IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII. I This is to certify that the thesis entitled A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SELECTED AREAS IN GREEK AND MICHIGAN EDUCATION presented by Katherine Papajohn Sgouris has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.Do degree in Education / ajor p ofessor Date July 11, 1978 0-7639 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SELECTED AREAS IN GREEK AND MICHIGAN EDUCATION By Katherine Papajohn Sgouris A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Secondary Education and Curriculum 1978 ABSTRACT A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SELECTED AREAS IN GREEK AND MICHIGAN EDUCATION By Katherine Papajohn Sgouris This study has reviewed the highlights of the historical development of Greek education from 1827 to 1977 and has compared selected areas of education in Greece with similar programs in Michigan. Emphasis is given to special education and the major effort is in the:areas of the visually impaired, hearing impaired, and educable mentally impaired. Important features of the proposed "Draft Law About Special Education, Special Professional Training, Employment and Social Welfare of Disadvantaged Persons, l977" are discussed and compared with Michigan law and practices. Finally, recommendations are suggested for implementation of this law and for the improvement of Special Education in Greece. Adequate education for the Greek masses has been slow in evolving due to social, cultural, political and economic factors. Greece's location at the crossroads of the world between east and west has made it a coveted prize throughout history. Modern Greek history is replete with political turmoil including wars and assassinations, all of which have had a detrimental effect on Greek education. Greek education has been affected by Katherine Papajohn Sgouris European educational practices, especially those of Germany and France, which did not meet the needs of this nation. In addition, Greek education has been hampered by polyglossy and has been under the control of the intellectual and political elite composed of leaders of the Greek Orthodox Church, the University of Athens, and the Secondary School Teachers' Organization. Another shortcoming is that Greek education is centrally controlled. The title of the central agency, Ministry of National Education and Religion, is significant. Support of education has been further hampered by inadequate economic development. This is primarily due to inadequate education of the masses. The gross national product of Greece is one of the lowest in Europe and only 1.6 percent of the GNP is allocated for education. Education of elementary and secondary teachers, who change an assembly of youth into an institution of living and learning, has been described as inadequate. Two laws, 842/1971 and 748/1970, on the organization of Pedagogical Academies and teacher preparation are discussed. Special Education in Greece dates back only forty years. Greek attitudes toward the handicapped have evolved from ancient practices of infanticide to acceptance and maximization of their potential. A number of Greek laws establishing Special Education are discussed and emphasis given on the latest proposed Draft Law on Special Education, 1977. This law is evaluated on the basis of a similar Michigan law and on a comparison of Greek and Michigan Katherine Papajohn Sgouris practices in special education with emphasis in the areas of the visually impaired, hearing impaired, and educable mentally impaired. The study concludes with a series of recommendations primarily limited to special education and emphasizing the three specific areas of the visually impaired, the hearing impaired and the educable mentally impaired. Highlights of the recommendations include adequate funding and staffing for the aforementioned area, improved teacher preparation, establishment of guidelines and a continuous evaluation program, research, use ofaniinterdisciplinary team approach, adequate diagnosis and placement, individualized instruction, and vocational education. This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of Thomas James Sgouris, my only and beloved son, enthusiastic scholar, whose high educational aspirations were an inspiration to his parents and to all who knew him. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author has benefited from the knowledge and experience of those who have worked closely with her on this study. The major influence and inspiration was given by the Chairman of the writer’s doctoral committee, Dr. J. Geoffrey Moore. Dr. Moore has given unselfishly of his time to provide constant guidance to the writer and has instilled far higher aspirations in the writer than she thought possible. Acknowledgment is also given to the members of the writer's doctoral guidance committee for their assistance: Dr. Carl H. Gross, Dr. George R. Myers, and Dr. Eugene DeBenko. In addition, acknowledgment is given to the members of the Greek Ministry of National Education and Religion. Particularly to Mr. Constantine Charis and Mr. Paul Barelis, Educational Specialist, Special Education. To Mr. and Mrs. Basili Damerelos, for the translation of the proposed Law on Special Education, 1977. To her parents, Mr. and Mrs. James D. Papajohn for their love and encouragement. Finally, to her husband, James Thomas Sgouris, Ph.D., M.D., for his love, support and encouragement. LIST OF Chapter I. II. III. IV. TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLES INTRODUCTION Purpose, Nature and Scope Significance Sources of Information Limitations of the Study Organization HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GREEK EDUCATION Historical Background of Modern Greece (1827-1977) Educational History Social Influences on Education Greek Education in the Last Decade Cultural Influences on Education Economic Development GREEK EDUCATIONAL SETTING Teacher Preparation Elementary Teacher Preparation Greek Pedagogical Academies Secondary Teacher Preparation Teacher Organizations Teacher Administrative Relationships The Teacher and the Student School and Community Relations in Greece SELECTED AREAS OF SPECIAL EDUCATION IN GREECE AS COMPARED WITH THE STATE OF MICHIGAN . Special Education Education for the Visually Impaired Education for the Hearing Impaired Education for the Educable Mentally Impaired iv Page vi 64 106 Chapter Page V. EVALUATION OF PROPOSED GREEK "DRAFT LAW ON SPECIAL EDUCATION, SPECIAL PROFESSIONAL TRAINING, EMPLOYMENT AND SOCIAL WELFARE OF DISADVANTAGED PERSONS," T977 . . . . . . . . 184 Article 6, Compulsory Attendance Article 11, The Establishment of a Special Education Coordinating Committee Article 5, Section 1, Diagnosis and Placement Article 3, Special Education, Special Professional Training, Employment and Social Care Article 14, Post-Graduate Studies and Specialization of Personnel Article 22, Operational Adjustments of Private Institutions of Special Education Institutions Article 20, Legitimation of Schools and Other Units of Special Education Article 13, Inspectors of Special Schools Article 21, Conversion of Private Schools of Special Education into Public Schools Article 12, Divisions Specialization VI. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . . . . . . 207 Summary Recommendations APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PRIMARY SOURCES . . . . . . . . . . 322 VISITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325 INTERVIEWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327 BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SECONDARY SOURCES . . . . . . . . . 330 LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Europe Population (Mid-1973), GNP at Market Prices (1973), GNP Per Capita (1973), and Average Annual Growth Rates (T960-l973 and 1965-1973) . . 2. Estimated Public Expenditure on Education, in United States Dollars . . . . 3. Teacher Needs in Michigan Handicapped Programs . vi Page 45 49 203 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Purpose, Nature and Scope In this study the writer will review modern Greek education, including special education, and compare selected areas of special education in Greece with programs in the United States, particularly in Michigan. An analysis of the salient articles of the proposed "Draft Law About Special Education, Special Professional Training, Employment and Social Welfare of Disadvantaged Persons," Republic of Greece, Ministry of National Education and Religion, Athens: 1977, will be made. The important features of the proposed law, which will go into effect May 1978,1 will be identified and compared with the Michigan Law and Guidelinesfor Special Education Programs and Services. Recommendations, based on Michigan law and guidelines, for the imple- mentation of special education programs for the visually impaired, the hearing impaired and the educable mentally impaired in Greece will be made for consideration. In order to accomplish this purpose the writer will present a brief background of the historical development of Greek education from 1827 to 1977. In addition, the relationship of Greek educa- tion and Greek social, cultural, political and economic development will be discussed. Further clarification of the influences affect- ing Greek education, programs and teacher preparation will be made by a l discussion of the Greek educational setting. This includes teacher preparation, the teacher, student, administrator and the school and community. Lastly, a comparison will be made between Greece and the State of Michigan in the areas of the visually impaired, hearing impaired and educable mentally impaired. Michigan was chosen rather than the entire United States because as a political unit Greece and Michigan are approximately the same size geographically; the two units are similar demographically; they both have demo- cratic forms of government; and the two governmental units are economically involved in agriculture, fisheries and manufacturing. Significance The significance of this dissertation is threefold. It is the first document to contain a comparison of special education practices in the United States, particularly in Michigan, with those in Greece. Secondly, selected areas in Greek special education are described and evaluated in light of current theory and practices in these areas in the State of Michigan. Third, this study is significant because recommendations are made concerning steps which might be taken to augment and improve Greek special education. Sources of Information In connection with this research two types of sources were available. The primary sources consisted of laws pertaining to general and special education in Greece; laws, codes and guidelines pertaining to special education in Michigan and the latest United States law pertaining to education of the handicapped. In addition, there were interviews with persons throughout the Greek educational system and observations based on school visitations and discussions with (a) administrators and members of the Greek Ministry of Educa- tion and Religion, (b) school administrators, (c) teachers, (d) audiologists, (e) physicians, and (f) parents. Up to this time there is a paucity of literature pertaining to special education in Greece. The writer in reviewing the literature concerning special education found nothing definitive in this area. The need for special education programs and instruc- tional methods for the handicapped has been recognized since 1937 and 1938. There were two brief laws passed during this period: Law 453/1937, "About the Creation of a School for the Abnormal and Disadvantaged Children," and Law 1049/1938, "About the Revision and Supplementation of Law 453." These two laws provided for compulsory education for blind children and recognized private schools for the blind. In addition, the laws provided for the establishment in Athens of special educa- tion schools for the mentally retarded. It was not until 1951 with the enactment of Law 1904/1951, "About Protection and Restitution of the Blind," that schools for the blind and compulsory education for blind children were estab- lished. These were private institutions with inadequate programs and instructional methods. In 1956, Law 3635/1956, "About Recognition of Private Elementary Schools for the Hard of Hearing and Deaf Students as Equal to the Public Ones and About Their Programs and Curriculums and About Government Assistance of Such," recognized private elementary schools for the deaf and hearing impaired. The year 1965 brought the recognition of a private high school for the deaf and hearing impaired with the enactment of Law Decree 4466, "About Recognition of the Model Special Educational Institution Operated Private High School for the Hard of Hearing and Deaf Children as Equal to the Public High Schools. Limitations of the Study This study is primarily concerned with, first, an analysis and evaluation of Law 842/1971 entitled "On Reorganization of Pedagogical Academies" and on a proposed law to become effective May 1978, entitled "Draft Law About Special Education, Special Professional Training, Employment and Social Welfare of Dis- advantaged Persons," 1977. Secondly, this study is limited to an analysis and evaluation of special education programs for the visually impaired, the hearing impaired and the educable mentally impaired. A further limitation of the study is that visitations to and observations of schools for the handicapped were made primarily in Athens and the surrounding territory.3 Fourth, this study is limited to a discussion of programs in special education. It does not deal with methodology. Organization The organization of the dissertation is as follows. Chapter I is the introduction which includes the purpose and significance of the study, its limitations and resources and the organization of the study. Chapter II contains an historical review of some of the features in the development of Greek education. In addition, the chapter includes the social, cultural, political and economic development of Greece and its effect on the development of Greek education. In Chapter III the Greek educational setting is depicted. The main emphasis of the study is in Chapter IV, i.e., special education in Greece, compared to United States and Michigan special education practices. This includes the visually impaired, the hearing impaired, and the educable mentally impaired. Chapter V is an evaluation of the "Draft Law About Special Education, Special Professional Training, Employment and Social Welfare of Disadvantaged Persons," 1977. In Chapter VI the dissertaiton is summarized and contains recommendations for the implementation of the proposed Law About Special Education, 1977. FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER I 1Personal communique (telephone) March 15, 1978, with the Hellenic Republic Ministry of National Education and Religion, Athens. 2Publication No. 10, Education in Greece, Kingdom of Greece, Ministry of National Education and Religion General Directorate of General Education (Athens: National Printing Office, 1973), p. 9. 3See Visits and Interviews Bibliography. CHAPTER II HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF GREEK EDUCATION A limited historical background of modern Greece and of the development of Greek education from 1827-1977 is described. In addition the social, cultural, political and economic development of Greece is discussed. The factors involved in the slow evolution of an adequate Greek education for the masses become apparent in this chapter and serve as a basis for understanding the late development of special education in Greece. Historical Background of Modern Greece (1827-1977) Greece's location at the crossroads of the world between east and west has made it a pawn throughout history. Control of Greece with its many fine harbors and central location of trade in the eastern Mediterranean has been and still is of value for military command of the region. A great deal of world history revolves about the Greek penninsula involving many people such as the Dorians, Ionians, Persians, Arabs, Turks, Romans, French, British, Germans, Russians, Slavs, Asiatics and Americans.1 This small penninsula of 51,182 square miles2 is comparable to the size of Michigan (56,872 square miles). Greece has a popula- tion of 8,736,367,3 which is also comparable to Michigan's population 7 of 9,157,000. It has few natural resources, but, because of its location, it has been a long sought after goal of the great powers throughout history. Greece had been enslaved by the Turks during the 400 years of Ottoman occupation from 1453-1821. After eight years of war she won her independence and was declared a kingdom by the 1827 Treaty of London signed by England, France and Russia. In 1827 John Capodistrias became the first regent of the new nation but was assassinated in 1831. England, France and Russia by consensus appointed seventeen-year-old 0tho of Bavaria as king in 1832.4 His lack of understanding of Greek traditions and his authoritarian rule resulted in his overthrow by a military revolt in 1862. Prince George of Denmark was then appointed in 1863 as king by England, France, Russia and Denmark and was known as King George the First. A new constitution was ratified at this time calling for a parlia- mentary form of government which was never achieved. King George was subsequently assassinated and was succeeded by his son, Constantine. In 1912 Greece took part in the Balkan Wars and also par- ticipated in World War I on the side of the Allies. As a result, the size of the country doubled. In 1922 Greece attempted to recoup territory in Asia Minor but was defeated by Turkey resulting in an exchange of populations. Over one and one-half million people of Greek extraction were expatriated to Greece from Asia Minor, resulting in an increased burden on the country's economy.5 In 1922 King Constantine abdicated under pressure and was succeeded by his son, George. In 1923 King George II was expelled and a republic was established in 1924. However, in 1935 a coup d'etat restored the monarch and King George II returned. In 1936 General Metaxas suspended the constitution and established a dictatorship with the king as a figurehead. King George was suc- ceeded by King Paul under the dictatorship. Greece was attacked in 1940 by Italy. The Italians were repelled and driven deep into Albania and had to be rescued by the Germans. The overwhelming forces of Germans, Italians and Bulgarians eventually captured Greece; however, the Greeks continued to engage in guerilla warfare during the occupation which resulted in wide- spread devastation. Following the liberation of Greece a "civil war" erupted from 1944-1949. Finally the attempted communist takeover was repulsed with American aid (Truman Doctrine) and the monarchy restored under King Paul. A right wing government was established by Karamanlés only to be replaced by George Papandreou's Center Union Party in 1963. However, in 1967 he was overthrown by a military coup d'etat eventually lead by Papadopoulos and King Constantine went into exile.6 As a result of the Cyprus problem in 1973 the military junta