,
physical and biological properties have been wrought in the short
study period involved. It is rather obvious that these changes will
continue and, therefore, in order to understand better the problems
involved, a continuation of the present study for at least three
more years is recommended. By that time, many of the results which
defy an explanation at present will undoubtedly become clearer. Of
particular interest is the time required for toxic spoils to leach
sufficiently to allow successful plant establishment. For this

purpose a period of perhaps five to twenty years would be required.

LITERATURE CITED

Bailey, H. H., E. P. Whiteside and A. E. Erickson. 1957. Mineral-
ogical composition of glacial materials as a factor in the morphol-
ogy and genesis of some podzol, gray wooded, gray-brown podzolic
and humic gley soils in Michigan. Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. 21:
4.33-1.41.

Bennie, P.S. 1956. De bebossing van mijnsteenstorten in Zuid-Limburg.
(The afforestation of mining spoil areas in South Limburg.)
Tijdschr. Ned. Heidemeatsch 67: 179-187 (Du.).

Bramble, W. C. and R. H. Ashley. 1955. Natural revegetation of spoil
banks in central Pennsylvania. Ecol. 36: 1.17-1.23.

. H. H. Chisman and G. H. Deitschman. 191.8. Research on
reforestation of spoil banks in Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania State
Forest School Research Paper No. 10, 6 pp.

Butters, B. and E. M. Chenery. 1959. A rapid method for the determin-
ation of total sulphur in soils and plants. Analyst 84:239-245.

Chapman, A. G. 1941.. Forest planting on strip-mined coal lands with
special reference to Ohio. Central States For. Expt. Sta. Technical
Paper No. 101.. 25 pp.

Clark, F. Bryan. 1951.. Forest planting on strip—mined land in Kansas,
Missouri, and Oklahoma. Central States For. Expt. Sta. Technical
Paper No. 11.1. 33 pp.

Deitschnnn, G. H. 1950. Seedling survival and height growth on graded
and ungraded strip-mined land in southern Illinois. Central States
For. Expt. Sta. Station Notes No. 62. 2 pp.

Einspahr, D. 0., A. L. McComb, F. F. Riecken and V. D. Shrader. 1955.
Coal spoil-bank materials as a medium for plant growth. Iowa Acad.
of Sci. 62:329-341..

Finn, Raymond F. 1952. The nutrient content of leaves and tree growth
as affected by grading on three strip-mined areas. Central States
For. Expt. Sta. Station Notes No. 70.

. 1958. Ten years of strip—mine forestation research
in Ohio. Central States For. Expt. Sta. Technical Paper No. 153.
38 pp.

 

Forest Soils Comittee of the Douglas Fir Region. 1953. Sapling
procedures and methods of analysis for forest soils. Univ. of
Washington, Seattle,College of Forestry. Mimeograph. 38 pp.

Grim, Ralph E. 1953. Clay mineralogy. McGraw—Hill Book 00., Inc.
New York. pp. 84-101..

122

1 III. )(I It! .I., .III

123

Hanawalt, J. D., H. W. Rinn and L. K. Frevel. 1938. Chemical
analysis by X—ray diffraction. Ind. Eng. Chem. 10: 457-512.

Hunter, F. 1953. Opencast coal sites reclaimed. Agriculture, Lond.
60, 335-336 (King's 0011., Newcastle-upon-Tyne).

Jackson, M. L. 1958. Soil chemical analysis. Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
Englewood Cliffs, N. J. 498 pp.

Knudsen, L. L. 1954. Extent and distribution of coal strip-mined
land in Ohio. Ohio Agric. Expt. Sta. Research Circular No. 22.

11 pp.

Limstrom, G. A. 1948. Extent, character and forestation possibilities
of land stripped for coal in the central states. Central States
For. Mt. Sta. Technical Paper No. 109. 79 pp.

. 1950. Overburden analysis and strip-mine conditions
in northeastern Ohio. Central States For. Expt. Sta. Technical
Paper No. 114. 44 pp.

. 1950. Overburden analysis and strip-mine conditions
in mideastern Ohio. Central States For. Expt. Sta. Technical Paper
No. 117. 33 pp.

 

 

. 1952. Effects of grading strip-mined lands on the
early survival and growth of planted trees. Central States For.
Expt. Sta. Technical Paper No. 130. 35 pp.

