ABSTRACT STUDY OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN THE UNITED STATES WITH IHPLICATIONS FOR INDIA by Basantkumar P. Lulla This is a comparative study about India and America with special reference to the development in the study of educational administration. There are two major purposes in view: (1) to analyse the factors that have contributed to the study of educational administration in the United States--its arm and approach; and (2) to draw some impli- cations fer the development in the study of educational administration suited to India's new democratic social order. I The study is based on the fiaggglianhglnzgg§3,ef comparative education which hypothesizes that the educa- tional systems of any two countries vary according to the differences in the factors and forces found in their national history and oulture. The developments in educa- tion of any country always take place within the context of its national culture and philosophy. The case for implications from the developments in the study of school administration in the American demo- cracy for the new India (after 19h?) is built upon the Basantkumar P. Lulla resemblance of the national goals expressed in the constitu- tions of two republics. With all the differences in her past history, India has resolved to be a democratic welfare state alike the American democratic republic. Hence, the two countries stand on the same track of social goals although they are in different stages of economic development. The differences in their means and resources put India far behind on the continuum of the evolutionary process and America far ahead on it. Therefore, any transfer of idea or practice of the advanced country can hardly be immediately practicable in the underdeveloped country but it provides a direction for the future deve10pment. Such directions for India are drawn from America with reference to the expansion in the study of school administration and improvement of the preparation programs for the school administrators of future. The major observations on the development of the study of school administration in America are as follows: 1. The public education of America has gradually evolved in the context of her history, philOSOphy, and culture. Now, it has assumed the unique characteristics like universal- ism, non-sectarianism, public support, local control, single track, etc. 2. The expansion in public schools led to the demand for trained teachers. Thus, teacher education became a state responsibility. As the economic Opportunities for the youth increased due to the industrial deve10pments in Ameri- ca, the schools expanded in courses, equipment, personnel. Basantkumar P. Lulla The management of schools became a Specialized function. 3. The teacher education proliferated in various depart- ments including school administration. In the first quarter of this century, many universities began to offer special courses in that area. h. The nature of early studies was historical and descriptive for lack of data and research. Many authors wrote from the view-point of practical needs and applied the approach of job analysis and job survey. The later authors began to draw from the allied field of public admin- istration and business management. 5. The study of school administration has received the special attention after 1950 when the CPEA centers were established at tight selected universities in America. This effort has been supplemented by the activities of UCEA in improving the preparation programs in school administration all over the country. 6. The aim of all these efforts is to prepare a compeu tent educational leadership that this democratic country needs for her schools. The approach of study is drawing upon the scientific methods within the value frame that this society upholds. The significant directions that the study and pro- grams in school administration in America suggeSt in regard to India are as follows: 1. Teachers' colleges of India should reorient the Basantkumar P. Lulla aim and approach of the graduate programs in educational admin- istration in the light of the national goals of India. 2. They should revise and expand their courses in school administration to prepare the kind of educational leadership needed by the changing society. 3. The learning experiences for school administrators should be extended beyond the class-room lectures. The seminars, workshops, case studies, interdisciplinary sessions, simulation of schools, field visits, internships should be gradually incorporated. u. There should be increasing emphasis on the empiri- cal research and experimentation related to the problems of school administration. 5. The state department of education should adopt a new role in free India and coordinate in preparing better school administrators. 6. The certification requirements for school admin- istrators should be gradually raised and should be higher than those of the teachers. 7. The educational organizations need to be strengthened so that they can serve the interests of edu- cation. There seems to be an urgent need for a national organization of educational administrators similar to AASA in America which should conduct activities for professional advancement. 4“ Basantkumar P. Lulla 8. The philanthrOpic foundations should be convinced of sponsoring research in the problems of school operation and school improvement. Copyright by BASANTKUMAR P . LULLA 1963 STUDY OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN THE UNITED STATES WITH IMPLICATIONS FOR INDIA BY Basantkumar P. Lulla A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY College of Education 1963 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer wishes to express his sincere thanks to Dr. Uilliam H. Ree, the Chairman of his doctoral committee for his encouragement and guidance in this study. He is also grateful to the committee members, Dr. Carl Gross, Dr. Cole Brembeok, and Dr. Subbiah Kanappan for their helpful suggestions. The assistance and cooperation of writer's family had made this study possible. So, they deserve his deep appreciation. Numerous authors of various sources which supplied the data for this study are acknowledged with gratitude. The writer feels immense appreciation for hrs. Hhrilyn Poland who has carefully typed this thesis. 8. P. L. ill TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e . . 111 LISTOITAELEsoc.o.....o.oooooo... vi LIST OF FIGURES e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e’e V11 CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Statement of the Problem 5 Purpose of the Study 6 Importance of the Study 8 Method of the Study 11 Rationale for Implications 15 Scope and Limits 18 Organization of the Study 20 II. mmornxrmmvcs............. 2h Educational Purpose and Policy under the British Rule in India 27 The Goals of Education in New India 3“ Implications of new Educational Goals #7 Summary 69 III. EDUCATIONAL SETTING IN THE UNITED STATES . . . . 71 Growth of Public Education 7h Goals of American Education 81 Role of Educational Administration 91 Role of Professional Training 102 Concluding Observations 115 Summary 11? IVs STUDY OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN THE UNITED STATES--I e e e e e e e e e o e e e e e 120 Origin of Study 123 Nature and Approhch of lhrly Studies 132 Application of Scientific flatbed and Research 1&2 Concluding Observations 152 Summary 153 iv Chapter Page V. STUDY OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN THE UNITED STATES--II (RECENT DEVELOPMENTS) . . . 155 New Iorcos at Uork 159 Current Trends in the Study 167 Impact on Preparation Programs 197 Concluding Observations 210 Summary 212 VI. FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR THE DEVELOPMENT--A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . 215 Factors Affecting the Study of Educational _ Administration in 0.5. 216 Are the Factors Present in India? A comparative Analysis zhh Basis for Implications 263 Summary 27h VII. IMPLICATIONS FOR INDIA e e e e e e e e o e e e 2?? Present Position in India 278 Possibilities for Improvements 29h Summary 333 VIII. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 337 Conclusion 337 Recommendations 340 BIBLIOWY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 314's Table 1. 2. 3. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 1“. LIST OF TABLES Page Th. .nromant 0f pupils in India o o o o e e 2 The enrolment by type of schools . . . . . . 72 Professional and non-progession al staff of state departments of education . . . . . 100 Distribution of total number of courses , offered in six divisions of the field Of .dUO‘tIOD o o e o o o o o o o o o e e 109 Degree requirements for beginning elementary and secondary school teachers (1900-1960). 110 Minimum preparation required by states for administrative certificates (as of July 1, 1961) O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 111 "The reported CPEA studies in school adminis4 tration o o o o o e e o e o o o o o o o 166 The tridimonsional concept of educational- administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Host common elements of core program . . . . 199 ' Distribution of UCEA instructional materials 205 Increase in school staff (1920-1956) . . . . 2&3 Resources of the developed and under-. . d.v.1.p°d countr1CSo o e o o o e o e o o 2583 Stages in the growth .r'. primary education» ayatan o o e o o o e o e o o o o e o o o 263 Number of primary and secondary schools in IDdiC (1956-57) o e e o e o e o e e o o 291 vi Figure 1. 2. 3. 10. 11. 12. 13. LIST OF FIGURES The structure of state educational admin- istration in 13413 e e e o e e o e o e e Relationship between goals of education and roles of educational institutions . . . Main features of education in the United StCECS e o e o e o e o e e e e e e o e e The structure of a state department in 0.8. I Basis for expansion of teacher education in th. 001t.d SEEUCS o o o o o e o o e e o A samplifiod version of Halpin's paradigm . The Job of educational administration in relation to theory and know-how . . . . Basic professional preparation, content Gatlin. o o o e o o o o e o o e o o e e Factors affecting preparation and study in educational administration . . . . . . . The stages of economic growth of various c.0ntr108 e o e e e o o o o o o.o.e e 9 Comparative positions of India and U.S.A. . The proposed regional c.11.¢.. of education- in Indi‘ e o o e e e e e o o e e o e o o A conceptual frame of reference for preparae tion programs in educational administra- ti." in India e o o o e e e e one o o o vii Page 26 #8 92 98 122 177 193 209 218 250 271 285 305 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION India is a young democratic republic. She is pre— sently engaged in developing a network of schools at various levels to educate her potential citizens. There is, therefore a great need for the well-prepared teachers, principals, super- visors, and inspecting officers to accomplish this task. The magnitude of the educational expansion is shown by the targets of the Third Five Year Plan as Table I indicates. Evidently, it is intended to increase the over-all enrolment in the elementary and in the secondary schools by the end of the third plan period. The expansion of the schools both in terms of number and in quality makes new demands on the school administrators. It also calls for an adequate pre- paration program for them in the teacher training institu- tions of the country. But, the present preparation programs appear to be narrow in scope and traditional in aim. There seems very little emphasis on the study of educational administration as a special field of preparation. Consequently, there is a paucity of literature in the field of school administra- tion. While in the United States, a considerable body of knowledge in this area exists at present since the need for it was felt early with the growth of public school systems. This development in the study of school administration is due to many forces present in the history and philosophy of .mm .a .aoema .u..um sauce on aroscuo>oe .315 3.5 lid... a a a d .3 3. “J: g 335.. do uroguopoe. Avenue». o.nn o.on o.om a: sea son eeunema Avenues»... e.~H e.- o.ee on He can Heisman ~.m n.ea o.un on n: «nu enunnma e.n «.mn n.ns «a an «an anuonma an: a Hand an: «an a .asouuneu4 : aim-mud“ use» .4anu an eAHmsm so enuznomzm any H mange 3 education in the United States as a democratic country. The unique idea of public education nurtured in this country has led to a mushroom growth of public schools all over the land and consequently to the training facilities for teachers and school administrators. It seems the chief concern of colleges of education in America has been to improve their training programs from time to time in order to produce the needed educational leadership for society. There is also a persistent trend toward raising the certification require- ments for teachers and school administrators in many States.1 As a result, an increasing academic effort is apparent in the study of education and its administration. Various approaches have been adopted by writers to analyze and explain the problems of school administration with a view to improving the efficiency of the American schools. It is in this context that the attempt is made in this thesis to analyze the professional literature in the field of educational administration so as to see why this study has developed in the United States. It is also the intention of the writer to understand how in India the study of educational administration could be expanded and 222237 giggg,more than it is done at present. As India is engaged in her educational reform, she intends to produce thoughtful educational leaders who would assume new roles in the emerging 1w. Earl Armstrong, and T. M. Stinnet, A_!§nu§lvgg gggtification Requirements for School Personnel ;g_the United fitztgs (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association, 19 2). democratic society. But this will need a reorientation of the preparation programs offered by the teacher training institutions, revision of courses, and production of new stud- ies and research in the field of school organization and administration. The Report of the Seminar on Educational Administration held at Srinagar (India) in 1956 emphasized this fact in the following recommendation: Arrangements should be made to provide effective training for educational administrators, by developing short as well as full length courses for the purpose, by organizing in-sorvice seminars, conferences and work- shops for educational officers, and by instituting suit- able systems of apprenticeship under senior officers of the Department. The standards of professional efficiency and knowledge of educational matters on the part of educational officers need to be raised considerably. We also suggest that a Research Unit should be developed as an integrated part of each Post-Graduate Training College in the States to carry on educational research including research on matters relating to educational administration.2 Such recommendations have also been made by many other experts to improve the quality of educational leader- ship needed for the new democratic order in India. It is now believed that the role of educational administrator is not one of policing, and inspecting as in the colonial India but one of guiding, and leading the schools of a free nation. This new outlook can come about only through a new approach to the study of school administration. 2All India Council for Secondary Education, Repggt g; the §gminar gg_£ducationa1 Administration (New Delhi: Hero Printing Press, 1956), pp. 22-23. STATE OF THE PROBLEM The problem is stated as: "Study of Educational Administration in the United States with implications for India.“ ‘At the outset, one can see that this study has two phases under consideration. One phase deals with the evolution in the study of educational administration in the United States and the other phase concerns the application of aflms and approaches in the study of this subject in the American democracy for the preparation of educational leader- ship in Indian democracy. Both the phases are closely interrelated and equally important in this study. The questions that this study poses are as follows: 1. What are the factors responsible for the develop- ment in the study of educational administration in the united States? 2. Uhat are the aims and approaches apparent in the professional literature concerning the study of this subject? 3. Are the factors present in India for developing the study and programs in the field of educational adminis- tration?. b. What are the implications of the study and prograle in educational administration in the United States for India? The foregoing are some of the facets of the whole problem.under consideration of the writer. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY Many changes are taking place in the educational thought and practice in India after her attainment of inde- pendence and her constitutional declaration to be a secular democratic republic. It is now recognized that schools should be instruments of a democratic policy of the country. This demands a new kind of leadership from school administrators at different echelons in the whole hierarchy. The directors, deputy directors, inspectors, sub-inspectors, principals, head-masters and supervisors have to play a new role in the emerging democracy of India. They have to provide an example of a democratic leader at whatever level they function. The old British colonial concepts of administration should give way to the new philosophy and approach in their behavior. Such changes in behavior can only come through proper train- ing and broader education. It is the task of training insti- tutions to provide the necessary guidance through new programs, studies, and research in the field of educational administra- tion. The need for diversified courses in the field, the emphasis on democratic approach to the study of the subject and the research in administrative competency become essen- tial. This was not required in India during her past as she did not have a school system supported by the public funds. Nor did she have the single national government which became necessary during the British suzerainty. Mukerji depicts the past situation in India very clearly in the following words: r. f) f. 7 Educational Administration is a new field of study in this country. During the pro-British days schools were run by private individuals or organizations, and there were no paid servants in schools. Teachers were inde- pendent, and adopted the profession for the love of work and not so much for earning money. Their social status was high, and even the mightiest monarch used to pay homage to the humblest teacher. A state administrative machinery of the modern type did not exis , and education was not controlled by an external agency. Even during the British rule in India, the department of education was instituted at the federal level in 1910 and the States known as Provinces then organized such departments in 1935 when the provincial autonomy was introduced. The central department of education was raised to the status of a Ministry in l9h7--the year of India's independence. Besides, the functions of the department were rather limited to regulation, inspection, and control of schools and colleges in the earlier days. Their functions and resources now appear to be inadequate in view of the changing educational requirements of the modern democratic India. Iukerji points this out in the following passage: It may be noted that in the early stages, the depart- ment of education was generally concerned with a few schools and colleges, and with essential branches of education. During the last decade, not only has the . number of educational institutions increased rapidly but new ideologies of education have come to the forefront. With the enlargement of these responsibilities, the administration of education has become more complex. In fact, the magnitude of the problems facing education today is taxing the leadership and the resources of the state departments of education to the utmost. These problems cannot be solved effectively if departments are 3S. N. Mukerji, figcondarz School Administratign (Baroda, India: Acharya Book Depot, 1959), p. 2. f. forced to operate under such organization structures which are not conducive to efficient function.... Obsolete arrangements have remained through the years, even though leaders in education today understand proper functions and services of state departments. It is time to re-examine state education machinery for the purpose of modernizing it and enaBling it to perform its essential services and functions. In other words, a school administrator now has to acquire a new skill and understanding for his leadership role in the changing society of India. This bears out the aim and purpose of this study as it attempts to explore the possibilities of expansion of the study and research in the field of educational administra- tion in India on the basis of what has been achieved_compar- atively in the United States until today. To sum up, the main objectives of the study are: 1. To analyze the factors that have contributed to the study of educational administration and to the creation of a considerable literature in this field in American democracy. 2. To draw some implications for the development in the study of educational administration as suited to India's new democratic social order. IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY The need for such comparative studies as this is undoubtedly great because India as a young democratic republic has much to learn from the United States. The achievement “5. N. Mukerji (ed.). Administration‘gg Educgtion ig,’ India, A §ymposium (Baroda, India: Acharya Book Depot, 1962), PP. Bit-85 e and progress in education in the latter are object lessons for India to follow. The impact of change in India seems so bewildering that the educators and administrators need a new frame of reference so that they can understand their changing roles and assume increasing responsibilities of society. Some problems in Indian education today are due to this discrepancy between a new social philosophy slowly per- vading the younger generation and the lack of preparedness in the educational leaders coming from older generation bearing imprints of the colonial past. Sidhanta writes: The educators have not been able to attune themselves to the rapid changes and that is why they are often out of sympathy with the new generation. The consequence of this we find in the so-called indiscipline of youth, ill-directed surplus energy leading to irregularities of conduct. It is on this mutual understanding of youth and age that the future of India depends....The fact of this impact has to be realized, its nature properly under- stood and its implications analyzed. It is on the basis of this understanding that a new community can be built up, a community which will be the cornerstone of the new India.5 What is needed in India is the new approach in every phase of development especially in education. That new approach is very indispensable for future educational leaders of India. How could it be possible unless such leaders are prepared and trained in that direction through the training institutions? Thus it becomes the responsibility of these institutions to develop suitable programs, and reorient study courses to improve their competence and give them a new per- 5N. K. Sidhanta, "Impacts of Change on Education" Mgggg,of India (Delhi: Government of India Press), Vol. 1 . No. 3(March 1962), p. 2b. 10 ception. The question is how to do it. Where is the frame of reference or an example of type or model which will help solve this problem? It is believed an example of the achievements in American education can provide some clues to India's devel- opmental program in education since both the nations have in common the democratic ideals and institutions. As American experience is longstanding and successful, India can safely draw on that. That is the justification as well as the significance of this study. However, the writer does not believe that all the develOpments of the United States should or could possibly be transplanted presently on Indian soil as they are. But the American ideas, concepts and practices might be adapted to the present setting in India. They can only be accepted as an experiment subject to a continued evaluation and modi- fication. Millikan warns the underdeveloped world in these words: Slowly and painfully, out of the experience of ten years, we are coming to 1earn--in agriculture, in health, in industry, in political organization-~that while the underdeveloped world has an enormous advantage in being able to draw upon the experience of the developed world accumulated since the Rennaisance, an adaptation of that experience to the problems of the underdeveloped countries requires a process as creative innovative, and experimental as any we went through.3 W 6M. r. Millikan, mu g;tion_f_‘_g_ rIgnovation (A Reprint issued by the Council on Economic and Cultural Affairs, New York, from.3estless Nations, a Study of World Tensions and Development written under the auspices of the Council on N021? Tensions and published by Dodd, Mead & Company, Inc., 19 2 . 11 It is in this spirit the study is undertaken to adapt aim and approach developed in the study of educational adminis- tration in the American democracy to the Indian democratic set-up. METHOD OF THE STUDY This:tudy is a descriptive analysis of the literature in the field of educational administration in the United States with a view to identifying the aims and approaches in the academic thought. Then some implications are drawn for India in order to emphasize the study of educational adminis- tration in view of her educational needs. It is difficult to classify this kind of study into the categories mentioned by the writers of the text-books on educational research. Since the problem does not lend itself to empirical or experimental research, the study involves historical, philosophical, and analytical exploration with some rationale in view. It is said that each study is unique for as the purpose varies so does the method or procedure. Rummel points out this clearly here: Since no two research undertakings are exactly alike it is impossible to set forth any rigid formulation of method or procedure. There is a wide variation_in the conditions and circumstances which determine the objective nature of research problems in different fields. The purposes of a study may vary from researcher to researcher in terms of where it is to be conducted and the appli- cations that are to be made of it.7 7J. Francis Rummel, Ag_;ntroduction to Beseargh firogegures in Education (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1958), De 6e 12 Such studies as this can apply the £222§£2£122s§222§£iafl Approach appr0priate to the problem and purpose of investi- gation. Comparative education methodology is a relatively new field of research. A few attempts were made at a systematic approach to comparative education during the nineteenth century but it was not until the appearance of I. L. Kandel's ”Comparative Education” Volume in 1933 that more adequate foundations for comparative studies were laid.8 His approach is founded on the historical analysis of the national systems of education under some simple categories such as structure, administration, teacher training, elementary and -secondary education. The purpose of such an analysis is to identify the similarities and differences in various systems and their causal factors found in the history and culture of nations. Kandel believes that an educational system is largely determined by factors and forces outside the school. The nature of them must be studied to understand the char- acteristics of an educational system as it is and as it changes.9 Some later authors like Nicholas Hans and Vernon Mallinson have elaborated the similar line of thought in their volumes on comparative education. For example, Hans' comparative study of the educational systems of_the four countries, England, U.S.A., France, and U.S.S.R. is done in 31. L. Handel, dompdrdtivevfiddgdgidd_(New York; Houghton Mifflin Company, 1933). 91. L. Kandel, 122 New Eli i}; ucation, A ggmpdra- give fitudx (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1955), p. lb. {I 13 the framework of three kinds of factors such as: (1) Natural--Race, Language, Environment; (2) Religious--Cathol- icism, Anglicanism, Puritanism; and (3) Secular--Humanism, Socialism, Nationalism.10 Lately, there is a trend toward the functional or problem approach. In this approach an attempt is made at more precise categorization, hypothesization, and application of scientific method in comparative generalization. This approach has been analyzed by Bereday who classifies the comparative studies in: (1) Area Studies, and (2) Comparative Analyses. The area studies are mere collection of descrip- tions of the educational systems of various countries in a single volume. The comparative studies apply a certain postulate or a theoretical frame of reference in analysis, interpretation or deduction. He distinguishes between the total organismic approach of Kandel, Hans, and Mallinson and the functional or problem approach now used in the teach- ing of Comparative Law and Comparative Politics.11 In brief, there are two main currents in the compara— tive education methodology. One is humanistic-macrocosmic and the other is analytic-microcosmic. Both have their own place in the growing discipline of comparative education. Both are complementary to each other as Kazamias points out: 10Nicholas Hans, Qomparative gdugatdon (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Limited, 1951), p. 16. Illceorge 2. F. Bereday, "Some Discussion on Methods in Comparative Education," Qompardtivg Education Review, Vol. 1, No. 1 (June, 1957). pp. 13-15. lb "The global humanistic approach should not be underestimated for education as a whole is too complicated a task for the contemporary social sciences alone. But the scientific element is a necessary element for enriching the other. In short, the future of comparative education must be viewed as a study combining scientific and humanistic elements."12 This study follows the gdgdelian approddg_in the analysis of national history, culture and character of America and India in relation to their educational develop- ments. It goes further in drawing some implications from the American system for improvement in the Indian system on the basis of common national goals and aspirations. The special emphasis is laid on the directions which the American system has taken in the study of school administration and their applicability to the Indian system. What are the national factors responsible for the differences in the study programs in educational administration in both the systems? How far apart do these two countries stand in terms of their national goals and in their achievements? In the relevant chapter such a comparative analysis of factors is made after presenting the_educational developments of both the demo- cratic nations. A logical case in regard to the implications is thus made for India. 12Andreas M. Kazamias, "Some Old and New Approaches to Methodology in Comparative Education,“ gompdratgve , Edugdtion Review, Vol. 5, No. 2 (October, 1961), p. 96. 15 RATIONALE FOR IMPLICATIONS It is necessary to explain how and why a particular educational development in America can possibly have any implications for India. The cultures of both the countries are different. One is highly developed country and the other is in the early stages of development. How can a system of one country be applied to a different country at all? There are extreme viewpoints held on this subject. The early writers like Kipling wrote on the differences between the East and West. He sang: ”East is East, West is West and never the twain shall meet." But this fact is being questioned today as the world is drawing close through inter- national cooperation and communication. The experience of the two world Wars within half of the twentieth century has largely mitigated the cultural differences among nations and increased friendly exchange and understanding. The signifi- cance of educational exchange of any kind is now being realized by both the parts of the world. Brickman has briefly analyzed the past cultural contacts between East and West until today. He shows the meeting of both in history and stresses the need for it in education: "Both East and West must learn and teach more about each other and about mutual relations. The general courses in educational history and comparative education ought to include repeated refer- ences to the interaction of East and West."13 . 13W. U. Brickman, "The Meeting of East and West in Educational History," Comparative Education Review, Vol. 5. N0. 2 (October, 1961), p. 89. 16 There is, however, a consensus of opinion that India and the United States have strong common grounds in their basic philosophy of democracy. India is changing her old traditional patterns of living to the new democratic ways slowly after 19h? while the United States has a long experience in this change-over. India is in the position that America was per- haps one hundred years ago. Comparing India and America, Ambassador M. C. Chagla once said in his speech: Our two countries are the two greatest democracies in the world. Yours is more powerful, more wealthy and more prosperous. Ours is more populous....But both our countries do not possess merely a democratic political structure but we are dedicated to the democratic faith, the most important article of which is that society and government exist for the individual, in the maintenance of his freedom lies the most important task of the government. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 We are therefore friends and comrades on the freedom field.1 Whatever India's past history, she has solemnly resolved through her constitution to become a secular democratic republic since 1950. After a considerable deliberation and reflection, India has sought to solve her social problems through a new approach in her history--that is the democratic way of life. The ideals of Indian democracy are condensed in the Preamble of the Constitution, which reads as follows: We, the People of India, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a Sovereign Democratic Republic and to secure to all its citizens: Justice, social, economic and political: fi— 1“M. C. Chagla, Our Two ountries, India and America, A collection of Speeches Picked at Random (Washington, D.C.: Information Service of India, 1960), p. 92. V O Q l 17 Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; Egualitz of status and of opportunity, and to promote among them all; _. Iraternity assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity of the nation.... The authors of the Indian constitution had besides others, the American constitutional model in their mind while they framed it. With some procedural differences in the Indian and American constitutions, they bear out the basic similarity in their philosophy. However, the constitution is merely an instrument to guide a nation's actions. It is always in an experimental stage and needs necessary amend- ments and changes from time to time. The United States has successfully carried out this experiment for a long period, but India is an infant on her new democratic path. America, therefore, is in a position to help and guide India's progress toward the democratic ends. Identical ends necessarily involve identical means. This would be true with all the phases of developments-- political, economic, social and educational. The case for India is, therefore, built upon the national philosophy expressed by her Constitution, which has identity with that of the United States. The like philosophy tends to bring like institutions, like ideas and like system in existence. India has been borrowing various techniques and methods of the United States in her economic development and then making adjustments in them according to her present needs. In educational field, the institutions like Multipurpose or Comprehensive School, Guidance and Counseling, Adult ['0 I) 18 Education, General Education, etc., are being developed on the ideology or model available in the United States. They are undergoing a period of adjustment before they can be assim- ilated. There is no reason, then, why the application of certain principles and ideas on which the study in the field of educational administration is based would be imprOper or impossible. But the application will have to be gradual, intelligent and innovative in character suited to the present context of India's developmental program. SCOPE AND LIMITS The scope of this study is limited to finding some directions in which the study of school administration needs emphasis in India. The attempt is made to identify the goals of American education and how they affect the administrative role in education. What methods are adopted in preparing the administrative leadership in education? What is the trend in academic studies and research in school administration in America and why? Thus, an analysis of aims, approaches, and methods in the study of educational administration is done with a view to applying some of them profitably to the present setting in India. No suggestion at changing the administrative set-up in India or scrapping the prevailing educational pattern for transplanting the American pattern is made by the study. Given the two systems as they are, what significance the 19 special emphasis on the study of school administration in America has for India in view of her need for better schools in the new democratic social order. The question of pri- orities in the educational development of India has been kept in view. Hence, the directions which have a definite utility to the changing conditions of India are mainly con- sidered for recommendation. The two significant references often made in this study are briefly explained here as they set the limits to the problem under investigation. 1. 'Study of Educational Administration in the United States' refers to the following points: a) Evolution of Educational Administration as a special field of study in the colleges and universities in the context of growth in public education in America. b) Aim for preparing school administrators in the American‘democracy. c) Approaches to the theoretical study and research in this area as they have developed in the context of goals of American education. d) Impact of the current trends in the study of this area on the preparation programs for school administrators. 2. 'India' refers to the period after 1950 when she became a sovereign democratic republic. The use of phrases like 'New India,‘ or 'Democratic India,‘ or 'Indian Republic' in this study refer to the same period. They are used in 20 the context of her rapid social and economic changes taking place owing to many internal and external factors. ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY Last but not the least in importance is the manner in which this study is organized. The sequence of the remain- ing chapters is briefly outlined here. Chapter II presents a frame of reference concerning the changes in the educational goals of India after her independence in 19h7. This has affected the role expecta- tions from the school administrators who now confront a free democratic society in India. The training programs for teachers and school administrators are too inadequate to produce the desired leadership in education. The study as well as research in school administration is relatively too meagre. An urgent need is felt for reorienting the training programs in order to prepare the school executives who can play a leading role in the expanding education of India. This chapter spotlights the discrepancy in the educational goals of the democratic India and the training programs for school administrators and thus makes the case for application of certain developments in that area in the United States to the situation in India. Chapter III deals exclusively with the development of the American education in terms of her national history and culture. It brings out the philosophy of public education as it has gradually evolved in America. The existing coordina- tion between the goals of education and the role of educational 21 administration in America is pointed out as the significant feature. The professional training for teachers, school administrators and other personnel has developed gradually in response to the needs of society and to the standards laid down by the department of public instruction from time to time. There appears to be a persistent effort on the part of training institutions to produce efficient educa- tional leadership. The point made in this chapter is that there is a large degree of coordination in the study approach to school administration and the goals of American society. Chapter IV traces the origin and growth of the study of school administration in America. The special emphasis on this.area followed the expansion of public education in America. The demand for efficient public school systems called for a special preparation of the school administra- tors and motivated writing and research in the field. Early writers had to draw much from the educational history and the past experience of successful school administrators. Gradually, the scientific awareness and research attitude grew in the field but there appeared the lack of a consist- ent and integrative theory behind those studies. There seemed a conspicuous absence of a large scale cooperative effort in the study and research in this area as followed the World War II. Chapter V indicates the latest trends in the study of educational administration especially after 1950 when the Kellogg Foundation offered support to the American Associ- 22 ation of School Administrators for improving community through educational leadership. The new organizations like NCPEA and UCEA have aroused a deep interest in the method- ological problem in the study of school administration. There appears a trend toward building a general theory of administration with the help of social science models. An interdisciplinary approach to the study and research in school administration is being gradually accepted. The new methods of study have been influencing the preparation programs in school administration in America. Many schemes and plans are in experimental stage at different univer- sities. Chapter VI analyzes the factors responsible for the develOpment in the study of educational administration in the United States. The general factors are found in the history, philosophy, culture, and in economic development of the whole country. The specific factors are certification requirements, professional organizations, number and size of public schools, job opportunities and job skills etc. Then a comparison is made with the situation in India. Although there exists a great similarity in the democratic goals of two countries, the differences in means and resources are many. There are obvious differences in the educational practices in both. But as both are driving at the same goals of education, there is a justifiable basis for implications of one developed country for the other less developed nation. Chapter VII outlines the directions for change and improvement in the study programs in school administration {I I" and other 23 related phases in India. The shortcomings of the present programs are discussed and some new developments are also spotlighted. The implications are drawn in regard to: 1. 2. 3. 1+. 5. 6. 7. 8. Aim of teacher education in India Program and courses in school administration Methods of study and teaching the subject Research in the field of educational administration Coordination among teachers colleges, schools, and State department. Certification requirements for school administrators Role of professional organizations in educational administration Role of philanthropic agencies in research for better school administration in India. 2h CHAPTER II THE FRAME OI REIERENCE To draw implication fer the study of educational administration in India from the developments in the United States necessitates an analysis of the present educational setting in India. However, it will not be meaningful to review the entire past history of education during the pre- British era. It is essential to understand how the medern pattern of education has evolved over a period of century under the British administration. Although the British rule terminated in 19b7, the present educational system has remained in India as its legacy. Education in India is the State responsibility. The Central Government (or Indian union) plays an advisory role and sponsors some national schemes in education. In every State in India an elected Minister is in charge of the port- folio of education. The Secretary of the Department of Educa- tion is the permanent head and the Director of Public Instruc- tion is the executive head who acts as an expert adviser to the Hinister of Education. The director centrols the inspect- ing officers, the teaching staff of Government and recognised private schools, and carries out the general policy laid down by the ministry. In the centrally administered areas, the Central Hinistry of Education is directly responsible for administering education through the local governments. There are three levels of education: primary, second- ary, and.higher. Education at the primary and secondary 25 stages is financed by State Governments, local bodies, and private organisations. Higher education is financed by private organisations and by State and Central Governments. Governments generally exercise their control through a grant- in-aid system and inspection. All recognised schools whether managed by governments, local bodies or by private agencies follow the uniform pattern of the prescribbd educational activities and operate according to the Grant-in-aid Code of State. The general pattern of educational administration in State is indicated by ligure 1. ‘The structure of educational system has not changed much even today but a new philosophy of education has been rapidly growing after India's independence and her accept- ance of democratic goals. Many volumes in the form of books and reports have been published by experts during the past decade on the subject of educational reconstruction in the new India. For instance, Rumayun Kabir expresses India's promise in these words: "In conformity with her democratic ideals, India has decided to expand her educational facil- ities so that all her citizens may enjoy equality of oppor- tunity. Simultaneously, she has undertaken a vast recen— structien of her educational system to make it a more suit- able instrument of her new needs and new aspirations."1 But how can this premise be fulfilled unless the teachers and school administrators are trained for the new ‘Hmyun Kabir. mum in :21 man. (Now York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1955), p. vii. r0 26 ,.oru ‘C muo— hellccm+uc:tk wc =a=L:U trsca ccukZC Ecte tsunatd s. eow nnouoomncH house new Seasoned Edens: hucuonoom hasuoaoom nadnaocanm Hocoavsospm nucaoonncH acvooudn Houochan _ _ r _ _ _ _ _ thpowhfln U-Haom eMeoemem h¥SQOQ fldfihddflo mead mo Hoonom naoonom pounduuoo .ospm .noofi .ospm no huovehoom hovoohda aovoeancH medno houooadn aovoeuwn hpsmen deflmmomm .UDQm mo mmHmHZHZ .kQ ZOHHdUDQm ho mmHmHZHZ flfidfim_hdmzbm 27 task? The present framework of the educational administra- tion and the nature of preparation programs» in the teacher education colleges remain the same as they were suited to the British colonial policy in the past. Their roots lay in the British aim and purpose of governing the vast country of India. The system that served the colonial function needs a reorientation in the new India. Lot us review briefly the growth of this system under the British administration. EDUCATIONAL PURPOSE AND POLICY UNDER THE BRITISH RULE IN INDIA The present educational system of India owes its existence to the British government policy as it evolved since the time of its moorings in the country. However, the credit of pioneering the early English education in India goes to the Christian missionaries who came to the country with the opening of routes from Europe to India. They were believed to have a narrow religious motive in their schools which were looked upon with apprehensions by the people. Hfleterians on Indian Education are agreed on certain distinct phases of the evolution of the present educational system. They are described by.flukerji in the following terms: 1. Policy of indifference and non-interference (1600- 1813) 2. Policy of provincial-line-of action (1813-1853) 3. All-India Educational Policy (185h-l9l9) h. Provincial Autonomy (1919-19h7)2 23. n. nukerdi. am 9.: Emilee in India (Bu-.4” India: Acharya Bock Depot, 1957) pp. 5-8. 28 Although the East India Company was established in India as early as in 1600, it was not interested in the educational matters of either its employees or of India. The Charter Act of 1698 required it to maintain priests and schools in its garrisons for company's European employees. As it was a body of merchants, it did not think it fit to interfere with the native education of India. But, by the middle of eighteenth century, the Company overpowered its European rivals--the Portuguese, the Dutch, and the Ironch--and obtained the right to collect revenue or 'Diwani' in Indian terminology. This made it the ruling power and as any other ruler, it had to encourage and support education. But the Court of Directors were rather reluctant until the Charter Act of 1813 compelled the Company to assume this respon- sibility. It also permitted to admit missionaries to Company's deminions for spreading western knowledge. Hurullah and Haik point out: "This was the beginning of the State system of education in India under the British.Ru1o.'3 Now the stage was being set for building up an educa- tional system which would suit the purse as well as the policy of the Company. It was during this period when the conflicts and controversies arose about various phases of the would-be educational system of India. The controversial issues were of the following nature: 3Syed Nurullah and J. P. Naik,‘A,gi§to:y‘g£,figuc§tign in. lad—i; (Bombay, India: Macmillan and Co.. Ltd., 1951), p. xvi. fl 29 l. Vhat should be the gbjegt of educational policy-- to spread western knowledge or to preserve Eastern learning? 2. What should be the medigm‘gg instzugtiog--English , Smirrit or Arabic, or the modern Indian languages? 3. what should be the agency for the spread of educa- tion--the mission schools, the institutions directly controlled by the Company, or the indigenous schools conducted by Indians themselves? b. What should be the methgg of spreading education- should government try to educate the masses directly, or should it only educate a few I dians and leave it to them to educate the others? These vital issues occupied the minds of the Company officials as well as the leading Indians for a few decades until Lord Macaulay came to the scene as the Law Member of Gevorner-Genoral's council in 183“. He reviewed the centre- versial pleas on the above points and strongly recommended to spread the Uestern"Light and knowledge' through English in what is called as Macaulay's Minute. It is said that he believed that “a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia”, and talked pf creating a class of persons who would be “Indians in blood andcuiour, but English in tastes, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect.'5 He was also supported by a few other officials including the then Governor-General William Bentinck in his calculated design for the cultural conquest of India. Bentinck approved of Macaulay's Minute and made the proclamation of the educational policy accordingly. “mu m xvu. 512%.. Po 108. a. 30 Mukerji writes: It was the first declaration of the educational policy which the British Government wanted to adopt in this country. The aim and type of education were defined; the promotion of Western arts and Sciences was acknow- ledged as the avowed object; the printing of oriental works, and grants or stipends to students of oriental institution were to be stopped in future, but schools of oriental learning were to be maintained. This is how education in India became anglicized due to the imposition of the narrow purpose in it by the British Rulers. As the records indicate, they intended to create a number of loyal and trained civil servants for junior positions in the public administration of India. The govern- ment schools and colleges which sprang up soon after 1figgtiggklgflngglgggtigg,had the following characteristics: 1. Emphasis in content was placed on Western Science and English literature. 2. Medium of Instruction was English--foreign to India. 3. Method was to educate a few Indians who would then spread knowledge among the masses on the basis of the so-called ziltrgtiog theory. h. Purpose was to create a class of Indians trained in English thought and language to run the bureaucratic government of British India. Early schools and colleges were operated by English teachers and principals to accomplish the set purpose. When the time for the renewal of the Charter came during the year 1853. a survey of educational developments in India was made. Then the future educational policy was laid down by the Court of Directors in whatis called the Wood's Despatch. sunkerji. 22o site, P. 78o 31 lbs. mm 1.1". 