was overthrown and the democracy restored. Political elections were held in 1974, resulting in the establishment of a conservative government under Premier Karamanlés. In spite of many internal problems Greece has been a member of the United Nations since 1945. Greece sent an expeditionary‘ 10 force to Korea during the United Nations police action and lms been a member of the European Common Market since 1962.7 The continuous political turmoil in Greece, much of which has been attributed to the attempts of the Great Powers to control this vital area8 resulted in constant turmoil in the educational system. There were frequent movements to reform the educational system, and, depending on who was in power, there were counter reform movements. The governmental instability, the Balkan Wars of 1912, World War I and II and the civil war had a detrimental effect on the Greek education system. Thus, one must keep these factors in mind when evaluating education in this small, poor but proud country. Educational History The glory that was Greece is a heritage of which the Greek people can justifiably and understandably be proud. The islescfi'Greece, the isles of Greece! Where burning Sappho loved and sang, Where grew the arts of war and peace, Where Delos rose, and Phoebus sprang! Eternal sunset gilds them yet, But all, except their sun, is set. (Lord Byron) The school as a social institution reflecting the culture, traditions and political beliefs of Greece has as one of its main objectives and functions the task of preserving the religious, cultural and political beliefs of its people through the development of the school curriculum.9 If one were to evaluate the effectiveness ll of the Greek education system by the above mentioned criteria, then Greek education is meeting the demands of the society. Greece is no longer a glorious ancient nation; though it can be proud of its past, it must look forward with confidence to and plan for the future. It is no longer enough for the school to have one main objective of preserving and perpetuating the deeply rooted cultural tradition of its society, but must have a multiplicity of aims or objectives, the most important being the ability to meet the challenges and demands of the modern world through political dem- ocratization, equal educational opportunity and economic development. The understanding of the development of Greek education will give the student of international education a basis for comprehending the reluctance of the Greek education system to accept the challenge to change and why the curriculum has emphasized, above all else, pride in the past, through a study of the historical development which lead to the emergence of Greece as a modern nation-state. In 1821-1829 Greece fought a heroic battle against the Turks and won her‘ independence. Andreas Kazamias writes: The main purpose of education in the new state of the 1830's was not so much to create "new" ways of thinking-- from colonialism to independence to use a current analogy--as it was to revive the older Greek culture. In trying to do so the modern Greeks were confronted with the problem of synthesizing two major cultural strands, the ancient Hellenic, and the medieval Byzantine Chris- tian.10 During the 400 years of Turkish occupation the Greek people suffered suppression and tyranny. Schools were closed because they were considered centers of revolutionary activity. However, the 12 Greek people's passion for education as a means to preserve their culture, traditions, language and religion could not be stifled. Education, religion and nationalism were synonymous to the Greeks, then and today. During the occupation they clandestinely conducted schools at night in church basements where parish priests and monks instructed classes in reading, writing, religion and arithmetic. These schools were called krypha scholia (secret schools). Pupils were taught to read the church service, writing and arithmetic. The only books available were a very small spelling book, a collection of prayers and the Psalter (Psalm Book), all of which were in ancient Greek, a 1] language which both teacher and pupils rarely understood. Children walked to school at night guided by the light of the moon and chanted a poem which is taught to Greek children today in many parts of the world, including Greek school in the United States. This poem was taught to me by my parents and I in turn taught it to my son. Fengaraki mou lambro Fenge mou na perpato Na pigeno sto skolio Na matheno grammata Grammata dithamata Tou Theou ta pragmata My bright and shiny moon Shine down on me and light my way So that I can see to walk and go to school Where I will learn my grammar and lessons Grammar and 1essons--God's things.*— The joy of freedom and the deeply rooted passion for educa- tion was expressed by Greek educators at this time with slogans such as: 13 The veil of darkness which has enshrouded the Greek nation for centuries is now being lifted from our souls through education. Education will bring light where there is darkness.)2 It fell upon the Church to maintain the culture, tradition, language and, of course, religious beliefs during the four hundred years of dark ages. The influence of the Church has not diminished and can be seen in Greek education today. It is not the Ministry of Education which formulates top educational policy but the Ministry of National Education and Religion. The first National Greek Assembly was held at Epidaurus in 1822 where the first Greek constitution was drawn which provided for a free elementary education. A committee of the assembly was appointed to develop plans for school organization. The committee report of 1824 provided for elementary, secondary and higher educa- tion.13 Alexis Dimaras writes that Ioannis Capodistrias, a brilliant and well-educated man, became the first regent of Greece in 1827.14 Capodistrias furthered the cause of education in 1827 by appointing M. Dutrone, a French philhellene of the Society of Paris for Elementary Education, as a member of a committee to organize the primary schools. Particular attention was given to elementary education because it was considered the basis for the regeneration of the people. The primary school committee proposed that a Greek translation of M. Savzin's manual of reciprocal method be introduced 15 to the elementary schools. This method, also known as the "Lancastrian Method," was actually a monitorial method. The teacher 14 taught advanced students who, in turn, taught other groups of students while the teacher assumed the overall responsibility for maintaining order and school management. The monitorial method, which is called the "mutual" or "reciprocal method" in Greek pedagogy,16 continued to be used in Greece until 1880 when it was replaced by Decree by the French system of elementary education.17 The need to bring literacy to the new nation-state gave elementary education top priority during Capodistrias' administration. These early efforts for education were brought to a sudden halt, how- ever, with the assassination of President Capodistrias in 1831. The assassination resulted in a revolution and in 1833 Otho of Bavaria became King of Greece. A centralized pattern of education, which remains today, was based on the French and German models and was introduced soon after Otho of Bavaria was imposed as King of Greece in 1833. The institu— tional framework introduced by the Bavarians characterized Greek education until 1929, even though some attempts were made to reform Greek education during this period. According to Kazamias: At the bottom of the pyramid there were elementary schools (four or seven grades) which were compulsory and supported by the municipalities. Above them secondary education consisted of middle Hellenic schools (grades 5-7), similar to the German Lateinsflnflen, and four-year gymnasia, which were watered down versions of the German counterparts. At the apex of the system was the newly established (1837) Othonian University of Athens, itself patterned after the North German universities.18 The German influence on the structure and organization of the schools was reflected in the curriculum. Contemporary Bavarian neohumanism and classical Greek were taught even in the elementary 15 schools and dominated the course of studies in the secondary schools. Kazamias further states: The Bavarian influence was especially noticeable in the selection of classical texts, which were the same as those in the German schools. In addition, the Hellenic schools taught Latin; and the gymnasia, Latin, French, and German. Religion was a compulsory subject in all types of schools, as was pure modern Greek.19 In 1837 Count Armensberg of Bavaria issued a decree ordering the creation of the Othonian University at Athens based on the peda- gogical principles of Germany. This university at Athens followed the German system of organization and was to have four faculties: theology, philosophy, law, and medicine.20 University professors were appointed by royal decree and many of the professors were German. Kazamias writes as follows: The first public lecture was given in German by a Ludwig Ross on the Acharians of Aristophanes. In its charter, organization of faculties (law, medicine, theology, and philosophy), and content of courses, the German system was followed closely. The Elementary Education Law of 1834 was modeled after the French Guizot Law of 1833. Thus one might safely say that Greek elementary education was copied from the French. Maurer, one of King Otho's three Bavarian regents, whom he brought with him from Bavaria, was influential in establishing compulsory four-year elementary education for all children between the ages of five and twelve. Parents who failed to send their children to school were fined. Thus Greece became the first European country to have com- pulsory education.22 The modern Greek educational system, therefore, 16 was a transplant of the Bavarian system combined with the French influence. This influence and system prevailed for close to a century. Greek educators during this time recognized the mistake of copying foreign educational systems but could not do anything about it. Dimaras supports this view as follows: In 1842, Kokanes, a Greek educator was against foreign systems of education for Greece and many other educators {$35 331133fiSi’iSiJ‘éE?321.355”:bilgemii’éiiisl53ed”“' It was not until 1929 that a significant attempt at reform legislation took place. Law 4397/1929 concerning "the Reorganization of Education" provided for a six-year elementary school for general and vocational education and Law 4373/1929 established a six-year secondary School which had a classical or practical scientific curricula. The modern Greek language (demotic) became the language at the elementary school and the pure language (katharevousa) was to be used in only the fifth and sixth grades. School attendance became compulsory for both sexes from the age ofsix to twelve, and provisions were made for the establishment of night schools for illiterates.24 With the exception of brief changes in educational organization under the Venizelos liberal government (1928-1932) and the Metaxas govern- ment in 1937, which was stopped due to World War II, Greek education until today is under the provisions of Laws 4373 and 4379/1929.25 Greece suffered terrible hardships and destruction during the World War II years from 1941 to the end of 1944. The Greek people, who have always valued freedom above all else, fought a heroic battle 17 against enemies very superior in numbers and in power. They were able to hold their own against the Italians and Bulgarians but were defeated by the Germans. During the four years of enemy occupation schools and universities were closed. Nearly all education was stopped except for a few classes which were conducted in inadequate private buildings and in churches. The Ministry of Education put forth every effort to keep existing schools operating. This work was difficult as reported by UNESCO in 1949.26 Teachers were victims of firing squads and dragged into concentration camps. Children were starved and in rags,27 and many were kidnapped and sent to other countries. According to Evangelos J. Catsioulos, the occupation of the second World War which lasted until 1944, and the civil war which followed and lasted until 1949, were factors which stopped the educational progress. In addition, the whole educational situation almost regressed to the level it was at in the first 80 years after the liberation of the country from the Turkish yoke in 1821.28 In the school year 1948-1949 no important changes have taken place in school administration. Every effort has been made by the Ministry of Education to keep existing schools functioning, and to minimize the untold harm done to schools by a war that began on the 28th of October, 1940, and has not yet ceased, by Greece's nine-year struggle, in other words, against the enemies of her liberty and integrity. To understand how difficult this work has been and still is, it is necessary to realize that the war has destroyed most of what was built up over the last 120 .years through the tremendous efforts, economies and priva- tions of’a small nation exhausted by the battle--of 1821- 1829--fbr'her freedom; it is necessary to know that in the present struggle over 15% of the population has been killed, and 700,000 people (a tenth of those left alive) obliged to desert their homes and take refuge in the towns 18 for safety; it is necessary to know that these terrible events have created most urgent needs which must be met before all else, if the Greek nation is to survive. 9 30 Yet, as reported by UNESCO in 1948, the effects of the war on Greek youth did not result in low student morale but in an increase in religious and national sentiment. Growing up during a period of unhappy events, amid condi- tions which are still detrimental, the younger generation has yet managed (as it did during the occupation) to keep its morale intact, though the chosen target of the pernicious influence of many anti-Christian and anti- national organizations. Religious and national sentiment is growing among school children and students, and the Ministry of Education has confidence in the ability of youth to continue the great traditions and long history of the Hellenic nation, and to demonstrate the spirit of vitality of the Greek people.31 The Civil War, which followed World War II and lasted until 1949, left Greece with the prime necessity of rebuilding the educa- tion system and opening the schools. Greece, although recognizing the need for a new education to meet economic and social reconstruc- tion, did not have the means to implement such reform and instead had no choice but to resume the pre-war school structure of 1929. Educa- tional reform was needed but, due to economic circumstances, educa- tion remained the same. By 1952 internal order was being restored and the Greek people again wanted an educational system which would reflect and preserve their Hellenic-Christian culture and their language. This ideal was reaffirmed by the revised Constitution of 1952: In all our elementary and secondary schools education should ainlat the moral and intellectual training of youth and the development of their national consciousness according to the ideological principles of the Helleno- Christian civilization. 2 19 Based on the revised constitution of 1952 and subsequent laws to implement elementary and secondary school education the Ministry of Education and Religion has evolved programs during the next 20 years (1952-1972) which restored prewar education with some modifications and are basically in effect today. Modifications will be discussed under Social Influences on Education. Social Influences on Education Education in Greece, as education in all nations, has reflected the social and cultural values of society and educational opportunity has been controlled by the social class stratification. Greece does not have an inherited aristocracy but it does have a stratified class system which in Greece has given power and control of education to the intellectual and political elites, who are com- posed of leaders of the Church, professors of the University of Athens, particularly the School of Philosophy, the Philology Society and the Secondary School Teachers' Organizations.33 Greece is not a religiously plural society. The great majority of its people, 97%, share a single religion, Greek Orthodox, and a single heritage, Hellenic.34 The Greeks' religious unity was the foundation of its culture and helped preserve its education and freedom through the 400 years (1453-1821) of Ottoman occupation and tyranny. During this time religious education was education since all reading, writing and arithmetic was transmitted through the Church by priests who were called (daskali) teachers. The word (daskalos) still means teacher. 