 

and R.‘H.1Merz. 1949. The rehabilitation of lands
stripped for coal in Ohio. Central States For.‘Expt. Sta. Technical
Paper No. 113. 41 pp.

. 1951. Overburden analysis and strip-mine
conditions in the northwestern district of the Ohio coal-mining
region. Central States For. Expt. Sta. Technical Paper No. 124.

36 pp.

 

. 1951. Overburden analysis and strip-mine
conditions in southeastern Ohio. Central States For. Expt. Sta.
Technical Paper No. 127. 61 pp.

 

Limstrom, G. A. 1960. Forestation of strip-mined land in the central
states. U. S. Dept. Agric. Forest Service Agric. Handbook No. 166.

74 pp.

Lowry, G. L. 1956. Five-year study evaluates forest tree varieties
for spoil banks. Ohio Farm and Home Research, 41:70-71.

. 1958. Conifer growth and survival varies on acid spoil.
Ohio Farm and Home Research, 43: 20-21.

 

124

Lowry, G. L. 1960. Conifer establishment on coal spoils as influenced
by certain site factors and organic additions at planting time.

Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. of Amer. 24:316-318.

Merz, R. W. and R. F. Finn. 1951. Differences in infiltration rates
on graded and ungraded strip-mined land. Central States For. Expt.
Sta. Station Notes No. 65. 2 pp.

Mitchell, H. L. 1939. The growth and nutrition of white pine seed-
lings in cultures with varying nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and
calcium. Black Rock Forest Bull. No. 9. 135 pp.

Moulton E.Q. 1957. The acid mine-drainage problem in Ohio. Eng.
Expt. Sta. Ohio State University Bull. No. 166. 158 pp.

Ohio Department of Agriculture. 1958. Biennial Report 1956-1958.
83 pp.

Potter, H. S., Sidney Weitzman and G. R. Trimble. 1951. Reforestation
of strip-mined lands in West Virginia. Northeastern For. Expt. Sta.
Station Paper No. 43. 28 pp.

Riley, 0. V. 1960. The ecology of water areas associated with coal
strip-mined lands in Ohio. Ohio J. of Sci. 60:106-121.

Rogers, Nelson F. 1951. Strip-mined lands of the western interior
coal province. Missouri Agric. Expt. Sta. Res. Bull. No. 475, 55 pp.

Stone, E. L. 1953. Magnesium deficiency of some northeastern pines.

Tyner, Edward H. and Richard M. Smith. 1945. The reclamation of the
strip-mined coal lands of West Virginia with forage species. Proc.
Soil Sci. Soc. of Amer. 10:429-436.

and S. L. Galpin. 1948. Reclam-
ation of strip-mined areas in West Virginia. Amer. Soc. Agron. J.
40:313-323.

United States Department of Agriculture. 1951. Soil Survey Manual,
U.S. Dept. Agric.’ Handbook No. 18. pp. 189-333.

Walstrom, Ernest E. 1955. Petrographic mineralogy. John Wiley and
Sons, New York. pp. 10-12.

Wilson, H. A. 1957 . Effect of vegetation upon aggregation in strip-
mine spoils. Proc. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. 21:637-640.

125

Wilson, B. A. and Gwendolyn Stewart. 1955. Ammonification and nitri-
fication in a strip-mine spoil. West Virginia University Agric.
Expt. Sta. Bull. 379T. 16 pp.

. 1956. The number of bacteria,
fungi and actinomycetes in some strip-mine spoil. West Virginia
University Agric. Expt. Sta. Bull. 388T. 15 pp.

 

Appendix 1 - Simple correlations.

 

 

