THE GEOGRAPHY 0F
ITATIAiA NATEDNAL PARK, BRAZH.

Thmaés fa: M19 Dogma» of Ph. D.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSETY
H. baniei Si'iléwaii
139661

This is to certify that the
thesis entitled

THE GEOGRAPHY OF

ITATIAIA NATIONAL PARK, BRAZIL

presented by

H. Daniel Stillwell

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

PhD Geography

degree in

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‘ / Major professor

August 8, 1961

 

Date

0-169

 

THE GEOGRAPHY OF

ITATIAIA NATIONAL PARK, BRAZIL

15y

H . Daniel Stillwell

AN.ABSTRACT

Suhnitted to the College of Science and Arte
Michigan State University of Agriculture and
Applied Science in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Geography

1961

Approved

 

 

ABSTRACT

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IrarIAIA NATIONAL PARK, BRAZIL

by H. Daniel Stillwell

.A national park is an area of outstanding natural
interest and beauty which is set aside to assure its sur-
vival. This concept is generally accepted throughout the
world, but the character of the area and the extent of
its development and use vary greatly among nations. Some
parks are established primarily for conservation and others
for recreation. As of 1960 100 million acres of land and
water lie within the confines of 58% parks. Much of this
area is in parts of the world still relatively inacces-
sible to or undisturbed by man, such as in Latin America.

Only five Latin American countries have national
parks. However, in these countries, seventy-four areas are
so designated. Brazil recognized the need for conservation
of natural resources as early as 1797 but only recently
established four national parks. Two of these have a moun-
tainous character, and the others display distinctive water
and forest resources.

Itatiaia was the first area of Brazil to become a
national park. It remains today a most outstanding region
both for its natural environment and for its use as a re-

creational resource. This 30,000 acre park lies in the

H. Daniel Stillwell

-2-
southeastern coastal fountains between Rio de Janeiro and
Sao Paulo. The geographic setting of Itatiaia can be region-
alized on the basis of altitudinal zones. An igneous massif
with a local relief of almost 8000 feet forms the core of
the park. Its uppermost peaks are sharp and barren. From
the base of this summit zone to about 7000 feet is an almost
level, grass and rock covered altiplano. Lower lepes sup-
port dense subtropical forests and a great diversity of
fauna. The biotic elements reflect varying climatic in-
fluences at different elevations.

Land use prior to the park's establishment was lim-
ited to horesteading and logging, mostly in the southern
part. These activities were related to the deveIOpment of
surrounding regions through various economic cycles, such
as coffee culture (1800-1870). Settlement on the higher
slopes of Itatiaia was attempted by the government for a
temperate fruit culture (1908-1918). 1his was unsuccessful.
The current rapid eXpansion of touring and resorting in
Brazil has emphasized the importance of Itatiaia as a re-
creation resource. The establishment of the park in 1937
saved Itatiaia from being engulfed in various exploitative
activities.

The particular management of a park resource depends
on the needs and interests of the peeple which the park
serves. At Itatiaia, three major activities are found:
research, conservation, and recreation. To facilitate these

uses of course there are numerous roads and trails, cabins

H. Daniel Stillwell
-3-

and shelters, a large headquarters, and other structures.
Research in geology, flora, and fauna of Itatiaia has been
strongly advanced. Conservation activity is limited to ero—
sion control. The overuse of sore areas and facilities, and
the meager use or neglect of other areas constitute major
problems. Less than one-fifth of the 51,000 visitors in l95o
ventured beyond the headquarters and immediate surroundings
in the southern part of ltatiaia. There is also a problem of
private land ownership within the park.

Plans for the use of Itatiaia must recognize the spec—
ific needs of the pOpulation of this trOpical area. Recommen-
dations for irrediate action include: the formation of a
ranger service, repairing roads and trails, and various re-
search projects. The rost important role of Itatiaia is to
educate man in the prOper use of his natural environment. As
the country develOps its resources and as living standards
rise, greater stress will be placed on national parks. With
some necessary inprovemcnts, Itatiaia should continue to be a
model for the establishment of other parks and he example

for a new land use philosophy in Brazil.

THE GEOGRAPHY OF

ITATIAIA NATIONAL PARK, BRAZIL

BY

H. Daniel Stillwell

A THESIS

Submitted to the College of Science -end Arte
Michigan State University of Agriculture and
.Applied Science in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Deper’anent of Geography

1961

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PREFACE

Itatiaia National Park lies in the southeastern high-
lands of Brazil near Rio de Janeiro. It exemplifies the basic
concept of a national park as an area of outstanding natural
interest and beauty which is set aside to assure its survival,
an island in the sea of civilization. The mountainous character
of Itatiaia results in remarkable contrasts to surrounding
regions. Lower s10pes support a dense subtrOpical rain forest
while an altiplano at higher elevations shows alpine condi-
tions. Bare, sculptured peaks stand out over 9000 feet above
sea level. The cultural develOpment of Itatiaia has been
limited to features necessary for park function. However,
neighboring areas have exerted some influence on Itatiaia,
especially prior to the establishment of a park.

The following study presents the geography of Itatiaia
National Park. Two approaches are used: a systematic study
of the physical, biotic, and cultural elements of the area,
and an evaluation of the park's role as a natural resource.
The systematic study offers a basis for the evaluation of park
management. The fact that Itatiaia was the first national
park established in Brazil for conservation, research, and re-
creation sheds an important light on the understanding of this
rapidly developing tropical country. Itatiaia can well serve
as a spearhead for other tropical parks.

ii

This park was chosen for intensive study during a six-
month period in Brazil, April to September, 1959. Materials
and information were collected during prolonged field work at
Itatiaia and other Brazilian parks and also from libraries
and universities in Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo. The author
wishes to express thanks to Professor L. M. Sommers, head of
the Department of Geography, Michigan State University, for
aid in securing the fellowship to Brazil and to the Instituto
Pan—Americano de Geografia e Histdria for supporting the re-
search. Particular appreciation is given to Professors D. H.
Brunnschweiler and E. C. Prophet, also of the Department of
Geography, Michigan State University, for helpful suggestions
in developing the research and writing the text. In addition,
the following acknowledgments should be made: Dr. wanderbilt
Duarte de Barros, former director of Itatiaia National Park
and now director of Agricultural Research, Rio de Janeiro, for
arranging study at various parks; Dr. Raimundo Girrard, director,
and E110 Gouvea, naturalist, Itatiaia National Park, for out-
,standing cooperation in gathering the data; E. C. de Oliveira
and M. P. de Camargo, directors of Serra dos Orgaos and Iguassu
National Parks, respectively; Dr. Speridiao Faissol, Secretary
General of Conselho National de Geografia; and innumerable
other Brazilians who made the study and experience in Brazil

a memorable one.

111

 

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CONTENTS

Page
PREFACE O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 11
LIST OF TABLES. . . . . . . . . . . . vi
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM . . . . . . 1
Chapter
1. THE POSITION 0F ITATIAIA AMONG NATIONAL PARKS
OF THE WORLD 0. O O O O O O O O O O O O I O 1+
The Concept of National Parks
National Parks of the World
The DevelOpment of the Brazilian Park
System
Summary
PART I. THE GEOGRAPHIC SETTING
0F ITATIAIA NATIONAL PARK
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Chapter
II. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND BIOGEOGRAPHY OF
ITATIAIA 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 26
The Nature, Distribution, and Origin of
Elements in the Physical Environment
The Nature, Distribution, and Origin of
Elements in the Biotic Environment
Summary of Physical Geography and
Biogeography
Chapter
III. CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY OF ITATIAIA . . . . . . . 88

Sequent Occupance
Current Evidence of Man's Occupancy
Summary of Cultural Geography

iv

Page

PART II. THE ROLE OF ITATIAIA
AS A NATIONAL PARK

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Chapter
IV. THE FUNCTIONS AND PROBLEMS OF ITATIAIA. . . . . 110
Park Organization
Park Activities
Park Problems and Possible Solutions
Chapter
V. THE FUTURE OF ITATIAIA. . . . . . . . . . . . . 126

Recommended Improvements
The Importance of Itatiaia as a Geographic
Complex

APPENDIX: A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF OTHER BRAZILIAN
PARKS to. e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 133

BIBLIOGRAPHY 0 O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 114.4

Table

LIST OF TABLES

National Parks of the World . . . . . . .

National Parks with Mountain Peaks above
Treeline O O I O I O O O O I O O O O O O O O O

watersheds of the Major Streams . . . . . . .
Temperature Change with Increased Elevation . .
Data for Cloudiness, Fog, Haze, and Lightning .

A Comparison of Vegetative Zones in Selected
Mountain Areas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Transect Chart Summary of Physical Geography
and Biogeography at Various Altitudinal Zones

vi

Page

11

37
52
56

74

86

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Graphs
Figure Page
1. National Parks in Mountain Systems with Peaks
above Treeline. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l2
2. Location of Brazilian National Parks. . . . . . 19
3. Eastern Brazil: Population . . . . . . . . . . 27
4. Rio-Sao Paulo Area: Landforms. . . . . . . . . 27
5. Rio-850 Paulo Area: Land Use and

Transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

6. Itatiaia National Park and Environs: Rock

Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

7. Itatiaia National Park and Environs: Soils . . 31
Itatiaia National Park: Vegetation . . . . . . 33

9. Itatiaia National Park: Relief and Drainage. . 33
10. 'Itatiaia National Park: Perspective View . . . 35
ll. Altiplano: Landforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
12. Altiplano: Cross-sections. . . . . . . . . . . 38
13. Altiplano: Suggested Origin of Massive . . . . 38
14. Brazil: Air Pressure and Masses. . . . . . . . 50
15. Rio-Sao Paulo Area: Climatic Types (Kappen). . 5O
16. South America: Friagem Stages. . . . . . . . . 5O
17. Itatiaia National Park: Climographs. . . . . . 53

18. Itatiaia National Park: Monthly Frequency of
Rain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

19. Itatiaia National Park: Monthly Relative
Hmnidity. O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I 53

2o. Itatiaia National Park: Cultural Features . . 98

vii

Figure Page

21. Itatiaia National Park: Areal Organization of

Headquarters and Environs . . . . . . . . . .. 98
22. Itatiaia National Park: Visitation by Years,

1937-1958: Origin (1958 only). . . . . . . . 116
23. Itatiaia National Park: Yearly Distribution of

Visitors 1958 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 116
24. Itatiaia National Park: Areas Most Frequented,

1958 o e e e e o e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e e 116
25. Itatiaia National Park: land Use by Private

owners 0 O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O 120
26. Itatiaia National Park: Land Use by Visitors .. 120

Photographs

Plate

1. Itatiaia: Valley Fog from near Treeline on

the Serra da Mantiqueira . . . . . . . . . .. 29
II. Itatiaia: A Slopes of Agulhas Negras
B Altiplano from Agulhas Negras .. 40
III. Itatiaia: A. Summit of Agulhas Negras
B. View across Altiplano. . . . . . A3
IV. Itatiaia: A. Low-mountain, Second-growth
Forest Zone

B. Piedmont Cutover Zone . . . . .. 62

V. Itatiaia: Tree Fern . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64

VI. Itatiaia: Mid-mountain, Subtropical Forest
Zone 0 O 0 O O I O O O O O O O O O O O 0 0 0 O 67

VII. Itatiaia: A. Interior of High-mountain,
Transitional Forest Zone
B. Interior of Mid-mountain Sub-
tropical Forest Zone. . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

VIII. Itatiaia: A. Park Headquarters
B. Sample Display from Museum . . . 101

IX. Itatiaia: A. Scout Camp
B

Private Land Holding within
Park 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O l O 0 O O O O 0 10h

viii

Plate Page
II. Iguassu: Upper Falls . . . . . . . . . . ... .135

XI. Iguassu: A. Park'Headquarters
B. Hotel das Cataractas. . . . . . 138

XII. Serra dos Orgaos: A. IMountain Climbers

B. View toward Rio de
Janeiro 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C O lhl

ix

 

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INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Itatiaia National Park offers the student of geography
two main avenues of investigation: a study of a mountain en-
vironment and a study of park management and recreational
development in the tropics. Here is an area of Brazil in
which the original landscape has been little changed by man's
occupance in comparison to the surrounding regions. The inter-
play of natural forces can be observed in the magnificent va-
riety of physical and biotic features which only a tropical
mountain system can offer. It is from the viewpoint of moun-
tain geography that the investigator will deal, in the first
place, with Itatiaia.l Even though the park is relatively
small (29,652 acres), it exhibits to the casual observer a
remarkable variety of habitats. To the trained observer, this
variety becomes meaningful through careful study of physical
and biotic elements. It is the relation between altitude on
one hand, climate and vegetation on the other, which chal-
lenges the student of physical geography and biogeography.

From a physiographic point of view, Itatiaia also offers many

 

lPeattie was among the first to use the term "mountain
geography" and indirectly defines the field by the subject
matter of his text: mountain climate, vegetation zones, land
utilization and economics, mountain populations and their
distribution, political matters, and the character of mountain
life. See R. Peattie, Mountain Geography: ‘g Critique and
Field Study (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1936).

-1-

 

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-2-
intriguing problems. It can truly be said of this part of
Brazil that its beauty is the most valuable characteristic,

and an understanding of this beauty is most rewarding. The

very name Itatiaia, meaning "God of the high peak," reflects

the appreciation that the natives had for the beauty of this
area.

PeOple of Brazil have long recognized the exceptional
character of the Itatiaia area. The conservation of this
natural resource was assured when Itatiaia was established as
Brazil's first national park in 1937. A geographer working
with Itatiaia can not avoid seeing the implications of the
fact that the Brazilians now control and use this part of their
country in a very special way. Historically speaking, this
has not always been so. Small parts of the present park are
actually used for other than conservation, research, and re-
creational purposes, the major park functions today. The
regions adjacent to the park show evidence of intensive use
and misuse through various periods of occupance. The establish-
ment of the park saved Itatiaia from being engulfed in ex-
ploitative activities of any kind, but this alone did not
guarantee a successful management of the park land. Brazil
has had little experience in any form of nature preservation
or "guided recreation."

The problems connected with the management of a national
park in Brazil quite naturally began to emerge as a second
major area of investigation. The inclusion of these technical
aspects of conservation, research, and recreation at Itatiaia

National Park in this study dictated the division of subject

-3-
matter into two closely connected parts. It was felt that
the total geography of Itatiaia consists as much of the
nature of the park landscape as of the park's land use and
management problems. The functions of conservation and re-
search are closely related to the physical and biotic land-
scape, whereas recreation is an activity related to the
cultural landscape or human geography.

In order to establish a frame of reference for a
study of national parks and particularly this one in Brazil,
an introductory survey of parks throughout the world and a
comparison of Brazilian parks is made (Chapter I and Appendix).
Then there follows a discussion of the physical and biogeo-
graphic characteristics of the park area. Chapter III deals
with the impact of the settling and cultural development in
the surrounding regions upon Itatiaia. Therefore, in Part I
the emphasis is on describing tangible geographic elements
of the park, showing their interrelations, and presenting
various problems yet to be solved. In addition, Part I pro-
vides a background of the park landscape as the basis for a
discussion in Part II of the problem of park management and
recreational deve10pment. In Part II the emphasis is on
analyzing the role of Itatiaia National Park as it exists

today, and suggesting how it may be improved in the future.

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TABLE 1. National parks or the worldl

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Location Number Park Area, Population Persons/ Year2
1000 acres 1000 (19585 Park Acre
Anglo-America 47 31,695.8
United States 29 13,136.2 177,702 13.5 1872
Canada 18 18,559.6 17,442 0.9 1885
Latin America 74 lO,857.3
Argentina ' 8 6,261.0 20,614 3.2 1903
Brazil a 597.0 64,216 107.3 1937
Chile 10 750.0 7.465 10.0
Mexico 50 2,569.3 33,304 13.0 1898
Venezuela 2 68 . 6, 12 9.6 1937
Europe 107 9,706.3
Belgium 5 0.5 9,053 18,000.0
Finland 4 244.0 4,414 18.0 1938
Italy 4 458.0 49,055 107.0 1922
Poland 10 200.0 28,783 lhh.0 1939
Sweden 15 977-1 7,459 7.6 1909
Switzerland 1 39.0 5,235 134.0 1914
U.S.S.R. 40 4,000.0 208,827 52.0 1919
United Kingdom 10 3,358.7 51,680 15.3 1949
Yugoslavia 18 429.0 18,421 42.9 1928
Africa 56 36,494.5
Algeria 14 70.0 10,265 146.0 1923
Rep. of the Congo 4 7,432.0 13,291 1.8 1925
French Equ.Africa3 5 1,521.9 5,023 1.1 1910
French Somaliland 2 .0 67 2.7
French West Africa 2 2,500.0 20,484 8.2
Kenya I 6 5,484.3 6,450 1.2 1946
Morocco 2 85.0 10,330 121.5
Rhodesia-Nyasaland lO 3,900.0 7,610 1.9 1949
Tanganyika l 3,684.0 8,919 2.4 1951
Tunisia 1 12.0 3,920 325.0
Uganda 2 1,280.0 5,868 4.6 1952
Union South Africa 7 7,500.3 14,673 1.9 1926
Asia 60 6 161.8
IndiéT" 1 128.0 402,750 3,150.0
Japan 19 4,360.0 92,740 21.1 1934
Malaya l 1,075.0 6,277 5.8 1939
Philippines 39 598.8 24,718 41.3 1933
Australia 232 1,700.0 10,061 0.6 1882
New Zealand 8 3,893.0 2,331 0.6 1894
Totals 584 100,600.0

 

 

 

 

1From C. F. Brockman Recreational Egg 9; Wild Lands
(New York: McGraw Hill, 1959; and Information Please Almanac
(New York: McGraw Hill, 1961). Not listed owing to insufficiency
of data are parks in the following countries: Honduras, Peru,
Greece, Spain, Iceland, Ethiopia, Sudan, Lebanon, New Caledonia.
2Date of first established park, when known.
3This area is now divided into four republics.

hThis area is now divided into nine republics.

 

 

use of land has gone beyond the stage of possible recovery.
Aanv countries which are underdevelOfed or undevelotea feel
no concern for setting aside viW in or unised areas. On the
contrerv, they consider frontier wilderness as an obstacle to
procress. Ps a country overs its wilderr ess and moves toward

economic maturi

some of the

sense of stewardship for natural resources may initi

former virgin land heralds

ty, an aw reness of the need for freserVinn

-1

a

cultural maturity,

ate the

es teblishment of national parks. Often, the only remaining
suitable areas are in remote mounta ains, since dis sta nce, rucyed—
ness, and climate a e effective guardians of wilderness.
Itatiaia Natioral Park is a good example of this situation.

The need for stablishing national berks was reconnized
early by the United States, Mexico, Canada, Australia, and New

Zealand (Table
Landed,
areas in Africa
remains to be s

fied in Brazil

particu

1). However, aorld park acreage was soon ex—

1arly in coloni Africa. Whether or not these

will be maintained, following indener

een. Certainly na ional initiative, as exempli-
and other South American countries, is responsible

for stable park systems.

Multilateral interest in a conservation

evident at the
Nature held in
Convention for
gathered repres

Agr

movement was

International Congress for the Protection of

Paris in l9~ Two years later, the London

the Protection of African Fauna and Flora

entatives from all countries having territories

eement was reached as to the designation and

 

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. 27%.

.' K‘wfl'

 

L.