20 Religious instruction is compulsory in Greece and an important part of education. No one, not even the most liberal modernist, dis- putes the role of religion in education. Religion is woven into the very fabric of the Greek culture. However, Greek culture is not only religious but also Hellenic. Modern Greece, as we know it today, is a synthesis of ancient Hellenic tradition and Judaic Christian Orthodox faith. Thus, the phrase, Hellenic-Christian culture, accurately describes the culture of modern Greece and is reflected in the country's educa- tional system, school curriculum and value system. Greek society had, and still has, its own structure, tradi- tion and needs-~psychological, political and economic--which have set limits to innovations. Change had been postponed for years until changes in the social climate made them feasible. In Greece there never has been astruggle between the State and Church. The Greek government has welded into a single unit all the moral, spiritual, and cultural forces which go to make up a nation. In Greece the intellectual, religious and political minority dominates themajority and this has resulted in an obsolete, highly literary-classical education, selectively elite, which is designed to maintain the status quo. It has been thought that education could develop and change society by enlightening the people of the need for change and reform. But to do this education itself must change and reform to meet the needs of society. Educational change in Greek education since 1836 has not included reforming the basic concept of education. Elementary 21 education has remained the same with its objectives of creating literacy and developing a knowledge of the Greek Orthodox faith for those individuals who would be employed in agriculture and other low-level occupations in the primary sector of the economy. Secondary education has been intensely academic with an emphasis on classical Greek learning. This was justified on the grounds of patriotism and religion as well as intellectualism. Secondary schools were highly selective and prepared students for entrance to the university and to the prestigious professions of law, education, politics, and the Church. There were few commercial and technical schools in the 19th century. The character of Greek secondary education to the present is founded on the humanistic ideal and the Hellenic-Christian tradi- tion.35 Although the need for educational reform as a means to achieve social, cultural, political and economic development was recognized by Greek educators, necessary educational reform did not take place. The curriculum had been expanded to include more scientific subjects but the essential educational function of the Greek secondary school, the gymnasium, has been aul academic, classical education since 1929. As Kazamias explained: In the twentieth century, the gymnasium has been the boon and at the same time the bane of Greek secondary educa- tion. Its academic emphasis has perpetuated an intellectual tradition of a color very dear to the Greeks. Its mono- lithic character couldn't meet the demands of a-changing society and serious problems were created.. First of all, it stifled any significant growth in scientific, technical, «or vocational education at a period when the country had been relying more and more on industry for its economic development and, hence, in need of mOre skilled technicians and better trained personnel.36 22 Professor Kazamias writes the following on the results of Greek secondary education: It contributed to the creation of what has been called "an intellectual proletariat." Many of the graduates of the gymnasia, unable to secure white-collar jobs for which their education allegedly prepared them, became ready fol- lowers of doctrines considered inimical to Greek demo- cratic beliefs. Third, the large number of drop-outs before completion of the six-year course created another unemployment problem, for these people were not prepared for any kind of occupation. And, finally, the standards of secondary education suffered because of the increasing numbers of students, lacking the requisite intellectual competence, who found themselves in the gymnasia.37 1957 marked the beginning of a decade, of attempted educa- tional reform. In addition, efforts were made to change Greece's social institutions to meet the demands of a modern democratic polity and an expanding economy. Educational reform in Greece is one of the nation's most crucial yet unsolvable social problems. The reason for the lack of reform of Greek education has been analyzed by Professor Kazamias as being attributable to the deeply rooted traditions, Hellenism and Orthodox Christianity. These traditions are supported by powerful institutionalized interests, the Church and the University of Athens. Conflicting social and educational ideologies such as society's needs for agricultural, technical and vocational education versus the traditional literate anachronistic, classical education contributed to the problem. A significant attempt for educational reform took place in 1957 when the Greek government appointed an eleven-member committee to make recommendations for educational change. It is interesting to note Professor Kazamias' description of the composition of this 23 famous committee. Eight of the eleven members belonged to the academic community: five were professors at the University of Athens, one was the president-elect of the University of Salonica, one was the president of the Athens National Polytechnic, and one the director of the Marasleios Pedagogical Academy. The committee included a member of parliament, an honorary member of the Higher Educational Council, and E. P. Papanoutsos, an educational critic and journalist. All members represented a conservative wing except Papanoutsos.w There was no economic, business or teacher representa- tion. The University of Athens' influence is obvious.38 The education committee's recommendations provided for the organization of general education into six-year elementary schools. The secondary schools would be organized into two three-year "complete (self-sustained) cycles." The first three-year cycle would be called pro-gymnasia (grades 7-9). The second cycle is com- posed of the classical gymnasia, literary or scientific, or the modern lycea with emphasis on modern foreign languages. Both elementary and secondary education would have a basic humanistic orientation. The gymnasia and lycea would be highly selective; admission into them would depend on the successful com- pletion of the pro-gymnasia and on the basis of an entrance examina- tion. The aim of the secondary school would be to develop Greek Christian leaders through an exposure to Hellenic-Christian traditions and values. A gymnasia secondary school leaving certificate would be granted on the basis of a difficult examination and would entitle the student to enter institutions of higher learning. A lycea secondary 24 school leaving certificate would be equivalent to that of the gymnasia but would not qualify for admittance to the university. The committee made the following specific curriculum recom- mendations for the first cycle: 1. 2. Reli ion: Teaching should in the main be based on the BiEie, the Acts of the Apostles, and the Church hymns. Modern Greek: The pure form (katharevousa) should be taught methodically through grammar and syntax . . . In the readers, aside from texts in the katharevousa, texts from recognized authors of modern Greek litera- ture should be included so that students will culti- vate the demotic language. Ancient Greek: Opinion was divided. The majority proposed that ancient Greek should start from the first class (grade 7). The minority opinion was that such teaching should be restricted to those who intend to continue their studies in the second cycle or opt for it. The others should study the ancient texts in translation and devote their extra time to practical subjects, e.g., agriculture, or handicrafts. Modern Foreign Language: French or English. Citizenship Education: Basic rights and duties of the Greek citizens to he taught in the third class (grade 9). Two members (both from the University of Athens) held the view that this should not be a separate sub- ject. Geography: No specific recommendations were made, except that it should be part of the curriculum. Handicrafts, music, the study of the local environment, and physical education.39 In the second cycle for the classical gymnasia, the members of the committee suggested that the amount of formal classwork devoted to Greek and mathematics be reduced. The intention was to give the students more freedom for individual study. In this phase the committee made the following recommendations:40 1. Religious instruction should be mainly on the texts of the New Testament (especially the Epistles of St. Paul), on Church authors, and hymnography. The teaching of French or English should be strength- ened. 25 3. Ancient Greek should be taught from original and complete texts (not excerpts). It should concentrate on great authors, e.g., Homer, Demosthenes, Thucy- dides, Plato, Sophocles. 4. Likewise, modern Greek works of literature should be taught in their complete version. It should concen- trate on established authors, not the very recent ones. In connection with the teaching of modern Greek literature, the two forms of the language should be studied. 5. In the highest class (grade 12) a general review of the entire Greek national literary tradition should be taught. Latin should be included in all classes. Mathematics and physics should be strengthened and elements of advanced algebra, analytic geometry, etc., should be added. 8. In the higher classes elements of economics and law should be included and taught by a law specialist. 9. Under philosophy, psychology should be taught in the 11th grade, and in the 12th logic and history of the major philosophical systems, especially the Greek. 10. In the history course, more attention should be given to general history of art (ancient, Byzantine and modern).41 V0 The committee considered technical and vocational education an important aspect of education and proposed a three-graded system of schools: lower, middle and upper vocational schools correspond- ing to the different types and levels of skills and occupations. In addition to the specialized studies the committee recommended, Greek, mathematics, and citizenship training as compulsory subjects.42 The most significant element in the 1959 recommendations was the conception and reorganization of vocational and technical educa- tion. Since World War II, discontent had been expressed at the neglect of technical and vocational education and at the "non- functional" relationship between education and economic develop- ment.43 26 According to Kazamias: The Committee on EducatiOn did chart a new course in another aspect of education, namely technical and voca- tional education. It considered such training as an important aspect of paidea, not narrow and specialized vocational preparation. It proposed a three-graded system of schools-~lower, middle, and upper-- corresponding to various types and levels of skills and occupations. In "vocational" schools the Committee also stressed the importance of humanistic, religious and citizenship training. Hence, in addition to the techni- cal studies, it recommended religion, Greek mathematics, and citizenship training as compulsory subjects. Although several individuals and groups applauded the Committee's report, there were some who criticized it. The most critical reactions came from the School of Philosophy of the University of Athens and the Association of Greek Philogists, most of whom are graduates of the School. Both bodies felt that the Report was a couched attempt to undermine the Helleno-Christian tradition by what they felt was an attack on the "classical gymnasium." Nevertheless, drawing from the authority of this Committee and from a newly established "Studies and Coordination Service," the government formulated a series of measures which were enacted in 1959.44 Legislative Decree No. 3971/1959, On Technical and Vocational Education, Organization of Secondary Education and Administration of Education, was intended to remediate this educational shortcoming with the following provisions:45 It authorized the establishment of a three-tier system of schools: two four-year, upper-technical schools for "sub-engineers"; six three- or four-year secondary technical schools for technical assistants and foremen; and lower-vocational schools (one to four years in dura- tion) for craftsmen and agricultural workers. The upper- technical schools will admit (1) graduates of the gymnasia or secondary technical schools after passing an entrance examination, and (2) the secondary technical students who have completed the junior section of the nasium or who are graduates of lower-vocational schools, which in their turn will admit graduates of elementary schools. The degree of direct vocational preparation will depend on the grade of school. In the main, however, all types will provide both general education and vocational training. The law also authorized the establishment of a college for 27 teachers of vocational and technical education and a Gen- eral Directorate for Technical Education, with the neces- sary councils for the preparation of curricula, approval of textbooks, and supervision.46 The Karamanlés government (1959) was in agreement with the committee's recommendations on general goals and principles. The conmittee and the government both agreed on the importance of techni- cal vocational education as necessary for the nation's social and economic development and that technical and vocational education had to be coordinated and strengthened. They also agreed on a revised modern curriculum, but both were bound to the past in agreeing on education's humanistic foundation. Karmanalés once said: Humanistic education is indispensible for every civilized man . . . But, under such a slogan, it is a mistake to stifle contemporary trends in the applied sciences and the technical training of youth. There is no contradiction between these two educational ideals.47 According to Kazamias, the School of Philosophy of the University of Athens was the strongest opponent of the 1959 measures. The School objected to the division of the gymnasia into lower and upper stages. Such a pattern, according to it, "would militate against the humanistic education of the pupils, for it would render impossible the adequate organi- zation of the curriculum of the senior section." The School also criticized the proposed equivalence of school- leaving certificates. It would increase the number of ill- prepared students--mostly from technical or practically- biased gymnasia--who sought admission into the universities. The government, the School went on, had used the slogan of techno-economic orientation in order to "cripple classical education." Similar objections were raised by the Federa- tion of Secondary School Teachers.48 28 The curriculum changes recommended by the Committee of Education were not implemented and again things remained the same. Once again the reform of Greek education did not take place. The 1960's marked a period of educational discontent unprecedented in Greek history. The Karamanlés government fell in 1963 and under George Papandreou the Center Union Party, which was more liberal than the Karamanlés political party, obtained political power. George Papandreou had always had an interest in educational II 49 reform. He was nicknamed the "Education Minister. Papandreou recruited individuals outside of the traditional educational establishment to attempt to resolve crucial educational issues. Papandreou appointed Papanoutsos as General Secretary of the Ministry of National Education and Religion and in 1964 Law No. 4379,, known as'the Education Reform Act of 1964 was passed.50 According to Kazamias the following changes were made as a result of Education Reform Act 4379/1964: Excerpts from Lucian, Apollodorus, and Arrian were replaced by translations from Homer, Demosthenes, and from the lives of Plutarch, Themistocles and Pericles; linguistic grammatical training in ancient Greek was replaced by similar training in the modern forms of the language; in history there was greater provision for a "social science" content, for the stud of man in rela- tion to society, and similar changes.5 The use of translations and the substitution of modern Greek for ancient Greek were hotly debated. The School of Philosophy of the University of Athens took the most reactionary view regarding the use of translations.52 29 Papanoutsos stated the spirit, ideology. and intent of Law No. 4379/1964 in the prefactory memorandum: There is general consensus . . . that our National Educa- tion should be basically humanistic in character . . . But the “humanism" that will pervade all the levels of our National System of Education, must be of a kind that is not attached (tied) to the passionate worship of dead forms of the past or is antithetical to the positive sciences and the technical arts (the possession and pride of our age). Faithful to the deeper meaning of Greek education and the Christian faith, such humanism must embrace the great intellectual currents, of our age and must aim at the improvement and the refinement of man's individual and social life . . . This law stems from the conviction that the basis and the guarantee of a true democracy rest on equality-- without discrimination--of all citizens to acquire the benefits of education. There is no worse form of social inequality than an educational system which is the priv- ilege of the well-to-do. A nation, which does not provide equal opportunities for all its citizens to be educated and to develop their abilities, is not worthy of being called a democracy. More than that, it would be injurious to the welfare of the nation if its human resources, the most precious capital, remained unexploited and inactive through lack of education. At a time when Greece is facing stiff competition in the international economic arena, she has only one sure hope of national survival: through education to equip her citizens with the means to exploit her natural resources and to develop the material and intellectual civilization of the country.53 The following changes were made in organization and in the curriculum in order to implement Papanoutsos' social, cultural, economic and educational theories: Free education at all levels of public schools. Nine-year compulsory attendance (ages 6-15), such provi- sion to be put into effect gradually. Restructuring of pre—university general education into three-year gymnasia and three-year lycea. Establishment of the "academic certificate" granted after the passing of special examinations and entitling students to enter higher institutions. 5. Establishment of a Pedagogical Institute under the authority of the Ministry for purposes of educational -> (» ro-d 30 research, in-service training of teachers, guidance of supervisory personnel, and preparation or approval of textbooks. 6. Increase in the duration of studies in the pedagogical academies from two to three years. 7. Setting up of three central boards of education to replace the previous Supreme Council of Education.54 Elementary schools were to provide the rudiments of general :ure and literacy. The three-year gymnasia were to continue to ilement this basic education and to provide exploratory courses the pupil's vocational interests. The lycea were to provide an ched general education as university preparation for those who lned to enter the professions. In addition, entrance examina- IS would be required for admission into the lycea but not into the lasia. The most important proposals in the renovated curriculum were following: 1. In the gymnasium, a term now used only for the first cycle of secondary studies, selections from ancient Greek texts would be taught in translation. The original text would appear opposite the translation. In the third class (grade 9) grammatical exercises in classical Greek would be given. 2. The systematic study of ancient Greek would begin with the first class (grade 10) of the lyceum, the new term applied to the second or upper cycle of secondary education. 3. Latin would be dropped as a compulsory subject. In its place, ancient Greek would be added. 4. The course of studies in the gymnasium would incorpor- ate more science and mathematics. 5. The previous diversification into separate curriculum streams at the upper level would discontinue. But beginning with the second class (grade 11) there would be different biases--historical-literary, mathematical- scientific, etc. Students would have the option to select one, depending on their interests and aptitudes. 3i 6. "Social studies" (civics, elements of political economy, the democratic system, sociology and law) would be introduced or strengthened. Civics would be introduced as a separate subject in the first stage (grade 9); the others in the second. 