A STUDY OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE COMPETENCIES NEEDED . T BY THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE ACADEMIC * DEAN AND A MODEL .OF THEIR TRNNsuITIDN INTD BEHAVIORAL STATEMENTS. R£LATED T0 ADMINISTRATIVE TRAINING ExRERIENcEs Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY WILLIAM JOSEPH. MIMI 1970 1 i I I J . W LIbI {Y MlCile': Irate ‘ Ur: fives. try .I, .,. I... -. Men-r1131 This is to certify that the thesis entitled A STUDY OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE COMPETENCIES NEEDED BY THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE ACADEMIC DEAN AND A MODEL OF THEIR TRANSLATION INTO BEHAVIORAL STATEMENTS . RELATED TO ADMINISTRATIVE TRAINING ' ‘ EX§£§N&§%§S William Joseph Lynam has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. degreein Administration & Higher Education ‘9');z/L’mze3L. Major professor Date 0-7 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE COMPETENCIES NEEDED BY THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE ACADEMIC DEAN AND A MODEL OF THEIR TRANSLATION INTO BEHAVIORAL STATEMENTS RELATED TO ADMINISTRATIVE TRAINING EXPERIENCES BY William Joseph Lynam Introduction and Purposes of the Study The administrative role of the community college Academic Dean is of critical importance to the welfare of the institution. If a dean wishes to perform the role well, maximizing the leadership Opportunities within the role, he must exercise a very high level of administrative competence. A main purpose of this study was to generate those competencies essential to the successful functioning of this chief administrative officer. A second main pur- pose of the study was to translate the generated compe- tencies into specific behavioral manifestations and state- ments which would further delineate and clarify these needed administrative competencies. The behavioral state- ments could then be utilized in two possible ways. They could help prospective or presently acting Academic Deans evaluate their respective attainment levels of the William Joseph Lynam administrative competencies. They could provide some implications for improved in-service and pre-job training experiences for community college Academic Deans. Definition For the purposes of the study, administrative competency was defined as follows: Administrative Compe- tency is the capacity to synthesize and actualize relevant knowledge for the purposes of: (a) facilitating insti- tutional planning, (b) resolving complex problems which interfere with the achievement of organizational goals and objectives, and (c) evaluating institutional progress toward goal achievement. Assumptions Examined The following assumptions were examined in the study: 1. That a set of administrative competencies could be generated for the role of the Aca- demic Dean of a community college. 2. That these administrative competencies are very important to the functioning of the Academic Dean as he fulfills his tasks and duties. 3. That these administrative competencies can be further described through statements of behavioral terminology and behavioral mani- festation. William Joseph Lynam 4. That the administrative competencies and their translation into behavioral statements can have implications for learning experiences in com- munity college administrator leadership train- ing programs. Processes and Methods The competencies were analytically and inductively developed by grouping and comparing lists and duties which the Academic Dean must perform. The respective groups could then be recognized as needed, general areas of compe— tence. After the needed competency areas were selected, an interview process was utilized in order to reality test the competencies and their statements. Ten Michigan com- munity college deans, representing institutions of differ- ent size and type, and different levels of administrative QXperience, were interviewed. They were asked to respond to each competency on the basis of: (a) how important they thought the competency was to their functioning, (b) how adequate they perceived the statement of the competency to be, and (c) what other competencies they thought should be included on the list. The initial list of competencies and their statements was then revised. The revised list of competencies was then trans- lated into behavioral statements and behavioral mani- festations by using the guidelines established in this area of educational endeavor. These statements were then William Joseph Lynam related to the various classes of cognitive behaviors pre- sented in The Taxonomy_of Educational Objectives, ed. Benjamin S. Bloom. The behavioral statements as edu- cational objectives were then related to possible com- munity college administrator leadership training experi- ences . Conclusions of the Study Administrative competencies needed by the com- munity college Academic Dean may be generated and field tested so that a very accurate pic- ture of these competencies may be acquired. These competencies may be further described in statements of behavioral terminology and be- havioral manifestation. These behavioral statements can have impli- cations for learning experiences in community college administrator leadership training pro- grams. Implications for Future Activities and Research The behavioral manifestations and statements developed under the general competencies need to be reality tested in order to determine their actual relationship to the different levels of competency attainment of various Academic Deans. 2. William Joseph Lynam A pilot program in training community college Academic Deans needs to be developed whereby the effectiveness of the learning experiences described in the study could be evaluated. There is a need for the development of an evaluative instrument which could help a candidate and his professors better assess his status in relation to a given competency such that appropriate learning experiences can be recommended. The study may have implications for concen- trated, in-service training seminars and conferences for acting deans who wish to quickly improve their levels of adminis- trative competency. A STUDY OF THE ADMINISTRATIVE COMPETENCIES NEEDED BY THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE ACADEMIC DEAN AND A MODEL OF THEIR TRANSLATION INTO BEHAVIORAL STATEMENTS RELATED TO ADMINISTRATIVE TRAINING EXPERIENCES BY William Joseph Lynam A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Higher Education 1970 D2233 Copyright by WILLIAM JOSEPH LYNAM 1970 Chapter I. II. III. IV. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 0 O O O O O O O C . Introduction . . . . . . . . . Need for the Study . . . . . . . Statements of Purpose . . . . . . Definition of Terms . . . . . . . Assumptions to be Examined. . . . . Overview of the Study . . . . . . REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND RESEARCH . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . The Community College Academic Dean. . Community College Administration and Leadership Training Programs . . . . Administration Theory, Organization Theory, and Organizational Behavior. . Behavioral Statements and Objectives . Summary of Implications. . . . . . GENERATING THE ADMINISTRATIVE COMPETENCIES . . . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . Methodology: Generating the Adminis- trative Competencies. . . . . . . The Administrative Competencies . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEHAVIORAL MANI- FESTATIONS OF THE GENERAL ADMINISTRATIVE COMPETENCIES O O O C C O C O O 0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . Methodology. . . . . . . . . . Definition of Terms for Describing Behavioral Competencies. . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . iv Page 5—; ANQCDNH HEJ l6 17 25 29 38 41 44 44 45 57 78 80 80 81 87 Ill Chapter Page V. RELATING THE ADMINISTRATIVE COMPETENCIES TO LEARNING EXPERIENCES . . . . . . . 113 Behavioral Statements as Educational Objectives. . . . . . . . . . 114 Methodology and Rationale. . . . 117 Courses, Seminars, and Independent Study . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 The Professional Seminar . . . . . . 121 Simulated Experiences and Evaluative Internship. . . . . . . . . . . 122 Placing the Behavioral Statements Under Learning Experiences . . . . . . . 125 Summary of the Study . . . . . . . 137 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . 140 Implications for Future Activities and Research . . . . . . . . . . . 142 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144 APPENDICES Appendix A. The Community College Academic Deans Interviewed . . . . . . . . . . .. 152 B. Sample Copies of the Correspondence with the Deans. O O O O O O O O O O O 154 C. The Administrative Competencies of the Community College Academic Dean . . . . 157 D. Simulation Devices as Learning Experiences Related to the Administrative Competencies. 161 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Introduction The Dean of Instruction, Academic Dean, Dean of the Academic Division, Academic Vice-President, or what- ever else he may be called, along with his role, has been variously described. Edward Rosenheim, Jr. in "Letter to a New Dean" charges, " . . . beware, however, the illusion that the deanship involves a subtle, special expertise, the mastery of a craft whose dark secrets are unknown to your faculty colleagues. . . . A qualified administrator is only a professor who answers his mail" (77:228). M. S. Marshall says that the dean "who starts out with strong and avowed policies, therefore, is in— evitably moderately young, a bit naive, and recently appointed." He later suggests that weak deans may be so because of "a love of social life, golf, or strong drink. More often they are not namby-pamby but are or become expedient, which is different but has the same effect" (64:638). Myron F. Wicke says, "Deans are still, as then, variously looked at; at best, however being damned with faint praise" (87:54). The above opening statements indicate the subject of this study, the role of the Dean of Academic Affairs. Three further statements of explanation should be offered before the need for the study is presented. First, the titles Dean of Instruction, Academic Vice-President, Academic Dean, and Dean of the Academic Division are all interchangeable in this study and denote the same adminis- trative officer and his role. Second, this study will be limited to the position of the Dean of the Academic Divi- sion of a community college. Third, research and infor- mation will be presented about the Deanship generally because it also applies to the role of the Academic Dean of a community college. These statements of explanation will be developed more fully later in this paper. Need for the Study There is a need for more research and literature on the role of the Dean of Academic Affairs, whether specifically related to community college administration or not. This need stems from the general need for more research and information about administration and higher education. Also, there is a dearth of information about community college administration. The studies previously done on the Academic Dean have not only been few, but they have been essentially of the same kind. The central importance of the administrative role of the Dean of Studies to an institution makes information about this position critical. There is a tremendous need for more and better educational administration leadership programs and evaluation processes. Each one of the above needs could be fully illustrated, but may it suffice to briefly illus- trate a few of the important ones with statements from educational leaders. At the same time, some speculations can be offered as to what this study might contribute. That there is a general need for more information about administration and higher education, especially related to community college administration may be illus- trated with this statement by Richard C. Richardson, Jr. from "Needed: New Directions in Administration": I would tend to feel from personal observation that current practice represents a hodgepodge of ideas garnered from business, secondary schools, and four- year universities without the benefit of much analysis as to how well these ideas relate to the kinds of problems currently being encountered by the adminis- trative organizations of two-year colleges (75:16). This research and study should contribute more information to the field of administration and higher education gener- ally, as well as more specific information about community college administration. This research should also contribute a somewhat different approach to the study of the role of the Academic Dean. Almost all of the studies done previously have been efforts at listing and weighting in importance the various tasks, duties, and functions of this administrative offi- cer. Myron F. Wicke in "Deans: Men in the Middle" reported in 1963 that after studying "lists of doctoral theses covering more than a decade“ and after selecting "those that looked even slightly promising for thorough examination" the time and money were wasted. "The almost invariable approach has been to ask what deans are doing and to proceed from this to reach conclusions, usually highly selective, on what deans ought to be doing" (87:59). HOpefully, the results of this research will contribute a deeper and more useful perspective of the Academic Dean and of his role. The different approach taken in this study is described in this chapter under Statements of Purpose. The above statements are particularly alarming when one realizes the central and critical importance of the administrative role of the Academic Dean to the wel- fare of the institution. Among others, Harold Enarson writes, "The dean is more than an administrator. He provides leadership, leadership among equals, to the faculty. He may do this ineptly or do it with great skill. But do it he must" (30:118). Victor Hanzeli in "The Educational Leadership of the Academic Dean" states, "His office is situated in the heart of the academic microcosm" (47:421). Algo Henderson in "The Dean Is Busy" writes, "More than anyone, unless it be the presi- dent, the dean will have the responsibility for assuring that the faculty has genuine vitality, possesses a L71 cohesiveness that derives from common objectives, and main- tains a good standard of quality in all of their work" (48:181). One of the greatest demands for research and information on the role of the Dean of Academic Affairs is associated with the need for leadership training pro- grams for prospective deans, as well as the need for in- service training for acting deans. Lewis B. Mayhew points out that the mean tenure for Academic Deans is between five and seven years (65:189). This suggests that the deans have not been well enough prepared to function ade- quately and/or happily in their position. Algo Henderson (48), Harlan C. Koch (55), Lester G. Anderson (3), and many other writers agree that the lack of training with which the new dean confronts his job is a grave handicap. Koch best describes this situation in the following: Continually the dean must face up to the ambiguities of his office. There are no certainties to guide him: no infallible charts, maps, blueprints; no assurances that, if he should do things this way or that way, he will emerge as the mastermind those above him and below him generally hOpe for (55:248). Part of the above problem stems from the great need for educational administration leadership training programs and information generally. Edmund J. Gleazer, Jr. in "Concerns and Cautions for Community Colleges" (37), Donald A. Eldridge in "New Dimensions for the Two- Year Colleges" (29), and Frederick T. Giles in "Junior College Leadership Program" (36) agree that the immediate development of such training programs should receive top priority and that "There should be no doubt in anybody's mind that developmental activities now are necessary which go far beyond the scale of previous attempts . . . " (37: 21). This study could be very important for the develop- ment of such programs for both presently acting and pro- spective administrators, especially for Academic Deans. The results of this study could also be important if adapted to evaluating the functioning of the Dean of the Academic Division on a self-study, institutional research basis. Statements of Purpose The above introductory statements concerning the needs for and the possible contributions of this research lead directly into the statements of purpose of this study. The purpose of this study is to generate a set of basic administrative competencies which the Dean of the Academic Division of a community college needs in order to fulfill the functions of his educational leader— ship role. This problem is best clarified through the definition of terms used in the study. The new and different approach of this research depends upon the explanation of the term "administrative competency." The second main purpose of this study is to trans- late the generated administrative competencies of the community college Academic Dean into specific behavioral statements which further delineate and clarify the compe- tencies. These statements will be presented in behavioral terminology and will represent samples of behavioral mani- festations which could be interpreted as evidence that an individual had acquired such an administrative compe- tency. The above terms are more fully explained in the section Definition of Terms. This second task is vital to the study because it further clarifies the administrative competencies in such a way that their substance and importance can be utilized more fully. This is especially true in terms of the implications such statements have for in-service and pre— job training experiences for community college Academic Deans. These implications are described in Chapter V of this study. Definition of Terms Academic Dean.--The Dean of Academic Affairs, Dean of Instruction, Academic Dean, Dean of the Academic Divi- sion, and Academic Vice-President are all interchangeable terms in this study denoting the same administrative official of a community college and his role. He is the administrator who is primarily responsible for the aca- demic transfer programs and courses of the two-year college. He usually sits on the president's cabinet with the other deans of the institution who also have their special responsibilities and are his equal on the formal organizational chart. This study, then, is not concerned with the Dean of Student Services, the Dean of Community Services, the Dean of Business, or the Dean of the Technology Division. Neither is it a study of the position of Academic Vice-President, Dean of Academic Affairs, or Provost when these terms refer to an official second in command under the president, who presides over the deans of the other divisions or colleges within an institution. Role of the Academic Dean.--The role of the Dean of the Academic Division connotes the responsibilities, vested authority, eXpected and perceived functions, duties, and tasks of the position within the administrative organ- ization of the institution entitled the Academic Dean, Dean of Instruction, or whatever. This role usually in- volves recruiting, evaluating, and promoting faculty members within the academic division. He makes budget recommendations to the president and cabinet, chairs committees, works closely with the department chairmen, and is involved with institutional planning and research. Community College.--A community college or junior college is a state and locally supported two-year college whether autonomous or part of a larger school district. It is public and Open to any student of any age who has a high school diploma or the equivalent thereof. Administrative Competency.--Administrative compe- tency is the capacity to synthesize and actualize relevant knowledge for the purposes of: (a) facilitating insti- tutional planning, (b) resolving complex problems which interfere with the achievement of organizational goals and objectives, and (c) evaluating institutional progress toward goal achievement. The word capacity in the defi- nition denotes the behaviorally demonstrated ability to synthesize and actualize relevant knowledge. To synthesize as a behavior is to combine and to organize often diverse conceptions into a coherent whole. To actualize denotes two behaviors: one is that of stating the implications of the relevant knowledge to a particular issue being con- fronted; the second is defining and listing strategies, techniques, and activities which could be initiated to resolve the particular issue being confronted. Relevant knowledge denotes the concepts, principles, facts, skills, and means pertinent to the included purposes stated in the definition. Facilitating Institutional Planning and Develpp- ment, Resolving Complex Problems Which Interfere with the Achievement of Organizational Goals and Objectives, and Evaluating Institutional Progress Toward Goal Achievement.-- These three purposes of administrative behavior were chosen for the definition because they are central to and inclu- sive of the primary functions of administration as 10 indicated both from junior college and from administrative theory literature. At this time, some brief statements further explaining the meaning of the purposes seem sufficient. Institutional planning and development is well explained by this statement of Urwick. "Planning, that is working out in broadtoutline the things that need to be done and the methods for doing them to accomplish the purpose set for the enterprise" (42:42). Resolving complex problems which interfere with the achievement of organizational goals and objectives incorporates decision- making processes and their importance for organizations which includes the responsibility for the organization as a viable social system and for maintaining the organization "in dynamic equilibrium through developing, integration of task-achievement and needs satisfaction" (61:142). Urwick provides an explanation of evaluating institutional pro- gress toward goal attainment. "Reporting, that is keeping those to whom the executive is responsible informed as to what is going on, which includes keeping himself and his subordinates informed through records, research, and in- spection" (42:4). Educational Administrative Leadership.--These words in the statement of purpose for this study refer to the View of the administrator as an educational leader so often described throughout the literature and research on educational administration. The emphasis on leadership 11 in this study is the same as that described by Tannenbaum and Massarik in "Leadership: A Frame of Reference." "Leadership is a function or process rather than the exclusive attribute of a prescribed role" (81:413). Associated with this View of leadership as a function are the criteria of effective leadership offered by O'Brien. The criteria of the effective leader will be measures of productivity and efficiency, measures of worker satisfaction, personal growth, and self—actualization (69: 46). The View of administrative leadership as a function in this research incorporates both the definition of leadership and the definition of administration presented by James M. Lipham in that the educational administrator must fulfill both functions. We define leadership as the initiation of a new structure or procedure for accomplishing an organi- zation's goals and objectives. . . . The adminis- trator, on the other hand, may be identified as the individual who utilizes existing structures or pro- cedures to achieve an organizational goal or objec- tive (60:122). Behavioral Terminology and Behavioral Manifes- tation.—-These terms are borrowed from the growing school of educational thought that looks to visible and identi— fiable behaviors as the indication of learning. Two of the most noted writers and advocates of this approach are Benjamin S. Bloom in his Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (14) and Robert F. Mager in Preparing Instruc- tional Objectives (62). Terminology such as to list, to 12 write, to identify, to solve, and to contrast will be used in statements delineating the administrative competencies as behaviors. The term behavioral manifestation, as used in this study, denotes: (a) what the Academic Dean who has the competency should be able to do, (b) the conditions under which he should be able to do it, and (c) the level of performance to which he should be able to do it. Assumptions to be Examined 1. That a set of administrative competencies can be generated for the role of the Academic Dean of a community college. 2. That these administrative competencies are basic to the functioning of the Academic Dean as he fulfills his tasks and duties. 3. That these administrative competencies may be further described in statements of behavioral terminology and behavioral manifestation. 4. That the administrative competencies and their translation into behavioral statements have implications for learning experiences in administrator leadership training programs. Assumptions basic to the study not specifically examined in the study are: 1. That the administrative position of Academic Dean as described in this study is common in community colleges. 13 That statements from the literature and re- search on educational administration, adminis- trative and organizational theory, and organi- zational behavior are applicable to the administrative role of the Dean of Academic Affairs. That the community college as an institution and the academic division of such a college are social systems and social organizations and that administration must be viewed as related to and integral with such systems. This study assumes the following: A social organization is a continuing system of differentiated and coordinated human activities utilizing, transforming, and welding together a specific set of human, material, capitol, ideational, and natural resources into a unique problem-solving whole engaged in satisfying particular human needs in interaction with other systems of human activi- ties and resources in its environment (5:37). 