155.2- This document popularly known as Wood's Dospatch is considered as a landmark in the evolution of the present educational qstem of India. Besides stressing the same basic policy of education, it outlined the following new schemes to put that policy into practice: 1. The first of these was the creation of a Depart- ment of Public Instruction in each of the five provinces into which the territories of the Company were divided at that time, viz., Bengal, Madras, Bombay, the North-Western Province and the Punjab. This department was to be placed under an important officer to be called the Director of Public Instruction. He was to be assisted by an adequate number of inspecting officers and was required to submit to Govern- ment an annual report on the progress of educa- tion in his province. 2. The second scheme related to the establishment of Universities at Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras. All the Universities were to be modelled on the London University which was then an examining body. Their Senatos were to consist of a Chancellor, a Vice-Chancellor and Eollows-all of whom were to be nominated by Government. The functions of the Universities were mainly to hold examinations and confer degrees. 3. The third scheme was to establish the network of graded schools all over the country. At one end of this gradation came the Universities and the affiliated colleges which gave instruction in various branches of arts and sciences. Below these, came the high schools which gave instruc- tion either through English or through a modern Indian language, and at the bottom cmme the indigenous primary schools. h. The fourth scheme concerned the grant-in-aid to private effort in Indian education. Each Pro- vincial Government was expected to frame its own rules of grant-in-aid in the light of certain general considerabns. For instance, aid was to be given to all schools which-- a) impart a good secular education; b) possess good local management: no 32 c) agree to submit to inspection by Government officers and to abide by such other conditions as may be prescribed; and d) levy a fee, however small, from the pupils. The Provincial Governments were advised to follow the model of the grant-in-aid system of England to sanction grants for specific objects such as increase in ’ salaries of teachers, foundation of scholarships, construction of buildings, etc., and to evolve a system of grants which would embrace all types of educational institutions within its sphere, from the colleges at the top to the indigenous elementary schools at the bottom. 5. The fifth scheme considered the question of Training for Teachers for the vast expansion of high schools under the whole plan in India. It was also to be built upon the model of England as the Despatch explained in detail.7 The Wood's Despatch was considered by some historians as ”The Magna Charta of Indian Education.” Others comment otherwise but it has to be admitted that the Despatch laid the foundations of the present educational systom.which has not changed much even today. However, innumerable reforms and revisions in education were made between the year of Parlia- mentary control in 1857 to l9h7-tho year of India's inde- pendence, but the basic policy remained unaltered. Ho appraisal of Indian educational policy under the British rule could be as objective and balanced as this by Paranjpe: Indian Educational Elicy of today was planned and organised by a foreign agency and has been submitted to the severest criticism. It is described as a foreign plant, not suited to Indian soil and therefore showing an unseemly growth. It is described as an attempt to make India lose her national characteristics and make the people, Indian by birth but English in taste, manners and outlook. It is believed to have been an attempt to make India a Christian nation. The commonest indictment has been that the chief objective of the 7Hurullah and Haik,‘2p, cit.. pp. 206-212. 33 Indian Educational policy, as conceived in 1835, pursued in 185“, and emphasized in 1882 has been to obtain English- knowing recruits for the subordinate services of British India. By enforcing a foreign medium of instruction, it is believed to have arrested the.dovelopment of Indian languages and Indian intellect.... It is again a universal complaint, somewhat conflicting with the above indictment, that the growth of Indian education has not been as rapid and as varied as it should have been to make India efficiently shoulder the responsibilities of a self-governing nation. The literacy percentage is still disgracefully small, and oven in this small percentage of literatos there appears an alarming disparity between literate men and literate women. Adult education is totally neglected, and the ideals of education are more suited to the upper strata of the society, cultural rather than utilitarian, literary rather than scientific, creating more lawyers than industrialists, and service-seekers rather than skilled artisans. There has been a woeful neglect of physical education and consequent disappearance of love for adventure and daring, virtues essential for the defence of one's land. As against this charge sheet are presented the many benefits brought to India by the new education of the last century. The acquaintance with English has made possible inter-provincial and international exchanges of views, opened out a treasure of knowledge concealed from Indians in the past, and revolutionized their social and political outlooks. India, it is claimed, has, in the last hundred years, ceased to be a field of exploitation for foreign adventurers, and has been steadily, if slowly,' marching to a place among the leading nations of the world, which she once was politically, economically and educa- tionally. For the first time in the last two thousand years is successfully challenged the caste-system of India and the consequent parochial outlook inherent in the people. Learning is no longer a privilege of the few and the_Brahman and the Chandal forget the distinc- tion in their status at birth and work as colleagues for common ends. Once again her poets, her scientists, her _ artists, her social and political workers have ceased to. be local luminaries and have acquired international fame. Her rise from the status of a conquered country to that of a self-governing nation is ascribed, in a great measure, to the influence of the new educational policy adopted by Lord William Bentinck in 1835 and proservingly enforced by later Governor-Generals.8 811- a. Parana»; A 5.22299. 49.8 k 9.1; may. ladies 15429.9.- gigs. PP. v-vi. (Quoted by Hurullah and Naik,) op. cit., p. 53. 1‘ .~‘. 3h With all the incidental or accidental benefits of British educational policy in India, one thing seems certain that it made no attempt to develop a national system of education related to the needs and problems of Indian society. It did not prepare the country for the self-government or democracy or for economic development but stifled the growth of Indian mind with its narrow purpose. Some glaring fail- ures of this policy are pointed out by Nurullah and Naik as: 1. failure to realise the place of India in the cemity of nations; 2. Failure to evolve a synthesis of East and West; 3. Inadequate aims; h. Adoption of wrong methods: 5. Failure to develop India socially, economically, and politically; 6. Eailure to secure the necessary personnel. 7. Absence of a plan.9 Erom the national view-point, the policy might have failed but for the British Rulers it was an effective measure. They were very successful in creating a loyal class of English- spoaking officers for administration. Although the British‘ regime is now over, the English-oriented administration has remained as the legacy to the Republic of India. THE GOALS OF EDUCATION IN NEW INDIA After independence in l9h7, India adopted the National Constitution in 1950 which declares her as the Sovereign Democratic Republic. It 1. to secure to .11 the citizens: Justice, Equality, Liberty and to promote Fraternity among L 9Nurullah and Naik, 2g. cit., pp, 357-861.. 35 them. This is stated in the Preamble of the Constitution which precedes all other parts and gives purposeie the whole document. Part III deals with the Fundamental Rights which each citizen enjoys under India's Constitution. These rights are: Right to Equality Right to Freedom of Speech and Expression Right to Freedom of Religion Cultural and Educational Rights Right to Property Right to Constitutional Remedies Part IV lays down the Directives for the State Policy in order to translate the above ideals gradually into practice. Thus, the Constitution represents the new basic philosophy of the Indian society which has been accepted after a careful thought and deliberation on the matter. The impact of this new way of life is to be realized by the educators and administrators in order to make the Constitution a living example. To think that Constitution is a more paper work, is to sabotage the nation's goals. It is a matter of serious concern for all the educators who have a hand in building up the new society free from caste prejudices and racial biases. India being an ancient country, has to struggle against certain traditions and customs which come in her way as a democratic nation. However great her past heritage and culture may be, it seems necessary to modify the old beliefs and modes of behavior in harmony with her new ideals of democracy. The society that has rather remained closed and static due to the lack of education and of free movement and expression, may have to be open, mobile 36 and dynamic in view of modern needs. The change in India is inevitable. Taya Zinkin writes about the changing India in these characteristic terms: Under the winds of change, a land inhabited by 380 million people, one sixth of humanity, is waking up, stretching limbs stiffened with the slumber of centuries. In one sweep India is undergoing all the revolutions . which have taken two centuries in the rest of the world. Equality and political rights; industrialization and urbanization: agrarian reforms and agricultural improve- ments: science and technology: social and personal emancipation are combining to transform a contented, static, rural, ritualistic society into a new and dynamic one where privilege is no longer inherited, where women are men's equals, and where Harijans (untouchables) are as important as Brahmans.1° All these changes can only come from the change in the people's perceptions. These new perceptions can be built up through a right kind of education. This is the new respon- sibility of educational leaders at whatever level they function. ' Some educators believe that they are not concerned with the social change or transformation as it is out of the scope of their functions. There is much of this kind of attitude among the Indian teachers and school administrators which is partly due to the legacy of the British administra- tion and partly to the concept of formal intellectual educa- tion. But the education in a free society needs to be geared to the social needs and problems so that it improves the quality of social life of each national. Chaube in his study remarks: ...if the educators ignore the role of social leader- ship, society would be doomed. Under these circumstances, 1oTaya Zinkin, Indigflghgnggg,(Now York: Oxford Univer- sity Press, 1958), p. xi. 37 it will be irrelevant if education is not actively related with what is going on in society. We are enter- ing a new age and education must accept the moral respon- sibility of nurturing the young in such a way as to fit them to live in a world marked by global interdependence. Responsible educators all over the world affirm that educators must analyze and describe the characteristics, threats, imperatives, and possibilities of an emerging nation. In order to further the development of the emerging democracy in India, the young must be taught a new conception of social welfare in terms of rights, responsibilities, and loyalties befitting an ideal democracy. We must be prepared to recognize and organize bold institutional adjustments if democracy is to be made safe in our land. Happily, our Constitution has given enough scope for this.11 This is the plea made by all thoughtful-educators alike. What is needed is the change in the attitude and behavior of school administrators in the light of new goals of the Indian Constitution. Let us analyze the relationship of Constitution and Education.‘ Wmm The Constitution as the basic philosophy of the nation gives purpose to the educational system. It is not only the document of a political philosophy. The democratic Const- tutions have recognized the education as the state function and as the important public affair. Schools are fully or partly state-supported in the democratic countries. The basic theory is that the self-government can operate only with the literate and enlightened citizenry. Indian Constitution lays down that states are respon- siblo for ”education including universities, subject to the "s. P- Chaube. mm mm is: India (Delhi. ‘India: Atmaram & Sons, 1956), p. 90. 38 provisions of entries 63, 6h, 65 and 66 of List I and entry 25 of List In.»12 List I contains the items under the Union Jurisdiction. The entries 63, 6h, 65 and 66 read as follows: 63: The institutions known at the commencement of this Constitution as the Benares Hindu University, the Aligarh Muslim University and the Delhi University, and any other institution declared by Parliament by law to be an institution of national importance. 6U: Institutions for scientific or technical education financed by the Government of India wholly or in part and declared by Parliament by law to be institutions of national importance. 65: Union agencies and institutions for: a) professional, vocational, or technical training, including the training of police officers; or b) the promotion of special studies or research; or c) scientific or technical assistance in the inves- tigation er detection or crime. 66: Coordination and determination of standards in institutions for higher education or research and scientific and technical institutions. ‘List III consists of the concurrent items on which both union and States can legislate. The entry 25 refers to the Vocational and Technical training of labor. Thus it is apparent that the states are chiefly responsible for educating people. The Constitution also has laid down the directive for the state policy with regard to free and compulsory education in the following words: ”The state shall endeavour to provide, within a period of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they complete the 12Constitution of India, Seventh Schedule, Article 11. 39 age of fourteen years."13 This signifies the role of education in Indian demo- cracy. India being a young democracy, has not been able to put the ideals of Constitution fully in the educational practice for many reasons. The most significant is that she has inherited the educational system set up during the British rule which places more emphasis on formal learning than on democratic living. It becomes imperative then to analyze the Constitutional implications for Indian education. These are some of the educational meanings derived from the democratic national philosophy expressed in the Indian Constitution: m £3; AL. All the citizens of India are entitled to a free education until a certain ago-limdt.‘ There should be no discrimination on the basis of birth, caste, class, sex, religion or race. Each individual has the right to develop his talents and abilities according to his interests and needs. Education should allow every one maximum individual growth in order to contribute his best to the social progress. This means there will be an increasing number of schools with:divorsified curricula to prepare the students for various stations in life. The democratic India is in. need of trained personnel in every fieldcf specialization. This has a great impact on the role of school administration. 13mm" Article 1.5. no figuggtiog £3;,§g§ial lggtigg. In India there are not only cultural differences in society but also social and economic inequalities among various sections of society. The past tradition has perpetrated them over generations and the educational system under the British Rulers'_theory of Down- ward Filtration hae consolidated them firmly. The new deme- cratic society will need the education which ensures justice to all in terms of wages, working conditions and other bene- fits. There will be no privilege attached to hereditary positions or some government offices. Teachenn engineers, doctors, and others will receive a fair wage and enjoy an equal status in public. The schools will serve both rich and the poor alike and be instruments in creating equality among the future citizens. Emilee m Ling-.11. m. 1. . very important postulate for schools. There seems absence of freedom of thought and expression in the rigidly organized and centrally controlled education. The students are taught the prescribed courses religiously by the teachers for the final yearly examinations. There appears no room for creative activity or free thinking over many issues in the subject areas. Very little time is available for group discussions and individual .xprossion in the examination-oriented schools. In the democratic India, this will need a change so that the schools do not produce only well informed scholars but also thoughtful citizens. Schools may have to teach hi tolerance for different beliefs and ideas. This implies that schools are not under the strict control of the State Department or any other pressure. Teaching of liberty in thought would also promote the scientific attitude and spirit of inquiry in the future generations. 323.423.122.29. £2; 399.145.: and We Education should promote equality of status and opportunity, and a sense of brotherhood among the nationals of India. It should do away with privileges, class distinctions and racial biases still prevailing in the traditional society of India. Individuals should learn to respect one another and accord equal treatment to the fellow citizens irrespective of their calling or status. for this purpose the constitutional declaration of the national language Hindi replacing English is very significant. Acceptance of the common language will facilitate the communication and social intercourse among various ethnic groups with different dialects. Many biases among various sections can be ascribed to the lack of desirable social intercourse due to the language difficulties. Schools are now responsible for this development in view of the need for national unity and social solidarity. The goals mentioned above have many and varied impli- cations for schools of India. The educators and administra- tors would de better if they follow a new strategy to fulfil these national goals. Iversince the Constitution was adopted by India, 1+2 various individual and organised attempts have been afoot to outline the role of schools in new India. Iany comments have been published on the failures of school in terms of social needs, explicit or implicit. For lxample, discussing the past function of school, Saiyidain writes: It has succeeded neither in developing the individ- uality of its children nor in making them feel at home in, and fruitfully adjusted to their special environ- ment. It has tended to emphasize wrong objectives and values like book-learning and competitive success and ignored the more important and basic values and purposes. By devoting itself exclusively to imparting book-knowl- edge and failing to take note of the educative value and dignity of labour in its numerous forms, it has led to the overcrowding, of educated people in a few limited lines to the comparative neglect of others. Thus, whether we view it from the point of view of the indi- vidual or of society as a whole, we are driven to the uncomfortable conclusion that the school, as a social and educative institution is not delivering the goods. In The school of future should be the centre of community life--the community organised as a democratic social order. That is the new challenge which Indian education is facing as it is committed to change the social order and rebuild the institutions, habits and perceptions of the coming gener- ations. It is idle to talk of educational aims without reference to the social needs and goals of a country. The abstract goals are always vague and lead only to the formal and intellectual training of individuals. There should be a reference to which all educational activity should be addressed. The controversy lies in the dichotomy whether education is a means or an end in itself. It is neither but both. Indian 1%. G. Saiyidain, nobloms ,1 raucgtig'gn‘mgm- 5i33_(Bembays Asia Publishing House, 1957), p. ll. “3 educational philosophy has leaned more toward making learning an end in itself. It is new time to correct the balance and use the educational process for democratic living and for development of the economic standards of living of masses. WELL”. In 1952, the Government of India appointed a Secondary Education Commission to study secondary schools and outline the fresh aims and reforms for them in the new setting of free India. This seems the first attempt of its kind to define the"goals of schools' for the democratic India. No previous Commission perhaps dealt with this point except suggesting changes in the curriculum and in some other administrative matters. This Commission has surveyed the situation of schools all over the country and has pleaded for the 'reorientation of aims and objectives'. The Commission related their experience of visits in the following statement: During our tour many witnesses expressed disappoint- ment with the present set-up of Secondary Education and referred to various defects which, in their opinion, made it wasteful and ineffective and hindered the realisation of its true aims and objectives. They pointed out that this education was too bookish and machanical, stereo- typed and rigidly uniform and did not cater to the dif- ferent aptitudes of the pupil or to pupils of different aptitudes.' Nor did it develop these basic qualities of discipline, cooperation and leadership which were cal- culated to make them function as useful citizens. The stress on examinations, the over-crowded syllabus, the methods of teaching, and lack of proper material amen- ities tended to make education a burden rather than a joyous experience to the youthful mind. The unilateral scheme of studies which concentrated almost entirely on preparing students for entrance to the university, was not calculated to bring out the best either in the teacher or in the pupils. Again the failure to provide diversified courses of study made it difficult for many students to secure suitable employment at the end of the course. In most cases, a rigid time table, unsuitable an text-books of poor quality and unduly detailed syllabus prescribed did not give the teachers sufficient oppor- tunity for solfaexpression or for developing self- reliance. . . . The above-mentioned statement comes from the expert and authoritative sources to suggest that schools of India are still laboring under the deluded philosophy developed by the foreign government. There is absence of new perceptions about the right kind of educational goals for a free nation. There is nothing in it to promote the democratic way of life which the Constitution of India has envisaged. 0n analyzing the various such reports obtained through visits and inter- views, the Commission has summarized the shorteemings of the secondary education as follows: Iirstly, the education given in our schools is isolated from life-the curriculum as formulated and presented through the traditional methods of teaching does not give the students insight into the everyday world in which they are living. . Secondly, it is narrow and one-sided and fails to train the whole personality of the student. Thirdly, until comparatively recently, English was both the medium of instruction and a compulsory subject of study. Students who did not possess special lin- guistic ability were therefore greatly handicapped in their studies. If a student did not fare well in English he could neither pass the School Final Examination nor find any post in Government service. Iourthly, the methods of teaching generally practised failed to develop in the students either independence of thought or initiative in action. They stressed competi- tive success rather than the joy of cooperative achieve- ment. Iifthly, the increase in the size of classes has eensiderably reduced personal contact between teachers and pupils. Finally, the dead weight of the examination has tended to curb the teachers initiative, to stereotype the curriculum,te promote mechanical and lifeless methods of teaching, to discourage all spirit of experimentation and to place the stress on wrong or unimportant things lsGovernmont of India, Remrt g_f_ thg W m. 2&22_Q1-|13g1gp (Delhi: National Printing Iorks, 195“), p. 21. “5 in education.16 The above comments apply to the whole educational system in general. Every remark is valid for both univer- sity education as well as for the elementary schools. The University Commission of l9h8 has analyzed in greater detail the aims of university education in 'New India' and has recommended many changes in the practices of the institu- tions of higher learning.17 In fact, there was an urgent need for outlining the aims of Indian education in terms of her new aspirations and commitments as a free democratic country. Until the National Constitution was written, India had no frame of reference or social philosophy or national policy to which educational system could be related and geared. There were piecemeal attempts made eversince 1919 when education became the provincial subject to formulate the goals of education. But they were very abstract and unrealistic for want of a basic national philosophy then. This Commission had been aware of this lag while formulating the aims of secondary education. The rationale of the Commission's approach is stated as under: The aims of educationhave been formulated in general terms in numerous books on education and in the Reports of Committees and Commissions and, therefore, so far as such general aims are concerned, it is not possible to 1512.11. . pp. 22-23. 17Government of India, £11132.”qu $9.9. Quivezsity W 13 1 s .._n.J.9._§.‘° b ”- s Ill-.1 (59'0"!- ment of India Press, Simla, 1950), pp. 132-67. fl {9 h6 add anything significant to what has been repeatedly expressed. But there is undoubtedly room for formulating these aims in more specific terms and with special reference to the needs and the ideals of our country in its actual situation. As political, social and economic conditions change the new problems arise, it becomes necessary to re-examine carefully and re-stato clearly the objectives which education at each definite stage should keep in view. Nereover, this statement must take into account not only the facts of the existing situation but also the direction of its development and the nature and type of the social order that we envisage for the future to which education has to be geared. The most outstanding and educationally relevant facts that have to be taken into account may be briefly summed up as follows. India has recently achieved its political freedom and has, after careful consideration decided to transform itself into a secular democratic republic. This means that the educational system must make its contribution to the development of habits, attitudes and qualities of character, which will enable its citizens to bear worthily the responsibilities of democratic citizenship and to counteract all those fissipareus tendencies which hinder the emergence of a broad, national and secular outlook. The Commission has therefore insisted that the new role of education consists in: l. the training of character to fit the students to participate creatively as citizens in the emerging democratic social order; 2. the improvement of their practical and vocational efficiency so that they may play their part in building up the economic prosperity of their country; and 3. the development of their literary, artistic and cultural interests, which are necessary for self- expression and for the full development of the human personality, without which a living national culture cannot come into being.18 Thus, it is evident that goals for India's schools now are formulated in terms of the national needs and problems. To sum up, it is proposed by the Commission that educa- ‘Blhigg 13. 21+. 1&7 tion ought to be related to the new social order in two ways: 1. It should train all the citizens for the democratic pattern of society. 2. It should improve their efficiency to contribute their best to the betterment of society. IMPLICATIONS OF NEW EDUCATIONAL GOALS The new educational goals derived from the basic philos- ophy of India's Constitution as well as the expert reports of various Commissions appointed during the decade on independ- ence, indicate many implications for the role and function of different agencies in education. This study is mainly concerned with the selected few as shown in Figure 2. When a nation is clear about its basic philosophy and is also aware of the national goals of education, the role and function of all other related agencies are easy to deter- mine. Ior, all social institutions can only survive in a given social system so long as they can fulfil adequately the social objective. Caste system of India is slowly dying for it no longer fulfils the new social objectives. This principle works in every society but more effectively in the dynamic societies of modern times. Due to rapid changes in them, social values and modes are constantly revised. New laws and statutes create new customs and practices for the old. As the goals of Indian education are rapidly changing, they should be followed by adjustments in the roles of three important institutions which serve as agents of education. The relationship in all of them is already indicated in the NATIONAL GOALS OF EDUCATION (determine roles of) I, II and III I Department of Education and Their Staff #8 (Coordinate with Training Institu- E (Provide Trained III Officers) Teacher Training Institutions and Their Staff tions) ——$ J. II Schools, Teachers, Counselors, and Administrative Sta f FIGURE 2 RELATIONSHIP BETUEEN GOALS OF EDUCATION AND ROLES OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS #9 diagram of riguro 2. Now let us examine their present status and see how their function is inadequate for the new goals of free India. Let us identify their new role. Wfim Prior to 185“, some supervision of schools was carried on in Bombay and North-vestorn Province by a Board of Educa- tion appointed by the Provincial Government. But the honor of establishing the Departments of Education under the Direc- tor ef Public Instruction, goes to the Wood's Despatch of 185“. By 1856, the new administration of education was set up in every province then. As the new provinces were later created, it became a rule to organize such a department. The functions of these departments were: 1. to advise the Provincial Government on all educa- tional matters; 2. to administer the funds allocated to education by the Provincial and Central Governments; 3. to conduct certain educational institutions directly under the Authority of Government; b. to supervise and inspect the working of private educational institutions which applied to the Department for grants-in-aid or recognition; 5. to compile annual reports on the progress of educa- tion within their jurisdiction along with the necessary statistics and to publish them; and 6. generally to take all such steps as were necessary to improve and expand oducatien.19 It is clear that the functions of the Department were purely regulatory and supervisory. They served the administra- 19Nurullah and Naik, 93. m., p. 230. 50 tion in maintaining records, files, and statistics concerning schools. The early officers were recruited from the Civil Service and were neither conversant with the educational ideals nor were willing to serve as inspectors or superintend- ents of education. Those who did, became as bureaucrats as collectors and other government officials. Besides, the Departments were inadequately staffed. The early years were marked by too much centralization and a clear-cut policy regarding the personnel was lacking. In 1886, the Public Service Commission made far- reaching recommendations regarding the reorganization of all departmental services. In particular, it recommended that the graded service should be discontinued and that recruit- ment for all higher posts should be made in England.‘ This led to the creation of Indian Education Service (I.E.S.) in 1896. Its object was to attract capable persons from England. Thus it gave Englishmen_a monopoly of most of the higher pests in the Department. Indian people vehemently criticized it because it created a bureaucratic steel-frame in educa- tion as in any other department. In his characteristic manner, Lord Curzon described this policy of Government in the follow- ing words: .Let me begin by stating what I conceive to be the general principles that regulate the situation. They are two in number. The first is that the highest ranks of civil employment in India, those in the Imperial Civil Service, though open to such Indians as can proceed to England and pass the requisite tests must, nevertheless, as a general rule, be held by Englishmen, for the reason that they possess partly by heredity, partly by up- bringing, and partly by education, the knowledge of the principles of Government, the habits of mind, and the the vigour of character, which are essential for the 51 task, and that, the rule of India being a British rule, and any other rule being in the circumstances of the case impossible, the tone and standard should be set by those who have created and are responsible for it. The second principle is that outside this ggng_g;g;i§g,we shall, as far as possible, and as the improving standards of education and morals permit, employ the inhabitants of the country, both because our general policy is to restrict rather than to extend European agency, and because it is desirable to enlist the best native intelli- gence and character in the service of the State. This principle is qualified only by the fact that in certain special departments where scientific or technical know- ledge is required, or where there is a call for the exer- cise of particular responsibility, it is necessary to main- tain a strong European admixture, and sometimes even a European preponderance.2 The above statement shows the degree of concern the foreign rulers had for either public administration or for educational administration. Administration.was looked upon as powerful control of a few English officials rather than a service to the people of India. This kind of attitude of the responsible English administrators caused a great resentment and paved the way for Indian nationalism. The agitation on this subject grew so strong during this period that in August 1917 the Secretary of State for India announced that the policy of His Majesty's Government with which the Government of India was in complete accord, was that of ”increasing association of Indians in every branch of Indian administra- tion“. This principle was gradually put into practice. Recruitment to Indian Educational Service from England was discontinued and was slowly replaced by a Provincial Service (Class II) as the provincial autonomy came into vogue. During 1919 to 19h? when education was the provincial 2oLord CurzOn in India, VoL.I, pp. 156-7 (Quoted by Nurrullah and Naik, op. cit., Po 555)- VI 52 subject under Indian Ministers, the functions of the Depart- ment expanded rapidly. Many new schemes were launched in education besides 'Literacy Drive' so that it became necessary to increase the staff to assist the Director of Public Instruc- tion. It may be noted here that inspecting officers were not increased in correspondence with the increase in the schools in various districts on account of financial stringency. This resulted in the mechanical and inhuman approach of inspection by the hard-pressed staff at the district level. The Hartog committee has pointed out this situation in the following statement: It has been calculated that in England and Vales, the higher inspecting staff amounts to Zhl (172 men and 69 women), while in the whole of India the number of inspectors who belong either to the Indian Educational Service or to a provincial service is only 285 (225 men and 57 women). o e o- It will, we think, be generally admitted that if the system of public education in India is to be made efficient the inspecting staffs in tht provinces must be both on- larged and improved. . . .2 The committee has also recommended some important measures for improvement of primary education which suffered at the hands of inexperienced and poor local bodies. The important fact is that the role of the Department still continues as a bureaucratic agent of the government and the inspecting staff in general appear to have the demi- nating attitude and behavior. The writer has the experience of being a school teacher and has witnessed several inspections by those officials. It has always appeared as a few days' 21Hartog Report, 1929. P. 306. 53 visit of a checking and policing officer putting every member of school to an awful alert. There is an attempt to make a false show of tip-top arrangements and exaggerated accomplishments. It is marked by the absence of a friendly atmosphere, free exchange of ideas, and educational guidance or leadership. The teachers of India have the similar ex- perience as the Commission points out here: The present system of inspection of schools was sub- jected to criticism by several witnesses. It was pointed out that inspections were perfunctory, that the time spent by the inspector at any particular place was in—u sufficient, that the greater part of this time was taken out with routine work like checking accounts and, looking into the administrative aspects of the school. There was not enough time devoted to the academic side, and contacts between the inspectors and teachers were casual. It was also stated that the number of schools entrusted to the care of an inspector was too large and the range too wide for him to be able to acquaint him- self with their werk and appreciate their problems; nor was he in a position to advise and guide the teaching staff in improving the work of the school. It occasion- ally happenod that the Inspector instead of being ”the friend, philosopher and guide“ of the school behaved in such a critical and unsympathetic way that his visit was looked upon with some degree of apprehension, if not resentment.22 This is the unfortunate legacy of the British Educa- tional Administration. Departments although staffed by the Indian Officers carry on the same tradition. Even after freedom, perceptions have not changed much, partly for lack of official conservatism.and red tape and partly for lack of learning new conceptions and ideals suited to the free demo- cratic society of India. 11!. ggle M. In accordance with the new national philosophy of democracy, the role of the Department as well 2ZRoport of the Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53. 220 2330: P0 19". 5h as the inspecting staff changes. It is one of educational leadership in a free society rather than of policing and diatating the schools of a subject nation. The inspector of schools is an administrative leader of a community. It should be his concern to know the needs of the community and improve the educational facilities as well as standards so that the outgoing youngsters become useful members of society. He should have a firm faith in democratic living and encour- age it in schools by his example and behavior. He should be expert in human relations as he deals with people--the job more important than keeping administrative files and records. Similar advice has been given by one of the leading educa- tionists of India, x. G. Saiyidain in the following words: The ”Now Education" that we are anxious to usher into our schools requires a new approach not only on the part of the teachers but also on the part of Head Masters, Inspectors and all other educational administrators. 'Administration' in India has developed certain fixed habits of mind and stereotypes of action which has slowed down the speed and efficiency of our work in all depart- ments of national life. This would be undesirable any- where but is especially so in the field of education which does not lend itself to the bureaucratic approach. In the new set-up of things in free India, which has to build up new traditions, it is particularly essential that we should 'humanize! our administration as quickly as possible. OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOO I use the term 'humanize' for what I have in mind, be- cause I cannot think of any better description for the idea that, at all stages of educational work and in all its aspects, the approach should be essentially human-~-~ man to man, individual to individual and not file to file, report to report, superior officer to inferior employee. This is not a minor issue but a major problem because it involves a reorientation in the whole outlook of teachers, inspecting officers and administrators.23 235aiyidain,‘gp. git., pp. 19h-195. 55 Analyzing the new role of the inspecting staff, the Commission states: "In our view the true role of an Inspec- tor for whom we would prefer the term Educational Adviser-— is to study the problems of each school, to take a compre- honsive view of all its function and to help the teachers to carry out his advice and recommendations.'2u Chaube in his study observes: So far, the Indian teachers have been suffering under the pressure of authoritarianism. The minister of educa- tion, director, inspector, manager and principal tend to be feared and obeyed without question. Needless to say, this kind of relationship falls short of all democratic principles and practices. All types of administrators, whether they be minister, director, or any other, must be considered as associates of the teacher and of the parents as far as their duties relating to the education of the children of the nation are concerned. If democra- tic institutions are to be developed in India, all con- cerned must be democratic, live democratically and put democratic methods into practice completely in relations to all of their colleagues, senior or junior.25 All such observations and comments suggest a new leadership role on the part of Department and its officials. This implies then that there ought to be some kind of re- orientation in the training and preparation of these officers for the new task of the democratic nation. mum.mmw As the national goals of education have changed, the schools have to play a new role. Besides imparting the formal training, they should prepare the young for democratic ZHReport‘of the Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53. 22. up. p. 191;. 2501mm», 92. git" p. 15h. 56 living. During the British rule, the schools were expected to fulfill the narrow purpose of producing loyal citizens and English-speaking staff for the vast civil administra- tion. The defects of such schools became evident gradually and Indian nationalists began to question the utility of the whole educational system. But nothing was done or was pos- sible to do before the nation realized her independence and declared her new philosophy through her national Constitution. Commission's views in the previous pages have made it clear how unwanted and undesirable these schools have become for a free society. Their role and function is to be redefined in terms of India's national goals, needs and problems. Talking about the new kind of school visualized by the Com- mission, their following statement is pertinent: For, after all, what we have advocated is, in brief, a transformation of schools into social communities where the healthy normal motives and methods of group work are in operation and children have an opportunity of learning by doing, of gaining meaningful social ex- periences and thereby being trained in supreme 'art of living'. All the changesin the methods of teaching, in discipline and examination, all the improvements in the physical environment of the schools and its general atmosphere are meant to assist in this basic transfor- mation.26 Such a transformation of school refers to the new democratic setting which the nation has visualized. In other words, the schools are now expected to become effective agents of coming social change in India. This is not different from what John ~ 26Report of the Secondary Education Commission, 1952-539 22o Me, Do 2370 57 Dewey professed in U.S.A. long ago. In l92h, he wrote: Since education is a social process, and there are many kinds of societies, a criterion for educational criticism and construction implies a 'particular' social ideal. A society which makes provision for participation in its good of all its members on equal terms and which secures flexible readjustment of its institutions through interaction of the different forms of associated life is in so far democratic. Such a society must have a type of education which gives individuals a personal interest in social relationships and control, and the habits of mind which secure social changes without introducing disorder.27 What John Dewey intended to emphasize in the American education in the beginning of this century, need to be done in Indian education today. Otherwise the democratic ideals of India would remain engraved in the Constitution and the coming generations will fall back to the traditional ways of thinking and living. Schools of India are now facing a new challenge of building a new society based on national democratic ideals. They have to be nucleus of social activity, center of com- munication and cooperation among individuals coming from different backgrounds of home, culture and faith. Consequently, the role of teachers and administrators also is to be reconsidered for they make school. As they believe and work as a group, so becomes their school. It is to be admitted that India's teachers are working under various odds and difficulties and their financial conditions are far from satisfactory. Under these circumstances, it is idle to 27John Dov-y. neufim 2..“ Education (New York: Trhe Macmillan Company, 192 ), p. 115. 1‘ 58 talk of their new responsibilities or new relationships to students, community, and nation. Unless their material standards are raised, their approach and outlook can hardly change. These facts cannot be ignored. But what is needed is faith and commitment to the new national philosophy and a sincere effort to put it in practice. It is assumed that with the economic developments of the country, they will have their fair share in the long run. Their services will be considered important and valuable as the national re- sources develop. And this will only be possible if they fulfil their new obligations for future of India's emerging democracy rests with them. Henessy, who has made a careful study of the work of the Birla Education Trust, states the urgent problem of India in these terms: For every passionate and understanding democrat like Jawaharlal Nehru, there are a hundred thousand Indians who accept passively the rights and duties of India's Constitution, and a million who are unaware of their- existenco. India's problem is to make the rights on- shrined in the Constitution living and exciting realities to India's millions. This is not impossible but it will require a long and sustained effort. If it be agreed that democracy, with its basic principle of respect for the individual as an end in himself (and not as a means to the aggrandizement of a privileged caste, a dictator, a party, or a state), is the faith which holds out the possibility of a great future for India, one must equally admit that whether the dream is realized or not depends almost entirely on the present generation of India's university and school teachers.28 This implies change in the attitude and behavior of “Jun-ya Bonn-say. India: Wrens: missiles (Calcutta, India: Orient Lengmans Ltd., 1955). p. 37. 59 teachers at all levels. Advising in the same tone, Commis- sion writes: ”Teachers must develop a new orientation towards their work. They will not look upon their work as an unpal- atable means of earning a scanty living but as an avenue through which they are rendering significant social service as well as finding some measure of self-fulfilment and self- expression. They will work as a team engaged in a high endeavour-with the headmaster as a valued and more experi- enced member--and, as new problems and difficulties arise, they will be constantly conferring amongst themselves and using their collective wisdom and experience to find their solutions. They will not be dominated by routine but will keep an open mind--receptive and experimental and look upon their work as a great social and intellectual adventure."29 It is evident from these statements that schools, teachers and administrators (managers, principals, head- masters, and supervisors) have rather failed to realize the implications of the changing social order in India. This maybe ascribed to the lack of adequate preparation pref grams, want of studies and research on the current problems, presence of old administrative practice, undue apathy, neglect and ignorance. eac Training Iggtitutions The ultimate responsibility of preparing the teachers and administrators falls on the teacher training institutions. ‘ 29Rgport of the Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53. 22o gzteg Po 2350 60 As this study is concerned with the preparation of school administrators, the emphasis will be placed on the Graduate Training Colleges and their role in the new setting. ‘fifigsgnggnd. Teacher training in India did not exist in an organized form until the close of 19th century. No doubt, the Wood's Despatch of 185“ had stressed it along with the other schemes as already indicated in the previous pages. But not much was achieved until 1882 when Indian Education Commission recommended that "an examination in the principles and practice of teaching be instituted, success in which should hereafter be a condition of permanent employ- ment as a teacher in any secondary school, Government or aided.”3° The Commission also recognized the need for giving a separate and distinct type of training to graduate and under- graduate teachers, both in regard to the course of training and the syllabus. Now there were six training colleges (Madras, Lahore, Rajhamundry, Kurseony, Jabalpur, and Allahabad) and fifty training schools. The Government of India's Resolution of 190“ revita- lized the teacher education by suggesting the following .OLBUI‘OI 8 1. More men of ability and experience in the work of higher training should he enlisted to provide an adequate staff of well trained members of the Indian Education Service. . 3°Roport of the Indian Education Commission, 1882, para. 3. 61 2. The equipment of a training college for secondary teachers is at least as important as that of an arts college. 3. For graduates, the training course should be a one- year university course, leading to a university degree or diploma. The course should be chiefly directed towards imparting to them a knowledge of the principles which underlie the art of teach- ing and some degree of technical skill in the practice of art. For others, it should be a two- year course, embracing the extension, consolida- tion and revision of their general studies to make them capable teachers. h. The training in the theory of teaching should be closely associated with its practice and for this purpose, a good practising school should be attached to each college. 5. Every possible care should be taken to maintain a connection between the training college and the school so that the student on leaving college and entering upon his career as a teacher may not neglect to practise the methods which he has been taught. This resolution shaped the future developments of teacher education in India. This policy was made further effective in 1912 when the government declared that no teacher should be allowed to teach without a certificate. Later commissions and committees strengthened the same policy and as a result the present system of teacher training gradually came to exist. Today it comprises of three main types of institutions viz., (l) for graduate teachers, (2) for under- graduate teachers teaching in middle schools, and (3) for primary teachers. Other types of training programs were rather unknown before l9h7. '31Government of India's Resolution on Educational Policy, 190”, p‘r‘O 39. 62 "Between 1906 and 19h7, the proportion of trained teachers to the untrained increased appreciably. While in l9h6-h7 approximately 61.5 For cent of secondary and primary teachers were trained, the percentage of trained teachers was hardly 29 for high schools. 37 for middle schools, and 25 for primary schools in l906--7"32 After independence, the number of colleges and trainees has increased rapidly but not much is done by way of re- orienting their outleek toward the new goals of education. The courses have remained stereotyped as they were in the past, the methods of training and activities of the college bear no relationship with the actual problems of school or society. The teacher-educators have not shown the required degree of leadership expected from them in view of the rapid changes taking place in the education of India today. Mukorji remarks, '. . . prewindependenco concepts and pattern of behaviour no longer command prestige in the country at pre- sent. If teacher education is to make its real social con. tribution in the existing situation, it must be guided by democratic values and procedures."33 Eel... .21“. We mama. W. 