7. The demotic form would be thg_language of instruction and textbooks in the elementary schools, and would enjoy parity of status in the secondary schools.55 Kazamias' description of the proposed educational reform ates: "Form and content," according to a special memorandum distributed while the bill was debated in parliament, "go together." Translations represent particularistic linguistic forms and are circumscribed by particular per- iods of time. They do not represent the universality of the original text. In translations one loses the "divine fate, destiny, message" of the original. One can never enter the beautiful worklof ideas of the ancients through them. Ancient Greek and Latin do not provide knowledge of practical life; no humanistic study does that. A similar position was taken by respected classical scholars and by known classical sympathizers. "Classical Greek Grammar," one wrote, "is the most philosophical of sub- jects." "A humanistic or Helleno-Christian School where no Latin and ancient Greek are taught cannot be called a school of secondary education," echoed another. Such pro- visions, still another wrote, betray the "literary realism" of materialistic conceptions of paideia, which are charac- teristic of ideologies behind the Iron Curtain. At best, they would result in sham education. The party of Opposition, led by Kanellopoulos, attacked virtually all provisions of the bill, including the above. Three years studying ancient Greek were not enough, accord- ing to him. The absence of Latin would hinder communica- tion with modern Europeans, averred another member. "We do not have a backward educational system," summarized the chief spokesman for the Opposition, "but backward means to elevate it. Give us the means and leave education where it 15." On the other hand, the new curriculum measures were sup ported by leading scholars from the University of Salonica that had grown to powerful and challenging position vis-a-vis the University of Athens. And Papanoutsos ham- mered his message in the press and at special meetings. The second curricular matter that was hotly debated was the language problem. Here again the lines in the debate followed pretty much those of the translations issue. 32 Although at times the boundaries were crossed, charac- teristically those who supported the measures wrote in the demotic, while the opponents stuck to the pure form. The power of the Church and the University of Athens had imposed diglossy on Greek education until the 1976 reforms. Stu- dents in upper elementary schools and secondary schools were required to learn the pure Greek language (katharevousa) which is a dead language and very difficult to understand. The pure (katharevousa) Greek language had been the instructional language used in schools. In addition to this students learned the demotic, or modern Greek language which they spoke and used outside of school and at home. The political leaders in the past tried to dominate not only by military means but by cultural means as well. The katharevousa or pure Greek language was the prestigious status symbol of the intellectually and politically elite, while the demotic or modern Greek language was used by the liberal progressive educators. The 1976'reforms have solved, to some extent, Greece's linguistic problem by making the demotic, modern Greek language the language to be used in the Greek elementary and secondary schools for instructional purposes. It appears that the solution of the language problem could contribute to securing national unity and eradicating class differences. Greek Education in the Last Decade The overall educational program as it presently exists will be briefly reviewed and will serve as a basis for the discussion of special education in Chapter IV. 33 The Ministry of National Education and Religion stated in 1973: The aim of education is to instill into the minds of Greek youth the Greko-Christian moral values; especially deep respect towards the institutions of Nation, Religion and Family.57 Education is administered centrally by the Ministry of National Education and Religion. This is done by Royal or Law Decrees and ministerial decisions. There is a Supreme Educational Council (SEC) which assists the Minister of Education. There are ten education regions, each headed by a Councillor of Education who are members of the Supreme Education Council. These Councillors carry out top-level decisions on scientific and pedagogical matters as well as administer primary and secondary schools. As stated in Publication No. 10: The purpose of free education is the creation of equal educational chances for pupils and students of all social classes.58 In order to provide this there are six years of compulsory schooling which is free. In addition, there are no fees and textbooks are free. There is a preschool education program for ages 3—5. This is conducted by both public and private institutions. Schooling does not exceed four hours per day and is aimed at the normal development of mental, intellectual and physical faculties of these youngsters. Its aims are to cultivate: . . good habits, such as neatness, obedience, courtesy abilities such as socially living with others in prepara- tion for future community life; certain skills such as the correct and fluent use of their mother tongue, arithmetic thinking, correct use of their senses in 34 observing the environment; certain beliefs and ideals such was religiousness and other social and moral princi— ples.59 Only 28% (86,738) of infants between ages 3-5 attend these schools due to inadequate numbers of schools.60 Primary Education Primary education comprises six years of compulsory school- ing from ages 5 or 6 to 11 or 12. The aims and objectives of pri- mary education as stated in the Ministry's Publication No. 10, “Education in Greece" are as follows: Primary Education aims at the normal development of the physical, mental and intellectual faculties of children of 5-6 to 11-12 years of age. More specifically it aims at: (a) The cultivation of patriotism, of the Christian- Orthodox faith and the belief in moral principles. (b) The acquisition of right attitudes in relation to the environment. (c) The children's normal adjustment tothe community life. (d) The acquisition of the ability to distinguish between recreation activities and the responsible carrying out of an assignment. (e) The development of the ability to correctly express self. (f) The acquisition of the elementary knowledge necessary for the making of a livelihood or for the continua- tion of further studies.61 The curriculum of the elementary school has been spelled out in Royal Decree No. 702 of 1969. Appendix H.62 A typical program includes religion (2 hrs.), Greek language (8 hrs.), history (4 hrs.), environmental studies (6 hrs.), science (0-4 hrs.), geography (0-4 hrs.), mathematics (4-5 hrs.), political science, technologic workshop, music (4-6 hrs.), physical education 35 (6 ms.). This is the basic program which, of course, varies with each grade. The goals of this program, according to the Royal Decree, are: (a)lp create and consolidate in the heart of the student his love for the Greek nation, the Christian Orthodox beliefs and the moral life. (b) To give the student the correct perceptions with regards to their environment according to children's understanding. (c) To make students adaptable to their school environ- ment, to make them understand the importance of the individual's engagement to society life. The last available figures (1972) for primary (elementary) schools reveals that there were 9,235 schools (8,877 public and 358 private); 28,752 teachers (27,009 in public school and 1,743 in private schools) and 887,717 pupils (838,139 in public school and 49,578 in private school). The teacher-pupil ratios were 1:31 in public school and 1:28 in private schools. At the successful completion of the sixth grade the students receive a certificate which allows them to take secondary school 64 entrance exams or to be admitted to a lower vocational school. Secondary Education .Secondary education is not mandatory. The aims and objec- tives of secondary education are as follows: (a) The harmonious development of the mental and intellec- tual faculties of the pupils by means of initiating them into the moral values derived from humanism and the Greco-Christian culture; (b) 1116 acquisition of useful knowledge in addition to that acquired through primary schooling; (c) The preparation of pupils for higher education and professional careers.65 36 The preservation of the Greek culture and the Greek Orthodox religion is maintained through the school curriculum which .is designed at the Ministry of National Education and Religion. The Greek secondary teacher and student relationship is directed to the achieve- ment of the objectives of education but not through the process which is based on a very personal,individua1 and real basis but through the pre—determined curriculum which is not flexible to meet the indiv- idual needs and differences of all the students. Each individual has to go through the same curriculum, if he has a desire to achieve an upper secondary school education. The curriculum of the secondary schools is stated in Royal Decree 723 of 196966 (Appendix I). It is a six-year program which includes religion (2 hrs.), modern Greek language and grammar (5-8 hrs.), history (3 hrs.), elements of philosophy, psychology and logic (0-2 hrs.), political science (0-1 hr.), professional search and orientation (1/2 hr.), mathematics (4 hrs.), cosmography (0-1 hr.), geography (0-2 hrs.), physics and chemistry (2-3 hrs.), biology (O-l hr.), anthropology (0-1 hr.), fbreign languages (2-3 hrs.), Latin language and grammar (0-3 hrs.), health elements and first aid (0-1 hr.), physical education (3 hrs.), technology workshop (0-1 hr.), music (O-l hr.), home administration (for women) (0-2 hrs.). The last available statistics (1971-72) showed 217,168 boys and 200,119 girls enrolled in secondary school, a total of 417,287.67 This is compared to 887,717 pupils in the compulsory primary program. Thus, only 47% of the students in primary school 90 on to secondary 37 school. At the completion of the six-year secondary school program the students receive a high school leaving certificate (apolyter- ion).68 Cultural Influences on Education The institutions of learning reflect a country's cultural, social and political values. Therefore, the role that education will play in Uneinterrelationship of education and political development will depend on a country's political competitiveness and egalitarian constitution. Attention is so concentrated on the role of education in development that we forget that in most societies education has been a reactionary force rather than a progressive one. Education, often closely associated with religion, has tended rather to hallow antiquity than to promote innovation. It has usually been the prerogative of the ruling group, endowing them with the skills to maintain their hegemony and perpetuating the values upon which it rested.69 The national church of Greece is the Greek Orthodox Church. The great majority of Greek people are Orthodox and have been brought up with the belief that faith in God and love of country are mutually reinforcing. In 1915 the Ministry of Education and Religion urged teachers to bear in mind that "the loftiest and noblest aim of every school in the past and in the present has been religious and national (pat- 7O riotic) education and upbringing." The 1956 Committee on Education specified that: The national and religious upbringing of the child accord- ing to the Hellenic and Christian tradition, must be at the center of the curriculum.71 38 Elementary textbooks teach children their duty to God through stories about Christ, the Virgin Mary, the Saints and religious holidays. Daily prayer is included in the school schedule and children pray for enlightenment to learn. No one in Greece, even the most progressive and liberal educators and politicians dis- pute the traditional national role of the Church. The main reason for this is that Greece is not a plural society. Many agree that religion should be a part of the school curriculum. As Professor Kazamias writes: Politicians accept it, intellectuals do likewise; the people are conditioned into it; and perhaps all do not72 pay much attention to lt, or they take it for granted. The Church has supported the conservative, right-wing ideologies and the Crown, and according to Professor Kazamias has persecuted "heretics." The Church has allied itself with the purists on the language question and supported the literary-classical education which included ancient Greek and Latin in the curriculum. Some aspects of educational systems serve to retard rather than to promote growth. The reason for this is that the elites of the world have enjoyed their social and political status, their position of wealth and power. They saw no need for radical change which would mean the end of their world. However, to the modernizer, education is the way to actualize the world's potential brain- capacity. The modernizers are a threat to the secure elites. The Greek political and intellectual elites obtained their education at the University of Athens, which dominated university education in Greece for many years. Most secondary school teachers 39 were also graduates of the University of Athens. A degree from the University of Athens leads to prestigious positions in politics and education. Traditionally, since 1837, the University of Athens has established and defined the ideals of Greek culture. According to Professor Kazamias: One faculty in particular, the Faculty or School of Phil- osophy, has assumed the role of defining and articulating the goals and content of education; and it has trained a substantial percentage of the secondary school teachers.73 The University of Athens and its School of PhilOSOphy have had tremendous influence and significance in Greece's political development. Kazamias, in writing about the University and its School of Philosophy, states: Educational policy-makers have frequently enlisted their cooperation in formulating and carrying through their plans of action. Professors have often been called upon to assume policy-making responsibilities (in the recent caretaker government, Theodorakopoulos, a professor of philosophy, was appointed Minister of Education, a job he had held on a previous occasion); or to be on impor- tant commissions (of the ll-member Committee on Education, five were University of Athens professors). In most cases, involving changes in education (organization, examinations, teacher training, language, curriculum in general), the School of Philosophy has deliberated, issued memoranda, made statements to the press, and generally sought to influence policy. Its views are never taken lightly; they are discussed in Parliament, in scientific and literary journals, in the press, in teachers' organi- zations, and at round-table discussions. Still under the influence of German classical neo-humanism and the German educational idealism, the School of Philosophy has been conservative and purist. It has consistently fought against attempts to shorten or drastically modify the studyygf classics in the schools and the pure language form. Nationalism of the 19th century spread educational oppor- tunities to classes of people who had been denied an education and 40 education began to rival birth as a qualification for position and prestige. Education became the tool by which a new class was created which was neither aristocratic nor peasant and in which skill and knowledge counted for more than inherited status. This is particularly true of Greece which does not possess a hereditary aristocracy, a feudal or caste system. Education has always been a major factor in social mobility. Kazamias states: People will point with pride to the many leaders in poli- tics, industry, commerce, and the intellectual world who come from humble origins.75 Greece does, however, possess a stratification system which has resulted in unequal educational opportunities for children of the lower socio-economic classes. Children of urban educated parents achieve a higher education than do children of rural uneducated parents. This achievement is apparent in their over- representation in the gymnasia and to a greater degree in the univer- sities. Entrance to and completion of the Greek gymnasia is necessary for social status and prestige and the gymnasia is an important mobility agent since it controls access to a university education and to the prestigious professions. Parents are anxious to have their children enter the gymnasia which is a major factor in inhibiting technical and vocational education. The gymnasia curriculum is literary and classical with emphasis on the humanities and prepara- tion for a university education. Greece is putting forth effort to establish equal educational opportunities to people of all classes, particularly at the secondary 41 and higher education level where inequalities of educational oppor- tunity are prevalent. Although dated, this statement by Ammoun is still applicable: The desire to obtain a higher education is in general less strong among the "lower" classes. Consequently the smaller number of students from those classes may not necessarily be an indication of discriminating measures based on social origin; it may equally well be the result of freedom of choice operating differently at different social levels.76 Education in Greece, as in other countries, is a means to manifest political socialization which James S. Coleman defines as the deliberate effort to inculcate particular political attitudes and behavioralcfisposition through the injection of a specific political content into the educational curriculum. Coleman's comments are as follows: Whether termed citizenship training, indoctrination, or even more crudely, brainwashing, the objective of the educational system in all societies is to produce among the youth attitudes and dispositions that will support the society in which they live. Societies differ markedly in the degree to which the political manipulation of the curriculum is self-conscious and explicit, as well as the actual content injected into it.77 The Ministry of National Education and Religion selects textbooks, issues syllabi and all courses of study and makes all decisions con- cerning the nature, scope and improvement of curriculum. Curriculum questions have been explosive political issues. The majority of the political elites in Greece have had a literary-classical gymnasium education and a University of Athens degree. This common background contributed to a consensus as to the ideals and orientation of education. Kazamias writes that: 42 The views of the political elites have further been sup- ported by powerful forces outside the governmental poli- tical arena; two such forces are especially noteworthy: the Church and the University of Athens.78 The relationship of education to the recruitment of political elites in a particular society focuses on its social stratification system and on the degree of upward mobility within that system. According to Coleman, contemporary stratification theory suggests: (1) that the life chances of an individual for achieving political elite status are enormously enhanced if he belongs to,or can rise into, the upper levels of the stratification system; (2) that in modern achievement- oriented societies education tends to become the master determinant of social mobility because it alone leads to higher occupational achievement and consequently to a higher income, upper social status and high prestige positions; (3) that education is therefore the main, if not the sole, key to political mobility into elite status.79 Coleman believes that the school is potentially more influential than the family or other agencies because its authority is explicit and formal and therefore close to the polity. Coleman believes that this proposition raises the question: What are the variant effects of different types of school authority systems? In a study of democratic and authoritarian group atmospheres it was suggested that democratic leadership induces attitudes more consonant with democratic values. However, more data are needed regarding the effect of the environment or "culture" of the school in the formulation of political attitudes and orientation before a valid conclusion can be drawn. Coleman writes: iIrrespective of the type of authority system, however, the culture of the school itself produces effects that 43 may contribute to latent or analogous political socializa- tion in at least two respects, namely, achievement orienta- tion and elitism. Moreover, these effects are particularly likely to be marked in the developing countries, where ". . . school lessons are formal, abstract, and rather strictly cogni- tive." Certainly they contribute to giving pupils a sense of achievement represented by mastery of lessons and they demonstrate how to cope with activities in which there are definite and objective standards of success or failure.80 The focus of attention on the advantage of effort and achievement could influence and contribute toward the life-view shared among the elite that members of the educated class have a “natural" right to rule. This writer concludes that the degree at which education will interrelate with the political development of Greece will depend on the equality of political and educational opportunity offered the masses irrespective of social class stratification in society and, most important, the degree of interrelationship between the schools and the society which they serve. Economic Development Greece is- one of the poorest countries in Europe. Only twenty-five percent of the land can be used for agriculture. The crop land per person is 1.3 acres, comparable to that of India.81 According to Stephen Constantine Margaritis, in 1963: Greek economy was severely damaged by the occupation of the country by the Germans, Italians and Bulgarians from 1941 to 1944. Greece was plundered of her forests, her fishing fleet, and a large part of her olive orchards, vineyards, tobacco and vegetable fields. The highways, the railroads and the ports were also destroyed. 