Note: Where N = 20, all samples were included, N = 19 indicates soil
(sample 6) was omitted, N = 16 indicates samples 9, 10, 17, and
20 were omitted, N = 15-8 indicates samples 4, 10, l7, l9 and
20 were omitted, N = l5-b indicates sam 1es 6 9, 10, 17 and 20
were omitted, N e 14 indicates samples , 6, 10, 17, 19 and 20
were omitted. The variable number of samples included in the
correlations was the result of multi 1e regression analysis in
which certain samples did not apply see Appendix 2). Corre-
lation coefficient significance indicated thus: * 5% level,
** 1% level, *** 0.1% level.
Corre- Variables N Correlation
lation coefficient
No. (4)
1 % Spoil Sand vs.% Spoil Clay 19 -.824 we“
2 " " 15-b —.787 **
3 " " l5-b -.659 **
4 n n 14 _.851 mom
5 " B.D. Nov. 1959 20 .333
6 " Log Depth Weath. 19 -.064
7 " " 15-b -.103
8 " " 14 -.022
9 " Log Median pH 19 -.417
10 " " 15—b -.283
11 " " 14 -.717 **
12 " % Evapo—Trans. 20 .443 *
13 " BeDe 0'30 1960 19 0026
1!. n " lS-b -.115
15 " % Tot. Salts 1960 15-b -.162
16 " Survival 1959 19 -.203
17 " Growth 1959 14 —.131
18 " Survival 1960 19 -.377
19 " Growth 1960 15—b .507
20 % Spoil Clay vs. B.D. Nov. 1959 20 .290
21 n z Dehydrat. 20 .597 w
22 " Log Depth Weath. 19 .223
23 " " « l5—b .012
24 n n 14 _.250
25 " Log Median pH 19 .276
26 " , " lS-b .438
27 n I! 14 .789 {nun}
28 " z Evapo-Trans. 20 .261
29 " B.D. 0-30 1960 19 -.063
30 " " ' 15-b .360
31 " % Tot. Salts 1960 15—b .157
32 " Survival 1959 19 .116
33 " Growth 1959 14 .064
34 " Survival 1960 19 .153
35 " Growth 1960 15—b .007

126

Appendix 1 continued.

127

Simple correlations.

 

 

Corre- variables N Correlation
lation coefficient

No. i?)

36 Dehydration vs.% Illite 20 .236

37 " % Kaolinite 20 .782 ***

38 Log Depth Weath. vs. Log Median PH 20 —.321

39 II n 19 _.679 *4:-

40 " " 15-b -.510 *

41 " " 14 --376

42 " % Evapo-Trans. 20 .834 ***

43 " % Leachate 20 -.778 ***

44 " B.D. 0—30 1960 20 -.724 ***

45 " " 19 -.766 ***

46 " " 15-b -.66O **

47 " Survival 1959 19 -.595 **

48 " Growth 1959 14 .511 *

49 " Survival 1960 19 -.494 *

50 " Growth 1960 15-b .027

51 B.D.O-30 1960 vs. % Evapo-Trans. 20 -.624 **

52 " % Leachate 20 .596 **

53 " % Runoff 20 .276

54 " Survival 1959 19 .420

55 " Survival 1960 19 .265

56 " Growth 1960 15-b .150

57 B.D. Oct. 1958 vs. % B.D. change 20 -.350

58 Ave. pH 1959 Leach. Salts '59 20 -.600 **
Growing Season

59 " " 15-a -.460

60 " Leach. Fe 1959 20 -.657 **
Growing Season

61 " " 15-a -.588 *

62 " Leach. A1 1959 20 -.734 ***
'Growing Season

63 " " 15-a -.598 *

64 " Spoil N. 20 -.006

65 II n 15.8. 0117

66 " % Survival 1959 20 .688 ***

67 " Growth 1959 15—a -.128

58 Ave. pH 1960 vs. Leach. Salts 1960 20 -.644 **

69 " " 15-b -.541 a

70 " Leach. F3 1959 20 -.606 **

71 fl 3' 15.,b -.529 it

72 " Leach. 11 1959 20 -.689 H

73 n n n 15—b _.556 n

71. " Spoil N. 20 .072

75 n " 15-b -.019

76 " % Survival 1960 20 .620 **

77 9 Growth 1960 15-b ~155

Appendix 1 continued.

128

Simple correlations.

 

 

'Chrre— Variables N Correlation
lation coefficient

No. (r)

78 LogMedian pH vs. BeDe 0‘30 .1960 19 e660 **
79 " " 15-b .750 **
80 " % Leach. Fe 1959 19 -.715 ***
81 " % Tot. Salts 1960 19 -.712 ***
82 " Survival 1959 19 .638 **
83 " Growth 1959 14 .122

84 " Survival 1960 19 .698 **
85 " Growth 1960 15-b .203

86 Leach. nSalts 1959 vs. Leach. Fe 1959 20 .868 ***
87 Leach. Fe 1959 15-a .775 **
88 " Leach. A1 1959 20 .953 ***
89 n II 15.5 .780 an
90 " Spoil N. 20 .004