4. This study assumes that administration is a necessary and integral part of such a social system and social organization and that the functions of administration, decision-making, morale building, communicating, initiating change, evaluating, and planning must be viewed as to their relationship to and impact upon such an educational social system and social organization. This study assumes that administration is responsible for the welfare 14 and effectiveness of both the nomothetic and idiographic dimensions of the institution as described by Jacob W. Getzels in "Adminis- tration as a Social Process.“ Administration is conceived structurally as the hierarchy of subordinate-superordinate relationships within a social system:, . . . The social system is comprised of two dimensions; the nomothetic which consists of the institution, role, and expectation; and the idiographic which consists of the individual, his personality, and his need-dispositions (41:101). Overview of the Study A brief preview of the purpose and content of the succeeding second and third chapters in this study will be helpful in guiding the reader. In Chapter II a review of the pertinent literature to this study is presented. The main emphasis will be upon the literature and research directly related to the administrative role of the Aca- demic Dean of a community college. Some brief review of exceptional sources or literature related to such subjects as leadership, leadership training programs, and behavioral science, and educational administration will also be pre- sented if particularly important to the clarifying of the "administrative competencies." Some brief review of the literature associated with behavioral objectives and statements will be presented. Chapter II will also con- tain a discussion of the importance and implications the previous research and literature have for this study. 15 In Chapter III, the techniques used in this study to generate and select the administrative competencies are discussed. The final administrative competencies which were selected are presented in this chapter. Chapter IV contains a description of the processes utilized in the development of the behavioral statements for each competency. The behavioral statements are then listed under each general competency. Chapter V contains a description of the manner by which training experiences were associated with the compe- tencies and their behavioral statements. These adminis- trative leadership training experiences are listed. Chapter V also contains some conclusions and recommen- dations about future studies and activities which were generated by the present study. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND RESEARCH Introduction A review of the research and literature pertinent to this study is presented in this chapter. Such a review is necessary because it illustrates the background and content which has served as the catalyst for this research. A review of the pertinent research and literature also contributes to a better understanding of the many concepts and principles which this study assumes and utilizes. The chapter has five main parts. The research and literature specifically related to the administrative role of the Academic Dean of a community college will be pre- sented first. A brief discussion on the nature and scope of material related to community college administration and leadership programs will follow. Third, some of the more important sources which contribute information on administration and organization theory, and organizational behavior are reviewed. A very brief discussion of some materials pertinent to writing behavioral objectives and statements is presented next. Lastly, those implications 16 17 of most importance to this research from the above are summarized, and some preview statements on Chapter III are made. Throughout Chapter II, three main purposes guide the presentation and discussion. The first is to present materials and statements specifically related to the administrative role of the community college Dean of Instruction. The second is to provide a background and rationale for administrative competencies out of adminis— tration and organization theory. The third main purpose is to illustrate more fully the nature and significance of translating the competencies into behavioral state- ments. The Community College Academic Dean It quickly becomes apparent during a review of the literature that not many articles have been written Spe- cifically about the community college Academic Dean. The Junior College Journal has not published a specific article devoted to the Dean of Instruction in over a decade. This lack of information and apparent lack of concern in the Journal with this administrative position hardly seems justified in light of the vital nature of the position to such institutions. If one searches for Specific articles on the com- munity college Academic Dean in other journals such as the Journal of Higher Education, College Management, and the 18 North Central Association Quarterly, he will not fare much better. However, one article is an important exception. This article is "A Comparative Analysis of the Junior College Dean's Leadership Behavior" by J. O. Carson, Jr. and Raymond E. Schultz in the Journal of Experimental Edu- cation (18). Carson and Schultz report on their analysis of data obtained via the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire from the presidents, deans, department heads, and student leaders of twenty-two public two-year colleges. Carson and Schultz are able to conclude: Evidence was obtained that discrepancies of per- ceptions and expectations exist between student leaders and the other referent groups, especially presidents. These discrepancies suggest that role conflicts exist for the dean. The discrepancies between the expectations of the president on the one hand, and those of student leaders on the other, appear to produce the dean's major role conflict (18:360). A few Specific studies on the community college Dean of Instruction are listed in Dissertation Abstracts. The main difficulty with these efforts appears to be that they are repetitive of each other in that they are surveys which compile lists of the duties and tasks of this ad- ministrative officer. The dissertations of Blowers (1968), Day (1968), Stanbury (1965), and LaVire (1961) are repre- sentative of this approach. These dissertations are all valuable in that they compile and review the research and literature associated with the administrative position. They also have importance for other studies, such as this 19 one, if the research must assume or build upon such lists of duties and tasks. All of these studies conclude with recommendations similar to that made by LaVire when he wrote that further investigation is needed to identify the competencies necessary for the successful performance of the critical tasks of the community college adminis- trator. The dissertation of Eugene Weldon Day is reviewed here in more detail because it is representative of the above kind of study. It also has implications for this research becauSe of the manner in which the duties are organized, and because of the possible behavioral state- ments which might appear under a main topic of organi— zation. The study was based upon the academic deans or comparable officers in the public community colleges of the United States, a selected sample of community college presidents, and a selected jury of authorities in adminis- tration and higher education in the United States. The purpose of the study was to identify from a selected list of duties related to the academic deans: (l) duties that should be performed by academic deans, (2) duties that may be performed by academic deans, (3) duties that should not be performed by academic deans, and (4) duties that are currently being performed by academic deans. The organi- zation of the study most useful to the present research 20 was the classification of the 168 duties into seven areas of responsibility: 1. Duties Relating to Faculty. 2. Duties Relating to Curriculum. 3. Duties Relating to Students. 4. Duties Relating to Budget and Upper Administration. 5. Duties Relating to Plant and Physical Facilities 6. Duties Relating to Public Relations 7. Duties Relating to Self-Improvement. Through a very elaborate cross—tabulation and scoring process, Day was able to reduce 168 duties to 103. The selected duties of the Academic Dean related to the Curriculum are presented below as an example of part of the outcome of Day's study. Such a listing has importance for this study because an analysis can be made of the specific duties to help in the generation of the adminis- trative competencies as well as in the translation of these competencies into behavioral statements. 21 Duties Relating to the Curriculum 1. Maintain articulation with senior colleges concerning the transfer program. 2. Approve textbook lists submitted by the departments. 3. Study community needs for curriculum changes. 4. Maintain reports of curriculum changes proposed and/or approved. -.. 5. Approve the objectives of each course. 6. Approve the addition and/or deletion of courses. 7. Suggest courses to be added or deleted. 8. Supervise the creation and/or revision of syllabi. 9. Administer an honors program. Another approach being utilized in dissertations seems to be the comparison of the perceived and expected functions of the Academic Dean. This approach may con- tribute a greater understanding of the conflict associated with the dean's role caused by the differences in the per- ceived and expected functions across presidents, student leaders, department chairmen, and the deans themselves. One such study is that of Verbeke (1966), The Junior College Academic Dean's Leadership Behavior as Viewed by Supervisors and Faculty. This approach may be exception- ally meaningful when specific and individual duties of the Academic Dean are investigated. A good example of this is Carl Elbert Todd's dissertation (1965), "The Perceived Functions of the Junior College Academic Dean in the Im- provement of Instruction." A few of Todd's recommendations are presented here to illustrate their usefulness to a study such as this one: 22 Junior college deans and presidents should consult more on procedures for improving present and long-range educational objectives and outcomes for the college, and they should give more attention to appointing jointly faculty committees needed to recommend methods, procedures, and outcomes which may improve the total academic program. Academic deans should plan more with department chairmen about departmental aims, budgets, equipment and materials, teaching methods, personnel, projects, coordinations, and evaluation. Academic deans should give more attention to choosing an instructor well and to having a carefully designed orientation and long-range improvement program for him after he joins the faculty. Academic deans spend more time on the improvement of the curriculum in light of new theories, new approaches, changes made in other institutions, and faculty recommendations. A number of articles and books, of varying impor- tance, have been written about the academic deanship in general in colleges and universities. These help to alleviate some of the paucity of information about the community college Academic Dean if one regards this material as highly relevant in that the administrative role does not differ that much between two-year and four- year institutions. A few of the most valuable and perti- nent of these are reviewed below; others are listed in the Bibliography. An extremely important source of information is John Wesley Gould's The Academic Deanship. This book is a report and summary of the data and interviews obtained from over 260 deans across the United States. The chapter titles of the book illustrate the book's comprehensiveness: "Responsibilities of the Academic Dean," "Opportunities for Leadership," "Relationship with Others in the Institution," 23 "Faculty Leader and Administrator," "Preparation for the Academic Deanship." If the book shows any bias, and it may be justified on the basis of the research, it is the reoccurring insistence that as an educational leader "Persuasion is the word, for by tradition and in self- defense the faculty, jealous of its prerogatives, will spring up to counter vigorous initiative on the part of any administrator" (40:41). The book makes several im- portant contributions to this study, but one of the most important is an analysis of the comparison between the time which deans reported spending on certain responsi- bilities and the amount of skill they reported was re- quired in carrying out the same list of responsibilities. Gould arrived at his figures by multiplying the percent- age of Deans, listing the responsibility first by four, multiplying the percentage listing it second by three, and so on, and then by summing the total score for each responsibility. The results of Gould's analysis are presented on the next page. Another important source of information is Th§_ Academic Deanship in American Colleges and Universities, edited by Arthur J. Dibden. This book is a collection of many of the best articles written about the deanship. It covers the dean's office, roles, relationships, image, and wisdom. The contributors to the book are very well known: John J. Corson, John W. Gould, Lewis B. Mayhew, 24 Responsibility Time Skill Combined Faculty relations and morale 33 69 102 Recruitment of faculty 30 26 56 Curriculum work 24 28 52 Budget work, promotions, evaluation of personnel 22 27 49 Committee work 33 ll 44 Routine administrative duties 35 9 44 Student counseling 27 6 33 Work with other adminis- trators, advising the presi- dent, relations with other colleges in the university Work with department heads Policy making, planning, goal setting, institutional studies, study of other institutions Public relations Admission problems Seeing parents, students Enforcing regulations, discipline l4 18 12 16 .54:- l—‘U‘lbm £00000 IbUWQON O N [\J and Max S. Marshall. Representative articles from the AAUP Bulletin, the Journal of Higher Education, and the North Central Association Quarterly are included. Some of the articles are humorous in nature, but with subtle im- portance in their levity. A few examples are presented from a list of the requirements for a dean: The dean who listens to amiable persons is assured that his ideas are uniformly good. He who delegates authority and at the same time sits in authority will come to realize that those with two heads are regarded as eccentric. He who strings endless chains of words in campus fashion is likely to find his words have no effect when he needs them. 25 He who appoints pals and boosters will soon learn that he has neither. The dean who dines too often with administrators may find himself with no face instead of with two faces (25:211-12). Several articles on the Academic Dean in the journals contribute more to this study than others. Kenneth R. Walker in "The Academic Dean" probably pre- sents the best overall summary of the dean's responsi- bilities and types of behavior. Lewis B. Mayhew in "Shared Responsibility of the President and the Dean" contributes a critical look at the vital relationship between these two administrative roles. Two other im- portant articles are Algo D. Henderson's "The Dean Is Busy" and Harold Enarson's "The Academic Vice—President or Dean." Community College Administration and Leadership Training Programs Surprisingly few articles have appeared in the Junior College Journal in the last ten years on adminis- tration. Of the ones which have appeared, "Human Re- lations Are Important," by Clyde E. Blocker and Richard C. Richardson, Jr. offers the most substance for this re- search. The basic assumption of their article is that "The most meaningful index of an administrator's effec- tiveness is the quality of human relations which prevails in his institution" (12:19). The authors devised a faculty morale questionnaire to assess the following areas of 26 faculty perception about their reSpective institutions: communication, confidence in administration, relations with immediate supervisor, relations with fellow employees, relations with students, status and recognition, identi- fication with institution, opportunities for professional advancement, adequacy of salary, adequacy of fringe bene- fits, work environment, and work load (12:20). The benefits of using such a study for institutional research could be: (1) identifying personnel practices and policies requiring attention, (2) identifying areas of the insti- tution as a whole needing attention, (3) identifying particularly unhappy departments, (4) identifying and measuring the results on faculty morale of any change in personnel policy. The article has direct importance to this study because it relates so well to the adminis- trative competencies of the Academic Dean. Another article which provides a stimulating idea for this research is Irene B. Kiernan's "The New Style in College Administration." This article is a report on the Conference on the Nature-and Demands of Teaching in Two- Year Colleges at Bennett College in 1967. The main thrust of this article is the idea that "participants at the 1967 conference seriously considered the process of evaluation, of administrators. Evidently, it is going on formally in a few colleges" (53:23). The feeling at the conference was that such evaluation would help develop mutual trust 27 and confidence, and a feeling of working together between faculty and administration. This might be something a community college Academic Dean would want to consider under an administrative competency related to personnel relations. Other articles on community college administration are listed in the Bibliography, but some mention needs to be made of the value to this study of one of the classic books on community colleges which contains materials on administration. The Two-Year College: A Social Synthesis has a chapter entitled "Administrative Structure and Functions" which is particularly valuable because community college administration is perceived as functioning in both an internal and external social context. In addition, a long list of statements is included concerning the per- sonal skills and understanding needed by an administrator. Two statements are presented here as examples. "The ability, even while maintaining a well-ordered organi- zation: to disturb its stationary character in order to effect changes toward improvement." "A knowledge of who should participate, when, and to what extent, in each of the administrator's decision-making situations" (13:187). Of the articles on community college adminis- tration in the Junior College Journal, a number are descriptions of community college Leadership Training Programs. These articles have a direct bearing upon this 28 research since a major outcome of the study will be the translation of the administrative competencies into be- havioral statements with implications for such training programs. Of the several articles reviewed, none pre- sented the educational objectives of the particular pro- gram in behavioral terms. The most thorough article on this subject in the Junior College Journal is "Junior College Leadership Pro- gram" by Frederic T. Giles. It is well-known that the Commission on Administration of the American Association of Junior Colleges, with financial support from the W. K. Kellogg Foundation, has been instrumental in establishing community college leadership training programs and centers at the following universities: University of Texas, UCLA, University of California at Berkeley, Stanford University, University of Florida, Florida State University, Uni- versity of Michigan, Michigan State University, and Wayne State University. The overall objective of the programs is to do more than just impart technical skills to adminis- trators, by arranging educational eXperiences for the participants to help them function as intellectual leaders of the community. The more specific objectives of the programs are: (l) to develop the philosophy and concept of the junior and community college, (2) to develop the essential characteristics of a junior college adminis- trator, (3) to develop a working knowledge of the many 29 fields a junior college administrator must concern himself with, and (4) to develop the concept of the educational administrator serving as an intellectual leader of his community. One can consult the other articles, such as that by George L. Hall, listed in the Bibliography, relat- ing to such training programs, but he will not find the educational objectives of such programs eXpressed in very specific behavioral terms. Tim Davies, in a dissertation similar to this one, reviewed several of the program curricula descriptions from participating universities and found that "most of the material received was in the form of general expectations stated in vague and abstract language" (23:56). Administration Theory, Organization Theory, and Organizational Behavior Many of the administrative competencies needed by the community college Academic Dean have their bases in the literature and research of administration and organi- zation theory, and organizational behavior. This body of knowledge has developed from the work of such men as Max Weber, Chester Barnard, Herbert Simon, James G. March, Talcott Parsons, Rensis Likert, Chris Argyris, E. Wight Bakke, and others. Principles and concepts from social systems theory, organization theory, and organizational behavior have been adapted to the field of educational administration by such men as Getzels, Roald Campbell, 30 James Lipham, Griffiths, and Andrew Halpin. Some of the more important sources of information which are pertinent and are the bases for this study will be reviewed here. The community college Academic Dean plays a major role in the personnel management aspect of his part of the institution. Much of his competency in this area depends upon his knowledge of the writings of such men as Rensis Likert, Chris Argyris, and Getzels. Likert's work is particularly important because he attempts an eclectic position among organization analysts, selecting the best from other theories and research. He calls his approach the Modified Theory of Organization and Management. A good description and example of his thinking is his "A Motivational Approach to a Modified Theory of Organization and Management" in Modern Organization Theory (59). His main contention is that the organization will function best when there is a high degree of motivation to achieve organization goals among the personnel. Motivation is described as being generated from economic motives; ego motives; security motives; and curiosity, creativity, and the desire for new experiences motives (59:185-86). High motivation is most likely to occur throughout the organi- zation when the interactions between the members of the organization are supportive, reinforcing, and add to an individual's motivation. All aspects of the organization need to be examined for their motivational impact. Likert 31 includes factors from organization research which have an empirically demonstrated significance on worker motivation such as studies of supervisor-subordinate relationships. "The extent to which the superior conveys to the subordi- nate a feeling of confidence in him and an interest in his on-the-job and off-the-job problems, exercises a major influence upon the attitudes and performance goals of the subordinates" (59:187). Likert also includes in his theory the need for each individual to belong to a highly satis— factory work group, and the concept of linking-pin functions of communication if worker motivation is to be maximized. Several organization analysts have written about the degree of worker self-actualization in an organization and its impact on the functioning of the organization. This concept is central to the writing of Chris Argyris. "Human Behavior in Organizations" in Modern Organization Theory (4) illustrates his concern with worker self- actualization. His overall assumption is that "human beings are need-fulfilling, goal-achieving unities. They create various types of strategies to fulfill their needs and to achieve their goals" (4:115). A few examples of the impact this basic assumption has on the relationship between individuals and an organization are presented below: 32 Many human problems in organizations arise because relatively healthy people in our culture are asked to participate in work situations which coerce them to be dependent, subordinate, submissive, to use few of their more skin-surface abilities. There are three major sets of variables which cause the dependence, subordination, etc. The formal organization-structure is the first variable. Direc- tive leadership is the second, and managerial controls (budgets, incentive systems, quality control, motion and time studies) is the third. Healthy human beings tend to find the dependence, subordination, etc., frustrating. They would prefer to be relatively independent, aspire to positions equal to or higher than their peers, to be active, and to use many of their deeper abilities. Frustration leads to regression, aggression, and tension. These in turn lead to conflict (the individual prefers to leave but fears leaving). Moreover, it can be shown that under these conditions the individual will tend to experience psychological failure and short time- perspective. Individuals will adapt to the frustration, conflict, failure, and short time-perspective by creating any one or a combination of the following informal activities. Leave the situation (absenteeism and turnover). Climb the organizational ladder. Become