'flnro are three main categories of the training institutions: 32Progress of Education in India, Vol. 1, l937-b7, p. 31 and Vol. 1, 1907-12. P. 187. Quoted by S. N. Mukerji, 431929.133 in India - ME! and Isl-.2212: (Baroda: Acharya Beck Depot. 1960). p. 297. 33S. N. Mukorji, Eucation i_n_ Indiaé-i‘gm m M (Baroda; Acharya Book Depot, 1960), p. 298. 63 1. Primary (or Basic) Teacher Training, 2. Secondary Teacher Training, and 3. Graduate Teacher Training Institutions The new goals of education have implications for all the above categories but this study is closely related to the graduate training colleges only, because the administrative staff is expected to have a degree or diploma from one of the graduate training colleges. Those colleges prepare the head-asters, inspectors and other educational officers for the state departments as well as schools owned by public or . private managements. ”During 1955-56, the number of training colleges in the country was 107 (86 for men and 21 for women). Most of the colleges for men enroll women students as well. Of 107 colleges, 65 were managed by government, 3“ by private aided bodies and 8 by private unaided bodies. Besides these colleges, the education departments of the universities of Aligarh, Allahabad, Annamalai, Baroda, Gauhati, Lucknow and Patna and some arts and science colleges provide facilities for training of teachers."3u The graduate training colleges are of two types: (1) Traditional and (2) Basic. The traditional institutions pro- vide one year's training and award the degrees such as B.T., B.Ed., L.T. or Dip. in Educ. according to university or department regulations. The basic colleges are of recent BuGevernment 'f “41‘: W in Edie. 3321—126" : Vol. I (Government of India Press, 1958), p. 217. 6h origin as the basic system of education has been adopted lately in some schools. They differ in their course offerings. But we are here concerned with the graduate colleges (known as postgraduate in India) which offer M. Ed. (or M. A.) and Ph. D. Degrees in Education. The universities that offer such training are 26 namely, Aligarh, Allahabad, Banaras, Baroda, Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi, Gerakhput, Gujarat, Gauhati, Jabalpur, Karnatak, Kerala, Lucknow, Madras, Mysore, Nagpur, Osmania, Punjab, Patna, Poona, Rajasthan, S.N.D.T., Saugar, Utkal, and Vikram. The master's courses consist of a number of papers and the preparation of a small thesis, or only dissertation in lieu of papers, or in some cases as an additional require- ment. The analysis of courses reveals the narrow academic objectives of training in view of these institutions. The courses offered for B. Ed. or B.T. generally comprise of two parts: 1. Igggzxp-consisting of five papers: (1) Educational Psychology and statistics, (2) Principles of Education and General Method, (3) School Adminis- tration and Health Education, (h) Methods of teaching and (5) History of Education and current Problems in Indian Education; and 2. gzggtical Work (teaching of a prescribed number of 1essons).35 0n reviewing the ordinances of the leading Indian Universities, it is found that the courses for M. Ed. generally 35s. N. Mukorji, .22. m" p. 305. l'e 65 comprise some of the following areas: 1. Philosophy of Education 2. Educational Psychology 3. Comparative Education h. History of Education 5. Administration of Education 6. Experimental Education 7. Educational Theory 8. Education in Modern India 9. Educational Sociology 10. Educational Methodology and Research 11. Other optional areas like Phygical, Vocational, Adult Education and so on. Some areas are required and others are optional. Some universities award master's degree on the basis of thesis alone. [or doctoral candidates, there is no course require- ment except the presentation of a research study in the form of a dissertation. The whole pattern is in fact based on the old English model of teacher education. While England has gone through many revisions, Indian counterparts seem to have remained stagnant. The need for reorientation of the training program has been felt since independence. There seems to be a lack of clear perspective of new goals of education in tho chang- ing set-up. Reviewing this situation, the Commission writes: A.clearer conception of what is intended by the Master's degree in education seems to us to be required. This degree is primarily intended for high studies in pedagogy: (l) to give ideas through the study of com- parative education of modern methods that are being followed in different countr1es, (2) to cultivate apti- tude for research so that experiments on new methods and techniques of education suited to the country and the community may be undertaken, (3) to afford oppor- tunitios for specialisation in one or other of the branches of study pertaining to (a) the curricula of 3Glaculty of Education and Psychology, ggdigagges gag, Eggplations 2; Indian Universities W 5.92. .11. £1. Examinations--A Compilation (Baroda: M. S. University, 1950). 66 school studies, (b) craft-centred education, (o) co- curricular activities, etc., and (h) to train teachers for ~ higher grades in the profession such as the headmasters, the inspectorate, and teaching staff of training insti- tutions. In fact this higher education should be designed to inculcate the qualities of leadership in education.37 The above statement reflects the inadequacy of the graduate training colleges and outlines the new role of them in terms of educational leadership and community needs. This study is specially concerned with the emphasis on special— ization in the school administration and extension of study and research in that area. It is assumed that the adminis- trative leadership is of paramount importance to the educa- tional regeneration in view of India's new democratic goals. flood for ngtgggizg,§tudz‘in_Eguggtiongl Adminigtrgtiog The study of educational administration as a special field at the graduate training colleges is of a recent origin. Very few institutions have new organized special postgraduate courses in this area and their scope and approach is limited. There is hardly any emphasis on the theoretical concepts related to democratic society or on the problem-oriented approach related to social situation. There is predominance of the historical and descriptive aspects in the study. This is partly due to the legacy of the past tradition and partly to the lack of new studies, textbooks and research on these aspects. The books used in the field in particular 37Report, 9.2. 93.1., p. 181. 67 or in the field of Education in general are of foreign English writers of both England and America.38 With ‘11 their merits, they have one serious shortcoming that they are not related to the Indian setting and culture, or to the Indian problems and needs of today. The following re- mark made about management education in India by a Study Team in their report of their visit to the United States is equally true for all the new fields of specialization includ- ing educational administration. . . . Management research schould be given the fullest possible encouragement in view of the fact that manage- ment literature including case material with an Indian background, is relatively scarce. In the absence of such literature, management education cannot be truly effective.39 During the last decade, some new books and research studies on the subject have been published by the leading thinkers in the profession. But the urgent need is to re- orient the whole approach in the field. Such studies ought to be oriented to the democratic set-up of our country and to the actual problems of the schools and communities. In view of future enrollments in schoo1s_and con- sequent inorease in the number and size of schools, there will arise a persistent demand for the well-qualified leaders as headmasters, principals, Inspectors and other officers. They will have to deal with the schools having 38Iaculty of Education and Psychology, A Compilation, 1950 . . 39The Indian Management Education Study Team,‘flgpgzt nimnmmmnm (Ministry of Scientific Research and Cultural Affairs, Government of “d1... 1959). De “2o 68 diversified curricula, the children with varied back-grounds and the teachers with various specializations. The parents and the community around schools will be literate, intelligent, and sensitive to their rights and obligations. The emphasis will not be merely on formal learning but on practical know- ledge, creative thinking and citizenship training. Under this educational revolution, will the graduate training institutions be able to do a thorough job? Are their programs and courses adequate for the preparation of the future educational leaders? Are the studios and research available to guide them? In brief, the frame of reference for this study includes the following points: 1. There is a need for a new educational leadership in India today facing the tremendous task of educating people for the democratic social order. 2. This kind of leadership could be prepared and pro- duced in the teacher education institutions if they are reoriented to the new national task beginning with country's independence. 3. It will be possible for them to play an adequate role in the new setting if they revise their content, approach and.methods in view of nation's demands. h. It will be necessary to emphasize and expand the study and research on actual problems of the country with the scientific approach in Educa- tion in general and in School Administration in particular. 69 5. This development will be gradually possible in the context of some other related factors such as: a) Change in philosophy of society and the social institutions that serve it; b) Availability of financial resources to teacher education with the economic development of nation; c) Emphasis on professional standards for teaching and administrative positions in education; d) Growth of scientific spirit and attitude in literate society of future and in the work of educators. e) Increase in facilities for research studies and publication thereof in the colleges and univer- SitiOSo SUMMARY The implications for expansion of the study of educa- tional administration in India could justifiably be drawn only with reference to the educational setting in India. As the present educational system is the legacy of the past British rule,_it falls short in playing an adequate role in the new India. The goals of education are redefined by the National Constitution of India but the educational administrators seem to play their traditional role of the colonial period. So, there is a descrepancy between the new goals of the nation and the performance of the educational leaders of the country. This is further aggravated by the indifference of the teacher 70 training institutions to the changing educational needs. Their programs and courses for teachers and school adminis- trators are restricted in aim and scope. The graduate train- ing programs are too inadequate to prepare the kind of school administrators needed for expanding schools in the Indian democracy. Hence, a great need is felt to revise the courses in school administration, produce new studies and research related to the democratic social order and the actual community problems. In the absence of original studies, the text-books and references written by foreign authors are frequently used. With all their merits, they are not directly related to the Indian situation or to the problems of today in the country. Thus, a sincere effort is demanded in developing the appropriate programs and the new studies and research in the form of text-books, surveys, reports, investigations related to the nedendia. And that is the frame of reference for this study. 71 CHAPTER III EDUCATIONAL SETTING IN THE UNITED STATES Education in the United States is a large scale enterprise. Few other nations spend as much on public education as this country. The total expenditure of public education in America is to the tune of 16 billion dollars.1 There has been a steady increase in the enrolments at all the levels as indicated by the Table II. The number of students has more than doubled over a period of the past fifty years. The average expenditure per child attending a public school amounted to $375 in 1960.2 The expansion in the education of the United States is largely due to her democratic beliefs and values that characterize this country. It is said the public education of America is unique to her culture and her way of life. Many foreign visitors coming from the European system have found it difficult to understand the aim and function of the American public schools and have questioned some of its aspects like local control, diversified curricula, large enrolment, grading, testing and academic standards. Several aspects of the American educational scene seem so strange to them as to be almost incomprehensible. The explanation to this has been given by many educationists of this country. Thurston and Roe write: lStatistical Abstract of the United States, 1962, p. 111. 21b1de. Po 113 72 .HHH .a .mema .nouapm stance on» do poauunnc Haudunnaasm. nm:.mn~.~: ano.nos.mn Ha~.mnn.nn now.ana.m~ nam.nm~.n ooo.emm.~ Hmo.mno.m no~.:m:.H mmn.mwm.o nam.:nn.n moo.nn:.w mnm.m~n.m nno.amm.am ~mm.nm:.w~ mmm.ano.a~ NHH.ee:.o~ nam.nnn.~ ~o~.mnm.n «an.mn~.n mom.oee mums ends ohms («mum ace» nan.~no.m~ ashes ann.ooH.H :oapuonem nonmdm oom.aam.: .aasoauepnoa as. «a as m nepeaw unmannm.mm m o» H neeoaw nw:.wmm ConnemaoUCAH mama AOOMDm ho flhfifi edoomom ho HAVE km HZHEAOmZM mmk HH fldmdfi 73 In education, we have declared, or rather pro- gressively asserted, our independence. We have parted from Europe in our schools and colleges and universities as in our automobile factories, our merchandising, our managements of the arts of Hollywood. We are no more a New World instructed by the Old. We have radically veered from the European pattern in administrative organization as well as instruction and detached our educational government from the civil power. The American, unlike Europe, has insulated his schools separate and apart from national politics. The student of continental and classic government, captivated by the logic of administrative simplicity, shakes his head 1JL despair. He pleads the inconsistency of having two local governments, mentions the double threat to the_ taxpayer, and asks dorisively why the school superin- tendent should be insulated from local politics as if it were something ugly and contaminating. But the American citizen prefers it that way. His school is something personal and special, and he wantg it within close reach of his touch and comprehension. Thus, it is the difference in the philosophy as well as the history of the American society that accounts for the varied form of educational system of this country. Conant has emphasized the historical differences as basic to the evolution of the American education and respon- sible for its dissimilarity to the European counterpart. He states: Having spent considerable time talking to university professors and school teachers in several European countries, I have been impressed by the basic differences in the total pattern of tax-supported education on the two sides of the Atlantic. And, having tried to explain American public education to German audiences, I am aware of some of the peculiarities of our system - peculiar from a European standpoint. Yet I have found that by pointing out certain differences between American and European history one can lead a German, for example, to a better understanding of our schools. . . . The absence of conqueror and conquered, of a feudal system in our history, when pointed out to a European provides a clue to understanding something of our pro- sont situation. So too does a realization of the im- portance of the pioneer movement westward in the nine- 3Lee M. Thurston, and William H. Roe, State Sghool {ginistraticn (New York: Harper a. Brothers Publishers, 1957) s p. 5, 7h toenth century. 'Frontiers - in the American sense of the term.- have no influence on the development of European nations, but the American frontier has in fact shaped our institutions. To a large extent, it w s responsible for widening the concept of equality. In part, this explains the uniqueness of American education as it has gradually developed in American history. It is to be admitted, however, that during the early period of America's development, the European influences were rather dominant. But the transition has been very rapid due to many historical factors and the diversity of cultural and religious groups that made this new nation. It is impor- tant, therefore, in the context of this study to outline- the stages of growth in the evolutionary process leading to the present educational plan and purpose. GROWTH OF PUBLIC EDUCATION The modern education in the united States did not evolve overnight but went through a gradual process of experimentation over a period of three hundred years. The educational writers are agreed upon three-distinct phases or stages of its development. They have given varions names to each stage but Moehlman and Roucok have signified these stages in the following characteristic_terms:, “the Dawn Period (1500-1800), the Formative Period (1800-1900), and the 9.1-1“ of Midpassago (19cc— )-.5 “Jo-u B. Conant. m mm... Blah am his: (Nov York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1957), p. 6.. 5Arthur'H. Moehlman, and Joseph's. Roucok, W 7143233113, (New York: The Dryden Press, 1953), p. 0. 75 ‘Igg,2§gg Period (1500-1800) This period is also known as the Colonial period because there was predominance of Old World culture. The people who came from Europe brought with them European ideals, beliefs, and practices. However, they came to America to be free from some of the rigid customs and institutions of Europe. There was no one reason why they came to settle in this new land. Some came to escape religious persecution, some to escape political tyranny. Some came in search of wealth and some in search of freedom. Whatever the reason, they came with the values, beliefs, and habits that they had learnt. In all the different colonies of the period in this country, there appeared in this period the small European communities in the New World. The way they governed them- selves, theway they made their living, the way they organ- ized their communities - all had a European flavor. The schools, colleges, and early universities were also much like the institutions which the colonists had known in Europe. But, as the setting was new and the adventurous spirit prevailed among the settlers, it became easy to change in the light of new experiences. The movement toward westward- expanding frontier created the social mobility essential to a common culture of any people. Some prominent leaders like Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson came to the scene by the close of this period. They influenced the later course of educational history by their efforts to promote the cause of public education. So, the preparation for building a 76 new society in future America was made in this early period. The fact is the education in this period was based on the narrow colonial beliefs. According to Cremin and Borrowman, it was dominated by several ideas: First, that most people don't really need schooling, and if they do, it should involve only a bare minimum of reading and writing (arithmetic began to come in toward the end of the eighteenth century); Second, that for most of those who do have schooling, the school program should lean heavily on training in established religious belief; and Third, that for an even more select few a good liberal education in certain basic subjects like languages, mathematics, philosophy, and religion is highly important.6 Certainly, such beliefs were neither conducive to the growth of public education nor based on democratic faith. Similar view is expressed by Knight when he states: ”. . . in almost no way was the climate of the colonies good for public schools. The right to life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness had not yet been recognized. The rights of men as men were unknown. The only known and recognized rights were of men as members of classes and groups,"7 But some writers have rather optimistic view of this period. They consider it as an experimantal stage in which the old beliefs were found unworkable and therefore responsible for the development of the concept of public education. Moehlman and Roucek observe: ”Education_in the Dawn Period was a great experiment in acculturation. In each region an attempt was made to relate a transplanted Old World education 6Lawrence A. Cremin, and Merle L. Borrowman, m M in cu; W (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1956): PP. 69-70. 7Edgar Knight, Egucgtion ig.the united fitgteg (New York: Gdnn and Company, 19hl), p. 92. 77 to the demands of a new land with an indigenous frontier culture."8 Summarizing their observations on this period, Thurston and Roe write in the same tone and in rather posi- tive language: The colonial conception of schools and education as instruments for the preservation of religious faith and existing economic and social arrangement is obvious when studied in its entirety. This belief was firmly rooted in Old World tradition and practice. Yet here and there one sees this Old world tradition being chipped away and repaired by new conceptions created by rigors of frontier life and the growth of a new country. These new concep- tions may be summarized as: l. A growing belief that the worth of an individual, no matter what his wealth or lineage, should be considered important. 2. A realisation that education was necessary for successful government. 3. The growing concept of education as a state function. h. The beginning of whispers here and there that Church and State are not one.9 Thus, it is to be realised that this stage was in fact like a dark dawn preceding the future sunshine over the field of American education. 1g; Ioggativg Period (1800-1900) This period covered roughly the whole of nineteenth century in which many social, economic, and political changes took place. Franklin's idea that schools should teach about practical affairs that would help a man in his life as a citizen and businessman, and Jefferson's concept of education 8Moehlmanfiand Roucek,‘gp. git., p._hh. 9Thurston and Roe, 22, 915., p. 22. 78 for freedom that would prepare intelligent citizens and wise leaders for the Republic, became gradually meaningful during this period. In fact, this was the time of early nationhood of America following her independence and adoption of the Constitution. It was a time of revolution in the internal as well as the external phase of American life. As a result, educational changes became necessary to meet the new demands of the changing times. According to Cremin and Borrowman four major factors called for the sweeping changes in education. They were: "(1) the participation of larger number of people in voting and office holding; (2) the growth of commerce and industry; (3) the sharp rise in immigration, especially after 18h0, and (h) the development of social reform movements during and after the 1830's"10 Besides those changes, the hands of educational leaders were strengthened by the political, business, and labor leaders who now clamored for free public schools. ~Hence, the efforts of Horace Mann (1796-1859): James G. Carter (1795-18h9) in Massachusetts, Henry Barnard (181131900) in Connecticut and Rhode Island, Calvin Uiley (1819-1887) in North Carolina, Caleb Mills (1806-1879) in Indiana, Samuel Lewis (1799-185h) in Ohio, and John Swett (1830-1913) in California and many others became successful in creating a common school of American dream. Their sacrifices were innu- merable in this uphill task. 10Cremin and Borrowman, 22, git., p. 71. 79 It was also a period of the scientific movement and the pursuit for fundamental knowledge. The impact of Darwin's COrigin of Species" gave science a forward drive and changed some concepts of religion. The American scholars who studied abroad and at home were now engaged in original research. The growth of mass communication through newspapers and peri- odicals helped in the spread of new ideas to all. Now, the cause of public schools was no longer debat- able. The development of a free, ladder-type, common school system became a reality. The ideal of equal educational opportunity was largely responsible for the establishment of state universities and land grant colleges all over the country. The stage was now set and the frame was laid out for future developments in the coming years. Assessing the contribution of this period, Crow and Crew write: ”Probably the outstanding contribution to educational progress in the nineteenth century was the general awakening among people of all economic and social levels to the function and value of education. The respensiblity of the community for the educa- tional needs of its people was accepted in theory even if it was not put completely into practice."11 m-mmemwa s e The beginning of the twentieth century was a period of Midpassage in the sense that the Americans were in the process of change from the old to the new. The new tech- 11Lester D. Crow and Alice Crow, Lntroduction £2; figugatiog (New York: American Book Company, 19 7), p. 27. 80 nology, rapid means of transportation and communication, sociosciontific movement, and the national awakening to democratic ideals changed their whole philosophy of living. The impact of these factors on education were so tremendous that the whole educational theory and practice had be be revised and reoriented. Many writers consider this period as one of educational reconstruction, extension, and improve- ment on the basic principles already established. Cremin and Borrowman write: Generally, the American people encouraged public education in at least three ways. Eiggg, they extended opportunity through numbers. This meant a continuing effort to include children of all classes, races, religious, and ethnic backgrounds in the common school as well as the continuing effort to provide equal opportunity for secondary and higher education to all on the basis of initiative and ability. fiecond, the American people extended educational opportunity by enriching the school program. Realizing that there is no true oppor- tunity unless there is some opportunity for choice, they introduced into the school new programs of study which would improve talents and abilities of many different SOrtSe e e e i d, the American people extended educational opportunity by improving the quality of teaching. . . By employing new techniques, schools vastly improved the efficiency of instruction, thereby gaining more educa- tional returns per dollar and per hour spent.12 Thus, the democratic ideal of equal educational opportunity was gradually brought into practice from the elementary to the higher stage of education. It is not the purpose of this study to give historical details but to show how the educational system of America evolved in response to the over-all national development in political, social, and lzcremin and Borrowman,‘gp. git., p. 90. 81 economic fields. This is very well illustrated by H. G. Good in the tabular view of historical growth of education in America. It gives a bird's eye view of the transition of colonial education of 17th and 18th centuries to the ulti- mate realization of a national system of education on the basis of democratic philosophy and scientific research for future improvement and efficiency.13 GOALS OF AMERICAN EDUCATION The foregoing description indicates that the goals of American education have evolved from her history, her philo- sophy and her culture. Democracy as a way of life has deve- loped in the context of those factors. It has become the national creed to which social institutions are closely committed. Education has, therefore, been considered in America as the chief vehicle for preserving and promoting the democratic ideals. Many attempts have been made to specify and identify the goals of American education by individual thinkers as well as the expert commissions and the educational organizations. Whatever their interpreta- tions, they do agree upon the fundamental principles upheld by this democratic country. The dignity and worth of each individual, freedom of thought and expression, social justice, and equality of opportunity are some of the basic tenents of American life. So, a true analysis of the goals of educa- tion of a people would be possible only with reference to the 1'BH. G. Good, A History 2; W Eucgtion (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1956), p. 5. 82 values and beliefs they possess. The Educational Policies Commission has clearly described this relationship in the following terms: The purposes of schools and other social agencies are not ”discovered” as a prospector strikes a gold mine. They evolve; they reflect and interact with the purposes which permeate the life of the people. In each of the phases of individual and social living, there are elements which people commend, others which they condemn. Such judgments are based, in the last analysis, on moral stand- ards or ideals. That which, cut of their intelligence and experience, the people declare to be good, they will attempt to maintain and perpetuate for the benefit of their children and their children's children. They strive through education to transmit what they think is good to all the generations to come.1 As the basic source of a nation's ideals in the Constitution, it is appropriate here to see the relationship of American Constitution and American education. A brief review of the State Constitutions with reference to educa- tional provision will also be necessary. A;g;iggg_gon§t;tutign and Edggatigg The Constitution of the United States of America was framed in 1787 when the people of this continent acquired their independent national status. The preamble to it expresses the people's will in these terms: WE THE PEOPLE of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common Defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Pesterity, do ordain and establish this CONSTITUTION fer the Unitdd States of America.}5 1"Educational Policies Comission, 19.2. mrposgg gt; W jg; m Democracy (Washington, D.C.: National Education Association of the United States, 1938), pp. 1-2. 15The Constitution of the United States of America. 83 The above statement represents the nation's ideals which every social institution ought to fulfill. This is largely true for nation's schools because they are respon- sible for preparing the youth of the country with that frame of mind which fits the national goals. If they fail to accomplish this, they will be considered as saboteurs and traitors to the nation. Such schools are accountable to the Constitutional Law. The recent incident of the Negro youth Meredith is the case in point. The Federal Constitution as originally adopted in 1788 and as amended with the Bill of Rights in 1791 had no refer- ence as such to education as it was considered to be the domain of the states. However, some sections of it affect the educational policy in general and guide the action of states. ‘Igg_£;£g£.gmendment is important as it determined the secular character of education and also provided the basis for the generally accepted principle of academic freedom or freedom of teaching. It reads as follows: Congress shall make no law respecting the establish- ment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise there- of; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. Th—o m Aagngment is the basisfor the delegation of public education function to the states. It says, "The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively or to the people.” 8h 12; Egurteenth Amendmggt points to the free and non- discriminatory aspect of public education. This is in tune with the democratic ideals of the American society. Thus, the concepts of equal privilege, equal opportunity, protec- tion of law to all are legalized. The public schools of the nation are obligated to preach and to practice the estab- lished principles. Ihg,§gng;gl 121:3;9 glause in the Article 1 of the Constitution gives a great leeway to the Federal Government to legislate on any matter including education. It has been the basis of all federal aid to education besides many other items of national and international interest. Since education is chiefly the state function, it is desirable to deal with this aspect briefly here. Within the boundaries of the Federal Constitution, every state consti- tution contains some mention of public education. Some of the newer state constitutions contain many details concerning the public schools, while some of the older state consti- tutions make a general reference. The study by the Council of State Governments explains the philosophy behind the state responsibility in the following terms: State responsibility for education is firmly imbedded in the constitutions of the several states and buttressed by tradition and court decisions. This responsibility of the governments of the several states for the educa- tion of their citizens is much more than a theory or a tradition or a legal convention. An examination of the efforts of the states to strengthen their public school systems indicates that it is a living principle guiding the recommendations of governors and legislatures in each of the forty-eight states. There is evidence that state governments recognize their obligations to make improved educational programs and facilities accessible to all. 85 Accompanying this acceptance of state responsibility is the conviction that a large share of local control is both desirable and essential. . . . This belief that education should be kept close to the people appears to be accompanied more and more by a feeling that it should be as free as possible from political entanglements and from dominatiog of any interests that might use it for selfish ends.1 Hence, it is clear that state constitutions fulfill this obligation of educating their people according to the democratic ideals of the nation. However, the interpretation of the national goals for the purpose of education is not the task of the Constitution but of the people themselves. These goals represent the norms of the Constitutional Law upheld by the American society. It is for the educators to translate them into their terms and work out details for actual operation. Many attempts of this kind have been made from early days of public education by the educational phi- losophers and by the professional organizations. A brief description is given here to see the general consensus of their opinions. 3:29;; Opigiog gg.§ogls 2£.Age:icgn Education It ought to be explained here that we are not concerned with the aims of education at any particular level or any branch of it but the general purpose of the nation-wide educational activity. Many philosophical theories have been advanced by the distinguished thinkers since the colonial days to the present emphasizing one or the other aspect in 16The Council of State Governments, The e t u i ht State fighgolqfiygtggg.(Illinois, Chicago: 1959), p. -5. 86 education. All of them seem to differ on the approach rather than the function of education in America. Norman Woelfel finds in his critical study of seventeen leaders in American Education that there are three major viewpoints held by them as indicated here:17 1. Educators stressing values inherent in American historic traditions: Herman Horne, Henry Morrison, William Bagley, Ellwood Cubberley, Thomas Briggs, Ross Finney 2. Educators stressing the ultimacy of science: Charles Judd, David Snedden, Edward Thorndike, Ernest Horn, Werrett Charters, Franklin Bobbit 3. Educators stressing the implications of modern experimental naturalism: John Dewey, George Counts, William Kilpatrick, Harold Rugg, Boyd Bode It is evident that there are three currents or direc- tions developed in the course of time and are not incom- patible in themselves. They represent the accepted social values of the American society based as it is on the religious freedom, on the scientific pursuit of truth, and on the experimental or pragmatic outlook. Besides individual interpretations by experts on the goals of American education, some educational organizations have also tried to formulate the general purposes of it. As early as in 1918, the Report of the Commission of Reord ganization of Secondary Education sponsored by N.E.A. formu- lated the well-known "seven cardinal principles of educa- tion: (1) health, (2) command of the fundamental processes, 17Norma1 Woolfel, nglgers 2;,thg A;g;iggg_Mind (New York: Columbia University Press, 1933), Section III. 87 (3) worthy home membership, (b) vocation, (5) citizenship, (6) worthy use of leisure, and (7) ethical character”. 18 In 1931, the National Education Association created the Committee on Social Economic Goals which developed the “social economic goals to be realized by education". These included: hereditary strength, physical security, partici- pating in growing civilization, a dynamic and flexible per- sonality, suitable occupation, economic security, mental security, equality of opportunity, freedom and fair play.19 Again in 1938, the National Education Association through the Educational Policies Commission proposed a new classification which is more comprehensive than the previous ones. It is built on the democratic ideology of this country. In the words of the Commission, they are: l. The Objectives of Self-Eealization 2. The Objectives of Human Relationship 3. The Objectives of Economic Efficiency h. The Objectives of Civic Responsibility The first area calls for a description of the educated erso ; the second for a description of the educated member 2; the family and community group, the third, of the educated producer 2;,consumeg; the fourth, of the educated gitigen. 18Commission on Reorganization of Secondary Education, ngg;_3__£;ingiples‘g§ Secondgry Educatiog (washington: U. S. Govt. Printing Office, 1918). 19Committee on Social Economic Goals, Implications of Social Economic Goals for Education (Washington: N. E.A., 1937). 20Educational Policies Commission, The Purposes 22 Educgtion ;Q,Amerigan Democracy (Washington: N.E.A., 1958), 7. 88 Under each category, the details are worked out and clearly specified. In 1946, the concept of the task of the school as one of special and general education was expressed by the Harvard Committee on the objectives of a General Education in a Free Society. It said: The aim of education should be to prepare an individual to become an expert both in some particular vocation or art and in the general art of the free man and the citizen. Thus the two kinds of education once given separately in differenslsocial classes, must be given together to all alike. The American Federation of Teachers issued its state- ment of the task of public education during the year 19b8 in the following manner: 1. The schools should help close the gap between scientific advance and social retardation. 2. The schools must prepare individuals to create and live effectively in a cooperative, inter- dependent society. 3. The schools must extend the interest and concern of people in international cooperation and the maintenance of a just and durable peace. h. The schools must help in securing acceptance of the ideals of democracy in social, economic, and political arrangements. 5. The schools must develop values that will serve to guide the individual toward high standards of moral conduct and ethical living. 6. The schools must provide for the development of creative abilities and afford avenues for expres- sion in constructive activities. 7. The schools must insure the mastery of the common integrating knowledge and skills necessary to effective daily living. 21The Committee on the Objectives of a General Educa- tion in a Free Society, anergl Educatign g2”; Eyee §2gigty (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 19h6), Chap. 2. 22Lestor A. Kirkendall, Irvin R. Kuenzli, and Floyd V. Reeves, ggglg,£oz Ageyican figucgtiog (Chicago: American Federation of Teachers, 19 8 , Chap. 2. 89 Possibly, the most valuable formulation of the task of the school produced during the year 1956 was the Report of the White House Conference on Education. The opinions of more than 1800 persons were condensed in the final report prepared by Adam S. Bennion and William Carr. The consensus of the Conference was that the schools should continue to develop: 1. The fundamental skills of communication - reading writing, spelling as well as other elements of effective oral and written expression; the arithmetical and mathematical skills, including problem solving. 2. Appreciation for our democratic heritage. 3. Civic rights and responsibilities and knowledge of American institutions. h. Respect and appreciation for human values and beliefs of others. 5. Ability to think and evaluate constructively and creatively. 6. Effective work habits and selfudiscipline. 7. Social canpetency as a contributing member of his family and community. 8. Ethical behavior based on a sense of moral and spiritual values. 9. Intellectual curiosity and eagerness for life- long learning. 10. Aesthetic appreciation and_self-expression in the arts. 11. Physical and mental health. 12. Wise use of time, including constructive leisure pursuits. 13. Understanding of the physical world and man's relation to it as represented through basic know- ledge of the sciences. lb. An awareness of our relationships with the world community.23 The Conference took a broad view of educational goals and touched the international aspect also. An attempt has been made in recent years to synthesize all the different viewpoints on the role of public education 23The Committee for the White House Conference on Education, A;Report to the President (Washington: U.S. Govern- Cont Printing Office, 1953)- 90 in America and create a conceptual framework for the purposes of future research. Downey has framed such a synthesized model Which outlines the task of public education in the following categories: 1. INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT a) Command of the fundamental processes b) Fundamental skills of communication c) Intellectual curiosity and eagerness for life- long learning d) Ability to think and evaluate constructively and creatively 2. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT a) Civic rights and responsibilities and know- ledge of American institutions b) Cultural heritage--common core of traditions and values c) Cooperation in living and working together d) Awareness of our relationship with the world ' community 3,.PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT a) Physical and mental health b) Ethical behavior based on an appreciation of moral and spiritual values c) Effective work habits and self-discipline d) Aesthetic appreciation and self-expression in arts 6) Wise use of time, including constructive leisure pursuits U. PRODUCTIVE DEVELOPMENT a) Occupational information and training b) Homemaking skill and satisfaction in home and family living c) Skills for garrying on the economic life of Society.2 Thus, it is clear that the general goals of public education bear a very close relationship with the democratic ideals of American society. This has given a distinctive color to the educational system of the United States and has made it unique in its characteristics. It has also a great impact on organization and administration of education on one hadd and ZuLawrence W. Downey, Thg Task g§_gublic Education (Chicago, Illinois: Midwest Adm. Center, University of Chicago, 1960)! PP. 20-21o 91 on the preparation program for teachers and administrators of schools on the other. In fact, the whole system is geared to the basic system of values held uppermost in America. The main features of the United States education are summarized and illustrated in Figure 3. ROLE OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION The role of the educational administration in American Society is related to the purposes of American education. For, administration is merely a means to secure the set goals or ends. The history of American education bears an ample evidence to this fact. When the colonial schools aimed at building the moral and religious character of an individual, education was largely controlled by church. Today, the public schools tend to prepare the young for secular purposes; it is controlled by public or common citizenry. As the purposes of education in the United States differ from those in other countries, the administrative structure and functions therefore vary. The basic principles of organization and administration of education in this country are outlined by Morphet and others as follows: 1a The control of education is relatively decentral- 2. Thezggople, rather than educators or government officials, are ultimately responsible for all basic policies related to education. 3. Although primary emphasis is placed on public schools, provision is also made for private schools. h. The public schools are safeguarded in so far as possible from partisan political control or influence. 92 [EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATESJ Characteristic UNIVERSAL EDUCATION EQUALITY OF EDUC . OPPORTUNITY NONSECTARIANISM PUBLIC-PRIVATE DUALISM 0 SINGLE TRACK PUBLIC SUPPORT LOCAL CONTROL Description Free education for all until a certain age limite Equal opportunity for all accord ing to individual ability and interest No sectarian education in the tax-supported schools Freedom to have private schools along with public schools The public schools and state colleges open to all Universal Taxation for support of public schools People responsible for policy dnd control of schools FIGURE 3 MAIN FEATURES OF EDUCATION IN THE ‘ UNITED STATES 93 5. Education in the public schools and educational institutions is nonsoctarian. . . . Special provisions are made to assure that schafls on all levels are safeguarded against domination or control by any sectarian group or religious organization. 6. Education at public expense is to be available for all in public schools at least through the second- ary grades. 7. Americans believe that these who are responsible for the administration of their schools as well as these who teach in schools, should be espe- cially prepared to meet their responsibilities. The idea that educational administrators should have special preparation has developed slowly but is now accepted in practically all states. Out of this country this idea of special pre- paration for administrators has hag comparatively little recognition or acceptance.2 It is apparent that the administration of education is set up to perform the role that suits the education in American democracy. Decentralization of control in educa- tion is nothing but a corollary to the democratic form of government. In almost all democratic countries this is the general practice but the unique feature in America is the local initiative and leadership in education. Although not required by their‘constitution, nearly all states have in practice provided for the establishment of local school districts or school systems and have delegated to them substantial responsibility for the organization and operation of schools within their jurisdiction. As a demo- cratic convention, broad lattitude is given for local decisions and discretion, except in so far as limitations are established or certain procedures required by the constitution 25Edgar L. Morphet, Ree L. Johns, and.Theodore L. Roller, figucggional Administration, goggepts, Pyggtices, and lying; (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1959)! Pp. “’Se 9h or by state law. The local systems are largely indepen- dent agencies of government. They possess certain taxing and bonding powers within prescribed limits which may be delegated in part to the local board and in part to the residents of the districts to be exercised by popular vote. “Generally people throughout the United State," writes Morphet, ”have considered education so basic and so essen- .tial to the welfare of the state, that they have insisted that the residents of each local school system should have opportunity to decide upon the kinds of schools they want and the financial support they desire to provide without the necessity of referring these matters to local agencies of government that may be concerned with other issues as "11.-'26 Compared with many other countries, the United States has no central or national ministry of education at the federal level. The only federal organization concerned directly with education is the Office of Education in the Department of Health, Education and Welfare. The Office of Education is headed by a commissioner appointed by the President with the approval of the Senate. The chief functions of the Office of Education are: 1. To collect and publish educational information, 2. To engage in educational research, 3. To previde educational leadership and consulting services, b. To cooperate with various state and local, public and private, educational agencies and instiu tutions to promote the cause of education, and 26Thecdore L. Roller and Edgar L. Morphet, Comparative Ed“ ational Agmygigsgggigg (Englowood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1962). P. 170. 95 5. To administer Federal funds for education provided for the states and territories as authorized7by appropriations acts establishing the funds.2 It is clear that this body has no authority or any direct control as such over education in the states. But it does influence them with its export leadership and research studies. Stage Dgpaztmegt‘gg Eduggtion The role of the state department has evolved slowly in America following various social changes. Legally, education was accepted to be a state function but in practice local school authorities were more active than the state department as a historical tradition. By the close of the nineteenth century, people realized the need for a coordin‘ ating agency to minimize inequalities in the educational opportunities found in local districts.‘ They began to demand a more comprehensive type of education in view of the sweeping changes taking place in the social and economic life of the nation. If education was to perform a function for the state as well as for the individual, it now became apparent that the leadership and service of some type of state central educational agency was indispensable. The promise of America to educate all the youth so that each makes a posi- tive contribution to society, made the increasing involve- ment of state department necessary with the partnership of of the local authorities. From a clerical and statistical 2 7Ibid. , pp. 170-71 . 96 office, the department has assumed a role of an active leader- ship in the American democracy. The role of the state department has expanded due to many reasons. Thurston and Roe mention the following factors contributing to its growth: 1. The maturation of state-local partnership. 2. The growing public demand for improved educational opportunities. 3. An increasing acceptance of the ideal of the universal free public education for all. h. An increasing emphasis upon equality of educational opportunity. 5. A continuing trend toward shifting the tax base for school support from almost exclusive dependence on locally collected property tax to substantial portions of state collected taxes. 6. The developing recognition that the state must assume its share of the responsibility for providing for public education if all children are to be assgred an equitable educational opportunity.2 These reasons have their basis in the democratic philosophy and culture as it has evolved in course of American history. It is evident that there is loss bureaucratic control or domination of the department over local school systems unlike the practice in India and in other European countries. The role of the state department seems to be rather consultative, and coerdinative in matters essential to the growth of public education. The organizational plan of the state department of Education varies in each state according to the role and function it performs. But for the general understanding of the structure, we shall consider the pattern of Michigan 28Thurston and Roe,.gp. cit., p.76. 97 State Department of Education as.a representative illustra- tion. As the Figure h indicates, the Superintendent of Public Instruction has two deputies, one for instructional service and the other for administrative service. Each is in charge of different functions and responsible to the Superintendent. The Superintendent in turn is responsible to the people through the State Board of Education. Though there is no uniformity in the functions of such departments in America, yet one can see a general pattern to which they are moving. In a study of state departments of education Beach found three major types of functions: ”(1) Leadership, (2) regulatory, and (3) operational."29 The leadership functions are: (a) planning, (b) research, (c) advising and consulting, (d) coordinating, and (e) public relations. The regulatory functions are related to five chief purposes: (a) to protect the lives and health of children and youth; (b) to guarantee safety and economy in the use of educational funds; (c) to assure efficienCy in management of the educau tional enterprise; (d) to provide a framework for the instructional program which would assure a basic minimum in both scope and quality; and (e) to assure an educated citizenry. The operational functions are safeguarded from over- riding the local operations under local control. They are 29Fred F. Beach, me Iungtions 2; State Depgytmem gt; duo ti n, U.S. Office of Education Miscellaneous No. 12 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1950), pp. 3-17o 98 MICHIGAN STATE DEPT. OF EDUC. Supdt. of Public Inst. Deputy for Legal Counsel Deputy for Instruction Administration I Associate for Curriculum 7 l ' | Organization Elementary Finance Administrative and Plant and Service Secondary Education 1 Vocational Vocational Higher Educ. Interscholastic Educ. Rehabilitation Certification Athletics FIGURE h THE STRUCTURE OF A STATE DEPARTMENT IN U.S.