 

 

colicy for “national parks and "strict national reserves." In

n Fature Protection in the Western Hemi—

19M2, the Convention 0
Sphere established a "basic pattern for a scheme of parks,
monuments, and reserves throughout the Americas on a basis
which experience has proved to be sound.”8 It also enacted
-otective laws for migratory birds and vanishing Species.
Conservation education has been stressed by the Pan American
Union and the Inter-American Con fe erence on Conservation of

Renewable Fatural Resources.

World-wide interest in parks became apparent with the

‘

I

organization of the Tnternational Union for the Protection of
Yature (I.U.P.N.) in October, 1948. It is under the joint
Sponsorship of France, the Swiss League for the Protection of
fature, and UFESCO.9 Assemblies are held every two veers.

The basic policy includes: 1) preservation of outstanding
natural environment having scientific, historic or aesthetic
significance by national rarLs, nature re serves, monuments, and
wildlife refuges, 2) spread of conservation Lnowledge, and 3)

scientific research on the protection of nature. Most countries

have adopted the general policies of the I.U.P.N., although

 

 

 

 

 

 

o
park administration may differ.
8Pan American Union, Kature Protection and Wildlife Pre-
aeration in the Western Hemisghere, 1942 (Washington: U. S.
Government Printing Office, 19H3), r. 7.

0

“Ir nternational Union for the Protection of Tature, TLe
Position of Nature Protection throu<hout the World in 19 "Q

—~

Brussels U“ESCO,19"1), ;. 4.

 

10“etional Parks of the United States are under the Deoart—
a

ment of Interior, Brazili-n parks are under the Minister of
.3riculture, and Jananese parks are under the Kinistry of health

and Welfare.

1 _ - _ v,
Tce ejecific use of a rational rarL no; var; "reatly

coordirc t

O
(D
x.)

Cfia
~ '~&

(.3

mic conditions, nonulation density, and

L‘

cultural backdround of the neon e. As ‘cQVquslv mentior ed,

some parks serve nrimarily as recreation centers. Winter

Sports are most im ortant at flount Cook, New Zealaid, and at

Penalolen, Chile; two narlrs in Southern Rhodesia are equirped
] 11 h 0

with artificial lanes for recreation. T-e pnotection of

snecific wildlife is emphasized in other harks; for example,

the black—necked swan of Lagura Pl

I‘D

nca, Argentina. The former
occupance of cark land often forces a modification in earl
policr. .ereraeti National Park, Tangany he, lies within the

tradi tio -081 grazing lands of the Kasai. These natives are

therefore allowed to continie gran in; their liv sto .. Japan

has u.ch limit space for its large populati on that much park
. . 12 - - o _0

land is still privately ”ed. However, Specific areas are

designated for protection
The position of Brazil and specifically Itatiaia with

i be more fully under—

(7.)

D

respect to national parks of the world c
stood by studying Tables 1 and 2 and Firure . Since Itatiaia

lies wholly within a mountain environment, a situation often

characteristic of surviving wilderness, a tabulation and com-
oarison of narks with mountain Leaks above tre eeline seems

justified. Although information on the quality, accessibility,

Cr

extent of develonment, and volume of visits ion at the parés is

ations may be made frtm the data in

rant
J.."v

:3
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ive

C.

 

 

l2Rational Parks Absociaticn, V8 TCDRl PTTLS Eiiiilii
(Torvo- I-Linistrv of Rcclth and Welfare, 195C : C- 10-

-11-

 

TABLE 2. National parks with mountain peaks above treeline"

Location and Name of Park

Location and Name of Park

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Anglo-America. Sweden: Sonfallet
Ugitgd . g13°é°$ t Switzerland: Swiss
5 °“ ran ° °n U.S.S.R.: szl-Agach
Hawaii La d khi
Klngs Canyon 3° °
Lassen ‘Yugoslavia: Durmitor
Mount McKinley
Mount Rainier ALioa
Rocky MOuntain Republic Of
Sequoia the Congo: Albert
Yellowstone [Kenya: Aberdare
Yosemite Mount Kenya
Canada: Banff Rhodesia- Chimanimani
glacigr Nyasaland: Rhodes Inyanga
a e
Koggenay Tanganyika: Serengeti
Mount Revelatoke Uganda: Queen Elizabeth
waterton Lakes Union of
‘Yoho Soutthfrica: RoyalNatal
Latin America Ajjg
Argentina: #11131 1 India: Hailey
os ac ares ,
Nahuel‘Huapf Japan. gfifigfiigizagiu
Perito Morena Daisetsuzgn
Serra dos Orgaos JSshinyetsu-Kfigen
Chile: Pefialolen Nikko A
Volcan Villarica ShikotsuLToya
Volcan Puyehue TowadaaHachimantai
Mexico: Iztaccihuatl— Malaya: Nature
Popocatepetl :
Nevado de Toluca Philippines Mount Apo
Pico de Orizaba Tasmania: Cradle Mbuntain
Pico de Tancitaro Hartz Mountain
Volcan d3 Colima New Zealand: Arthur Pass
Venezuela: Serra Egmont
Europe mount Cook
Greece: Mount Olympus
Mount Parnassus
Italy: Dello Stelvio
Gran Paradiso
4:
Compiled from.Brockman, 92, g;t., and the 2iggg_é§lgg

Q;_thg‘WOrld (London, 1956).

 

   
  
  
 
     
  

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2,0,. NATIONAL PARKS

IN MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS WITH TASMANIA
PEAKS ABOVE TREELINE

   

ZEALAND

 

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FIG. /

 

 

 

,1:

l. Fetiorel yerks comprise about 0.28, of the world leis

ores, or l?O,6Cu,CCO acres.
2. Aust:slie and New Zeslsue heie #1? of the totel
number of world jerks but only ‘6 of the totel eerk ares.

Africa hes lCfi of the world's perks end 3o=

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Cenede, Australia, and New Zeslerd.

E. Sixtv-six netioosl fierks lie ir hi;h moueteir refiwrs

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tie National Service Cl fits or“o :.o artistic :3.- mo ' ( sP~L).

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In 1337 the ESHAP too: a bold step forward 1: nature pro—

0 ,. - ~, 4- .. .. 0., ,- ~.—" on ,. ,- 1. .4...- ,._‘_
This new para served as a groVin; LPOUud ior conservation

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national paras. What is more imgortant, it stooo as dramatic

etid en ce that Brazil was attem:

With civilizeo rations that consloer the t blishmc1 sac
conservatlo; of national grrks in its territory the cliuvv rf

rolitics for protecting natural resources.
In 1344, the ESHAP became the Section of ctioetl Pa.rns

(SIP) of the Forest Service under the minister of Agriculture.

and elaboratina pars work " with the objectives to:
l. Conserve for science, recreation, education and
aesthetics the areas under its jurisdiction.

2. Fr oznote studies of Ilora., fauna, and

Potential park areas are stu‘ied by a commission comprised of
the following: agronomist, cweol eist, geographer, en;ineer,
architect, naturalist, zoolo :ist, botar is t, silviculturist,

lorist. If an area has exceotional qualities of natural

D.

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histo r and for recreation, particularlv where man's irter-

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ference is a threat, it may be establishe o as a national park
by government decree.

onal oar: policy in Erazil has been adagted almost

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entirely from that of the United States and includes the

21Ibio., p. 81.

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following:

1. Parr? are chosen for their national uniqueness and
significance in respect to ecology, bio lo, , archeolo y,, his-
tory, or scenerV, irresoective of their :earness to population
centers.

2. P r:s must be maintains? unimoaired for oresen and
future generations. Every actiVity must be subordinated to toe
eraservet101 of the area. Structures must be in harmony tith
the environment.

3. Strict control bv federal overnmert is de signed to
:uarantee the national interest.

4. Scientific research, educrtion, and recreational
uses a. re encoura;ed by museums, a variety of accommodations,
and other structure".

5. Parks are established only by a s ecific Act of
Congress.

m

rasil is acadually beginning to recognise that uncon-
trolled exploitatior of forest and soil, esotciallv in trotical

areas, bring s erosion, floods,a: extinction of fauna; that,

H: Q:
” (‘

in the words of Earros,
is imperative for the existence of the nation. v Therefore,

national parks have been created in four areas: Itatiaia,

Iguassu, Serra dos Orgaos, an d Paulo Afonso (Figure 2). A
brief geOgraghic snatch is given Ior the latter three ferns
in th Appendix to facilitate combaris n with Itatiaia.

<‘

Numerous other areas ha" as new national parks.

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They are well distributed throughout Brazil (Figure 2). Gus
is soon to be established northeast of Rio de Janeiro in the
mountainous region of ”hartiqueira where the 1ighest Brazilian

cate‘ Other potential

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peak, Pico da Ba deir,

parks include the beautiful cave formations of Maquine in

 

 

“"- -.-. ”‘1 9 I
the SCHCStOCQ sculptures of Vila veiha n Parana

northwest.

have been

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dAInstituto Pan-Americano d
tudos sobre gs Recurso ‘- a
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is P
Br zil (Rio de Janeiro: SerVico Grafico, 1955

-19-

 

LOCATION OF BRAZILIAN PARKS

 

 

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XX

 

 

 

 

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PAULO AFOMEO) ”up;

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o Proposed P"
National D ’5!
Parks
4620 WI . -
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f .1 \ \ \
4. . g, . A ‘ ‘
«.43 Q, O Na frona/ Par/ts .
0 Major cities 25 ‘
I! :1 Brasilia (new capital)
.,- a [.50 :oo {50
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‘ 50' 45' 40' 35' 30~

 

 

 

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Summary
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The precedin" Sirvev oi national garas oi the wcrlo has

scussion of their oririn, nature, and dis—

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offered a br d

tribution. The developme .t of the Erazil‘an park s

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also been descrio as additional background for a detailed

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tiaia Kational Pa r2;. The concept of

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national parks emanates from two basic needs: to preserve
outs ndinc examples of the natural landscape, and to provide
types of public recreation oossiole only ir these natural

landscapes. The position which nationa part

the need is for conservation and recreation, the awareness of
these basic needs, and the willin ness and ability to fulfill
these needs. There are almost 03 national paras in the world
today constituting over 100 million acres. Individual parks
differ widely as to relative value and use. A park far removed
from pepulated areas may have low visitation, except in
standards. However, a certain
ree of remoteness is required for the wilderness chara wt r
which the bark is inte:’ed to preserve. At le:st 66 major
national parks of the world have some of their areas in high
mountains. Thus, a great diversity of climates, landforms,
soils, flora, and fauna exists in concentrated areas owing to

the influence of altitude. This enhances a park's value both

On v five Latin American countries ha ve 'ntlu”«1 parks,
but about half of these paras are situated in mountainous

regions. Era zil is a lar:.e , tropical country with great

K4

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ontrasts in develonment. Consequent y, there er

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:iiferences in t.-

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need for conservation and recreation: a

()2

ressin' need along the populous east coast, and almost no

L)

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need in the vast interior. Two existing parks and a third one
to be established lie in the coastal ranges of the Eastern
Highlands. The most outstanding park is Itatiaia, both for
its natural environmen and for its present and potential use
as a recreational resource.

It is in consideration of these facts that Itatiaia
seemed to present a well-defined set of conditions worthy of
detailed aeographic description and analysis. The subseQ‘ent
two parts of this thesis, therefore, will discuss the geo-

t

of Itatiaia and its function as a natural

[—1

resource of Erazi

THE GEOQRAPHIC SETTIEG CF
KATTCIAL PARK

ITATIAIA

introduction

Itatiaia Nati 1 Park offers an excellent field labo-

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ratory for the specific study of tr apical mountain
It was shown n.0hgfierlthat nations

1
those of mountain re ions are rap io d1

conservation -recreation use. There.is a dearth of work

treating the geographic comnlex of either mounta in areas or
national parks.20 The following two chapters will present an

intensive study of the physical, biotic, and cultural setting
t

ional Park.

From as early as 1867, asoects of the

8 ho ars. Sketchy and inadequa e ‘egional descri, ions of
the park have been made for tourists and other selected grougs.

The first descr rip otiv erial about the area that was to

m
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become the park was a map to Serve as eGuide to Ita ti aia

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prepared by the Brazilian geocrapher Earao Homen de m

 

23This field was briefly defined in Footnote Ho. 1.

COHowever, the Uni erSities of Grenoble and Innsbruck
both have institutes of alpine geograihj.

 

 

 

 

7J. F. da Silva massena, Quadros ga flatureaa Trogical
ou Ascensio Scientifica a9 Itatiaia, For to Culminate lo Erasil
(Rio de Janeiro: publis-er unknown, leev).

n. o

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( ,1.)

e ursion to the in

81°83.

by 1‘r ira.dj The twelfth General Assembly
Hacional de Geografia (1)12), soons ored
to Itatiaia. A guiie book was preoared

wa

U)

\al"erde, which emphasized the area surrounding
gene;a1 booklet “3 Ear rros on Erazilian national

It reviewed the oriui

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as well as 3i

axccommodations. In

I.a1tiona1 Park sinc

Iwei cort to CL eate public interest in

tfiie wealth of 1atura1 history,

dartions of the sari with mo
Ttnis work has been circ
cma].tural Information.

A

11,

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lulu

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

COlagress of Geography in 1,;o described the Paraioa Valley,
0 _ _ ‘ Til;
velifia da hantiqueir , and 1virons of See Paul v“
\
nIT.‘._ ~ - - - " 1 -- .- : 1 .- ,-
c N. D. de Barros, Torque LCCthBl do itatiai (11o oe
Q h ‘r—\ . ~ ,- . ‘_*'.7 f.‘ .7 - ' 1 t. .- ~Q - '1 I: :.‘ ; ' ’ 4-.
dvdaieiro. hinisterio oa AgriCulture, 17,7), 9. o5
”3 - a ”I I -. ~n luv 7 ‘fi -. ' 1'“ t" o“q '
I ‘20. moreira, Relatorio das LACUPSUEbrE etue as na ,
I" ‘ . - ‘ ' — us J . 1 ‘ I ' ~ -. -/\ .1 ‘
1319:33 no Itatiaia na Serra ca “antiqueira, _Arcnives m_seu
isiigggggl, Rio de Janeiro, X11 (133:): 133-1U0-
2:11 -' ‘ *1 “ a! __ — 3 fl ,0 . ..9 .- w P t” 3 - ‘
Q JUO. valveroe, nicursao a itatieia. (Rio oe eneiro:
0‘ ‘ 1, _f1_n . 1A -— ‘ __- 1“ _ Y;_ r _l"'_1_‘ fl‘ ‘1'“, ’_ J:   7‘, J’", I o
chfifico Graiico 0o instituto eraslieiro oe Geo;ra1 a estatlstic
’32): 1313' 9"...)-
31Earros, Parques lacionais do E;asil, go. cit.
lEEarros Pa ue 'acirral d Ttotiala 0“ n1
V a. , i vi; 1 . -_ - \ ...- _,_._,1, U o \;____ o
511 r \‘l ..aw nw‘ “ E-rte“’es Vale ’o E“ aiba
o “A 0 4L“ 1'10 bk: VJ. (4.11.40 11 o -L .L‘eJ Lv ’ (.4. V —-_ g -.. .. ’
figiEgé da hantiqucira §.Arr;‘ores de Sac ratio (Rio oe dEHClP’
o1dse1‘o nacional Ce Geografia, lyLo), ,3. 7-;o5.

 

 

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C7111 T43 II

PHVSICAL ””LJQIEHV AND E"bunbr7anY CF ITATIAZA

 

 

 

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The atuie,1str1oution, and tr1g_n O1
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eastern coast and throughout much of the interior of Brazil.

1

Paralleling the 000 st are two major escaroments which as ine

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the Serra da Lantiq ueira and Serra. do Mar (ri :ure L). The

ranges (Plates

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-28-

 

 

Plate I.

Itatiaia: Valley Fog near Treeline on the
Serra da Mantiqueira. At 9:00 o'clock in
the morning, high radiation fog fills the
Paraiba Valley to the south. The View is
from the 7000-foot level. Note the Serra
do Mar range in the background. Strato-
cumulus clouds are starting to form from
an orographic influence of the Serra da
Mantiqueira. A lone tree, Cabrella,

" or stunted, effect

shows a “Krummholz,
from severe exposure at high altitudes

to the prevailing winds.

 

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pa

ITATIAIA NATIONAL PARK AND ENVIRONSz

   
  

 

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FIGS. 6 and 7

 

 
 

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Paraiba Valley, the structually related Serra do mar,T“ an?

raite varies with altitude; there is a de-

(

crease in alkali and an increase in silica wi h increased ele-

I
vatioi and the resulting more vigorous weathering. *

l...’

northern tip of the Dark 8L1 most areas aljacent to the fovaite

large portions of the Brazilian Shield. Fog: aite 001t.ins
nephelite, a source of aluminum, but it cannot be economically

worked here at the present stage of technology. The surround-

[—1.

ng areas are rich in other minerals such as magnetite, apa-
. 0 i 2 0 I

tite, zirconium, and chosen te. mineral water s,rin;s as—

soc iated with all:aline magma also abound.

Tectonically spea Mil -g, there has been some local fault-
ing in the park. The most obvious fault forms Raromba Falls
at the Lo 00 —foot level (Figure 9). Others are found on the
l ure ll).
The origin of the Itatiaia massif has been studied
intensively by A. R. lamego. He supports the Backlund theory of

magmatic intrusion)"3 According to this theory, alkaline intru-

sions characteristically pierce throng h very stable continental

 

 

 

 

4UT’e author noted outcrops 20 feet square near the road
from Rio de Janeiro to TereSOpolis.

b. o ’" "‘. "'3

'1Lamego, oo. eit., pp. 33—3

2. q ~

21bid.. p. ;C.

‘ IT. r w 0 -

#Jq. G. %c :lund, ”On the none of IntruSion of Dee;—
seated AlkaliIe Bodies,1 Bulletin of the Gweclos ic al If stitute
g; the University of Uiscla XXIV (T955), 15—22

 

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-34-
areas, such as the Brazilian Shield, and therefore differ
from granitic or basaltic intrusions which form during great
crustal movements. At Itatiaia, heat of the magma was able
to liquify all except a small mantle of gneiss, although in
places there may have been blowouts forming microcrystalline
rocks. No vestiges of volcanic necks remain. As a steep-
sided stockqudome formed, its contact surface cooled unevenly,
resulting in layers of varying resistance. Subsequent erosion

produced "ring dikes, which are described later (pp. 38-42).

Surface Configuration
The Itatiaia massif presents a salient profile as it
rises abruptly from the middle Paraiba Valley (Figure 10).45
Foothills form great steps or terraces covered with large rocks

46

(Plate IV E). Three major zones occur within the park bounds:
the lower slopes, the altiplano, and the zone of summits.
Each will be discussed as to general tOpography, specific

features, and morphogenesis.

Lower lepes

 

This zone lies between the lowest levels of the park
(2100 feet) and about the 7000-foot level (Figure 9). It com-

prises almost two-thirds of the park area and is located mostly

_

44A "stock" is an igneous intrusion like a batholith
with an area of less than 40 square miles. See M. P. Billings,
Structural Geology (New York: PrenticeéHall, Inc., 1954), p.319.

45This valley is considered a vast asymmetrical syncline
by Lamego (92, gi§., pp. 45-47), but Valverde (QR. cit. pp. 18-
24) and others support a fault theory.

45These terraces may reflect differential erosion at the
base of the massif.

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ITATIAIA NATIONAL PARK

    

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-30-
in the northern and southern parts. The lower lepes can be
divided into three subzones according to gradientzu7 low-
mountain subzone (2100 to 4000 feet) with lepes up to 20
percent, mid-mountain subzone (4000 to 5500 feet) with slopes

up to 40 percent, and high—mountain subzone (5500 to 7000 feet)
with lepes up to 30 percent. The northern section of the

park has only mid—mountain and high-mountain subzones; the
slopes here are from 20 to 30 percent and gradually merge with
the Minas Gerais Plateau (Figure 4).