defensive. . . . Become apathetic, disinterested, non-ego involved in the organization and its formal goals. Create informal groups to sanction defense reactions. . . . (4:119-20) Certainly many of these symptoms of the lack of self- actualization among faculty members must be recognized as part of the Academic Dean's personnel relations competency. Worker morale and its consequence to the function- ing of an educational institution are discussed in “Social Behavior and the Administrative Process" by Getzels and Guba (34). Morale is dependent upon the sense of belong- ing, the task rationality, and the identification with the institution perceived by the individual worker. A sense of belonging exists when the worker feels he can achieve 33 satisfaction within the institutional framework. Ration- ality is the degree to which each worker feels his efforts and role are appropriate to the achievement of organi— zational goals. Identification is the degree to which the needs and goals of each worker can be integrated with the institutional goals and actions (34:439). Getzels is particularly famous for his description of the educational organization as being composed of the nomothetic and idiographic dimensions. The nomothetic dimension is com- posed of the institution, role, and expectations; the idiographic dimension consists of the individual, his personality, and his need dispositions. The adminis- trator is responsible for and must be conscious of both dimensions. The above concepts are pertinent and basic to a number of the administrative competencies of the com- munity college Dean of Instruction. One could go on at length presenting and discuss- ing the many writers and individual articles from the wealth of information in administration and organization theory, and organizational behavior which are pertinent and important to the generation and understanding of the administrative competencies of the community college Academic Dean. Many are listed in the Bibliography. Only two more sources will be briefly reviewed here be— cause of their outstanding importance to this research. One can hardly write anything about educational administration theory without consulting the articles in 34 Behavioral Science and Educational Administration (8). It is difficult to specifically state the many concepts and principles which this one source contributes to such a study as this. "Leadership and Administration" by James M. Lipham (60) was pertinent in that it detailed the insti- tution as a social system and defined some of the differ- ences between administration and leadership. The article is also important to the study in delineating much of the research associated with leadership behavior. Richard C. Lonsdale in "Maintaining the Organization in Dynamic Equilibrium" (61) presents a thorough and enlightening review of the literature associated with the organization as a social, human entity. Such subjects as role conflict, self-actualization, incentives, morale, and organizational climate, as discussed by Lonsdale, all have relevance for the administrative competencies of the Academic Dean. Jack Culbertson's "The Preparation of Administrators" (21) has implications for this study in that some of his recommendations relate to the outcome of this research: improved community college administrator training pro- grams. He also bases some of his recommendations on administrator competencies. If decision-making, communicating, morale—building, and initiating change are important aspects of adminis- tration and leadership, it logically follows that a curriculum should help develop in potential adminis- trators those behaviors which are appropriate for dealing with these processes (21:316). The Handbook of Organizations, edited by James G. March (46) is also a source which contributes many im- portant individual articles pertinent to this study. Two of the more useful of these are reviewed in the following paragraphs for illustrative purposes. Several of the administrative competencies of the Academic Dean depend upon the knowledge and research associated with the cohesiveness of work groups in an organization. Statements about the importance of the functioning of such groups to worker morale, supervisory leadership behavior, and general organization effective- ness can be found throughout administration and organi- zation theory and organizational behavior. Robert T. Golembiewski in "Small Groups and Large Organizations" (39) in the Handbook presents a thorough discussion of the subject. Golembiewski's review of the “Great Men" groups research of Borgatta, Couch, and Bales (1954) is an example of the contribution of this article. 1. The groups with Great Men tended to have more satisfactory records on the performance of their task, as judged by a high consensus on reaching proposed solutions to a discussion problem. 2. The groups with Great Men tended to have lower rates of expressed tension, which is a reason- able indicator of smoothly functioning group processes and of high satisfaction of group members; and 3. The groups with Great Men tended to have atmos- pheres which can be characterized as more friendly, with less rigid distinctions between group members (9:94). 36 This sort of material has immediate consequence in this study when associated with the relations between the Academic Dean, the department chairmen, and the faculty in the departments. The ability of the Academic Dean to assess the work climate in the various departments also depends upon the following kind of analysis presented in Golembiewski's article: Where high resultant satisfaction and low output are observed, in similar terms, the behavioral group probably derives very great satisfaction only from its own internal processes, perhaps as they are mobilized to protect group members against the threat of formal supervisors (Adams, 1953). Such a case may be explained as the reaction of a high-cohesiveness, high-compatibility group against (for example) the attempt by a formal superior to impose an uncongenial style of supervision (39:102). Perhaps no administrative competency is more valu- able and basic to the functioning of the Academic Dean than skill in interpersonal relations. Abraham Zaleznik presents a thorough discussion on this subject in "Inter- personal Relations in Organizations" (90) in the Handbook. The statements in this article are organized around three aspects of interpersonal relations in organizations. The first is the organizational setting in that the work of the organization provides substance as well as constraints to such relationships. Second, the intrapersonal nature of individuals influences their relationships in that "the meaning of the encounters depends on the nature of thought processes, affects, and their derivatives, which can be understood in terms of individual intrapsychic and 37 developmental processes" (90:575). Third, the actual be- havior, over time, of the encounter and interchange "defines the core of interpersonal relations as a scien- tific and practical area of study" (90:575). Several times in the course of this research, administrators have mentioned that the ability to "listen" is of paramount importance to the Academic Dean. Certainly many different interpretations can be made of this ability. One such example is provided in Zaleznik's article through the analysis of an interaction which took place between an employee and his supervisor. Although the process of transference was demonstrated first within the psychoanalytic setting, it is by no means restricted to this encounter, but occurs in many other interpersonal settings of every day life. The analyst, as well as authority figures in real life become parent surrogates. Individuals can and do experience the full range of emotions from love to hate and the singular ambivalences directed toward authority figures who stand in the place of original parents (90:577). The ability of the Academic Dean to listen and communicate may depend upon his ability to perceive when such a phe- nomenon may be occurring in an interaction. This article contains many other concepts and principles pertinent and basic to the administrative competencies of the community college Academic Dean. The discussion of role conflicts in interpersonal terms, as they might often occur between and within individuals, relates to the dean's work with the president, with the department chairmen, and with individual faculty members. 38 The discussion of deviant behavior relates to problems in personnel management confronted by the dean. The dis- cussion of the interpersonal relationships involved in problem solving has direct relevance for the dean's work with committees and with the administrative cabinet. The article culminates with a discussion of normative theories of interpersonal relations which have direct implications for the dean's administrative competencies. Behavioral Statements and Objectives Since a major task of this research is the trans- lation and delineation of the community college Academic Dean's administrative competencies into behavioral state- ments and manifestations, some review of at least those sources utilized in the study for these purposes is neces- sary. This research is dependent upon the model for developing such statements presented in A Strategy for Writing Objectives by Stephen L. Yelon and Roger 0. Scott (89). Yelon and Scott offer the following paradigm for the creation of such statements and objectives: general out-of-class student >> performance ——————+> goal statement In this model, the conditions associated with the general student goal are directly related to the generation of, statement of, and rationale for the administrative 39 competencies of the Academic Dean. The conditions neces- sary for an adequate out-of-class performance statement are the guidelines followed in each behavioral statement describing the administrative competency. The in-class test aspect of the paradigm is associated with the impli- cations for educational experiences which the behavioral statements have. A few ideas from Yelon and Scott are recounted here because they demonstrate the pertinence of behavioral statements to the nature of this study. First, Yelon and Scott suggest that their strategy can be used with very difficult objectives. "This strategy can be used when dealing with high level cognitive processes which call for general student goals such as synthesis and analysis" (89:8). Second, when the objectives for education have been specified, such as the educational objectives for community college administration training courses, the choice of content for those courses will have a rational base; student behavior may be assessed; and based upon the results of such evaluation, meaningful changes can be made with either instruction or objectives. Another source which explains the writing of be— havioral educational objectives is Preparing Instructional Objectives by Robert F. Mager (62). This source was use- ful to the present study in offering some of the rationale associated with such endeavors. These same statements of benefits are pertinent to the translating of the adminis- trative competencies into behavioral statements which have 40 consequence for community college administrator training programs. Mager quotes Dr. Paul Whitmore, "The statement of objectives of a training program must denote measurable attributes observable in the graduate of the program, or otherwise it is impossible to determine whether or not the program is meeting the objectives“ (62:3). "When clearly defined goals are lacking, it is impossible to evaluate a course or program efficiently, and there is no sound basis for selecting appropriate materials, content, or in- structional methods" (62:3). Stating educational objec— tives in specific behavioral terms also aids in the evalu- ation of the degree to which the learner can perform the objective. It also allows a student to measure his own progress and degree of accomplishing the stated objectives, such that he may change or organize his efforts into mean- ingful activities. Another basic source which was frequently consulted in writing behavioral statements was Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Coggitive Domain, edited by Benjamin S. Bloom. This source provides a multitude of examples of behavioral statements as well as a discussion concerning a hierarchi- cal arrangement of objectives from the simpler through the more complex. Our attempt to arrange educational behaviors from simple to complex was based on the idea that a particular simple behavior may become integrated with other equally simple behaviors to form a more complex behavior. Thus our classifications may be said to be in the form where behaviors of type A 41 form one class, behaviors of type AB form another class, while behavior of type ABC form still another class (14:18). The classification scheme is arranged in the following order: Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. This sort of arrangement is important to this study not only because it provides the vocabulary associated with the behavioral objectives under each area, but also because it helps in the identification of the complexity of many of the behavioral statements under the particular Academic Dean's administrative competency. Lastly, the source is invaluable in stimu- lating the numbers and kinds of behavioral statements which were needed in this research. The Taxonomy also provides one with a better understanding of such areas of the cognitive domain as Knowledge, Analysis, and Synthesis. Summary of Implications A review of the research and literature directly related to the community college Academic Dean reveals a paucity of information about this vital community college administrative position. A few dissertations on this administrative officer are available, but they tend to be repetitive studies which list and weight in importance the duties and tasks of the Academic Dean. Some articles and books written about the academic deanship in general in colleges and universities throughout the United States offer very important considerations on various aspects of 42 the role. A review of the literature associated with com— munity college administration in general contributes some valuable concepts which are pertinent to the Academic Dean's administrative competencies. The material avail- able on community college leadership training programs is not only sparse, but reveals that the educational objectives of such programs are stated in vague and general terms. A wealth of concepts and principles pertinent to the administrative competencies of the dean exists in the research and literature of adminis- tration theory, organization theory, and organizational behavior. The main difficulty here seems to be with selecting, adapting, and translating such principles and concepts into the behavioral statements and implications of the administrative competencies. A very important, but difficult, task of the study is describing the ad- ministrative competencies in behavioral statements and behavioral objectives which can be used to build edu- cational training experiences for presently acting and prospective community college Academic Deans. Apparently, adequate sources are available to assist in the completion of this task. In the following chapter, the methods and tech- niques used in the study are explained and briefly illus- trated. Since they are not particularly elaborate or involved, the chapter is primarily devoted to the 43 presentation of the community college Academic Dean's administrative competencies and the rationale for the selection of each based upon the explained methodology. CHAPTER III GENERATING THE ADMINISTRATIVE COMPETENCIES Introduction This study has two main purposes. The first is to generate the administrative competencies needed by the community college Academic Dean. The second is to trans- late these competencies into behavioral statements and objectives such that: (a) each competency is better described and more identifiable, and (b) each competency will suggest specific training experiences for community college leadership development programs. In this chapter the methods and techniques utili- zed to generate and field test the competencies are ex- plained and illustrated. Lastly, each individual adminis- trative competency, finally arrived at through these pro- cesses, is presented and discussed. The techniques and the conditions governing the translation of each compe- tency into behavioral statements are reserved for illustration in Chapter IV. The processes by which administrative training experiences were developed for each competency are presented in the beginning of Chapter V. 44 45 Methodology: Generating the Administrative Competencies The concept of viewing the administrative role of this chief academic officer in terms of "competencies" rather than in terms of his duties, tasks, and functions is the unique and vital factor in generating the compe- tencies. A second, critical perspective is also needed, however, and that is for one to have read rather exten- sively in administration and organization theory and in organizational behavior research. This background helps one to recognize the importance of and the relationship of various statements in the literature to the several competencies. Utilizing these two critical perspectives, most of the literature related to the administrative position gains a new dimension and the competencies fairly well generate themselves. This statement is illustrated with sample analyses of certain kinds of materials and statements about the Academic Dean. Before such an illustration, however, it is appropriate to present some discussion about techniques and methods which were considered but were not used. Nothing would be gained in this study by widely distri- buting another questionnaire. The first problem with this approach is that of getting adequate response. This is illustrated in the dissertation of Eugene Weldon Day (1968) which was a national study of the critical duties of the community college Academic Dean. Day sent 46 questionnaires to over 200 institutions. His first return was only 40 per cent. He revised his questionnaire and resubmitted it to the same institutions. Only 20 per cent of the institutions responded the second time. Others who have used the questionnaire technique have reported similar difficulties. The second problem with such an approach is that the content of an appropriate questionnaire would not really be that important to this study. First, the compe- tencies may be generated accurately and representatively out of the literature. Second, the competencies are not so many as to call for any extensive or involved methods for reducing them in number. Third, translating the competencies into the behavioral statements and objectives is perhaps of even greater importance as an aspect of the study, since this process will result in implications for administrative training experiences in university administration and higher education courses. Lastly, a good method for field testing and gaining feedback on the community college Academic Dean's administrative compe- tencies which were generated was available which appropri- ately suited this aspect of the study. This procedure is described later in the chapter. A third problem with the questionnaire approach would be the possible confounding of the results anyway due to communication or perception problems residing in the responses of the Academic Deans. One who has not 47 read much in administrative theory might see little real importance in working closely with department chairmen in order to help them develop leadership capabilities. Also, the importance and explanation of terms used in the state- ments of the competencies such as faculty morale, work- group cohesiveness, psychodynamic theories of inter- personal relationships, and others would be impossible to communicate via questionnaire. The basic method then of generating the compe- tencies was to comb through the literature and research which was available on the Academic Dean, comparing and grouping the statements which suggested a need for an area of ability--a competency. That much of the literature was pertinent to this task was illustrated in Chapter II, but some of the material will be repeated again here in order to help explain the process. For example, many of the articles and dissertations on the Academic Dean present a list, weighted or otherwise, of the duties and tasks of this administrative officer. A list which is frequently referred to and used as a basis for further work is that published by Reeves and Russell in 1921: To direct the educational activities of the college. To act as chief advisor to the president in matters of college policy, particularly in academic affairs. To formulate educational policies and to present them to the president and faculty for consideration. To direct the attention of faculty members to changing educational thought and practice, particu- 1arly as they affect higher education. 48 To transmit to the president the budget recommen- dations for academic activities, after details have been worked out with department heads. To make reports relating to the work of the college. To supervise curriculum, courses, and methods of instruction. To COOperate with heads of departments in the nomination of new members for the teaching staff, and to make suggestions to the president regarding the promotion, demotion, or dismissal of members of the faculty. To assist in the recruiting of students. To classify students and assign them to classes. To study the progress and academic welfare of students. To serve as chief disciplinary officer of the college. To represent the college at meetings of edu- cational institutions (187-88). As one analyzes the items on this list for what they might reveal about the needed competencies of the Academic Dean, a few ideas become apparent. It becomes clear that the statements can be grouped around central terms or into specific areas of responsibility vital to the functioning of this administrative officer. First, all of the statements suggest the dean's general responsi- bility for supervising and coordinating, evaluating, the academic affairs of the institution. Any resulting study through the literature will prove the same thing. Within this overall task, however, more Specialized tasks and duties and terms suggest competencies he needs. State- ments 2, 3, 5, and 8 report that the Academic Dean is essentially an advisor to and works closely with the president of the institution. In other words he must have some competency to relate well to, communicate with, 49 and work well with the president. Items 3 and 4 suggest that the Academic Dean must have some competency in cur- riculum development since this is one of his major responsibilities. Statement 5 presents working with the academic budget as a necessity. Statements 5 and 8 pre- sent the Academic Dean's responsibility for and necessity to work closely with department heads. Statements 3, 4, 8, and 12 suggest the needed competency of the Academic Dean to work with and to generally oversee matters related to the faculty in a personnel management kind of sense. Statement 7 uses the terms "to supervise curriculum, courses, and methods of instruction" which sets this function somewhat apart from the curriculum development competency suggested by 3 and 4. Item 6, making "reports relating to the work of the college“ suggests the need for the Academic Dean to develop communication compe- tencies. Statements 9, 10, 11, and 12 suggest that the Academic Dean needs a competency related to working with students. Such an analysis of this initial grouping would be at best partial and inadequate if many of the other lists of the tasks and duties of the Academic Dean did not corroborate or encourage change in these initial awarenesses of the needed competencies. The best illustration of the sort of cross-checking process which must be utilized to inductively arrive at the list of competencies is to present another list and compare it to the first. The general list of responsibilities presented in Day's (1968) national study of the duties and functions of the community college Academic Dean will be used. 1. Duties Relating to Faculty. 2. Duties Relating to Curriculum. 3. Duties Relating to Students. 4. Duties Relating to Budget and Upper Administration. 5. Duties Relating to Plant and Physical Facilities. 6. Duties Relating to Public Relations. 