* (* Adapted from Thurston Lee, and William Roe, Stgtg Sghogl ggmigiggygtigg (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1957), De 90o)e 99 assumed to strengthen and supplement the educational activ- ities for which local units are not well equipped or in“ adequate to serve. They are the domain of services which the state department offers directly through several agencies. They include: 1. operating of teachers colleges, schools and services for handicapped, trade and correspondence schools; 2. conducting various classes of the adult education or terminal type that existing institutions of higher education are unable or unwilling to offer, i.e. workers' education, trade classes; 3. directing activities of cultural nature, i.e. state libraries, museums, archives, historical agencies; h. offering centralized services to individuals whose improved welfare will benefit education in general, i.e. teacher placement, teacher retirement; 5. providing services to the local school district which, because of their scope, expense, or tech- nical nature can better be offered on a broader base, such as control of interscholastic athletics, legal advice, film library service, centralized insurance, and financial service; 6. providing basic information about the status of education to the local school districts, legis- lature, executive office, and the general public, i.e. comparative studies, statistical information, advice, information, and clarification on all statutes, rules, and regulations on education.30 Thus, a vital role of the state department has emerged with the changing conditions in American society. The leader- ship has been assumed with the awareness of the social needs and problems. The organization as well as the qualified staff has steadily increased with the enhanced responsibilities. The rapid growth of personnel in the state departments until 1950 is indicated by Table III. During the last decade, the number is a little less than double of the figure in 1950. 30Thurston and Roe, 22, cit., p. 81. 1‘: fl 100 TABLE III PROFESSIONAL AND NON-PROFESSIONAL STAFFS OF STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION, 189021950t Number of Staff Percent Increase Members Over Preceding .___;Xzsr Xgaz_§22!n 1890 129 - 1895 155 20.2 1900 177 1u.2 1905 219 23.7 1910 53h 1&3.3 1915 610 1h.2 1920 836 37.0 1925 1,h16 69.u 1930 1,760 2h.3 1935 2,256 28.2 19h0 3,718 6h.8 19h5 5.903 “5.3 1950 9.550 76.8 ’U.S. Office of Education, Miscellaneous No. 16, 1952’ p. 6e 101 About fifty per cent is said to be trained professional staff helped by secretarial, clerical and fiscal workers. This has been the result of the changing role of the depart- ment in course of educational developments. Beach explains this phenomenon in the following words: The increase in the size of staffs of State depart- ments of education parallels the three stages of their development, each stage having different personnel re- quirements. During the statistical stage, consultative service to the field was practically nonexistent, and few staff members were thought necessary; The expansion of regulatory functions in the inspectoral stage called for an increase in inspectoral personnel. However, the great increase in personnel did not come until the leadership stage which for most departments began after 1930. This period was characterized by a greater aware- ness of States of the need to provide vital professional educational leadership in one area after another, which brought a rapid increase in ihe number of highly skilled professional staff members.3 It is clear that the role of the department has been evolving in harmony with the growing democratic needs of this nation. Its leadership has become possible and effective because of competent professional and other staff. This is the greatest contribution of the professional colleges and training institutions of the United States. Their role, therefore, cannot be ignored for they prepare the youth for the required positions available in society. Their studios and research benefit the profession in particular and the society in general. The unique role played by the graduate training institutions in American democracy is discussed in the next few pages. 31Trad F.,Beach, and Andrew H. Gibbs, Peyggnnel _o_f; State Depaytmentg g£_ a ion, U.S. Office of Education, Miscellaneous No. 16 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1952), p. 6. 102 ROLE OF PROFESSIONAL TRAINING IN EDUCATION Education in America is seeking the status of a profession. It may not be as mature at present as law, medicine, and engineering but the sincere efforts are afoot to professionalizo educational service on the equivalent basis with other recognized services. This will be possible with the help of the teacher training institutions which pre- pare the competent personnel for this kind of service to society. In fact, the development of the professional competence in education has evolved with other factors in educational history. It was the acceptance of the public education that called for the need of qualified teachers. The basis for the development of teacher education is found in the same educational philosophy underlying the universal education-- the goal of this democratic nation. This point is well explained by Hunt in the following statement: The fulfillment of the American dream of equal opportunity for all would not have been possible without the common school, but the common school cannot fulfill its mission unless it has a teacher equal to the task. By its nature and importance the task of teaching children requires general and professional education. Institu- tions for the purpose have evolved with the development of the common school in the United States.32 For two centuries prior to the establishment of the first such institution in 1839, there were neither schools 32Charles W. Hunt, "Toward a Profession of Teaching" in Teacher Education for a Free_People edited by Donald P. Cottrell (New York: The AEorican Association of Colleges for Teacher Education, 1956), p. 18. 103 for all children nor publicly supported teacher preparation. The first normal schools had a feeble start. The gift of $10,000 by a private citizen at length persuaded the Massachusetts legislature to found a school which opened at Lexington in July, 1839. but was later moved to Framingham. By 1850 Massachusetts had three normal schools; New York, Connecticut, and Michigan had one each; Rhode Island, New Jersey, Illinois, Minnesota, California, Maine, and Kansas followed by 1865. By 1900, the state-supported normal school had spread into nearly every state, the list numbering 127. An even greater number of private normal schools testified to the need. "The growth of the normal school was a result of the establishment or the revision of the public school system, beginning in the early part of the nineteenth century."33 It is apparent that the stage had not developed for preparation of school administrators or other specialists of a modern school system. This kind of proliferation in teacher education was not even in the dreams of those who created normal schools then. Their role and function were not adequate for a growing democracy of America. The standards of admission, nature of curriculum, and organization of program were not comparable to the later development by the close of nine- teenth century. Assessing the standards of teacher education, Armstrong has made this observation: The efforts made by the first normal schools (1839 to 3322;99: Po 230 1014 1900) were meager as compared with present standards. The programs which they offered were lower than college grade and, from the standpoint of liberal education, below the secondary school level. Such institutions prepared all of the elementary teachers who received specific preparation before 1900. The universities began about 1875 to give some specific attention to the education of teachers for the secondary schools. What these insti- tutions did at first was largely as an afterthought. Some of their leaders reasoned that since many of their graduates were going into teaching they should be given an opportunity to prepare for the job. Through the normal school section of the National Education Associa- tion and by other less formal means, discussions during the last decade of the 19th century and the first of the 20th century resulted in the raising of standards of admission to the normal schools, in the improvement of the normal school curricula, and in more attention by universities to the specific subject matter and pro- fessional education needs of secondary school teachers. No attempts were made to establish standards except those that emerged from the penetrating analyses made by such leaders as McMurrys, Butler, DeGarmo, Parker, and Dewey. These men and others of less national prom- inence paved the way for the beginnings of standardiza- tion whicR came early in the second quarter of the 20th' century.3 The early normal schools were based on the European model and their organization was influenced by the practices of Prussian teachers' seminaries. Their level of academic work was much lower than that of colleges and universities. Hence, any college graduate was considered qualified for teaching even without professional training in education. Hence, education as a professional subject was neglected at the college level and was not received with favor. This was partly due to the rigid and naive pedagogical instruction of early schools of education which was quite in contrast with the liberal and scientific traditions of colleges and univer— 3”W. E. Armstrong, ”Teacher Education" in Accreditation ;Q_Higher Education organized and edited by Lloyd E. Blanch (Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1959), p. 203. 105 sities. Thus grow an antagonism between the teachers colleges and academic colleges which seems to be present to some extent even today. But after a long time of stress and strain, education found acceptance as a part of the college curriculum. In his study on the early development of ”The School of Education” in the United States, Charles Judd discovers the following reasons: The entrance of pegagogy, as it was commonly called, into this degree of recognition as a university subject was due in part to the growing recognition of the need for the training of high school teachers. It was, how“ over, much more a result of the develOpment of what was in due time to become a recognized body of philosophical and scientific principles constituting what is today known as the science of education. Both of these develop- ments have their ultimate cause in the expansion of American education which characterized the last quarter of the nineteenth century. The expansion of American civilization during the decades of the 70's and 80's brought with it a demand for improved education. During this period there was an increase of interest in secondary and higher education and a vast increase in attention to the sciences, physical and social. There was much migration of American students to European universities and as a consequence a liberal importation of the results of European research in all the fields of science and letters. 5 So it was the public demand in the ultimate analysis that improved public schools with the help of competent teachers. Besides this influence, which is more significant in a free democratic society than in an authoritarian society, there were other rational influences also present at the time. Judd has considered these factors as significant in preparing BSCharles H. Judd, ”The School of Education,” Higher Egucation ig,America edited by Raymond A. Kent (New York: Ginn and Company, 1930), p. 161-62. 106 the way for the modern teachers colleges and schools of education. 1. Effects of Developments of Experimental Psychology on Education (The child-study movement is one example.) 2. Importation of Herbartian Pedagogy from Germany 3: Beginnings of Measurement U. Reorganization of Teachers College 5. Influence of Dewey and Parker 6. Report of the Committee of Ten.36 During the early part of the twentieth century, the state normal schools became state teachers colleges. They were being reorganized and accredited by the professional organizations. Simultaneously, the regular departments of education as a part of the college or schools of education with independent status also multiplied. The structure was now well set for expansion of courses and studies on the basis of the"e1octivo system” - a concept popularized in America by some leading educators.37 fizgjgggigggl_1:gining g§_§chool Adminigtggtorg The earliest attempt to emphasize the study of the problems in school administration was perhaps made by the Report of the Committee of Ten on the organizational aspects of high schools in the last quarter of the nineteenth century. It was appointed by the National Education Association and led by President Charles W. Eliot of Harvard University. As the high schools developed very rapidly during this period, they adopted different procedures and practices. They offered different subjects, conducted.class periods of different “Elsi” pp. 162-165. 37R. L. Duffus, Democracy fingers College (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1936), Chap. . 107 lengths, had different lengths of scheol year, and even adopted different policies in the matters of teacher train- ing, selection, appointment, and salaries. It made it impos- sible to speak of typical practices in American high schools. The Committee recommended some standard procedures in organi— zation. Charles Judd writes: The work of the Committee of Ten opened the way for studies of school operations in a field which did not belong to history of education, to psychology, or to methods, - namely, the field of Administration. The methods of studying Administration were not at first clear but the problems were defined with such vividness that educators began to think about them vigorously. The decade of the 90's was a period of general discus- sion of administrative problems. The chief method of attack on these problems was committee deliberation, but a new movement had been launched.3 The beginning courses in school administration started in the early decades of this century but their scope was limited. More emphasis was on classroom management, discipline supervision, and organization of curricular and extracurricular activities. In early stages, there was a descriptive approach to the study of the subject and less emphasis was placed on the empirical research in administra- tive problems. However, there are very few studies available regard- ing the status of school administration as the field of study at the colleges and universities during the period before that. The study made by a Committee of the North 38Charles H. Judd, "The School of Education," Higher Educatigfiuig ica, edited by Raymond A. Kent,‘gp. cit., p. 163-6 0 Cl? 108 Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools in 1925 reveals the data regarding the number of courses offered in six divisions of the field of Education in 139 institutions. As Table IV indicates, about one-third of such institutions offered no course in school administration, and one-third offered only three hours or less. Only 5 out of 139 offered nine or more hours. It is apparent from the figures that the modal number of institutions offered only 3 hours in all the six fields of Education at the undergraduate level for teacher prepara- tion. There seems to be no idea of specialization in School Administration or any other field at this stage. This was partly due to the lack of any kind of certification require- ments than for school personnel other than teaching position. Not all states had enforced even the bachelor degree require- ment until very recently as the study of Armstrong and Stinnot indicates by the data given in Table V. Parallel to this development, there has been a gradual increase lately in the certification requirements for the administrative positions of principalship and superintendency. Almost every state requires a minimum of master's degree or some work beyond the bachelor's degree as shown by data in Table VI. It is a natural corollary to the development of the standards in teacher preparation. The school adminis- trator as a leader of the qualified group of teachers has to have a better preparation and competence than the group he leads. There is a tendency toward higher standards in both the teacher preparation and the administrative training. 109 II. .maH .a .AommH .hcsnaoo use 550 “ago? rez. g a... flag 3 .76: aneu— .<.m .— m9 m9. mnH mnH mnH mnH :H Ianw. a: an m oH o I H H H I I H w nH wH 5H 0H m N nn Hm m: on an w: n wH w m 0H mH HH 3 I H a s m w m mm n ma HH mm on e m I m m n a a n I H I s s m N I N m HH n m H H I I a 3 OH I I I I n HH H I H H n n NH H I I I H I nH I I H I n H mH ceHasosvu coHusoavfl coHashv :oHvsosvfl ucHnoseB hUeHonohem vehemmo me me IeHCHld< hhsvceoem He HsceHusosvfl eanem hueueHm annoeeHan Hoonom he evolve: eeHmHochm e 20994039” ho QAHHH "m9 ho MZOHmH>HQ XHm 2H nflmflhho Wflmmboo ho mumzbz A4808 ho ZOHHDQHKHMHQ >H H348 110 TABLE V DEGREE REQUIREMENTS FOR BEGINNING ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHERS‘I (1900-1960) - d-_flumber-of fitateg Enfozéing For Elementary For Secondary Years School Teachers School Teachers 1 2 3 1900 o 2 1910 O 3 1920 0 10 1930 2 23 19b0 ll ho 1950 21 hz 1960 00a 51b fi, fi aFour states (Alaska, Colorado, Minnesota, and Missouri) began enforcing the degree in 1961, making a total of an states; seven states and Puerto Rico are not yet enforcing the degree requirement. bThree states (Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota) which enforce the degree requirement report that the date on which this requirement became effective is not known. In additien, Delaware reported that the date was not known, but that it was prior to 1921 and was counted in the 1920 report. Nevada did not report. Arkansas was the only state in 1960 not enforcing the degree. This total includes three states (Arizona, California, and District of Columbia) which enforce the five year requirement. *U.E. Armstrong and T. E. Stinnet, A 1429221 .933. $322221 223229.211...“ tin—2. H3;§g§,fi§§3;g,(Washington, D. 0.: NBA, 1962), p. 10. 111 m.m .> eHnsB hope: no season sewn on» Eoum pouasp< * .OOHm ovkosm has anESHoo mo vOHHunHQ mousHocHo .nevscHMHuheo ho nonhu heave co pceaonhovco you oeawov n.9eandfi on» easteh op van neasOHuHuuoo o>HvsuvnHCHEUs caneH no: om 30Hnb .chHwhH> can dHnESHoo no 00HuvnHQ neUSHocH onH< .nhson hounofion on nsHm seamed n.uoHenoan van .eeuMeU voocs>us hmHoomn no: em SOHSD nouefi use .oOHm ovuezm .eannaEsm 302 nepsHOCHnI .movsoHuHuuoo mo wonky henna :0 uses Ionaopce you ecumep n.uonns8 on» ohHSUOH op #39 neuMOHMHvuoo o>HvsaanHCHEUs enan no: as sons: .«Hcamua> ecu assasHoo do poduundc noosHocH onH4 .mkson hepneaon on nsz oeumep n.aoHo£osn van .oouuop ercsbmo hMHoomn no: mood SOHssanonoH novaHocHs can 0 N In (“HON 6 00 \OR [\(‘NOH Ol\ .3:? H O O N In MN OWOH n H CO anuoh pesnnH mopsOHmthoo oz eohwop n.hoHe£osn Conn nneH echwev n.hoHenosm eeHMev u.hevnd8 can» oneH van .nsHQ eeHMeU u.hoHenosm eeumov n.keansz nude» w can» nneH van .nsHm eehmev n.hevnsz nude» m eoHMoU n.uovoou can» nneH van .nSHQ naseh w seawep n.kouoop no nude» 5 : n nHoonom HsmHocHhm mo Hoonom husvcooem aceucevCHuemsm N HdQHOCHHm Hoonom husvceaeHm n z H vehHsdem neehmen no :oHusasmoam no nude» oueHHoo no henasz .HemH .H AHse no nu. ImmeHe fldmdy 112 The study of Armstrong and Stinnet explains this trend in these words: This Manual, as has been the case with each of its predecessors, reports continued progress toward higher standards of certification. It was stated in the 1959 Education that apparently a plateau had been reached, but this did not prove to be the case, as four addi- tional states have since moved up to the degree classi- fication, and the upgrading of requirements for admin- istrative certificates 18 the 1959-1961 period has taken place in several states. 9 Besides, there is another trend which affects the professional preparation of school administrators. It is the lead taken by the American Association of School Admin- istrators to enhance the competence of its members and raise the status of their profession. This body has adopted in 1961, effective in 196“, the prerequisite for new members of completion of two years of graduate preparation in an institution accredited by the National Council for Accredi- tatien of Teacher Education. The A.A.S.A. Committee for the Advancement of School Administration reports that about a dozen state associations of administrators have already adopted a similar membership provision or have taken steps ho to do so. Hence, the role of professional training in education 39W. E. Armstrong, and T. M. Stinnet, A. Manual 93; Certification Re uirements for School Persgnnel ig_the flgited §tgtes Washington, D.C.: National Education Asso- ciation, 1962), p. 9o ”113.12.. p. 1. 113 in America is precisely to create a competent educational leadership for this free society. This is being achieved through better and better preparation of school teachers, school administrators, and other personnel for school which is dedicated to serve the people. The approach adopted is social and scientific. In other words, an attempt is at present underway to make education a 'science in service of human society'. This is being tried with all educational fields including educational administration. The function of various centers of C.P.E.A. over the past few years has been to accomplish that purpose. A school administrator should be as competent, professional, scientific, and ser- viceable to community as an engineer, doctor, or lawyer - this seems to be the present trend. The race has started vigorously in America during the last decade which will move this society far ahead of others in the quality of her schools. The following few examples of the recent trends substantiate the above argument. Reggnt e ds During the last decade the programs of the National Conference of Professors of Educational Administration and the several Cooperative Centers in Educational Administration have Jointly contributed toward improved pro-service and in- service education of school administrators. Many colleges and universities have attempted to evaluate their programs and to make necessary changes in them on the basis of studies done by those centers. This has resulted in some common 11“ features in the preparation programs of school administrators. Anderson and Lonsdale in their study discover two types of major trends which they categorize as under: 1. Emerging Trends Relating to the Content of Learning Experiences: a) Educational values and objectives are receiving greater emphasis. b) The administrator's role in the improvement of instruction is being recognized as a major responsibility. c) Concepts and theory are in educational administra- tion being given more penetrating examination. d) Learning programs are being more consciously directed toward the develepment of skills in human relations and group processes. e) There is a sheft from a school-centered to a eommunity-centered approach to educational administration. f) An interdisciplinary approach is drawing upon theory, research, and practice from many fields. 2. Emerging Trends Relating to the Nature of Learning Experiences: a) Basic courses in educational administration are undergoing extensive, even radical revision. b) A wider variety ef teaching methods is being used on campus. o) Field experiences have become a vital part of the learning program. d) The continued professional development of practicing educational administrators is h receiving more attention than ever before. 1 The writers have explained each trend with examples and have charted the future developments needed in this area. An exhaustive study is presented by the Commission of 1960 yearbook ”Professional Administrators for America's Schools" sponsored by the American Association of School Administrators. It has pointed out the shortcomings in the preparatien programs for school superintendents. ”The majer “1Wa1ter A. Anderson and Richard C. Lensdale, ”Learning Administrative Behavior" in Administzgsive thgxior in_Egucg- sign edited by Renald F. Campbell and Russel T. Gregg (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1957). 115 weakness reported was the lack of internship, followed by inadequate field or laboratory experiences. Other weaknesses were selection of students, part-time student bodies, lack of adequate financing, poor facilities, heavy teacher load, and problems of part-time teaching staff.""‘2 The Commission has stressed on the changing role of administration in the American society and the consequent need for better preparation programs for school executives. The reference is made to three kinds of skills needed for the job, namely: (1) Technical skills, (2) Human skills, and (3) Conceptual skills. They consider these three kinds of skills as essentials in a preparation program for a school administra- tor. A modol program recommended by them is characterized as under: 1. At least two years of graduate study would be necessary, assuming that the individual already had strong undergraduate foundations in the social sciences, the natural and physical sciences, the communication arts, philosophy, and one or more of the fine arts. 2. The program would be designed for individuals who have been discriminatingly selected. . . . 3. The necessary resources, both human and material would include a strong faculty with demonstrated competencies kn scholarly pursuits, in teaching, and in the practice of educational administra- tion, together with adequate libraries, labor- atories, materialsugonters, and space for class- rooms and offices. CONCLUDING-OBSERVATIONS It seems clear that the role of training institutions thmerican Association of School Administrators, grofigssional Adgigistrators f2: Aggziga's chools, Thirty- Eighth Yearbook, 1960, p. 8h. ”32.12.. p. 177. 116 in America is to prepare the needed leadership in education. There appears a satisfactory relationship between the goals of education and the roles of its administrators at all levels in this democracy. The colleges of education address themselves to the task of developing in their trainees both the needed awareness of the goals and the required skills to play desirable roles in the democratic setting of this country. Leadership in a democracy is closely related to the value of individual growth. Educational leadership is therefore considered to be process which facilitates individual growth through schools. In brief, the achievement and success of the American educational system can be described in the following manner: 1. It‘has evolved gradually in the context of American history, philosophy, and culture. 2. It has responded to the needs of American society to a considerable degree. 50, there has been a satisfactory articulation between the educational institutions and the national goals. 3. The role of educational administration has grad- ually expanded as the public schools have grown. The principle of decentralization and local control in education has met with a remarkable success. As an active partner in the development of a quality education, the state department has assumed a leadership role besides performing the traditional regulatory functions. h. Teacher education in America has slowly reached the present status as the need for well-prepared ts; teachers for public schools was realized. It proliferated into the specialized branches like school administration, counseling and guidance, adult education, business education, measurement, etc. as the ideal of equal educational opportunity took the form of diversified curricula and elective system in schools 5. There has been a persistent tendency in America to 117 raise education to the status of a profession. Hence, there have been vigorous attempts to strengthen the preparation pregrams for the shhool personnel. School administration is now looked upon with a serious concern since the leadership role can come from the well-prepared school administrators. So, it appears that the programs in school administra- tion are leaning toward the use of scientific methods of study on one hand and the interdisciplinary approach on the other. The purpose in this move is to produce competent educational leadership for the American society. The reasons for the above achievements in education lie in the history and philosophy of this nation. The long period of national freedom and international isolation combined with the pragmatic outlook of the people has been largely responsible for a healthy growth of the American education in its special setting. SUEMARY Education in the United States is an important national enterprise. Very few countries spend as much on education as this democratic country. Many features of the American education have surprized the foreign visitors. The develop- ments in the American education can be explained by the American history and philosophy which gradually evolved in- this country. Public education as it is in America is the outcome of this historical evolution. One of the basic ideals was, to extend equal educational opportunity to all the citizens of America. The goals of the American education are derived from the social philosophy as expressed in the National Consti- tution adopted in 1787. The Tenth Amendment delegates the 118 function of public education to the states. However, the federal government does play an active role in the educa& tional development but the states are directly responsible for it. Various expert interpretations are made regarding the goals of the American education. But, the general ideals of education are well explained by its characteristic fea- tures: universal free education, equal opportunity for all, non-sectarian schools, single track, local control and initiative in education. The goals of the American education govern the role of educational administrator. The State Department of Educa— tion works in partnership with the local school systems. It exercises a leadership role in improving the quality of public education. It performs those functions which the . local agencies cannot on their own. There appears a con- siderable coordination between the two. The professional training in education has evolved with the expansion of public education. It was felt that public schools can serve the community well if they have competent teachers. Hence, the teachers colleges were established to meet this demand. But as the schools diver- sified the curricula to suit individual needs, aptitudes, and interests, the teacher education proliferated into various branches. School administration became a Special job. Thus, the courses in school administration were offered to prepare administrative leadership. Recently, emphasis on this area of specillization has increased due to the 119 efforts of various professional groups. The effort is moving toward building the school administration as a profession. The study and the programs in this area are being reoriented with a view to preparing a competent educational leadership in America. 120 CHAPTER IV STUDY OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN THE UNITED STATES--I Study of any thing in a human society is related to the values, needs, and aspirations prevailing in that particular group. In the past, a religious motive was uppermost among the civilized societies, so the schools and colleges taught more about religion, philosophy, morals and ethics. Study of natural sciences and vocational subjects was considered mundane and material in nature. Lately, with the triumph of physical and natural sciences in the improvement of human standards of living, almost every society has started emphasizing those areas of learning. The emphasis on study of social sciences is very recent in origin. Education as a young growing social science has come very late in the picture. But, study of education and the various phases of it has received increasingly greater attention in almost all the countries irrespective of their ideologies. It is reported that the process of education is more purposefully planned in communistic countries than even in democratic societies.1 Bit of late, democratic countries like the United States have addressed themselves sincerely to the task of mass education. That has been considered as the bulwark of 1George S. Counts, The Challenge ngSoviet Education (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1957). 121 the modern democracies. The concept of "Laissez faire" democracy is slowly dying out. The lead taken by the United States in the public education over the past century is a glaring instance to the point. Besides, her basic philos- ophy of individual freedom and equality of opportunity have unleashed tremendous human talents contributing to the national development in all directions. The study of school administration is to be analyzed and evaluated in this context of philosophy and culture of this country as it has evolved in the course of America's history. Expansion of public education quantitatively (i.e. number of schools) as well as qualitatively (i.e. diversification of curricula) called for the preparation of more and more teachers with specializations in varied fields. This resulted in the proliferation of studies and expansion of programs at the colleges and universities as illustrated in Figure 5. The study of school administration has evolved for the same reason or need as it was felt gradually in this country. When the public school systems expanded, the need for their efficient management became obvious. The school system had to appoint a specialist who was conversant with both the instructional and the managerial functions. More preparation for teaching or experience in it was thought to be insufficient for the administrative job. Hence, the colleges and universities hogan to respond to the public school needs by offering special courses in school administra- tion. The study of this area started with various approaches. GOALS OF AMERICAN EDUCATION CREATION OF A.GREAT NUMBER OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS WITH DIVERSIFIED COURSES STATE-SUPPORTED TEACHER EDUCATION IN VARIOUS FIELDS OF SPECIALIZATIONS (This is Supplemented by Private Colleges and Universities) 121.212 _._c.___FUN TIONs was Elementary Teacher Curriculum Secondary Counselor Instruction Higher Administrator Guidance Supervisor Administration etc. School Psy— Measurement chologist Research etc . etc o FIGURE 5 BASIS FOR EXPANSION OF TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 122 123 We shall now discuss how it evolved gradually to the pre- sent stage of development. ORIGIN OF STUDY School Administration is comparatively a new field of study in Education even in America. Its development could hardly be found before 1900, when the struggle for free public schools was yet underway. The teachers colleges were few and their very existende was threatened. Education as a subject for higher learning was considered naive and ridiculous by the traditional colleges and universities of those days. The office of a principal was unknown. He worked as a head-master or head teacher with little or no clerical help. The local school office and the office duties of the head teacher or principal developed slowly. Not until schools became large and the official status of the principal underwent a decided change did the school office become a significant part of the layout of the school.2 The office of superintendent of schools was not yet widely spread. It is reported that in 1865 only 50 super- intendents of the country met and established the National Association of School Superintendents to safeguard their rights and assert their claims. That was the origin of the present body of IMmerican Association of School Adminis- 2Paul B. Jacobson, and William C. Reavis, Duties of School Principals (New York: Prentice-Hall, Inc., l9hl), P. 1790 120 trators.3 Their appointment procedures were not well planned and their preparation for the job was meagre. A study of the city superintendent in service as early as in 1923 leads one to the conclusion that successful experience and maturity have been, in the past, the most important factors in the preparation for the executive positions in the large centers.“ More than 65 per cent of them had only Bachelor's degree or even less irrespecs tive of courses in education. In 1933, a similar survey registered some advance in their preparation as stated in the Year-Book of 1933: The superintendent of schools in 1933 survey has graduated usually from a high school located in a community of less than 2,500 population. He took the so called general school course. He graduated from a fournyear liberal arts college, has taken twentyufour graduate units and holds the A.B. and M.A. degrees. As a ' graduate student he majored in education. He attended summer school in either 1929, 1930, or 1931. Highest Degree Reported Percent in Two Surveys Holding Doctor's Degree: 1923 2.92 1933 2.97 Master's Degree: 1923 32.02 1933 56.68 Bachelor's Degree: 1923 5b.6h 1933 36.22 Other Degrees: 1923 .37 1933 .35 No Degree: 1923 12.81 1933 3.77 As compared with the 1923 study, the present investigation indicated significant advances in the amount of graduate 3American Association of School Administrators, You and gagg, 3 Study Guide (Washington, D.C.: 1201 Sixteenth Street, 1958), p. 3.d ' ”B. C. Douglass, Professional and Economic Status 2; the City Supgrintendent gfi Schools $2 the United States, First Yearbook (Dept. of Superintendence, NBA, 1923). 125 study.5 Thus, the stage was not ready for the study of school administration in the years around 1900 because education as a state responsibility was still in the process of being organized in various states. As already discussed, the State Department of Education had not undertaken the leader- ship role in educational administration but acted as a statistical agency or inspectorate for certain superficial functions in public schools. In reviewing the develOpment of school administration, Almack writes: The first steps looking towards the evolution of organized education took place between 1776 and 1800 with (l) the recognition of public education in the new state constitutions, and (2) the institution of the policy of granting lands for school support. The first constitutional provisions rested with a declara- tion of purpose to establish and maintain a free public school system, and recognized the existing methods of local control, but were later (and before 1860) extended to exclude sectarianism, to provide a permanent state school fund, to limit local authority and to assert state control over higher education, the curriculug and, within limits the sources and amounts of taxation. Thus, the state contitutional provisions for educa‘ tion established the free public school system. Education now became an organized public service governed by the state laws and managed by the local communities. It cane to be financed 7 5The Department of Superintendence of NEA, Educational Leadership, Progress and Possibilities, Eleventh Year-book, 1933’ P. 100. 6John C. Almack, "Historical Development of School Administration" School and Society, Vol. #3, No. 1115 (May 9, 1936), p. 626. 126 partly by the local taxes and partly by the State funds. But, the early expansion of public education was accompanied with a centralized control which created controversies among the educationists regarding the effective School Administra— tion. Hence, the two main factors that led to the beginning of the study of School Administration as a special field of academic interest were: centralization and expansion. Centralization By the last quarter of the 19th century, state boards were established to administer lands and moneys derived from the sale of school lands. By the close of this century the office of Superintendent for Public School Systems was created in several states. The early problem of school administration as reported by various observers then was too much centralization. Almack in his study says: This period from 1865 to 1915 was the golden age of big business and corporate prosperity. Managers and Superintendents ruled the world with as much arrogance and assurance of divine appointment as the lords of old Rome. The board of school trustees became the board of directors, with their assumption of special privileges. First the political hierarchy, next the religious hierarchy, next the industrial hierarchy, and at last the educational hierarchy--this is tbs sequence. All this leads to extreme centralization. Other early writers have also recognized this fact and considered it as the origin of the study of school administration as well as the beginning of the training programs for the school administrators. Perry wrote in 7Ibid., p. 627. 127 1912: In America the trend toward centralization in the various departments of human progress has been partic- ularly accentuated and accelerated in recent years. . . . Politically, centralization has steadily progressed since the Civil War, with federal powers strengthened, executive departments successfully assertive, and the principle of concentration of authority advanced all along the line. Industrially, also, we note that the compact corporation or ”trust" is the prevailing form of organization. It is not surprising therefore to see that, educationally our schools are fast giving place to our School systems, and School Administration has emerged as one of our educational problems. With this development of the problem itself there has been a corresponding development in the study of the problem and in the bibliography which both results from and helps to guide that study. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 We had to wait until l90h for our first published volume recognizing thg modern problems of School Administration. . . . It was in 190D that the first comprehensive volume by W. E. Chancellor appeared on the subject of "School Administra- tion”. Before that hardly any book dealt with the subject exclusively but treated it casually and partially as one of the features under such titles as 'Supervision', 'Discipline', 'Classroom Management', 'School Management', 'School Life' etc. Thereafter, various treatises were written to help solve the administrative problems on one hand and to prepare well-informed and trained workers in the field on the other. Realiiing the growing complexity of organization of public schools, Chancellor addressed himself to the new approach of study which he explains in the following statement: With the growth of our schools in size and in number and with their development in resources and in methods, 8Arthur C. Perry, Outlines g£,§ghgol Admigiggzgtion (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1912), pp. 2-3. 128 their organization tends constantly to grow more complex. Recently there has been differentiated from the teachers a class of school directors, administrators, and super- visors, whose function is management rather than instruc- tion. These school managers see the schools from a point of view different from that of the instructors. So recent has been their appearance in the world of educa- tion that not only the general public but even many instructors do not yet understand the nature and value of their work. To present the subject of American education from the new point of view of the Administrator and Supervisor is the purpose of this book.9 Chancellor's study fulfilled the felt need for some kind of literature on the subject and came to be used as text by the college students, and as guidebook by teachers and school administrators of those days. It was based on his personal experience in the field and his serious reflection on the problems of school administration. In his view, centralized state control was necessary in the interests of efficiency and progress and was not a debatable question. ELRIHEAEH. Two contemporary authors also put the same problem in a different perspective. They have shown the need for an educational expert well trained for the complex job of school administration at the state-level. Button and Snedden describe the situation then in the following manner: . . . But a considerable centralization of management has been made necessary, and the machinery for this, at first sight, has gradually increased in complexity. With the evolution, too, during the last half century, of a personal head for the state school system, there has been an increasing tendency to look to this adminis- trative officer for guidance. The demand is strong that at centre of the state machinery of shhool administra- 9William E. Chancellor, Our,§chools: Their Administpa- tion and Supervision (New York: D. C. Heath & 00., Publishers, 1905): P0 '0 129 tion be a true educational expert. . . . . . . In the earlier days of education, popular election or nomination by the legislature was not so unsuitable a method of selection, since what was largely wanted was a man of good civic capacity; but with the rapid growth of important functions attaching to the office, the good citizen no longer suffices for the place. There is needed an expert educator of train- ing and experience, who shall have a continuous term of office, so that he may bring to bear in the administration of education the accumulated results of experience.10 Hence, the study of educationaladministration assumed importance when the need for it was felt during the early decades of this century in the United States. Administration as the phenomenon appears when any group enterprise expands and the process becomes involved. This was the case with education. Apart from the establishment of an elaborate organization for centralized control by the state, there were some other factors that affected the scope of study in school administration during the early part of this century. For instance, the number of pupils and teachers increased enor- mously as a result of the growth of population. An effort was underway to educate every one according to the nationdl philosophy of equal educational opportunity. So the large groups were being reached who were previously neglected or believed ineducable. Schools were called upon to offer a wide variety of curricular and extra-curricular programs. Thereby, they came to direct many sides of juvenile life formerly controlled by the home, the community, the state, 1°Samuel Train Button, and David Snedden, The Adminig- tpgtion p£_Public figpggp;pp_;p,§he United fitgtes (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1909), p. 71. 130 the church or any other social agency. The cost of mains taining public schools therefore had been increasing beyond tax-payer's imagination. Explaining the evolution of educa- tional administration Frank Graves writes: With such development in all its essential factors-- courses, personnel, equipment, and support--school train- ing must needs have departed a long way fnom the simple and direct process that it was in the early days of America. It has become amazingly complicated both in structure and function, and its management demands an elaboration of procedure for which there is no precedent. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Hence a knowledge of the proper and effective manage- ment of education today requires both skill and continual study. The need for a new science to deal with its complexities began to be evident a half century ago, and since that time the principles and data of this subject have gradually been accumulating and taking shape. This developing Science has generally been known as Educational Administration.1 Thus, a new professional class of school executives was slowly developing to manage and control the education of American society. The superintendents at the state, county and local levels along with other subordinate exemu- tives came to be recognized as school administrators. The administration was growing to be the specialized function divorced from instruction. So, the colleges and universities had to launch upon new courses and programs to prepare this class of school personnel. The text-books and general studies on the Administrative topics mounted rapidly. The contributions of such scholars as Cubberlgy of Stanford, Strayer of Columbia, Judd of Chicago, Hart of 11Frank P. Graves, Ipe againigyzgtion pghépgyyggp_ figpggtion (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1932), p. 5. 131 California, and Reeder of Ohio State cannot be overlooked. These professors in education did a remarkable service to the development of literature in the young field of school organization and administration. The students who learnt under their guidance became school administrators throughout the country. Thus, a sufficient literature in the field was now available on score of courses as shown by the study of Engelhardt. In his investigation about the content and method of teaching a basic course in ”public-school organization and administration" he discovered 2h major topics represented by the programs of the colleges and universities in 1930. He prepared a unified syllabus as a guide to instructors and students and wrote a text-book in 1931 covering 2h topics listed here: 1. Evolution of Public Education in the United States 2. Development of State Responsibility for Education 3. School District Organization b. Legal Jurisdiction of School Districts 5. The School Board 6. The Board of Education and the Executive 7. The Superintendent of Schools 8. The Educational Program 9. Principles of Organization and Administration 10. Personnel Management 11. Organization and Administration of Elementary Schools 12. Organization and Administration of Secondary Schools 13. Organization for Supervision 1“. Organization for the AdministrationFGf Pupil Personnel 15. The Health-Education Program 16. Administration of Library Service 17. Administration of the Curricula end Instructional materials 18. Administration of the Business Affairs 19. Administration of Schools and Financial Support 20. Administration add Costs ' 21. Public Relations and the Administration of Schools 22. Organization for Research 132 23. The State and the Administration of Local School Systems 12 2h. The Federal Government of Public Education. The list indicates a wide variety of courses offered in school administration in the colleges of America. The studies, surveys, and research in the field were steadily growing. We shall now analyze the nature and approach of early studies by some well-known writers. NATURE AND APPROACH OF EARLY STUDIES? The early studies appear to be related to the practice of educational administration at different levels, and of various kinds. They seem to be descriptive of the organiza- tional structure and function. This has been true of all the social sciences because of their subject matter of study being so complex and dynamic as human beings. A scientific body of knowledge follows long after the descrip- tive and historical studies have accumulated in any field of knowledge--probably more so in social sciences. The behavioral sciences have slowly evolved from the descriptive and empirical approach of study to the scientific reasoning and experi— mentation after the tools of logical thought and scientific 12Fred Engelhardt, Public School Orgapigatiop gnd gapipigypgtion fiyllgbus (New York: Ginn and Company, 1930). (*For the purpose of our consideration here, all those studies done before 1950 when the CPEA centers were established are termed as "Early Studies". The trends in studies after that year are discussed in the following chapter). 133 research have been developed in the field. The early authors on school administration seem to possess the scien— tific awareness but due to the practical needs of their times they had to be pre-occupied with such a work as outlining the scope of their field of study and analyzing certain fundamental concepts and processes involved. This is quite evident from the studies of various authors mentioned ahead. Cordray analyzed sixty two important text-books on the ‘School Management' during the early period of 1770 to 1911 in America. He observes: “the initial book on school management appeared in 1770 written in German by Christopher Dock. From 1770 to 186“ teachers' manuals discussed class- room management along with teaching methods and other aspects of education. School management was in the period of exploration and infancy. From.1865 to 1902 comprehensive volumes discusssing school management appeared. From 1903 to 1911 specialization in the field of administration began."13 Thereafter the text- books and separate volumes on rural and city school adminis- tration appeared. Classroom management became a specialized area now. It is reported the first book on ‘Secondary School Administration' as such ever published came to be soon in the early decades of the current century. During the entire time, suggestions in the book were largely based on experienced opinion and practice rather than scientific data. 13Edward B. Cordray, An Analysis of American School Management Text-books from 1770 to 1911 (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Dissertation Abstradts, 1956), p. 2378. 