2 44 He also describes the country as follows: Greece is a food-importing agricultural country. Her agricultural products support only 60 percent of the total population. The main products are tobacco, olive oil, wine, textiles, chemicals and articles of food.83 The national income in Greece in 1950 averaged $155/year as compared to Great Britain's $770/year and the United States' income of $1,400/year.84 In 1960 Karamanlés formulated a five-year plan (1960-64) to raise the Greek standard of living ”. . . to the level of highly indus- n85 trialized European countries . . . The plan included development of education particularly in technical, vocational and scientific training. In 1967 Kazamias noted that: Studies published by the Center for Economic Research pointed to low levels of technical efficiency as a major source of low industrial productivity. Limited observa- tions indicated that the educational and technical com- petence of the manufacturing labor force was too low for maximum production in existing firms, let alone for expan- sion. Poor administration at the managerial level of industry was also traced to educational deficiencies. Concern over the role of education in meeting the country's techno-economic needs, which were rising as a result of Greece's association with the Euro ean Common Market, was shared by all political Greeks.8 As can be seen from Table l, Karamanlés' plan did not achieve its goal. The Gross National Product per capita in 1973 (Table l) was $1,870 for Greece which is still considerably less than the more highly developed nations of the European Common Market such as West Germany ($5,320), Sweden ($5,910), Denmark ($5,210) and Switzerland ($6.loo).87 45 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.0 000.0 0000000 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.00 000.0 000002 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.00 000.0 0000000 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.00 000.0 0000000 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.00 000.0 00000000000 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.00 000.0 0000000 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.00 000.0 000000 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.00 000.0 000000000 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.00 000.0 000000 00 0.0 0.0 0.0- 0.0 000.0 000.00 000.0 00000000 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.00 000.0 0000000 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.00 000.00 0000000: 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.00 000.00 00000000000 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.00 000.00 00000000000000 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0- 000.0 000.00 000.00 0. 00 .000 000000 00 0.0.0 0.0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0.0 0.0.0 000.00 0000000 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.00 000.00 00>000000> 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.00 000.00 0000000 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.00 000.00 00000 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000 000.00 000.00 000000 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.000 000.00 000000 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.000 000.00 00000 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.000 000.00 0000000 000000 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.000 000.00 00 .000 .000 .0000000 0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.000 000.000 00000 0 - - - 00000 000000000 00-0000 00 0000 00 0000 00 0000 000000 0000 0w00w 0000000 .02 000Qmo 00m,0zo 0000000000 000 uczoe< 0000 P: 00 000 00000 002000 000000 00000: 00 020 .00000-000_ 000 0000-00000 00000 000000 000000 00000>0 000 .000000 000000 000 000 .000000 000000 000000 00 020 .0000_-0000 0000000000 000000--.0 00000 46 .0002 000000000 00 .000000000 00000 000 00ozu 0003 0.00000500 0o: .00>0zo; .000 0000000 00000 .o.00 00 0.003 000. 000 00050000 0000.50.000 0:0 0:0 .000. 000 0000 00 000050 0.00: 020 000000 000 0:0 .00: 0:0 00 00. ON 00 0000 000000>coo 00000000 0 0:00: 0:0 .ucmec0m>om 00.00500 0:0 00 000.0000 00000500000 :0 00000 000000 on 0:03 0000< 0;» :00: :o00000000 000:: 003 0000000 000;» 00 :o.um.:o.0u 0:0 00. .m>.pmucmp 000 0000 002000 0». 0:0 000000 000 020 we 000050000 . 0.0 0.. 0.. 0.. 000.. 00 00 .000.000.0 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.. 000.0 00. 00 .0000.0. 000000 00 0.. 0.0 ..0 0.0 000.0 00. .0 .000.00000 00 0..- 0.0 0.. 0.. 000.. 00. 00 .000 00 00. 00 0.. 0.0 0.. 0.. 000.0 000 00. .0000.0. .000000 .0 0.0 0.0 0.. 0.. 000.0 000.. 0.0 000.00. 00 0.0 0.0 0.0 ..0- 000.. 000 000 00.0: 00 ..0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000.0 000.. 000 0000000x00 00 0.0 ..0 0.0 0.0 000.. 000 000 000000 00 ..0 0.0 0.0 0.0 000 000.. 000.0 .0.000.< 00 - - - - 000 000....0 00 000. 00 000. 00 000. 00 000. 0%.00W . 000. 00.0w0mw0 0000000 .02 00_moo 000 020 cowumpzaoa 000 uczoe< .u 0 0 .00 00000 000000 000.00 000002 00 020 .0000.0000--.. 0.00. 47 Margaritis stated: It appears certain that the future of Greece as a member of the Common Market and of the greater European community will be strongly affected by the quantity and quality of the education her citizens receive within the next few years.88 He goes on to state: Greek economy has undergone relatively rapid rates of growth during the past decade, but her standards of living continue to be very low when compared with those in other countries of the European Economic Community. An adequate supply of well trained and qualified personnel for all sectors of economic activity is deemed necessary for the realization of Greece's economic and industrial develop- ment. Greece needs to educate for scientific work and business management, if she is to profit from the con- tinental experiment (the Common Market).89 It is apparent that education and economic development are interrelated. The degree of investment by a nation in an adequate educational system should bear economic benefits for its people. Has Greece made an adequate investment in the education of her people? Panayiotis Georgoussis quotes an address of a distinguished Greek lawyer as follows: . . . in 1950-51 we spent for education 7.7 percent of our national budget. In 195l-52 6.8 percent. In l952—53, 8.6 percent and in l954 6.2 percent. According to the figures from the International Bureau of Education, the situation in other countries for the years 1949-52 were as follows: Spain 8 percent; Italy 9.5 percent; Czechoslo- vakia 9.8 percent; Columbia l0 percent; Belgium l0.5 per- cent; France 13 percent; Turkey 13 percent; Egypt 15 per- cent; Germany 16 percent; Syria, 20 percent; Poland 22.7 percent; Argentina, 25 percent; the Philippines 40 percent. Comparing these figures with what we spent for our educa- tion, one concludes that we do not consider seriously our educational problem.90 The percentage of the budget utilized for education increased 91 to l0.6% in 1964-65 and 13.35% in l967. This represented only 2.6% 48 92 of the national revenue (GNP). The percent of national revenue (GNP) expended was similar to previous years such as 1965 when it was 93 In 1970 it was 2.1%, in 1973 it was 1.8% and in 1974 it 94 only 2.3. was only 1.6%. The total expenditures as a percent of all public expenditures have shown a decrease as follows: in 1965 it was 12.2%, in 1970 it was 9.6%, in 1977 it was 7.5%, and in 1973 it was 6.9%. In Europe only Spain and Portugal utilize a lower percent of the grog; national product for education. In the United States in 1974 6.3 per- cent of the gross national product, representing 21.1 percent of all total public expenditures, was used for education. In Michigan during the fiscal year of 1976-77, 33.3% of the public expenditures were allocated to education, totaling 2,358 95 Figures for Greece during this period are million dollars. unavailable. Georgoussis stated, and it is true today: Compared with other nations, it is apparent that Greece appropriates one of the smallest percentages of national income for educational purposes of any nation in Europe or the United States.96 Table 2 shows the latest figures on public expenditures on education as percent of the gross national product of continents, . . 97 major areas and groups of countries. In1972 Georgoussis recommended: . . . the percentage of Greek budget funds allocated for the Ministry of Education be increased from the present average of 14 percent to at least 20 percent . 8 This is a percent of the budget and is much lower percentage in terms of national revenue. 49 TABLE 2.--Estimated Public Expenditure on Education, in United States Dollars (Percent of GNP), Continents, Major Areas and Groups of Countries 1965 1970 1974 World total 4. 5.4 5.5 Africa 3. 3.5 4.2 America 5. 6.2 6.2 Asia 3. 3.6 4.0 Europe 4. 4.9 4.9 Oceania 3. 4.5 6.3 U.S.S.R. 7. 6.9 7.6 Developed countries 5. 5.7 5.7 Developing countries 3. 3.4 3.9 Africa (excluding Arab states) 2. 2.9 3.3 Northern America 5. 6.6 6.6 Latin America 3. 3.4 4.3 Asia (excluding Arab states) 3. 3.6 4.0 Arab states 4. 4.6 4.8 SOURCE: UNESCO Statistical Yearbook 1976. 50 Kazamias stated in l967: The very idea that education can be regarded as investment or that educational policy must consider the techno- economic needs of the country was a radical departure in Greek thinking.99 It is apparent that economic development and education are interrelated. Until such time as the Greek government recognizes this relationship and appropriates additional funds for education both educational and, consequently, economic development will be impeded. One can then understand the low priority given to special education, for if general education is not adequately financed, then funding for special education will continue to be minimal. Education planners in the past have been concerned with the economic development of Greece and have researched long-run and short-run manpower need projections, gathered data for demographic studies and established future educational targets which should increase literacy by providing education to Greece's backward rural areas. Literacy, it was believed, would lead to economic develop- ment. Many of these educational planners believed that education would cure all ills and would lead to an industrially, agriculturally and economically independent nation. Economic development, however, is very complex and depends on many factors. John Vaizey cate- gorizes these into: "the growth of the labor force, the accumulation of physical capital and additions to the stock of knowledge and the "100 skills available in the community. That economic development is complex is no overstatement and the fact that education can influence 51 a society's value system and stock of knowledge is indisputable. However, economic development requires educational planning. H. M. Phillips observed that: The need for planning arises from two basic reasons. First, that education is the main means in the hands of a society for influencing its future value system and its stock of knowledge and skills. Economic and social development requires certain basic values and attitudes and ever-increasing application of skills both productive and social.101 Greek educational planners, however, had not understood how to implement pragmatically this theory so as to bring about the desired economic development. They had attempted to bring about economic development by following the example of the United States and other highly developed advanced nations. According to Coleman, education itself cannot bring about developmental objectives in a new country. It is futile to point to the great contribution which education has made to the more highly developed countries. In the United States and western Europe the growth of mass education and training for high level manpower had many of the results attributed to them because they took place in a setting in which such results could be achieved. Coleman states: Those who support the proposition that in the United States and elsewhere a large part of the "unexplained" increase in output is due mainly to the greater investment in man, often forget to add that this investment in man is a jointgproduct attributable not only to the educational process as such, but also to the cultural, social, and material environment in which this new and larger amount of education is acquired.[02 This means that European or United States policies relating to education, as well as to other features of economic development, 52 have very limited applicability to Greece. Above all it changed the priorities according to which development outlays are to be ranked and they underline the fact that certain allocations which may pro- duce notable results in economically advanced nations may have virtually no impact on the rate of economic growth in Greece and, in extreme cases, may even be conducive to a decline in the level of income. The Greek educational planners, in establishing priorities, decided that the Greek educational system should first of all pro- vide the opportunity for all people to complete a primary education which would teach them to read and write and in this way to rise above the level of illiteracy. However, what they failed to take into account was that education per se is only one part of an integrated society whose cultural, social and political forces have a tremendous impact on its value system. A change in values could have an adverse effect on economic development by giving the masses "a little learning" which is a dangerous thing. According to Kazamias the elementary school's objective during the 19th century was to create a literate population that would be engaged in agriculture and other low-level jobs in the primary sector of the economy. Secondary education had as its objectives the selection of students for university education, 103 The which would prepare them for the prestigious professions. secondary curriculum was intensely academic with emphasis on clas- sical Greek learning. This was justified on disciplinary, intel- lectual, moral, patriotic and religious grounds. 