7. Duties Relating to Self-Improvement. Statements 1, 2, 3, and 4 above correspond to and suggest the same competencies as developed from the previous list. Statements 5, 6, and 7 suggest three new areas of needed administrative competency for the Academic Dean. The results of this analysis and comparison are tempered by the many other statements and materials avail- able throughout the literature. Referring to Gould's table of the Time and Skill weighted responsibilities of the Academic Dean presented in Chapter II of this study, one observes that faculty relations and morale, or a per- sonnel management, or an interpersonal skill type of competency is most needed by the Academic Dean. A curriculum work competency would be needed next in order of priority. Some of the other competencies suggested would be work with other administrators, budget work, work with department heads, and institutional study work. From the process of checking, cross-checking, and grouping the administrative duties and responsibilities reported throughout the literature on the Academic Dean, it is apparent that at least the overall areas of his adminis— trative consideration--his basic needed areas of compe- tency can be fairly well established. Even though it was felt that the competencies could be generated quite accurately and comprehensively from the literature, another technique was employed in the study to help in their generation and evaluation. Again, however, it was felt that no lengthy statistical involvement would practically contribute that much more to the research. The technique decided upon was to con- duct interviews with ten presently acting, Michigan com- munity college Academic Deans. There wasno reason to assume that the responses of the Michigan Deans would be different from the responses of other community college Academic Deans in general. As much as possible, such factors as school size; school type: urban, rural, multi- campus; school age; and the experience level of the Aca- demic Deans were observed in choosing particular deans to interview. The purpose in observing such characteristics was simply to allow for reSponses which would reflect the perceptions of community college Deans of Instruction 52 generally. The following table provides a description of the representativeness of the deans interviewed: c c c o 0 «ha -H D D m o m c m c o H -H u ----I (00 EU «U (D Q) C (U-r-I (DU) mm m m -H - E «ha qu m o MIJ aim m:4c ms: FIm a o own $4U : H me Lra FIN H m Lam «sets m QEE :35 owa 05? at» GJO m aIx'o o DU) 0 C110: >~IKIIQ WEI-IKE 0‘12 0-2,000 Rural MAHE 1-2 1-3 0-3 Students 2‘3 2 4 2 2 3 3,000- 6,000 Urban Independent 3-4 4-6 4-6 Students 5 6 6 4 3 5 7,000-15,000 Multi- AFT Plus 5+ 6+ 6+ Students Campus Other 3 2 0 2 5 2 a . . . . Numbers indicate number of Deans interViewed. Some weaknesses of the interviewing technique, of this kind of reality testing, were noted as well as strengths, however. Even though the deans received the competencies before the interviews, along with the letter of instruction, not much precise feedback was gained con- cerning the selection of terms within the statement. Apparently, this lack stems from two difficulties. One, the deans were all so busy that they really did not have the time for much precise and elaborate involvement over the choice of terms and, in most cases, could only react 53 to ideas, to the abbreviated form of the competency. Two, the very nature of the statement of the competency tends to be involved and complex, and must be so if it is to be definitive, but at the same time, this complexity was met with some resistance from the deans. In spite of these weaknesses, however, the interview approach still seems to be a most valuable way of collecting very complex and involved responses such as were needed for this study. The interviews were tape-recorded and were con- ducted in such a manner as to provide the deans with an opportunity to respond to an initial list of competencies generated from the literature. The technique of tape- recording the interviews made a more careful analysis of their responses possible. It also provided the means by which excerpts from individual interviews could be re- ported accurately in this study. Appendix A contains a listing of the names and titles of the deans interviewed and the names of their institutions. Copies of the correspondence with them: (a) asking for their assistance, (b) providing them with instructions regarding the inter- views, and (c) samples of their responses are reproduced in Appendix B. The initial list of administrative compe- tencies sent to the selected deans and used through the interviews appears in Appendix C. The deans were asked to respond to each competency on the basis of: (a) how important they think the competency is to the functioning 54 of the Academic Dean, (b) how adequate they perceive the statement of the competency to be, and (c) what other competencies should be included in such a list. At the end of the interview, they also ranked the competencies in the order that they perceived their importance. The following listing presents the six high- est competencies in their descending order of importance as rated by the interviewed deans. The number in back of each competency is its total rating score. This was simply computed by giving each competency a score of 100 when rated first, 75 when rated second, 50 when rated third, and 25 when rated fourth. The individual scores for each competency were then summed: l. Interpersonal Relationships Competency 800 2. Communication Systems Competency 400 3. Personnel Management Competency 300 4. Leadership Development Competency 250 5. Curriculum Development Competency 200 6. Instructional Evaluation Competency 200 Each Academic Dean was very gracious of his time and was primarily concerned with being most helpful. Some of the feedback and evaluation which the deans provided was very valuable. If one compares the initial list of administrative competencies with the final statements of the competencies presented in this chapter, he will ob- serve some important changes and additions. The L1 L. Presidential Relationship Competency has been changed to the Administrator Interrelationship Competency. More emphasis has been placed in the statement of each compe- tency upon "stimulating" action and the leadership capacity of the dean in light of faculty negotiations. More emphasis upon and recognition of the decision- making function of the dean in each of the competencies has been added. A number of other changes in the wording of the competencies has occurred as a result of the inter- views. Generally, however, the competencies remained the same because the deans did respond to them very favorably in terms of their comprehensiveness and accuracy. Several statements are quoted below to illustrate the nature of their responses as vital input to the generation and evaluation of the final list of competencies: Dean Hanson: The Personnel Management Competency--I guess this is at least half the job. Evaluating faculty and deal- ing with them--this is a personnel situation . . . your relationship with them determines pretty well how you function. Dean Harkins: I think you've done a good job in covering the good operation of an Academic Dean. I think if one could say he were performing at the maximum in all areas, the competencies that you have listed, I think he should be an excellent man. Dean Morford: More emphasis should be placed upon the decision- making functions of the Academic Dean whether stated as a separate competency or more adequately included in each other competency. 56 Dean Morford: Communications Competency--if you are reality testing the importance of this--"better evaluate the sources and kinds of information available for decision making"--that belongs there. If you can put it in capitol letters, put it. Dean Heath: Leadership Development Competency--It's a very im- portant factor. I think that I will only be as effective as the five department chairmen that I am working directly with. Another important source of input to the formu- lation of the competencies and their statements should be discussed. It was the good fortune of the author to be able to interact daily with the chairman of this disser- tation, with other involved members in the project in the Department of Administration and Higher Education, and with other graduate students who were completing similar and companion dissertations in the department. Such inter- actions greatly helped in the selection and wording of many of the competencies, as well as in the deliberations as to what each competency should include. These inter- changes were of especial assistance in the development of the behavioral objectives and statements and in the creation of corresponding learning experiences. One other process used in the study should be briefly described before the individual competencies are presented and discussed. This process involved the form- ing of an adequate statement of each competency. Basically, research was conducted through the literature associated 57 with each competency to gain an awareness of what the statement of each competency should include. Literature associated with curriculum influenced the statement of the Curriculum Development Competency, for example. In some instances, the literature of administration and organization theory was applicable. The criteria for the writing of each statement were: (a) that the state- ment accurately reflect the competency needed overall, (b) that the statement be inclusive of many Specific aspects implied by the competency, (c) that the state- ment of each competency involve key behavioral verbs, and (d) that each competency statement include some pur- pose, goal, or consequence, some raison d'etre. The Administrative Competencies Before the administrative competencies are pre- sented, a few introductory and qualitative remarks are necessary. The first of such statements is to review the definition of an administrative competency presented in Chapter I of this study. Administrative Competency is the capacity to synthesize and actualize relevant knowl- edge for the purposes of: (a) facilitating institutional planning, (b) resolving complex problems which interfere with the achievement of organizational goals and objectives, and (c) evaluating institutional progress toward goal achievement. Perhaps one more purpose of an adminis— trative competency could be added at this point, although 58 it is implied in the three other purposes given. This is maintaining the institution in a state of "dynamic equi- librium" as described by Richard C. Lonsdale in "Maintain- ing the Organization in Dynamic Equilibrium" (61). Such subjects as resolving role conflicts, aiding self- actualization, abetting the achievement of personal goals and other matters are included within a general framework of "developing integration of task-achievement and needs- satisfaction" for the institition" (61:142). As one reads through the list of generated competencies it should be readily apparent how each competency relates to the above definition of administrative competency. Due to a constructive point of criticism made by one of the deans interviewed, some explanation is neces- sary concerning the relationship between each of the competencies and the dean's decision—making functions. In this study, decision-making has been considered, for all practical purposes, as one of the underlying bases of all of the administrative competencies and as a natural outcome of all activities related to the competency. Decision-making in this study is viewed as being central to the managing-administrative role of the Academic Dean whether as part of a problem definition stage, a commit- ment phase, an implementation phase, or an evaluative stage. If an Academic Dean had a high degree of ability in each of the areas outlined by the administrative competencies, he would automatically be better equipped 59 to function as a decision-maker in relation to each of the areas and as an educational leader. Decision-making and competency in terms of actual functioning are almost interchangeable terms. Interpersonal Relationships Competency Analyze interaction situations from bases of knowledge in psychodynamic theories of interpersonal behavior, structural theories of interpersonal be- havior, normative theories of interpersonal behavior and theories about small group behavior such that the immediate and the successive interactions with a party will further mutual interpersonal satis- faction and the goals and purposes of the institution. Clyde Blocker and Richard C. Richardson, Jr. offer the best overall statement of the importance of competency in this area for the community college Academic Dean. "The most meaningful index of an administrator's effective- ness is the quality of human relations which prevails in his institution" (12:19). Rensis Likert provides addi- tional analysis about the critical nature of this competency to good administration: This general pattern of reaction appears to be uni- versal and provides the general formula being sought: to derive operating procedures likely to yield high and cumulative motivation and an effective inter- action system. Motivational forces acting in each member of an organization are most likely to be 6O cumulative and reinforcing when the interactions be- tween each individual and the others in the organi- zation are of such a character that they convey to the individual a feeling of support and recognition of his importance and worth as a person (59:191). Algo Henderson makes another statement about the need for the dean to have competence in the area of interpersonal relations, "There is an art and a science to personnel administration, for example, and the college dean would do well to inform himself about the knowledge in the field" (48:181). The community college Academic Deans interviewed for this research reported the above Interpersonal Relation- ships Competency as the most important of all the compe- tencies to the effective functioning of the dean. It had a total score twice as high as the Communication Systems Competency which was second. Perhaps some brief explanation of three of the terms used in the statement of the competency would be of assistance in clarifying the meaning and scope of this competency. Basically, the organization of the statement of the competency relates to an article by Abraham Zaleznik, "Interpersonal Relations in Organizations" (90). Zaleznik presents the psychodynamic theories of interpersonal relations as those associated with Freudian psychology. Problems such as transference reactions toward authority figures, latent sibling rivalry feelings, repetition-compulsive emotions, and the nature of personal 61 defense mechanisms are grouped under this category. Structural theories of interpersonal behavior are associ- ated with role theory, role performance, role conflict, and role ambiguities within and between individuals in interaction situations. Normative theories of inter- personal behavior denote eclectic approaches toward inter- action from a predictive framework. Leadership theory, group dynamics literature, and the influence of technology upon interpersonal relations are examples of factors grouped within the normative theory approach. All of the Academic Deans interviewed placed the Interpersonal Relationships Competency very high in impor- tance. Many of the deans also felt, however, that this was a competency which could not be taught and would only be gained from experience. If a prospective or presently acting dean was at least familiar, if not well schooled in many of the concepts mentioned above, he would probably learn from experience more deeply and much faster. Communication Systems Competency Analyze the overall structural aspects of the communication networks within the institution, based upon the literature and research on communication in organizations as social systems, in order to: (a) better evaluate the sources and the kinds of infor- mation available for the decision-making, problem- solving, processes of the institution, and (b) better 62 utilize the communication networks to convey vital information to the variously, situationally involved groups and individuals throughout the institution. Communication problems in organizations have re- ceived much attention throughout organization and adminis- tration theory literature and research. The difficulties caused by channel overload, communication delays, and information inaccuracy have been very costly to organi- zational output and employee morale. In an educational institution, low faculty morale, low faculty motivation, and high faculty militantism may well be symptoms of in- adequate communication between faculty and administration. Blocker, Plummer, and Richardson, Jr. recognize the importance of an effective communication system to the community college: Conflict is an inherent quality in all organizations, and it can be an important stimulus for change and improvement. If conflict is to be translated into constructive change, however, there must be well- defined avenues of communication for the develop- ment of consensus and group action. Committees can serve this function well if they are organized with some basic principles in mind (13:191). The Academic Dean must be able to use and make improvements in the communications system of the insti- tution if he is to realize much of his educational leader- ship potential in respect to the factors mentioned above. This statement would also be supported by Rensis Likert in that he views the communication system within an organization as necessary to establishing and maintaining 63 "well-knit, effectively functioning work groups" and the resulting "probability that in all interactions each of the individuals involved will . . . view the interaction as supportive and one which contributes to his sense of personal worth" (59:191). The Communication Systems Competency was rated second in critical importance to the functioning of the community college Academic Dean by the deans interviewed. Personnel Management Competency Stimulate the development of, establish, and evaluate the criteria and the processes by which faculty members may be recruited, evaluated, pro- moted, disciplined, and released through due process in order to assure the quality of the faculty and high faculty morale. That this competency is most critical to the functioning of the Academic Dean is illustrated in the Time-Skill Chart, presented in Chapter II of this thesis from Gould's national study of the duties of the Academic Deans. Faculty Relations and Morale, and Recruitment of Faculty are first and second on the list and have a com- bined score of 158 which is 35 per cent of the total time-skill ratings of all his activities. Kenneth Walker in "The Academic Dean" emphasizes the role of the Academic Dean as the chief personnel officer of the institution and, within this function, the dean's responsibility to 64 provide the environment in which faculty can do their best teaching. The best teaching is not done where terms of employ- ment are niggardly, where tenure is precarious, or where administrative control is too authoritarian. A teacher should have a reasonable security, adequate compensation, status in his own eyes, the approval of his peers, and a rightful sense of belonging to a congenial group (85:201)._ That this area of the dean's responsibilities is most critical is reflected in the growth of unionization among faculties and the impasse between administration and faculty across the community colleges of our nation over some of the above issues. Instructional Evaluation Competency Evaluate the effectiveness of courses and cur- riculums in the academic division in realizing the goals and objectives of the institution based upon research concerning student achievement, student difficulties after transfer, student attrition, and student academic placement. Every list of the critical duties of the Academic Dean includes his responsibility for evaluating the in- struction and courses of the institution. Certainly he needs the competency described above to fulfill his role as an educational leader. Algo Henderson says of the dean, "Leadership, too, means skill in conducting the faculty through critical self-examination, and in directing 65 the faculty to a formulation of fresh objectives and proficiency in the use of new procedures" (48:182). John E. Roueche in "Gaps and Overlaps in Institutional Research" quotes from the Peterson report (1950) that the number one problem facing California junior colleges is instructional evaluation: . . . measuring the effectiveness of instruction, including evaluation of: (1) teaching methods, (2) new methodology, (3) textbooks, (4) library materials, (5) relation of class to educational gain, (6) special facilities, (7) in-service education, and (8) testing devices and development of guidelines for good teach- ing (78:22). No author has devoted more of his creative powers to writ- ing about evaluation and higher education than Paul Dressel. In Higher Education and Evaluation, Dr. Dressel calls attention to evaluation as a means for improving the quality of both instruction and learning. Every com- munity college Academic Dean must feel the need for greater competence in these matters as he observes the growth of his institution, and the demands placed upon students and faculty by receiving four-year institutions and society. Curriculum Development Competency Stimulate the development of, establish, and evaluate processes and activities which are designed to enhance faculty, administrator, student, and com- munity participation and involvement in the critical appraisal of institutional objectives, curriculum objectives, and course objectives in light of the 66 needs and desires of the students and of our society such that the curriculum will be dynamic and viable in maintenance as well as in improvement. The responsibility for overseeing and improving curriculum appears on every list of the critical tasks of the Academic Dean. In Gould's national study of the Time- Skill relationships among the critical tasks of the Aca- demic Dean reviewed in Chapter II of this thesis, cur- riculum work was rated second by the deans in requiring the most skill. It was rated third in overall, combined Time-Skill importance by the deans. Harold Enarson in "The Academic Vice-President or Dean" states, "He guides and regulates the growth and development of academic pro- grams at critical points" (30:113). Every dean inter- viewed thought that competency in this area was essential to his effective functioning. The above competency differs from the Instructional Evaluation Competency in that the emphasis is upon estab- lishing and evaluating the goals of education rather than upon whether the methods, techniques, the instruction, are achieving the established goals for the course or curriculum. This competency emphasizes more of a philo- sophical and wider scope of concern involving community and societal needs than is intended in the Instructional Evaluation Competency. 67 However, the community college Academic Dean must bear the responsibility with this competency of communi- cating and continually working to align the objectives of the institution with the courses and curriculums offered by the faculty. Blocker, Plummer, and Richardson, Jr. point out a possible weakness in this area across com- munity colleges: It is apparent that there is no consistency between the perceptions of faculty members and the stated objectives of two-year colleges. Absolute congruence is not necessarily desirable, for it could lead to complete stultification, but there must be a stronger link between the values, attitudes, and motivations of individual staff members and the objectives of the college if the educational program is to be a success (13:164). Of course, the whole area of curriculum develop- ment, evaluation, and maintenance has taken on a greater, critical importance because of student involvement and militantism. Leadership Development Competency Evaluate the status and activities of department chairmen as regards their effectiveness in resolving complex departmental problems which determine work- group cohesiveness and worker morale in order to assist them in developing behaviors consistent with the effective leadership behaviors described in administration and organization theory associated with organizational goal achievement. 68 The literature of administrative theory and organi- zational behavior is full of references about the impor- tance of supervisory behavior to worker morale and result- ing organization effectiveness. In the educational organ— ization, the department chairman holds the critical position of the immediate supervisor. His knowledge and practices of leadership will have a direct bearing upon the morale and production of the faculty members under him. For these reasons, the community college Academic Dean should continually assess and try to develop effec- tive leadership and supervisory traits among the depart- ment chairmen. Certainly the basic parts of such administrative leadership qualities should be those described by the Leader Behavior Descriptionpguestion- naire (58): Initiating structure refers to the leader's behavior in delineating the relationship between himself and the members of his work group, and in endeavoring to establish well-defined patterns of organization, channels of communication, and methods of procedure. Consideration refers to behavior indicative of friendship, mutual trust, respect, and warmth in the relationship between the leader and the members of his staff (60:134). The Academic Dean not only needs to be familiar with the literature and research associated with worker morale, leadership, group cohesiveness, and other relevant factors, he should also become adept at spotting problem areas in the functioning of department chairmen and subtly working with them in ameliorating such difficulties. The 69 activities of department chairman are so important to the psychological and productive welfare of the institution that their functioning could easily warrant a great amount of the Academic Dean's interest, concern, and time. He would want to have especial administrative competency in this area. Professional Development Competency Establish, stimulate, and evaluate activities, processes, programs, and financing for the pro- fessional development, improvement, and growth of new and tenured faculty, and staff. Almost every listing of the critical tasks of the Academic Dean includes his responsibility for the in- service training of new faculty members. Anyone who has taught in a community college has experienced and ob- served some of the difficulties new faculty feel in ad- justing to the mores, abilities, and motivation level of community college students. Some professional orien- tation through a community-college course or other com- parable experience could make the difference between a happy, enthusiastic, dedicated teacher and the opposite of these adjectives. The veteran faculty also need the stimulation, encouragement, and knowledge provided by effective pro- fessional development eXperiences. The three best 7O arguments for designing such activities and strongly urging the faculty to participate in them are suggested by Joseph Katz in "Personality and Interpersonal Relations in the College Classroom." First, Katz is of the opinion that teachers are in doubt about the effects of their teaching, "have no disciplined ways of learning and assessing what they are doing,’ and need and would in most instances wel- come more information about these concerns. Second, teachers experience stress and anxiety in the classroom, but "no channels are provided for its constructive han- dling." Professional development programs and processes could help teachers to more effectively cope with this frustration and tension. Lastly, "the classroom then seems to offer insufficient challenge and stimulation to keep the teacher intellectually and emotionally alive" (52:367). The resulting demoralization, dissatisfaction, and dead- wood throughout the teacher ranks is a critical problem for everyone associated with the educational community. Greater professional involvement could possibly alleviate some of this boredom. The community college Academic Dean must continue to be involved in his own professional development. One aspect of this professional growth must be a continuing search through and evaluation of research and literature associated with educational administration and the Dean's role in particular. Lewis B. Mayhew thinks that much of 71 the difficulty which occurs in the relationship between the dean and the president of an institution stems from the professional ignorance and the lack of continued pro- fessional involvement of both parties. Along with this opinion, Mayhew states, "still another example of the difficulties of ignorance should be mentioned. It has been said that the administrator first stOps writing, then stops reading, and then just stops" (65:190). Besides this continual involvement with the re- search, the dean can also participate in other activities for professional stimulation. Conferences, seminars, and leadership training experiences will frequently come to the dean's attention. Different instruments will come to the attention of the dean whereby he can assess his strengths and weaknesses, such as the Leader Behavior Questionnaire, the Institutional Functioning Inventory, or the Faculty Morale Questionnaire. The dean must have consistent information about different aspects of his major responsibilities whether personnel or budget manage- ment, or communication systems. Harold Enarson says of the dean's professional leadership, "His rank will avail him little if he is not, in fact, well-informed and re- flective. In the long run, the dean will earn authority on the big decisions only if he has thought more deeply, and to better advantage, than his colleagues" (30:121). 