130 "The year 1911 marks the definite beginning of the scientific school survey movement and thus school management changes to educational administration. European influence was evident until late in the nineteenth century and a distinctly American theory of school administration was ad- vanced in the early twentieth century. Very few writers attached importance to the condition and control of education in the United States prior to the twentieth century."1u We shall now analyze the works of a few selected writers in the field of school administration who have adopted different approaches of study. These authors are mentioned in the chronological order. Cubbepley The most prolific writer in the field of Education during the early decades has been Ellwood Patterson Cubberley. He could be called one of the pioneers in the study of school administration. Analyzing his contributions to this field, Sears and Henderson write: In all Cubberley wrote five substantial volumes and five monographs dealing exclusively with aspects of school administration; he dealt at some length with phases of administration in four other books; he wrote on this subject either as part contributor or as joint author for ten other books or survey reports; and be contributed over 130 articles on administration to a Cyclopedia. The number of his lesser papers and articles on this subject would be several score. “221.. -. 15Jesse B. Sears, and Adin D. Henderson, Cubberleylgg Stanford 5nd His Contribution pp_éperican Education (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1957), p. 137. 135 Among all his writings, he had these five useful volumes pertaining to School Administration. 1. State and County Educational Reorganization (l9lh) 2. State and County School Administration (1915) 3. Public School Administration (1916) h. The Principal and His Work (1923) 5. State School Administration (1927) In all of his works, there appears to be a historical orien- tation and a philosophical outlook of the author. His works were addressed to his times when there was lack of text-books on the subject and want of any research in the area. Out of his vision and experience he suggested many solutions to different problems of school administration in order to improve school practice. Alike others, he was also conscious of the trend toward the centralized administration then and was of the opinion that the school management should be taken out of politics and out of the hands of the lay boards. In 1909 he wrote: The administration of education each year becomes a more important and a more dignified piece of work. If we could only cast off the antiquated and unsatisfactory methods of awarding the selection of state and county superintendents to the Republican and Democratic parties, and open up these places to the competition of the brains of the whole county, as we have done with high school principalship and the city superintendency, these positions would become among the most important within the gift of the state. The office of superintendent of city schools has in many places become one of much dignity and impor- tance, and the office is being completely divorced from partisan and personal politics by all progressive communities. - State Superintendents of public instruc- tion and state boards of education are being entrusted with new functions and a marked tendency toward a centralization of power and responsibility is manifest in many states.1 ' 16E11wood P. Cubberley, Changing Qonceptiang pg’Educa- tion (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1909). pp. 60- 1. 136 Cubberley had an administrative experience before he taught school administration at the Stanford. So he could bring his experience and knowledge about facts to bear upon the teaching of this subject. The aim in his pioneering works in the growing field of school administration was to collect facts and discover principles, and build them into a sound body of knowledge. He used that knowledge for instruc- tion and disseminated it through his writings to the profes- sion. This explains his interest in the Riverside text- book series that he edited for his life time. He had the perception of his theory in educational administration although he never expressed it as such. He has used it implicitly in his works. In reviewing his contribution to school administration, Sears and Henderson state: ”He wrote less on philosophy and theory of Administration as such than some others of this day, he wrote more on major than on minor problems, but he has left behind more substantial contribu- tions to theory and practice as they apply in American Schools than any other writer of the period."17 Like Cubberley, many other contemporary authors also wrote descriptive volumes on the subject. Their approach was essentially that of job survey and job analysis. They observed administrators at work, noted the tasks they per- formed, and discovered their difficulties, drawbacks, and problems. Then, they wrote on how these tasks might be 17Sears and Henderson, pp, cit., p. 16b. f0 137 performed more effectively and rationally. They reflected some influence of Taylorism or scientific management in industry postulated by Taylor during the early decades of this century. soaps Sears who remained student and then colleague of Professor Cubberley has shown a deep earnestness for the development of the study of school administration. He has been concerned like his teacher in the improvement of school practices. His early participation in 'School Surveys' and his later writings in the field have indicated his true interest as the follower of scientific movement in the study of school administration. His grasp of the growing field of school administration indicates his professional conscious- ness in all his works. As to the study of school adminis- tration, he wrote in 1938: Until the end of the 19th Century there has been little research in the field of administration beyond the work of Mann, Barnard, and Harris, and few books on education dealt with administration in more than inciden- tal fashion. When text books began to appear in this special field, they as often carried the word ”Super- vision" as ”Administration" in the title. These and many of the general treatises on School Administration, even through the first decade of the new century, were not built upon scientific work. They were mainly remin- iscences of experienced administrators. OO0..OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO The first general books on School Administration attempted to cover all the major aspects of organization and policy forming and to describe the general plan of operations in the several divisions of the service, including supervision. Later books added greatly to the detail of treatment, emphasized certain general principles, and added numerous techniques and plans for carrying on the work. 138 Before the end of the first quarter of the century, still a different type of specialization began to develop. This dealt with such phases or divisions of a school system as finance, business management, plant develop— ment, personnel work, gdult education, guidance, research, and public relations.1 In his later works, he has consistently attempted to apply a theory to the problems of school administration and has contributed to the scientific study of the subject. He seems to have kept abreast of the new trends in the study of school administration after the close of World War II. His new approach to the study of school administration appears through his work in 1950 titled ”The Nature of Administrative Process”. In this volume, he has drawn heavily on the au- thors of public administration like Gulick and Urwick. He has given a new look to the fundamental Science of Adminis- tration as applied to education. Sears has reviewed the whole situation concerning the study of school administration in the following words: Our first subject matter for the field was made up largely of recounted experiences and personal opinions. Then came the period of Scientific Study, which at the beginning was very short on scientific method and almost equally short on data. In these beginning stages we were less concerned with ultimate values than with guiding recipes for action. For many years, we taught and wrote descriptions and explanations of patterns and techniques, of "how to administer". More recently, attention has been turning away from a mere "knowledge of how to get on in practice" to a knowledge of how to find out how to get on right," as the aim of our teach- ing in this field. This reveals the beginning of an attack upon the foundations as well as upon the super- structure of Administrative practice.19 18Jesse B. Sears, gity fichgpl Adpipistpgtive goptpolg (McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1938), pp. 5-7. 19Jesse B. Sears, The Nature of the Administrative Process (New York: McGraw:HIlI Book EEhpany, Inc., 1956). Do “'60. 139 Thus, Sears has been a profound thinker on the subject. His concern on study approach and his scientific attitude in his writings distinguish him from his contemporaries who have written due to practical needs in the field. His studies bear out his professional insight and his earnest- ness to see educational administration grow rapidly as a social science. Such a scientific outlook is evident in the writings of many other authors who have contributed to the study of this field after 1950 when the new cooperative programs started. Mgehlman He published an exhaustive volume on school adminis- tration in l9h0 implying a basic theory of administration and emphasizing the functional approach to his study. ”Adminis- tration is essentially a service activity, a tool or agency,” states Moehlman, ”through which the fundamental objectives of the educational process may be more fully and efficiently realized. In the development of this point of view the teacher emerges as the most important agent, with administra- tion in the position of ministering to his needs and thus increasing the efficiency of the teaching process. This approach may be described as the functional or organic point of view."20 20Arthur B. Moehlman. m 22212112222192 (Houghton Mffflin Company, 19h0), p. v. Ibo 22:2 Quite similar approach but expressed in different terms is apparent in the work of Mort in 19h6 titled "Principles of School Administration”. He seems to be con- scious of the basic weakness in the study of school admin- istration--the lack of general theory to work with. His comments on the available literature in the field clearly explains the need for such a work as his. In the preface to that book, he observes: As I have viewed various attempts to find solutions to administrative problems and tried my hand at some of them, I have found myself baffled by the lack of encom- passing theory. No such theory has been at hand either as a basis for appraisal of the solutions of others or as a tool for illuminating the novel problems I myself have faced. It has seemed to me that the literature in our field has been piecemeal. To no small degree it is made up of rules of thumb collected from hither and yon. Such parts of it carry no hints as to their relative importance for the principles underlying them are not apparent. Other parts of the literature deal with sets of principles or theories encompassing only a phase of administration such as budgets, accounting, building planning, and curriculum development. No matter how internally consistent these special theories may be, they do not carry the stigmata that are the keys to relative emphasis. Mort has adopted an approach which he calle opgpgpigngl. He explains it by saying that a local school operation is subject not only to the State controls but also to the fluid kind of controls rising from the community in which it operates. This makes school administration much more of a local admin- istration and subordinates the specialized services and con- trols of central agencies as something abstracted from the 21Paul R. Mort, Pringiples p§.§chool Admipistpation (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 19h6), Preface. 1H1 complete and unified pattern that exists on operational level. This point of view is not very different from the functional or purposive approach of Moehlman. It also bears some semblance to the approach of Graves22 who wrote in l932--interpreting the whole school administration in terms of classroom and pupils--the reverse process. 21222222; He has analyzed the approaches to the study of school administration and discussed the utility of each in the growing science of educational administration in his volume of ”Local Public School Administration" published in 1951. He has chosen to adopt the eclegtic approach in his above study as he thinks each approach plays a significant role in the study of school administration. His review of the past studies in the field is reflec- ted in these words: Numerous text books and a multitude of reports, special treatises, and Journal articles have appeared in the f 1d of school administration during the last fifty ye rs. Examination of these books and related literature shows that their authors approached their problems from one or more of the (l) empirical, (2) legalistic, (3) historical, (h) scientific, (5) philo- sophic, or (6) democratic points of view. These dif- ferent approaches give some appearance of sequence; some of them were emphasized in the earlier and others in later stages of the literature's development. Mainly, 22Graves, pp, cit., preface, p. iv 1142 however, they have been attacks from different directions which were followed up as rapidly as materials became available.23 The above comment is very appropriate to the evolution of any social science. The scientific studies follow long after the accumulation of historical reviews, empirical generalizations and philosophical speculations. The develop- ment of research techniques and statistical tools has now helped in the growth of such disciplines as deal with the complex problem of human behavior. APPLICATION OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND RESEARCH One cannot say that the writers in the past were either ignorant or reluctant to do scientific research but perhaps the time was not ripe for such a venture then. There was a pressure of practical needs and therefore the academic mind was busy thinking over the real problems of school administration and getting it a place in the higher learning as a university discipline. ZLyygngg; showed his concern for organizing the field of school administration on scientific basis as early as in 1926 when he wrote: We talk and write, too frequently in terms of infer- ence and argument and doctrinaire assertion, about such apparently uncoordinated matters, as school boards, 23B. F. Pittenger, papal Public School Administration (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1951), p. 11. 1M3 school buildings, child accounting, curriculum making, finance, and school publicity; but no one to my knowledge has pointed out the common threads in all these fabrics by way of justifying their inclusion under a common term. Yet lacking such common threads, what right have we to continue speaking of a subject--much less of a science-- of School Administration?2 He suggested two bases of unification to build up a science of administration in general: Policy-making and Personnel Management. He then developed a clear picture of science of school administration in these words: The Science of School Administration will be at the point of confluence of policy-making and personnel manage- ment on the one hand, and of the aims of the school on the other. It will occupy the territory where the future science of Administration overlaps upon the existing Science of education. It will represent the direction of the methods and principles of Administration toward the accomplishment of the aims of the school. In so far as these methods and principles are peculiar to the school, school administration will have an individual status; while insofar as they resemble those of administration everywhere, it will have to remain a part of general administration.25 The author did not mean that the scope of school admin- istration ends with those two basic unifying factors in Administration. All he did was to suggest common princi- ples on which a general theory of Administration could be built. Once such a theory becomes aviilable, it will help the Administrator to solve the problems of his job compe- tently in any area. 2”B. F. Pittinger, "Organizing the Field of School Administration,” Amepican School Boapd Journal, Vol. 72 (March, 1926), pp. u1-u2. -25;pid. lhh In 1928, gygy,examinod the utility of administrative research in public school administration and found that there was a great desire and awareness among the school administrators about the scientific study and research that would solve their practical problems. He thought that public school administration could make a claim that its program of research compared favorably with those that may be found in other realms of public and private enterprise.26 In reviewing the progress of school administration during the first third of the present century, fixinn stated: "The application of the methods of Science to the solution of School Administration problems is perhaps, the most signi- ficant characteristic of the period under consideration."27 This may sound to be over-stated observation, but it bears out the fact that there was a sincere urge even then to build up a science of school administration within the frame- work of tools and techniques available in that setting. In fact, Regvis had a thorough review of the contri- butions of various kinds of research to the field of Educa- tional Administration 1n 1938. He could not find any mention of 'educational research' until 1917 because the scientific 26F.C. Ayer, "Administrative Research in Public School Administration", Ipe Nagion's ls, 2:3 (September, 1928). Po 13o 27J. M. Gwinn, Scpggl Administration ;p_the Twentieth Egnfiggy, J. B. Sears, ed., Stanford Pamphlets No. R, l93h, Po 23o 1&5 research in education.was considered impossible in the earlier days.28 Besides, the problems that confronted the administrators later were so intricate that they needed a careful study and scientific approach. He has examined the following seven types of research and their impact on Educa- tional Administration. 1. Historical Studies 2. Statistical Research 3. Objective Measurement H. Survey Movement 5. Laboratory Experiments 6. Questionnaire Findings 7. Legal Research He concludes the whole survey with this statement: This brief analysis of the contributions of educa- tional administration from the seven types of research considered reveals results of major importance. Condi- tions prevailing in school organization, administration, and support at the beginning of the present century were highly complicated, and previous experience failed to provide adequate precedents for the solution of the problems with which administrative officers were faced. The contributions of research gradually pointed the way to satisfactory solution of many of the problems. Thus, by utilizing the findings of the various types of research, educational administration has been advanced within a period of thirty seven years from the practice of empiri- cal remedhas to the status of scientific management. 9 28W. C. Reavis, ”Contributions of Research to Educa- tional Administration", Thirty-Seventh Yearbook, National Society for the Study of Education, Part II, 1938, pp. 21-32. 29Ib1d. 106 Hence, there is enough evidence that scientific approach had gained acceptance among the writers and researchers in the field long back. Perhaps there was a made rush toward that approach as was the case with Education as a whole to make it a useful social science. So it aroused some kind of re- sentment and reaction from the philosophical-minded section who thought education and educational administration have a social punpose to fulfil. They cannot be free from a value frame at all. Schools exist for improving society and hence the educative process is subject to social controls. School Administration can only be studied in terms of various social needs. On this issue, Bode commented in 1927 in these words: There is much talk at present of education as a science, but education as a science has a significant place only on the basis of social program or educational philosophy. Take away this pregram, and the result is bewilderment and futility. The current enthusiasm for ”Scientific education" is all too often oblivious to the face that any guiding principle is necessary. Many of our educational leaders seem to approach their task with- out any definite point of orientation, without any clear consciousness of whence we have come and whither we ought to go.30 Similar note is sounded by Newlon in the Report of the Commission on Social Studies title "Educational Administration as Social Policy”. He has discussed the limitations of abstract Scientific method and argued for the philosophical and social outlook in the field. He calls School Administra- tion as an applied Social Science. He believes that educa- 30Boyd H. Bode, Modern Educational Theories (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1927), p. 3b5. m7 tional practice is always in large part the product of social experience, whether that experience derive from a long social history or from more immediate conditions and measures. According to him, "Every educational problem must there- fore be viewed in the light of the history and tradition, the social aspirations, and the actual conditions and recent experience of a community or state."31 His plea was for a study and practice of school administration in terms of social philosophy during the period he considered transitional in American life. Qertel reproached the school administrators then in the same way. He suggested: Educational administration needs a thinking depart- ment as much as it needs an experimental laboratory. Some school auperintendents have thought that they could neglect philosophy with impunity. They have believed that a strict and absorbing attention to the mechanics of their work and to its materia1--to the task of achieving a smoothly running mechanism called a shhool-- would yield greater results than would attention divided between such business and some sort of philosophizing. Their preoccupation has been in the realm of things. Our generation of school executives has excelled in doing but has been decidedly deficient in knowing what was worth doing. Thus, pure scientific approach in the field of education has been considered improper and inadequate by some thinkers. It will be a crude discipline if social aspect is ignored and human relations discounted. In fact, the development of precise techniques of educational research and the growing recognition that educa- 31Jesse H. Newlon, Egpggyional‘Agpypgpypgp;pp.pg_Sepial [oli§y, Report of the Commission on the Social Studies (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 193h), p. 231. 32E. E. Oertel, Toward 2.New Philgsophypp£_§chool Administration (Los Angeles, California: Murray and Gee, 1936), Po he Ina tional administrators have a special training for their profession furnished the basis for the introduction of technical and ”scientific" administration The subjective judgement was reduced in emphasis and great importance was attached to the objective or scientific evidence. Gradually, ”scientific" administration come to be criticized for placing too much importance on readily securable date and for lacking in broad educational and social direction. Kefauver who has viewed the Education Administration as social statesmanship writes; To refer to educational administration as social statesmanship is to place it in proper perspective. It is too limited a view to think of educational adminis- tration in strictly operational terms. The management of educational institutions is only a part, although an important part of educational administration. Educational programs have at times suffered because the executives have lacked broad social p§5spective and the program lacked purpose and direction. If fact, educational administration has long-term objectives which render the perspective for day-to-day activities. Again educational policy has its origin in society and is not a concern of educator only. It is an appropriate and legitimate concern of people in all walks of life because their children as well as their funds are involved. School administrator has to supply his leadership in developing an educational policy and program which ensures the social welfare. That is the kind of reorientation advocated by Kefauver who cautioned the enthusiasts of 33G. N. Kefauver, "Reorientation of Educational Administration” The Forty-Fifth Yearbook, Nathanal Society for the Study of Education, Part II, (Chicago 37, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press, 19h6), p. 2. 1&9 "scientific" administration against losing sight of the goal in the search for method. Somewhat similar suggestion was given by Ngrton who criticized the past research in these words. "Too many who conducted research in education approached their work with little social and educational insight and were easily satisfied when they had adapted statistical and other research techniques borrowed from the physical sciences to the phases of education which could be explored by these methods."3u Effective education to which the scientific approach was addressed could hardly be realized without the cooperation between school and community. Besides, it was also criticized that school operations could not be conducted with total disregard to the democratic ideals of American society. Since the First World War, the concept of 'democracy' has becmme the part of educational philosophy in this country. The greatest push to the concept came from the leading educationist John Dewey in the early decades of this century. Numerous writings have carried the message there- after and administrative practice has been gradually taking shape on the democratic principles. Originally, the demo- cratic approach in administration started as a protest against the centralized authority in education. As early as in 3903, John Dewey cautioned the adminis- 3"‘John K. Norton, "Frontiers in Educational Research: in General Administration", igupngl p§_§dp§gtion§l Reggargh, Vol. XL (January 1947), p. 327. 150 trators in these words: Bat as long as a school organization which is un- democratic in principle tends to repel from all but the higher portions of the school system those of indepen- dent force, of intellectual initiative, and of inventive ability or tends to hamper them in their work after they find their way into the school—room, so long all other reforms are compromised at their source and post- poned indefinitely for fruition.35 Many other educational philosophers also have stressed the need for democratizing school administration and making it an instrument to serve the social ends. In other words, the administrator should not be content with scientific know- ledge to deal with problems but should always refer to a sound social theory governing the educative process. As a matter of fact, education as such is the defender of democracy. The latter can hardly survive among the ignorant and illi- terate masses. No social institution could be democratic if the School System cannot. Koopman, Miel, and Misner state the case for democra- tic school administration in this passage: The need for democratic education and for democratic school administration is no greater today than it has been previously. The important change is that a new sensi- tivity to this need is developing. Previously only a few people were demanding a type of education that would be a means both of conserving and of improving democratic ideals, institutions, and practices. Now education is recognized by all as democracy's best technique for improvement and defense. Will the persons charged with the organization and 35John Dewey, "Democracy for the Teacher" (in jggppnygpy fichggl Iggcperg Dec.; 1903). Reprinted in 22222221222222.2122. Vol. 8. (March 1931). p. 218. ”I 151 administration of public schools respond to the present challenge? Can the education function be so conceived and so administered that it will not only conserve but continuously improve the democratic way of life. To contribute effectively to the larger purposes of democracy, the school itself must first become a contagious illustra- tion of and a laboratory for the highest possible level of democratic living. The forthright democratization of the educational process thus becomes a presging social responsibility of educational administration.3 However, the philosophic approach emphasizing social goals and democratic ideals does not rule out the applica- tion of scientific method to the study of school administra- tion. The former supplements rather than supplants the I latter. Both together help in solving the problems of school administration. It is clear from the foregoing description that the study of school administration in America has evolved gradual- ly along with the expansion of public education. It has been approached from various angles to develop a body of scientific knowledge for improvement of this democratic society. One stage of evolution seems to be over at the close of World War II when some new events have brought in a fresh strategy and inter-disciplinary approach to the study of this subject. Historically, the period after 1950 could be considered as the "new era" in the literature of educa- tional administration. Besides several innovations in the field, a nationwide interest in the study of school admin— istration is mobilized through the Cooperative Programs in Educational Administration. 36G. R. Keepman et. a1., Democracy_$p School Admin- istratigg (New York: D. Appleton-Century Co., 19b3), p. l. 152 CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS The above analysis regarding the study of school administration in America leads the writer to the following observations: 1. The study of school administration has evolved in America with the expansion of public educa- tion in the course of her history. 2. Until the close of nineteenth century, there were few special studies in this area because the function of educational administration was per- formed by the laymen elected for this job. 3. As the public school systems expanded in terms of size, course offerings, equipment, personnel, etc., the function of management became special- ized and significant. The need for properly qualified school administrators became obvious. The colleges started offering special courses by the first quarter of this century. h. The early writers who wrote text-books on the basis of their practical experience of work and survey applied the 'job analysis approach'. Some influence of Taylorism was evident from their writings. 5. The later writers in the last few decades of this century have applied one or more approaches of the following nature in their studies: empirical, legalistic, historical, philosophical, democratic, I. 153 and scientific. There has been an increasing trend toward the use of scientific methods and research in the study of this area. Until the close of World War II, innumerable studies became available but the Cooperative Programs in Educational Administration since 1950 mark a new era in the study of school administration in the United States. SUMMARY Study of school administration is relatively a new field in America. Its development had been sporadic until the close of nineteenth century for various reasons. The administrative positions at the state, county, and local level were elective. The school administrators were not necessarily drawn from the persons with educational prepara- tion. The two factors that aroused academic interest in school administration were the centralized state control in education and rapid expansion of public school systems. It was then the need for the trained personnel for effi- cient school management was felt. In the beginning of this century, a few special treatises on this subject were pub- lished. The colleges and universities now began to respond to the public school needs by offering special courses in school administration. The professors like Cubberley, Strayer, Reeder and others prepared text-books in this area. By 1930, a score of courses were offered in school adminis- tration all over the country. 150 The nature of early studies was descriptive and histori- cal for lack of scientific data on the problems of school administration. Some authors applied the approach of job survey and job analysis in writing books on the subject. This is considered to be the influence of Taylor's scienti- fic management in the industry during the period. Later, Sears and others began to draw upon the literature in the field of public administration. Some of them began to base their writings on a particular value theory regarding admin-- istration in their view. In brief, studies until 1950 re- flected various approaches: historical, legalistic, ompiri-- cal, philosophical, democratic and scientific. The application of scientific methods and research in the field has been gradually increasing during the second quarter of this century. It has brought reactions from the philosophy-oriented thinkers who object to making school administration an objective science disregarding human and social values of education. But the tendency has persisted in use of the scientific methods of social and behavioral sciences in school administration. Historically, the period after 1950 marks a new era in the study of this subject be- cause of the new lead taken by the CPEA centers. It 155 CHAPTER V STUDY OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN THE UNITED STATES-{II (RECENT DEVELOPMENTS) There are two parallel schools of thought vying with each other in influencing the study of school administration in the United States. One is philosophical or value-oriented and the‘other is scientific or objective researchyoriented. The former pleads that education and its administration must be related to the social purpose and policy of this demo- cratic country. The administration is nothing but a social process influenced directly or indirectly by the cultural setting of America. There cannot be a universal theory of administration or any conceptual model useful to all cultures alike. So, the act of administration is purely an individual art based on the personality traits, experience and knows ledge of each administrator. The latter, however dormant in the past has- been gaining ground lately with the influence of social sciences and normative disciplines on the study of administration in general. It is believed that there is a possibility of building up a "science of administration" useful to all the different group enterprises. There are tools available to observe human behavior and trace its consistencies in order to make the administrative process verifiable as well as predictable. After all, the unique contribution of the scientific method lies in the development of reliable know- ledge. Its use should not be the monopoly of only basic 156 sciences but should be shared liberally by the applied sciences like administration. What is needed is to gather the scattered fragments of knowledge in this field and re- late it to a basic theory. The research which has been rather descriptive and empirical regardless of a theory should give place to the scientific inquiry rooted in hypotheses generating a new knowledge. The case for building a ”science of adminis- tration" is very well made by Thompson who writes: The issue of science versus art for administration seems to be vanishing with the realization that one approach does not rule out the other. The art of the surgeon, to take a parallel case, is supported by the medical sciences, the art of the engineer by the physi- cal sciences. It is widely recognized that there is an element of art in administration; the possibility of a science of administration is only now coming to be taken seriously. Nevertheless, the sole assumption required for the application of scientific methods to the sub- ject of administration is now generally accepted. That assumption--that regularities can be identified in the phenomena under consideration--is the basis of every attempt to train people for administrative roles. . . . It is no longer a ridiculous idea that regularities can be found in human behavior. Previous impressions to that effect stemmedImore from inability to perceive regularities than from their absence. Those who assert that human behavior cannot be studied scientifically often speak of such regularities as staff-and-line conflict. There is now every reason to believe that an administrative science can be built, although the build- ing will not be easy.1 Thompson pleads that administration as an applied science stands in relation to the basic social sciences as engineering stands with reSpect to the physical sciences, or as medicine to the biological. The administrators can do better if they are aware of the scientific knowledge on 1James D. Thompson, "0n Building an Administrative Science" Admipigtpgtive Spience ua terl , Vol. 1, No. 7 (June 1956),pp. 102-103. II "C 157 which they can draw in course of their practice. Thus, there has arisen a widespread academic interest in search for a general theory of administration applicable to Business, Government, Education, Hospital, Church and other group activities involving the administrative process. It is the ”Gestalt of Administration" which has been lack- ing in all the pieces of mosaic available in each field. This kind of concern was expressed by Litchfield in the very first issue of Adminisggative Science Quarpgply which started in 1956. Reviewing the rapid developments in Administrative thought after the World War II, he points out many shortcomings in it. The most pertinent to the issue of general theory is as follows: The second and, from my point of view, the most serious indictment which must be made of present thought is that it has failed to achieve a level of gen- eralization enabling it to systematize and explain administrative phenomena which occur in related fields. Indeed, so far are we from broad generalizations about administration that we appear to maintain that there is no generic administrative process but only a series of isolated types of administration. We seem to be saying that there is business administration, and hospital administration, and public administration; that there is military administration, hotel administration, and school administration. But there is no administration. We buttress this conclusion and made a general theory more difficult of attainment by developing separate schools in these fields in our universities. We organize our- selves into separate professional societies, and we have developed separate bodies of literature which speak to one another infrequently.2 The reactions mentioned above come from the professors in the School of Business. But the similar concern has also 2Edward H. Litchfield, "Notes on a General Theory of Administration" Administrative Scienge ua to 1 , Vol. 1, No. 7 (June 1955): P. 7. m. 158 been present in other fields of administration, political, education, hospital etc. For our purpose, we shall be con- sidering this trend in educational administration in details in the later pages. As already stated, early educational thinkers like Pittinger, Sears, Moehlman, Most and others expressed the need for theory in educational administration. Lately, Daniel Griffiths, Coladarci, Getzels, Halpin, Walton and others have influenced the thought on the same point in this field. The present argument for building a theory- oriented literature in educational administration stems from the drive to professionalizo the school administrator on par with doctor, engineer, lawyer, and others. Until now this field has been treated as occupation or semi-profession for want of special skills and scientific knowledge for the job. There is hardly any productive research in the field. Appraising the nature of research and its impact on the teaching of educational administration, Griffiths writes: Educational administration is in the process of be- coming a profession. All professions have intellectual bases; in fact, it would be very difficult to differn- tiate between a profession and a trade unless it were done on an intellectual basis. This base can be built in only one way, and that way is through research appropriate to the profession. At present, we do not have an adequate theory and so we lack a set of prin- ciples to teach as the content of Administration. Much of what is now taught is composed of the testi- monials of successful administrators, the folklore which has accumulated over time, and an odd assortment of ”promising practices". . . . The great job to be done is to develop a theory which can accomodate and illuminate the fact and fancy in our own field, as well as point the way to new knowledge. This theory will enable us to sort out relevant facts, to give meaning to the batches of data we now have and to disclose needed areas 159 of study.3 Hence, the scientific movement in the study of school administration is underway in America today. Although it started long back in this field, it has gathered a great momentum when some new forces came to the scene after the World War II. NEW FORCES AT WORK ”If any one statement could be made concerning educational administration at this time", writes Griffiths," it would be that as a field of study it is undergoing radical change."u This statement pertains to the period after 1950 when a nation- wide attention was focused on the study of school administra- tion. Prior to 1950, the field appeared to be well-defined, extensive in literature, and exhaustive in scope. But the present studies by the centers of CPEA or by some individuals digress so much from the old norms and patterns that the whole picture has been changed. This revolution in the thought has been brought by many forces generated after the close of World War II. Those related to the study of educational administration are described briefly here-under. National Configrence‘pg Prnfegsnps‘gf Ed c onal Adminisppa- p;nn,(NCPEA). A few professors of educational administration met at Endicott, New York, in 19h? to form this organization to 3Daniel E. Griffiths, Re§e§rch.;n_§dngg§iona1 nnminis- tration, An_nppraisal and n_Plan (New York: Bureau of Publi- cations Teachers College, Columbia University, 1959), p. 5. uDaniel E. Griffiths, Administrative Theory (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1959), p. 1. re 160 confer annually on the study of this subject. It was con- sidered to be a forum of views held by different professors, writers, and researchers in the field. Unlike other associ- ations, it retained the character of conference and invited larger gathering of professors and practitioners to its week- long sessions every year. It stimulated interest and thinking in the field not only from educators but also from social scientists, psychologists, and others studying human behavior. As a result many new publications followed on the basis of new approach untrodden by the earlier authors. The latest NCPEA volume titled "Administrative Behavior in Education" has synthesized the various views, studies, and findings on the study of educational administration since the mid-century. It points to new directions in research, approach of study, and future preparation of school administrators.. In the words of Griffiths "over the years the NCPEA has gone a full cycle. Its early publications synthesized what was known; its subsequent publications challenged these findings and suggested new directions in research; its last publication has again synthesized present knowledge".5 Kellngg Fonngation Support Since 1930, the W. K. Kellogg Foundation of Battle Creek, Michigan has supported community improvement pronects designed to help local citizens improve health standards, education and general community culture.» The Foundation realized the importance of leadership in the process of community development. School administrators who also play the key role in the local communities now invited the 51bid.. p. h. 161 attention of the Foundation for the purpose of financial support. The first official proposal to the Foundation was made on November 26, 19b? by a special sub-committee of the American Association of School Administrators. The project called for the appointment of a national commission to conduct a comprehensive study for upgrading the professional competence of the superintendency of schools. The Foundation accepted in l9h8 the part of the pro- posal about the exploratory conferences to test out the idea of national study in this field. They were held at five different places with the support from the Foundation and the consensus of opinions on the problem was embodied in this statement: "The people in our communities demand educa- tional leadership from us, but our training has been largely in the managerial aspects of the job."6 Many other problems too came to the light. As a result, the Cooperative Programs in Educational Administration (CPEA) came to be launched in 1950 with the support of $3,3h7,567 for five years. Eight regional centers were established for this national project at the following universities: Harvard University, University of Chicago, Teachers College, Columbia University, University of Texas, George Peabody College for Teachers, University of Oregon, Stanford University, and Ohio State University. The influence of CPEA centers has been tremendous on the field of educational administration. In appraising the outcomes of Cooperative Programs, Moore writes: 6Hollis A. Moore, §tugies in_figpogl Admi st tio (Washington, D.C.: American Association of School Adminis- trators, 1957), p. 12. 162 In very broad strokes, there is a picture we can paint from the CPEA projects. The picture is one of improve- ments for school administration across the country. The outcomes which are the ”process” kind--things that were set in motion by the CPEA, ways of getting action which will proceed now with or without a recognized national ”program"--are among the most valuable. 00.000.00.00.0.000.000.0000 We have unleashed so many status studies, pilot centers, experimental designs and other means of inquiry into the problems of school administration that we have grown accustomed to an intense study of administration. Yet much of the recent research . . . was the result of the existence of this grand-scale program which made it fashionable and necessary to think and rethink about the issues in educational administration. This was not always so. Social scientists who had ignored school were now intrigued with the research possibilities in this social institution and its role in the community improvement. The CPEA funds encouraged interdisciplinary approach in studies and hence the field witnessed many new comers with new concepts and ideas from the related disciplines. All this has come to bear upon the graduate training programs for school administrators. None is of more far- reaching importance than the acceptance of mutual respon- sibility of colleges and administrators for finding and training future leaders in the profession. In-school train- ing courses, internships, summer teaching on campus by superintendents--these are the practical indications of team- work set in motion by the CPEA. Thus, CPEA has contributed much to the professional advancement in school administration by stimulating academic mind toward the problems of prac— 7Ibid., p. 21 163 ticing administrators, toward the basic research, and toward the publications unprecedented in the past. "The interest created, the funds and facilities provided, and the talent recruited" says Griffiths, "have in the past few years moved the field farther along than it had moved in the preceding half-century."8 University gouncil for Educational Administration (UCEA) This body was also formed with the help of grant from the Kellogg Foundation around year 1956. It is a voluntary association of universities offering graduate programs in educational administration and interested in their improve- ment. The purpose of UCEA is to assist the associated institutions in the development of their own programs by making generally available the results of individual and cooperative study and exchange of information on matters such as: l. The theory and functions of administrative leader— ship in education. , 2. Procedures for recruitment and selection of prom- ising personnel for the profession. 3. The content and processes of pro-service professional . preparation programs. h. Programs for professional development of educational administrators in the field and professors in the universities concerned with the improvement of educational administrators. The greatest achievement of UCEA lies in securing inter-university cooperation. 'Numerous activities have 8Griffiths, 22o 21te’ Po 5o 9Taken from a Draft p§_Papgrs fog Inggrpopation p§,the £913, Revised by the Interim Committee, Chicago, Feb. 20, 21, 1958. 16h developed through which individuals have shared their experi- ences, their talents, and their studies. Besides, material gains to the member institutions, there has developed a deep sense of commitment to the field of educational administra- tion as a profession. During sixties nnumorous goals offer avenues to professional pregress. Of the potential goals which might be pursued through inter-university cooperation, high priority is now being placed by UCEA on the following: 1. Achieving Criteria of Quality in Preparatory Pro- grams; 2. Increasing the Supply of Superior Candidates for Administrative Preparation; 3. Producing a Firmer Knowledge Base for School Admin- istration; h. Organizing and Incorporating into Graduate Curric- ulums Content Relevant to Educational Adminis- tration; 5. Creating and Testing Instructional Materials; 6. Clarifying the Relationships of the Specializa- tions within School Administration. 0 The writer himself had an opportunity to attend one Session of UCEA at the College of Education, Michigan State University during November, 1962. The theme of discussion was "The Common and Specialized Learnings for Personnel Preparing for different Administrative Positions." He listened to the scholarly papers read by various professors and found that the presentations were backed by sufficient knowledge and research on the problems under consideration. It is hard to find in other democratic countries the parallel of so much effort being done toward improving the adminis- trative leadership for schools as in America today. It is 10The University Council for Educational Administra- tion, Annual Repopt 1 61-6 , pp. 2-6. ..«— 165 certainly not done in India with which this study is related specifically. The UCEA appears to be the powerful force which will revolutionize the field of educational adminis- tration and enable it to grow faster than many other fields of education. It may even excel the allied branches like public administration and business administration in litera— ture over a few decades of concerted efforts through CPEA and UCEA e gonseguegt Development The outcome of these forces working in the field for a decade now is the expansion as well as the innovation in studies concerning school administration. The annotated bibliography of such studies was first published in 1957 by the Committee for the Advancement of School Administration under the editorship of Hollis A. Moore. As many as 303 studies are listed in this compilation and the range of topics or themes is very wide. The titles or descriptions suggest the variety and nature of studies sponsored and en- couraged by CPEA Centers until 1957 as reported to the Committee.11 Table VII indicates the classification. The themes are quite novel and different from those on which studies were available before 1950. The direction has radically changed from more status studies to the basic understanding of administrative behavior. This is being accomplished by: (1) analyzing the competencies needed for 11Hollis A. Moore, Studies ig.§§hool dministration, A_Report 22_the CPEA.(American Association of School Adminis- trators, 1957). 166 TABLE VII THE REPORTED CPEA STUDIES IN SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION‘ (1950-1957) Serial . Number of Number Themes of Studies Studies 1. Job StUd105 e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 15 2. Concepts of an Administrator's Role . . . 26 3. Studies of Administrator Behavior . . . . 12 he matTUCtional ua‘CrShipe e e e e e e e e 12 5. New Courses (in Educational Administration 9 6. CBS. StUdy Materials. e e e e e e e e e e l. 7. Teaching Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8. Inter-Disciplinary Approach . . . . . . . 3 9e Internships e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 8 10o St‘ldent SQICCtion e e e e e e e e e e e 5 11. Preparation Program Changes--Rea1 and MtiCipfith e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 31 12. Studies of In-Service Needs and Resources 11 13. UGO .f CODSUltmtSe e e e e e e e e e e e u 1“. Conferences and Workshops in In-Service Moda.................. 1° 15. Power Structure and Community Attitudes . 