The general surface configuration is controlled by
fluvial erosion of the uplifted massif. Since forests cover
most of the lower lepes (Figure 8 and Plates IV A and VI),
the landform is subdued. Interfluves appear rounded or even
quite flat. However, deep valleys have been formed by the
vigorous and perennial mountain streams, particularly the Rio
Campo Belo. (See the notch in Plate IV A). The fault at
Maromba Falls (4000-foot level) imposes a sharp break in the
stream gradient (Figure 9). Rapids and cascades are particular—
ly numerous on the Rio Campo Belo from the 3500-to 4500-foot
levels. Streams of the lower lepes diSplay a dendritic pattern

and are divided into five major watersheds (Figure 9 and Table

3).

Altiplano

 

Between 7000 and 8000 feet there is an abrupt leveling

off of lepe and decrease of forest cover which characterizes

‘47These subzones also correSpond roughly to the vegeta-
tive zones as described under biogeography.

TABLE 3. Watersheds of the major streams

 

 

Name of Watershed Percentage of
Total Park Area

 

Rios Maromba-Santa Clara 38.5
Rio Campo Belo 36.5
Rios Itatiaia-Branca 13.5
Rio Ayuruoca 9.6
Rio Bonito 1.9

 

 

the altiplano zone (Figures 11 and 12, Plates II B and III B).
A high planation surface is found in other parts of the
coastal ranges, notably in Serra dos Orgaos National Park, but
nowhere as extensive as at Itatiaia. The altiplano covers 18
square miles and is bounded by an escarpment to the south and
an arc of ridges to the east and northwest. These are ring
dike§8formed by differential erosion of the foyaite dome
(Figure 13). Low, annularly-aligned ridges also occur within
the altiplano. To the north are vast cirque—like depressions
in which lie the sources of Rio Ayuruoca and Rio Maromba. 0n
the antiplano each drainage system is deranged or indefinite,
and is separated from adjacent systems by flat, swampy divides
or low ridges (Figure 11). Then the drainage system becomes

a trellis pattern, dictated by ring dikes, before its waters
leave the altiplano through a water gap. To the south lies a
major drainage way, the Rio das Flores, occupying the Valley

of Lilies. The uppermost part of this valley shows a distinct

 

48D. Teixeira confirms this hypothesis in his "Contribuicao
a Geomorfologia do Macico Alcalino do Itatiaia"(Ph.~D. dis-
sertation, Department of Geography, University of Sao Paulo,

1958).

 

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FIGS. ii, i2, and /3

Plate II.

Itatiaia.

A. SlOpes of Agulhas Negras. View
is from the 8200-foot level looking
north toward the summit. Note the
vertical grooving in the intrusive
foyaite on the crests of which grow
lichens. Crevices and shallow
ledges harbor dwarf bamboo and other

xerOphytes.

B. Altiplano from Agulhas Negras.
View is from the 8500-foot level
looking south toward Prateleiras,
a monadnock on the edge of the
escarpment. The valley of Rio
das Flores lies at the right.
Scattered boulders, a shallow
pond, and bamboo filled ravines
are noticeable. Silhouetted to
right of center is a 30-foot
extension of rock which suggests
layering. Dwarf bamboo on the
left, shrubs, and grasses occupy

crevices.

_

O

.14.
m

 

-41-
”V" — shaped transverse profile, but at lower elevations a
broader, concave valley floor becomes evident. Tributaries
of Rio das Flores emerge from a series of closed depressions
filled with water or peat. An abrupt drOp into the Rio das
Flores gives some of these tributaries the form of hanging
valleys (Figures 10 and 11).

Rock accumulations alternating with closed depressions
characterize much of the altiplano (Plate III B). Large bould-
ers at the north base of Prateleiras, a monadnock, are rounded
by exfoliation and marked with potholes and vertical fluting
(Plate II B); they rest on exposed bed rock. Neither resi-
dual boulders nor talus are found at the base of Agulhas
Negras, nor are solifluctional phenomena apparent.

Many of the features of the altiplano are reminiscent
of glaciated landforms. The problem whether the altiplano has
been glaciated in the Pleistocence is not yet solved. The
highest parts of Itatiaia are considerably below the presumed
snow line in the Andes during the last glacial maximum, that
is, between 14,700 and 15,000 feet at 150 to 200 south latitudé?
the present snow line is at about 15,700 feet on the east side
and at 18,000 feet on the west side of the mountain system.
However, Itatiaia has much greater rainfall, higher humidity,
and cloudiness than most of the Andes. These factors contribute
to the lowering of the present snow line to 14,450 feet on Mt.

Kenya in Africa directly at the equator; U-shaped valleys at

 

49F. Klute, "Die Bedeutung der Depression der Schnee-
grenze fur Eiszeitliche Probleme," Zeitschrift fur Gletscherkunde,
xv1(1928), 70-93. .

-42-

Plate III.

‘.-'.

 

 

Itatiaia.

A. Summit of Agulhas Negras. Note
the bench mark (9150 feet) at top
center imbedded in quartzitic rock.
A large frost crack is evident at

lower center. Zygocactus grows in

 

the notch at right. Cumulus clouds

hover over peaks in the background.

B. View across Altiplano. The
photograph was taken at the 7900—foot
level looking northeast to Agulhas
Negras. Much exposed rock is notice-
able, although talus is absent. A
closed depression in the foreground
is occupied by sedge (Cladium) at
right and dwarf bamboo (Chusguea)

at left.

 

-44-

that location extend below 10,200 feet.50 80 it is quite
feasible to conclude that glaciation, local and moderate,
occurred during Pleistocene times on the altiplano of Itatiaia.
This hypothesis was first suggested by De Martonne in 194051
and later supported by Ruellan52 and Rich.53 Odman54 attacked
their hypothesis and asserted that strong chemical weathering
lover a long period and erosion during Pleistocene pluvial
stages caused the altiplano features. However, he had neither
read the previous works nor studied the particular features
they described before writing his paper. Chemical weathering
has undoubtedly done much in forming the shallow depressions
in the altiplano and the vertical fluting on bedrock and large
boulders. Fluvial erosion, however, has been active in dis-
secting the upland, removing rock and soil material, and
leveling the altiplano.

A Certain features are more convincingly explained by
nivation or even by limited glaciation. Nivation is a pre-

liminary stage to glaciation. Where high altitude snow fields

 

50O. Hedberg, "Vegetation Belts of the East African
Mountains," Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift, XL( 1951), 152.

51E. De Martonne, "Problems Morfologicos do Brasil
TrOpical Atlantico,” Revista Brasileira de Geografia, V(l943),

523 ~550.

52F. Ruellan, ”Interpretacao Geomorfologica das Re-
lacoes do Vale do Paraiba com as Serras do Mar e da Manti-
queira," Boletim Geografia, 11(1944), 1374.

53J. L. Rich, "Problems in Brazilian Geology and Geo-
morphology Suggested by Reconnaissance in Summer of 1951,

Geologia, IX(1953), 1-9.

540. H. Odman, "0n the Presumed Glaciation in the Itatiaia
Mountains, Brazil," Engenharia, Mineracao e Metalurgia, XXL
(March, 1955), 107 -108.

-45-

accumulate and are protected in hollows, alternate freezing
and thawing may continue until late summer. Melt waters
permeate underlying and neighboring rocks by day and freeze

at night; the resulting rock fragments are carried away by
rill wash and solifluction. Thus, hollows are gradually
deepened and widened and may resemble cirques.55 However,
steep head walls and moraines are lacking on the altiplano.
Snow probably accumulated in the Valley of Lilies during a
cooler period than the present.56 Cloud cover and partial
shade from Agulhas Negras favored the formation of small snow
and ice masses. Nivation and glacial erosion gradually hol-
lowed out a broad concave valley floor and left side valleys
hanging. Minor snow and ice accumulations develOped depressions
in the altiplano in like manner. The melt water streams
carved out potholes in boulders near Prateleiras, washed talus
from the base of Agulhas Negras, and carried rock debris into

the Paraiba Valley.57

Zgge 9f Summits

A few conspicuous prominences above 8000 feet form the
zone of summits. They have a local relief above the altiplano
of from 700 to 1200 feet. Thus their lepes are exceedingly
steep and give the peaks the appearance of castles or mini-

ature mountains (Plate II). Closer views show bizarre

 

55These are termed "nivation cirques" by W. D. Thornbury,
Principles 9f Geomorphology (New York: Wiley and Sons, 1954),
p. 367.

55Even today, maritime polar air penetrates as far north
as Recife (Figure 14).

57This is certainly not, by any means, an exhaustive or
completely accurate eXplanation of the altiplano features.
Herein lies an Opportunity for further research.

-46-
sculpturings of the rock surfaces, deep vertical grooves, and
potholes.

These prominences (Agulhas Negras, Pico Norte, and
Prateleiras) are monadnocks, formed of more resistant, homo—
geneous material than the altiplano. Differential weathering
and erosion have acted on them as on the ring dikes. However,
Agulhas Negras and Pico Norte are toward the center of the
original domal uplift and therefore stand out at higher ele-
vations today. The unusual needle-like formation of Agulhas
Negras (black needles) appears to have resulted from concen-
trated erosion by violent rains, hail, and strong winds.

These forces have acted mechanically and chemically on the

steep rock slopes to accentuate slight differences in resistance
to weathering. The develOpment of small potholes may have been
aided by the action of organic acids of vegetation growing on
the rock. At the 8400-foot level of Agulhas Negras, a 30-foot
projection of rock dips toward the altiplano (Plate II B).

This indicates that differential weathering has removed less

58

resistant layers of the foyaite dome.

Soil Characteristics
Itatiaia contains three soil groups: lithosol and peat
occur in the central third of the park, and yellow latosol

occupies the remaining area (Figure 7).59 Yellow latosol, one

 

58Alkaline feldspar, the dominant material in syenite, is
particularly sensitive to hydration and kaolinization so it
can decompose readily.

59only soils within the state of Rio de Janeiro have been
mapped and studied intensively. However, soil surveys of Sao
Paulo and Minas Gerais are being completed.

-47-
of the most widespread zonal soils of the humid trOpics, is

60

noteworthy in the cool summer, humid mesothermal climate of
Itatiaia.61 Latosols are formed under conditions of high
temperature and abundant precipitation; therefore the soils
at lower elevations of the park, where average monthly temper-
atures remain above 600F., show the strongest latosolic de—
velOpment. The parent material consists of foyaite except in
the northern tip of the park where gneiss predominates. Vege-
tative cover ranges from dense forests to brush and grass
(Figure 8). It is important in minimizing soil erosion. Soil
fauna is abundant. SIOpes are more gradual in the northern
than in the southern part of the park, so deeper soils occur
in the north.

Yellow latosol is strongly leached and deep. Its profile
(Figure 7), taken at an altitude of 2300 feet, shows a depth
of about 12 feet to parent material.62 New road cuts near the
Headquarters and Cooperative expose even deeper soil profiles.
All of the horizons are acidic (pH 4.1 to 5.1). Oxides of iron,
silicon, and aluminum increase slightly with depth; they average

8, 22, and 24 percent of dry soil weight, respectively. Color

and texture vary with depth. A horizons are dark yellow and

 

6OCfb and Cwb according to Koppen.

61Kruger National Park in the Union of South Africa also
has the same combination of climate and soil. Both areas are
adjacent to humid trOpical (gf) climates and podzolic—latosolic
soils.

62Commissao de Solos, Levantamento, gg Reconhecimento
dgs §olos do Estado d9 Rio de Janeiro (Rio de Janeiro: Servico

Nacional de Pesquizas Agronomicas, 1958), pp. 45-46. All
specific soil data were obtained from this publication.

-48 _

of sandy to sandy-clay textures; B1 and B2 horizons are dark
brown clays becoming more plastic with depth; B3 and C horizons
are red-yellow, with notable decrease in clay content from 63
to 35 percent.63 These soils derive their color from an in—
complete oxidation of the iron content. Iron is hydrated,
indicating abundant soil moisture.

The azonal lithosols are typical of the steep lepes and
altiplano of Itatiaia, and more broadly, of the coastal ranges
at altitudes above 6000 feet. Rock outcrops occur where
erosion has not permitted accumulation of soil. Some regolith,
an accumulation of decomposed rock fragments, is found on the
altiplano where the small gradient and a grass and sedge cover
have slowed down processes of transportation. Parent material
is the foyaite bedrock. Climate has a particularly strong
influence on this soil. Chemical decomposition is slowed by
the relatively low average temperature of the altiplano
(Figure 17). A markedly dry winter season permits deflation,
and heavy summer rainfall favors rapid erosion. Severe climate
conditions limit the develOpment of a vegetative cover and
of microorganisms which could contribute to the formation of
mature zonal soil profiles. Lithosol is found predominantly
in shallow depressions and rock crevices to a depth of 12 to
15 inches; the soil has a thin layer of organic litter which
rests on bedrock or regolith. Soil texture is variable and a
high silica content gives it a light color, particularly at

the base of Agulhas Negras and on the lepes of the escarpment.

 

48Ibid., p. 48.

-49-
Climate

General considerations

The park is located very near the TrOpic of Capricorn.
Tropical, subtrOpical, and even polar air masses control the
climate. Marine influences of the adjacent warm waters of the
South Atlantic and prevailing southeast trade winds produce
moderate temperatures and heavy precipitation. These are
felt along the Serra da Mantiqueira and Serra do Mar which
parallel the Atlantic coast (Figure 4). A rapid increase of
elevation in these ranges also affects the climate. There is
no major topographic barrier inland from the Serra da Man-
tiqueira, so air masses can move freely.

Atmospheric circulation changes considerably with the
seasons. In January warming of the land results in a great
low pressure trough near the center of Brazil (Figure 14).

The IntertrOpical Convergence migrates as far south as the
Tropic of Capricorn. A very strong and persistent high
pressure cell lies to the southeast of Rio de Janeiro over the
South Atlantic, so that on—shore winds of monsoonal character
are common. Occasionally, cool polar air may penetrate the
east coast as far north as Bahia, but unstable maritime trOpi-
cal air masses dominate the region.64

In July most of the land is cooler than the surrounding

water masses. The Intertropical Convergence now lies north

 

64R. Schroeder, ”Verteilung und jaehrlicher Gang der
Nbderschlaege im Staat Sao Paulo,“ Petermann's Geographische
Mitteilungen, IC (1955), 193.

 

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-51-
of the equator, and the continental low has disappeared. The
high pressure system over the Atlantic moves north of the
Tropic of Capricorn so that its diverging winds with accom-
panying subsidence may blow parallel to the coast or even off-
shore between Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo. This is the major
reason for winter dryness. Polar front waves, called
”Friagems”65 deveIOp in northern Argentina owing to the
contact of maritime polar and maritime trOpical air masses.
The waves pass north along the east coast and then break up

in the interior; episodically, they move as far north as the

equator (Figure 16).

 

Climatic types at Itatiaia

Climatic data of the park cover the years 1912 to 1935
for two first—class meteorological stations:66 Alto do Itatiaia
is an abandoned site on the edge of the altiplano at 7200
feet, and Monte Serrat is the partially cleared site of the
Gardens at 2700 feet (Figure 9). Another station in the
Paraiba Valley, the town of Resende at 1400 feet, is close
enough to be included to emphasize altitudinal climatic dif-
ferentiation. A pluviometric station was maintained near the
base of Agulhas Negras at 8000 feet from 1914 to 1938.

Figure 15 shows climatic types according to Képpen for
the area surrounding Itatiaia, and Figure 17 gives comparative

temperature and precipitation data for the stations. Since

 

65M. A. Garbell, Tropical and Equatorial Meteorology
(New York: Pitman Publ. Corp., 1947), pp. 114, 126.

66Servico de Meterologia, Normais Climatologicas (Rio de
Janeiro: Servico de Meterologia, 1941), p. 18.

-52-

all stations recorded an average temperature below 64.4OF., but
above freezing, for the coolest month, a mesothermal or mild
climate (g) prevails.- The average temperature of the warmest
month in the park is below 71.6OF., so that the "cool summer”

or 2 thermal subtype occurs. Both moisture subtypes (no

0\pt

7

dry season) and w_(winter-dry) are found at the park. In-
creased elevation and the resulting lapse rate produce cool
summers. In general, greater lapse rates exist during the
warm season, on the leeward side of mountain ranges, on

equator-facing lepes, and on isolated parks.68 Table 4 shows

the difference in lapse rate encountered at Itatiaia:

TABLE 4. Temperature change with increased elevation

 

 

 

Temperature Decrease per 1000 Feet
PePiOd 1400-t0 2700 - 2700-to 7200-
Foot Levels Foot Levels
February (warmest month) 3.10 F. 2.90 F.
July (coolest month) 3.00 F. 2.50 F.
o O
Yearly average 3.1 F. 2.8 F.

 

 

 

The following relations exist between temperature and
increased elevation:

1. The range of average monthly temperature decreases.
This is probably due to greater cloud cover in summer and

greater insolation during winter over the mountains. Cold

 

67The Cy climate may be called "upland savanna" or "sub-
trOpical monsoon” on a vegetational and genetic basis, .
respectively. It is found extensively in the highlands of
east Brazil, southeast Africa, and southeast Asia.

68J. Hann, Handbook 9f Climatology, 1883, translated by
R. de C. ward (New York: Macmillan Co., 1903), p. 244.

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-54-
and hazy air often stagnates in the valley creating temperature
inversions. The diurnal range of temperature increases.

2. Freezing temperatures are common in winter at Alto
do Itatiaia and higher elevations. Bernardes69 stated that
a microthermal or cool climate (2) exists on the highest
lepes of Itatiaia, but the calculated mean temperature for
July of 42.10F. is above the 2 limit of 26.6OF. In mid-July
the author observed two inches of ice on a trail at about
8000 feet, which substantiates the fact of low minimum temper-
atures. Extreme temperatures are given in Figure 17.

3. Alto do Itatiaia recorded 56 frost days, April
through November, and three days of hail in spring per year;
snow fell only twice in 23 years.

4. There is a notable temperature lag after the summer
solstice due to an increasing number of rainy days in January
(Figure 18).

5. The warmest and coolest months remain the same,
February and July.

Precipitation is strongly influenced by an increase in
elevation and varies with the height and abruptness of
mountains. The following rainfall-altitude relations are
found at Itatiaia:

1. Yearly total precipitation increases at an increasing
rate, 3.0 inches per 1000 feet from 1400-to 2700-foot levels
and 6.2 inches per 1000 feet from 2700-to 7200-foot levels.

This clearly indicates an orographic effect of the mountain

 

69L. M. c. Bernardes, ”Tipos de Clima do Estado do Rio de
Janeiro,” Revista Brasileira dg Geografia, XIV (March, 1952),
P. 57.

 

1. .I'? u -.

 

-55..
mass.

2. From the 7200- to 8000—foot levels, annual total
precipitation increases at only 4.1 inches per 1000 feet owing
to the loss of water vapor at lower elevations.

3. The range of average monthly precipitation increases
as a result of heavy summer orographic and convectional rains
at higher elevations. Sixty percent of the yearly precipi-
tation falls from December through March.

4. The 1400—foot station shows its wettest month re-
ceiving over ten times the rainfall of its driest month and is
therefore a E_(winter-dry) subtype. Occasional droughty
periods occur during the winter. Higher stations show less
seasonal change in precipitation and thus are designated 2
(no dry season) subtype.