72 Budget Management Competency Analyze the budget needs and requests of the different segments of the academic division and coordinate such needs and requests with the overall budget of the institution such that faculty salaries, costs of instruction, expenses for program eXperi- mentation, costs for professional development activities, and costs for new courses may be ade- quately planned for and as equitably allotted as possible in order to maintain high faculty morale, quality instruction, and a high quality institution. Harold Enarson says of this critical function of the Academic Dean "Many hands shape the budget, but the dean's hand is the more powerful, the more likely to be decisive" (30:113). This statement is becoming resound- ingly more true because of the increased emphasis on cost analysis and on stricter financial accounting procedures demanded by state legislatures and governmental agencies. In Michigan, for example, the community college Academic Deans are frequently involved in Bureau of Budget reports to the state. Such information as number of students per contact hour, and cost per student per course and cur- riculum is becoming legislative information and will soon directly affect the annual budgets awarded to the com- munity colleges. Three of the deans interviewed placed budget management analysis and decision—making as a highly 73 needed administrative competency. Budget needs, analysis, and a better utilization of available money and Space will continue to be a critical aspect of the dean's responsi- bility as an educational leader because of such demands as described above, the persistent shortage of money for education, and the number of students and people community colleges will hOpe to serve. Increasingly, the dean will need to rely on computer science for assistance in manag- ing many of these critical areas of educational budgeting. Presidential Cabinet Competency Recognize, utilize, and develop the several special administrative competencies necessary to ful- filling a leadership function at this decision- making level, with the other members of the cabinet, in order to assure the welfare and quality develop- ment of the total institution. The community college Academic Dean must have some specialized competency to function as a member of the president's cabinet, usually composed of the Business Manager, the Dean of Student Personnel Services, Deans from the Business and Technology division. This cabinet usually functions as an advisory and decision—making body directed by the president of the institution. The compe- tencies needed by the Academic Dean in order to fulfill his leadership capacities on this cabinet are essentially the same as those needed by the other participants as 74 well. These competencies will not be further discussed or elaborated in this study because a definitive statement has already been prepared on such competencies by Tim Davies (23). The cabinet competencies which Dr. Davies generated for administrative officers functioning at this level are listed below: 1. Goal Definition: Initiate or modify goals and objectives of a community college through an understanding of philosophical, historical, sociological, and educational perspectives. Informational Abstracting: Abstract pertinent information from college or community studies; from new developments, procedures and methods in current periodicals or from professional conferences; and from colleagues within his specialized area which may assist other cabi- net members in better comprehending a given issue. Long Range Planning: Anticipate future needs and plan appropriate directions for the com— munity college far enough in advance so that adequate funds, facilities, staff, and pro- grams will be available to everyone who seeks admittance to the community college. Problem Analysis: Utilize and recognize a system of rational decision-making to resolve complex problems of the community college. 75 Legislative Analysis: Analyze and synthesize the state laws and legislation pertinent to the community colleges to better determine the present level of state involvement and the effect of such involvement on the determi- nation of community college organization, funding, curriculum, and hiring practice. Due Process: Internalize, synthesize, and actualize the concepts of due process of law so that all concerned are guaranteed this right. Report Analysis: Analyze and evaluate analytical reports which would influence the plans, decisions, or evaluations of a presi- dential cabinet. Leadership Analysis: Analyze administrative problems and suggest solutions based on an understanding of various models and concepts of administrative theory, administrative leadership, and a social systems approach to organizations. Interaction Analysis: Analyze his perceptions of self and his role, his perceptions of the other cabinet members and their roles, and acknowledge their perceptions of him and his role so that he is better able to interact 76 with his fellow cabinet members over cabinet issues rather than over personality differ- ences. Administrator Interrelation- ship Competency Establish a relationship of mutual consideration, cooperation, and support with the other central ad- ministrators of the community college based upon a knowledge and understanding of their community college administrative responsibilities and concerns, as well as perceptions regarding any personal conflict they might be experiencing in interaction with their administrative roles. One could argue that the above competency was so closely related to the basic Interpersonal Relationships Competency needed by the community college Academic Dean that it should not be included. One could also point out that the above competency is so well described by the Cabinet Level Competencies that it should not be specifi- cally included. On the other hand, several aspects of the above competency are so vital to the successful functioning of the Academic Dean that they should be described more specifically. The literature on the role of the Academic Dean contains many statements about the necessity of the dean to have a good relationship with the president of the 77 institution.* It is critically imperative that they under- stand and trust each other. Lewis B. Mayhew points out the difficulties inherent in the relationship between these two chief administrative officers and recommends, “Relatively early in a dean-president relationship, these men should have a serious protracted discussion of their mutual self-images" (65:191). Several writers approach the administrative role of the Academic Dean from a "middleman" perspective. His primary function is to act as a mediator between the faculty and the upper levels of administration. If he is to successfully fulfill his responsibility, he must have the respect and support of his president. The success of the Academic Dean also depends upon his ability to relate to other chief administrators be- cause of the interdependence and interlinking of their responsibilities. A great amount of information exchange is necessary between the academic division and the division of student personnel services. The Academic Dean must have constant financial information about departments and programs from the division of financial affairs. If there are directors of research and plan- ning, of computer services, of publications, and/or of instructional resources, the Academic Dean must interact successfully with each. 78 The community college Academic Dean must call upon all his interpersonal skills to establish and maintain high level working relationships and cooperation with these other administrators. He will be greatly assisted in this task if he has a knowledge and understanding of the complex nature of the work which these other administrators do. His ability to successfully interrelate with these ad- ministrative officers also depends upon an understanding of their personal needs in terms of their role perceptions, role ambiguity, and role conflict. Summary The purpose of Chapter III was to explain the techniques and methods by which the administrative compe- tencies needed by the community college Academic Dean would be generated and tested. Generating the competencies was accomplished by comparing statement after statement about the duties and functions of this chief adminis- trative officer throughout the research and literature available on the position. Along with these statements, factors from leadership, personnel management, organi- zational behavior, and administrative theory literature were also used to generate the competencies. The initial list of competencies then generated was field tested through the tape-recorded interviews of ten acting com- munity college Academic Deans. The deans were asked to respond to the statement of each competency as to its 79 importance to his functioning, the inclusiveness of the statement, and the accuracy of the statement. The deans were also asked to suggest any competency which they felt they needed that was not covered by the list. Through these processes the final list of administrative compe- tencies was generated. Lastly, the deans were also asked to rank the competencies in the order of their perceived importance to his functioning and these results were reported. The competencies were then presented and dis- cussed. The next purpose of this study is to translate the competencies into behavioral manifestations and be- havioral objectives such that it may be easier to recog- nize when someone has the competency and to what degree. The methods by which this was done and the results of this endeavor are discussed in the following chapter. CHAPTER IV THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE BEHAVIORAL MANIFESTATIONS OF THE GENERAL ADMINISTRATIVE COMPETENCIES Introduction The second major purpose of this study is to translate the generated administrative competencies needed by the community college Academic Dean into specific be- havioral statements which further delineate and clarify these competencies. These statements need to be presented in behavioral terminology so that they can provide direc- tion in assessing whether a leadership training candidate possesses such a competency and to what degree. They can also be used to suggest training experiences by which some degree of ability in the competency may be obtained by the potential community college Academic Dean. Evaluating doctoral candidates in a training program is a difficult task unless the expected behavior of those candidates is predetermined and stated in terms of observable human be- havior. The purpose of this chapter is to present those behavioral manifestations which have been deductively developed from the general cabinet competencies. 80 81 Methodology The following statements present the general guidelines which were utilized in the development of each behavioral manifestation statement: 1. The behavioral statement must be a natural outgrowth and an integral part of the stated competency. 2. The behavioral statement must include behavior which can be evaluated by an observer to determine whether or not the candidate is performing the stated behavior. 3. The behavioral statement must describe an objective that can be taught to a doctoral candidate. 4. The behavioral statement must include those verbs which describe specific human behavior required for the successful completion of the task. Using these four guidelines, the behavioral manifestation was deduced from the statement of the general competency. Also using the statement of the general competency, a situation or set of conditions was established as a frame- work within which the expected behavior was to be observed. Describing the conditions or situations within which the expected behavior is to happen, serves two purposes. It is an attempt to represent the conditions under which the competency would be utilized in the field. It also 82 provides the conditions and framework by which the expected behavior could be more easily and reliably evaluated by observers or trainers. The above conditions and guide- lines for developing behavioral objectives and statements are common to the three sources reviewed in Chapter II, Mager; Bloom; Yelon and Scott. The best manner by which to illustrate the above techniques is to present a sample illustration of the development of a single behavioral statement from one of the general cabinet competencies. The first step in the deductive process of develop- ing a behavioral manifestation is to analyze the general statement of the competency to determine what directions it gives for the behaviors which are the desired aspects of the competency. The Curriculum Development Competengy for example, is as follows: Stimulate the development of, establish, and evaluate processes and activities which are designed to enhance faculty, administrator, student, and community participation and in- volvement in the critical appraisal of insti- tutional objectives, curriculum objectives, and course objectives in light of the needs and de- sires of the students and of our society such that the curriculum will be dynamic and viable in maintenance as well as in improvement. 83 The resulting analysis reveals that the Academic Dean should be able to develop, evaluate, design, analyze, and stimulate faculty, student, and community involvement in curriculum appraisal and development. It is also a natural assumption that the dean should be able to critically appraise the educational objectives and goals of the institution, curriculums and courses, himself, to provide leadership in this area. The phrasing "in light of the needs and desires of students and of society" sug- gests that the dean must understand and be aware of ways by which he can get reliable and valid information regard- ing such curriculum needs. These, then, are the areas of the general statement of competency in which the dean needs measurable, behavioral skill. They are a natural out- growth of the general statement of the administrative competency. The second step in the development of the behavioral manifestation statements was to establish a situation or set of conditions as a framework within which the expected behavior could be observed. The situation described is an attempt to simulate a condition in the field so that the behavioral manifestation statements would be more realistic to actual practice. Describing a situation also provides a framework by which the demonstrated be- havior could be better evaluated and measured as to its degree of adequacy. For this purpose as well, in every situation set, a panel of experts is included to evaluate 84 acceptable levels of behavior as demonstrating competency. The panel of experts would also be able to select that data from which the doctoral candidates would be able to accomplish the prescribed behavior. The above step pro- vides two outcomes in the development of the specific behavioral manifestation statement. First, each compe- tency is broken down into a number of conditions within which each specific behavioral manifestation statement is couched. Two, each situation given includes a panel of experts. Under the Curriculum Development Competency, for example, three conditions are established. One is presented here for illustration: Given an hypothetical community college and a description of its surrounding community, and a panel of experts, the candidate will be able to: The third step in the process was to develop the specific statement which would be a representative, ob- servable, measurable, sample of the behavior associated with the expected behavior of the competency. In this step, the guidelines for the statement were that the be- havior statement must include those verbs which describe specific human behavior, and that the statement must describe an objective that can be taught to a doctoral candidate. If a candidate were given an hypothetical community college and a description of its surrounding 85 cxnmnunity, and other data from a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to demonstrate his competency to: Describe and evaluate membership for a citizens' curriculum advisory committee. As a verb, develOp specifically denotes the observable be- havior of setting forth or making clear by degrees and in detail; to make visible or manifest. To evaluate is to determine or fix the value of; to examine; or judge. These behaviors are observable and a panel of experts could look at the results of a candidate's completion of the above task and could evaluate his degree of ability to function with this behavioral representation of the competency. Given the same set of conditions above a candidate could be asked to detail a process by which information about curriculum available through professional confer- ences, seminars, and meetings, would be made available throughout the institution. The panel of experts, the trainer, could examine the results of the candidate's endeavor and evaluate the quality--the competency of the candidate to fulfill this behavioral manifestation. The behavioral manifestations for each competency and for each set of conditions under each competency pre- sented in this chapter were deductively developed accord- ing to the above processes. In review, they should be a natural outgrowth of the competency. They should denote specific, observable behaviors, which could be taught to 86 a doctoral candidate. They should be representative of behavior which would sample a candidate's degree of compe- tency with the general administrative competency needed by the community college Academic Dean. Before the com- plete listing of behavioral statements developed under each competency are presented a few statements of qualifi- cation should be offered. The first qualification is that the statements and conditions of performance are not ex- haustive of the total number and kind of behavioral mani- festations, which could actually delineate the competency. The statements presented are samples of behavior which seem a natural outgrowth of the competency and which seem to be the most important representatives of the competency. Their strength lies in that they demonstrate a model or framework to which other manifestations may be added. Certainly, there would be a dynamic interchange and re- finement between the samples given here and those con- tinually being developed and evaluated through the actual training experiences. A second qualification is that no value judgments have been made or are intended through the presentation as to the number or percentage of behavioral manifes- tations which must be successfully completed for any specific competency. This would be a decision which would have to be worked out by the trainee, his advisor, or a panel of professors through experience with the 87 competency and the refinement of the behavioral mani— festations. A third qualification is that the behavioral verbs which are used to describe the expected behavior are paraphrases of dictionary definitions coupled with input from the definitions of the words by other behavioral writers. Again, as experience begins to dictate, these definitions will change and be refined by professors and trainees actually involved in the acquiring of the compe- tencies. The definitions presented below are only in- tended as initial models for the above people and as necessary points of understanding to the behavioral mani- festation statements developed in this study. Definition of Terms for Describing Behavioral Competencies Analyze.--A separation of the whole into component parts; an examination of a complex, its elements, and their relations; to study or determine the nature and relation- ship of the parts by analysis. Decide.--To arrive at a solution that ends un- certainty or dispute, to bring a definite end. Define.--To fix the limits; determine the essen- tial qualities or precise meaning. 88 Describe.--To represent by work, figure, model, or picture. Determine.--To settle or decide by choice of alternatives or possibilities. Detail.--Extended treatment of particular items; a portion considered independently of the parts con- sidered together. Develop.--To set forth or make clear by degrees or in detail; to make visible or manifest. Development.--The act process, or result of developing; the state of being developed. Evaluate.--To determine or fix the value of; to examine or judge. Implement.--To carry out; to provide implements for. Interpret.--To explain the meaning of; to con- ceive in the light of individual belief, judgment, or circumstance; bring to realization by performance. Predict.--To declare in advance; foretell on the basis of observation, experience, or scientific reason. Provide.--To take precautionary measures; to make a proviso or stipulation; to supply what is needed for sustenance or support. known. 89 Recognize.--To perceive to be something previously Trace.--A Sign or evidence of some past thing. Utilize.--To make use of; connect to use. Interpersonal Relationships Competency: Analyze interaction situations from bases of knowledge in psychodynamic theories of interpersonal behavior, structural theories of interpersonal behavior, normative theories of interpersonal behavior, and theories about small group behavior such that the immediate and the successive interactions with a party will further mutual interpersonal satisfaction and the goals and purposes of the institution. 1.10 Given a packet of case studies involving interactions between an administrator and an employee, and other relevant data from a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: Analyze each interaction situation on the basis of several possible eXpla- nations according to interpersonal be- havior theory. Determine those interactions laden with transference problems on the part of the employee. Determine those interactions laden with repetition-compulsion emotions on the part of the employee. Name various types of defense mechan- isms utilized by the employee in each situation. Name the defense reactions utilized by the administrator, and describe his ego strengths. Determine the points of breakdown in communication between the participants in each interaction situation. 90 Recommend behaviors for the administrator which might have averted the breakdown in communications. Analyze each interaction on the basis of its impact on the employee. Predict employee behavior as a result of the interaction. Given a short, but intensive day-to-day association with a community college dean, observing his behavior with other people in various individual and group encounters, and other relevant data by a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: 1.25 1.26 Describe those defensive mechanisms the dean frequently utilizes which are limit- ing the success of his interactions, as well as his strengths in interactions. Describe those behaviors and mannerisms of the dean which support and reinforce the self-concept of the people he inter- acts with. Describe the reactions of different indi- viduals to the Academic Dean which the dean should consider in order to success- fully interact with the individuals in the future. Define those aSpects of the Dean's be- haviors which apparently conflict with the behavior patterns others expect of a dean, as well as those behaviors which are in apparent agreement. Analyze several of the interactions of the dean with different individuals on the basis of exchange theory in inter- personal relations. Analyze several of the interactions of the dean with different individuals on the basis of the costs to both parties. 