53 The principal secondary school for academic preparation was the gymnasium, which emphasized and perpetuated the highly valued intellectual tradition of the Greek people. Kazamias and Massialas further stated that: However, its monolithic character could not meet the demands of a changing society and serious problems were created. First of all, it stifled any significant growth in scientific, technical, or vocational education at a period when the country had been relying more and more on industry for its economic development and, hence, in need of more skilled technicians and better trained personnel.)04 A few commercial and technical schools prepared students for middle-level occupations in business and industry. Kazamias and Massialas state: The humanistic ideal and its Hellenic-Christian basis have characterized Greek secondary education up to the present time. The curriculum has been expanded to include more of the sciences and such subjects as music and physical educa- tion, but the essential educational function of the secondary school has remained the same. For an influential segment of enlightened opinion, the raison d'etre of the gymnasium since 1929 has become almost synonymous with secondary classical education.105 The Greek educational planners' mistake, it appears, was not the fact that they extended the availability of primary education to all, but that they did not continue primary education a step further and teach the rural p0pulation practical knowledge and skills to meet the demands of agriculture. These skills could be used to improve and produce cash crops. Greece, as other developing nations, has a socio-economic class structure of the educational and political elite and the uneducated subsistence farmers. It also has a corresponding occupa- tional structure of few opportunities for employment of highly 54 qualified industrial technicians, civil servants who are composed of secondary school graduates who were not admitted to the university, and university dropouts, and many employment opportunities for agricultural and low skilled workers. Thus, the first thing that education should do is to change the Greek value system and socio-economic class structure by placing agriculture in high status along with the other intellectually and politically powerful occupations. To do this Greek society must grant dignity and prestige to the agricultural sectors of the economy and to the laboring class. If Greek education can prove to the masses that agriculture and scientific production farming has its dignity, prestige and monetary rewards then they will remain in the villages and on the farms and have a decent livelihood. These individuals could con- tribute to economic development instead of congregating in the cities where they have no salable skills and therefore form large groups of unemployed whose disappointment and frustration sways them to join subversive political movements against the government which causes political instability which in turn impedes economic development. The Twentieth Century Fund team of Americans,in their Begggt_ on the Greeks, in 1948 found the curricula of the Greek schools irrelevant with emphasis on the past. The report stated that: None would wish to deprive Greek young people of the lessons or pride which they can derive from reading of the golden days of Pericles and the glories of Byzantium. But such teaching, presented as it is in Greece with doses of theoretical science having little if any 55 connection with the actual facts of life confronted by modern Greeks, leaves a great deal to be desired by competent educational critics. A large field exists for development of modern general education in preparation for democratic citizenship. There is also need for vocational education-~particularly in agriculture—-to help the people enrich their material lives.106 This then is the dilemma of Greek educational planners-- that a little incomplete primary terminal education, which is literary, can change an individual's values and raise his hopes for a better life through the acquisition of a little literary learning. In Greece this is unrealistic. Coleman has written the following on this subject: Yet, as long as a large portion of the national output of a country is produced in the agricultural sector, ways and means must be found to attract a more highly skilled labor force to agriculture, and hence a change in outlook and values of the agriculturalists on developing countries may be required. They must learn to accept the fact that education, especially primary education, and farming are compatible. But at the same time it is clear that the crude type of subsistence farming will not prove attrac- tive to more highly educated persons, whereas a more modern, scientific and economically attractive type of farming may produce change.107 This is the problem in Greece, where education beyond the primary level consists of specialized curricula designed to prepare students for high prestige OCCUpations such as doctors, lawyers and engineers only to find that when they have completed their studies there is no opportunity for employment in Greece. The highly educated leave Greece for other countries which offer employment opportunities with the end result that there is a brain-drain on this backward country where there is a need for intelligent people to remain at home and to be trained for the practical occupations for 56 which there is a manpower demand. According to Vaizey, research findings suggest that: Education's effects are more subtle than has been supposed by the proponents of the view that it directly affects the income distribution, and to suggest that education tends to reinforce, rather than to diminish existing social inequities.108 As Coleman has written, the needs of the developing countries exist above all in progress in industrialization and rationalization of agriculture. Unless a still largely agricultural country experiences an improvement in agricultural efficiency and a larger farm product which in part can be converted into investment in social overhead capital and industrial and industry-related plants, a genuine growth process supported mainly out of the developing country's own resources cannot take place. However, with a large "traditional" rural population which relies on self-subsistence rather than on production of cash crops for the market the production of a "surplus" is difficult. The change of attitude can be effected by Greek education but only if the agricultural sector is integrated into the national economy. Greek development planning should be on a realistic basis taking account of the predominantly agricultural character of the nation and the profound backwardness of the rural sector. The political consequences of such a program of slow- deliberate development of the major resources available in developing countries are likely to be more favorable than the insistence on large-scale primary education or on a crash program producing a large reservoir of high- level manpower. This is the only program which will eventually make politically aware citizens which will lead to political 57 solutions compatible with a free and increasingly demo- cratic society.109 58 FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER II 1Evangelos J. Catsioulas, "Changing Influences on Greek Education 1851-1951," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1952, p. 77. 2Panayiotis Georgoussis, "Post World War II Greek Elementary Education and Elementary School Curriculum Development," Ed.D. dissertation, Utah State University, 1972, p. 2. 31bid. 4Catsioulas, op. cit., p. 79. 5Georgoussis, op. cit., p. 2. 6Panos Polychronopoulos, "Politics and Pedagogy in Greece: A Critical and Creative Analysis and Evaluation of the Ideological and Knowledge Functions of the Greek School System, 1950-1975," Ed.D. dissertation, Boston University, 1976, pp. 121, 144. 7Georgoussis, op. cit., p. 3. 8Polychronopoulos, op. cit., pp. 166, 169. 9Appendix A, "Special Education in Greece," as described by the Hellenic Republic Ministry of National Education and Religion, General Directorate of General Education, Directorate of Curriculum and Studies, Section of Elementary Education, 1975. 10Andreas M. Kazamias, "Greece: Modernizing Secondary Education," in Strategies for Curriculum Change: Cases from 13 Nations, ed. R. Murray Thomas, Lester B. Sands, and Dale L. Brubaker (Scranton, Penn.: International Textbook Company, 1968), p. 30. 1(Constantine N. Stroumbakis, "Improving In-Service Education for Elementary School Teachers in Greece," Ph.D. disserta- tion, University of Pennsylvania, 1965, p. 28. Cited by Panayiotis Georgoussis in "Post World War II Greek Elementary Education and Elementary School Curriculum Development," Ed.D. dissertation, Utah State University, 1972, p. 8. 12Alexis Dimaras, The Reformation that Didn't Take Place (Athens: New Greek Library, 1973) (in Greek), p. 3, vol. I. l3 l4 Catsioulas, op. cit., p. 13. Dimaras, op. cit., p. 50. 15Catsioulas, op. cit., p. 14. 59 16Waddington, G., A Visit to Greece in 1823 and 1824 (London: J. Murray, 1825), p. 248. Cited by Evangelos J. Catsioulas in "Changing Influences on Greek Education 1851-1951," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1952, p. 248. 17Georgoussis, op. cit., p. 10. 18Kazamias, op. cit., p. 31. lgIbid” p. 32. 20 Catsioulas, op. cit., p. 18. 21Kazamias, op. cit., p. 32. 22Henry Lester Smith, Robert Stewart McElhiney, and George Renwick Steele, A Brief Survey of Present Day Religious and Moral Education in the Schools of Countries Other than the United States of America, Bulletin of the School of Education, Indiana University, 11. No. 3, June 1935, p. 185. Cited by Panayiotis Georgoussis in "Post World War II Greek Elementary Education and Elementary School C;;;iculuméDevelopmentJ'Utah State University, Ed.D. dissertation, , p. . 23Dimaras, op. cit., p.1a. 24Georgoussis, op. cit., p. 17. 2511310. 26United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization, "Greece: Educational Developments in 1948-49," International Yearbook of Education 11:150 (1949). 27United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, "Greece: Educational Developments in 1947-1948," International Yearbook of Education 10:164 (1948). 28 Catsioulas, op. cit., p. 29. 29"Greece: Educational Developments in 1948-49," op. cit. 30113101., p. 164. 311100., p. 168. 32The New Constitution of Greece (1952), Article 16. Cited by Andreas M. Kazamias in "Greece: Modernizing Secondary Education,‘ in Strategies for Curriculum Change: Cases from 13 Nations, ed. R. Murray Thomas, Lester B. Sands, Dale L. Brubaker (Scranton, Penn.: International Textbook Company, 1968), p. 30. 6O 33Kazamias, op. cit., p. 39. 34Ibid., p. 34. 35Andreas M. Kazamias, and Byron G. Massialas, Tradition and Change in Education (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1965), p. 108. 36 Ibid. 37Ibid. 38Kazamias, op. cit., p. 51. 39Ibid., p. 47. 4OIbid. 411bid. 421bid., p. 48. 431518, 441bid. 45Kazamias and Massialas, op. cit., p. 112. 461bid. 471510, p. 48. 481bid., p. 51. 49Kazamias, op. cit., p. 52. SOIbid. 511bid., p. 54. SZIbid. 53Ibid., pp. 52-53. 54Ibid., p. 53. 551bid.. pp. 53-54. 561bid., pp. 54-55. 61 57Kingdom of Greece, Ministry of National Education and Religion, General Directorate of General Education, Education in Greece, Publication No. 10 (Athens: National Printing Office,1973),p.5. 58 Ibid. 591bid., p. 8. 6OIbid. 6]Ibid., p. 9. 62 Appendix H, Royal Decree No. 702/1969, "About the Analytical Hourly Curriculum of Elementary Schools," Kingdom of Greece, Ministry of National Education and Religion, Athens. 63Ibid., Article 1. 64Education in Greece, op. cit., p. 10. 651bid., p. 11. 66Appendix I, Royal Decree No. 723/1969, "About the Hourly Analytical Curriculum of High Schools," Kingdom of Greece, Ministry of Education and Religion, Athens. 67Education in Greece, op. cit., p. 13. 68Ibid., p. 14. 69David G. Scanlon, and James J. Shields, Problems and Pros- pects in International Education 0LY.:Cblumbia Univ.Press,l968), p.97. 70 Kazamias, op. cit., p. 34. 711bid. 721bid. 73Ibid., p. 35. 74Ibid. 75Ibid., p. 39. 76Charles W. Ammoun, Study of Discrimination in Education, United Nations Sub-Commission on Prevention of Discrimination and Pro- tection of Minorities (New York: United Nations, 1957), p. 63. 77James 5. Coleman, Education and Political Development (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1967), p. 26. 62 78Kazamias, op. cit., p. 33. 79Coleman, op. cit., p. 27. 80Ibid. 8(Catsioulas, op. cit., p. 85. 82Stephen Constantine Margaritis, "Current Problems in Higher Education in Greece," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Southern California, 1963, p. 39. 83Ibid. 84Catsioulas, op. cit., p. 87. 85Andreas M. Kazamias, "Plans and Policies for Educational Reform in Greece," Comparative Education Review 11:340 (October 1967). 86Ibid., p. 340. 87"Population, Per Capita Product and Growth Rate," World Bank Atlas, 10th ed. (Washington, D.C.: 1975), p. 18. 88 Margaritis, op. cit., p. 149. 891bid., p. 150. 90Georgoussis, op. cit., p. 29. 91Ibid., p. 30. 92 United National Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi- zation, "Greece: Educational DevelOpments in 1967-68," International Yearbook of Education 30:199 (1968). 93United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi- zation, "Greece: Educational Developments in 1964-65," International Yearbook of Education 27:157 (1965). 94United Nations EducationalggScientific and Cultural Organi- zation, Statistical Yearbook, 1977, p. 550. 95Michigan Department of Treasury State of Michigan Financial Information for Fiscal Year 1976-77. Cited by Michigan Individual Income Tax Returns, 1977, p. 20. 96Georgoussis, op. cit., p. 30. 97United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi- zation, Statistical Yearbook, 1976. p. 118. 63 98Georgoussis, op. cit., p. 111. 99Kazamias, "Plans and Policies for Educational Reform in Greece," op. cit., p. 347. 100John E. Vaizey, The Political Economy of Education (London: Duckworth, 1972), p. 52. 101H. M. Phillips, "Economic and Social Aspects of the Plan- ning of Education," International Social Science Journal 14 (1962): 706-718, in Scanlon, op. cit., p. 97. 102 Coleman, op. cit., p. 560. 103Kazamias, "Greece: Modernizing Secondary Education," op. cit., p. 39. 104Kazamias and Massialas, op. cit., p. 108. 1051518. 106Frank Smothers, et a1., Report on the Greeks: Findings 0f a Twentieth Century Fund Team Which Surveyed Conditions in Greece in 1947 (New York: The Twentieth Century Fund, 1948), pp. 119-120. Cited by Andreas M. Kazamias, "Greece: Modernizing Secondary Educa- tion," in Strategies for Curriculum Change: Cases from 13 Nations, ed. R. Murray Thomas, Lester B. Sands, Dale L. Brubaker (Scranton, Penn.: International Textbook Company, 1968), p. 36. 107 Coleman, op. cit., p. 547. 108Vaizey, op. cit., p. 102. 109Coleman, op. cit., p. 570. CHAPTER III GREEK EDUCATIONAL SETTING A further clarification on the development of Greek educa- tion is made through a study of the Greek educational setting and the key people in the educational process: the preparation of the elementary and secondary teachers, teacher organizations, the principal-teacher relationships, the teacher-student relationships and the school and community relationships. Included is an exposi- tion, analysis, and evaluation pertaining to selected portions of Law 842/1971 entitled, "On the Reorganization of Pedagogical Academies," and on selected portions of Law 748/1970 entitled, "On the Further Training of Secondary Teachers and the Reorganization of the College for In-Service Training of Secondary Teachers." Teacher Preparation "A gathering of children does not make a school. Neither do fine buildings, modern equipment, new textbooks, and other types of materials. It is the teacher who changes an assembly of youth into an institution of living and learning. The curriculum, any cur- riculum, cannot be better than the teacher."1 Greece has come a long way in the evolution of her teacher education programs but, as in all nations, there is still a long way to go. Prominent educators such as Kazamias and Papanoutsos have 64 65 analyzed the qualitative characteristics of Greek teacher education and have concluded that Greek teacher education has produced teachers who are poorly trained with antiquated instructional methods.2 In the past, teachers were highly respected and were selected for possessing good moral character; education was con- sidered as less important. Teachers were never questioned or blamed for the failure of the students. The individual was blamed for his own failure. This can still be seen in villages and small towns where deference for the teacher and confidence in his justice, professional qualifications and objectivity still exists. The writer as a pupil in Greek education in her childhood in Detroit experienced this attitude, for Greek schools in the United States were an extension of the Greek Ministry of Education and Religion. Teachers were trained in Greece and sent throughout the world to expound the faith and Greek culture. This genuine confidence and deference has shown significant decrease from small communities to metropolitan cities where every— thing was questioned. It was apparent that the twentieth century called for a different type of teacher . one who thinks in terms not only of the school, the local community, and the nation, but of the world; one who thinks and acts not only with a knowledge of the past and the present, but with a view to the future . . .3 E1ementary_Teacher Preparation Early modern Greek elementary teacher preparation was given in normal schools which were actually secondary schools. During the 1800's it was considered adequate teacher training for elementary 66 school teachers since it was erroneously believed that the younger the child, the lower the grade level of instruction, the less teacher education was necessary. The elementary school teacher to this day is called "daskalos." An Education World's Fair was held in Vienna, Austria, in 1871 in which Greece took part in the international exhibition but was hardly recognized due to her inadequate educational system.4 Many attempts were made for the improvement of Greek education, but it was not until 1878 that significant steps for the improvement of elementary education began when the first organized normal school was founded in Athens in 1878. This was followed by three other normal schools in Tripolis, Larisa and Corfu.5 According to Catsioulas the history of the evolution of the pedagogical academies can conveniently be divided into four periods. The first period begins in 1834 when a law concerning education proposed the organization of a normal school. The first normal school in 1834 was organized by M. Kork, a German, who organized the school after the German teacher training school and became its first director. In 1863 an assembly closed the school for improper, poor operations and inadequate teacher training. In 1876 it was decided that teachers' training had to be improved and a special committee of distinguished professors pre- pared a bill for the establishment of a teachers' training school. On January 10, 1878, the bill became law and, among others, a normal school was founded in Athens which offered a three-year course to graduates of Hellenic schools. This was the beginning of the second 67 period. However, during this period the normal schools were faced with financial problems which resulted in an educational setback and the closing of three of the normal schools.6 In 1910 the Athens normal school increased its training period to four years and admitted graduates from the second grade of the gymnasium. Due to the teacher shortage, which was created by the decrease in teacher training schools, the state appointed elementary school graduates to teaching posts. The third period of normal schools began in 1914 when seven boys' and seven girls' normal schools were established by the Decree of August 26, 1914, and the Law 381/1914. These schools offered a three-year course and accepted second grade gymnasium graduates. During this time, other normal schools were established offering a one-year course and accepting only gymnasium (high school) graduates. The number to be admitted was determined annually by the Ministry of Education and Religion. The fourth period of the history of normal schools (1924- 1932) can be divided into two periods: 1924-1929 and 1929-1932. There were 25 normal schools in Greece from 1924-1929 and in 1929- 1932, according to Law 4358, the one-year normal schools were abolished and established the five-year normal schools, some of which were coeducational and accepted graduates of the second grade of a gymnasium.7 The year 1933 marked the abolishment of the above mentioned normal schools and the establishment of the Pedagogical Academies, which were modeled after the pedagogical academies of Germany and 68 were actually two-year colleges. Currently the pedagogical academies are under the regulation and supervision of the Ministry of Educa- tion and Religion. They are administered by a director, a vice- director, and the faculty council, of which all regular teachers are members. According to Law 5802/1933,8 admission to the Pedagogical Academies was and still is on the basis of a secondary school diploma and a competitive examination. Candidates were not to be over 21 years of age and in good health. The number of students was limited to 40, of which 15 could be females. Each pedagogical academy had a practice elementary