5. The number of days with rain increases below and
above the 2700-foot level because more frequent convectional
showers occur in the valley and the orographic influence is
stronger at high elevations (Figure 18). The maximum pre—
cipitation occurring in 24 hours is given on Figure 17.

6. Average annual totals of cloudiness, fog, haze, and
lightning increase above and below the 2700-foot station,
indicating the microclimatic influence of forests at this

level (Table 5).

f.
-50..

TABLE 5. Data for cloudiness, fog, haze, and lightning

 

 

Total Days per Year

 

1400-Foot Level 2700-Foot Level 7200-Foot Level

Cloudiness 168 127 148
(Oct-Mar max) (Oct-Mar max) (Oct-Mar max)

Fog 103 9 218
(Apr-Aug max) (Oct-De max)

Haze 33 O 28
(Apr-Sep max) (Aug-Sep max)

Lightning ll 0 l9
(Jan-Mar max)

 

 

 

 

7. The annual average relative humidity decreases below
and above the 2700-foot level (Figure 19). A lower relative
humidity below the 2700—foot level is, of course, due to the
higher temperature and sparcity of vegetation in the valley.

A dense forest cover at 2700 feet and above transpires much
moisture. The lower relative humidity at the 7200-foot level
is due to clear winter days with drying winds and a sparcity
of vegetative cover. Fires caused by lightning are possible
at this time.

8. The atmospheric pressure decreases 31.4 mb. per 1000
feet causing increased evaporation rates.

Thus, a variety of climatic types can be observed in
the mountain setting of Itatiaia. Humid, mild climates
characterize all but the highest peaks. Land at altitudes up
to 2700 feet receives precipitation mostly during the summer
months. Above that level, precipitation is well distributed
throughout the year. All areas within the park experience
cool summers, a marked change from conditions in the Paraiba

Valley.

-57...

The Nature, Distribution, and Origin 9f
Elements 1Q the Biotic Environment

 

 

 

 

The Itatiaia area displays a remarkable variety of plant
and animal life. This variety, resulting from intense compe-
tition and effects of altitude, was recognized and studied by
outstanding naturalists, including Konrad Guenther and Charles
Darwin.70 Guenther captured the essence of the biotic set-

71

ting; excerpts from notes by the present writer, taken
along a trail to Tree Picos, reflect a similar awareness of

the environment.72 To describe the nature, distribution, and
origin of plant and animal life in such an environment is the

awesome but fascinating task of the biogeographer.73

 

7ODarwin particularly observed insect life of the region
as discussed later on page 81. See: C. Darwin, A Naturalists
Voyage (London: Murray, 1889), pp. 21-30.

71K. Guenther, A Naturalist in Brazil, the Record ofa
Year' 8 Observation of her Fauna and her Pe0ple (London: Allen
and Unwin, Ltd., 1931). See page 247 for the following:
"When we lie at the edge of the forest, when all is so still
within us that our souls are conscious of the life and growth
of the plants, and when.. .from a dark thicket, the song of a
bird rings out, our eyes and ears admit us to a great Unity,
of which we also, in happy self -oblivion, form a part.

 

72"...900 meters; past a steep slope of lace—like tree
ferns, pendulant nests of the "guache" oriole hanging from a
brilliant red-flowered ”mulungu' tree (Leguminosae); the
burrow of an armadillo in the deep red latosol; scratchmarks
of a wild cat, and a pile of "seven-colored tanager" feathers,
a recent falcon kill. At 1600 meters, frost on trail; tiny
yellow orchids hang over a cascade; bromeliads cling to moss-
covered tree trunks; a flock of screaming parakeets fly over-
head drowning out distant whistles of the black monkey; then
quiet.

 

73It is obvious that a complete treatment of all the biota
at Itatiaia lies beyond the scope of this study. The reader
is referred to the studies of Barth, Brade, Holt, Lutz, Pinto,
Ribeiro, and Segadas-Vianna listed in the Bibliography.

-58-

Elements of the biotic environment are truly of major
importance in the park. The following pages will attempt to
describe the salient features of the various life zones of
Itatiaia, particularly as they are correlated with climate
and landforms. Scientific nomenclature is employed to

facilitate comparison with other mountainous regions.

Phytogeography

Tropical and subtrOpical plant life exhibits a great
number of species and a variety of forms. The modification
of vegetation in definite zones, especially due to climatic
differences at higher elevations, increases the variety even
more. This section will describe major characteristics of
each vegetative zone, particularly as they illustrate
ecological principles, and will offer comparisons with other
mountainous regions.

Forests cover 70 percent of the park area (Figure 8).
Their vertical extent reaches close to the 7000-foot level,
above which lies the altiplano (Figure 9). However, the
structure and composition of forests vary with altitude.
Climate, particularly the element of temperature, plays a
key role in the modification of vegetation. With increased
elevation, trees are shorter, their leaves smaller and thicker,
and the number of species less. Generally above 7000 feet,
only grass, low shrubs, and bare rock are found. The average
temperature for the warmest month in this zone is less than

74

58oF. compared to 710F. for the lowest forest zone.

 

74Although an average temperature for the warmest month

-59 ..

Altitudinal zonation 9f vegetation

The first botanist to delineate the floral zones at
Itatiaia was Ule.75 He recognized a lower region up to 2000
feet, a forest region from 2000 to 5600 feet, and a high
mountain and field region above 5600 feet. Holt76 modified
this scheme by using climatic criteria. He differentiated a
tropical zone to 3000 feet, a subtropical zone from 3000 to
6000 feet, and a temperature zone above 6000 feet. The out-
standing Brazilian botanist, A. c. Brade,77 combined climatic,
tOpographic, and floral characteristics in his zonation
scheme: subtropical rain forest up to 3900 feet, transition
forest from 3900 to 5900 feet, Brazilian Pine region from
5200 to 7500 feet, altiplano vegetation from 7200 to 7900
feet, and flora of the peaks above 7900 feet. In the latest
78

work by Segadas-Vianna, similar limits are used but with

topographic nomenclature: plain level, lower, middle and

 

of under 5OOF. is generally necessary to limit tree growth,
other conditions besides climate may modify the vegetation:
fire, slope, eXposure, depth of soil and interactions with
animals, and man. See page 72.

75E. Ule, "Relat6rio de uma Excursao Botanica Feita na
Serra do Itatiaya, ” Archives Museu Nacional, XI (1895), 185 -223.

76E. . Holt, "An Ornithological Survey of the Serra do
Itatiaia," Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History,
XXVII (1928), 251-320.

77A. C. Brade, A Flora do Parque Nacional do Itatiaia,
Bulletin V of Itatiaia National Park (Rio de Janeiro: Minister-
io da Agricultura, 1956) pp. l-85.

78T. Segadas-Vianna, ”Biogeography of the Itatiaia Range,
Southeastern Brazil: I. Altitudinal zonation of Vegetation,”
manuscript for Ecological Survey of Rio de Janeiro, Museu
Nacional, 1958.

 

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n<i

n)‘

:-

 

 

-60-
upper mountain level, highlands level, and summits level. A
modification of the latter two classifications, which most
closely follows the author's field observations, is presented

in the following discussion.

Plain and piedmont cutover zone: 1400—2100 feet

This zone lies south of the park boundary. It was for-
merely covered by a subtropical rain forest, similar to that
on the Serra do Mar, only more open. Now the area lies as a
grim reminder of man's use and misuse of resources (Chapter III
and Plate IV B). Fire-induced grass for pasture dominates
the lowland scrub and subclimax forest forms a savanna on hill
tops where erosion is less intense. The dominant trees,

Tibouchina and Cassia, are 50 to 60 feet tall; their flat-

 

tOpped crowns are covered with purple and yellow flowers

during the wet season.

Low—mountain, second-growth forest zone: 2100-3900 feet
Extensive cutting here also removed the subtrOpical
climax rain forest, a remnant of which is found along Rio
Bonito. Where succession has progressed, a great variety of
flora occurs. There are particularly vivid flowering trees

from 100 to 130 feet tall: the red leguminous Erythrina and

 

purple melastomatacious Meriania. Trees with unusual foliage

include theeweet palm (Euterpe edulis), the silvery-leafed

 

 

79According to Brade, gp: git., pp. 16-24, this zone con-
tains the following numbers of genera: trees-126, lianas and
creepers-55, epiphytes-64, shrubs-55, ferns and herbs-131;
total-431.

‘ 29““- . ‘

 

I; A ~ -.

Plate IV.

Itatiaia.

A. Low-mountain, Second-growth Forest
Zone. The view from park Headquarters
(2800-foot level) looking south into
the Paraiba Valley (1400-foot level)
shows a great contrast in vegetation.
Smoke from grass fires, dust, and
radiation fog obscure the Serra do Mar
range in background. A notch in the
Rio Campo Belo Valley silhouetted at
center lies at the southern tip of the
park. Note the CecrOpia tree at left

and Meriania at right foreground,

B. Piedmont Cutover Zone. 'Eroded
slopes are criss—crossed by cattle
trails. Note the barbed wire fence

in foreground. A stand of Cassia in
center background and some scattered
trees on hilltops occur where erosion
is less intense. The sweet palm
Euterpe appears at left. The lower
part of the photograph shows a terrace

strewn with boulders.

- o
g .‘ ‘v...
' 4

 

‘.v

f,

-03-

Plate V. Itatiaia: Tree Fern. From a moist
glen along the road to Maromba (3700-
foot level), Als0phi1a, or ”grove-
loving” tree fern displays its six-
foot fronds. It is a typical com-
ponent of the low-mountain, second-

growth forest zone.

~64-

 

 

Eran
epi;
4..
5351's.
carpt

 

 

-65-

Cecrooia, and the tree ferns A1s0phila and Cyathea (Plates

 

 

IV A and V). Bamboo (Merostachys) forms an impenetrable

 

thicket along forest edges and on drier, well drained slopes.

Branches are covered with lianas, notably Philodendron, and

 

epiphytes, such as orchids and climbing ferns.

Understory shrubs, reaching 20 feet in height, are
scattered, well branched and of rounded crowns. A continuous
carpet of moss, herb, and grass covers the forest floor. The
large-leafed gggga indicates the development of a near-climax
condition with dominant Cedrela and Cabralea trees, noted for

thick, straight trunks and buttressed roots.

Mid-mountain, subtropical climax forest zone: 3900—5700 feet
At this level almost all the forest remains in a virgin
state, a climax type in equilibrium with the environment.
Certain genera, such as Euterpe and Cecropia, are no longer
present, although there is a considerable increase in the
number of individuals as compared with lowerlevels. Cabralea
forms the dominant 65-to lOO—foot tree cover with dense shrubs,
many epiphytes, and lianas filling in the lower story (Plates
VI and VII B). Thin—stemmed bamboo behaves like a liana,
climbing up to tree crowns and smothering out saplings. Tree
ferns have shorter, thicker trunks than at the previous level.

Begonia forms a conspicuous herb cover.

High-mountain, transitional cloud forest zone: 5700-7200 feet
Trees of this forest zone have hemiSpherical crowns,

and rarely attain a height of over 50 feet. Cabralea is again

dominant. Masses of bromeliads and moss cover the tree

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.mmdpw spas popm>oo ma paw pqdopwxomp GH pmwm mflp Op mmHH owmq op

 

wooowo Moog one .mmmap wmawpnmo powQHEoU mo hoodwo mmomp mnp msonm

comm pm smfi> wage .ooom pmmaom Hmoadopppsm .cflwpq:oenpas "meHpMpH .H> madam

 

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-00-
branches, a condition which reflects the persistent cloud—
iness and high relative humidity (Plate VII A). Almost no
lianas are found. A very dense shrub stratum consists of
the same genera as at the lower elevation. However, a sub-
climax genus Croton becomes conspicuous. Its reddish leaves
and trunk are covered with bright red lichens. There are
almost no herbs.

Between 5900 and 6600 feet, small clearings of land,
remnants of an unsuccessful attempt at fruit culture (1908
to 1918), are spotted with gnarled pear and apple trees or
communities of Senecio and Vernonia shrubs. Near 7200 feet,
the forest canopy becomes lower and more open. The under—
growth is thinner, and lianas and epiphytic mosses disappear.
The transition to the altiplano is very irregular. It seems
to be governed by local moisture and exposure conditions
(Plate I). On the steep lepes of the Rio Campo Belo water
gap lies an Open forest of Parana, or Brazilian, pine

(Araucaria angustifolia, Figure 8). This species reaches a

 

height of 80 to 100 feet and is associated with short—trunked

tree ferns. Both plant types are found up to 7500 feet.

Altiplano zone: 6600-7900 feet
Considerable attention has been given this zone,since
80

it is generally treeless and contains alpine vegetation.

Not only is alpine vegetation uncommon in Brazil, but it occurs

 

80In the strictest sense, ”alpine" vegetation should refer
to flora characteristic of the Alps, particularly to the
climatically-controlled vegetation. However, the term has been
used broadly to signify any vegetation above the limit of tree
growth, and will be so used in this dissertation.

.Mdew on

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.mUwHHmEomQ mmana .mdeOHH pop pcwapn

 

scan: do dopopo ma comp mopcmo

6:9 .dpwppm mmzoa paw pogo: Mo
mmmqmmmop map mouflmwSQEm pmmm ooap
pm 3mfi> mane .chN pmmmom addoapam

nudge «Gawpq:oEn£mHm mo poapmch .<

.daoaodoH

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«....I'!’

1
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-71-
at much lower altitudes here than in other mountain regions at
the same latitude (Table 6). There is a great variety in
floral composition and structure.81
Three major floral communities occur here: bogs, grass-
lands, and dwarf woods. Graminoid bogs, which occupy many
depressions, have the greatest area coverage. A continuous
carpet of Sphagnum moss underlies sedge (Cladium), which may
grow to a height of six feet (Plate III B). Where better
drainage produces a mesic site, sedge is replaced by Andean
bunch grass (Cortaderia?2in large tussocks, and dwarf bamboo

(Chusguea). Well drained flats or slightly inclined slopes

are dominated by grasses, about 8 inches high (Andropogon,

 

nggg, Bromus). Extensive areas with a moderate slope and
shallow soil support a very dense, almost impenetrable for-
mation of bamboo up to 7 feet tall (Plate II B). A mixture
of shrubs and grass is found on steep slopes. Where these
slopes form protected valleys, a relic dwarf wood of broad-
leaf evergreen Roupala occurs, growing from 15 to 20 feet

high. Another relic, the needleleaf evergreen Podocarpus of

 

the yew family, occupies a similar site. Trees are covered
by masses of lichens, mosses, and occasionally bromeliads.

Hygric vegetation, such as the floating or crawling

 

81Brade, gp. g;3., pp. 31-42, lists genera of this zone:
ferns-28, gymosperms-2, angiosperms-l85; total-215.

82The presence of Andean bunch grass is an example of the
law of phytogenic traces: the relative geographical positions
of plants are good indicators of the trends of migration. This
law and others mentioned later are phytogeographical princi-
ples having to do with plant distribution. See P. Dansereau,
Biogeography, Ag Ecological Perspective (New York: Ronald

Press Co., 1957), pp. 51, 123.

 

-72-
Ranunculus, is common in ponds. Extreme xeric vegetation of
crustaceous lichens occurs a few feet above the water on

exposed boulders. .Acmctus (Zygocactus) and a large, red

 

amaryllis (Alstroemaria) are found in rock crevices.

The problem now to be considered is whether or not the
vegetation of this zone should be called "alpine." A tree-
line exists at the lower levels of this zone, above which only
dwarfed trees occur in protected sites. Herbs assume charac-
teristics caused by an inhospitable environment: rosette, whip-
like, or creeping forms, woolly covering, and short, late
flowering periods. A definite cold, semi-arid season and
probable diurnal frost throughout most of the year, severe ex-
posure on the isolated altiplano, and shallow, poorly-drained
soils certainly impede the establishment of forest species.
Woody species which are well adapted to these conditions do
not occur in the park.83 If the altiplano had been glaciated
or at least subject to a much colder climate during Pleistocene
times as relic species and certain land-forms indicate, and if
natural and man-made fire and cutting destroyed any re-establish-
ed forest species, an alpine-like vegetation zone could be

maintained as at present.

 

83This situation somewhat parallels that of a "bald," a
semipermanent grass area at the transition between deciduous
hardwood and evergreen coniferous forests in the southern
Appalachian Mountains, except that no trees are found above
the altiplano. See A. F. Mark, ”The Ecology of the Southern
Appalachian Grass Balds," Ecological Monographs, XXVIII
(October, 1958), 293-336.

-73-
Zone of Summits: 7900 - 9150 feet

The rugged tOpography, strong and continuous winds,
lowered temperature, and sparse soil place extreme restrictions
on vegetation of the zone of summits. Only in well protected
crevices has a climax flora, dwarf bamboo (Chusguea), been able

to develop (Plate 11 B). It resembles juniper (Juniperus) in

 

temperate regions, growing to a maximum of three feet with
short leaves and internodes.

In the notch between Agulhas Negras and Pico Norte, a
shady and very humid site, dense shrubs up to six feet high
are found (Leandra and Mypcia). Six other shrub genera and
numerous ferns, including the Andean fern (Blechnum) and Pply-
podium, grow in moist chimneys and small crevices. A red or
yellow Sphagnum moss occurs where small pockets of water can
accumulate, and dense colonies of yellow fruticose lichens
cover the crests of parallel grooves in the rock surface
(Plate II A). The highest peaks have patches of soil where

four-inch thick carpets of herbs (Oxalis and Zygocactus) grow

 

(Plate III a).

Comparisons of vegetative zones.

Since vegetation in the altiplano zone at Itatiaia
resembles alpine flora of much higher mountains, an attempt
has been made to compare Itatiaia flora with that of selected
trOpical mountain areas (Table 6). Specific comparisons of
the selected areas are unreal since the environments differ
in many respects, but certain features, floral associations,

and growth forms show definite similarity to vegetative zones

-
4
xx

.owmm wuHSOHHom one go adppon on» no dopaw and canon man» you moonsomi

 

won omcom

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mnsndm.aophn amouonmam
napam on pmcnou cacao

macadaoaramwa "oomauoooo

oonadn canaaao
"amonou cacao dawpqsqa

lama: on adds."oocouooom

won omcom .mmunw
aconcaa “coo.aauooo.aa

mophnmdmo
"coo.aauooo.oa

apnea coup
“coo.aauooo.aa

puonon msoooao
name ”ooo.aa-ooo.oa

pmonou cacao
confide "coo.oauooow

apaonow
nfinounmssm
pesos”
neoaaawam
docanua poem

 

madam .odam wndnmm
"onwanpaw op pmmnou

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muwaaoaonn .mnsnnm
omqoo “pmonou cacao

agapqooanawan "oomnuooam

canon oppomon "+ooo.ma
magnum 3mm .mnnon
canoe "coo.mauoo~d

mcwaaoaonn
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madam "nacho“
odaqamnsm uooo.m._..noomm

Mao .mnam “amonow
camoa.«ooommnooom

apnoaaam
ooaHos
oncmz unnoum

 

mafiaauao .oonadn untc
.unonoaa Saddam .momuoa

.deoH “undeadm «Omamloomh

oonadn “Ruse .mmonw

.amon "cadaaapad “coma-oooo

oooado moaaaaao coo
«mafia ochc .mophnmamo
"awoken cacao qawpq:Qa

unwaa op neaa_uoooouoomm

maamm .mqnow ooh»
“pmonon Apacnwnquomm

.daopasoarSoa "commaooam

wwmmmmflMH_Hnuzc
.mmwnw ”coo.odaooo.ma

macaw Moommsp
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oonacn wdanadao
.mopaaqamo.“ooo.oauoomm

mnnod coup
.Acancaaacdv
“aqsm “ooo.manoow.ma
wagon coup
"oaancm "coo.mauooo.ma

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amoeba "coo.mauoooa

madam amoundnsm
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npsomooa
mwfibfiaom

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Nuanadaoo
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-75-
delimited at Itatiaia. This illustrates the law of vegetation
regime: under a similar climate, in different parts of the
world, a similar structural-functional response will be induced
in the vegetation. At increased altitudes, especially in the
low latitudes, the limit of tree growth is difficult to de-
termine, since some herbs assume arborescent forms (up to 12
feet tall) while tree species may become stunted, low bushes.
Only the latter condition is found at Itatiaia.