1.40 91 Given a simulation situation in which the candidate plays the role of the community college Academic Dean interacting with several other actors playing the roles of community college faculty, each with a different problem and with different motivations, and other rele- vant data from a panel of experts, the candi-. date should be able to: 1.31 Analyze each interaction situation in terms of the possible responses the faculty member wants the dean to make. 1.32 List the alternative responses the dean could make given his administrative role. 1.33 Evaluate the responses the dean might make given the needs of the faculty member, but in keeping with his adminis- trative role. 1.34 Describe the needs of an individual member of an organization as presented in organization theory, and social systems theory in relation to employee morale. 1.35 Analyze the interactions in terms of personal satisfactions and dissatis- factions. 1.36 Propose tactics and attitudes which could improve succeeding interactions with the individual faculty member. Given a group experience with peers simulating a central, problem-solving committee of com- munity college faculty members, two or three critical tasks, and other relevant data from a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: 1.41 Describe the various theories about group models, giving the most important points of each perspective. 1.42 Analyze the group in terms of its inter- action systems, its power structure, sub-groups, norms, and means of social control. 1.43 1.46 Given 92 Evaluate the ability of the group to exchange information and communication, evaluate alternatives, decide upon and control its course of action. Determine the ability of the group to solve tasks, as well as maintain itself in a healthy, socio-emotional climate. Determine which members of the group are task-oriented, and which members are synergetic oriented. List and describe the various methods and techniques which are available for empirically assessing what is happening in the group. Analyze the group's normative system in terms of expected member behavior and sanction processes. Name those members of the group alienated and frustrated by the group's activities, and describe some possible bases for their dissatisfaction. Design tactics whereby these members could be more successfully oriented within the group. Short observation experiences in several community college academic departments, and other relevant data by a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: Determine the power centers in each department. Determine the different subgroups within the department. Determine the subgroups and individual faculty members who are alienated from the group and define the causes of the alienation. Develop tactics for building better group cohesiveness in the department. 93 1.55 Analyze the communication networks within the department and evaluate the networks as factors in the group's cohesiveness. 1.56 Describe the norms of the department. 1.57 Evaluate the norms of the department as to whether they favor or disfavor the goals and purposes of the academic division. 1.58 Describe the findings reported in group dynamics literature concerning the effective functioning of groups. Communication Systems Competency: Analyze the over- all structural aspects of the communication networks within the institution, based upon the literature and research on communication in organizations as social systems, in order to: (a) better evaluate the sources and kinds of information available for the decision-making, problem-solving processes of the institution, and (b) better utilize the com- munication networks to convey vital information to the various situationally involved groups and indi— viduals throughout the institution. 2.10 Given a number of general problems usually associated with the academic division of a community college, and other relevant data from a panel of experts the candidate should be able to: 2.11 List and describe several mediums, technologies, and processes by which adequate information could be gathered and made available for the decision- making process regarding the problems. 2.12 List the variables that might be put into a computer program to help provide information about each problem. 2.13 Analyze a computer printout concerning the value of the information it provides to assist in decisions regarding the problems. 2.14 Describe the practices of several com- munity college academic divisions in utilizing the computer and other tech- nologies to help resolve some of the problems. 94 Given a description of the decision-making processes of several academic divisions of a community college, their communication systems, and other relevant data, the candidate should be able to: 2.21 Determine the weak points of each system in interaction. 2.22 Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of democratic decision-making, faculty and student participation in the processes, as related to adequate decisions and in- volved party morale. 2.23 Determine the weaknesses in any decision- process and suggest adequate alternatives for improvement. Given a short intern experience at a community college or an hypothetical community college, and other relevant data from a panel of ex- perts, the candidate should be able to: 2.31 List and describe the problems of an academic division of a community college which may be the result of poor internal communications. 2.32 Design a study which will provide infor- mation about the strengths and weak- nesses of the communication systems within the academic division. 2.33 Pinpoint problems of channel overload, upward, downward, and lateral communi- cation in the communications system of the academic division. 2.34 Pinpoint departments or other involved parties in the academic division which are not receiving accurate information. 2.35 Define and analyze the differences be- tween the formal organization structure of communication and the informal system. 2.36 Describe the consequences to the academic division of the differences between the formal and informal communications systems. 95 Describe the various types of communi- cation systems networks presented in organizational literature. Describe the strengths and weaknesses of each system as pertinent and appli- cable to the academic division of a community college. Discuss the relationship of faculty morale to the different communication systems. Given a packet of case studies of problems in organizational communication, and other data selected by a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: Determine the nature of the communi- cation problem in each case. Predict the consequences of the communi- cation problem to the institution in each case. Describe and evaluate practices which would improve the communications in each case. Personnel Management Competency: Stimulate the development of, establish, and evaluate the criteria and the processes by which faculty members may be recruited, evaluated, promoted, disciplined, and released through due process in order to assure the quality of the faculty and high faculty morale. 3.10 Given the master contract of a community college, the institution's budget, and other relevant data selected by a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: 3.11 Analyze the provisions of the contract as to its strengths and weaknesses re- garding the evaluation of both non- tenured and tenured faculty members in light of the most current and significant information available in the area of faculty evaluation. List and describe tools, instruments, and sources of information presently available to assist in the evaluation of community college faculty. Given 96 Analyze the provisions of the contract as to its strengths and weaknesses con— cerning the just, equitable, valid, and reliable promotion of faculty. Describe the provisions and conditions for faculty promotion suggested by the AAUP, the NEA, the AAJC, and other national bodies which have published statements on the subject. Evaluate the provisions of the master contract for the release of a tenured faculty member according to state law. Evaluate the provisions of the master contract for the release of a tenured faculty member according to the guide- lines of the AAUP, NEA, AAJC, and other groups. Evaluate the provisions of the master contract for the release of a tenured faculty member on the basis of state laws. Evaluate the provisions of the master contract for the release of a tenured faculty member on the basis of the guidelines suggested by the AAUP, NEA, AAJC, and other groups. Analyze the promotion and tenure pro- visions of the contract on the basis of the factors which would undoubtedly have an impact on the morale of the faculty. an hypothetical community college, its staffing needs, a description of its educational environment, its budget, and other information from a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: 3.21 Describe and evaluate different pro- cedures for recruiting high quality faculty members. Recommend and provide adequate rationale for a systematic hiring procedure for the institution. 97 3.23 Determine the strengths and weaknesses of any given processes or procedures utilized by the institution to recruit and hire new faculty. 3.24 Recommend and defend the hiring of cer- tain applicants over others on the basis of their application. 3.30 Given several case studies involving faculty behavior and activities which are question- able, and the response of a community college Academic Dean, and other relevant information from a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: 3.31 Predict the reactions of the faculty member and the reactions of other faculty members to the Dean's action. 3.32 Suggest and evaluate ways the Dean might have handled the situation. 3.33 Recommend the institutional establishment of certain processes which might be utilized to help resolve different problems which might occur with faculty, resulting in the need for possible disciplinary action. Instructional Evaluation Competency: Evaluate the effectiveness of courses and curriculums in the academic division in realizing the goals and ob- jectives of the institution based upon research con- cerning student achievement, student difficulties after transfer, student attrition, and student academic placement. 4.10 Given the goals and objectives of a community college, and the goals and objectives of several curriculums and courses offered within the institution, and other relevant data by a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: 4.11 Determine which of the goals and objec- tives are stated in behavioral terms such that achievement may be measured. 4.12 Rewrite nonbehavioral statements of goals and objectives into behavioral terms. 98 4.13 Determine any conflicts between the goals of specific curriculums or courses and the goals and objectives of the insti- tution. 4.14 Examine and evaluate various tests and procedures utilized in the curriculums and courses as to their adequacy in assessing the desired behavioral goals and outcomes of the curriculums and courses. 4.15 Describe ways of assessing student achievement according to behavioral ob- jectives for various curriculums and courses other than through pencil and paper tests. 4.16 Describe various alternative grading systems and their strengths and weak- nesses in relationship to student learning. Given several proposals for experimental edu- cational programs and methods, and other necessary situational information from a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: 4.21 Describe and evaluate an experimental design by which the outcomes of the experimental situations could be evalu- ated. 4.22 Evaluate several articles of research pertinent to the experiments to deter- mine accurately whether the reported results are credible and to what degree they are applicable to the research to be conducted. 4.23 Describe several sources through which the best research articles could be found on the prOposed experimental programs. Given a community college academic curriculum, a description of its students and of its re- ceiving four-year institutions, and other necessary data by a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: 4.50 Given 99 List and evaluate various general tests by which student achievement could be assessed when they enter and again when they leave in order to possibly determine any change. Design a continuing system for retriev- ing information about the reasons for student attrition. Design an overall plan by which continual information is received about the number of students who transfer and later gradu- ate. Design a system of information gathering by which the grade distributions of stu- dents across courses, sections, and instructors is made available. Describe and evaluate ways of determining the impact of instruction upon students other than through grades. the academic placement procedures of an institution, and its remedial education pro- grams, 4.41 4.42 4.43 Given the candidate should be able to: Describe the strengths and weaknesses of academic placement in general. Determine the strengths and weaknesses of the academic placement procedures given. Design a plan for evaluating the effec- tiveness of the given remedial programs of the institution. List and describe several well-known remedial programs which have been tried and studied at other community colleges across the nation. a packet of several problems associated with community college teaching and learning, a community college faculty and budget, and other relevant data from a panel of judges, the candidate should be able to: 100 4.51 Recommend several alternative ways the faculty could be stimulated to enrich their skills and knowledge to help im- prove upon the situation. 4.52 Describe several programs of faculty enrichment designed to improve instruc- tion and learning, written about in community college literature. 4.53 List and describe new technological and media developments which might be valu- able to improved teaching and learning at the community college level. Curriculum Development Competency: Stimulate the development of, establish, and evaluate processes and activities which are designed to enhance faculty, administrator, student, and community participation and involvement in the critical appraisal of insti- tutional objectives, curriculum objectives, and course objectives in light of the needs and desires of the students and of our society such that the curriculum will be dynamic and viable in maintenance as well as in improvement. 5.10 Given a list of goals and objectives of com- munity colleges, and a panel of experts, the candidate will be able to: 5.11 Determine those goals and objectives which are basically philosophical in origin. 5.12 Determine those goals and objectives which are basically historical in origin. 5.13 Determine those goals and objectives which are basically sociological in origin. 5.14 Determine those goals and objectives which are basically educational in origin. 5.15 Determine those goals and objectives stated in behavioral language. 5.16 Write in behavioral language those goals and objectives which are not stated be- haviorally. 101 Recognize and analyze discrepancies and contradictions between the goals and objectives of the institution, curricu- lums, and courses. Evaluate and compare the policies of the institution with the goals of the insti- tution, curriculums, and courses to determine what discrepancies in statement exist. Given an hypothetical community college and a description of its surrounding community and a panel of experts, the candidate will be able to: Develop a community analyses process by which the educational needs of the com- munity related to community college edu- cation can be surveyed. Develop and evaluate membership for a citizens' curriculum advisory committee. Develop a plan for and evaluate the sources of a process by which the best information on curriculum from the edu- cational literature would be readily available to the Academic Dean. Detail a process by which information about curriculum available through pro- fessional conferences, seminars, and meetings is made available to the insti- tution. Design and evaluate ways and means by which information about curriculum flows adequately across the different groups involved in curriculum construction and appraisal. Given an hypothetical community college and a description of its faculty, student body, and community setting, and a panel of eXperts, the candidate will be able to: 5.31 Develop and evaluate a plan for involving faculty and administrators in the con- tinuing evaluation of the goals and objectives of the institution, of cur- riculums, and of courses. 102 Develop and evaluate a plan for con- tinuing and meaningful student partici- pation and involvement in the evaluation of the goals and objectives of the insti- tution, of curriculum, and of courses. Develop and evaluate provisions for a joint body of faculty, administrators, students, and community representatives to critically appraise and to make recom- mendations regarding the goals and ob- jectives of the institution, of cur- riculums, and of courses. Develop and evaluate a plan by which new curriculum and course proposals may be critically appraised by faculty, adminis- trators, and students with resulting recommendations. Leadership Development Competency: Evaluate the status and activities of department chairmen as re- gards their effectiveness in resolving complex departmental problems which determine work-group cohesiveness and worker morale in order to assist them in developing behaviors consistent with the effective leadership behaviors described in adminis- tration and organization theory associated with organizational goal achievement. 6.10 Given a packet of case studies of the nature of several academic departments of a community college, and other important data selected by a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: Predict whether faculty morale and work group cohesiveness was high or low in each case. List and explain the importance of each factor related to faculty morale and work group cohesiveness in each case. Develop and defend alternative tactics by which faculty morale and work group cohesiveness could be improved in each case. List the general institutional factors which have a bearing on the possible leadership effectiveness of the depart- ment chairman. Given demic 103 several example departments of an aca- division of a community college, and other relevant information by a panel of judges, the candidate should be able to: 6.21 Given Determine ways by which knowledge could be accumulated concerning the status of faculty morale and work group cohesive- ness through normal, everyday feedback and observation of the departments. Describe specialized, published instru- ments which are presently available for the assessment of morale and work group cohesiveness. Describe the ways faculty morale and work group cohesiveness affect the goal achievement of the institution. Describe the impact of faculty morale and work group cohesiveness on the goal achievement of individual department members. Describe the impact of faculty morale and work group cohesiveness on the achievement of department goal objectives. the characteristics and actions of several community college academic department chairmen, and other relevant data by a panel of judges, the candidate should be able to: Predict the rating each chairman received from his department in terms of his edu- cational leadership ability. Predict the level of work group cohesive- ness and morale of each department on the basis of chairman action. Determine those acts of the department chairman which were perceived as person- ally supportive by individual members of the department. Develop tactics by which the leadership capability of each department chairman could be improved. 104 6.35 List a number of articles which could be suggested as reading for the depart- ment chairmen to improve their insights concerning educational leadership. 6.36 Describe the differences between the administrative functions of the department chairmen and their educational leadership functions. 6.37 Describe the importance of role per- ception, role conflict, and role ambiguity between department chairmen and individual faculty members and resulting impact on faculty morale, and work group cohesive- ness. 6.38 Describe those traits of an effective leader as have been generally agreed upon within the leadership research literature. Professional Development Competency: Establish, stimulate, and evaluate activities, processes, pro- grams, and financing for the professional development, improvement, and growth of new and tenured faculty members, and self. 7.10 Given a community college, its faculty, budget, and other relevant data by a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: 7.11 Analyze the needs of new faculty members and tenured faculty members in terms of in-service, community college teaching requirements and work orientation re- quirements. 7.12 Analyze a master contract in terms of what it provides in the way of opportun— ity, encouragement, or discouragement for faculty to actively pursue profes- sional deveIOpment and enrichment. 7.13 Describe and evaluate a plan by which professional growth and development activities are encouraged by the pay increment and promotion systems of the institution for the faculty. Given local 105 Analyze and evaluate faculty evaluation processes to determine the role such policies are playing in encouraging faculty professional growth and enrich- ment. Develop and evaluate ways and activities by which faculty can be encouraged to actively engage in in-service profes- sional enrichment experiences. Predict the cost to the institution of various programs of encouraging faculty professional development such as paying their course fees, conference fees, etc. Describe and evaluate possible profes- sional growth activities and oppor- tunities available outside of the institution. List and describe sources and library materials which would be of general importance to the professional develop- ment of community college faculty members. an hypothetical community college, its and state setting, a description of its faculty and budget, the position of Academic Dean, and other relevant information from a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: 7.21 List and describe books, articles, and journals which he would feel essential to his continual professional enrichment and development as Academic Dean. 7.22 Analyze his own strengths and weaknesses in terms of the needed administrative competencies of the Academic Dean. 7.23 List and describe tools and instruments by which feedback from faculty, students, and other administrators could be gained concerning the Academic Dean's adminis- trative functioning. 8.00 106 7.24 Develop a general, long range plan for continued professional self-evaluation and growth utilizing the various sources of information which could be available to the dean. 7.25 List and describe ways by which the. Academic Dean could continually con- tribute to the professionalization of the administrative role of the community college Academic Dean. Budget Manegement Competency: Analyze the budget needs and requests of the different segments of the academic division and coordinate such needs and requests with the overall budget of the institution such that faculty salaries, costs of instruction, expenses for program experimentation, costs for pro- fessional development activities, and costs for new courses may be adequately planned for and as equitably allotted as possible in order to maintain high faculty morale, quality instruction, and a high quality insti- tution. 8.10 Given the total budget figure allotted the academic division of a community college for the coming year, the individual budget requests of the departments within the division, and other necessary data from a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: 8.11 Determine which budget requests should have priority over others on the basis of educational imperatives such that the total of the individual budgets shall equal the allotted budget figure. 8.12 Determine which individual budget items are estimated too low in terms of their educational importance to the department and make the necessary adjustments to meet the total figure allotted. 8.13 Place certain items which need to be budgeted under the appropriate budget heading and category. 8.14 Analyze the budget items included in order to determine what vital educational need is being sacrificed because of financial limitations. 107 8.15 Figure the cost per academic credit per student by department across the aca- demic division. 8.16 Recommend alternative solutions to edu- cational needs which could be cheaper for the academic division. Given the projected enrollment for the next fall semester of the academic division, a catalogue of courses, a listing of presently employed faculty by department, the projected budget for the coming school year, and other relevant data from a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: 8.21 Predict the number of students who will be needing each course. 8.22 Predict the number of new faculty that will be needed to cover the classes. 8.23 Determine the number and areas of new faculty members which can be hired according to the projected budget. 8.24 Recommend alternative ways of handling many of the needs other than through the hiring of new faculty members. 