9 l6. Cemmunity Improvement and the School Auinistrator e e e e e e e e e e e e e 12 1?. Improving Public Understanding about SChOOISeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 6 18. Special Studies of Race Integration PI‘OblOlnS 1n the SOUth e e e e e e e e e 6 19. Communications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 .20. Local and Intermediate District Structure and serv1CeSe e e e e e e e e e e e e 11" 21. State Department of Education Services. . 22. School Board Operation. . . . . . . . . . 11 23. Orientation and Guide for Board Members . 2h. MUU‘I Reports. e e e e e e e e e e e e e 25o ROJGCt D‘script19n8e e e e e e e e e e e Total 303 I*Hollis A. Moore, §tu§igs $3,59hgol Adminigtzgtion, Aifigpg£§_gn,thg ggfig,(American Association ef School Administrators, 1957), pp. 32-18b. 167 school administrators in the changing social scene in America; (2) understanding the administrator behavior in actual situations and identifying his role; and (3) adjust- ing the training programs in content, in setting, and in kind according to the basic research findings and scientific knowledge for developing the required skills in adminis- trators. In other words, the attention has been increasing on the ”administrator” rather than on "administration". This aspect was neglected in the past since much was written about the administrative process, procedure, and pattern. It appeared as if this field of study was exhausted or rather complete in scope but the recent behavioral approach has opened new vistas of knowledge and wide opportunities for research. Such developments in educational administration have occured in the United States within the past few years. They are briefly outlined in the next paragraphs. CURRENT‘TRENDS IN THE FIELD The current trends are the general directions in which* the study of educational administration is at present moving. It does not necessarily mean that all the thinkers in the field are agreed upon those directions or have accepted the purpose of current movements. But they represent the novelty and change in thought on the subject, and in approach of its study. They are mostly unprecedented in the past develop- ments or rather less pronounced than they are today. In the continuum of evolution in the field, these trends merely indicate changes in emphasis ignored in the early studies. 168 The purpose of this chapter is to analyze the major trends in the approach which has pushed this field ahead during the last decade. The general trend however is toward the scientific knowledge in administration or toward building administration as an applied science. This has become necessary in America if educational administration is to be raised to the status of a profession on par with other rec- ognized professions. Within this frame of reference have developed new trends as discussed ahead. Trend Iowagd Theory Building It is obvious that theory building has been for a long time a monopoly of physical sciences because their subject- matter of study easily submitted itself to the objective observation and controlled experimentation. But lately, social sciences have also applied this method with a remark- able success. The present movement toward the development of a theory in educational administration is due to the motive of making it a useful social science. Its basis lies in the prevailing trend toward the scientific approach in this field since that has become a national creed of America. The first organized attempt toward the development of theory was done in 1957 Seminar organized by UCEA and co- sponsored by the University of Chicago. It was attended by 51 professors with varied academic background from 31 univer- sities and the theme of their papers was ”Toward the Develop- ment of a Theory of Educational Administration". The papers were published in a volume titled "Administrative Theory in 169 Education" in 1958 under the editorship of Andrew Halpin. Explaining the purpose of the above seminar, Halpin says: Holding a seminar such as this, with professors of educational administration and social scientists sitting down to work together, is salutary; it illustrates the progress we have made in the past decades, progres characterized by a marked change of emphasis in the training of administrators. Traditionally, our training programs have stressed the "practical" and have concerned themselves more with techniques than with understanding. During the post-war period, however, administrators have become increasingly aware of the role of theory and have come to recognize the contributions that social scien- tists can make to our understanding of educational administration. The superintendent's Job and the jobs of principals and supervisors have been viewed afresh in the light of recent human relations research. Those of us responsible for training administrators have welcomed research findings on leadership and group be- havior, and we have found ourselves drawing heavily upon insights about administration derived from other discih plines. But at the same time we have been abashed by the poverty of theory within our field, have been dis‘ mayed by the extent to which our own research has been anchored to ”naked empiricism". Out of this realization has grown our present attempt to develop theory in ed- ucational administration. This seminar on "Theory" was in fact the result of the past deliberations and experiences of professors who discovered that there was a lack of any integrated theory-oriented research in school administration. There were many studies available but they hardly produced any consistent con- figuration of the field for the learner. They did not lead the practitioners any farther in understanding of the adminis- trative phenomenon than what they had before training. It was realized that the quality programs for the professional preparation of school administrators would not be possible 12Andrew W. Halpin (ed.), Admigigtgative Theory‘;g fidugatign (Chicago, Illinois: The Midwest Administration Center, University of Chicago, 1958), p. 1. 170 unless a sound theoretical base was built in the field. The above view was expressed in the publications of NCPEA and CPEA or in others stimulated by them. The example of the latter is one thought-provoking monograph published in 1955 by Coladarci and Getzels titled: ”The Use of Theory in Educational Administration". Some proposed models and theories of educational administration are analyzed here. 1. Coladarci ggg_Getzels. They emphasized and explained the use of theory to a practical administrator in their 28 page monograph published in 1955 by the Stanford University Press.13 They consider administration as the "hierarchy of subordinate-superordinate relationships” within an institu- tion. Functionally, this hierarchy of relationships is the locus for allocating and integrating roles and facilities in order to achieve institutional goals. Administrative relationships operate in inter-personal setting. "We may think of the basic administrative relationship as a dyad, that is, as an interaction between two units, where one unit is at least formally the initiator of the administrative action and the other the recipient of the action. The former is taken as the independent determining agent, and the latter as the dependent and determined. But it must be emphasized at once that the terms initiator and recipient, independent and dependent determined and determining are only relative; the subordinate is not altogether passive, the superordinate 13Arthur P. Coladarci, and Jacob W. Getzels, The Use g§_13eory in_gducationgl Administration - Monograph No. 5 (Stanford, California: Stanford University Press,1955). 171 by no means altogether deminant'.1u Three dimensions of the administrative relationship are important according to them: a) I;:,Ag§hggity,pilengion. The super-ordinate member of the administrative dyad exerts or has the right to exert power or authority in order to implement institutional goals. ”We would hold that Administrative effectiveness in the educational enterprise is a function of the extent to which the super-erdinate--subordinate interaction, with respect to authority dimension, approaches ideal-type ration- ality.”15 b) I!g_3g1g_Diggggion. 'There are two types of interpersonal interaction: ”functionally diffuse and function- ally specific”. These types describe the range of roles and facilities that may legitimately be included as matters for allocation and integration within a given interaction. The administrative relationship in education cannot be function- ally diffuso. It must be functionally specific. The area of administrative authority is limited to a particular tech- nically defined sphere, and what is not specifically cen- ceded to the administrator because of his special competence remains the private affair of the individual. The require- ment of functional specificity is not particular to education but is at the very foundation of all legitimate public admin- istration in a democracy. 1“;214., p. 16. 15;21d., p. 19. 172 N. . . we would hold that administrative effectiveness in the educational enterprise is a function of the extent to which the superordinate-subordinate interaction with respect to the scope of roles and facilities dimension approaches ideal-type functional specificity."16 c) Ihg_gffectivity Dimension. The administrative relationship in education is, of course, based on segmental functional rather than on total emotional ties. Ideally, the rights and obligations of the participants in the inter- action are defined by official rather than emotional consider- ations, and factors of impersonal competence are more impor— tant than factors of personal friendship. The ideal-type administrative relationship in education may be said to be governed by universalistic rather than particularistic standards. The authors do consider the personality aSpect of the role incumbents in educational administration in practice. But in theory they state the postulate in these words: ". . . we would hold that administrative effectiveness in education is a function of the extent to which the super- intendent-teacher interaction, with respect to the affectivity dimension approaches idealatype universalism."17 That was the theoretical framework suggested in 1955 by these authors who happen to have the background of social 1622;10: P0 230 173 psychology. On reviewing the later contributions of Getzels to the field of administration, he has extended and improved this theoretical framework as indicated by his paper ”Admin- istration as a Social Process.” He has continued the same theme of administration as a superordinate-subordinate relationship in any social system and has suggested a new model which represents two dimensions eti or ngzngtizg.and igiggzgggig or personal in the social behavior of an administrator in a given social system.18 Institution-Role-—Expectation SOCIAL OBSERVED SYSTEM\\N BEHAVIOR Individual—Personality—Need disposition/ In perfecting it further, he has added another di- mention or set of variables affecting the social behavior in a given social system. His latest model looks like this in arrangement. Individual-—Personality..Need Dispositionxg SOCIAL ——91n tit ti -—R 1 ~ t ”SERVED SYSTEM s u one o e Expec ations....B VIOR Culture — Ethos _Valuos / Hence, the author suggest that a social behavior as observed is governed by social (institutional), cultural, and psycho- logical factors. An administrator of any social institution 18Jacob U. Getzels ”Administration as a Social Process” "Wu 122.221 is W edited by Andrew v. Halpin (University of Chicago: The Midway Administration Center, 1958). 17h would behave within the limits provided by the above con— siderations. It is for future research to find out the actual impact of each factor on the administrative behavior. However, the present research as author points out, shows sufficient validity pertaining to the administrative relation- ship formulated in his model. His general equation for this kind of relationship is B=f (R x P) where B = Behavior, R = Role, and P = Personality. Thus, Getzel's theory postu- lates that the behavior g£D§g_individual.;g the function .2; his ingtitutional role and his own personality.ygdg given culture. 2. Halpin's Eargdigg. His paradigm or model is proposed for the development of an administrative theory and the pro- duction of new research in the field. It is not offered as a theory but the basis for one. It is predicated upon two strategic assumptions: a) That apart from educational administration, hospital administration, business administration, public administration, etc., there is adminis- tration qua administration; and that is a domain worthy of study. b) That greater strides will be made at this junc— ture if research efforts are focused upon the behavior of administrators rather than upon either administrative behavior or the totality referred to as "administration”. Administration according to Halpin is a form of human activity that involves a minimum of four components: (1) The 19Andrew W. Halpin, "A Paradigm of Research in Admin- istrative behavior" Administrative Behavior ;Q_Educgtion edited by Roald F. Campbell and Russel T. Gregg (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers), p. 159. a 175 Task, (2) The Formal Organization, (3) The Work Group, (h) The leader. The author has explained the components and identified the variables under each of them. The paradigm is composed of four panels indicating major variables taken into account in planning research on administrator behavior. Panel Io Panel II. Panel III. Panel IV. The organization Task: defined in terms of "desirable" behavior or behavioral products. Administrative Behavior: the behavior of the officially designated leader in his administrative role. Variables Associated with Administrative Behavior: These include behavior of the part of group members other than the leader, products of the behavior of group members, specified conditions under which the administrator and other group members are required to operate, patterns of administrative organization, and community factors that bear upon the formal organiza- tion. It is stipulated that these variables be reported objectively and measured reliably. Criteria of Administrator ”Effedtiveness": Two levels of criteria are postuldted: (1) intermediate criteria such as evalua- tions or ratings of the leader's behavior, and (2) outcomes of behavior measured in terms of organizatign products and changes in these products.2 The Panels are a device for differentiating these four broadly defined sets of variables. Although the four components of "Administration" are not coterminous with the Panels, they are all incorporated into the panel arrangement. The author points out that research should be done in the areas defined by all the four panels. A great amount of research has been conducted on the variables in Panel III. It is high time to devote as much or even more effort to ”me” p. 171». 176 Panels IV and II as has already been poured into Panel III. It is so easy to be tempted down the endless by-paths within Panel III. that one is liable to forget that the main high- way to research progress runs between Panels II and IV. This is illustrated in the simplified version of the paradigm in Figure 6. Halpin proposes that paradigm may facilitate and guide the research on administrator behavior and may contribute to the formulation of a useful theory of administration. “The model proposed is tentative and heuristic; its components are selective rather than exhaustive. It is crude; but if it provides a useful way of thinking about administrator behavior it will have served its purpose."21 That is the limitation which Halpin is aware of. 3. Qriffiths' Theory. After reviewing the various attempts at theory building by the past and the present theorists, Griffiths has proposed his theory of administra- tion as the "Decision-making" process. He has done it modestly as his statement indicates. ”There is, of course, no intention of creating the impression that this is a theory in its final form; rather it is a statement which is offered for criticism and improvement. Theories are made to be superseded, and this one is no exception."22 Griffiths follows Feigl in defining theory as "a set of assumptions from which can be derived by purely logico- 211b1d.. p. 196. 22Dan1e1 E. Griffiths,'Administrative Theory (New York:.Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1959). p. 71. 177 Panel I The Task Behavior of P3391 II The Administrator __.______f__-______._ Variables Associated Pan°1 III with Administrator Behavior "- _ — ' - - - — — - — — 1 of "Effectiveness” “1’ I Intermediate Criteria 7 Changes in Organization Panel IV Maintenance (3)1 T T Changes in Organization Achievement (a); FIGURE 6 A SIMPLIFIED VERSION OF HALPIN'S PARADIGM (*Adapted from Roald F. Campbell, and Russell T. Gregg, W 9222.39.21 Lu. W (New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1957), p. 192.) 178 mathematical procedures a larger set of empirical laws". The assumptions made by him are as follows: a) Administration is a generalized type of be- havior to be found in all human organiza- tions. b) Administration is the process of directing and controlling life in a social organization. c) The Specific function of administration is to develop and regulate the decision-making process in the most effective manner possible. d) The administrator works with groups or with individuals with a group referment, not with individuals as such.2 Each assumption is fully explained and delimited. The concepts like Decision-making, Organization, Perception, Communication, Power, and Authority are analyzed in relation- ship to the key concept of "Decisioning" as the central function of administration. The rational decision-maker has in mind all the probabilities that would result from his action. Such a "probability event chain" is shown by the diagram:2u Present Ac on Future Y1 A1 A1 A2 Y3 A2 .54 .5 .5 s s e: 231b1d., pp. 71-7u 2“Ibid., p. 105. 179 If one follows the course of action A1, consequences Y1/A1, Y2/A1, Y3/A1 may eventuate. If one follows the action A2, the consequences Yl/Az, Y2/A2, Y3/A2 may eventuate. Four major testable prepositions ladd down by Griffiths under his theory of administration are: a) The structure of an organization is determined. by the nature of its decision—making process. The issues of organizational structure such as "span of control" can be resolved if viewed as the outgrowth of a particular type of decision-making process. b) If the formal and informal organization approach congruency, then the total organization will approach maximum achievement. By "approaching congruency" is meant that the formal and in- formal organizations must perceive the task of organization as being the same for both, and both must behave in Much the same way to carry out the task. . . . c) If the administrator confines his behavior to making decisions on the decision-making process rather than making terminal decisions for the organization, his behavior will be more accept— able to his subordinates. d) If the administrator perceives himself as the controller of the decision-making process, rather than the maker of the organization's decisions, the decisions will be more effective. The effectiveness of an administrator according to Griffiths, is inversely proportional to the number of decisions made by him personally for the whole organization. His formula for this proposition is: t=_1._. ( ) :D(t) where E is effectiveness in achieving the objectives of the organization; ID is the sum total of the number of decisions, t is the specific time interval. It is evident that Griffiths theory is based on the democratic and decentralized setting I. 180 of this country. It cannot claim the universality in its application to authoritarian cultures or to autocratic forms of administration. h.lflgltgglg_X$gg, In his book, "Administration and Policy-making in Education,” John Walton has viewed the pro- blem of theory in details. He has discovered three emerging trends in theory building.25 The first of these arises from the assumption that the administrative function cannot be abstracted from the other functions of the educational organ- ization. From this assumption it follows that the educa- tional administrator must be a teacher, a scholar, or an educator. As an educator, the educational administrator is not and cannot be restricted to purely administrative tasks, but he engages in the same professional activities as the teacher, the counselor, the scholar, and the researcher. He is primarily a specialist in education, or in some academic discipline, rather than in administration per se; and he is on part or full-time assignment to attend to the administrative aspects of his profession, which involve primary considerations of education. The second theory centers around the regard for administration as a function that can be abstracted from the other functions of an organization and the belief that its nature is essentially the same in all organizations. This type of theory would provide ultimately, if not now, 25John Walton, Administration and PglicI-maktng.yg Educatiog (Baltimore: The John Hopkins Press, 1959), pp. 33‘36e 1‘ 181 for an administrative class specialists in administration rather than in education. The third emergent theory is based on the fact that education, along with other institutions in society, has become tremendously complex, heterogeneous, unwieldy, and competitive. This state of affairs has given rise to the need for administrators who can see the various components in relation to one another and can insure the survival cf educational organizations. The specialist may provide the administrator with facts and technical information, but decisions about the purposes of education and the methods required to accomplish these purposes should be left to the administrator. This is the theory of the managerial revolution applied to education. Walton believes in the second approach and so he has developed the following major propositions concerning the theory of administration. 1. Administration is the phenomenon that can be unambigously identified and defined; it can be distinguished from the other functions of an organization; it is basically the same in all organizations, whether they be educational, industrial, governmental, military, or ecclesiastical. 2. The essential nature of the administrative process has been identified by Fayol, Gulick, Sears, and others who belong to the school of thought that administration is an activity that can be studied in its own right. However, they have neglected to give adequate consideration to the human and personal relationships involved and have not attempted to include in their theories the relations of the administrative function to the intrinsic activity of the organization, on the one hand, and to the community at large, on the other. 182 3. Administration came into being with the first organized activity; its growth can be explained largely by the increased size, number and com- plexity of organizations, and by the increase in the variety, speed, and urgency of the ac- tivities within the organization. Increased administration, due to organizational demands, in turn contributes to the complexity of the organization and demands even more administra- tiono e e e u. The administrative function requires a specific structure within an organization in order to operate effectively, and it demands specific abilities on the part of the administrator. 5. The larger social role of administration consists in providing stability for organizations and, indirectly, for society at large. This respon- sibility is accomplished through the elucidation and clarification of organizational purposes and objectives and through the maintenance of organ- izations in order to avoid both the waste of social energies necessary for their formation and the imbalance that will occur when organi- zations fail to accomplish their objectives. . . . 6. The nature of administrative process, which is demanded by organization, is antithetical to the intrinsic functions of some organizations. In educational institutions this incompatibility is greater than it is in industry and less than it is in research institutions and in schools devoted exclusively to the creative arts, for example. However, since all organizations depend upon administration for their survival and maintenance, the solution to the problem inevitably involves some compromise between administrative necessity and educational activity. 26 Walton's view is not concerned with the administrator's behavior but with the administrative process alone. He has emphasized three major aspects of the administrative process in education viz., (l) Discernment of purpose, (2) Internal coordination, (3) Public relations. His theory is so general 262.1510: PPe 35-36. th 183 that it can be subjected to a variety of judgments. "This statement" writes Walton, "shhuld occasion no surprise, since in the beginningwwe defined theory in such a way as to include most, if not all, forms of reflective thinking."27 The foregoing description indicates the attempts of a few theorists who have proposed their constructs for theory build- ing. The second theory conference was held in November 1959 which was attended by both practitioners and professors. The purpose was to examine a number of approaches toward the development of theory in educational administration, to explore some of the empirical findings emanating from research based on these theoretical approaches, and to test with the super- intendent operating within the complex social milieu of his job the relevance of both the concepts and the research.28 The important papers were phblished in a volume titled Admin- istrative Theory 23_5,Guide.tg.Avtion during 1960. The basic questions under consideration of the participants were two: (1) What do we know (in theory)?, (2) Is it relevant (in practice)? It was discovered through the study reported in the conference that the practitioners were ready to obtain new knowledge, new concepts, models and theories and found them helpful guides to a successful practice.29 27Ibid., p. 18h. 28Roald F. Campbell, and James M. Lipham (eds.), d 5t tive T412221 as. a 9.192 :2 ____Action (Chicago: Mid- west Administration Center, 1960), p. vii. 2922;23: P. 30. 18b The theorists however were cautioned to study their problems realistically rather than abstractly so that a meaningful communication between the two becomes possible. Exposing the concerns of superintendents about theoretical research in educational administration Sidney Marland said, "There appears to be considerable amount of interest, concern, and readiness of the part of superintendents to listen attentively to the counsel of the social scientists. The shcial scientists, admitting at this time that no one theory of administration is yet at hand, are hard at work searching for such a theory, not only for education but for all formal organizations. . . . while communication does exist between the ”theorists" and the "practitioners”, it is transient, spotty, and lacking in an acceptable mutual vocabulary.”30 As a superintendent, he has offered some suggestions to both the practitioners and the theorists to draw close and to work together on the problems of school administration. But his firm faith in the practitioner's intuition is wit- nessed in his concluding statement: And finally, let us not disparage or ignore the intuitive good sense with which we are endowed as leaders. The hunches, the trials and errors, the creative solutions to problems, the actions prompted by spirit as much as by fact, unaccompanied by scientific management, un- guided by the social scientists, have produced a sweep- ingly successful product. Let us not lose our gift for seat-of—the-pants judgment while we are waiting for push- button answers to our problems. A staff of teachers, a school full of children, a district full of parents, and a community full of citizens call for leadership artistry that may be helped by science, but science is unlikely in 30Sidney P. Marland, "Superintendents' Concerns about Research Applications in Educational Administration" Adminis- trative Theory‘gg‘g Guide tgiAction edited by Campbell and Lipham (Chicago: Mid-west Administration Center, 1960), p. 3“- 185 our time to relieve the superintendent of the burden of the lonesome hours of decision-making when his final resources are his common sense, his intuition, and his heart.31 That expresses the major challenge to theory-building in educational administration. The lack of practitioner's faith in theory due to their commitment to the empirical factualism, inadequate communication through proper pro— fessional language, and unwarranted respedt for the authority of experts or leaders in the field--all these account for the difficulties in theory-building. Trend Toward Interdisciplinary,Approach There is an increasing tendency among the writers and researchers in the field of school administration to draw on other disciplines. The earlier studies remarkably differ from the later studies encouraged and sponsored by CPEA in this particular aspect. Very little, if any, was drawn from the other disciplines like anthropology, socio- logy, psychology, economics, polital science, law and public administration. The fact is the administration in education was considered as the "service" activity and therefore ”subservient" to the educational activity. That is the theme on which the earlier books were written and the content, methods and techniques in the field were devised. "Adminis- tration is essentially a service activity," wrote Moehlman in 19h0,“ a tool or agency through which the fundamental objectives of the educational process may be more fully and 312.12. . pp. 35-36. 186 and efficiently realized."32 Similar view was expressed by other authors of time. The first departure in the study approach to the subjedt was made by Soars in his volume ”The Nature of Administrative Process” in which he began to draw on the sister branches of public and business administration. His purpose was to develop a scientific understanding of the administrative process in education, and to improve the administrative practice in school. This he explained in the following statement: This book is an attempt to find a more fundamental basis than we now have for the criticism and improvement of administrative practice. To that end it offers the results of an inquiry into the nature of administrative process. The study was undertaken in the hope that by a close scrutiny of all the elements and aspects of the activity, separately and in combination, further light might be thrown upon what makes administration good or bad. Though new to the field of school administration, the approach here used has been applied in the fields of business and government administration, beginning with the work of Frederick W. Taylor in this country and Henry Fayol in France--both of the late 19th century-- and currently well-exemplified by a collection of papers, Papers gghthg_§cience 2;,Adminigtration, edited by Luther M. Gulick and L. Urwick. Such analyses, properly applied in different fields, should stimulate interest in a comparative study of administration, now so obviously needed if we are to develop a science of administration. . . .33 But, after the CPEA projects have started, there is increased drawing upon the basic disciplines rather than on the applied ones. The emphasis has shifted from the descrip- 32Arthur B. Moehlman, School Administration (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, l9h0), p. v. 33Jesse B. Sears, The Nature g£,the Administrative Proggss with Spectal Reference tg_Public School Administtgtion (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc., 1950), p. vii. 187 tive analyses of the administrative process to the scientific study of administrative behavior. Hence the recent studies or school administration lean toward the social sciences which apply behavioral approach. The present movement of theory building is the outcome of the interdisciplinary approach in the study of human behavior. Griffiths' decision- making process, Buba's administrative relationship concept, and Halpin's paradigm for research-~a11 are colored by the behavioral approach borrowed from the social disciplines. The academic background of these theorists is largely sociology, anthropology, and psych010gy with a general understanding of educational process. If one were to analyze and classify the quotations and references in a modern book on education or educational administration, one will be convinced of this trend in America. It is also apparent in the preparation programs of teachers and administrators. There is a move toward interdisciplinary seminars, joint instructorships, and cooperative research in the schools of education. The pro- fessional organizations arrange such joint conferences to have broader perspective on the subject-matter of education. Reviewing the phases of the interdisciplinary approach, Anderson and Lonsdale write: At least five varieties of the "interdisciplinary approach" have been tried. One approach is the use of interdisciplinary advisory committees drawn from the total university faculty to advise the faculty in educational administration con- cerning its program. Both the Ohio State University and Teachers College, Columbia University, have used this plan. Nile. .1 h!“ ‘11... 188 A second approach is the interdisciplinary seminar concerned with problems and subjects related to, but out- side of, the field of professional education. Illustra- ting this practice was a seminar at the University of Virginia. A third approach is the interdisciplinary seminar or series of seminars built around the problems of educa— tion but drawing upon a number of other fields. Both the second and third approaches were tried at the University of Pittsburgh. A fourth approach is what might be considered an integrated inierdisciplinary one. The sequence of basic seminars which constitute the core of the doctoral pro- gram at the University of Chicago illustrates this approach. The fifth approach is the use of the interdisciplinary research team. For example, at Stanford University a group of political scientists undertook a study of the relationships of sghools and other aspects of local government. . . .3 It is clear that the interdisciplinary approach pervades the recent teaching methods, studies and research in the field of school administration. This was not so pronounced a trend in the past as it is today in this country. The outcome is yet to be seen and judged in future. But the broad-based preparation of school administrators and the social science-oriented studies and concepts are bound to produce a far better leadership in education during the following decades. Besides, being a specialist in his area, the future school executive will be "the perceptual generalist.” Irend Ioward the Development g£_New Congepts The academic thought released due to the new forces in the field of school administration, have led to the growth of new concepts, ideas, and constructs. They are analyzed and studied empirically to obtain a clear under— 39Walter A. Anderson and Richard C. Lonsdale ”Learn- ing Administrative Behavior" Administrative Behavior ;g_ IEducation edited by Roald F. Campbell and Russell T. Gregg vaew York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1957), pp. “uB-NUS. 189 standing of school administration as a process, as a job and so on. A few of them will be briefly considered here to sub- stantiate this argument and illustrate the above trend. 1. Iridiemnsional Concept. This conception or frame of reference for the educational administrator was developed as an interdisciplinary project in the work of the Cooper- ative Pregram in Educational Administration, Middle Atlantic Region. It encompasses the essential elements of educa- tional administration in three dimensions: (1) The Job, (2) The Man, and (3) The Social Setting.35 The job includes the tasks and responsibilities rel- evant to the present educational needs. The Man, that is administrator is an individual with his strengths and weak- nesses in terms of physical, mental, and emotional qualities. While the Job shapes him, he is also shaping the Job. The Social Setting includes the pressures and demands of society. They set the limits for the Job and influence the thinking of the Man. Each dimension is further divided into: Content, Process, and Sequence as illustrated in Table VIII. The chief contribution of the tridimensional concept is the classification of different variable involved in educational administration. 2. Competency Pattern. Concurrent with the develop- 35Daniel E. Griffiths, Human Relations ;g_School agmtgigtzation (Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1956), pp. “-7. 190 ousasu eucsulmcen .3 oususu use: .an .a .Aenma ..o:H .are.uouau:u:.ouc.a.aaaag 33.54 a 3. 33 H g 3.3335 .e H.239. use useeeua .n anon aseoeu .N ousvsu .n easasm .n eseaudweaa . uceeeun .« aseeeun .N woveeu huaeew .H seen .H poem .d mommaamm moznnomm Homflaafln uselaesneseu was Bodysueeeu .3 usdwdoew esusaae was eeeeeuve .n wse Isauodweaa .3 usduseleunld .3 aseheuqu was hes .N eaneea ea usdusdeu .n esededoew msdxdl .n hvdaaneue eeoseaeusd msdxsl .N leanehn on» «cavemen .N was hudssdasee .H eleaneaa undesee .H eloanean undesee .d mmmoomfi NOthmflm mmfloomm eeavaudosu wse essay noses» .uodden msdsdsvsasl was msdwdbekn .3 .anhselu aesuevvsm .3 desseeaem sodas-«ssuue hsdmedebew eds usasasvne .n he xuosves .n hv«::»henne elevehe Hesedveueu .N AssadA49e .3 assodueoswe mcdbeanld .N eeouseeeu ‘ Hssedvelo .n hvdssllee elv nuns Illa! .Hsodlene: assuoennousd .N endlesoausdeahevsd Iloeu .Asodehln .A Hsodehnn .H ehdvoeuue unasdsvsddl .H flamenco hhHo<fi fidflflh 191 ment of the Tridimensienal concept, SSCPEA formulated the Cempetency Pattern. In 1951, representatives fnem ll southeastenn states decided to launch a cooperative program for the improvement of preparation program for educational administrators. It was decided to base the program improve- ments on competencies needed by school administrators. “The Competency Pattern” write Graff and Street "is a theoretical construction designed to encompass the elements in intelligent and productive behavior.”36 Th3 authors Uh. participated in the SSCPEA seminars have worked out the instrument of competency pattern in greater details in their volume. The SSCPEA Competency Pattern integrates three impor- tant elements into its plan for describing and investigating competence: (1) Job analysis to reveal “Critical tasks“ involved; (2) "knewbhew' or equipment needed to perform the critical tasks; (3) ”theory" to furnish guide-lines and frame- work, and to insure consistency.37 Knowbhew Job of Educational Adm. of _g , , Educational Theory of Adm. Educational Adm. 360rin B. Graff, and Calvin M. Street, Igpggztgg We: 1.". Emanuel. Watt-ti n. (Now York: Harper d Brothers Publishers, 1956), p. 18. 37Tentative Progress Report on Planning for the Study Of Preparation Programs in Educational Administration (Nashville, Tenn: SSCPEA, 1952), (Quoted by Grmff and Street. on. cit.. p. h l. 192 The job is central and evaluation of competence is done in terms of job performance. Theory is basic to per— formance and its evaluation. The job tasks and the necessary knew-how must not contradict the basic theory. Further expansion of the three dimensions are indicated‘ by the two blocks in Figure 7. The following criteria is implied in the Competency Pattern of SSCPEA: I. Start with the job (educational administration) A. Pertray the job in terms of: 1. Basic theory (ideals of democracy) 2. Educational theory consistent with basic theory ' 3. ”Critical tasks” which make up the job, and which are consistent with educational and basic theory. H. Areas of administrative operation (Job areas). II. Determine the "know how" equipment needed to do the JObe A. Select know-how in terms of: 1. Applicability to job performance 2. Sufficient critical importance in jpb per- formance. 3. consistency with the educational theory.38 This eencept refutes the widely held idea of competence that the way most administrators perform a task constitutes the best way of doing it. It provides the rationale for. the best performance so that the ongoing preparation progrmms of administration can be revised and improved. 3. in ms at. W W. Rout“ to the competency pattern is the concept of the ”Task” of the school administrators. Unless the task is clear, an optimum preparatory program for the administrators could 386raff and Street, .22- gi_t.. p. #8. 193 be ‘00“ 9 ° 4 -o 1;?éfc fir§§$?€b qe C? 49 9 Q? ,¢§9 THE THEORY The Functions of Educational Adm. C — _‘ r _ -— h————— OF EDUCATIONAL The Functions of Public Education —_—'———_ _ ADMINISTRATION The Ideals of American Democracy I THE KNOW3HOW OF Special Understandings, Tools, and Attitudes ‘—-' — — — — -_ _ —+ _- —L EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION Basic Understandings, Tools and Attitudes FIGURE 7 THE JOB OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN RELATION TO THEORY AND KNOW-HOV"I (‘Adapted from Orin B. Graff and Calvin M. Street, Improving Competence in Educational Administration (New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers, 1956), PP. h6-h7). 195 not be framed. The SSCPEA Competency Pattern included the following ”Critical Task" areas: (1) Instruction and curri- culum, (2) Student Personnel, (3) Staff Personnel, (b) School Plant, (5) Organization and Structure (6) Finance and Business Organization, (7) Transportation. Another analysis of the task has been done in the kinds of roles which the administrator plays. Haskow des- cribes eight roles of the good administrator which imply many elements of the task: 1. The role of prophet 2. The role of chairman 3. The role of organizer . lhe role of executive 5. The role of policy formulater 6. The role of technical consultant and technician 7. The role of decision maker 8. The role of leader39 A School-Development Study at Ohio State University outlined the following areas of desirable behavior on the part of educational administrators: “(1) Setting goals, (2) Making Policy, (3) Determining roles, (h) Coordinating administrative functions and structure, (5) Appraising effectiveness, (6) Working with community leadership to pro- mote improvements in education, (7) Using the educational resources of the community, (8) Involving people, (9) Communicating."l"o 39L. D. Haskow, ”Descriptions of a Coed School Admin- iStratot.’ Southwestern CPEA December Conference on Improving Preparation Programm of School Administrators (Austin, Thxas: Uni. of Thxas, 1951), pp. h-9. . , . quohn A. Ramsoyer, Lewis E. Harris, Millard z. Pond, and Howard Wakefield, Iggtors gfigcting W m- , CPEA Series (Columbus, Ohio: College of Education, Ohio State university, 1955), pp. 18956. \ 4“: - o' I4 O 5“- 195 Robert Fisk has related this concept to the ”Paradigm" and has stated that the task of educational administration is ultimately translated into responsibilities which the ad- ministrator perceives as requiring behavior on his part. uResponsibilities will be considered portions of the task which--whilo varying-in importance, in difficulty, in the numbers of persons involved, and in many other variables-- are possible of delineation for purposes of definition, of communication, and of delegation or other treatment. These responsibilities will also be considered as matters which must be faced by members of the Administrative team.'u1 He has analyzed the task of educational administration under four major categories developed in the Middle Atlantic Region CPEA series. in Balsiiss:inzisslflssssniix 1. responsibility for community improvement 2. responsibility for defining educational need 3. responsibility for working with the board of education h. responsibility for interpreting the educational program 5. responsibility for encouraging community support of'education 6. responsibility for interpreting the role of other agencies 7. responsibility for interpreting community mores to the professional staff 8. responsibility for establishing communication between school and community mwuww 9. responsibility for defining the philosophy and objectives of the schools ”IRobert S. Fisk, ”The Task of Educational Adminis- rem..- W mom: .19. M out“ by Campbell and Cred: (New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1957). p. 210. 196 10. responsibility for continuous evaluation of the educational program 11. responsibility for establishing appropriate organization 12. responsibility for establishing appropriate processes mow a1 .Wmmmuml 12. responsibility for policy development 1 . responsibility for continous professional _ development 15. responsibility for evaluation of performance 16. responsibility for consideration of personnel In. W and W 11592.: mi W 17. responsibility for demonstrating technical . competence 18. responsibility for balanced judgment l9. responsibility for coordinfigion in the area of funds and facilities. Thus, the task has been defined to help design better pre- paration programs for administrators. Similar analyses of other concepts are in the process at various centers of CPEA. It is not the purpose of this; study to analyze each one of the wrnmerous conceptual frame- works here but to shed some light on the proliferation of literature in the field of school administration. To mention some of them, such concepts road ass, administrator role, Job analysis, administrative process, instructional leader- ship” case studies, leador_behavior, administrative effec- 'tiveness, success-criteria, community improvement, public :relations, power structure, human relations, professional growth etc. All these analyses are attempted with a view to. improving the preparation programs for school administrators. :If educational administration is to be raised to a professional “213211.. pp. 211-227. 197 level, the entrance in this field has to be selective and open to only these who have a specialised training in the Job. And the specialised preparation for administrators could hardly be accomplished without a well-developed body of the professional literature in the field. The intensive study of this area encouraged and sponsored by the CPEA centers and by the UCEA.mombors ever the last twelve years is addressed to the reorientation of the preparation pro- grams for school administrators in America. The purpose is to prune. mm mm». in. mm mm- Tho next few pages review the impact of the new trends on such programs in various universities of this country. IMPACT ON PREPARATION PROGRAMS The study of educational administration is closely related to the preparation programs for school administrators. Initially initiated by the needs of society for preparation programs, the study and research in later stages begin to shape the programs and provide the body of knowledge for the whole field. This makes the revision of the contents as well as the methods in any subject-matter inevitable from time to time in view of new knowledge and research available in the field. There is always a proverbial lag between the curri- culum and the advances in knowledge accumulated over time in any field of study; The field of ochool administration is no exception. The relationship of the courses and programs with the study and research in this field is evident from the 198 parallel development of both over the past fifty years. Lately, the persistent trend has been to reorient the pro- grams te the new findings of research and the new insights of the study in administrative behavior in education. we shall new review the impact of new forces in the preparation prograns. .EIIEIIIE. In their inquiry regarding a typical course offerings in educational administration, the Commission discovered the nest common elements of ”Core Programs" as indicated in Table IX. The course titles did not tell much about the content covered in each area. The term.'Core' was interpreted to mean anything from an integrated experience to a set of discrete courses required for state certification. A typical Haster's program appears to include these eight courses as reported by the majority of colleges: (1) Organization and Administratien (General), (2) Supervision, (3) Curriculum, (5) Social Foundations, (5) Iinance, (6) IResearch, (7) Law (8) Psychological Foundations. The courses given in the Sixth—Year program appear to ‘bo much the same as those given in the master's program.' The courses like Personnel, Business Administration, Ioderal, State and Local Relations, Case Studies etc. tend to be required by more colleges on the doctoral level. The Co-missien observes in rather sad terms: The core as an integrated experience exists in very few institutions. The absence of internships and the sparsity of field experiences are alarming. After all it‘ilt Ole tn Illu. .' ill‘ “I.“ Zia-IIIIA I...‘ elh uni-inel- AIHI Q... 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The economy cannot progress without skilled and trained business men. The schools can hardly operate at their optimum level in the absence of financial resources provided by society. Govern- ment can rarely be efficient if there is lack of trained personnel, or civic-minded citizenry, or even the taxation on people's resources. Thus, stages of development in each social institution are interlocked, circular in motion, and cumulative in effect. This fact is clear from the comparison of America and India--one is in the advanced stages of economic, ed- ucational, and other social developments, while the other is less developed in all such aspects. Thus, India has to pass through a cycle of development to reach the parallel position with America in her social system in course of time. A period of waiting, suffering, and hard-work pre- cedes the full development although it could be minimized by selective learning of useful experiences and techniques used by America. So, this principle helps one to guard against the wholesale transplantation of the advanced country's institution or practice in the under-developed society. 5. Eguilibggiumt There is a tendency in nature of things to find a state of equilibirium. It is not the state concept of equilibirium used by theoreticians in economics or in physics but the reference is made to a shilt- ing equilibirium or a constant movement toward "Balance.” History has shown how the nations have competed with one another to find an international ”balance of power“ on this 273 globe. The balance is ever shifting because the under- developed countries compete with the advanced countries to find a parallel or equal status. In other words, every nation like individual strives for equality of status iith peers. This makes it imperative for the less developed nations to develop in the manner the advanced countries have done. But in the modern times of growing international cooperation, this process is being expedited at least within the circles of nations bearing similar political tag or value-identity. America and India stand in the same kind of relation- ship be way of free democratic countries. It is the aspira- tion of India to attain the national status parallel to America, hence the forces are hard at work in this process. Accompanied with the friendly ties with America, the process has been invigorated in different ways. Regular foreign aid in terms of resources and technical experts will bring India's development much sooner than otherwise expectdd if effort had been one-sided and singleéhanded. To sum up, the implications of the developments in the study of educational administration in America are drawn for India with the Justification that the above principles afford. My gene 93 £13; cgitggig £2; 31;; tggsfe; 2; 33h; institutional practices‘gfflggg_higglz developgd country 52, m 33:33; in; _th_e _e_a_1_~_l_x stages g_i_‘_ growth. 27h SHIIARY Education is a product of nation's history, philosophy, and culture. American education has developed within the cultural values held by the people of the United States. It is the declared public policy of this country to make the educational opportunity available to all. The new India also offers the same promise but her resources are meagre at present. while in U.S. it has been possible in practice after a long struggle and serious effort. The factors that brought the public education to the present stage also affect the study of educational administration. There are two kinds of factors, (1) general, and (2) specific that have played an important part in develop- ing the study of school administration as a special field. The general factors consist of philosophy, history, culture, social and economic development of the United States. They have built the educational system of the country and are responsible for the expansion and diversification in higher education also. Teacher education and its proliferation in various departments including school administration have been the result of the total development of the American society. The specific factors that have been responsible for the development of the preparation programs and the study of school administration are: the certification laws, pro- fessional organizations, community needs, size of schools, nature of Job opportunities and skills. These factors demanded well-prepared school administrators for the public 275 schools of America. Hence, the colleges responded by offering programs in this area and the professors engaged in the study and research related to the problems of educational administra- tion. The field of school administration, however young, has been growing very fast in America today. The question that is pertinent here is to see whether or not such factors or conditions are present in India. What is the comparative position of India at present? Are there possibilities of transferring some of the practices in the field of school administration in U.S. to the situation of India? There are extreme views on the subject of transfer from one country to the other. There are some historians and anthro- pologists who stick to differences in cultures of nations. A few others believe in evoling and changing cultures which are interdependent and not extremely apart. Lately, some econo- mists have worked on this problem and analyzed the positions of different countries on a continuum scale of development amd under-development. This places the United States and India on the same continuum scale of social evolution based on democra- tic values of freedom, equality, and social Justice. They are not on the same stage of development now but on the same tract of national goals. Besides similarity of goals in the two countries, there are many differences in their resources. These differences in in the resourcesfand means are responsible for differences in their educational practices. Indian education is in the stage of formalism still and American education has moved toward the stage of meaning according to 0.3. Beeby's model. This compar— 276 ison gives us the basis for implications. The implications of the developments in America for India are Justified on these grounds: 1. Both have identity in the national goals. 