The flora found at various altitudes of the selected
mountain areas in Table 6 are divided into two groups: tall
plants from 5 to 50 feet, and short plants under 5 feet.
Vegetation is generally absent above the highest altitude
given for each area. The zones at Itatiaia which show similar,
though not identical, floral characteristics as in the
selected areas are also given. Thus, in the Andes Mountains
of Colombia an alpine vegetation zone called ”paramo” occurs
at altitudes of 12,000 to 15,500 feet. It is composed of tall

herbs in the lower elevations and tussock grass and bogs in

 

The following footnotes apply to Table 6 on the pre-
ceding page:

lAltitudinal life—form gradients are listed for various
areas in the world by S. A. Cain, ”Life—forms and Phytoclimate,'
Botanical Review, XVI (1950), 1-32.

I

2J. Cuatrecasas, ”Aspectos de la Vegetacion Natural de
Colombia," Revista de la Academia Colombiana de Ciencias
Exactas, Fisicas lNaturales, x11958), 228-2175.

3C. Troll, "TrOpical Mountain Vegetation, Proceedings 9f

the Ninth Science Congress, XX (1958), 37-48.

 

4C. H. Muller, "Relations of the Vegetation and Climate
Types in Nuevo Leon, Mexico,“ The American Midland Naturalist,

XXI (1939): 687-729-

-76-
the higher elevations. The altiplano zone at Itatiaia, like-
wise, has grass and bogs but lacks the tall herbs. However,
altitudes of the altiplano are only from 6600 to 7900 feet.
A partial explanation for this difference in altitude com-
pared to the paramo is that Itatiaia lies at a greater distance
from the equator. Therefore, a definite cool season and less
cloud cover is found on the altiplano in contrast to the
Colombian Andes. Other conditions, already mentioned, such as
severe exposure, fires, and lack of hardy species, also help
to explain the difference.

It is interesting to note that pines are found at similar
high altitudes in the Sierra Madre of Mexico and Itatiaia.
Both areas are at approximately equal distances from the
equator and have a similar climate. However, the massive vol-
canic peaks of the Sierra Madre support a growth of scrubby
pine up to the l2,000-foot level.

Tree herbs are found on Mount Ruwenzori in the East
African Highlands at about the same level as in the Colombian
Andes. A cloud forest of tall bamboo at 9,000 feet on
Ruwenzori corresponds to the high-mountain cloud forest of

Itatiaia at about 6,000 feet.

Origin 9f certain floristic elements

 

Itatiaia flora represents about ten different groups

some of which have a widespread distribution and others which

84

are extremely restricted. Cosmopolitan genera include the

 

8”'Dansereau, gp. git., pp. 51—52.

-77...

club-mosses (Lycopodium) and bracken (Pteridium). One found

 

 

only in trOpical regions is Cassia, a dominant tree of the
piedmont-cutover zone. The Cecrogia tree, amaryllis (Alstroe-
mgrig), and the cactus and bromeliad families are confined to
the trOpics of the western hemisphere. A South Atlantic genus
is the yellow flowered, second-growth tree Vochvsia. Some
xerOphytic heath-like shrubs are specific to the Central
Brazilian plateau.

The park contains a number of genera common farther
south and considered relics of Pleistocene conditions. Parana

pine (Araucaria) probably covered large areas of the park at

 

a time when the climate was cooler and moister. Some natural
stands are now found in the State of Parana, the southern
Andes, the Eastern Highlands of Australia, New Caledonia, and

New Guinea. Podocarpus, the most widely distributed conifer

 

85

in trOpical mountains, is a relic of a cooler, drier climate.
Genera from northern temperate zones include the herbs

Geranium, Anemone, and Carex. Dwarf bamboo (Chusguea), some

 

ferns, and the tall grass Cortaderia, now conspicuous in the

 

Pampa, all originated in the Andes. Certain ferns and club

moss species spread to the park from Patagonia. All of the
foregoing plants illustrate the law of zonal equivalence:

where climatic gradients are essentially similar, the latitudinal
and altitudinal zonation will be equivalent in terms of plant
formations.

Endemics, plants with extremely limited distribution,

 

851b1d., p. 22.

-78-
are numerous at Itatiaia.86 They develOp from long periods of
isolation in such locations as islands or mountain peaks where
specific adaptations must be made to diverse environments.

Oxalis calva grows only on the tOp of Agulhas Negras in a low

 

carpet form. This exemplifies the law of availability, which
states that the geographic distribution of plants is limited
by their place and time of origin. Many endemics are given
the specific name ”itatiaiae" or "itatiaienis" indicating their
affinity to this area.

Increase in altitude results in a reduction in the number
of species, a modification of life-form, and a substitution of
species within the same genus. A good example of modification
in life-form is bamboo. In the low-mountain zone, bamboo has
a tree-like form and large leaves. At higher elevations, it
resembles a liana with thin, crawling stems and small leaves.
In the altiplano, its leaves and internodes are extremely

short. However, the height of individual plants depends on

their exposure.

Zoogeography
The great variety of flora at Itatiaia, particularly in
the forest zones, is paralleled by extremely diverse animal
life. Darwin visited the region from 1831 to 1835 and sug-
gested that no place on earth had richer and more diverse life

forms or patterns of specialization and behavior.87 Long

 

86Brade, gp, cit., pp. 69-76, lists over 200 endemic Species
found above 6500 feet, half of which grown only at Itatiaia.

87C. Darwin, A_Naturalist's Voyage (London: Murray, 1839):
p. 49.

 

 

 

 

 

-79 ..

periods without gross environmental change, except in the
piedmont and altiplano, and an abundance of life which in-
creases the intensity of competition have resulted in effective
natural selection.88
Faunal elements

Insects and birds, active by day, comprise the most ob-
vious and well—studied faunal elements in the park. There are

over 10,000 species of insects, about 50 percent of which are

butterflies (Lepidoptera) and 25 percent beetles (ColeOptera)89

 

 

Adaptations for disguise, defense, and mimicry are remarkable.

The number of know bird species has increased from early

0

studies to over 300 today.9 Flycatchers (Tyrannidae) and

tanagers (Thraupidae) are most prevalent. Mammals, although

 

dominantly nocturnal, are of great interest not only due to
their variety but also from historic-geographic aspects, as
discussed later. The park contains 50 known mammals, most
numerous of which are the rodents. Others, such as the tapir »
and jaguar, are almost extinct. A remarkable adaptation to
arboreal life is the prehensile tail, a characteristic of the
South American monkey, a porcupine, and an anteater.

Although species of turtle and crocodile inhabit the

 

88Darwin's study of insect life in Brazilian forests was
a key factor in his deve10pment of the theory of evolution,

89J. F. Zikan, a former park naturalist, published ex-
haustive works on insect life of Itatiaia, including the first
park bulletin in 1949.

90A. Ribeiro, "Vertebrados do Itatiaia,” Archives Museu
Nacional, XIII (1905), 163-190; E. G. Holt, gp_. 9119., pp. 251-
326; and O. Pinto, Aves d9 Itatiaia, Bulletin III of Itatiaia
Vational Park (Rio de Janeiro: Ministerio da Agrbmtura, 1954),
pp. 1-87.

 

_80_
Paraiba Valley, the only reptiles in the park are nine species

of lizards, including two Iguanidae, and 35 species of snakes,

 

three of which are poisonous. This represents about 14 percent
of the total known Brazilian reptiles.91 Amphibians have been
studied intensively by Lutz, an American zoologist.92 The

warm, moist forest holds 54 species, almost half of which are
tree frogs (Hylidae). Curiously, no fish occur. A paucity of
crustaceans, molluscs, and plancton reflects the lack of calcium
in the waters. In contrast to the many insects, only 44

spiders are found, including large wolf and bird spiders.

Millipedes, centipedes, and various worms abound in.the soils.

Distribution 9f fauna

 

Since fauna generally displays mobility and other adap-
tations to the environment, altitudinal zonation is not as
obvious as with flora; effects of temperature and precipitation
are less important. However all animals depend directly or
indirectly on vegetation for food, so the basic vegetative
types, forest and grassland, determine faunal areas to some
degree. Barth93 used the broad areas of artifical grassland

94 ha

(valley and piedmont), forest, and altiplano, which Holt d

 

91R. Earth, A Fauna d9 Pargue Nacional d9 Itatiaia,
Bulletin VI of Itatiaia National Park (Rio de Janeiro:
Ministerio da Agricultura, 1957), p. 86.

92Bertha Lutz, "Anfibios Anuros do Distrito Federal,"
Memorial Institute 9f Oswaldo Cruz, LII (1954), 155-238.

93Barth, QR, cit., p. 11.

 

 

94Holt, 199. git. Frank M. Chapman in "The Andes: a New
World" (Natural History, XXIV (July, 1924)) says of bird study
in mountainous regions: "The potential mobility of birds com-
bined with their unusually sensitive, responsive natures makes
these animals particularly valuable indices of the effects of

 

 

 

-01-

designated in his study of birds, and added a water habitat.

Cutover grassland area (plain and piedmont)

This area south of the park shows the drastic effects of
man's interference. Large forest mammals have been replaced
by many small Rodentia including the squirrel, cavy, paca, and
hare. A few shy tapirs, kin to the rhinoceros, and the capybara
or water hog, still browse in secluded parts of the valley; the
boa (Constrictor) also remains. Abundant small birds and in-
sects thrive in the grass-shrub cover. A two-foot, almost

flightless carniverous bird, Cariama cristata, can be found

 

here as well as in the altiplano grassland, an example of in-
difference to temperature. Six other small birds move from
the valley to the altiplano between nesting periods. At the
margins of cultivated areas, the seven-banded armadillo
(Dasypus), the most heavily armored mammal, can be seen bur-
rowing for roots, insects, and snakes. Here also is found

the South American rattlesnake (Crotalus).

Forest area (mountain lepes)

Most important of all habitats is the forest. Trees are
an important element of the environment. They moderate winds
and temperature change, increase relative humidity and shade,
and provide a great variety of food and shelter for animal
life.

During the day, most animals are secretive but at dawn

 

those ferces and circumstances which are or have been active
in producing faunal area.” p. 422.

-82-
and dusk activity increases, especially among the abundant

birds.95 A sad note of the dove (Leptotila) is interrupted

 

by the screeches of a band of red-bellied parakeets (Pyrrhura)
darting through the forest canOpy. A shrill whistle, quite
different from that of the black monkey (ggpgs), comes from a
hawk (Spizaetus) searching for small rodents or birds.
Thrushes, tanagers, and flycatchers forage constantly for

berries and insects. A low grunt of the toucan (Rhamphastos)

 

reveals this large-billed, black, red, and yellow bird cracking
open palm nuts.

Of great interest is insect life, specialized through
processes of evolution. From prolific mutation, disguises
evolved which provided protection from insectivorous birds,
monkeys, lizards, and snakes against a diverse background of
bark, leaf, branch, and flower (Plate VII). For example, the
mottled long-horned beetle resembles bark and lichens; the
leaf-blemish katydid and broken-twig moth have their guises.
Other insects rely on bad odor or taste for protection, as the
foul-smelling moth and heliconian butterfly. Edible butterflies

mimic the gaudy Heliconius.

 

Other diurnal life found often in the trees includes the

Brazilian ocelot (Felis), squirrel (Guerlinggetus), racoon-

 

like coati (Nasua), the prehensile—tailed howler monkey
(Alouatta), and anteater (Tamandua). This toothless, single-

minded gourmet has a perfectly adapted syringe-shaped nose

 

95The distribution of bird species (Barth, 9p, gi§., p. 96)
is as follows: valley and piedmont 8%, forest 19%, altiplano
2%, every area 22%, valley and forest 49%, forest and alti-
plano 9%.

-83-
and a two-foot tongue. Hanging in the branches, the long, green
tree snake (Chironius) appears as a liana vine until a small
lizard approaches. On the forest floor run peccaries (Tayassu)
while the Brazilian caracara (Polyborus), a carrion—eater,
circles overhead.
Night is the hunting time for many animals. The humble

paca (Cuniculus) and armadillo (Dasypus), whose tunnels are

 

used as a home by the burrowing owl (Speotyto), forage on the

ground, while Opossum (Philander), prehensile-tailed porcupine

 

(Coendou), and three-toed sloth (Bradipus) are hunting in the
trees (Plate IX B). The sloth, one of the slowest mammals,
feeds exclusively on Cecropia leaves. Its long, grooved hair
contains living algae, a natural camouflage. Carnivores stalk
their prey through the underbrush and even up into the trees.

The puma (Felis concolor), the lion of South America, may weigh

 

165 pounds. Smaller predators, the weasels (Grison and Tayga),
raid bird nests, while the poisonous snake Bothrops awaits an

unsuspecting mouse or tree frog.

Altiplano

This faunal area is characterized by animals of small
size, few species, and the dominance of insects. Without a
protective tree cover, animals must hide in the tall grass or
rock crevices. A chief predator is the South American dog fox

(Cercodocyon). Melanism, the condition of having dark color-

 

ation with increased altitude, is noticeable in butterflies.
Since dark color absorbs more solar radiation, this may possibly

explain why these animals living in higher, cooler altitudes

~84-
are darker in color. The partridge-like tinamou (Rhynchotes)
is endemic here, whereas Cariama, the only modern relative of
the huge predatory cranes, also occurs in the valley grass-
land. Rodents are scarce, and the pika (Ochotona), so common
in the highlands of North America and Asia, is absent. During
the summer, a few lizards and snakes may be found among the
rocks.

The swiftness, coolness, and lack of calcium in the

streams results in limited animal life. A few ponds in the
6

Aaltiplano contain insect larvae and Protozoa.9 The absence

of fish may be caused by high acidity of the water.

Paleo—geographic aspects

Some mammals at Itatiaia represent ancient forms
originating far away and surviving today only in isolated
places. Others have developed unique features and broadened
their distribution. In late Tertiary times the Panamanian
land bridge was formed connecting North and South America.97
The ensuing great Pleistocene migration between the conti-
nents mixed their fauna. From the north came the racoon,
squirrel, peccary, and puma, which now has the largest range
of any western hemiSphere carnivore. The tapir, one of the
oldest American animals, formerly roamed vast areas in North
American, Europe, and Asia but now is found only in isolated

parts of Latin America and Malaya. From Brazil the highly

 

96Barth, 92, gi§., p. 38.

97Simpson, G. G., "History of the Fauna of Latin America,"
American Scientist, XXXVIII (July, 1950), 361.

Illa! N... 3

-85 _
specialized anteater, the armadillo, porcupine, and ancient
opossum spread northward.

Primitive forms like the tapir, marsupials, Cariama,

and Iguanidae find refuge in isolated areas such as the coast-

 

al ranges of Brazil and the islands of Galapagos, Madagascar,
and Fiji. Of the fifty park mammals, one-third have primi-
tive characteristics and are a living record of the past.98

Summary and Problems 9f Physical
Geography and Biogeography

 

 

 

The geography of Itatiaia National Park has been dis-
cussed as regards the nature, distribution, and origin of
elements in the physical and biotic setting. Particular
Anote should be taken of the abrupt rise in landform from
the Paraiba Valley to the altiplano, and the influences of
altitude on climate and biota. Elements of the physical and
biotic setting can be summarized according to various alti-
tudinal zones (Table 7). Definite zones of vegetation re-
flect the marked influence of climate on flora. Animal life,
however, is more mobile and distributed according to a forest,
grassland, or aquatic habitat.

Itatiaia presents a combination of geologic phenomena,
surface features, climate, and biota which is truly unique.
Many problems are still not fully understood or explained.
They deal mainly with genesis: the deve10pment of the massif;
the existence of a glacial period in the altiplano; the abund—

ance of endemic flora; the establishment of northern species;

 

98Barth, 9p. cit., p. 136.

 

 

- Pusan-H

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

, -A.____ ‘0 6..) 5.—

TABLE 7. Transect chart summary of physical geography and biogeography at various altitudinal zones

 

7900-9150 feet

 

1h00-2100 feet 2100-3900 feet 3900-5700 feet 5700-7200 feet 6600-7900 feet

frost in winter
snowfall rare

Humid mesothermal
warm summer-——a4cool summer: temperature decreases about 3 F/lOOO feet
dry winter moist all year: precipitation increases about 6 inches /1000 feet

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

cloudy summer high relative humidity sunny winter foggy Spring
convectional rain orographic and cyclonic precipitation '-—*—
Cw, ._._..lg__wb _C__fb —— —— —— —— ——-— possibly Drb
F A U N A
many insects, in the air: parakeets, toucans, tanagers, and much many insects occasionally birds
birds and rodents; insect life South American and insects
some tapirs, in trees: ocelet, coati, anteater, sloth, dogfox
crocodileS, and howler monkey, and tree snake predatory birds
boa constrictors on or in the ground. peccary and armadillo
F L 0 R A
cutover and burns second-growth subtropical transitional alpine grassland: isolated patches
grassland on the forest: exten- Virgin forest: clOud forest: irregular bog of vegetation:
plain; sive cutting less species shortgr trees and grass ferns, mosses
scrub savanna on palms more indivmuals Parana pine communities, yellow lichens
the hilltops tree ferns dense lianas dense shrubs endemics endemics
dense bamboo climbing bamboo epiphytes dwarf bamboo dwarf bamboo
L A N D F O R M S
plains- -piedmont: low-mountain: mid-mountain: high-mountain: altiplano: flat zone of summits:
rolling plains, moderate slope moderate Slope steep slope to rolling slop very steep slope
terraces, hills deep, V-shaped falls and rapids to escarpment deranged-trelli deeply weathered
low gradient valley dendritic stream pattern -'— stream patterns channeled runoff
s 0 I L N D R 0 c K T Y P E
alluvial latosoli yellow latosol ———a—_Ilithos01 and bog soils ——-—a——
soil soil
Tertiary intrusive foyaitic massif of nephelite and syenite -¥
. \ \ \ \ \
d/f/rUdC' {Cff \ \LP \\ 0:9 °\ $°;\ Aiéflé'hodge lyiy’rar
9000- <10 oo .5) °°§\ ‘ II ~9000
8000 ° ° °o “Em xlz PHI/E ~\
1:, ‘5“ A}. \ \GflAJJZA/VD 8000
7000- “A A 0"
7f 7000
6 \‘ \\\ ‘5 \\. WI
000 \\ R E I’IIMI l llll” 6000
_ \ W.’
5000 \ F O \\ . ‘4‘ 5000
#000 \ ' "IhuIlo 000
cm me GRAssz/VD \ ”a :HINIIHHINIIIHIM ‘*
- . , \ .I‘II I||'| f-lhllllllll
3000 (“ac Fhraxéa i ’. III “|“" 'ifi M‘ ______3 3000
’ :0 5' ‘ivi 5: I
2000 SE ma; -.umu—m-xw ....... '...- In.nIIIIi]HI|’"‘”III”Ill?” H” MI I!“ I|“'|I|1lllullsc;l¢ : "WI" 2000

 

 

-87-
and the dearth of fish. Since the present study is a regional
description of Itatiaia, the solution of these problems is
not of prime concern. However, they were introduced to aid

in understanding the description.