8.25 Determine the number of students who will not be able to get some of the basic courses the first semester and will need to take them during a later semester. Given the number of classes needed, and the class size specifications, and the number of seats available in each room utilized by the academic division, and other relevant data by a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: 8.31 Schedule the classes into classrooms across the educational week. 8.32 Figure the room utilization percentage across classrooms, laboratories, and lecture halls in order to provide infor— mation vital to the possible expansion of programs and courses. 108 8.33 Analyze the scheduling of courses and classes with regard to the flexibility for choice provided the students across the basic courses. 8.34 Evaluate the faculty load of department members on such variables as contact hours, number of students, credit hours, preparations and laboratory time. 8.35 Describe several different methods and practices of determining faculty load as utilized by various in state community colleges. 8.36 Describe several in-state community college practices regarding payment to faculty for overloads. 8.40 Given a packet of several needs for technical equipment across the curriculums of the com- munity college academic division, and other relevant data by a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: 8.41 Name and describe the Federal funds that are available to assist community colleges in educational costs. 8.42 Place each technological need under the Federal fund which would assist in financing the equipment. 8.43 Describe the Federal scholarship and financial funds which are available for community college academic students in the sciences as well as in the humani- ties. 8.44 Develop a plan for soliciting the inter- est and financial aid of local industries in support of scholarships and other edu- cational needs of the academic division. Administrator Interrelationship Competency: Estab- lish a relationship of mutual consideration, cooper- ation, and support with the other central adminis- trators of the community college based upon a knowl- edge and understanding of their community college administrative responsibilities and concerns, as well as perceptions regarding any personal conflict they might be experiencing in interaction with their administrative roles. 109 Given an hypothetical community college central administrative staff composed of the president, the academic dean, the dean of student affairs, the dean of financial affairs, the dean of com- munity services, and the dean of vocational and technical programs, and other relevant data from a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: List the main responsibilities of each administrative officer. Describe the difficult and complex aspects of each administrator's job which are common to a community college edu- cational environment. Define the areas of needed interrelation- ship between the Academic Dean and the other administrators. Describe the areas of possible role con- flict between the Academic Dean and the other administrative officers. Analyze the administrative role of the Academic Dean from the vieWpoint of each of the other administrators. Given a packet of problems which a community college Academic Dean usually confronts, the other central administrators of the college, and other relevant data by a panel of eXperts, the candidate should be able to: Name the other administrators who need to be involved in the solution of the problem. Recommend and evaluate ways of gaining the cooperation of the other adminis- trators. Recommend and evaluate various solutions to the problems according to the various ways of cooperation across adminis- trative positions. Describe the various perspectives of the problem associated with the different administrative positions. 110 9.25 Analyze the possible solutions to the problem from the expected role conflict perspective of each different adminis- trative position. Given a number of case studies involving role conflicts between individuals and their administrative positions and involving con- flicts between the activities of an individual and his administrative role as perceived by others, and other relevant data from a panel of experts, the candidate should be able to: 9.31 Analyze the sources of the conflict. 9.32 Predict the responses of the individual and of others to the conflict. 9.33 Recommend various ways of resolving the role conflict in the individual. 9.34 Recommend and evaluate ways of bringing about changes in the expected role be- haviors held by others. 9.35 Recommend and evaluate alternative ways of accomplishing the task without in- voking role conflict in either an indi- vidual or in others. 9.36 Describe the positive results and aspects of the role conflict in the given circumstances. 9.37 Analyze the role conflict on the basis of the underlying value judgments and assumptions of the individual or of the individuals. 9.38 Determine those aspects of each situation which reflect problems associated with role ambiguity. 111 Summary The second major purpose in this study was to translate the generated administrative competencies needed by the community college Academic Dean into specific be- havioral statements which would further delineate and clarify the competencies. These statements could also serve as samples of the behavior which could help the candidate and his instructors evaluate his level of compe- tency in these vital areas of an Academic Dean's function- ing. The statements also suggest possible training experi- ences for the prospective administrator. Using four general guidelines, that the behavioral statement must be a natural outgrowth of the competency, that the behavioral statement include behavior which could be observed, that the statement describe an objective that can be taught, and that the statement include verbs which describe specific human behavior, the behavioral statements for each administrative competency were develOped and pre- sented in this chapter. The behavioral statements were presented within the framework of sets of conditions or situations in order to better represent the circumstances under which the competency would be utilized. Within these sets of conditions, the expected behavior could also be more easily and reliably evaluated by observers or trainees. In the next chapter, specific learning experiences will be suggested which could help the candidate assess and 112 improve his ability with each competency. These gener- ated learning experiences could also be of assistance in community college leadership training programs where im- proving a candidate's administrative competency was of central consideration. CHAPTER V RELATING THE ADMINISTRATIVE COMPETENCIES TO LEARNING EXPERIENCES The administrative competencies needed by the com- munity college Academic Dean have been generated. They have been translated into behavioral statements and mani— festations. In this chapter, the behavioral statements are related to possible leadership training experiences for the prospective dean or presently acting dean. The training experiences which are developed are not intended to be prescriptive or definitive in nature. The purpose of the chapter is to develop some rationale and a model by which an institution, other educators, or a panel of ex- perts could analyze their respective educational settings in order to provide maximal learning opportunities for their administration students. Since the chapter is also the last chapter of this study, several other important blocks of information are presented. The conclusions which can be drawn from the study are described. Recommendations and suggestions for other studies and other activities are discussed. The Whole study is summarized. 113 114 Behavioral Statements as Educational Objectives Before the techniques used to relate the behavioral statements with educational experiences are discussed, it is necessary to review some of the rationale and theory surrounding the use of specific behavioral objectives in curriculum building and in assessing learning. There is no better way to proceed in this matter than to review the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives, ed. by Benjamin S. Bloom (14). Actually, this review is essential in that the Taxonomy was used as the guide for relating the be- havioral statements of the competencies to learning experi- ences. The Taxonomy is a book which developed through the efforts of many people through time. The book is the re- sult of a project of educators interested in evaluating student learning and comparing results across various tests. The goal of the project was to set up a classification and definition system of various types of learning outcomes which could be understood and used by many. The committee which developed the Taxonomy concentrated on such learning outcomes as remembering, reasoning, problem solving, con- cept formation, and creative thinking. They were able to conclude that learning seemed to fall into six major classes and that the classes could be arranged from the simplest to the most complex. The more complex behaviors seemed to depend upon the integration of the simpler 115 behaviors before they could be adequately performed. The six classes, from simplest to complex, are Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, and Evaluation. One of the major contributions of the book is that these categories of cognitive behavior are also subdivided so that someone setting up an educational experience can further classify the outcome and level of difficulty. For example, Knowledge includes such sub- categories as knowledge of specific facts, knowledge of criteria, knowledge of methodology. Comprehension as a major class contains such cognitive behaviors as trans- lation, interpretation, extrapolation. Each one of these subclasses in turn is carefully defined as a behavior. This emphasis on carefully defining the classes and subclasses of cognitive behavior has great value for educators building curriculums, learning experiences, and trying to evaluate changes in student behavior as the re- sult of learning, or at least indicative of learning. "Curriculum builders should find the Taxonomy helps them to specify objectives so that it becomes easier to plan learning experiences and evaluation devices" (14:2). Edu- cators can also use the Taxonomy to plan different types and ranges of cognitive behaviors for their students. Robert F. Mager in Preparing Instructional Objectives gives us three concise statements which point out the importance of carefully defining educational goals as specific be- havior: 116 When clearly defined goals are lacking, it is im- possible to evaluate a course or program efficiently, and there is no sound basis for selecting appropriate materials, content, or instructional methods (62:3). Another important reason for stating objectives sharply relates to the evaluation of the degree to which the learner is able to perform in the manner desired (62:3). An additional advantage of clearly defined objectives is that the student is provided the means to evaluate his own progress at any place along the route of in- struction, and he is able to organize his efforts into relevant activities (62:4). The above statements and classification schemes have a direct bearing upon and critical importance to any efforts made in the present study to relate the behavioral statements of the competencies to educational experiences. In the general definition of a competency, such terms as synthesize and actualize are behaviorly defined and so may be considered as measurable, observable, and having a place within the hierarchy of cognitive behaviors described in the Taxonomy. Each particular competency in turn is couched in such terms as analyze, stimulate, establish, and evaluate, as are the behavioral manifestation statements developed under each administrative competency. In other words, the whole study was conceived of in terms of definable, measurable, observable, behaviors and is con- sistent with this framework throughout in order to provide the necessary interrelationships and continuity which could be compatible with and have implications for learning eXperiences. 117 Methodology and Rationale One must use some guidelines and rationale in the development of curriculum and training experiences. For the purposes of this study, the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives will serve as the primary source and reference. The assumptions about learning and cognitive behaviors made in the Taxonomy will be accepted as the bases for relating the behavioral statements of the competencies to learning experiences. Another point of explanation should be made before the analysis proceeds. Some of the learning experiences related to the competencies are derived from the Michigan State University Graduate and Undergraduate Catalogues. Again, the intent here is only to provide a model by which other institutions could relate their own courses and seminars to the competencies. One of the major assumptions in the Taxonomy utilized in this study to relate the behavioral state- ments to learning experiences is that there are six classes of cognitive behaviors. The behaviors and their definitions are: Knowledge.--Those behaviors and test situations which emphasize the remembering, either by recognition or recall, of ideas, material, or phenomena. 118 Comprehension.--Those objectives, behaviors, or responses which represent an understanding of the literal message contained in a communication. Application.--The ability to apply an appropriate abstraction without having to be prompted as to which abstraction is correct or without having to be shown how to use it in that situation. Analysis.-—Emphasizes the breakdown of material into its constituent parts and detection of the relation- ships of the parts and of the ways they are organized. Synthesis.--The putting together of elements and facts so as to form a whole. Evaluation.-—The making of judgments about the value, for some purpose, of ideas, works, solutions, methods, materials, etc. Because these behaviors are defined, grouped, and sub- grouped, it is easier to determine which class a behavioral statement should be related to. Another major assumption in the Taxonomy is that the six classes have a hierarchical arrangement ranging from Knowledge, which is the simplest, to Evaluation, which is the most complex. This is an important consider- ation for developing learning experiences for the compe- tency behavioral statements. Cursory observation shows 119 that the behavioral statements vary as to the difficulty of the cognitive task. Behaviors such as listing, naming, determining, and describing in the statements are not as involved or complex as the cognitive behaviors of synthesis or evaluation. In this manner the statements may be ana- lyzed as to difficulty. One more major assumption in the Taxonomy utilized in this study in the development of learning experiences is that the higher classes of cognitive behaviors are somewhat dependent upon the classes below it: The whole cognitive domain of the taxonomy is arranged in a hierarchy, that is, each classifi- cation within it demands the skills and abilities which are lower in the classification order (14:120). This assumption has a number of ramifications for the model of learning experiences developed in this study. First, the lower classes of cognitive behavior implied in the behavioral statements under the competencies should be accomplished by the candidate before he attempts higher classes of behavior. This means that if the expected be- havior of the candidate is analysis, then he must have previously demonstrated the behavior required in the classes of Knowledge, Comprehension, and Application, all of which are lower in the classification order. The second ramification of the above assumption for this study is more involved because it suggests that a hierarchy of training experiences can also be developed 120 for best imparting and emphasizing the various classes of the cognitive behavior hierarchy. Some training experi- ences are best related to acquiring knowledge and compre- hension; other learning situations may better foster synthesis and evaluation. The above assumptions were basic to the develop- ment and organization of the prOposed learning experiences described in the following paragraphs. A statement of qualification should be offered before the learning experiences are described. The categories of learning experiences cannot be mutually exclusive in terms of function and outcome in relation to the classes of cog- nitive behavior. In other words, some courses indeed may be beneficial to a student's evaluation behavior, whereas some internship experiences might not provide ample Opportunity for evaluation. What is involved in the learning experiences is the notion of average learn- ing opportunity in the set. Courses, Seminars, and Independent Study The first learning and training experiences which the candidate needs in order to begin acquiring the ad— ministrative competency are: (a) the currently estab- lished courses of the institution relevant to gaining knowledge about the competency, (b) seminars organized around a specific topic of knowledge, and (c) those 121 experiences a candidate designs with a faculty in order to acquire knowledge and comprehension. Knowledge and Comprehension are the key words in the above, describing the classes of cognitive behaviors which are the primary expected behaviors of the training experiences. It is assumed here that these two lower classes of cognitive behaviors must be accomplished before the higher classes of cognitive behaviors related to the competencies can be accomplished. The above learning situations are grouped together because they will provide the candidate with Special emphasis and training in the behaviors of knowledge and comprehension. On the average, the seminar mentioned above is really no different from a regular class at Michigan State University in that students of various backgrounds and vocational choices are enrolled and the subject discussed is usually general in nature. The Professional Seminar The second type of training experience which the candidate needs is the Professional Seminar. In this experience the classes of cognitive behaviors of Appli- cation and Analysis are emphasized. Unlike the normal seminar which has a specific subject matter focus and has students preparing for various administrative and edu- cational positions other than the academic deanship, this seminar will deal only with the administrative competencies 122 needed by the community college Academic Dean. Because of the critical need for sharing information, the ability to analyze, and experience in the learning situation, the group should only be composed of presently acting and puxospective Academic Deans. Those behavioral statements 'wnder each competency which imply application and analysis IMill be developed through the Professional Seminar. Just for a point of interest and information, the Stflogroups Of behaviors listed under analysis are presented as an example Of the behaviors which would be developed tflirough the Professional Seminar: Analysis of Elements, Zuialysis of Relationships, Analysis of Organizational Principles. Simulated Experiences and Evaluative Internship Because the cognitive behaviors are of different Levels Of complexity, and because the higher cognitive classes depend upon a candidate's performance with the anver classes Of cognitive behavior, the training experi- ‘mnces have also been arranged in a hierarchy of required b€fl1aviors which are emphasized. Courses, seminars, and irldependent study seem best able to develop knowledge and CKnnprehension. The Professional Seminar as a training SSituation seems to best facilitate emphasizing the be- rla‘viors of Application and Analysis. Simulated Experience and.Evaluative Internships seem most appropriate for the 123 development and utilization of the cognitive behaviors of Synthesis and Evaluation. Simulated Experiences and Evaluative Internships as learning situations would provide the candidate with his closest possible association with the tasks, needs, and conditions of the administrative role of the community college Academic Dean. These experiences will also demand and emphasize the most complex of the cognitive behaviors: Synthesis and Evaluation. Also, during these learning experiences he will continually need to exercise the full range of cognitive behaviors if he is to function at his highest level of competency and get the most benefit from the experiences. The definitions of Synthesis and Evalu- ation are presented below for reference: Synthesis.--The putting together of elements and parts so as to form a whole. Evaluation.--The making of judgments about the value, for some purpose, of ideas, solutions, methods, materials, etc. The learning situations of Simulated Experience and Evalu- ative Internships are described in the following paragraphs. Simulated EXperienceS would be any learning games, group activities, projects, or other training devices de— signed to resemble the actual situations, tasks, or problems which the Academic Dean would confront on the 124 job. These Simulation experiences would be selected and planned to specifically help the candidate acquire a higher level of behavior with each administrative competency. A few titles of simulation learning games are listed below in order to illustrate the kind of experiences being dis- cussed and their relationship to the administrative compe- tencies needed by the community college Acadenic Dean. Suppes, Patrick and R. C. Atkinson. Markov Learn— ing Models for Multiperson Interactions. Waldorf, Frank, and James S. Coleman. Analysis and Simulation of Reference Group Processes. Vance, Stanley C. Management Decision Simulation. Appendix D is a listing of some possibly useful learning simulation devices associated with each administrative competency. The Evaluative Internship as a training experience could provide the candidate with the closest approximation of reality conditions confronting a community college Aca- demic Dean. These internships would not have to be long in duration, but they should be directly related to raising a candidate's ability with a Specific administrative compe- tency. These internships would call for close supervision and contact between a candidate and his advisor. They also might call for close contact with other colleagues involved in similar internship experiences. The internship would only be valuable in developing the cognitive behaviors of 125 Synthesis and Evaluation where related to an adminis— trative competency if such close contacts prevailed. The full importance and impact of these Simulation Experiences and Evaluative Internships would not register with the candidate unless he was already well equipped with the lower classes of cognitive behaviors associated with the behavioral statements Of the competencies. For this reason, these training situations should be reserved as the last experiences of the candidate's training pro- gram. Placing the Behavioral Statements Under Learning Experiences The behavioral statements develOped under the administrative competencies needed by the Academic Dean involve a variety of cognitive behaviors with varying degrees of complexity. Using the Taxonomy as the author- ity, these behavioral statements may be located within the classes and subgroups Of cognitive behaviors. Once this has been accomplished, so that each behavioral state- ment has been classified as either Knowledge, Comprehension, Application, Analysis, Synthesis, or Evaluation; then, the behavioral statement can be placed under the learning experience which emphasizes that particular class of cognitive activity. One must understand while he is doing this that all cognitive behaviors are not easily placed and that some interpretation is occasionally necessary. As a matter of review and summary, Knowledge and Comprehension 126 are the classes under the learning experiences of Courses, Seminars, and Independent Study; Application and Analysis are the classes associated with the learning experiences of the Professional Seminar; Synthesis and Evaluation are the classes most appropriately located under Simulation Experiences and Evaluative Internships. In order to better illustrate the above description of the processes used to place the behavioral statements under the learning experiences, some examples of analyses and resulting placements are presented below: A. List and describe the various methods and techniques which are available for empirically assessing what is happening in the group. This behavioral statement can be directly associated with item 1.20 in the Taxonomy: Knowledge of Ways and Means Of Dealing with Specifics. This behavior is de- fined as "knowledge of the ways of organizing, studying, judging, and criticizing." Because the statement is clearly associated with Knowledge as a class Of be- haviors, it would be related to the Learning Experi- ence involving courses, seminars, and independent study. B. Predict employee behavior as a result of the inter- action. This behavior can be directly related to Application which is 3.00 in the Taxonomy: the use of abstractions in particular concrete situations . . . the ability to predict the probable effect of a change in a factor . . . (14.205). In such a manner, every behavioral statement under each competency could be placed under a learning experience. One aspect of this process of relating the be- havioral statements to the learning experiences has not yet been discussed. Within the learning experiences 127 themselves, some suggestions of specific, meaningful edu- cational situations have been generated. For example, within the courses, seminars, and independent study learn- ing experience under the Interpersonal Relationships Compe- tency, some specific courses from the Michigan State Uni- versity Graduate and Undergraduate catalogues have been selected as meaningful possibilities for the candidate's program. Two or three examples of possibly helpful simu- lation games are also listed within the learning experi— ences entitled Simulated Experiences and Evaluative Intern- Ships. The results of associating the behavioral state- ments with learning experiences are summarized on the following pages. The pages are presented in order to demonstrate the relationship of each behavioral statement of a competency with a learning experience, as that relationship was derived. 