91 " " 15-a --332

92 " % Survival 1959 20 -.585 **
93 " Growth 1959 15-a -.191

94 Leach. Ca 1959 Tissue Ca 1959 15-a .052

95 Leach. Mg 1959 Tissue Mg 1959 15-a .492

96 Leach. Fe 1959 Leach. A1 1959 20 .864 ***
97 " " 15—a .999 ***
98 n % SpOfl Ne 20 -0058

99 " " 15-a -.252
100 " " 15-b -.362

101 " Tissue Fe 1959 15—a .962 ***
102 " Leach. Salts 1960 20 .660 **
103 n n 19 .656 *3!-
104 " " 15-b .917 ***
105 " " 15-b .935 ***
106 " % Survival 1959 20 -.650 **
107 " Growth 1959 l5-a -.O36
108 " % Survival 1960 20 -.724 ***
109 " " 19 -.721 ***
110 " Growth 1960 l5-b -.228
111 Leach. A1 1959 % Spoil N. 20 .011
112 " " 15-b .129
113 " " 15-a -.256
114 " % Tot. Salts 1960 20 .904 ***
115 II I! 15.39 .926 *3“!-
116 " % Survival 1959 20 -.712 ***
117 " Growth 1959 15-a --040
118 " % Survival 1960 20 -.796 ***
119 " Growth 1960 15-b -.24O

Appendix 1 continued .

129

Simple correlations .

 

 

 

Corre- Variables N Correlation
lation coefficient

NO. (1‘)

120 Leach. Mn 1959 vs. Tissue Mn 1959 l5-a .075

121 Leach. Fe,Al,Mn, 1959 % Survival 1959 20 -534 m
122 Leach. Fe, A1, 1959 " 20 --.711 ***
123 Leach. Fe, Mn, 1959 " 20 -. 589 **
124 Leach. A1, Mn, 1959 " 20 -.552 *
125 % Spoil N. Tissue N, 1959 15-a .729 **
126 " Survival, 1959 20 .068
127 " Growth, 1959 15-a .837 ***
128 " " 14. .220
129 " % Survival 1960 20 .063
130 " Growth 1960 15-b .284
131 Leach. Tot. Salts 1960 % Survival '60 20 -.749 ***
132 " " 19 «745 ***
133 " Growth 1960 l5-b -.l61

130

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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Appendix 3. Changes in the concentration of sulfate ion in the
leachate as a function of time (April - December
1959).
Sulfate Concentration (ppm)
Leachate by Sampligg Date
Safiple
0. Apr. June ngy. Agg. figpt. 993. Dan.
1 758. 810. 855. 915. 758. 855. 855.
2 1240. 1280. 1340. 1380. 1240. 1300. 1230.
3 170. 183. 192. 192. 170. 170. 189.
4 8100. 7950. 8400. 9150. 6750. 10500. 13200.
5 4110. 3900. 3720. 3390. 3300. 3480. 3300.
6 230 250 "' 27o 230 26o 300
7 1012. 750. 615. 570. 435. 510. 458.
8 2340. 1830. 1560. 1500. 1200. 1260. 1320.
9 3000. 3750. 4500. 9150. 11700. 17000. 17700.
10 5100. 7950. 11700. 15400. 16500. 21900. 27900.
11 1890. 2190. 2220. 2400. 2220. 2490. 2610.
12 450. 414. 474. 570. 450. 474. 408.
13 1920. 2070. 2200. 2400. 2200. 2620. 2740.
14 303. 270. 294. 276. 258. 258. 258.
15 795. 705. 735. 780. 690. 705. 645.
16 810. 720. 750. 810. 772. 825. 885.
17 22500. 29100. 32400. 51000. 54400. 65700. 73200.
18 144. 138. 135. 147. 132. 144. 144.
19 264. 264. 288. 300. 246. 258. 276.
20 12300. 18900. 23100. 26100. 21300. 21300. 18600.