CHAPTER III
CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY OF ITATIAIA

Itatiaia stands out from surrounding areas not only in
its physical and biotic setting, but also in the type of land
use—-for conservation, research, and recreation. However,
the Itatiaia area prior to its establishment as a national
park in 1937 eXperienced a series of quite different land
uses in conjunction with deve10pment of the surrounding areas
and the country as a whole. Therefore, portions of the park,
notably in the south, have been modified from a primitive
state, and their utilization must differ from virgin areas.
This chapter will examine the ways that the Itatiaia area and

adjacent areas have been develOped and used by man.

Sequent Occupance

Itatiaia is surrounded by areas of diverse land use with
diverse histories of human occupance (Figure 5). To the north
is the decadent, subsistence livestock area of Minas Gerais,
with the legacy of gold and diamond mining days. Westward to
Sao Paulo, coffee plantations and heavy industries, such as a
newly completed General Motors Company automobile plant, pro-
vide employment and a chance to raise living standards. The
middle Paraiba Valley on the south, linking Sao Paulo with the

major commercial and cultural center, Rio de Janeiro, has been

-88-

-89-
a focus of activity in southeast Brazil and exhibits the scars

of numerous cycles.

Pre-coffee period (before the 19th century)

 

The Serra da Mantiqueira was traditionally a crossing

place for bandeiras or pioneers from coastal settlements who

 

opened the interior with their search for gold and slaves.
Gazing up at Agulhas Negras tinted with the last rays of after-

noon sun, the bandeiras no doubt imagined a solid mountain of

 

gold to fill their lives with luxury. When gold was discovered
in 1698 and diamonds shortly afterward in central Minas Gerais,
a great rush of hOpeful people, many from Portugal, brought
permanent settlement to southeastern Brazil.99 Rio de Janeiro,
the center for gold export, became the capital of Brazil in
1763 at the height of gold production. Increased concentration
of peOple in Rio brought the need for meat supplies from the
southwest, so a road was develOped through the natural route

100 In addition to

of the Paraiba Valley toward Sao Paulo.
servicing this communication route, the middle Paraiba Valley
provided a variety of crops for the peOple in Minas Gerais.
Some of its forests were cut to supply cheap fuel for sugar
and alcohol production in the lower delta area. By the early
19th century gold mining dwindled. Many people moved down
from the plateau into the middle Paraiba Valley to initiate a

major economic phase, coffee production.

 

99F. E. James, Latin America (New York: Odyssey Press,
1959), p. 401.

lOOIbid., p. 442.

 

1’» .5. 1.; ..-

 

-90-
Coffee period (the 19th century)

 

The plateau of Minas Gerais, isolated by the Serra da
Mantiqueira and less suited for agriculture, did not have the
economic promise of the richer Paraiba Valley and its bordering
hills.lOl Therefore, owners of former gold mines in the plateau
moved south to these richer areas. They broughtcapital,
slaves, immigrant workers, and what was most important, en-
thusiasm, thus setting the stage for a great speculative
venture in coffee.

Clearing the land for coffee plantations necessitated
the destruction of more of the virgin forest. Areas that were
too steep or impenetrable were not cleared. Thus we still
have virgin forests in Itatiaia National Park above 3900 feet.
Below this level to about 2100 feet, selective cutting took
place to supply house timbers. Clearing in the middle Paraiba
Valley was so rapid that an original forest cover of almost
40 percent of the area was reduced to less than one percent
in twelve years.102 Much of the wood was burned, but some was
used to make ties and charcoal for the government-owned Central
Railroad, the ”Central do Brasil." This vital link between
Rio and Sao Paulo, started in 1858, helped in developing the
valley.

Coffee trees were planted as early as 1774 on foothills
and accessible slopes south of the park, but from 1800 to 1850

production expanded greatly in response to foreign markets.

 

101Lamego, 92: gi§., p. 90.

102Barros, Parques Nacionais g9 Brasil, p. 21.

 

-91_
Resende, with nine warehouses and five estates, became the
leading center for coffee export. Shipment to Rio was facili-
tated in 1877 by a spur of the Central Railroad, but a decline
in coffee production was already evident. Some of the causes
of this decline included the following: planting trees at
right angles to the slopes which resulted in erosion, depletion
of the soil by lack of crop rotation or fertilization, compe-
tition from more favorable coffee sites in Sao Paulo State,
freeing of the slaves in 1888, and the spread of a coffee
parasite.103 A ghost landscape soon resulted with abandoned
homes, poorly kept manors, and rows of dead coffee trees as

typical signs for the economic decadence of the Paraiba Valley.

Government colonization period (early 20th century)

 

The large coffee plantations were broken up and con-
verted into small cattle ranches, a cultural heritage from
Minas Gerais. Volunteer grass developed good pastures and was
maintained as today by spring burning. The milk and beef
market of Rio gave hope of better times to some farmers.

Others decided to risk another speculative crOp on the terraces

of the Paraiba River, namely sugar cane. This too was soon re-

placed by cattle raising. In 1906 the governor of Sao Paulo

State encouraged the planting of rice in the rich flood plains,
104

an important site for this staple crop since World WarI.

While the Paraiba Valley experienced the decline of

 

103Lamego, 92. cit., p. 88.

104Ab'saber, pp, cit., p. 115.

-92-
coffee cultivation and was attempting an economic comeback,
the higher s10pes of the Serra da Mantiqueira also witnessed
human activity. Emperor Pedro II had long entertained hopes
of developing a little Switzerland in the present park area
as in the Serra dos Orgaos at Petropolis (Pedros' city).
However the need of money, shortly before his abdkmtion in
1889, forced him to sell the land now in the southern and
northeastern environs of the park. Seven large fazendas or

estates were established§05and their owners enjoyed hunting

the large mammals and game birds which were abundant. Some
of these areas were later acquired for the present park; some
were left entirely outside the park bounds as in the north-
east, and others were subdivided into plots of 50 to 150 acres
(Figure 25). These latter plots are held by 44 different
owners and represent a major problem of park management today.
From 1908 to 1918, the federal government attempted an
extra ordinary colonization scheme. Groups of immigrants were
brought to Brazil and given land in the high lepes of the
coastal ranges to establish a temperate fruit culture. German
colonists cleared areas on the south slope of land now within
park bounds at about the 5900-foot and 6600—foot levels.
They planted apple and pear trees. The trees cut in clearing
the prospective orchard sites were used to build cabins and
provide firewood. Near Serra Negra, on the north slopes, a
nucleus of Finns established orchards at 5300 feet. These

attempts soon failed due to numerous reasons. Many immigrants

 

105source: old property maps at the park Headquarters.

-93-
were of nonéfarm background and desired a standard of living
that mountain isolation and its required self—sufficiency
denied them. Temperatures were too cold and soils too heavy
for good fruit production, and markets for the fruit crop did
barely exist. After about five years, most colonists had left
for the Paraiba Valley and an urban life. Those who remained
longer devoted their energy to cutting trees for lumber, rail—
road ties, and charcoal which new industries in the valley

demanded. A few took up livestock raising and practiced

f

transhumance in the tradition of Minas Gerais herdsmenliOb

During the rainy summers, animals were led to the altiplano to
avoid floods and insect pests in the valley. Herdsmen burned
the area probably to encourage new succulent grass and, at the
same time, prohibit tree development. From October to June,
the herds would be kept in the valley where water was more
abundant. The only relics of colonization in the park are
some gnarled, lichen-covered pear and apple trees near the
cabin of Macieiras (Figure 20). A similar failure at coloni-
zation occurred in the Serra dos Orgaos where 1600 Swiss
immigrants tried to develop a cheese industry]:07
In addition to the venture of temperate fruit culture,
the government maintained a Biological Station at Monte Serrat

from 1914 until the park's formation in 1937. The station was

operated by the Botanical Garden of Rio de Janeiro and had as

 

106A. J. P. Domingues, ”O Macico do Itatiaia," Revista
Brasileira g; Geografia, XIV (October, 1952), p. 471.

107James, 9p. cit., p. 458.

-94-
its objective the study of the reactions of exotic plants in
different environments. Cacti from Mexico, yuccas from
Florida, evergreens from the Alps, iris from Siberia, and
many other plants were introducedl.08 Many of the plants still

add charm to the Gardens of Monte Serrat. Especially thriving

are tall cedars, Cryptomeria, or Japanese cedar, and Thuja

 

which line the road into the Gardens and grow with rhododendron
at Macieiras. The Biological Station ceased to exist when the
region was decreed a national park, but its function has con-

tinued under park management.

Modern occupance (since 1940)

The early 1940's ushered in a renascence of development
to the Paraiba Valley. Industrialization and recreation hold
the key to continued economic growth of the valley and the
resultant increased use of Itatiaia. The development of many
new small industries such as textiles, tanneries, paper-
making, bottling, freezing, and other food processing, en-
couraged the growth of population and urban areas. Skilled
laborers moved in from Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeirol.09 In
1942, Brazil secured a loan from the United States to build a
steel plant at Volta Redonda (Figure 5), and by 1946 the first

large-scale, heavy industry in South America started production)0

The ultimate capacity of this plant as now planned is one

 

108M. Foster, Brazil, Orchid g: the Tro ics (Lancaster,
Pennsylvania: Joques Cattell Press, 1945), p. 109.

109Lamego, gp. 933., p. 89.

110James, 23, 913., pp. 463-464.

-95..

million tons of steel per year. Various chemical companies
such as American Cyanamide and E. I. du Pont have built plants
in the valley. In 1945, Escola Militar das Agulhas Negras,
the Brazilian West Point, was established at Resende.

Agriculture, too, is showing improvement. Orange
culture, starting around Rio de Janeiro, has begun to spread
to the foothills of the Paraiba Valley. Jute plantings are
also noticeable. Through diligent work at the Rural University
near Rio, scientists are improving cattle, introducing African
grasses of high nutritional value, and.encouraging crop rotation
of maize, beans, and manioc. This should help to restore and
stabilize agriculture. However, the practices of overgrazing
and yearly burning of pastures are resisting change.

Some reforestation in the valley with eucalyptus trees,
utilized for wind breaks and charcoal, shows promise. This
wood, however, has low value as lumber, The impetus of in-
dustrialization brings a great demand for charcoal, so that
second-growth forests, even extending up to the southern
border of the park, have been used for this purpose. Because
of inadequate enforcement of the law during the early years
of the park, five and one-half acres of forest were unlawfully
cut to furnish over eight thousand bags of charcoall.ll

A growing business of service to vacationers traveling
in the valley is providing a market for local products and
new Opportunities for employment. The present modern road

connection between Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo is being

 

lllvalverde 3 220 git ‘ 1 p ’ 32 °

-96-
expanded as a dual system highway. A circular, drive—in
motel, the largest and most modern in Brazil, lies only a
few miles east of Resende. Hotels, lodges, and summer cabins
accommodate vacationers on the relatively cool slopes of the
Serra da Mantiqueira where the greatest attraction is Itatiaia

National Park.

Current Evidence 9f Man's Occupancy

 

Boundaries

The park perimeter of 43 miles is only vaguely marked.

It does not conform to natural bounds except in a small section
of its western park determined by a water divide (Figure 9).
About a third of the remaining boundary consists of straight
run lines adjacent to small private holdings, particularly in
the south and northeast.

High ridges of the Serra da Mantiqueira form part of-a
boundary between the states of Rio de Janeiro and Minas Gerais.
Nine miles of this boundary occur within the park, following
a divide from the west to Agulhas Negras and irregularly north-
east along Rio Maromba. Bounds of private interior holdings
are marked in various ways, such as by rock piles, wire fences,

or clearings (Figure 25).

Nature and areal extent 9f roads and trails.

 

 

 

Numerous roads and trails penetrate the park and provide
inter-connections among various areas (Figure 20). The highest
road in Brazil (8000 feet) enters the altiplano from the west,

a well-graded dirt spur of the highway from the Paraiba Valley

-97-

to Belo Horizonte. This spur follows the Rio das Flores to a
shelter, then continues as a jeep road for another mile. The
southern part of the park has a network of roads which reflects
the intense use of this area. A six-mile, aSphalt paved spur
follows up the valley of Rio Campo Belo from the major high-
way between Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo to Monte Serrat and
the park Gardens. From there, a seven—mile, graded, dirt
road services homes and extends to the park Headquarters and
Maromba bridge. Large buses carrying tourists can easily go
as far as the Maromba parking area. Thence, a jeep road winds
on up the steep valley of the Rio Campo Belo to a cabin at
the 5000—foot level.

Forty—two miles of hiking and bridle trails have been
established. In the vicinity of the park Headquarters east
to Tres Picos and from Maromba bridge to the falls (Figures 9
and 20), various trails are well maintained. Diversion logs
(across the trail to minimize erosion), adequate side ditching,
wooden steps, and railings on steep parts of the trails blend
into the natural setting. The location of trails takes maximum
advantage of interesting forest, rock, or water features. The
trails leading to and on the altiplano are in poor condition.
In places, deep erosion makes footing treacherous, and few
cairns or other trail markers exist. Four bridges of reinforced
concrete and others of wood provide safe crossing of the lower
Rio Campo Belo and its tributaries as well as vantage points

for sightseeing.

~98-

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Type and distribution 9f park facilities

 

 

Itatiaia has a notable physical plant in comparison
with other Brazilian parks. Outstanding is the park Head-
quarters located just above Monte Serrat and nestled on a rise
surrounded by the lush Rio Campo Belo Valley (Plates IV A and
VIII A). The Headquarters contains administrative offices, a
large museum, library, projection room, photography gallery,
and laboratories for entomology, taxidermy, and cartography,
Homes for the director and personnel are located in the vicinity
of Monte Serrat (Figure 21). Other structures here include a
telephone station, cooperative restaurant and store, greenhouse,
picnic shelter, and various maintenance buildings. Utility
lines service most of the area from a 50 h.p. hydroelectric
plant located below the Headquarters. In 1960, another plant
will be installed at about 5000 feet to provide electricity
for a television relay station between Sao Paulo and Rio.

Near the park Headquarters, a small tributary has been dammed
to form an irrigation reservoir (Figure 21).

Other structures are designed for visitors to satisfy
specific needs. Four rustic cabins provide sleeping accommo—
dations for about 20 people. There are many comforts such as
a fireplace, electricity, a kitchen, cooking and dining equip-
ment, a bath, beds with inner—spring mattresses, sheets, and
blankets. No fee is charged which is quite a contrast with
parks in the United States. Two less elaborate cabins with
capacity for 16 to 20 persons, a lodge for 60 persons, and a

shelter for 18 persons are located at various elevations up

~100-

 

 

Plate VIII.

Itatiaia.

A. Park Headquarters. This beautiful
building of white plaster and red tile
roof is nestled in the midst of a sec-
ond—growth forest at 2800 feet. The
grounds are well maintained. An ex-
tensive museum on the first floor
receives much visitor interest.
Offices and a library occupy the
second floor. Note the columnar

sweet palms in the yard.

B. Sample Display from Museum. The
Opossum (Philander) at left and three-
toed sloth (Bradipus) represent typical
nocturnal mammals found in the forests
of Itatiaia. Note the life like poses
and expressions. All taxidermy is done

at the park Headquarters.

 

 

 

-102-
to the altiplano. All are well built of wood or stone but
lack electricity and running water. Two combination shelter-
camps provide open air camping during good weather and cooking-
emergency shelters (Plate IX A). A two-section bathhouse for
swimmers near Lago Azul and a guard station on the altiplano
road complete the list of existing park structures.

About seven percent of the area within the park is pri-
vately owned and used for individual year-round home sites
(Plate IX B). Also, three lodges, with capacities of 50 persons
each, have been built by corporations (Figure 21). These estab-
lishments supplement the park adxmmwdations while at the same
time benefitting from the park's existence. They provide their

own utilities but use park roads.

Proposed park improvements

Plans call for an improved access to the altiplano from
the south by developing the present trail into a jeep road.
This will be much shorter than the circuitous western route.
Also proposed is a trail on the east side from Tres Picos to
Cabeca do Leao.

Many new structures are planned (Figure 20). Sub-Head-
quarters in the northeast will aid in developing that area of
the park. Guard stations and fire towers are to be built
along the park boundary to increase the control and protection
of visitors and environment. Five more shelter camps at higher,
more remote places than at present112 will encourage outdoor

camping and a greater use of the park. Another bathhouse at

 

112Barros, Parques Nacional g9 Itatiaia, p- 18-

-103-

a-Efi '

"

 

v

 

Plate IX.

Itatiaia.

A. Scout Camp. This shelter-camp for
boy scouts is shown in the center of
Figure 21. It consists of a rustic
cabin with a large room, fireplace, and
kitchen used during inclement weather.

In the foreground is a cleared area for

outdoor camping.

B. Private Land Holding within Park. This
area on the road to Maromba (see Figure 23)

is typical of the ill-kept private holdings.

 

 

-105-
Maromba bridge near a deep pool of the Rio Campo Belo is
planned to serve hardy swimmers.

In addition to an existing stone crusher, a proposed
saw and shingle mill will enlarge the park's physical plant
to supply building materials. This will require additional
hydro-electricity. A grade school, church, and new houses

will be built for park employee.

Summary 9f Cultural Geography

 

 

The park area has had a limited occupance and use in
the past due to its rugged, mountainous character and relative
inaccessibility. However, regions surrounding the park have
experienced great cultural modification as the country develOped.
A great gold rush (1700-1770) in the interior plateau north
of Itatiaia was followed by economic ventures in the Paraiba
Valley to the south. Forests were cleared in the valley for
an extensive coffee culture (1800-1870). Some wood was cut
for building and fueling the Central Railroad, which connects
Rio de Janeiro with Sao Paulo. The decline of the coffee cycle
was followed by cattle raising and attempts at other food crops.
Since 1940 many new industries, including service to vacationers,
have developed in the valley.

Some of the area which is now Itatiaia National Park was
divided into private hunting estates before Brazil became a
republic (1889). Settlement on the higher slopes of the park
area was attempted by the government for a temperate fruit
culture (1908-1918). However, this scheme was not based on

sound economic geographical analysis and failed. The

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PART II

THE ROLE OF ITATIAIA

AS A NATIONAL PARK

Introduction

The two preceeding chapters have discussed the past
and present geographic setting of Itatiaia, emphasizing the
areal distribution of both natural and man-induced elements.
The problem now emerges concerning the role of Itatiaia as a
national park and how successfully that role is being carried
out. The basic philos0phy of national parks was discussed in
the first chapter. Although nature protection is a major
function of national parks, it was shown that an emphasis is
often placed on specific uses, such as for recreation and re-
search. Certainly recreation is a part of human geography and
may involve particular phases of land utilization. Research
in a national park, likewise, has importance, since the park
area provides a natural, undisturbed setting for study.

Historically, most of the Itatiaia area has remained
untouched by the economic activity which characterized the
deve10pment of the surrounding regions. However, there was
a limited use of the area for research, such as the Biological
Station, and even for recreation in the form of hunting before
the park's establishment. In 1937, Itatiaia was decreed a
national park ”to perpetuate conservation of its primitive
aspects and consider the needs of scientific descriptions and

"113

tourism. Thus, a new land use policy was applied to the

 

113Barros, Parques Nacionais g9 Brasil, p. 82.