2: Both are evoling and moving toward their goals. 3. Both are on a continuum of evolution. h. Both are at present in different stages of develop- ment. 5. Both are affected by the natural equilibirium in the international balance of power. 277 CHAPTER VII IMPLICATIONS FOR INDIA India today is in the process of a rapid change in all the phases If her life. More modern developments have taken place during the last decade after her independence than in the whole of her past history. Her evolution is so much planned in direction and so speedily expedited that it has taken the form of a "revolution from the very grass- roots”. There is an all-round revolution underway which touches the political, economic, social, cultural, and educational fringes of Indian life. Education as a part of the total social system is receiving its share of attention from the planners and of the resources available with the nation. As a result,there has been a tremendous expansion in the student enrolments in schools, in the training facilities for teachers, and in various kinds of extension programs for teachers, head- masters, principals, and inspectors. By year 1956-57. there were 133 graduate teacher triining colleges with the total enrolment if 17,261 trainees. The direct expenditure reported on such institutions was Rs 80,h7,598 (about two million dollars).1 The increase in these figures during the period after 1957 could easily be visualized. As this study is dealing with the implications of 1Government of India, Ministry of Education, Education 278 the developments in the study of educational administration in U.S. for India, it is necessary to evaluate the present position of the subject in the teacher training colleges of India. PRESENT POSITION IN INDIA As the name suggests, the teacher-training institutions of India are by and large the “training schools" providing skills in teaching methods and some knowledge of child psychology, of educational principles, of school organiza- tion, of educational history and problems etc. The students who earn the professional degree of B.T. er B.Id. undergo one academic year's training in these courses along with some practical work. There is hardly any specialization acquired by trainees at this level except in their selected subject methods which they prefer to teach in school. This program is comparable to the first degree of 3.5. in educa- tion Offered by the American colleges of teacher-education. Post-graduate courses in education leading to Master's and Doctoral degrees are offered by about thirty univer- sities now. It is at this stage the advanced courses are taught in various special fields such as: (1) Educational Philosophy, (2) Educational Psychology, (3) Comparative Education, (4) History of Education, (5) Administration of Education, (6) Educational Research and Statistics. (7) Guidance and Counseling. (8) Experi- mental Education, (9) Basic Education, (10) Burrent Profile-s in Education, (11) Educational Sociology, (12) Educational Measurements, etc.2 2Faculty of Education and Psychology, Qrdinggggg‘gg§_ Wfimwv “=10 3.32.40 rdin _tho Lido Examination (Baroda, M.S. University, 1950). 279 Almost each University offers about four to five courses of papers and classifies them into two groups: (1) Compulsory, and (2) Optional. The compulsory group consists of two to four fundamental courses like Educational Philosophy, Educational psychology, History of Education, Comparative Education, Administration of Education. The optional group covers all the other courses from which the students have to choose one or two according to their pre- ference. Besides these courses, students in some univer- sitios have to present a thesis as a part requirement. Some universities confer Master's degree on the basis of thesis alone. There is hardly any course work required for doc- toral degrees which are given on the presentation of a scholarly research thesis after two years of registration beyond the Master's degree. Lately, a new ideology is developing to revise the contents offered by the teacher training institutions in the light of national needs of free India. "A model syllabus for B.Ed. classes has been framed by a Committee set up by the Ministry of Education in 1956 for the purpose. The Committee worked upon the two directions given by the well- knewn educationist Mr. K. G. Saiyidain in his inaugural address. They read as follows: 1. whatever knowledge is imparted to the trainees should have a direct bearing on the day-to-day scheol problems; and 2. It should be the endeavour of every teacher in a training college to link up his theoretical work with the new socio-economic forces that are operative in the national life. Unlessthat is 280 done, the training will lose.much of its signif- icance and the trainee will find it difficult to develop a complete and coherent picture of life.3 The effort is also underway new to bridge the gulf between the Basic and non-Basic graduate training programs for teachers. The Third All-India Conference of Training Colleges considered this issue at length. It was of the opinion that the integration can be achieved by: ”(1) Reducing and suitably modifying the theoretical portion of the usual training programme, and (2) Giving an added weight- age to practical work and its necessary reorientation so as to provide for training in community life, craft and corre- lated teaehing.“u Some teachers’ colleges have started the integration process. The training institute of 'Visva-Bharati" has tried to evolve a course on this pattern. The training college of Udaipur known as 'Vidya Bhavan' has sought to achieve this objective by incorporating into its eourses of study, important elements of philosophy and practice of basic education. It is evident no significant measures are adopted to change or reorient the master's pregrmm in education. In fact, there are very few attempts made to offer specialized courses for various school personnel needs such as Counselors, Educational Administrators (Head-masters, Principals, Deputy 3Government of India, Ministry of Education, sugggdggz, We (octh.rs 19.56). Po 9.. “Quoted rm: 5. N. mum-.11. W m m. max 391 W (Baroda: Acharya Book Depot, 1960), p. 315. 281 Inspectors, Inspectors, Supervisors, and other Officers in Education). Educational Planners, Researchers, School Psychologists, Curriculum Exports and so on. The only emphasis has been on ”teaching. at all levels of educational training in India. Recently, the Regional Symposium on Overall Educational Planning is Asia was held at New Delhi under the auspices of UNESCO. Delegations from 16 Asian Member States viz. Burma, Ceylon, China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Japan, Korea, Laos, Halaya, Nepal, Pakistan, the Phillippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Viet-Nam participated in the Symposium on the problems of Educational Planning in Asia. The first phase of Symposium which was held from 29 January to 1h February 1962, the attention was focused upon the issues involved, resources available, and the priorities in national planning of the participating member countries of Asia. In the second phase of the Symposium held from 16th February to 22nd February 1962, the question of training of Educational Planners, Administrators, and Supervisors was thoroughly examined. The members welcomed the proposal of UNESCO to establish the Regional Centre for the Training of Educational Planners, Administrators and Supervisors at New Delhi which would implement three main programmes: 1. the conduct of short training courses for different categories of personnel, the first course being for educational planners, and administrators and the secnld for school supervisors; 2. research in problems connected with educational planning, administration and school supervision; and 282 3. assistance to Member States Through short missions of centre staff to advise on problems connected with educational development or in conduct of related training courses. The Symposium Report makes as many as thirty six recommen- dations of a wide variety for the future developments in the region. Among them, the following pertain to the training institutions of each member country: 1. The programmes for the training of personnel should be accorded veryhigh priority in all plans of educational development (paragraph #7). 2. Each country should prepare a complete list of the different categories of personnel which it needs for educational development (estimate the require- ments of persons in each category for the next 10 to 20 years and design suitable training . programmes for each category) (paragraph “8). 3. A survey of the existing programmmewfor the train- ing of personnel shows that further efforts are needed in three directions: (1) better coordin- ation between the existing programmes, both at the national and regional level; (ii) develop- ment of additional programmes at the regional level; and (iii) the expansion of the national programmes (paragraph #9). h. The development of national programmes for the training of pergonnel is of the highest importance (paragraph 51). The above recommendations are very pertinent to India and other Asian nations which are in the process of rapid national development. The personnel requirements of these countries have increased but the training institutions have responded very slowly. This fact is evident in India from the assess- ment made earlier about the course offerings at the post- . 5WESCO. ,W 21mins is. A._sia (A Reportof the UNESCO Regional Symposium on Overall Educational Planning in Asia, New Delhi, 29 January--23 February, 1962), p. 12. 61bid.. pp. 15-16 283 graduate level by such institutions. For instance, during the period after independence, the Government of India sponsored the Multipurpose Secondary Schools Scheme. The main purpose of such schools was to diversify curricula for the benefit of students with diff- erent aptitudes and interests, and to develop skilled workers for the growing industrial needs of the nation. The urgent difficulty was felt in findingtrained teachers for such schools because the training institutions were producing purely academic teachers for the last century under the colonial rule. There were many handicaps in converting such training institutions for the new demands of the country. They could not be discussed at length here but a mention of a few such difficulties may clarify the understanding: 1. Lack of financial resources, 2. Rigidity of college programs, 3. Traditional college teachers, 4. Conflict in the statuscf academic and non-academic or vocational courses, 5. Shortage of books, and instructional materials in vocational areas, 6, Tight examinations and evaluative conditions, 7. Resistance to change, 8. Want of inter-collegiate or inter-departmental cooperation, 9. "Status quo" administrators of colleges and univer- sities, etc. These conditions have caused stagnation in the training programs of colleges and have made them indifferent to the new demands of the changing society of India. Under the Third Five Year Plan, a high priority will be given to the preparation of teachers for multipurpose schools. Recently, the National Council of Educational Research and Training has started one of the four Regional. 284 Colleges of Education at Ajmer (Rajasthan State). The other three such colleges will be located at Bhopal (Madhya Pradesh State), at Bhubanoshwar (Orissa State), and at Mysore (Mysore State) in near future. These four Regional Colleges of Education will serve the needs of Multipurpose Schools of India in all the four parts, northern, eastern, western, and southern as indicatdd by the Figure 11. The task of establishing this college is largely credited to the Ohio State University Team which is in India presently for consultation and direction of the whole project. It is evident that the concept of such colleges is based upon the model or system found in the United States where the colleges of education serve the diverse personnel needs of the comprehensive schools. It is probably in future that these Regional Colleges may develop departments other than vocational types such as the Department of School Admin- istration and Supervision, Department of Social and Philosophical Foundations, Department of Curriculum and Instruction, Depart- ment of Evaluation and Measurement, and the like. But at present, the chief motive appears to supply welleprepared teachers for technical, commercial, agricultural, industrial and such other vocational subjects. These facts indicate the present inadequacy of the preparation programs for school administrators and the lack of studies and research in the field of school administration. Ear—4° 11‘1 mmmmmmw is.lhdis. _ . 285 gamma O KASHMIR REGIONAL COLLEGES OF EDUCATION N.’ H.’ puma: OELHt awash-1am UTYAI nun 'IAO‘SH AjflEI MANN” Oman 'I-Dufli eHcML WW GUJARAYU N‘DHYA neon.- / mi ' ,1 i5 + BHU ANESHWAR OIISSA uv ”0"HEQN I‘GION I WISYIIN uc.o.. i lAsfth a:c-o~ _ $OUYHIHN REQOON Figure 12 The Proposed Regional Colleges of Education in India‘ (‘Adaptod from Souvenir on Regional College of Education, Ajmer, Foundation Day, October 30, 1962). 286 Besides the impact of factors already mentioned which create hindrances in the expansion of teacher's college programs in India, there are some specific reasons why the study of educational administration has not developed as a special discipline in these institutions. They can be enumerated as follows: l-mem He ‘mggtg£g_§gd figpggyiggxg, Since the certification conditions laid down by the State Departments for these school admin- istrators are not different from those of academic teachers, the training colleges have responded to the need of preparing academic teachers only. A perusal of the document known as 'Grant-in-Aid Code” of one of the leading States, Bombay (now divided in Gajarat and Maharashtra) will make this point clear. The Section Ix which deals with the conditions for appointment of Staff, lays down the following requirements for the appointment of head-masters in Rule 58: The management of a school should give very careful consideration to the question of filling the post of the Head of a school and sould appoint only the best qualified and most competent person among those avail-. able for appointment to this post.. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O The person to be appointed as the Head must have at least five year's teaching experience in secondary schools except in special cases where the rule may be relaxed by the Director at his discretion. In such cases, Director's previous approval must be obtained for the relaxation. while making the appointment of Headmaster the manage- ments should give due consideration to the claims of the senior and qualified teachers already working in the school and unless the seniormost of the staff is unsuit- able for the Headmaster's post due to tangible reasons, 28? his claims should not be set aside.7 It is apparent that emphasis is not on particular qualifications or particular courses and credit hours completed but only on gxpegieggg 3;,teaching gag sgniozitz 13,;gzxigg. Similarly, Rule 61 lays down the qualifications of the supervisors as follows: a) Teachers with five or more years' service after obtaining the B.T. degree. b) Teachers with ten or more years' service after obtaining the S.T. Certificate or the Teachers' Diploma (T.D.)8 Thus, both the headmasters and supervisors are in fact just ggpggignggghtggghggg.and not administrators by any test of qualification and selection. Since this is the practice in one of the advanced States of India, it is safe to assume the other States have either lower requirements or status quo position in this matter. This accounts for the rigid training college programs which prepare only teachers for schools. 2. Appointmgnt of_Edgggtiongl Officer; gggmflgggil Adminigtggtive m. All the educational officers in each State right from the Secretary of Education to the Inspector of Education at the District level are the Public Service Commission appointments. Most of them are old qualified I.C.S. (Indian Civil Service) Officers who had their training in 7Government of Maharashtra, W god; _o_; §g§,ggllgges (Revised)(Nagpur: Government Press and Book Depot, 1962), pp. 25-26. 81mm. p. 27. 288 the Public Administration of India in the English univer- sities during the British sovereignty in the country. The others have emerged from the I.A.S. (Indian Administrative Service) recruitments by the U.P.S.C. (Union Public Service Commission) on the basis of competitive examinations. The candidates selected by the U.P.S.C. for I.A.S. undergo a training at the Indian Administrative Service Training School, Delhi in the following courses briefly outlined here: 1. Basic Knowledge of Criminal Law and Procedure, 2. Economics (related to public administration), 3. Administrative History of India, b. General Administration,' 5, District Administration, 6. A Basic Knowledge of Hindi, and of the Various State Languages, Where Necessary, 7. Art of Horse-riding and Handling of the Fire- arms (arrangements with the Delhi Police), 8. Instruction in Motor Mechanics, 9. Study Visits to the”Centres of Administrative Importance, etc.9 The basic outlook in the above training for administrators has changed in free India. It is oriented toward the goals of the democratic welfare administration responsible to the people of India as Bapat writes: "For a country like India, with a tradition of thousands years of authoritative paternal administration, the transition to Parliamentary Democracy has involved a revolutionary change in the physiology of the body politic. It calls for a radical adjustment of attitude on the part of operative organs, viz. the higher administrative personnel. Special care is therefore taken to give the I.A.S. probationers an understanding of the essence of the Indian Constitution and of the role they are meant to play as officers of an All- India Service operating under that Constitution."10 9s. B. Bapat, "The Training of the Indian Administra- tive Scr'1c0”1m mm Jamal 2i r.__2ub11 W Vol. 1. Nae 2’ Pp. 119-129o 1°Ibid., p. 123. 289 However the well planned training this may be at present, the traditional approach of a ”generalist” rather than a "specialist" continues. Due to more administrative convenience, the British government endorsed the policy of recruiting administrators with the general and liberal education through U:P.S.C. for all kinds of public services. This made the regular transfers of all the government employees feasible in order to safeguard the interests of administration. Consequently, the promotions were based only on seniority rather than on advanced professional preparation or in-service job tgaining. This resulted in the deterior- ation of administrative service to people and in the static role of the government departments. Even today, the same practice prevails to a large measure. So, the educational officers are more "generalists" and not ”specialists" in education except a few deputy inspectors at the district level. There is no special emphasis on even a few courses related to education for the I.A.S. officers appointed in the leading positions in the Education Departments. Some States have now given a serious thought to establishing a separate Educational Service for recruiting the educational officers. The present situation does not favor the growth and expansion in the study of educational administration either at colleges and univer- sities or in the form of separate centers of training in the area parallel to the Institute of Public Administration, D01h1 o 290 What is not in their training can hardly be expected from them in actual practice. There seems an urgency for special preparation of educational officers so appointed in the field they administer. Otherwise, the role of educa- tion in the national development of the new India cannot be effective. 3. £2m221_§nd Size g£_§ghools. Due to the economic conditions of India, the number and size of schools are affected. Their number is not adequate to the needs of nation and their size is too small to employ specialists and administrators of quality. The figures in Table XIV indicate the number of schools operated by private, government, and local bodies until year 1936—57. It is apparent that more than 50 per cent of primary schools are operated by the local bodies which are proverbially poor in funds. About 25 per cent of such schools are owned by the private bodies which in many cases seek profit or adequate return on their invest- ment and avoid employing the expensive equipment and the excessive staff of specialists. The qualifications needed for the primary school head-master are very low and the emphasis is largely on experience of teaching and seniority in hob. Thus, there is conspicuous absence of elementary school administration programs. Regarding the secondary schools, it is observed from the figures that less than 20 per cent share goes to the government for their operation. A little less than 50 per cent of these schools are managed by private bodies 291 TABLE XIV NUMBER OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN INDIA* (1956-57) Management Primary Secondary Number Percentage Number Percentage Government . . . . 6h,098 22.3 6,967 19.2 District Board . . 1h2,960 “9.8 11,128 30.7 Municipal Boards . 9,105 3.1 1,2b1 3.h Private Bodies: Aided . . . . 67,126 23.h 12,876 35.5 Unaided . . . u,010 1.h u,079 11.2 Total 287,298 100.0 36,291 100.0 I"Government of India, Ministry of Education, Education 1 India, Vol. 1, 1956-57. 292 with motives already stated. Since the returns are limited in this enterprise which must be regulated according to the departmental code, the private bodies do not have the in— centive for either expansion in size or improvement in service. All they do is to provide academic teaching and ignore other services that schools in America usually procure to children, parents, and community at large. Thus, due to queer type of school organization in India and the lack of generous financial support from either government or society, the quality of school service has remained poor. During the last decade, the reorganization of schools is underway and through the Five Year Plans, the increasing support is becoming available. It is realized that schools should be better staffed with well-trained teachers, administrators, counselors, nurses, and other specialists to make these institutions more serviceable. 1+. W W- Bureaucratic govern- ment in India is the legacy of the past British rule. Even after independence in l9u7, it has not diminished a bit. All secondary schools except the unaided institutions have to operate in conformity with the rules and regulations mentioned in the *Grant-in-aid Code” document. Those who. fail to do so are liable to lose their annual grants. Such rules impose great limitations on the freedom of private schools in terms of courses to be offered, the equipment to be had, the salaries of staff, fee-rates for students, school hours, examinations and promotions etc. With all the 293 merits of these rules, they have killed the initiative and experimentation on the part of schools to a large extent. Rggular Inspection of the aided schools takes place yearly to check any loopholes or defaults in obedience to those rules. If there has been none, the grant-in-aid is recommended by the inspecting officers and vice versa. This kind of arrangement reinforces the stereotyped pattern of schools all over the country in each State. Hence, the schools have not developed independent administrative or operative techniques because everything is already included in the Departmental Code. There is, there- fore, lack of any administrative leadership on the part of inspectors or head-masters. The school-community relations as they exist in America are out of picture. This kind of State-direction has made schools effective in terms of bureaucratic policy but not in terms of community service. But the administrative concepts are now undergoing a change in the light of India's national goals. The head—master and teachers may get the deserved freedom gradually from the rigid bureaucratic control. 50, it will be necessary to prepare future school administrators with the new attitude and perception. The role of the training colleges will be questioned if they fail to create administrative leadership needed by the coun- try. But until now the growth of special program for school administrators was neither demanded nor encouraged’by the circumstances created by the State control of schools. 5. Other Factors. There are various other factors 29h which have discouraged the expansion of the school admin- istration programs in the teacher training colleges. a) Limited job opportunities in the administrative field b) Absence of ”in-service training” concept for teachers, head-masters, and educational officers appointed by the government or other agencies until recently. 0) Emphasis on "academic teaching” only and not on the “management" for school building, funds, public relations, pupil records, instructional materials and equipment, etc. d) Absence of strong professional organizations like NEA with its many departments--and such professional activities that raise education to a professional status. e) Lack of "Specialist“ approach in training programs in social sciences including education, etc. All these factors suppressed the growth of teachers' college programs until now. But in view of new social demands on schools, the better prepared educational leaders will be the only answer. The emphasis on the study of school admin- istration fen all trainees in general and for those who pre- pare for such positions in special will be highly relevant to the changing situation. POSSIBILITIES FOR IMPROVEMENTS It is clear that the present set-up of the post- graduate programs in the teachers colleges calls for a radical change. They need to be expanded in specialized courses and improved in standards to serve the professional needs of educational personnel at different levels. Since the role of schools has changed in the post-independence 295 period in India, there has been felt a need for good educa- tional leadership to make the schools more serviceable to ‘ the developing nation. Such a leadership in education implies well-prepared teachers, supervisors, head-masters, and inspecting officers at the operative level. However, other educational officers also play an important role in the top hierarchy and should be well prepared and properly selected. Leadership is needed on the part of all at these echelons of State Educational Administration in India! 1. State Legislature 2. Minister of Education 3. Secretary of Education 9. Director and Deputy Directors 5. All School Administrators at Operational Level a) District Inspector and His Assistants b) Local School Managing Bodies o) Local School Headmasters d) Local School Supervisors e) Local School Teachers The contribution of education to the national progress depends upon the quality of the elected State legislative body, the minister in charge of education, the chief executives like the secretary and the directors, and all the other administrators at the operational level every year for the expanding local schools. It is at this level the teachers' colleges supply the trained personnel for schools. An increasing member of well-prepared teachers, supervisors, headmasters, and inspecting officers for future schools is now the challenging demand on these colleges. In America, the colleges have met this challenge with a 296 remarkable success for a long period now. Not all the developments in the American colleges of education could be immediately helpful or applicable to Indian situation at present but they suggest some general directions in which educational leadership could be prepared in India. In this task of national significance, the cooperation of various agencies will be necessary. At present, the initiative for change and development in India is coming from the government alone. Various plans and projects are sponsored by the Government of India and are controlled by the bureaucracy. Very little seems to be done to develop decentralization and local initiative in educational planning. The Ministry of Community Development and Cooperation has moved in this direction in the sector of Agriculture but the administratide set-up does not per- mit innovation or new experiment in any matter to a large degree. The impersonal standard operational procedures may secure the administrative efficiency but they forego the important aspects like flexibility, human relations, and local initiative from people. They limit the opportunities for the growth of individuals within the administration. Unfortunately, the educational institutions of India are also operating within this steel frame of bureaucratic administration. Hence, it has been difficult for people to install new institutions or to change the pattern of them. The existing institutions also find awkward to veer from the traditional role or take a new lead in education without incurring heavy risks. So, the possibilities for improve- 297 ments depend upon the necessary changes within the present administration. Such changes can be briefly mentioned as: 1. Increasing decentralization in public administra- tion related to educational planning, control, management and finance. 2. Adequate freedom to schools, colleges, and univer- sities in their operations. 3. Emphasis on human relations approach in the public administration in general and in educational administration in particular. b. Encouragement and aid to the new experiments in education by private persons or groups. 5. Coordination among educational institutions, govern- ment, and private industry or business in the training programs for man-power development. It is in this frame the improvements and changes suggested ahead will be practicable and meaningful. Such implications for changes are not confined to colleges and universities alone but they also refer to the certification requirements by the departments, professional activities by educational organizations, the role of other social disciplines, the ficilities and funds for research studies, etc. Such changes are indicated under each head in the follow- ing paragraphs . W flooded L1; the. legghgns' ggllegeg The teachers' colleges should expand and improve the facilities for post-graduate studies in educational adminis- tration in the following aspects: m. Tho aim of teachers' colleges should shift from more “training of teachers” to the ”preparing of educational leadership” for the schools of India as it is being realized ' 298 in U.S.A. As the boundaries of human knowledge have increased, these colleges should produce educational personnel well- versod not only in teaching skills, but also in social dis- ciplines and research techniques which make them resource- ful in different situations. In other words, a candidate who prepares for the position of a headmaster, or supervisor, or inspector should know what constitutes the bestieaching but at the same time he should be appreciative of individual differences and should 'find the best means to improve it in an effective manner. H. should not only understand the teach- ing techniques but also the total purpose of education in a democratic country, the role of school in a developing nation, and know how to operate school in the best interests of community. He should be conversant with the national goals of India expressed in her Constitution and provide his leader- ship in the light of those ideals. The knowledge of the ' developmental plans cannot be ignored by him for he has to be concerned with the best contribution of education to such national schemes. Production of the future citizens that the democratic country needs is the primary responsibility of schools which he‘leads. Unless he knows how to bring democratic principles to work in his day-to-day dealings with the students and the staff, he would fail with all his training he received in colleges. In fact, the emphasis in the programs offered by the teachers' colleges should shift from "training” to "educa- tion”. Training is a narrow term which pertains to the development of certain habits and skills in a person; while 299 education consists of comprehension in basic understandings and relationships. The teachers and school administrators of India will do better if they receive a broader pre- service and in-service education than what the present programs afford. They should not only be competent in their daily school activities but also see the relation of their Fwork to the total national development. .2225122H5n9.922£131, Teachers' colleges of India should gradually expand their post-graduate program so that they can produce not only advanced teachers but various other personnel for schools such as counselors, researchers, psychologists, supervisors, headmasteng inspectors and so on. This, then, suggests that they have to function as lelgggg g£_Edg§3§iog rather than mere teacher training institutions. When such a broad function is assumed by than,their name ought to be changed from the Teacher Training College to the College or Institute of Education. In the program change process, the first priority should be given to the expansion of courses and studies in school administration in order to fulfil the need for new educational leadership needed for new role of schools. This study, therefore, discusses fur- ther details about the needed changes in that area alone. 1. 21251211131. The greatest drawback of the present programs in the teachers' colleges of India is their rigidity and narrow choice. As already indicated all those who specialize in educational administration take only two papers in the area. They comprise of descriptive topics pertaining 300 to organization of education, administrative functions of authorities, some important acts, principles and practices. These topics under the two papers are fixed for all those who major in that area. There is no choice to individual but to take them as college has prescribed. It is for the individual to adjust to the program offered and not for the program to suit his needs and interests in the area. There is either--or proposition as the individual has to take the fixed courses or leave that specialization field altogether. In America, colleges of Education almost "tailor out” the program forreach individual according to his previous back- ground, his future job plans, and his interest and aptitude. The second procedure is more democratic on one hand and more productive pf specialists in each area that society demands. While the higher education in India has failed in this regard and has created social problems like unemployment of college graduates, rush on certain jobs, and maladjustment of educated workers in non-academic fields. The same charge could be applied to the post-graduate programs of the teacher's colleges which put every post- graduate student in the strait jacket. This is partly due to the traditional degree examinations conducted by the universities for the affliated colleges as an external agency. The whole program is conducted in terms of papers which must be limited just for administrative convenience. Thus, the program has lost the meaning and has survived as the form suited to the external examinations at all degree levels. More flexibility in college programs could be possible if 301 this practice is stopped and the college teachers enjoy the freedom to teach and evaluate their own students according to their criterion of judgment as in America. There is another aspect of flexibility which is also needed in the college programs of India. There should be frequent revision and reorientation of courses in response to nation's requirement as well as the approaching social changes. The system in India does not permit this so easily because the revision of courses causes great administrative inconvenience in terms of examinations, and loss of "Status quo' position with other bureaucratic institutions. So, the programs have become obsolete and out-dated but stillzcontinued in the aca- demic institutions. While in America, this kind of flexibility is rather built-in within the system and is the watch-word of the pragmatic and progressive outlook of university authorities. Hence, American education is more articulated with society than' the Indian counterpart. It is the flexibility in the programs of school admin- instration that would attract more talented students to prepare for leadership role in education. It would also cause expan- sion in the study and research in this area. The increasing need for school administrators at the operational level could be adequately met. The future schoils of India could be pro- perly operated and administered in the light of national needs. 2. W: The corollary to the flexibility in programs suggested before is the neccessary cooperation with other departments of social sciences. The teachers! colleges on their own cannot offer the comprehensive 302 preparation program for school administrators or any other specialists for schools within their own premises. Education is in fact an interdisciplinary area for the school is not merely a learning-teaching center but the basic social, econ- omic, and political agency operating in relation to ither in- stitutions of society. That kind of perception about school is very necessary at least for those who operate and administer schools. Thus, the department of economics, sociology, political ascience, law, social work, humanities, statistics and others have to share some responsibility in preparing educational leaders of tomorrow. There ought to be developed a coopera- tive program in school administration at master's and doctoral levels. The present set—up does not allow for this because every department has its responsibilities and limitations. Besides, there are rivalries and prejudices against each other. Teachers' colleges and their role are considered unimportant in the academically-oriented system. They have often functioned in seclusion and some of.them have contributed more by way of professional service to society than the classical academic departments. Unless such a cooperation and interdisciplinary approach is adopted by the teachers' colleges, the preparation programs in education could hardly be improsod and extended. This has been realized in U.S. over a decade now and many universities have commendable programs for the school administrators. In a young democracy of India, the concept of cooperation in work, 303 in administration, in education, and in research is yet to be learnt. It is being realized slowly after the nation's inde- pendence and in near future cooperation of basic and social disciplines with professional colleges is expected. The move should be made by the teachers' colleges in their interest because education has yet to obtain the status as a social science along with other rec0gnized disciplines. All effort should be directed toward arranging interdisciplinary courses, seminars, discussions, and lectures for students in education as well as in educational administration. In fact, some courses in other disciplines should be made as a minor require- ment for all those who seek advanced specialization in school administration. This should be done by making an allowance for what pro-professional education the student had before he came to teceive professional specialization. This will be illustrated by the proposed program suggested in later pages. 3. Basic Thegry: Teachers' Colleges of India need to evaluate their role and function with reference to the demo- cratic ideals of India, and to the national plans of developi ment. Until now, their programs and activities have been purely academic, formal, and intellectual irrespective of social goals or problems. What has been lacking is the frame of reference or the perspective in preparing teachers, school administrators, and other specialists of whatever kind. In America, more and more attention is focused on the value frame” dhat should govern the behavior of educational administrators as leaders of community. The concepts like Competency, Leader- ship, Job Analysis, Task of Educational Administration, etc. IV 304 are analyzed to see the role of administrator in a clear perspeetive. Very little has been done in this respect by the educationists in India. In otherwords, the education has not been treated as the dynamic force that could contribute very much to the development of the nation as it is considered in U.S. to a large measure. It is possible to suggest a model similar to one formu- lated by Southern States Cooperative Program in Educational Administration (SSCPEA) known as Competency Pattern. It is illustrated in Figure 12. The idea is to relate the prepara- tion programs in School Administration in colleges to the task areas or job responsibilities on one hand and to the basic theory or value system that governs them. There should be an intimate relationship among the three: the job responsibili- ties, Basic Theory the basic theory, and the knowledge and skills needed for7 carrying out these responsibilities. The basic theory is fundamental to both as the base of a triangle supporting and directing the other two. If this relationship is lost sight of, there will be a lag in theory and practice. This is the serious charge against the educational system of‘ India as a whole. In particular, the professional colleges including teachers' colleges have also to bear the part of 305 7 JOB OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN /_ in Indi The Purpose and Function of Schools in India L. The Purpose and Function of Educ. Adm. Plans e Ideals of India's Democracy and National INDIA — THEORY OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION IN FIGURE 13 A CONCEPTUAL FRAME OF REFmENCE FOR PREPARATION IROGRAMS IN EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION ININDIA 306 this blame because their programs although somewhat related to the job skills or professional proficiency, largely fail to provide a broad picture of national goals and needs. They have succeeded in training an academically efficient teacher or worker in a general sense but have not given him an understanding of the social responsibility he has in his job. Such a worker may turn out to be a genius but he may not be a useful member of society. This is due to the lack of basic philosophy or theory behind the training programs which lose meaning and purpose for trainees. As the tri-dimensional model in Figure 13 indicates, the theory of educational administration in India is the first dimension and consists of three phases; a) Purpose and function of educational administra- tion in India which are derived from: b) Purpose and function of schools in democratic India which are derived from: c) The ideals of India's Democracy and the Nation- al Plans for the development of a socialistic pattern of democratic society in India. The second dimension is knowbhow of educational ad- ministration in India and consists of two phases: a) Basic understandings, attitudes, and skills: b) Special understandings, attitudes, and skills. The first phase related to general education in various fields to build the base for professional preparation. It includes a satisfactory training in tool sciences like statistics and re- search techniques as well as in the social disciplines and humanities, etc. This phase relates to the technical profes- sional skills at operative level in different task areas or 307 job responsibilities in administration. But all of them do- rive meaning and purpose from the basic theory dimension. The third dimension is the job of educational admin- istration in India which consists of some task areas briefly summed up in these seven items. They are not exhaustive but merely suggestive or indicative of professional job responsi- bilities. 1. Instruction and Curriclum Development 2. Pupil Personnel Management 3. Community School Leadership b. Staff Personnel Management 5. School Plant and Equipment 6. Transporiation and Other Services 7. Finance and Budget, etc. The technical knowledge of these areas is essential for a school administrator but the successful performance in those tasks depends on many skills suggested above. In use of his skills, he has to be careful that he is not ruled by expedi- ency alone but by the values held by democratic India. u. go; gougsgg: Expansion of study and proliferation of literature in the field of educational administration cannot come about in absence of revision of courses or pro- gram. This revision should take place in terms of social changes and national aspirations in India. There should be a breakthrough from the traditional papers to the functional courses. Instead of offering only two descriptive papers for studints who major in educational administration at post- graduate level, there should be special courses directly 308 related to the job responsibilities. Courses of this nature are given 1. 2. 3. b. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. ll. 12. 13. 11+. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. here: Human Relations in Educational Administration School Community Relations Instructional Leadership School Building Facilities School Business Management School Law Pupil Personnel Management Research in Educational Administration Evaluation and Measurement Problems of Educational Administration Staff Personnel Policies and Administration Theory of Administration Administration and Social Change Education and National Development Principles of Democratic School Administration Group Process and Group Dynamics Administrative Behavior and Performance Decision-making and Policy formulation Administrative Process and Procedures, etc. -Thp above list is just suggestive of the functional courses to be incorporated with those already offered. They could be classified under four or five papers to fit in the old pattern which however should gradually be flexible enough to serve the students adequately in terms of their needs and interests. These courses should be related to national, state, and local context. Most of the above topics have been 309 included in the course work offered by the Regional Centre at New Delhi for the Training of Educational Planners, Administraters and Supervisors in Asia. It is divided into four parts such as: '1. Educational development and needs in Asis. 2. Education in relation to economic and social development 5. Educational planning and administration h. Financing of Education.”11 A similar pattern with some modifications could be adopted by the universities preparing school administrators at operational level. The point emphasized here is the re- orientation of eourses toward functional utility and toward improvement of educational leadership in India. It is reported that two universities at Baroda and Mysore have recently started the postwgraduate Diploma Course in Educational Administration beyond Master's level. It extends to two years of preparation in a core program of the specialized courses in school administration with more emphasis on the field work. It is hoped all other universities will extend and improve their courses in this field in future. It is then the interest in the study and research in this field will develop both among the pro- fessors and the students. The present literature descrip- tive as it is, has resulted from the limited course work of that nature. There is hardly much empirical research in the area or theory-bound analysis of concepts and practices. New studies follow new course offerings in the form of text- 11m~ucsco, 2g. cit., pp. 25-28. 310 books and supplementary readings. New research comes from problem awareness of teachers and students in a particular field. Unless these two factors are present in India, ex- pansion of the literature in School Administration cannot come forth. The stagnation in study and research is the con- sequence of the stagnation in courses and programs of teachers' colleges in India. 5. Beggientatign ggngethods: The most predominant method of preparing teachers and School Administrators at the post-graduate level is the classroom lectures by the college professors. This is the traditional practice still continued with very little emphasis on practical field experience. How- ever, there is a requirement of a thesis or dissertation along with the courses and it involves some experience in library work, field survey, interviews with field workers, case re- ports etc. Such an experience would vary with each problem that a student investigates and reports in the form of thesis. Again, its purpose is limited to fulfilling a requirement for the degree and may not effect the learner's behavior or his future performance and competence. While it has been realized by the American colleges and universities which offer programs for school administra- tors that lecture method is not sufficient for developing the job competence in them. So various other devices like case- studies, seminars, workshops, use of resource persons, use of audio-visual aids, research projects, and field experience are now adopted to provide better learning situation for school administrators. It is now recognised in India, that university 311 courses of all kinds including those in Education are very theoretical and formally academic. They should be gradually modified with the practical approach and meaningful methods of learning. The teachers' colleges, being the professional institutions, have to consider this point seriously because they prepare the future educational leadership of India. They should offer practical programs, promote research and experimentation in education, and use modern methods and in- structional materials for providing better learning experience. At present, there seems a gap between the theory learnt and the actual practice the trainees face. Such a gap could be over- come by the reorientation of teaching methods in the following manner: a) Seminggs and_gggkshgpsx The post-graduate courses in education could conveniently be organized into seminars and workshops because the student body at that level is not very large as at the undergraduate level. The advantages of such seminars at the post-graduate level are obvious. They moti- vate the students to participate in group discussion as well as to think independently on issues under consideration. Use of resource persons or special consultants in various fields becomes easy and possible in such classroom situations. It is also feasible to adopt an intgz=g1ggiplingzx,approach by calling experts in other disciplines to comment on schools and their problems. The sociologists, anthropologists, economists and other social scientists could help in understanding the proper role of schools and could suggest their solutions for educational issues. The teaching would be more meaningful to 312 students if a well-organized seminar replaces the class room lectures by a single teacher. Besides, it trains the students in democratic process of thinking and living. b) gagg'fletnog: It is lately felt in the colleges of U.S. that the casezstudy approach could be very useful for those who prepare for executive jobs in schools. This method has been fully utilized invother disciplines like law, medi- cine, business administration, social work etc. But it is new in education even in America.‘ In India, its absence is con- spicuous in the theory-oriented teachers' colleges. There is no oasenmeterial available for use in the classarooms. The lack othhis material related to Indian situation in Business Management Education is also reported by the Study Team which recommends: fSome stress should, however, be laid on the case method of instruction, and early efforts made to build up In- dian case material, as foreign cases which are largely being used at present cannot give students the feel of the situation under consideration.‘ Later, when sufficient indigenous mat- erial is available, more time could‘be devoted to the case method. Arrangements could, then, also be:madeffor the in- terchange of cases between different institutions as is being done in the U.S.A. through an inter-collegiate case seminar programme."12 In the same tone, it could be suggested to the teachers' colleges that use of case-method should be gradually adopted in preparing school administrators as educational leaders of India. Case—studies on headmasters, supervisors, inspectors .