school and also used regular schools in the region for student teaching. Catsioulas writes that an effort was made to give the student a certain degree of skill in interpreting the elementary school pro- gram in the light of modern pedagogical principles, the cultural materials available, its transmission through teaching, and the control of the school situation. Further, the Educational Council nominated all teachers to fill vacancies. The appointments were made by the Ministry of Education and Religion and their salaries and pensions were fixed according to laws and decrees pertaining to all public servants.9 Greek Pedagogical Academies The institution of Pedagogical Academies was first estab- lished through Law 5802/1933 and was improved by Compulsory Law 69 953/1937, by Royal Decree 923/1966, by Compulsory Law 129/1967 and Decree Law No. 842/1971.10 Decree No. 842/1971, "On the Re-organization of Pedagogical Academies," defines the importance of the Pedagogical Academies as follows: The Pedagogical Academies constitute an institution of supreme national importance closely interrelated to the very social and cultural advancement of the nation; that is why they call for re-organization and re-adjustment to the new demands of life according to the latest scientific data; in the hope, of course, that their purpose may be met with great success. From the law the writer has selected Article 1, sections 1, 2a, 2b, 3 and 4, and Article 2, which deal with the preparation of teachers. The purpose and duration of attendance and number of those to be admitted are stated in Article 1 of Law 842/1971 as follows: 1. The purpose of the Pedagogical Academies (P.A.'s) is the theoretical and practical training of the Primary Education Teachers. The regular duration of attendance is two years, while a third year of further specialized studies is offered to in-service primary teachers according to the res- pective provisions.1 The purpose of Article 1 seems to be composed of generaliza- tions. For example: "The purpose of the Pedagogical Academies is the theoretical and practical training of Primary Education Teachers." This raises the question: "What kind of theoretical and practical training?" The duration of two years' training may be too short a time to give the student a thorough education and background in the many 70 subjects of child psychology, psychology of education, anthropology, sociology and the content of courses necessary for an interdisci- plinary approach to the process of education. It might be better if Greek elementary teachers were to receive a four-year, pre-service teacher training and education. The one-year in-service training should be helpful, but this could be offered beyond the pre-service four years of study to provide teachers the opportunity for con- tinuing education. In addition, this suggested four-year teacher education probably should be raised to the equivalent of a university degree instead of a teaching diploma. Thus it is believed that the elementary teaching profession then would be on equal social and academic status with the secondary teaching profession, which requires a university degree. 2. (a) Those admitted to the P.A.'s must have a leaving certificate of a six-year high school. They are admitted after successful theoretical and practical entrance examinations.13 The writer is in agreement with the above mentioned require- ment. Admittance should require a high school diploma and a competi- tive entrance examination. This requirement should improve the quality of elementary teacher candidates because it would select superior individuals with high intelligence, and quality teachers are needed. 2. (b) Candidates holding a high school leaving certifi- cate with excellent mention A and conduct character- ized as ”very good" are admitted to the P.A.'s after they have been successfully subjected to practical examinations only-~such candidates are exempted from any other entrance examinations.14 71 Outstanding high school graduates should be encouraged to enter the teaching profession. In the past those students who could not enter other professions with high entrance standards entered the teaching profession, which had low entrance standards. High admis- sion standards should place the teaching profession on equal status with the prestigious professions, such as the legal and medical professions which adhere to high standards. 2. (c) As qualified for participation in the entrance examinations are considered those who: possess a high school leaving certificate with ”very good" conduct, have no physical defects or deformities and are physically and mentally healthy--minimum height for males: 1.60 m., minimum height for females: 1.55 m. They must not be older than 25 years of age, the completion of the 26th year occurring after the end of the year he/she applies for participation in the entrance examinations. It is the opinion of the writer that parts of this section could be omitted from the requirements of a nation striving for a democratic way of life. Teaching requires stamina and, therefore, the candidates should be physically healthy. That the candidate should be mentally healthy ought not to be debatable, but physical defects, deformities or handicaps probably should not prohibit an intelligent person from being a good teacher. This section seems to discriminate against the physically handicapped and thus appears undemocratic. Minimum height requirements for males of 1.60 m. (5'3") and minimum height requirements for females of 1.55 m.(5'P')doesn‘t have any validity. A teacher, as an artist, does not have to be tall. A 72 person's height is irrelevant if he has the qualifications. As Hans Christian Anderson has written, "If your heart is full of love, you're nine feet tall." A maximum age of 25 seems equitable in a country such as Greece where, for economic reasons, teachers are needed who have years of service ahead and thus provide a good return on the nation's educational investment. 3. Matters concerning the entrance examinations, theoret- ical, and practical, the certification of health and absence of deformities of defects as well as the entrance of some categories of candidates not with- standing the fixed number according to the respective beneficial provisions are determined by a Royal Decree issued upon proposal by the Minister of National Educa- tion and Religion. Also, it is possible that special entrance tests are introduced by the same Royal Decree.16 No comment is necessary here. 4. The number of male and female students to be admitted in each Pedagogical Academy is determined according to the staff needs of Primary Education Schools and according to the capacity and teaching facilities available by each Academy.l7 This measure will, through appropriate projections of teacher needs, control the supply of teachers so that there will not be an over supply of teachers or a teacher shortage. Article 2 provides for the subjects to be included in the curriculum. It is an attempt toward much needed modernization according to the latest scientific data on the one hand and to a more substantial contact with the Greek tradition on the other. Subjects 1. The following subjects are offered in the P.A.'s: Divinity (Liturgics-Dogmatics, Ecclesiastical Texts). 73 Greek Language and Literature, Logopedics, Greek History and Culture. Archaeological and historical places of Greece, Folklore, Mathematics (Elements of the set theory and systems of numbers. Arithmetic and elements of Algebra. Plane Geometry and solid Geometry). Science: (Physics, Chemistry, Science of Nature, Biology, Geography, Practice in Experimenting). Pedagogics: (a) General Pedagogics; (b) General Teaching Techniques, including classes on the modern primary school audio-visual aids; (c) Special Primary School Teaching Techniques; (d) Retarded Children Instruction; and (3) Child Somatology. Psychology: (a) General and Pedagogical Psychology: (b) Child Developmental Psychology; (c) Applied Differential Psychology and Elements of Statistics concerning Psychology and Pedagogics Introductory Elements to Philosophy. Social Education and Civics: (Introduction to Sociology). Plastics Arts (Drawing and Handicraft). Physical Education: (Gymnastics, Athletics, Sports, National Dances). Music: (Theory, Singing, Instrumental Music, Ecclesiastical Music). Organization and Administration of Education: (General Principles of Organization and Administra- tion of Education, Educational Policy Organization, Organization and Supervision of Education, Primary School Administration and Supervision, Curricula, Textbooks, and Educational Legislation). Home Economics and Family Education. Hygienics: Personal, Social, School Hygienics, First Aid).14 Foreign Languages: (English or French or German). Elements of Agriculture and Agricultural Economy. Teaching Practice. Subjects may be added or stopped through Royal Decrees issued upon proposal of the Minister of National Educa— tion and Religion. 74 3. The above mentioned subjects aim at: (a) The consolidation and assimilation on the part of the students of the necessary teaching techniques and the general professional stock of knowledge connected with pedagogics, and (b) The cultivation of the students' morality on the high values of the Greco-Christian characterizing the Greek teacher. 4. The curriculum and detailed syllabus of subjects and practical training as well as the distribution of sub— jects into each year of attendance are specified through Royal Decrees issued upon proposals of the N.E.R. Minister. The following basic principles are taken into account in the selection and structure of the material to be offered of each subject: (a) The fulfillment of the purpose of each subject as described above and, (b) The selection of the basic and main elements so that they are successfully acquired by the stu— dents. Details of secondary importance are offered merely for the acquisition of relevant knowledge. In the P.A.'s there may be held lectures by dis- tinguished scholars on educational or other subjects with the consent and responsibility of the director and faculty.18 The breadth of subjects offered at the Pedagogical Academies is impressive but it is questionable whether or not such a vast and varied curriculum could adequately be covered in depth in two years, and still allot time for professional laboratory experience. This law could have significant implications for the development of special education in Greece. Some attempt is presentbr being made to teach the educable mentally impaired but little is provided by the government in the areas of the hearing impaired, the 75 visually impaired, the emotionally impaired, the learning disabled or the multiple handicapped. Special education will be considered in a separate chapter. This law is also significant in including courses in Elementary School Administration as part of the Pedagogi- cal Academies' curriculum. The seven courses offered are not enough to qualify a person as a school administrator and the absence of the study of human relations in administration, public relations, school and society and school and community is alarming. However, this is a start in the right direction since prior to this time school principals received no special training in school administration. Secondary Teacher Preparation Secondary school instruction follows the Herbartian method. Catsioulas states: In 1875, the Herbartain system was introduced. In normal schools established a little later and, until the estab- lishment of pedagogical academies in 1932, this system was taught to the new teachers.19 Georgoussis maintains that the Herbartian psy- chology does not provide for individual differences. The Greek schools from the elementary level are dominated by Herbartian psychological methods. Individual differences are not considered important for the education of Greek youth.20 Teaching method is defined by the Ministry of National Education and Religion as follows: Stimulation of the interest of the class, presentation of the new teaching item, deepening analysis of the item in discussion, and finally acquisition and assimilation by relating the new item to the modern standards to such a degree the maturity of the class permits.21 76 The teacher and subject matter are the most important aspects of secondary education. Notetaking from dictation constituted the basic method of teaching until recent reforms. In the past answers to the teacher's questions had been verbatim recall. The secondary school teachers are given an outline of sub- ject matter to be taught. Every secondary school student is expected to succeed at a specified level. According to Catsioulas this situation was attributable to the following reasons: (1) the strithJproportion of teachers not pedagogically educated, (2) teachers who are subject-matter specialists, (3) the lack of text- books, laboratory equipment and materials, and (4) the long-accepted tradition of factual knowledge as a basis for university admission.22 Even though the responses of individual differences in learning abilities, talents and personalities is known, written and also taught at some teacher training institutions, they are forgotten at the secondary level of instruction. Curriculum, not the individ- ual, is the center, for it is believed that secondary schools are to prepare individuals for institutions of higher learning or univer- sities. Therefore, secondary school students must prove that they are qualified to go on to the university. The way to prove them- selves is to succeed in every subject and to pass the entrance examination to thelnnversity. Since the university program in Greece does not include graduate study, it is highly specialized and secondary schools are expected to give a sound background in the dif- ferent academic areas. Students are promoted on the successful pas- sing of stringent oral and written examinations. Greek education was 77 made even more difficult and confusing because of the problem of Polyglossy. Ancient Greek, Modern Greek (demotic), pure Greek (katharevousa) and New Testament Greek, Latin, French, German, and English.23 Catsioulas states that according to Law 4370/1929, "About Schools of Secondary Education”: The public secondary school has as its avowed aims the intellectual, moral, and physical development of the adolescent, his preparation for entrance to the univer- sity and other higher institutions of learning, and for his effective participation in the life of the nation.24 Modernization of secondary teacher training resulted in the proposed Educational Reforms of 1970, with Law No. 748/1970, "The Further Training of Secondary Teachers and the Reorganization of the College for the In-Service Training of Secondary Teachers (C.I.T.S.T.).25 Decree Law No. 748/1970 ON THE FURTHER TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS AND THE REORGANIZATION OF THE COLLEGE FOR THE IN-SERVICE TRAINING OF SECONDARY TEACHERS (C.I.T.S.T.) The general goals of this Decree are: (a) Further training in pedagogics of the newly appointed S.E. teachers. (b) Periodical training of the in-service teaching staff which is divided into a short duration training and a long duration one. The short duration training aims at the improvement of the teacher's professional efficiency by supplementing his stock of knowledge whilst the long duration train- ing aims at forming educators for higher posts. 78 (c) Reorganization of the CITST so that it may become the suitable educational center which will attain the above goals. The following specific questions are covered by the above mentioned Decree.25 This is an excellent law regarding the education of secondary school teachers in Greece who are all highly specialized academicians. It is good because it serves the purpose of the Greek secondary schools which are highly specialized to prepare students for the university, for the prestigious professions, and future political posts. This law provides for the continued education of the high school teachers by providing further education in their respective areas of specialization, specifically, Letters and Theology, Mathematics and Physics, special branches division and special course division. In addition to further specialized training it provides for further training in pedagogics. Article 1 defines the purpose of the CITST as follows: (a) Further training in pedagogics of S.E. teachers of all branches and specialties. (b) Scientific research and studies on secondary education questions, i.e.: curricula and syllabuses, textbooks, aids, teaching methods, etc. (c) Study of subjects referring to scientific branches con- nected with secondary education. Five divisions for the further training of the S.E. teaching staff are established by Article 2, i.e.: (a) Division of Letters and Theology. (b) Division of Mathematics. (c) Division of Physics. (d) Special--branches of division. (e) Special-~course division. The first three of the above divisions are designed to offer a further training to the teachers of the respective spec- ialists; the special branches division refers to the teachers 79 who do not belong to the aforesaid three divisions, i.e., it refers to the teachers of Music, Drawing and Home Economics. Finally the special-course division aims at the specific instruction of those educators who are intended to be designated either as instructors (when accelerated courses are put into operation in Education Regions) or to fill up office posts in the Inspectorates of Education according to the provisions of D.L. No. 651/1970 regarding the (organization and administration of General Education and its staff). By this same article the establishment of two more divi- sions is provided, i.e.: (a) Division for basic training of the teachers of Drawing and Music, as no special training schools exist for these specialties and, (b) Foreign languages division for additional training in pedagogics and further training of the teachers of foreign languages, as well as for studies of subjects pertaining to the foreign languages teaching.27 Article 1 of this law is good because it recognizes the need for the further training of secondary education teachers in peda- gogics, which should prepare teachers through the study of Educa- tional Psychology and teaching methods designed to meet the needs individual students. However, the pedagogical training will only provide an awareness for the need for change, and change will only of come about when the curriculum is reconstructed and is made flexible to adapt to individual needs and individualized teaching techniques. It also provides for further training in the secondary teachers' area of specialization. It provides for scientific research on curricula, textbooks, audio-visual aids, teaching methods and techniques and on the organi- zation, administration and supervision of education. The provisions are good if they result in improvement of curricula and in school 8O administration and supervision. Provisions are only as good as their implementation. The further and continued study in the scientific branches is necessary to keep abreast of new developments in science and tech- nology. Article 3 provides the establishment of laboratories- workshops with the training college, i.e.: (a) Psychology laboratory. (b) Experimental Pedagogics laboratory. (c) Careers guidance workshop. (d) Foreign languages workshop. (e) Education planning workshop. These laboratories and workshops are destined to be the centers of research on respective subjects. By the same article the establishment and operation of a library is provided to help the teaching staff and trainees. The library is absolutely necessary for an educational establishment like the C.I.T.S.T.28 The establishment of the aforementioned workshops in Article 3 is excellent in this writer's opinion. It contains the basic requirements for a secondary education which will meet the needs of the individual students and which contributes toward Greece's social, cultural and economic development by providing education in psychology, teaching methods, careers' guidance and educational plan- ning. In this writer's opinion, the Foreign Language Workshop is not really so important. If a student is to learn a foreign language then English should receive an emphasis since it is beccnning the universal language and is replacing French. 