—108—

-109-
virgin as well as to the modified landscape within the park
area. Conservation implies the wise use of a natural resource.
If a park can be considered a natural resource as part of the
environment which is of use to man, then Itatiaia should
function to serve man.

The following chapter will analyze the role and
functions of Itatiaia National Park as a natural resource of
Brazil. It will show how the natural and cultural elements
of the park are interrelated to carry out specific activities
for conservation, research, and recreation. A final chapter
will offer various recommendations for improving the park so
that it may function more effectively and continue to set an

example for other national parks.

CHAPTER IV

THE FUNCTIONS AND PROBLEMS OF ITATIAIA

‘

The wise use of a natural resource depends on the
needs or demands of a given culture. Thus we have seen that
early use of the Itatiaia area was confined to timber cutting
and homesteading on the lower slopes. With the rapid depletion
of virgin forests and wildlife along the pOpulated southeast
coast of Brazil, a growing social consciousness developed. It
recognized the need for a modified use of certain outstanding
areas for their natural beauty and scientific interest.
Setting aside and develOping the areas as national parks would
aid in satisfying the needs of present and future generations,
particularly for recreation and conservation education.

Itatiaia was chosen to be thus develOped.

Park Organization

In order to carry out the needs at Itatiaia National
Park, a park administration was organized. It consists of a
director, vice-director, secretary and assistant, librarian,
naturalist, and a sixty—man work crew. The park Headquarters
serves as a base of operations, and the various interconnections
of roads, water lines, and utility lines reflect the importance
Of this section of the park.

The administration has organizational activities under—
lying and reflected in all other park activities. It must

-110-

-111—
provide means for protecting the natural environment and park
facilities against unwanted change, both physical and man-
induced. In addition to protection or conservation, the ad-
ministration must provide facilities for scientific investi—
gations. This function has met with success as indicated by
many good systematic studies at Itatiaia in the fields of
botany, zoology, and geology. Scholars from many parts of
the world are encouraged to advance knowledge of the park and
its environs. They are given extended—stay privileges in the
delux cabins at no cost and provided with a library of over
3,000 books and periodicals (including many of the latest
American works), an excellent museum, and laboratories. In
addition to facilities for visitors that have been described
in Chapter III, the administration also supplies transportation,
for a small fee, from the main highway to the park. The
naturalist or some other employee may act as a guide for
visitors. Protecting the health of visitors is also a major
concern of the administration. A medical doctor, living
permanently on an interior private holding, is available when

needed. He is not, however, on the park staff.
Park Activities

Conservation
It has been shown that the need of preserving part of
the once vast subtropical forests in the coastal ranges was a
1“Eyfactor in establishing Itatiaia National Park. However,
a Ciecree alone does not assure prOper protection of a valuable

panek resource. Conservation activity is mostly limited to

-112-
erosion control along the roads and trails. There are no
protective measures against insects or fire. Fortunately,
damage from these agents has been negligible, although fire
is a threat especially during the drier winter season (June -
August). Some fire-fighting tools are available, but no fire
towers exist. However, numerous towers will be erected along
the park boundary in the near future. The administration is
also given authority of surveillance and control over a buffer
zone surrounding the park (Figure 26, inset), an important
part of the Paraiba watershed.

Protection of the park against man presents a grave
problem. Not only is there a need to prevent overuse and
abuse of some areas by visitors, but also to prevent timber
cutting, hunting, and undesirable developments by neighboring

114 VisitorS' rules, similar to those

and interior landholders.
in parks of the United States, include: no unleashed pets,
no picking of flowers or plants, no cutting or disfiguring of

trees, and no fires except in authorized places.115

Only five
guards are stationed during the day to keep a record of the
number of visitors and to control the use of the Garden, Head-
quarters, Lago Azul, Maromba, and the altiplano. Therefore,

the enforcement of park rules is a difficult task.

Research
Itatiaia has long been a mecca for scientific investi—

gations. Some of these studies were cited in Chapter II. In

 

114This and other problems are discussed later on pages
120-125.

ll5Barros, Parque Nacional g9 Itatiaia, p. 59.

-113-
addition, research was encouraged by the government at two
meteorological stations and at the Biological Station prior
to the park's establishment. However, when the Itatiaia area
was set aside specifically ”to consider the needs of scientific
descriptions" (page 108), the support of research received
great attention. With the reorganization of the parks system
in 1944, a further emphasis was placed on research (page 17).
As a result, this activity has been strongly advanced at
Itatiaia. Since 1949, six scientific bulletins describing
the occurrence of park flora and fauna have been published by
the government. These have received wide distribution and
acclaim at institutions throughout the world. Collections of
plants and animals, made in conjunction with these studies,
now enrich the park museum and encourage further study and
education. Visitors who stay only a few hours at the park or
who seek shelter during inclement weather can readily gain an
appreciation of the park's natural history in the museum.
Over 18,000 insects are displayed in addition to the excellent
series showing insect mimicry, sensory organs, methods of
coloration, body forms, life cycles, and arthropods of medical
interest. Many habitat exhibits provide natural settings for
240 stuffed animals. Some 800 birds and 60 mammals have been
prepared as study specimens, and there is a rock collection
(Plate VIII B).

Each year on September 21, the park celebrates the
”Festa da Arvore" with a forestry conference. At this time
members of the forest service gather for a meeting and field

trip. They conduct a number of forestry experiments in the

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-115-
Itatiaia. The original decree placed "tourism”ll after both
conservation and research, thus indicating the subordinate
position of this activity. Although numerous accommodations
exist, little service is extended to visitors except around
the park Headquarters.

A variety of accommodations, as described in Chapter
III, assures satisfaction for groups of diverse size and
needs. There is no time limit for the use of camp sites, as
in parks of the United States, but accommodations must be re-
served during the summer. Some visitors bring equipment for
an overnight stay at park lodges, cabins, and shelters, which
have a total capacity of 138 persons. Others prefer to stay
at one of the three corporatively-owned lodges, which have a
total capacity of 150 persons. Thus, only a maximum of 288
persons can be housed or sheltered in the park at one time.
In addition, outdoor camping is also possible throughout the
park and especially at two areas in the southern part.

The yearly park attendance increased from about 5000
in 1937 to 51,100 in 1958. There was an unexplained drop in
1954 (Figure 22). The recent increase is probably due to a
combination of advertising from widely circulated booklets
and research bulletins on Itatiaia, and a rise in living
standards of the populace. In 1958, about 80 percent of the

visitors came from Rio de Janeiro and 18 percent from 350

 

116"Tourism" should only refer to sightseeing and short-
stay activity; however, in the park decree, ”tourism” also in-
cludes extended camping and lodging.

~116-

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-117-
Paulo.117 Their length of stay was not recorded, but most
visitors seemed to remain for a day only as true ”tourists;”
the rest camped or lodged for at least one week. Resorting118
is uncommon although, in a sense, some interior landholders
living on park land are resorters. Even though the park is
open year-round, the spring and summer months (November - Febru—
ary) attract the greatest number of people (Figure 23). A
small increase during the sunny, dry winter months (July -
September) may be caused by an influx of students between
school terms. However, during this period, only the cabin ac-
commodations are used continuously.

Five principal areas lure visitors: the Garden at Monte
Serrat, the park Headquarters, Lago Azul swimming area, Maromba
bridge and falls, and the altiplano. Figure 23 indicates the
areas most frequented during the year as a percentage of the
total periodic visitation. The Garden attracts the greatest
percentage of visitors throughout most of the year, between
32 and 40 percent from September to May. The Headquarters is
also popular, with 25 to 32 percent of the total visitation.
These two areas are easily accessible by good roads and require
little walking. Beautiful and well-kept exotic plantings, an
orchid greenhouse, and a picnic shelter enhance the attractive-
ness of the Garden area. The Headquarters, at a slightly higher

elevation, offers the visitor an excellent museum, photograph

 

117The distance by highway to Rio is 100 miles and to Sao
Paulo is 155 miles. There are regular bus and rail facilities
between these two cities which pass near the park.

118Resorting may be defined as the habitual use of an
area as a temporary, fixed abode.

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-12 _

The size of the circles corresponds to the 1958 visitation at
each area. About one-third of the total visitation was at the
Garden (16,200) and over 80 percent at the Garden, Headquarters,
and Lago Azul. Sectors indicate the relative use of each area
during various seasons as the percentage of yearly visitation
at the area. The use of Maromba was quite uniform throughout
the year: the use of Lago Azul swimming area was concentrated
during the warm summer months. Very little use of the park oc—
curred above Maromba Bridge, due to poor accessibility.

Visitors of Itatiaia can find not only natural beauty
and a chance to be out-of-doors, but also educational Oppor—
tunities. At the Headquarters, the museum displays are par-
ticularly well presented for general interest, and informative
books about natural history may be borrowed from the library.
An excursion with the naturalist can be most rewarding. How-
ever, few visitors exert themselves beyond a casual look at

the Headquarters and at the most accessible areas of the park.

Park Problems and Possible Solutions

When man invaded the natural environments of the
Itatiaia area, certain problems developed. Some problems had
existed before the park was established, others came to the
fore with park organization and public use.

1. As described in Chapter III, the early occupancy
of Itatiaia changed the original landscape. Virgin forests
were cut, grasslands were burned, and large mammals and game
birds were hunted almost to the point of extinction. Habitats

were altered so that abnormally high populations of rodents

—l2l-
and insects develOped.

Artificial stocking of fauna depleted by man, such as
that of the tapir and red brocket deer, would aid in restoring
the area so it might resemble its original conditions. Large
predators, for example the puma, still exist so there would
be no danger of exceeding the carrying capacity of the forest.
Reforestation has also been suggested, but with protection
assured over a long period of time the natural plant succession
will eventually reach a forest climax. Meanwhile, the cutover
and second-growth areas provide dramatic evidence of man's
need for a greater awareness of conservation. Only by strict
enforcement of existing laws through a full-time park ranger
service can the renewal and perpetuation of natural features
be attained.

2. Private land ownership within the park presents a
problem to management but it is not a unique phenomenon.
National parks in the United States still have about 182,000
acres, or 1.4 percent of the total area, in private holdingg9
These are particularly in the east where settlements occurred
prior to the establishment of parks, as at Itatiaia. Some of
the landholders at Itatiaia are related to the German colonists
who were involved in the attempt to establish a fruit culture.
The high prices they place on their holdings makezm too costly
for the government to buy them out. Theoretically, park regu—
lations also apply to these people with the added restrictions

of no grazing, burning, or crop raising. Land modification is

 

119Information Please Almanac, P- 275-

-122~
limited to building a home, driveway, and drains only. Actually
great latitude in land use is tolerated since the law cannot
be made to function retroactively. One resident owns a large
home, an outdoor dance pavillion, and a private swimming pool.
Less wealthy landholders have built unsightly shacks and chicken
000ps, graze a few cows and goats, and plant subsistence crops
(Plate VIII B). Dogs are allowed to run freely and harass
park wildlife. Some hunting and forest cutting occurs. Un-
fortunately, these conditions exist in the southern part of
the park where the most visitation occurs.

About two-thirds of the landowners have organized as
the "Association of Friends of Itatiaia.” Outwardly they
spread good will for the park, but their real purpose seems
to be to assure their tenure in the parkl.2O Only through strong
government pressure and public sentiment can these holdings be
secured for the use of the parkl.21 Until such action takes
place, park laws must be strongly enforced, again emphasizing
the need of a park ranger service.

3. A more subtle problem concerns public apathy both
within and outside the park. Few visitors show interest in
seeing, appreciating, and learning about the great natural
attractions of Itatiaia. Few have concern for keeping the park
in a condition for others to enjoy; consequently rubbish is
dropped on the trails and fireplaces are left unsightly. Of

even greater importance is the fact that the vast majority of

 

120This is the opinion of most of the park staff.

121Barros, Parques Nacionais g9 Brasil, p- 15-

 

-123_

Brazilians do not visit national parks. A number of factors.
are involved. General poverty prevails among the Brazilians
which limits education and recreational opportunity. Some
population nodes lack good transportation facilities to the
parks. The attempts of many Brazilians in the crowded eastern
coastal cities to rapidly assimilate modern civilization tend
to resist the appreciation of the park areas, which are symbols
of the still untamed wilderness.

Whatever the factors are which cause public apathy,
the solutions may lie in the following: (a) changes in the
stage of development of the country as a whole, (b) intensive
educational efforts on the part of schools, newspapers, and a
park ranger service, and (c) learning how to recreate or enjoy
leisure time as standards of living rise. The values derived
by the individual who visits Itatiaia or other parks undoubtly
contribute toward his physical and mental well—being.

4. Improper balance of park activities is reflected
in the inadequate control, development, and use of a major
part of Itatiaia extending 10 miles north of the park Head—
quarters, and including about 20,000 acres. Much of this
area has steep slopes or exposed highland. A new Sub-Head-
quarters in the northeast as well as more trails and shelters
should improve the visitor service and recreation activities
of Itatiaia. Thus a better balance of activities could be
achieved.

5. Overuse of a few areas of the park is a corollary
of the previous problem and also reflects public apathy. This

problem exists in many parks of the United States, particularly

~124-
at Yosemite where overuse necessitates such drastic measures
as covering some trails with asphalt. Most visitors come to
Itatiaia as casual observers and seldom exert themselves to
travel beyond the few areas in the southern end of the park.
Overdeve10pment has taken place in these areas. The adminis-
trators of the park have proposed an artificial fish pond and
a sports field. These may attract more visitors, but there
is a possibility that such improvements would eclipse the ap-
preciation of the natural setting which makes Itatiaia some—
thing more than just a city playground.

The solution again lies in developing more facilities
in other parts of the park, improving guide and interpretative
service, and enforcing park regulations. The establishment
of new parks in other areas of the Eastern Highlands would
help distribute visitors and relieve pressure on Itatiaia.

6. The problem of an inadequate number of personnel
plagues national parks everywhere]:22 A well-staffed ranger
service at Itatiaia would alleviate most of the problems
already mentioned and provide other benefits, such as better
protection_to park features and to visitors. An organized
search and rescue team is particularly important in areas of
dense forest and rugged mountains, such as found at Itatiaia.

Once the government is convinced of the need for a
park ranger service, tax appropriations could be used to help
support such a program. However, money raising devices, as

are common in parks of the United States, could also be used:

 

122Brockman, 9p. cit., p. 110.

 

-125-
for example, a l5-day or seasonal automobile permit and
fees for the use of cabins.

Another aspect in the problem of personnel involves
the welfare of day laborers. Only a few are willing to live
in homes supplied by the park. The majority prefer to stay
in the village of Itatiaia on the main highway (Figure 6)
where their children can be closer to schools. The park has
to provide commuter service by truck. In an emergency such
as a forest fire, delay in getting fire fighters may have
grave consequences.

In spite of the many problems which plague Itatiaia,
the park is of value to Brazil. Over 50,000 visitors find
recreation here each year and the number is rapidly increasing.
Research activities have been outstanding. The park stands
as a prototype for Brazil and other tropical regions of a new
era in land use and conservation philosophy. Itatiaia can
be used as a spearhead for conservation and education. The
final chapter will expand on these prospects and summarize

recommendations for park improvement.

CHAPTER V
THE FUTURE OF ITATIAIA

Numerous problems resulting from park activities were
discussed in the preceding chapter. These problems are similar
to those existing in national parks of the United States:
competition for use Of the land, the destruction of physical
resources by man, increased visitation, and inappropriate use.
The principles governing "apprOpriate use” hold the key to the
solution of most park problems. Use of the park area is the
sole basis for considering it a natural resource. However,
activities must be controlled so as not to impair significant
natural or scenic values, nor lessen the Opportunity for others
to enjoy the park.

A complete rehabilitation of national parks in the

q
”12“ This

United States is being carried on under ”Mission 66.
ten-year program of park improvement, from 1956 to 1966, is

the kind needed at Itatiaia. Its broad objectives are: better
use Of the whole park, improved interpretative services, and
expanded research in problems of use and preservation. Areas

already developed are being made effective for visitor needs.

New accommodations and roads are being opened to encourage a

123National Park Service, Our Heritage, g_Plan for Its
Protection and Use: Mission 96 (Washington: U. S. Department
of the Interior, n.d. .

-126-

it ‘— ._.

-127-
dispersal of land use. However, the natural scene must be
preserved. This background of undeveloped wilderness, which
is not intensively used, forms the character of a national
park. The following section of recommended improvements at
Itatiaia reflects the underlying spirit of Mission 66 while
recognizing the specific needs of this Brazilian national

park.

Recommended Improvements

Even a cursory Observation at Itatiaia indicates that
there are some important problems to be resolved if the area
is to continue in the role of a national park and gain stature
in the future. The following suggestions are presented not as
an exhaustive list but to indicate some areas of the total park
program which might be improved. They are divided into two
groups according to urgency: immediate actions and long-range

planning.

Immediate Actions

The constant need of vigilance to protect the park's
natural setting is basic to park policy. This need may be
partially fulfilled through a ranger service, whose full—time
job would include the enforcing of park regulations. The
ranger service would also assure protection to park facilities.
Other immediate actions related to conservation should include
the repair of roads and trails, particularly the improvement
of the unique altiplano road. Erosion would thus be minimized
and, at the same time, access to various areas of the park

would be facilitated.

-l28-

Along the lines of research, urgency is not too great,
but a number of projects are suggested. A large relief model
of the park, using the available topographic sheets, could be
easily produced. This would provide a basis for planning the
study of certain elements in the park as well as an excellent
interpretation of the park for visitors. The development of
a phytogeographic map in greater detail than that done by the
present author (Figure 8) would likewise be Of value. An
aerial mosain map could be constructed from the existing air
photos, to provide a good base for planning such improvements
as roads and trails.

The installation of an attractive rustic sign at the
entrance to the park and also one at the main highway would
be good advertisement to visitors. In addition, the visitor
could be given a guide pamphlet to Itatiaia. This should
include a detailed map, orientation data, an explanation of
the major park features, and a review of park regulations.124

Visitors should be required to register for extended excursions

and climbing tours to assure their safety.

Long-Range Planning
Since a national park usually has a permanent status,
long-range planning should be considered. Conservation aspects
of planning at Itatiaia must first of all be directed toward a
complete boundary survey Of the park. This should include dis-

tinct markings to avoid encroachments on park land. Other

121With the author's suggestion and illustrations, the
park director is currently preparing such a pamphlet.

-129-
protective measures are now being developed, such as new guard
stations and fire towers. An internal radio communication
system would make these facilities more effective. The problem
Of private land holdings within the park is a difficult one
to solve. Perhaps, with the passage of time, the government
may be able to purchase the most unkempt holdings and rehab-
ilitate them. The more prosperous owners may be prevailed
upon to abide by park regulations and respect their position
in the national park. This is a situation somewhat comparable
to private leasing Of land in national forests of the United
States.

Specific research projects have been noted in Chapter
II. Many other geographic studies could be included in long-
range planning. Reinstating the weather station on the alti—
plano and establishing others at various elevations could aid
in understanding the park's climate. More intensive study of
landforms and hydrology would likewise be of value. The
analysis of land use in various sections of the park would aid
in determining where improvements should be made or use our-
tailed. The facilities Of the museum could be expanded with
an herbarium and displays of various woods and seeds. More
space is needed for the taxidermy laboratory and a photographic
darkroom.