 

 

135

 

 

 

 

Appendix 4. Changes in the concentration of calcium in the
leachate as a function of time (April - December
1959)-
Calcium Concentration (ppm)
Leachate by Sampling Date
Sample

No. Apr. June July Aug, Sept. Oct. Dec.
1 480. 470. 500. 510. 470. 460. 500.
2 710. 720. 760. 800. 690. 710. 670.
3 19. 20. 21. 21. 19. 22. 22.
4 195. 182. 163. 130. 125. 85. 59.
5 900. 960. 930. 900. 900. 900. 930.
6 15. 13. - 9. 8. 8. 6.
7 360. 290. 275. 275. 255. 265. 250.
8 680. 640. 620. 580. 560. 580. 550.
9 570. 460. 330. 57. 48. 22. 14.
10 330. 175. 144. 96. 81. 85. 50.
11 830. 880. 930. 950. 930. 970. 1000.
12 137. 132. 135. 157. 137. 132. 106.
13 665. 680. 710. 705. 680. 725. 725.
14 91. 75. 65. 68. 59. 61. 58.
15 465- 415- 405- 415. 390- 395- 385.
16 630. 580. 590. 670. 600. 650. 680.
17 148. 106. 92. 84. 76. 76. 62.
18 37. 1.1. 39. 1.4. 44. 49. 48.
19 870 910 960 810 680 760 68.
20 100. 88. 76. 58. 66. 58. 50.

 

136

 

 

 

 

Appendix 5. Changes in the concentration of magnesium in the
leachate as a function of time (April - December
1959)-
Magnesium Concentration (ppm)
Leachate by Sampling Date
Sample
No. Apr. June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Dec.
1 48. 54. 34. 37. 41. 42. 52.
2 67. 57. 47. 67. 67. 78. 60.
3 15.5 18.0 16.5 21.5 30.5 27.5 25.5
4 1000. 800. 1470. 1090. 800. 1000. 1570.
5 880. 1040. 820. 780. 740. 920. 820.
6 1405 1105 "' 800 700 700 300
7 160. 120. 80. 80. 70. 95. 70.
8 500. 360. 220. 290. 290. 260. 240.
9 130. 260. 410. 560. 610. 730. 670.
10 730. 1280. 1890. 1670. 1670. 2940. 3340.
11 190. 140. 220. 240. 220. 174. 290.
12 52. 54. 60. 68. 63. 63. 52.
13 200. 185. 200. 205. 176. 215. 280.
14 56- 45- 45- 45- 42- 39- 39-
15 110. 80. 76. 68. 70. 64. 80.
16 42- 32- 35- 37- 35- 41- 52.
17 2660. 2520. 2380. 2120. 2000. 2520. 2460.
18 18.0 25.5 21.5 18.0 21.5 18.0 20.5
19 21.5 22.5 30.5 30.5 19.5 25.5 23.0
20 860. 860. 1000. 500. 600. 600. 420.

 

137

Appendix 6. Changes in the concentration of sodium in the
leachate as a function of time (April - December

1959)-

 

Sodium Concentration (ppm)

 

Leachate uy.Sampling;9999

 

 

Sample
. Apr. June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Dec.
46.0 42.0 42.0 41.0 32.5 32.0 29.0
21.5 18.0 17.5 15.5 13.0 11.5 8.2
11.5 12.6 12.6 12.2 11.4 11.5 10.5
22.7 16.6 15.6 13.8 11.5 13.4 13.8
132. 104. 96. 76. 68. 64. 58.
5.8 4.4 - 4.8 4.2 3.8 3.2
96. 83. 79. 72. 61. 59. 50.
68. 58. 48. 44. 40. 40. 36.
31.2 25.4 21.5 20.7 15.0 11.2 8.4
71. 54. 49. 38. 29. 37. 26.
92. 96. 94. 92. 82. 78. 70.
10.7 10.3 10.7 11.2 10.3 10.0 10.3
35. 31. 29. 23. 16. 14.0 7.5
8.4 10.8 10.3 9.8 9.3 9.2 8.4
27. 19. 16. 17. 14. 12. 11.
6.5 6.5 6.8 6.8 6.2 6.2 5.5
4909 905 905 905 707 709 608
7.2 7.4 7.2 8.6 7.6 8.2 6.7
6.8 7.0 7.7 7.5 5.8 6.6 5.7
10.9 5.8 4.4 4.4 4-9 4-0 4-4

 

138

Asterisk indicates sample contained less

Changes in the concentration of potassium in the
leachate as a function of time (April - December

1959)-

mmmu7.

tMnm2mm

 

Potassium Concentration (ppm)

 

00130 Dec.

Sept.