— 12Government of India, Remgt 21; 5 Visit _tg the U,S,A, jgz.the Indian management Education Study Team, March-May 1959. 313 and on other administrative phases should be prepared for class-room discussion. Suhh studies should be related to the real ties in preparing them due to the administrative reservations in Indian society, but the proper approach to the cases under investigation could be helpful. When such studies are aviilable in school administration, the case-‘ method in the analysis and solution of administrative problems would give the trainees the required competence for the job. c) um We Those who specialise in school administration at the post-graduate level have in most cases a sufficient teaching experience. Some cases also possess the administrative experience as head-masters, supervisors, and deputy inspectors. But the preparation programs at master's level or beyond do not offer any organized field experience except in the form of some research projects, term papers, field trips, workshops etc. There is no con- cept of igteznship or appgegticesgip for inexperiences stu- dents who prepare for administrative jobs. The college professors themselves do not have such a field experience in the area they teach. So the professional training becomes rather bookish under these circumstances. It is now realised in the U.S. that the preparation programs could be more effedtive if the appropriate internship for the students could be arranged. A few universities now require intern- ship experience before a student obtains a degree. In India, the attention should be focused on this aspect of the program. However, those who already had some experience in administration may be exempted from this require- 314 ment. Such arrangements for the interns should be made with selected and well-organized schools including the Demonstra- tion School of the teachers' colleges. The Department of Education in each State could also provide such experiences for those who intend to enter inspectorial services. Such experiences will build up a bridge between college education and the job situation. Besides, the school managements as well as State department may find the prospective staff from such trainees. This contact would help the colleges in pro- viding placement services to such students who prepare for jobs. The interns if possible, should be provided with some financial assistance for the period they are on the job. They should be properly guided by the competent persons who take their charge. The success and effectiveness of the internship programs would depend upon the degree Bf cooperation and coordination between teachers' colleges and other educa- tional institutions at operational level. Study and Eggggzghhig.thg Eield. The study and re- search in any field are closely related to the courses taught and to the problem-awareness of the teachers and the students in that field. They are the direct outcome of those two conditions given the resources available in society. The limited course offerings in school administration and the indifference of college programs to the social needs and problems have affected the production of literature in that area. Again, the collgge professors in an examination- directed system remain engaged in such devices as would 315 help the students to pass the external examinations rather than develop scholarly inquisitiveness and research habit in them. There is little research-orientation in the post- graduate programs leading to master's degree only by papers and in some teachers' colleges they are supplemented by a thesis. The qualifications required for teaching in colleges are not adequate. A large number of college professors have only master's degree who for lack of the highly qualified staff, teach post-graduate classes also. In such circumstan- ces, the students can hardly attain higher levels of scholar- shipJexcept by their native ability. Besides, there seems absence of productivity among pro- fessors who just seek after higher status and promotion in the job by virtue of seniority and experience. Once they have attained that, they begin to stagnate and sit on their laurels. But in a growing competitive society in India, this cannot last long. The new challenges are spurting the young profes- sors to advance their preparation and make contributions to the field of their teaching. More and more are going abroad for advanced studies in Education now than ever before. It is not uncommon to find young Ph.D's working with the old staff with lesser qualifications either in equal or even in superior positions in colleges. The university Grants Com» mission (U.G.C.) encourages better qualified teachers at the post=graduate level so that the standards of university ed- ucation are improved. But in view of preparing the quality leadership in education the following measures to promote study and research in educational 316 administration would be necessary: a) Competent teachers with the doctorate in educa- tion or educational administration as their field of specialisation should be appointed to teach post-graduate classes in school ad- ministration as the general practice in the United States. b) Such teachers should receive promotions in the salary as well as in the status on the basis of their contribution to the study and re- search in their field and not merely on son- iority in job or on years of experience in teaching. c) They should be given the necessary freedom and d) A facilities by thepauthorities touconduct studies and publish them. professional organization of such teachers on the pattern of the University Council of Educa- tional Administration (UCEA) should be set up with a view to sharing mutual experiences and finding ways to improve university programs in school administration. It should work as the center of the cooperative study and thinking in the field. It should collect professional information and distribute it among members. The activities of the UCEA in the United States serves a good model to be emulated in India. e) The emphasis in research should gradually shift from the status studies and descriptive surveys to the basic research in administrative be- havior. This will involve drawing upon the models and theories of behavioral and social sciences. Hence, the cooperation with other departments as already suggested has to be se- cured in such research projects by teachers in education. f) Empirical studies related to India's environment and culture are needed. The studies in job analysis, administrative role, leadership be- havior, performance, decision-making, power- structure, group dynamics, etc. should be con- ducted by the teachers and the students in the field of school administration. g) An independent research in the form of thesis should be a requirement in all the universities offering post-graduate programs in education and educational administration leading to mas- ter's or any other advanced degree in those areas. 317 h) The publications in the form of text books or otherwise should be based on scientific data rather than merely on experienced opinion or on successful practices of a few school adé ministrators. Thus, all efforts should be made by the teachers of this subject to build a sound body of scientific literature in the field. At present, there is a serious lack of any literature worth the name for reasons already explained. It will be the professional obligation of scholars in this area to prepare the foundation as it has been done in the United States over the last half a century. Ig-§g:vige Educatiog. Until recently there was no con- cept of in-service education for teachers, head-masters, sup— ervisors, inspectors and other educational officers in India. Once they were selected on the basis of their pre-service training, they remained on the job permanently without any further in-service professional growth. They had no chance of visiting their colleges of training or of consulting them on the problems they faced in the course of their jobs. This resulted in the dogmatic approach by school administrators who had to work with their limited "know-how“ acquired long back. The teachers' colleges often lost track of their trainees af- ter giving them degrees because no follow-up of graduating students was ever cared for in the traditional set-up. This charge is even applicable to all the universities in India to- day who do not maintain the well-organized placement as well as follow-up services for their graduating students. The al- umni of these institutions lose identification with their alma maters soon after they have left the university gates.‘ There 318 are no such programs conducted by colleges of a university wherein the persons on job could benefit and grow in terms of their efficiency. Even the professional colleges of teachers have failed in this respect and have hindered the development of educational leadership in the country. But the in-service education activities have been started now in the teachers' colleges through the Extension Services. This has been done with the financial assistance from the Ford Foundation and the technical equipment pro- vided by the Technical Cooperation Mission of U.S.A. These activities do not concern the school administrators directly or their professional growth. The Extension Centers at colleges organize short courses, seminars, exhibitions, and consultations in organising and equiping schools with modern aids and libraries. It is only the special seminars organi- zed by the All-India Council for Secondary Education that help the school administrators professionally to some extent. The teachers' colleges on their own have not instituted any kind of in-service program for headmasters, supervisors, and inspecting officers for more lack of new approach in the tra- dational setting. While in the United States in-service education programs for school administration of varying types and of varying qual- ity are in operation in each of the 50 states. The survey of the AASA Commission on In-service Educatioanor School Admin- istrators has identified the following programs in a typical university of the U.S. (Indiana University): "(1) Extension classes, (2) School surveyS. (3) Workshops, (h) Consultant 319 service, (5) Publications."13 Besides, several other univer- sities organize Regional Study Groups, Field Services, In- stitutes, Practicums, Resident seminars, Interinstitutional .Workshops, Cooperative Research, Interdisciplinary Classes, Conferences' on Administrative Problems, etc. In order to prepare the required leadership in educa- tion in India, and to promote study and research in education- al administration, the teachers' colleges should develop in- service training programs immediately. Uithin the limitations they face, they can still organize such a program in the fol- lowing ways: a) Evening classes and week-end sessions should be held for the working school administrators who could gradually work for advanced degrees in educational administration. b) Summer institute or school should be arranged for a few weeks continously when the school administrators can be on the campus. c) The staff of the college should be allowed and encouraged to participate in school surveys, and development projects organized by schools or State Department or by college in conjunction with them. d) The Department of Educational Administration should offer consultative services to local schools whenever demanded or provide for them regularly by creating a bureau of such service. e) Regular newsletters, publication reports, and other messages should be sent to the school ad- ministrators in the region and to alumni who graduated from the department wherever they may be employed. f) Necessary cooperation and assistance should be given to the State Department and to the pro-- fessional associations in the conduct of in- service training programs. g) Annual conference of educational administrators of district or region should be called to dis— 1,Almerican Association of School Administrators. Inser- 320 cuss current problems in the field. The papers pre- sented-may be published for distribution to the members and others interested in the field. Finally, it is to be suggested that in-service educa- tion for school administrators should be viewed by the colleges and universities of India as an investment in the production of future educational leadership. WL—00404 mmwmm The role of State Department is very important in de- veloping the needed educational leadership in India. Its traditional role of a regulatory body has to give way to the consultative and leadership functions in a growing democracy of India. It has to work with the schools, teachers, and students rather than work above them. A.high degree of co- ordination is needed within the department as well as with the external educatienal agencies for the purpose of improve- ment in the schools of the country. In as far as improving the quality of educational leadership at the operative level is concerned it should adopt the following measures: 1. mm E19. W. The department should establish a working partnership with schools and teacher train- ing colleges. The three agencies should function as a team in a close relationship of equality. Education State Department 321 In fact, the progress in education will largely depend upon the degree of coordination that exists in those three agencies. Until now, the State Department has acted as the controlling and checking organ of the government for the schools who seek the government aid. The relationship has becomelegalistic and mechanistic in terms of rules in the Code. There is an absence of human approach and lack of a sense of fellowship among the school administrators and school staff. This lag has been clearly spotlighted by many educationists of India. such a recommendation was made by the Secondary Education Commission which viewed that the reconstruction of education in India entirely depends upon the cooperation of the Depart- ment, training colleges, and schools in the community. Regarding the significance of liaison between them, it says: ”Training institutions should be in close liaison with the Department of Education and the schools. Such close relation- ship will be fnuitful in many ways specially in regard to the placing of student-teachers. Except in the case of deputed teachers, training institutions are not now in a position to do anything for placing other students in educational institutions. It would be to the advantage of all‘concornod ’ if training institutions could keep in touch with their alumni and follow their subsequent careers. In recruiting teachers, therefore, training'colloges should be consulted by the department as well as by other agencies."1u 1"Secondary Education Commission Report, 1952-53. p. 178. 322 In the United States, shift in the role of State Department has started long back. It is gradually assuming leadership role in educational planning, consulting, and coordinating various activities of institutions that work in the educational field. In a free and democratic society of India, the State Department should assume a similar role in: a) b) c) d) f) e) h) 2. planning programs offered by schools and teachers' colleges; providing resources and consultation services for improvement of education in the State; preparing administrative leadership for schools in cooperation with teachers' colleges; coordinating in research on educational problems by the college students and teachers; instituting joint conferences, workshops and seminars for the professional growth of its staff, teachers and administrators of schools and colleges in the State, etc. assisting in proper placement of teachers with the cooperation of teachers' colleges; recording information and statistics for useful studios and research; improving job opportunities and service conditions for educational personnel in the State. fipgcial Prgfiggsignal Roguigegggts for Schggl g3, gflmflgjxgtggg} If schools are to be operated effectively in terms of democratic purposes of India, they need "well- educated” teachers and administrators. More training in pedagogy is not sufficient but a deep understanding of the social purposes of education in democratic India is to be given to all those who work in the field. They have to know 323 how best the education could serve as a means to the develop- ment of the nation. As India is in the process of a radical social and economic change, education has a special mission to fulfil. It needs an administrative leadership with a new outlook and adequate technical skill. The professional pre- paration of such leaders has to be broader than the teachers 'and other specialists in schools. They have to possess the special abilities in human organization besides the instruc- tional competence. In the present setting, such administrators as head— master, supervisor, and inspecting officdrs learn from the job experience because their pro-service training ddd not include the knowledges and skills that they have to perform in administration. As already stated educational adminis- tration has not developed as a special field yet in India due to the lack of special requirements demanded for such positions by the Departmental Code. Unless it is done, the emphasis on the study and research in that area will not increase in the teachers' colleges. It is, therefore, imperative that the Department should revise the Code in that respect and insist on advanced preparation for such leadership and executive jobs in education. This should be done gradually as the conditions in each State permit but should never be ignored. a) Eggggggsgxs The Department should not only insist on seniority or sufficient experience for this job but a Master's degree in Education (M. Ed.) with specialization in School Administration. If a competent senior person is 32h appointed for the job by the management, he should be con- sidered on the probation for the period till he completes his master's degree. Such a period should not extend more than five years. b) gigssgoom figpggvisor: Supervisor is the instruc- tional leader in school who works directly with teachers. Such a position is important and should be made obligatory on schools. The senior teachers having the first professional degree B.Ed. or B.T. preferably with School Administration and Supervision as a special paper should only be appointed. The number of supervisors should be sufficient in each school and should be paid additional emolument for supervisory services. c) Inspegting Qffiigers: The District Inspector of Schools should have Ph.D. or at least advanced Diploma in Education or in Educational Administration as the special area besides such general conditions as teaching experience, sen- iority in service, and administrative competence. The assistant inspectors who are generally specialists in some area should have at least Master's degree in their field of education besides the general requirements of some teaching experience, and administrative competence. Even other high officials of the Department should have advanced preparation in both Administration and in Education. Since Public Service Commissions are responsible for such appointments of the top-most cadre, the requirements met by such officials is considerably high. 325 Lastly, the Department should sponsor in-service educational activities for the professional growth of teachers and administrators. It should exercise its moral influence on them to join the professional organizations and subscribe to the professional literature in the field. W ents 14.00 ed in W W is. Essa—tion Education as a profession has not yet received as much recognition in India as it has in America. This differ- ence is accounted by the relative strength of professional organizations in the two countries. There is no educational association in India parallel to the National Education Association (NEA) of America. However, there are many teacher's associations at the district and regional level and the All- India Federation of Educational Associations at the national level. But they tend to function as the trade unions rather than professional bodies. They may be comparable to the American Federation of Teachers and its affiliates. Even they are reported to be very weak and poorly organized by a veteran worker Kali Das Kapur who writes: “I need not dwell on how we have failed to meet the crying need of equality in our rank, nor on how we have missed the opportunities of finding whole time workers for our professional organiza- tions. But I must confess I feel so sad to reflect that on material and moral level we have not very much advanced be- yond where we were when we started organizing ourselves in the twenties of this century.15 In the post-independence 15Kali Das Kapur, "To Members of the Teaching Pro- fession", Education Vol. XXXXI: (October, 1962), p. 23. 326 period the Government of India has done enough to give due recognition to the teachers of the country. They are represented in the Union as well as the States' legislatures. The merited teachers receive awards and prizes every year. But no professional organization is sponsored or chartered for the development of educationists as the United States Congress has recognized NEA. This is partly due to the dis- trust created by the violent activities of such organizations in the past and partly to the political alignments of them. The teachers and educators on their own have not organized a national professional body to serve the country's needs and keep the politics away from education. The Head-master's Associations at the local and federal level do not function in cooperation with the teachers' organizations but keep aloof from them and consider them as the hostile camp~pitched against theirs. The head-masters and school managements private as they are, consider teachers as Industrial managers treat factory labor. So there is a conflict in educational ranks in India similar to the kind exists in the management and the labor. As a result the cause of education has suffered a great deal. The example of NEA in America then suggests the following measures to improve the status of education among professions: l. The National Association of_Educators: There ought to be a national association of all kinds of educators which should be chartered or recognized by the Government of India. Its affiliates in each State should also have the recognition of respective States. These bodies should 327 nominate the required number of representatives in the legislatures by proper screening process. Such a body should have the committees or departments representing the associa- tions of different educational personnel such as school administrators of all levels, various subject teachers, counselors, researchers, and other school staff. Such departments should be independent units working within the frame of the common goals of the entire professional body. The All-India Federation of Educational Associations should develop on such lines as NEA has in the United States. 2.121%! 1 lwmmw. It is high time that the administrative leaders at all educational levels in India should now join hands in the interest of educational reconstruction taking place in India. As a part of the National Association of Educators, this body has to be responsible for the professional advancement of headmasters, inspectors and other educational officers of the country. It should provide an opportunity for exchange of views and sharing of knowledge through annual conventions and special seminars as the American Association of School Administrators (AASA) has been doing for a long time in America. 3. Expansion in_Pgofessiongl Activities. It is necessary that educational associations should in future increase their activities to build a profession of education. They should not restrict themselves to the protection of legal rights of their members as labor unions but make a case 328 for education in every way. Anti-social measures like strike should be ruled out inWthe first place. All those measures should be adopted which create better understanding in educational workers and society or government. Public should be kept welluinformed about the problems in education so that their sympathies can be obtained. At the same time the members should be given opportunities to grow profession- ally, to understand social responsibilities, and to behave in the manner worthy of that calling. The activities should include annual conventions, publication of journals, reports, and yearbooks for distribution, promotion of ethical conduct of the members, in-sorvico education programs, etc. If such a nation-wide interest in education comes to exist, the problem of preparing a quality educational leader- ship in India will certainly be resolved. WWW Education in India has not redoived as much support from the private foundations and funding agencies of society as it has in Americaa There are very few sources that finance research in Education and other related phases of it. In the past-independence period, the Government of India has instituted various research projects in teachers' colleges which in the past functioned only as training centers for teachers. These projects are financed by the Ministry of Education at about twenty one such centers. A review of the titles of the projects indicated that there is no research’ in hand which is directly or indirectly related to the 329 problems of school administration.16 Since, there is an urgent need for preparing the right kind of leadership in education, it is imperative that the research should be directed to the problems of school administration. The traditional concepts and procedures of administration should be analyzed and reinterpreted in view of the evolving democratic socidl order in India. The studies on administrative leadership, human relations in organization, group process, decision-making, and other such problems should be encouraged by the Ministry. The projects ought to be properly planned and coordinated to avoid wash of funds and time. The teachdrs! colleges and their staff_ should realize the responsibility of such research projects along with their routine work. They should eonsidor them as opportunities for professional growth and service to society. These research activities should be given due consideration in the promotions of the staff of such colleges. Besides, some philanthropic foundations should also come forward to support the study and research in schools and their operation. It is in the interest of community that sdhools should be well organized and efficiently admin- istered.” Any money spent on improving organizational and administrative aspects of schools should be considered as a part of social service for which such foundations exist. There are many exapples of such agencids in America that 16Government of India, Ministry of Education, 3322;; at; $9.2. Seminar flew g; Resegggh in Raining Cgllogeg (Baroda: Sadhana Press, 1956), Appendix B, pp. 77-79. 330 have supported the cause of education by providing research funds. The glaring instance is the Kellogg Foundation which has revolutionized the study of school administration during the last decade with a view to producing the quality leader- ship for community schools. Could the philanthropic agencies in India take a new lead of the kind found in the United States? If this is done, the community development through schools will not be impossible. Secondly, it should now be realized by the social scientists in India that “School" is a powerful social force or institution which needs a serious study on their part. Until now, it has been neglected from their focus of study and has been considered as a domain for teachers' colleges alone. There are hardly any studies available at present on tho sociai, political, and economic aspects of school. Such areas as school finance, school law, school business operation, school community relationship, school transpor- tation, etc. are not provided by either teachers' colleges or even by other social disciplines. One finds innumerable studies available on those topics in the United States. It is partly due to the broader preparation of the teachers of the educational colleges and partly to the wide course offerings provided by them. Again, these is a tendency toward team-ggitigg which involve. two or more persons sharing their experiences and knowledges in producing books and studies. In some cases the team consists of persons entirely from other disciplines giving their reflections on 331 the same problem of education. Recent publications on ”theory" in school administration are the result of such a team work found in this country. This suggests that the social scientists in India should also make their contribution th the schools and join hands with the educators in writing, research, and reporting on educational issues. Thirdly, as there is a nation-wide effort to improve and advance the study of Public Administration after Appleby's recommendations as well as the study of Business Adminis- tration after the Indian Management Education Team's Report, it should also be extended toward the field of Educational Administration now. If well-trained public administrators and business leaders are needed in India, there is still more urgency for educational leaders at all levels. Unless they are available, the educational institutions that pro- paro leaders for public offices and business concerns would hardly succeed in their efforts. It is the total educational process which is responsible for producing the workers for all vocations. If that process is operated by ill-educated teachers and administrators, no change in other phases can prove to be of much help. Hence, the Government of India should be as much concerned about good leadership in educa- tion as in public affairs or in industrial fields. In other words, India has to adopt a new theory which should govern the preparation of all cadres of leaders that country needs in various fields. Dr..App1eby writes: "Ad- ministrators and students of administration need to develop their learning into the demensions of systematic and com- prehensive theory. Such theory will come in steps, and will 332 require many specialized formulations. Organization, struc- ture, hierarchy, decision-making, delegation, representa- tiveness, responsiveness, responsibility-~all these are important terms around which broadly significant studies and formulations should develop, in addition to the more obvious ones that will cluster numerously about management."1 He thinks that there are two important concepts for adminis- trative theory in India--Democracy and Welfare State. Such a theory should guide administration in all spheres of nation's life. The effectiveness of administration should be- ovaluatod on the basis of such a frame of reference. It was after his recommendations that Institute of Public Adminis- tration was established and the publication of the Indian Journal of Public Administration was started in India. Thus, the professionalization of Public Administration was advanced through that institution. Similar suggestions could be made with regard to pro- moting the status of Educational Administration as a profession. There should be a leading academic institution like the Institute of Education or of the Institute of Public Admin- istration or apart from them. It should call national conventions, publish journal, studies and scholarly papers in the field. All the colleges which prepare school adminis- trators should be guided by this body in matters of course offerings, methods of teaching, studies and research pro- jects. In absence of any strong professional organization 17Paul A. Appleby, M Administratiog _1_g_ Indie. Report of a Survey (New Delhi: Government of India Press, 1957) . 3? 67. 333 in the field in India, this institute will have the respon- sibility of developing educational leadership in the country through aarious professional activities conducted, for example, by AASA in America. It should also function as accrediting agency to maintain reasonable standards of training in Educational Administration all over the country. To sum up, the plea for expansion of the study of Educational Administration made by the investigator in this thesis is based on the same argument which Appleby had in promoting the study pf Public Administration and the Indian Team indicated in advancing Business Management Education in India. Leadership in Education is as important as in other spheres in a democracy. This has been realized in the United States lately and the study and programs in Educational Administration are undergoing a radical change. Theserious effort is underway to invite the talented students in this field and to put them through a series of learning experi- ences which will give them the necessary competence and skills. If India is adapting the developments of the U.S. to her needs in Government and in Industry, it will not be less meaningful to make such adaptations in Education also. SUMMARY India today is in the process of a rapid change. Her development is so much planned in direction and so speedily expedited that it has taken the form of a ”revolution from the very grass-roots.” Education is receiving a considerable 33h attention from the planners and is expanding according to the national goals. In view of the increasing number of schools, there is a need for well-prepared school adminis- trators. Therefore, the role of teacher training institutions has become significant. At present, their programs in educa- tion and in educational administration are inadequate. They offer almost the same traditional academic courses which they had during the colonial days. The emphasis remains on the academic training in pedagogy rather than on education for trainees. Many recommendations by expert bodies have pointed out the new role teachers' colleges should play in free India. Recently, some new developments have come forth in the study of education and educational administration. But there are some general factors that hinder the growth of teachers' colleges, such as: lack of financial resources, rigidity of college programs, resistance to change, examination system, shortage of instructional materials, want of interdepartment cooperation, status-quo administration. The specific factors that have hindered the growth of the study and programs in school administration are: inadequate certification requirements for school administrators, public administration approach, small size of schools, bureaucratic administration, limited job opportunities, etc. The possibilities for improvements depend upon the leadership role played by the educational administrators at all levels. Besides, the present bureaucratic administration 335 should become flexible, decentralized, and human in approach. The lead taken by individuals in education should be aided and encouraged by the administration. There should be a considerable coordination among educational institutions, government, and private industry or business. The improvements are needed in many areas related to the expansion in the study of school administration as the developments of the United States suggest. 1. Aim of teachers' colleges should be broadened in view of the democratic national goals. 2. Program and courses should be revised and diversified in view of community needs and problems. 3. The preparation programs for teachers and school administratof! should be based on a basic theory appropriate to India. b. Methods of study and teaching should be expanded and reoriented in view of effective learning experiences. Seminars, case studies, and various field experiences should become part of the pro- grams. 5. There should be increasing emphasis on empirical research and study on the problems of school operation. 6. Provision for in-service education of school administrators should be made by the teachers' colleges in cooperation with the education depart- ment, schools, and other professional organizations. 336 7. State Department of Education should assume a leadership role in developing the quality administrators for schools. 8. The educational organizations should act as pro— fessional bodies and help education to become a professional service to community. 9. Philanthropic foundations should support research in education and school administration as a community service. 337 CHAPTER VIII CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Every beginning has its end. This study which has started with the implicit hypothesis that there are some implications from the develOpments in the study of educa- tional administration in the United States for India, has reached the following conclusion. CONCLUSION India and America have historical and cultural differ- ances. One has a long history as an ancient agrarian country with the backload of traditional heritage. The other has a very short history as the new land discovered in 17th century and has built a new tradition which is different from the rest of the world. The circumstances as well as the deliberate efforts of the leading men of America have made her democratic, prosperous, and progressive nation. The American education has responded to the national demands of this country and has built up the required articulation with the total social system. This has been largely possible due to the democratic philosophy of America and to the prag- matic approach of her people. While India was in a different setting altogether until 19“? when she regained her independence as the British colony. Her past came to an oblivion in 1950 when she took a radical decision in declaring herself as a sovereign demo- cratic republic. This opened a fresh chapter in Indian life 338 and culture. She became a secular free nation out to develop her natural as well as human resources by creating the pro- per means. Hew develOpment has been rapid but confounded with many issues of ideology as a new nation. There is an old school of thought which believes India should retain her past civilization and culture and avoid the Western moderni- zation. There is another school which insists that India should radically modernize and ignore the past agrarian culture. There is the third view which emphasizes that India" should gradually and carefully follow the developments of the advanced nations and incorporate them in all the phases of national improvement. Hence, there has been a need for a frame of reference or basic theory on which developments should take place in agriculture, industry, business, govern- ment, and education. With the third view in mind, the writer has studied the problem of preparing school administrators comparatively in two democratic republics-~India and America. He observes that the study of school administration has been emphasized more in America than in India. The purpose seems to produce the kind of educational leadership suited to American republic. The approach of study has evolved gradually from descrip- tive to the scientific analyses of the problems of school administration. But, the aim or goal has persisted to be the "social utility” or ”national development" through better schools for this democratic country. The social and philo- sophical approach of study based on the values of America has resolved with the intellectual and scientific approach 339 in the relationship of "ends and means". That is, the scientific methods are the means to the development of a happier and stronger democratic society. The scientific inquiry and pragmatic outlook are slowly becoming the guide lines for this nation in the develOpment of industrx,business, government, education. This approach is being slowly adopted in the study of school administration with the help of social and behavioral scientists. The efforts of AASA, UCEA, and NCPEA during the last decade have been addressed to this task of building the school administrator's profession on the scientific foundations and improved skills for better community service. Such a phiIOSOphy and approach are conspicuous by their absence in the teachers' college programs in India. The chief reason is that they were started during the British administration with the philosophy and approach of operation which makes them unfit or inadequate to meet the new demands of the free democratic nation. The preparation programs and study of school administration, however unsatisfactory, were based on the general descriptive approach devoid of social philosophy and scientific methods. There had been little realization for preparing the needed educational leadership for the expanding schools of the new India. Thus, in the post- independent period in India, there appears a great discrepancy in the role and behavior of school administrators and the new goals of democratic India expressed in her Constitution. Since their role has remained traditional or colonial and their training has been for that pattern, the national 31.0 goals remain at stake. This state of affairs calls for the reorientation of teachers' college programs, their aim and approach in the study of school administration. Hence, this comparative study emphaSizes the transfer of some useful practices in the study of school administra- tion in America to the situation in India. The justifica- tion for this lies in their similar national goals as two democratic republics. The directions that the teachers' colleges of India may have to follow in future for preparing better educational leadership concern their aim, approach and methods. The directions for the state department as Well as other educational agencies concern their new atti- tude and role in the new country. That would hopefully resolve the present discrepancy that confronts the Indian education. The detailed implications follow in the form of recommendations. RECOMEENDATICNS There are possibilities for improving the programs and the study of school administration in India if the universities and the administration make the necessary efforts to change their procedures in view of India's new needs. In particular, this study has to make the following recommendations to various institutions concerned: A. Teaghers' Colleges. Teachers' colleges should take a new lead in the following directions: 1. They should reorient their aim and purpose of their programs for teachers and school admin- 3&1 istrators. The emphasis should shift from mere pedogogic training to the total education in basic understandings and relationships of school to a democratic society. The programs offered should be diversified in view of local community school needs and individual preferences and plans. They should be revised from time to time and updated in terms of new research studies and changing conditions. C00peration with other colleges of humanities, social sciences, natural and physical sciences should be secured in the comprehensive train- ing for school administrators. They should be guided in their programs by the basic philosophy or theory derived from the national goals as well as the international standards and aspirations. The courses should be revised and expanded in view of the issues and problems related to educational administration. The methods of study and teaching in the area of school administration need reorientation in view of the dmmocratic philosophy of India. They should be based on the present social goals and be guided by the scientific techniques to 3u2 develop quality schools for society. 9. The learning experiences for the school admin- istrators should be made more effective by such methods as seminars, workshops, case studies, interdisciplinary cla es, simulated schools, field visits, internships, etc. 10. There should be increasing emphasis on empirical research and experimentation in this field. 11. Some arrangement for in-service education for teachers and school administrators should be done by the teachers' colleges now. B. State Department £§_Education. The Department needs to take a new role in free India now. With regard to the improvement of the study of school administration in India, it should take the following directions: 12. The departmental role should change from mere inspection and regulation to leadership and in school improvement with the c00peration of other agencies. 13. There should be a satisfactory coordination within the department as well as with the other educational organizations. 1%. The coordination should be improved with the teachers: colleges in preparation programs, study, and research in educational adminis- tration. 3‘0 15. Gradually, the certification requirements for school administrators should be raised to ensure better prepared personnel in the conduct of schools. 16. It should encourage the professional growth of school administrators by organizing in-service programs in the form of conferences and group meetings with the cooperation of teacher's college staff. 17. It should exercise a moral force in developing and subscribing to the professional literature in the field of school administration. C. Professional Organizations i3 Educatiog. These organizations should be strengthened in the following ways: 18. Their approach should be academic and profession- al rather than unionistic as at present. 19. There should be a nationally recognized associa- tion of educators parallel to NEA in America to serve the interests of education in the country. 20. There should be a national organization of school administrators for all executives at different levels to serve the interests of school admin- istration. 21. The activities of such professional organization should gradually expand toward bettering the leadership in education in the new India. 3% D. Other Improvemggts. Besides the changes in agencies which are directly concerned with the study of school adminis- tration, there are some other improvements needed. 22. The philanthropic foundations should be con- vinced for sponsoring research in school operation as a part of community service. 23. The social scientists should be motivated to study school and its problems. The coopera- tive studies and research should be encouraged in the universities. 2h. 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Ordinances and Regula- , tigns g; m Univgrsitigs Reggzging the M. E. Examiggtion. Baroda: M. S. University, 1950. Government of India. M live Iea; £15.11: A M Ou§line. Government of India, Press, 1960. Government of India, Ministry of Education. jgggggigguxg ndia, 10;, ;, 1256-52. New Delhi: Government of India PTOSS : 1957s Government of India, Ministry of Education. Report 2__§he Seminar on Promotion of Research in Training Colleges. m 'S'aTdhna Press,'I9'56——— '— Government of India, Ministry of Community Development and Cooperation. Three Basic'Institutions. Faridabad: Government of India Press, 1959. 352 Government of India, Ministry of Education. Sghool gag Upppppl_y. New Delhi: Government of India Press, 1962. Government of India, Ministry of Community Development and Cooperation. anahaplal Uehru pp.gommunity Develgppen . Faridabad: Government of India Press, 1961. Government of India, Report p£_the Secondary ducation Uommission. Delhi: National Printing Works, 195 . Government of Maharashtra. Srant-in-Aid Uode‘pg Schools and Uolleges (Revised). Nagpur: Government Press and Book Depot, 1962. Kefauver, G. N. ”Reorientation of Educational Administra- tion," Ipe Iorty-[ifth earbook, Part 51. National Society for the Study of Education, 19 6. National Conference of Professors of Educational Administra- tion. Automation: lpp.meaning‘£pp,Educational Adminlg- tration. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1957. University Grants Commission. Apnual e o t, A lfijghpg nggp,l2§ . New Delhi: Hind Union Press, 19 0. University Council for Educational Administration. Appual gepgzt, 1961-62. UNESCO. W {lapping y; ia, A Report _o_i; the Regional Syppgsium. New Delhi: 29 January--23 rebruary, l9 2. U.S. Office of Education. figpcgtign fgr Ippggpp_and World Undgygyppglpg, A Report of the Conference, March 26-28, 1962c U.S. Office of Education. Slennigl Spun 2; M99, in is... 221.4“ mm. 1M. 0. PERIODICALS Almack, John C. ”Historical Development of School Administra- ziong' Sghool and Society, Vol. #3, No. 1115 (May, 1936), 25-130e Anderson, 0. Arnold. "World Patterns of Education,” Upgppgpr tive figugation Review, Vol. E, No. 2 (October, 1960), 68-69 0 Ayer, F. C. ”Administrative Research in Public School Administration,”.1hg.flg§ipg;§,Sghgplg, Vol. 2, No. 3 (September, 1928), 13-18. f0 353 Bapat, S. B. "The Training of the Indian Administrative Service,” The lndian Journal p£,Rublig dministration, Vol. 1, No. 2 (April-June, 1955), 119-129. Beeby, C. E. ”Stages in the Growth of a Primary Education System," gompargtive RUuoatlon Rev ew,‘Vol. 6, No. 1 (June, 1962), 2-15. Bonquouis W. ”Sociological Framework for Comparative Study of Educational Systems," Uomparative Rgugation Review, Vol. M, No. 2 (October, 1960), 121-126. Brembeck, Cole S. "Education for National Development," Uomparative decation Review, Vol. 5, No. 3 (February, 1952). 223-231. Brickman, W. W. "The Meeting of East and West in Educational History,“ Uomparative Edugation Review, Vol. 5, No. 2 (October, 1961), 82-89. Davies, Daniel R. "The Impending Breakthrough," Rpi Uelta Kappgn, Vol. 37 (April, 1956), 275-281. Dewey, John. ”Democracy for the Teachenr Rpogpesslve du ation, Vol. 8, No. 3 (March, 1931), 216-218. Fernig L. ”The Global Approach to Comparative Education,” lnternatlonal Review‘pg u atio , Vol. 5, No. 3 (1959), 3 3-353. - _ Givens, Willard E. ”Growth of the Association Idea,” RR; pelt; an, Vol. 37 (January, 1956), 173-178. Hans, Nicholas. ”The Historical Approach to Comparative Education," International Revieg‘pguggpgpplgp,‘Vol. 5. N0. 3 (1959). 299-307. Kandel, I. L. ”The Methodology of Comparative Education,” prggymgg uc t on, Vol. 5. NO. 3 (1959). 270-278. Kapur, Kali Das. ”To Members of the Teaching Profession," Sducatiog Vol. '41, No. 10 (October, 1962), 22-25 Katz, Robert L. "Skills of an Effective Administrator,” Harvard B siness Review, Vol. 33. No. 1 (January-February, 1955). 33 2. Kazamias, Andreas M. "Some 01d and New Approaches to Methodology in Comparative Education,” Uompargtlve Rgugation Review, Vol. 5, No. 2 (October, 19 1), 90-96. Lauwerys, Joseph A. ”The Philosophical Approach to Compara- tive Education,“ International Review of ucation Vol 5’ NO. 3 (1959): 281-296e — ’ . I. . . t . " r , ' ,7 ' a ‘ . K e ‘ '. . O ‘ I , e e D ‘ ._ ‘.' e e ' U _ \ . -. . . ‘ \ e ‘ O . . e f 0 t w e l ,. A ‘ . L e (. l f I ‘A ... ' e . e . . e , . Q 9 . . a .' e . v x 35“ Link, Eugene P. ”John Dewey and Mohandas K. Gandhi as Educational Thinkers," Somparative figucation Review, Vol. 5, No. 3 (February, 1962). Litchfield, Edward H. ”Notes on a General Theory of Administration,” Adminlstrative Sgience uarterl Vol. 1 (June, 1956), 3-29. Morphet, Edgar L. and John E., Corbally, Jr. "Education's Partners," Rpi Uolta Nappan, Vol. 37 (January, 1956), 156-172. Norton, John K. “Frontiers in Educational Research in General Administration," Journal p£_Educationa1 ese h, Vol. 15, No. 5 (January, 19u7), 327-33 Pittinger, B. F. ”Organizing the Field of School Administra- tion," Aperican School Board ournal, Vol. 72, No. 3 (March, 1926),h1-h2. Saiyidain, K. G. ”Secondary Education in India,” The Rgucation uarterl , Vol. 1b, No. 53 (March, 1962), 17-21. Shrimali, K. L. "Meeting Educational Challenges in Third Five Year Plan," Ipe Education uarterl , Vol. 12, No. #8 (Winter, 1960), 27 -279. Sidhanta, N. K. "Impacts of Change on Education,” Ipe March 2;_ ndia, Vol. 1h, No. 3(March, 1962), 23-2h. Rossello, Pedro. "Comparative Education as an Instrument1 of Planning," gggpprgpive figuggtion Review, Vol. E, No. (June, 1960), 3-12. Schlesinger, Arthur M., Jr. "Ideology Vs. Democracy,” ng_ Apgplppleeview, A Quarterly, April 1962. (Reprinted by the United States Information, New Delhi, India). Thompson, James D. “On Building an Administrative Science," Agpinigtpgtive Sgienge Qpayteyly, Vol. 1 (June, 1956), 102-112e D. UNPUBLISHED MATERIAL Bhatt, Ramanbhai G. "The Role of Vocational and Professional Education in the Economic Development of India from 1918 to 1951.“ Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Columbia University, 1957. Chaube, Sarayu Prasad. ”A More Adequate Foundation of Secondary Education for Indian Democracy." Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Indiana University, 1952. I. 1" Is 355 Cordray, Edward B. "An Analysis of American School Manage- ment Text-books from 1770 to 1911.” Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Pittsburgh, 1956. Forbes, John L. éTheory of Administrative Leadership for Contemporary Education." Unpublished Doctoral Disserta- tion, Michigan State University, 1958. Mahanty, Gouri Shyam. "The Common Multi-Purpose School in the Democratic Republic of India: Its Issues and Problems.” Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Columbia University, 1957. Panickavede, Paul L. "Analysis of the Effectiveness of Administration of Education of the Federal Government of Free India.” Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University, 1959. Pavamani, Victor George Martin. ”Community Colleges for India.” Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Washington, 1957. Vincent, Antonio Mansing. "A Comparative Study of Secondary Education in India and the united States of America from 1900 to 1956." Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, The University of Texas, 1957.