Planning for future use of the park by visitors is of
prime importance. Many of the suggestions noted thus far also
relate to visitor service and recreation. Specific items to
consider are directed toward making the park more enjoyable

and meaningful to visitors. Roads, paths, and shelters should

—l30-
be expanded in response to the new Sub—Headquarters in the
northeastern part of the park. Interpretative service could
include self-guided paths, with exhibits and identifying tags,
and frequent lectures and nature walks with the park rangers.
College students might be employed during the summer to aid in
this work. Various courses could be organized for painting,
photography, camping, and mountain climbing. An understanding
of conservation will be developed in the visitors through many
of these activities, even though they are not aware of it.
However, specific publications might be helpful in teaching
visitors how to enjoy the out-of-doors and to fully appreciate
their national park.
The Importance 9f Itatiaia_g§
g Geographic Complex

Itatiaia National Park appears as just a dot on the map.
Nevertheless, it commands a great deal of attention and respect
in Brazil and elsewhere. 'Here is a tropical mountain area
which can be studied as a unit having a considerable diversity
of physical, biotic, and cultural elements. Many problems
which concern climate, landforms, and vegetation and their
interrelations offer themselves for continued study. The com-
parison Of Itatiaia with similar environments in other parts
of the world establishes its pecularities as well as its typical-
ly tropical characteristics.

The Itatiaia area has displayed a variety of land use
reflecting the development of Brazil. Therefore, the study of
interrelations between man and the environment allows us to

better understand sequent occupance, or the stages in taming

-131-
a wilderness. That some of this wilderness should be recog-
nized as valuable to be retained unimpared is also Of impor-
tance. Itatiaia stands out as the first area in the country
to have been selected for the role of a national park. This
role, closely following that of parks in the United States,
has been carefully designed to meet the needs of present and
future Brazilians. At a time when much of the country is
still underdeveloped, it is remarkable that Brazilians have
had the foresight to advance conservation at Itatiaia. Even
more remarkable is that the initiative has been taken to
develop a national park system for protecting superb natural
areas and encouraging research and recreation.

Just what emphasis should be placed on future activi-
ties Of conservation, research, and recreation at Itatiaia is
a problem which must be solved by the Brazilian people. With
the growing need for outdoor recreation, it is likely that
visitor service will be given much greater support at the park.
Furthermore, Itatiaia is easily accessible to pOpulation
centers. Basic park philOSOphy may have to be modified in
response to these growing needs. However, if Itatiaia gains
popularity through intensive recreational use, Brazilians may
develop a fuller understanding andeppreciation of conservation
and will support the expansion of the park system in more re-
mote areas. Thus, some parks can function primarily as re—
search areas and others for recreation.

Itatiaia is truly an important geographic complex.

Its landscape provides typical as well as unique characteris-

tics of a tropical mountain area with many intriguing problems.

-132-
Its management as the first and most prized national park in
Brazil represents a new concept in land use philosophy and

offers an example for other trOpical regions to follow.

APPENDIX: A BRIEF DESCRIPTION
OF OTHER BRAZILIAN PARKS

Iguassu National Park

 

Iguassu National Park, created in January 1939,
lies along the Iguassfi River in southwestern Brazil. To the
south is a similar park in Argentina. There are two airline
flights per day from.S§o Paulo to the nearby village of Faz
do Iguassu, over 500 miles.125 Taxis provide service to the
park.

Iguassu embraces 506,000 acres of primeval, sub-
tropical forest and the.magnificant Iguassu Falls.126 The
park lies at altitudes between 800 and 1000 feet. It is
underlain by a basic eruptive rock which is covered by well
consolidated sedimentary layers. Through these layers, the
Iguassu.River has cut a deep trough. At one point in the
river, a multiple, horseshoe-shaped cataract, almost two
miles wide, has formed (Plate X). The cataract consists of
eighteen.major parallel falls, the highest of which is 260
feet; in comparison, Niagara Falls is only 167 feet high.
During spring floods, the Iguassu River discharges twice
the volume of water as does Niagara. A humid subtropical

_—-

125Round-trip fare is about $50.
1261guassu is the Indian name for "The Great Waters."

-133-

-134-

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m wqdanom pmaa can opoz .cqsoanomp one s« mafia mnfipdomn< .poou oooa

nopo awn mpfi Mean age man pH L.onman ou mpqmwnwcs .monc poouuocm a
spa; maawu pmomnwa map amazon apnom ma Soap one .maawm moans "wmmwst .H madam

 

 

-136-

climate characterizes the Iguassd area.127 The average
annual rainfall is 61.7 inches, and a maximum occurs during
the summer.128 Winter temperatures may be as low as to
degrees F. Cloudy days are frequent.

Overlooking part of the falls is the beautiful Hotel
das Cataréctas, built by the Federal Government in 1958
(Plate XIB). A modern outdoor swimming pool, tennis courts,
fishing, and hiking provide year-round recreation. Over
forty visitors arrive per day and stay for an average of
three to four days. ‘Considering the great distance from
densely populated areas of Brazil, Iguassd is well visited
(Figure 3). However, about half of the clientele comes from
the United States. The park Headquarters contains facilities
for administrative personnel and a small museum.displaying
flora, fauna, and rocks of the area (Plate 21 A). There are
well marked trails leading through the forest and along the
river to the falls. A small hydroelectric plant, installed
on a tributary of the river, supplies power to Faz do Iguassu

and the park.

Sgggg Qgg Orgaos National Park
Serra dos Org§os National Park, the smallest in Brazil
with 2A,?OO acres, is located in the Serra do Mar range. It
lies only L0.miles north of Rio de Janeiro and near the im-

portant summer resorts of PetrOpolis and TeresOpolis. A

 

1279;; according to Kbppen.

128Departmento Nacional da Producfio Mineral, Divisfio de
Aguas, Atlas Pluviometrico g9 Brasil, 1 l ~1938 (Rio de
Janeiro: Ministerio da Agriculture, l9h8 , p. 22.

-137-

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on» no msmfip non H030» GOpr>Homno .do need mmcasm Mama
muopmnnsom m an copoanOc ma commando mouse .nooam pend“ on» moamsooo
peony one .mwpownwpwo mac Hopom .m agenda < .mnmpnwsdcmom.xuwm .<

.wmmmsmH .HN opmam

”138-

WI,

.(

Al.‘ “1'

 

 

-l39-
modern highway, completed in July 1959, greatly facilitates

travel from Rio by car or bus. This highway, perhaps the
most beautiful in Brazil, allows the tourist to penetrate
easily into the Serra do Mar while enjoying many vistas
toward Rio de Janeiro (Plate XI B).

The park has altitudes ranging from 3300 to 7A58 feet.
Thus, the marked decrease in temperature from.lowlands (11 to
2A degrees F.) is a welcome relief to residents of Rio de
Janeiro. An average yearly precipitation of 87.1 inches
occurs at the park Headquarters (BBOO-foot level). The
rainfall regime has a definite summer maximum.129 Landforms
of the area are outstanding. Crystalline rock has been
carved into sharp peaks such as "Dedo do Deus" (Finger of
God), or "Agulha do Diabo" (Devil's Needle), producing
striking silhouettes (Plate XII A). Vegetation shows the
influence of altitude. Below 5000 feet the primary pluvial
forest has great variety. Epiphytes such as mosses, ferns,
orchids, and philodendron.form a dense covering in the
upper tree branches. At 5700 feet, vegetation is nearly
dominated by broadleaf evergreen trees with spindling trunks
and a height of about #0 feet.130 Above 6500 feet is a
scrub forest of small trees less than 20 feet tall, of
bushes, and many ferns. No trees are found above 6700 feet,
except in protected ravines. From.this altitude to the

highest peak, an "alpine" vegetation zone occurs, induced by

_¥

129Departmento Nacional da Produch Mineral, 92, gi§.,
p. 22. '

130The species is Cabralea eich;eriana.

-ll+0-

Plate XII. Serra dos OrgEos:
A. Mountain Climbers. 0n the way up Dedo do Deos,
climbers pause at 7000 feet to observe sheer
cliffs of exfoliating granite. Note the low,
scattered vegetation clinging to the steep slopes.
Subtropical forests lie in deeper soil of the
protected ravine at right.

B. View toward Rio de Janeiro. Early morning
fog seen from 6000 feet outlines the low foot-
hills. High humidity is evident from.moss and
lichen growing on the lS-foot tree to the right
and ground orchids at the left.

“11,1-

 

-142-

fire and topography. It consists mainly of dwarf bamboo,
other grasses, mosses, and lichens. Some areas covered with
charred stumps indicate that the treeline was formerly much
higher than at present. With the exception or bird and
insect life, fauna has suffered from the proximity to civili-
zation; therefore, it is not as rich as in the other parks.
The park consists of two different recreational use
areas, a short-stay picnic site near the entrance and inter-
'ior park land, which is used by visitors for longer periods.
The first area resembles a city park with public eating
shelters, children's playground, a landscaped swimming pool,
and exotic gardens. There is also a museum with a good
photographic exhibition. The interior area is more typical
of a national park. Ten cabins and five shelters are well
distributed to satisfy the needs of campers, hikers, and
climbers. As at the other parks, no fee is charged for
lodging. Hiking trails penetrate the remote areas of the
park. Visitation has steadily grown since the park's estab-
lishment in November 1939; there were about l80,000 visitors
in 1958, and numbers have increased about 8,000 yearly.131

Egglg Afonso National Parg_

Paulo Afonso National Park, established in 1948,
straddles the Rio SEO Francisco in northeastern Brazil.
Altitudes range from.600 to 1000 feet. much of the Al,700

acre park consists of the most extensive systems of cascades

 

lBlThis information was supplied by the park director.

-ll+3-
in South America, largest of which is Paulo Afonso Falls

(26h feet). A tropical steppe climate132 is uncommon in
Brazil and produces "castings" vegetation, consisting of
an open forest of stunted trees and cacti. The park shel-
ters fauna whose numbers have been drastically reduced by
uncontrolled hunting.

Paulo Afonso is still in the formative stages of
development. Two hydroelectric stations, designed to fit
into the environment, a large hotel, and an airport comprise

initial construction.133

132B§p according to K6ppen.

l33Barros, Parques Nacionais Q9_Brasil, p. 76.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Barros,‘w. D. de. Pgrque§_Nacionai§ gp_Brasil. Rio de Janeiro:
Ministerio da Agricultura, 1952.

Billings, M. P. Structurg; Geology. New York: PrenticeéHall,
Inc., 1954.

Brockman, C. F. Recreationg; Use 9: Wild Lands. New'York:
McGraw Hill 00., 1959.

Conselho Nacional de Geografia. Atlas g9 Brasil. Rio de Jan-
eiro: Servico Grafico do Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia
e Estatistica, 1959. -

Dansereau, Pierre. Bio 90 re h , gp Ecologicgl Perspective
New York: Ronald Press Co., 1957.

Darwin, Charles. A.Naturalist's Voyag . London: Mhrray, 1889.

Foster, Mulford. Brazil, Orchid of the Tropics. Lancaster,
Pennsylvania: Jaques Cattell Press, 1945.

Garbell, MA A. Tropical gpg Equatorial Meteorology. New York:
Pitman Publishers Corp., 19h7.

Guenther, Kenrad. A.Naturalist in Brazil, the Record ofP a

——_——_—

London: Allen and Unwin, Ltd., 1931.

Hann, Julius vOn. Handbook of Climatology. Translated by R. de
c.‘Ward. )New‘York: Macmillan Co., 1903. (First published
in 1883.

Information Please Almanac. New Y0rk:.McGraw'Hill Co., 1961.

James, Preston E. Latin America. New York: Odyssey Press,
1959

Mhssena, J. F. da Silva. Quadros da Natureza Tropical ou
Ascensao Scientifica a0 Itatiaia, Ponto Culminante do
Brasil. Rio de Janeiro: publisher unknown, 1867.

Nash, R6 The Conquegp 9; Brazil. New York: privately printed,
192 .

-14“-

-145-

Peattie,Roderick. Mbuntain Geography: §_Critique and Field
Study. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1936.

Thornbury,'W. D. Principles 9; Geomorphology. New York: John
‘Wiley and Sons, 195h.

 

 

Times Atlas 9; the werld. London: Times, Ltd., 1956.

 

Articles and Periodicals

Backlund, H. G. "On the Mode of Intrusion of Deep-seated
Alkaline Bodies," Bulletin 9; the Geolo ical Institute 9;
the University 9; Upsala, XXIV-T1933}, 15-22.

Barros, W. D. de. "A Importancia Publica dos Parques Nacionais,"
Revista Florestal, Rio de Janeiro (Sept. 2, 19h5), 73-76.

Bernardes, L. M. C. "Tipos de Clima do Estado do Rio de Jan-
eiro " Revista Brasileira gg Geografia, Rio de Janeiro,
XLv (March, 19557. 1-57-

Cain, S. A. "Life-forms and Phytoclimate,"Botanica1 Review,
XVI (1950), 1-32. . .

Chapman, Frank M5 "Andes: a New Wbrld,".Natural.Histor , XXIV
(July. l92h). 422-u40. .

Cuatrecasas, Jose. "Aspectos de la Vegetacion Natural de
Colombia," Revista 93 lg Academia Colombiana d9 Ciencias
Exactas Fisicas‘y;Naturales,.X (1958), 228-2u9.

Derby, 0. A. "On.Nepheline Rocks in Brazil," %uarterly Journal
9: the Geological Society, London, XLIII 1887 , 472-481.

 

Domingues, A. J. P. "O Macico do Itatiaia,".Rev1§ta Brasil-
eéra g; figggggzig, Rio de Janeiro, XIN'(October, 1952 ,
4 3-475.

Hedberg, O. "Vegetation Belts of the East African Mountains,"
Svensk Botanigk.Tidskrift, XL (1951), 1h0-202.

Holt, E. G. "An Ornithological Survey of the Serra do Itatiaia,"
Bulletin of the American museum gglNatural Histor , XXVII

(1928), 231-326.

Klute, F. "Die Bedeutung der Depression der Schneegrenze fur
Eiszeitliche Probleme," Zeitschrift gg; Gletscherkungg,
XVI (1928). 70-93-

Lutz, Bertha. "Antibios Anuros do Distrito Federal," memorial
Institute 9; Oswaldo Cruz, Sao Paulo, LII (195h), 155-238.

-11.,6-

Mark, A. F. "The Ecology of the Southern A palachian Grass
Balds,2‘Ecologica1 Monographs, XXVIII October, 1958),
293-33 .

Martonne, Emmanuel De. "Problems Morphologicos do Brasil
Tropical Atlantico," Bgyispa_§rg§;;§;;g gg Geografia, Rio
de Janeiro, V (19A3), 523-550.

Moreira, C. "Relatério das Excursfies Efetuadas na margem no
Itatiaia na Serra da Mantiqueira," ArchiygglflggeglNacional,
Rio de Janeiro, XII (1903), 159-168.

Muller, C, H. "Relations of the Vegetation and Climate Types
in Nuevo Leon, Mexico," The American Midland Naturalist,
m (1939): 687-729-

Odman, 0. H. "0n the Presumed Glaciation inythe Itatiaia
Mountains, Brazil," En enharia, MineracaoԤ_Meta1urgia,
Rio de Janeiro, XXI March, 1955), 107-108.

Ribeiro, A. "Vertebrados do Itatiaia," Archives MusediNacional,
Rio de Janeiro, XIII (1905), 163-190.

Rich, J. L. "Problems in Brazilian Geology and Geomorphology
Suggested by Reconnaissance in Summer of 1951." Geologia,
University of Sao Paulo, IX (1953). 1-9.

Ruellan, Francis. "Interpretacfio Geomorfologica das Relacoes
do Vale do Paraiba‘com as Serras do Mar 6 da Mantiqueira,"
Boletim Geografico, Rio de Janeiro, II (December, 194A),

Schroeder, Rudolf. "Verteilung und Jaehrlicher Gang der
Niederschlaege im Staat Sao Paulo," Petermann's Geog-
raphische Mitteilungen, IC (1955), 193-209.

Simpson, G. G. "History of the Fauna of Latin America,"
American Scientist, XXXVIII (July, 1950), 361-389.

Troll, Carl. "Tropical Mountain Vegetation, " Proceedings 9;
the Ninth_Science Congress, XX (1958), 37-h6.

Ule, E. "Relat6rio de uma Excursao Botanica Feita na Serra
do Itatiaya," Archiveg Museu Nacional, Rio de Janeiro,
x: (1895), 185-223.

 

Reports

Ab'saber, A. N. and Bernardes, N. vale g9 Paraiba, Serra d;
Mantigueira §_Arredores d9 §§Q Ennlo. Guide for the XVIII
International Congress of Geography. Rio de Janeiro:
Conselho Nacional de Geografia, 1958.

~147-

Barros, W. D. de. Parque Nacional g9 Itatiaia. Rio de
Janeiro: Ministerio da Agricultura, 1957.

 

Barth, Rudolf. A, Fauna d9 Parque Naciong; d9 Itatiaia. Bul-
letin VI of Itatiaia National Park. Rio de Janeiro: Minis-
terio da Agricultura, 1957.

Brade, A. C. ApFlora dp_Pargue Nacional d9 Itatiaia. Bulletin
V of Itatiaia National Park. Rio de Janeiro: Ministerio
da Agricultura, 1956.

Comissfio de Solos. Levantamento de Reconhecimento dos Solos

Nacional de Pesquizas Agronomicas, 1958.

Departmento Nacional da ProducfioJMineral, DivisEo de Aguas.
Atlas Pluviometricg g9 Brasil, 1915-1938. Rio de Janeiro:
Ministerio da Agriculture, 1948.

Instituto Pan-Americano de Geografia.e Hist6ria. Estudps
sobre os Recursps Naturais nas Americas. (A Report on
BrazilTT Rio de Janeiro: Servico Grafica, 1953.

P’

International Union for the Protection of'Nature. The Pos -

tion 9; Nature Protection throughout the werld in 195 .
Brussels: UNESCO, 1951.

O

 

Lamego, A. R. Q_Massico d9 Itatiaia. Rio de Janeiro: Servico
Geologico e Mineralogico, 1936.

National Park Service. Qpr Heritagg, g_P1an {pr i_§ Protec-

t
tion gpg Egg: Mission 66.‘Washington: U.S. Department of
the Interior, n.d.

 

National Parks Association. National Parks 91 Japan. Tokyo:
NUnistry of Health and Welfare, 1956.

Oliveira, E. Epochas Metallosenicas.gp Brasil. Rio de Janeiro:
Servico Geologico e Mineralogico, 1925.

Pan American Union. Nature Prptection and Wildlife Preser-
vation ip the Western gemisphepp, 19g . washington: U.S.
Government Printing Office, 19h3.

Pinto, Oliverio. Aves g9 Itatiaia. Bulletin III of Itatiaia
National Park. Rio de Janeiro: Ministerio da Agricul-

tura, 195k.

Servico de Meterologia. Normais glimatologicap, Rio de Janeiro:
Servico de Meterologia, l9h1.

—lh8-

Tolson, H. Lawg Relating pg the National Park Service, ppg
National Parks, and MOnuments. Washington: U.S. Govern-

ment Printing Office, 1935.

Valverde, Orlando. Excursfio g_Itatiaia. Guide for the XII
General Assembly of the National Council of Geography.
Rio de Janeiro: Servico Grafico do Instituto Brasileiro
de Geografia e Estatistica, 1952.

Unpublished materials

Segadas-Viassa, T. "Biogeography of the Itatiaia Range,
Southeastern Brazil: Altitudinal Zonation of Vegetation."
Manuscript for Ecological Survey of Rio de Janeiro,
Museu Nacional, 1958.

Teixeira, D. "Contribuicfio a Geomorfologia do Nacico Alcalino
do Itatiaia." Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Geography,
University of Sao Paulo, 1958.