Leachate by Sampling Date
MM Ag.

hm

 

Am.

&mh
M

 

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139

 

 

 

 

Appendix 8. Changes in the concentration of iron in the
leachate as a function of time (April - December
1959). Asterisk indicates sample contained less
than 0.2 ppm.
Iron Concentration (ppm)
Leachate hy Samplig§_Date
Sample
No. Apr. June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Dec.
1 * * u i u u *
2 * f * * * * §
3 * * * a a * §
4 6.3 41.3 34.0 44.0 37.3 31.0 24.8
5 0.5 * * 1.0 * 0.2 *
6 * i _ * i i *
7 0.2 i x * i * fl
8 u i i * a * *
9 * 0.4 13.8 142. 185. 180. 500
10 0.4 90. 490 238. 212. 117. 161.
11 'I' i 1' i * ‘l' *
12 i i u x i a *
13 * * * * * 0.2 0.2
u * l' * ‘I’ * '5 i-
15 a a * i a * i
16 i i * u i * i
17 8.2 462. 462. 432. 400. 414. 426.
18 * * * i i * *
19 i u i i i * u
20 524. 508. 450. 450. 492. 462. 450.

 

 

 

 

 

Appendix 9. Changes in the concentration of aluminum in the
leachate as a function of time (April - December
1959). Asterisk indicates sample contained less
than 0.2 ppm.
Aluminum Concentration (ppm)
___ Leachate by Sampling Date
Safiple

0. Apr. June July .Aug. Sept. Oct. Dec.

1 0.8 2.3 2.5 3.3 1.5 2.0 1.8

2 * 0.4 0.7 1.6 1.8 2.2 2.3

3 i i i I- i- § §

4 34. 76. 128. 230. 220. 420. 620.

5 * 0.2 0.2 * 0.7 0.9 0.8

6 it * .. i i- * it

7 it * i * i it it

8 * 0.2 0.3 * * * *

9 15. 70. 125. 580. 860. 1520. 1920.
10 18. 107. 166. 500. 640. 760. 1460.
11 * * 0.2 * 0.3 0.2 0.5
12 it i * l' ‘l' 1' il-
13 l.1 1.7 3.9 11.0 10.4 15.1 20.4
14 * * * I' fl * *
15 l- ‘lf it i it * it
16 * Ir * I! it * *
17 190. 555. 820. 1160. 1360. 1560. 2340.
18 l' i it * * * l-
19 * * s * a a *
20 178. 315. 430. 670. 650. 800. 760.

 

141

 

 

 

 

Appendix 10. Changes in the concentration of manganese in the
leachate as a function of time (April - December
1959). Asterisk indicates sample contained less
than 0.2 ppm.
Manganese Concentration (PPm)
Leachate by Sampling Date
Safiple
_ 0. Apr. June July Aug;w Sept. Oct. Dec.

1 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.4

2 0.8 2.9 3.2 2.6 1.9 1.9 0.5

3 i i- it i i i it

4 270. 280. 300. 290. 215. 250. 295.

5 31.8 27.0 23.0 16.8 13.8 2.0 0.2

6 004 003 "' 002 * * *

7 ‘I i 4% fl * fl- *

8 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 * * *

9 30. 94. 148. 62. 192. 184. 134.
10 180. 325. 480. 670. 670. 980. 1020.
11 * a * * i u 0.3
12 * * a u * s *
13 17.5 17.8 18.5 19.8 15.9 19.8 19.4
14 * * i * fl- * i-
15 * * § * * u *
16 0.2 * 0.3 * * * *
17 3800. 3000. 3200. 3200. 3300. 3600. 3000.
18 {E i- * 'I' i i *
19 i * * * i * a
20 340. 312. 214. 180. 122. 104. 78.

 

142

Appendix 11. Common and scientific plant names used in the text.

Common Name Scientific Name
Eastern white pine Ping strobus L.
.Crabgrass Digitaria gap.
Fall panicum Panicum Qchotomiflorum Michx.
Prostrate spurge Euphgrbia m Raf.
Violet 119.119 $32.9.
Yellow wood sorrel Mi; M L.
Green foxtail m m (L.) Beauv.
Bluegrass 293 mg L.
Knotweed P_glyg___onum avi culare L-

Dandelion Taraxa cum gffi cinale Weber

.001 53E cm