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encuue> ac aeuuauu: ee aeoH xuasoeu ocucuE Ineuea mo meowuoeue ace maocuee uceuewuua Heue>ee ecuuemeo .xee: HecOMueoaae ecu mmouee neoou Immeuo oucu memmeae ecu easaecem muceeeeumc ecu Icuemuem e>uueeaaou mo coHue Iwuomez ace cauueuueucaeac ecu cu mesmmH ace eEeac loam “ncOuueHem HeuuuesacH mmw oo.m mummaecc ueou Heuuemecez NQDBm ezmozmcmczH oze .mccszwm .mmmmmoo mv.m av.w mm.m mm.w Hm.m coom cmv mueoc 136 .cocufimoa e>uueuueflcweae uceueuuaa cuee mo e>fluuemmuem uowawcoo eaou aeuoemxe ecu EOum Seacoum ecu ou ecofluDHOm eacfiweoa ecu enxcecc v~.m .mCOHuHmom e>aueuumucusae uceuewuaa ecu cuuz aeueHOOnme Eeccoum ecu mo me>auueaeuem meoflue> ecu ecuuumeo vm.m .muoueuumucwsae uecuo ecu wo coHueuemooo ecu acaccem mo m>e3 euecae>e ace aceEEouem mm.m .muoueuumwcas nae uecuo ecu mo coee mo ucaom 13ea> ecu Eouu ceeo ufiEeaeec ecu mo econ e>uueuumflcfisae ecu enxaecc mc.m .muoueuumwcwfiae uecuo ecu ace ceeo ocfieaeoc ecu ceeauec uocaucou econ eacummom mo meeue ecu ecwuoeeo vc.m .coeoummc <24 ece quueHsEMm cOumuueo uceEemecez mos .muecuo ace .oceum .Hauewuoum .Nuuxecmaou ecumwaeem mo chAucacoo ueac: mmweroconwoeo msouo .uexeez ace euccm mmHszmmBzH m>HBm Dad mmuzmHmmmxm QMBdADZHm .muusowcee eaou cuu3 aeuquOmme eEeHcoum uoecweu coacs coHuecuam coee mo muoemee emocu ecHEueuea mm.m .Hesau>uaca ecu cc uouawcoo ecu no meoucom ecu euxaecc Hm.m .nuoueuumucueae uecuo ecu ace ceeo ufiEeaeec ecu ceezuec macchHueceuueuca aeaeec no meeue ecu ecuuea ma.m .meaou e>Hueuu umucflfiae cuecu cu“: c0uuoeueucu cu mcuoceuueQXe ec ucmae aecu uUwchoo aecOmuea >ce ucuauem neu cOuuaeoueQ me Hae3 me .ecueo acoo ace eecuuauccmcomeeu e>uueuu newcueae emeaaoo auuceafioo caecu mo mcuaceumueacd ace eoaeazocx e com: aemec emeaaou xuflchEoo ecu wo mucueuumwcueae Heuuceo Hecuo ecu cu“: uuommee ace .cofiueuemooo .cOwueueaaecoo Heeusfi mo mace IcOcueHeu e cmaaceumm "Noceuemeou mccmcoHueHeuueucH uoueuumucufiac mdzHme Aum ecu ca uouau Icon ecou ecu mo muoemme ace muasmeu e>uuumom ecu ecafiueueo om.m .Eeacoum ecu mo cecusaom ecu cc ae>Ho>ca ec ou aeec oc3 euOueuumucwEae uecuo ecu eEez H~.m .uceecoua>ce HecOuueo naae eoeaaoe huccdcaoo e ou coEEoo eue cofic3 con m.uoueuu ImucHEae coee mo muoecme xeam I800 ace uHsOuuuHa ecu ecwuumeo Na.m .ueouumo e>uueuumflcweae coee mo meuuwaucuecommeu cues ecu uewc ac.m coHueuumwcue nee uo mouuoecm ecu cuoece oma em mmmccou caucuseoo eNNm em chuueuwcemuo xeamaou nnv oom cOAueoHcdesou decomuemueucu -m 6600 oo.m cOHueoucecsou decoduenucemuo mam E500 wopmw azmazmceozc aze .mcezHme emmmmaou 137 Summary of the Study The administrative role of the community college Academic Dean is of critical importance to the welfare of the institution. If a dean wishes to perform the role well, maximizing the leadership opportunities within the role, he must exercise a very high level of administrative competence. The main purpose of this study was to gener- ate those competencies essential to the successful function- ing of this chief administrative officer. A second main purpose of the study was to translate the competencies generated into Specific behavioral manifestations and statements which would further delineate and clarify these needed administrative competencies. The behavioral statements could then be utilized in two possible ways. They could help prospective or presently acting Academic Deans evaluate their levels of administrative competency attainment. They could provide some implications for improved in-service and pre-job training experiences for community college Academic Deans who wished to improve their levels of competency. For the purpose of the study, administrative competency was defined as follows: Administrative Competency is the capacity to synthesize and actualize relevant knowledge for the purposes of: (a) facilitating institutional planning, (b) resolving complex problems which interfere with the achievement of organizational 138 goals and objectives, and (c) evaluating institutional progress toward goal achievement. study: The following assumptions were examined in the That a set of administrative competencies could be generated for the role of the Aca- demic Dean of a community college. That these administrative competencies are basic to the functioning of the Academic Dean as he fulfills his tasks and duties. That these administrative competencies could be further described in statements of be- havioral terminology and behavioral mani- festation. That the administrative competencies and their translation into behavioral statements could have implications for learning experi— ences in administrator leadership training programs. In Chapter II, other literature and research was reviewed which was related to the study. The chapter was Organized so that the literature and research associated directly with the administrative role of the Academic Dean was reviewed first. Literature related to community College administration and administrator leadership train- ing programs was discussed next. Important sources in 139 administration and organization theory were then reviewed. Sources useful to the writing of behavioral statements and objectives were discussed next. In Chapter III the processes and techniques utilized to generate the competencies and reality test them were presented. The competencies were analytically develOped by grouping and cross-referencing lists of duties which the Academic Dean must usually perform. These groupings into areas then could be inductively recognized as needed, general competency areas. After these competency areas were determined they were reality tested through the interview process. Ten Michigan Community College Academic Deans were inter— viewed and their comments were tape-recorded for later analysis. The deans were carefully chosen so that their responses could be interpreted as reflecting the adminis- trative rOle of a community college Academic Dean gener- ally. The deans were asked to respond to each competency on the basis of: (a) how important they thought the competency was to their functioning, (b) how adequate they perceived the statement of the competency to be, and (c) what other competencies they thought should be included on the list. The competencies generated from tflfle research and literature, and their statements, were tinen revised. Lastly, the finally selected and finally WOrded competencies were presented. 140 In Chapter IV the competencies were translated into behavioral statements and manifestations by using the following guidelines: the statement had to be an outgrowth of the stated competency; the statement had to include behavior which could be observed and evaluated; the statement had to include behavior which could be taught; the statement had to include specific verbs neces- sary for the completion of the task. The behavioral state- ments were then presented within the framework of sets of conditions under which the behavior could be performed. There were two main purposes in Chapter V. The first was to relate the developed behavioral statements to possible administrator leadership training experiences which could help the candidate acquire a higher level of competency. The second main purpose of Chapter V was to review the study, to present conclusions and recommen- dations. Conclusions The following conclusions may be drawn from this study: 1. The general administrative competencies needed by the community college Academic Dean can be generated quite accurately from the literature through a listing, cross-checking, grouping process, especially if these competencies and their statements are later evaluated by presently acting Academic Deans. 141 2. The competencies which were generated and finally selected in this study were the Interpersonal Relationships Competency, the Communication Systems Competency, the Personnel Management Competency, the Instructional Evaluation Competency, the Curriculum Development Competency, the Leadership Development Compe- tency, the Professional Development Competency, the Budget Management Competency, and the Administrative Interrelationship Competency. 3. Following the guidelines suggested for the writing of behavioral objectives, these general compe- tencies may be translated into behavioral statements and behavioral manifestations which can be regarded as pro- viding some means for assessing a candidate's status with regard to acquiring the competency. 4. These same behavioral statements may be re- lated to the six classes of cognitive behavior and the resulting hierarchy continuum of complexity described in the Taxonomyyof Educational Objectives. 5. Using the above classification scheme for the behavioral statements, a model for associating the state- ments with different learning experiences emphasizing the different classes of cognitive behavior and their differ— ent degrees of complexity may be developed. 142 Implications for Future Activities and Research This study could stimulate other activities and research in community college administration and in ad- ministrator leadership training programs. The following suggestions are some possibilities: l. The behavioral manifestations and statements developed under the general competencies need to be reality tested in order to determine their actual relationship to the different levels of competency attainment of various Academic Deans. 2. A pilot program in training community college Academic Deans needs to be developed whereby the effec- tiveness of the learning experiences described in this study could be evaluated. 3. The other central administrative positions of the community college also need to be described in terms of essential competencies, behavioral manifestations, and recommended training experiences. 4. There is a need for the development of an evaluative instrument, based upon the competencies and their behavioral manifestations, which could help a candidate and his professors better assess his status in relation to a given competency such that the appropri- ate level of learning experiences could be recommended. 143 5. If a student's level of competency attainment could be more accurately measured at the beginning of his program and again at the end of his training experiences, then the value of certain training experiences could be better estimated, resulting in program changes and im- provements. 6. Most of the Academic Deans interviewed were very enthusiastic about the study and its possible out- comes. They expressed a critical need for more infor- mation about various aspects of their work and adminis- trative role. This study points out the need for con- centrated in-service training seminars and conferences for acting deans whereby they could quickly improve their levels of administrative competency. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Administrative Theory as a Guide to Action, ed. Roald F. Campbell and James M. Lipham. Chicago: The Midwest Administration Center, The University of Chicago, 1960. Administrators in Higher Education: Their Functions and Coordination, ed. Gerald P. Burns. 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APPENDICES APPENDIX A THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE ACADEMIC DEANS INTERVIEWED APPENDIX A THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE ACADEMIC DEANS INTERVIEWED Mr. Russell Hanson Dean of Arts and Sciences Jackson Community College Jackson, Michigan Mr. Ed Harkins Vice-President for Instruction Kirtland Community College Roscommon, Michigan Mr. Paul Heath Dean of Arts and Sciences Kellogg Community College Battle Creek, Michigan Mr. Sam Kintzer Dean of Liberal Arts College Lansing Community College Lansing, Michigan Mr. Les Morford Dean of Academic Instruction Montcalm Community College Sidney, Michigan Mr. Fred Robbins Dean of Liberal Arts Flint Community Junior College Flint, Michigan Mr. Keith Shuert Dean of Instruction Oakland Community College: Auburn Hills Campus Auburn Heights, Michigan 152 153 Mr. Robert A. Stenger Dean of Academic Instruction Schoolcraft Community College Livonia, Michigan Dr. Jeanne Trubey Dean of General Education Macomb County Community College: South Campus Warren, Michigan Mr. Richard W. Wherity Assistant Dean of Instructional Affairs Grand Rapids Junior College Grand Rapids, Michigan APPENDIX B SAMPLE COPIES OF THE CORRESPONDENCE WITH THE DEANS A. The Initial Request for an Interview B. A Sample Letter of the Response of the Academic Deans to the Interview and Project. C. The Thank You Letter Sent to the Deans After the Interview June 30, 1970 Dr. Jeanne Trubey, Dean General Education Macomb County Community College 14500 Twelve Mile Road Warren, Michigan 48093 Dear Dr. Trubey: We are attempting to revise our graduate training program for community college administrators. For some time we have felt the need for greater specificity in our focus; consequently, we are in the process of defining neces- sary administrative competencies in behavioral terms. One of our doctoral students, Mr. William Lynam, is cur- rently completing his dissertation. Because of his analytical ability, we have invited him to seek a clearer definition of the academic dean's competencies in his dissertation. After a considerable review of literature, he has defined a number of important competencies. Now we feel a need to complete some reality testing in the field. Consequently, we are requesting an opportunity for Mr. Lynam to interview you as one of 10 selected deans in Michigan. The interview should not take more than one hour of your time. I think you will find it to be an interest- ing experience. We hOpe that Mr. Lynam will be able to arrange a mutually convenient time. He will be contacting you in the near future. Thank you very much for your consideration. Yours truly, Max R. Raines Professor Higher Education MRR:ag 154 155 KIRTLAHD COMMUNITY COLLEGE Roscommon, Michigan 48653 Telephone 517-275—5121 July 7, 1970 Mr. Max R. Raines, Professor Higher Education College of Education Erickson Hall Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan 48823 Dear Max: I will be most happy to assist Mr. William Lynam in his study. Tell him to let me know the time and I shall be very happy to work with him. Sincerely, Edward P. Harkins Vice President EPH:mg APPENDIX C THE ADMINISTRATIVE COMPETENCIES OF THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE ACADEMIC DEAN A. The Cover Letter and Instructions to the Initial List of Adminis- trative Competencies Sent to the Academic Deans B. The Initial List of Administrative Competencies. September 17, 1970 Monroe Community College 1200 E. Henrietta Rd. Rochester, New York Mr. Paul Heath Dean of Arts and Sciences Kellogg Community College Battle Creek, Michigan Dear Dean Heath: The study that we made this summer on the Adminis- trative Competencies needed by the community college Dean of Instruction has been completed. A copy of the compe- tencies as finally selected and as finally worded is en- closed for your perusal and information. Dr. Raines and I were very happy about the results of the study. We learned more about the nature of a vital community college administrative position. The study offers real potential for improving community college administrative leadership training experiences. You were very gracious in sharing your experience and valuable time with us in the project. Your efforts in this matter were greatly appreciated. Yours truly, William J. Lynam July 12, 1970 Mr. Russell Hanson Dean of Arts and Sciences Jackson Community College 512 Wildwood Avenue Jackson, Michigan 49201 Dear Dean Hanson: Thank you for agreeing to participate in this study of the administrative competencies needed by the community college academic dean. Enclosed is a list of the competencies which have been generated from the literature and research associ- ated with the position. If you could find the time to read through the statements of the competencies before the inter- view, it would be appreciated. During the interview, I want to record your responses to each competency on the bases of: (a) how important you think it is to the functioning of the academic dean, (b) how adequate you think the statement of each competency is, and (c) what other competencies you think might be included. Because of your experience and present involve- ment at your institution in this administrative role, your responses will be utilized to evaluate and improve upon the list of administrative competencies needed by the academic dean. The purpose of the interview is in no way associated with trying to evaluate your own personal efforts in functioning as academic dean. The results of the interview should be of assistance in designing future training experiences for prospective community college academic deans. I am looking forward to talking with you, and I hope that the time you have graciously agreed to spend with me will be of some value to you also. Yours truly, William J. Lynam 157 APPENDIX C THE ADMINISTRATIVE COMPETENCIES OF THE COMMUNITY COLLEGE ACADEMIC DEAN PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT COMPETENCY: Establish and evaluate the criteria and the processes by which faculty members are recruited, evaluated, promoted, disciplined, and released in order to insure due process, the quality of the faculty, and high faculty morale. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT COMPETENCY: Establish and evaluate funds, activities, processes, and programs for the professional development and growth of new and tenured faculty, and self. LEADERSHIP DEVELOPMENT COMPETENCY: Evaluate the status and activities of department chairmen as regards their effectiveness in resolving complex departmental problems which determine work-group cohesiveness and worker morale in order to assist them in developing be- haviors consistent with the effective leadership behaviors described in administration and organization theory associ- ated with organizational goal achievement. INTERPERSONAL RELATIONSHIPS COMPETENCY: Analyze interaction situations from bases of knowledge in psycho- dynamic theories of interpersonal behavior, structural theories of interpersonal behavior, and normative theories of interpersonal relations such that the immediate and successive interactions with a party will further mutual interpersonal satisfaction and the goals and purposes of the institution. 158 159 PRESIDENTIAL RELATIONSHIP COMPETENCY: Recognize and evaluate communications problems, role conflict prob- lems, philOSOphical difference problems, and personality difference and management style difference problems in associating with the president of the institution in order to work together in an atmOSphere of mutual understanding and trust such that the stability and effective function- ing of the institution is enhanced. PRESIDENTIAL CABINET COMPETENCY: Recognize and utilize several administrative competencies especial to ful- filling a leadership function on this decision-making level with peers in order to assure the welfare and quality development of the total institution. CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT COMPETENCY: Establish and evaluate processes and activities which are designed to enhance faculty, administrator, and student participation and involvement in the critical appraisal of institutional objectives and course objectives in light of the needs and desires of the students and of our society such that the curriculum will be dynamic and viable in maintenance as well as in improvement. BUDGET MANAGEMENT COMPETENCY: Analyze the budget needs and requests of the different segments of the aca- demis division and coordinate such needs and requests with the overall budget of the institution such that faculty salaries, costs of instruction, expenses for program experimentation, costs for professional development activi- ties, and costs for new courses may be adequately planned for and as equitably allotted as possible in order to maintain high faculty morale and quality instruction. INSTRUCTIONAL EVALUATION COMPETENCY: Evaluate the effectiveness of the established courses and curriculums in the academic division in: (a) accomplishing the goals and objectives of the institution, and (b) in accomplish- ing their respective particular goals and objectives based upon research concerning student achievement, student success after transfer, student attrition, and student academic placement. 160 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS COMPETENCY: Analyze the overall structural aspects of the communication network within the institution based upon the research and liter- ature on communications in organizations as social systems in order to: (a) better evaluate the sources and the kinds of information available for the decision-making, problem- solving processes of the institution, and (b) better utilize the communication network to convey vital infor— mation to the various, situationally involved groups and individuals throughout the institution. APPENDIX D SIMULATION DEVICES AS LEARNING EXPERIENCES RELATED TO THE ADMINISTRATIVE COMPETENCIES APPENDIX D SIMULATION DEVICES AS LEARNING EXPERIENCES RELATED TO THE ADMINISTRATIVE COMPETENCIES Interpersonal Relationships Competency Horsanyi, John C. A Bargaining Model for Social Status in Informal Grogps and Formal Organization. Behavioral Science, 1966. Pigors, Paul, and Faith Pigors. Case Method in Human Relations: The Incident Process. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1961. Scott, E. Simulation of Social Processes. Santa Monica, California: System Development Corp., 1959. Suppes, Patrick, and R. C. Atkinson. Markov Learning Models for Multi-Person Interactions. Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press, 1960. Waldorf, Frank, and James C. Coleman. Analysis and Simu- lation of Reference Group Processes. American Psychological Association, 1962. Communication Systems Competency Bonini, Charles P. Simulation of Information and Decision Systems in the Firm. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1963. Brotman, L., and J. Minker. Computer Simulation of a Complex Communications System. Operations Research, 1957. Marshall, Wayne S. A Simulation Model of Human Behavior in Communication Network Experiments. Disser- tation Abstracts, 1967. 161 162 Pool, Ithiel de Sola. Simulating Social Systems. Inter- national Science and Technology, March, 1964. Personnel Management Competency Chapman, Robert L. Data for Testing a Model of Organi- zational Behavior. Santa Monica, California: Rand Corp., 1960. Horvat, John J. Professional Negotiation in Education. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1968. Jaffee, Cabot L. Problems in Supervision: An In-Basket TrainingyExercise. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley, 1968. Instructional Evaluation Competency Boocock, Darene J., and E. O. Schild, (eds.). Simulation Games in Learning. Beverly Hills, California: Sage Publications, 1968. Ingham, G. E. Simulated Environments for Individualized Instruction. Audiovisual Instruction, 1964. Melching, W. H., et a1. Derivingijpecifying and Usipg Instructional Objectives. Human Resources Re- search Offices, George Washington University, 1966. Miller, E. E. A Classification of Learning Tasks in Con- ventional Language. Chicago: University of Illinois, 1963. Curriculum Development Competency Lattu, Nicholas A., and E. Stanley, (eds.). Simulation Models for Education. Bloomington, Indiana: Phi Delta Kappa, 1965. Twelker, Paul A. Designing Simulation Systems. Monmouth: Teaching Research, Oregon State System of Higher Education, 1969. 163 Leadership Development Competency Dooher, M. J., and V. Marquis. The Development of Executive Talent. New York: American Management Association, 1952. McKenny, James L. Simulation Gaming for Management Development. Boston: Division of Research, Harvard Business School, 1967. Williams, E. H. Business Games: Their Use for the Train- ing of Managers. Personnel Management, 1961. Wilson, Kellogg U. Effects of Relative Direction of Control Over Personal and Others' Gains in Mixed- Motive Games. Proceedings of the National Gaming Council, Stanford Research Institute, 1968. Professional Develgpment Competency Abt, Clark C. Twentieth-Century Teaching Techniques. The Faculty, 1966. Ammerman, H. L., and W. H. Melching. The Derivation, Analysis, and Classification of Instructional Objectives. Human Resources Research Office, George Washington University, May 1966. Fulton, W. R., and O. J. Rupiper. Observations of Teachings: Direct vs. Vicarious Experiences. Journal of Teacher Education, 1962. Budget Management Competency Hutchins, B. B., and W. H. Nichols. Cost Comparison: Live vs. Simulated Systems Missions. Santa Monica, California: System Development Corp., 1962. Abt Associates, Inc. The Use of Planning Simulations and Cost Effectiveness Modeling in Educational Manage- ment Seminars. Cambridge: ABT, 1968. Administrator Interrelationships Competency Ricciardi, Franc M., et a1. Top Management Decision Simu- lator: The AMA Approach. New York: American Management Association, 1957. 164 Shure, Gerald, Miles S. Rogers, and Robert J. Meeker. Group Decision-Making Under Conditions of Realistic Complexity. Human Factors, February 1963. Thorelli, Hans B. Game Simulation of Administrative Systems, in Marketing_and the Computer. Engle- wood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1963. Vance, Stanley C. Management Decision Simulation: A Noncomputer Business Game. New York: McGraw- Hill, 1960.