81 The establishment of an up-to-date library is imperative in education. The library should contain books and periodicals on international education so that the teachers can compare, evaluate and better understand their own educational system and needs. It is not only important to have excellent teachers but also to have an adequate number. In this regard the Greek Ministry of National Education and Religion should take into consideration the following data from the State of Michigan. Michigan, which has a comparable population to Greece, had in 1975-76 2,127,917 enrolled in public schools. There were 89,847 teachers giving a student-teacher ratio of 23.7. The average teacher's salary was 29 $15,064. The per pupil current operating expenditure for 1975-76 was $1,302.94.3° Teacher Organizations The Greek educational system has divided teachers into the elementary school teacher (daskalos) profession and the secondary school professor (kathigetes) profession. The reason for this is that in the past it was considered unnecessary for an elementary school teacher to have a sound univer- sity education. Prior to 1933, with the establishment of Pedagogi- cal Academies, which were patterned after the German Pedagogical Academies and were actually two-year colleges, elementary school teachers were trained in normal schools which were actually secondary schools. The secondary school teachers, on the other hand, were 82 graduates of the university, usually the University of Athens, and were specialists in their subject area. Thus the professional title "daskalos" indicated a much lower socio-economic status than did the title of "kathigetes" which was highly prestigious and respected in high esteem. This carries over to modern Greece today and is reinforced by the teacher organizations themselves which are separated into Elementary Teachers' Organizations and Secondary Teachers' Organiza- tions. These separate and unequal teachers' organizations function according to state laws, and have influenced educational trends among teachers and laymen. The writer visited the Secondary Teachers' Federation (OLME) in Athens in the summer of 1975 and interviewed its president, Vice-President and Secretary. She was told that this organization was founded in 1945. It holds meetings, publishes weekly periodicals, promotes the social and economic status of teachers and improves instruction. These gentlemen also told her that since the Karamanlés government, teachers have the right to negotiate for better teaching conditions including fewer daily classes and higher salaries.31 Teacher Administrative Relationships Greece has a centralized educational system; therefore, curriculum and other important issues concerning instruction, school administration, administrative policies, business management and other aspects of education are designed and established by the central agencies in the Ministry of Education and Religion. 83 Public and private elementary and secondary schools operate in accordance with the national curriculum, statutes and regulations designed for them. According to Kazamias: The Greek educational system is based on a highly central- ized pattern. The main source of executive and legisla- tive power is the Ministry and its advisory councils. The decisions made at the national level are implemented through the local supervisory councils, the general inspec- tors, the inspectors, the school principals, and the school faculties. An important person in the proper development, organization and operation of education programs is the administrator. It is the administrator's duty to see that each individual in the school system E.given the freedom of opportunity, encouragement, praise, recognition and incentive to work in an atmosphere of love and creativity. The position of administrator is one of great respon- sibility and authority. Though there is a need for authority, the authority should be used for the common good of all. The administra- tor should have skill in the field of human relations which will con- tribute toward a good relationship with his staff. The Greek ele- mentary and secondary school principals are assigned by the central office in the Ministry of Education and Religion on the basis of their successful professional experience. Elementary school prin- cipals are graduates of the pedagogical academy and are actually master Supervising teachers whose duties include teaching as well as supervision of instruction. The secondary school principals are university graduates having the equivalent of a bachelor's degree. Both the elementary and secondary school principals have little special training in school administration. 84 The principal of each school has administrative, supervisory, and instructional responsibilities. The school principal is the main student disciplinarian and guidance counselor since facilities and appropriate personnel are lacking. However, the principal has no disciplinary power over the teachers, except the power to report them to high authorities. In addition to his administrative, super- visory, guidance and disciplinary duties, the principal has a heavy teaching load. K. D. Antonakaki describes the Greek principal's duties as follows ; The responsibilities of the principals are administrative, supervisory, and instructional. They are secretaries of the school and of the school board and keep the school record books. They have the duty of pupil guidance and discipline. The elementary school teacher-principal is in addition a kind of health and attendance officer; now he is becoming a social worker too. The principals have a slightly lighter instructional load than the teachers. Their least carried out duty is supervision; they conduct conferences, but in general they avoid visiting classes in order not to hurt the teachers. They have no disci- plinary power over the teachers, except the right to report. This helps to create a good school atmosphere; the principal is a primus inter pares in the school rather than a boss. But he needs more help in administra— tion and more time for supervision and public relations.33 Recent reforms as stated in Law 748/1970, on "The Further Training of Secondary Teachers and the Reorganization of the College 34 are providing for the In-Service Training of Secondary Teachers," some very basic introductory courses in school administration and supervision of instruction, but the course offerings are incomplete and seemingly do not provide a sound knowledge of school administra- tion. 85 The principal is a key person in the process of education at the elementary and the secondary school, and an equally important key person is the teacher. The roles of these two key profes- sionals necessitate that there be a constant relationship if the goals of education are to be achieved. Since the elementary and secondary schools are centrally directed in terms of important issues, the school principal administers the school according to the established rules and orders of the Ministry of Education and Religion. However, the nature of a centralized system does not allow the principal enough freedom for creativity, originality, or self-expression to be innovative or to demonstrate his competence and quality of leader- ship. In general it may be said that the school principal feels secure and is appreciated if every step he takes conforms to the prevailing rules and regulations. Consequently, the principal becomes mainly a rule follower. This does not mean, however, that the centralized school system is without some merit just because it does not give enough freedom and flexibility to the administrator. To the writer, freedom and flexibility become valuable and meaning- ful only if they are used wisely. It is believed that freedom and flexibility in school administration requires professional competence and qualifications. Otherwise, these qualities may do more harm than good. Though debatable, it is the Greek belief and contention that there has to be unity among the schools of a nation and that strong nationalistic patriotism and preservation of the Greek Orthodox 86 faith or the Hellenic-Christian tradition must be achieved through formal education. The quality of administrative service within a school is a significant determinant of the level of effectiveness of the total educational program. This is so because administration penetrates every phase of school life. Realizing the importance of administration for education it may be said that at the present time in Greece the centralized school system is necessary because admin- istrative personnel are not professionally trained to assume full responsibility to direct school operations. According to a member of the Ministry of Education and Religion, the teachers in Greece may express opinions at the faculty meetings but the final decision is always made by the principal.35 One of the principal's duties is to \risit <:lass- rooms and to supervise the teachers. It was the writer's observation during her 1975 school visitations in Greece that the school atmos- phere, particularly the principal's office, was democratic, personal and informal. Teachers are free to consult with the principal who is directly accessible to the teaching staff at all times on a personal but highly professional basis. Communication between principal and teacher is enhanced by a mutual respect and dedication to professional interests and obligations. This is an encouraging beginning toward a democratic school environment to meet the needs of Greece's new democratic society. Public relations are minimal in Greece. This can be understood since the centralized Greek educational system does not allow for citizen involvement or for a community-centered school. 87 It is desirable that the principal establish various faculty committees to formulate school personnel policies, discipline codes, construct and innovate curriculum, to work on class scheduling and teacher loads, to plan for special event assemblies and to develop a program of extracurricular activities. He should coordinate and unify the efforts of these individual committees at general faculty meetings where committee reports are presented, discussed and decided by the entire faculty. Further, it is desirable that the formal (professional) relationship between individual teacher and principal become a person-to-person relationship. This would be accomplished through classroom observations and evaluation. These observations ought to be followed by principal-teacher conferences during which there would be professional exchange of ideas not for the purpose of down- grading the teacher, but for the purpose of upgrading the quality of instruction. In this way the principal would serve as a resource person. The administrator ought to give the teachers and pupils freedom to try new ideas and should be amenable to the criticism that may arise if the new ideas fail. The administrator should have a pragmatic, progressive democratic philosophy of education. Rupert C. Lodge defines a pragmatic administration as follows: The pragmatist views personnel administration an exercise of leadership by providing conditions for full participa- tion and cooperation of the entire teaching staff to the end that pupils are assisted in the processes of adjusting to their biological and social environments.35 88 The recent reforms in Law No. 748/1970 on "The Further Training of Secondary Teachers and the Reorganization of the College 37 should be further for the In—Service Training of Secondary Teachers" expanded to include specialized professional university training in democratic school administration. The principal should be appointed on the basis of his education, experience, merits and desirable personality traits, the most important being his ability to under- stand people, group dynamics and public relations as a means by which to release individual teachers' talents in a cooperative faculty effort toward the goal of improved instruction. The Teacher and the Student The writer subscribes to the philosophy that education is to enable people to know their environment, to react rationally, to adapt to the structural changes of society, and to acquire the ability to increase both their personal prosperity, happiness and moral values. Individual prosperity, happiness and moral values through the acquisition of knowledge and skill should contribute toward a nation's progress by promoting social, cultural and econ- omic development. The objectives of education are achieved through a nation's schools and the key individuals in the fonmal educational process are the teacher and the student. Although many individuals and agencies take part in this process of education the student is the central figure and, in the formal educational setting, the teacher is one of the closest persons to the student. Together they work to accomplish the established objectives. The teacher and the 89 student, through personal and daily contact, could establish a relationship which inspires both teacher and student to release their creative talents and in this way to develop the student's positive self-image and a well-adjusted and well-rounded personality. The effectiveness of curriculum, teaching methods and text- books depends on the way they are interpreted and implemented. In addition, the innate talents, aptitudes and potentialities of the student are developed, in part, through appropriate teaching tech- niques. The reform of teacher education affects the reform of all education in general because the efficiency of an educational system depends in part on the personality of the teacher, the teacher- student relationship and on the quality of instruction. Many Greek educators do not consider the teacher-student relationship as being the most important aspect of education nor do many of them recognize that the teacher-student relationship creates and determines the atmosphere of the entire learning process. The Greek school environment is serious and authoritarian. The Greek teacher is viewed as superior and students are expected to show respect and unquestioning obedience to the teacher and to the subject. The Greek student from the elementary school on through the secondary school is never allowed to forget the seriousness of his studies. Even the very young children are required to memorize irrelevant facts which they repeat in encyclopedic fashion but which appear to have little meaning or significance for the student. Teachers are prepared to control the classroom rather than to allow 90 the students the freedom to explore their interests and to develop through the process of individualized instruction their own creativity and positive self-image. This is apparently the result of the absence of freedom in the highly centralized Greek educational system, administered and con- trolled by the Ministryof National Education and Religion,which in turn is controlled by the political party in power. This tight control of education is reflected in every aspect of Greek education. The political elites control the Ministry of Education and Religion, the Ministry of Education and Religion controls the school principal, the school principal controls the teachers, and the teachers control the students. In 1976 Panos Polychronopoulos describes the five roles of the Greek teacher as follows: 1. The teacher as a sergeant. Before any learning activity even begins, the teacher acts as a sergeant by lining students up before going to class, asking a student to say the prayer, making the announcements, and then having the students file to class. 2. The teacher as museum guide. Like a museum guide, the teacher guides the students to the marvels of human thought that stand there dead, lifeless, frozen, dusty, not to be touched, felt, pushed around, opened up, or tried out, but to be admired, awed, revered, and memorized! 3. The teacher as tamer/judge/disciplinarian. The role of the tamer is very well expressed in the common Greek expression "na ton kanis anthropo" (to make him human), implying that the student does not know the "lesson" or he misbehaves, he gets spanked. Even during the 50's, being punished for not knowing was very common, espec- ially in the countryside and in the elementary schools. 4. The teacher as auditor. The teacher examines the stu- dents (usually the first half hour) to see what is in their minds, how well the delivery has been recorded, and whether there is correspondence between the delivery 91 and the reception, that is, whether what is in the student's mind corresponds to what is in the teacher's mind. (The auditor examines the books to see what is in the books, whether the transactions are recorded accurately and properly, and whether they are balanced.) If the student's response is equal to the teacher's presentation, then the student passes; if not, the student is graded according to the degree of corres- pondence. 5. The teacher as guardian/policeman. As the policeman patrols the streets to make sure people behave accord- ing to the laws, so the teacher goes around town after class hours checking whether the students are in the streets playing or at home doing their homework (internalizing the assigned version of reality). This role is slowly dying out, but it was very prevalent in earlier times and especially in the countryside of Greece.38 After reading what Polychronopoulos has to say about the five roles of the Greek teacher, it is interesting to note how Dimaras describes the 1834 Greek school teacher's duties. These are as follows: Teacher's Duties The duties of the public school teachers. The teacher should respect the citizens and let them know that they are teaching their children, giving them all their school work and helping them to learn and to obtain an education. The teacher should set an example for the students by being well groomed, mannerly, and respectful of others. If the teacher sets a good example then the students will love the teacher and identify with him. They, too, will always do good things. The teacher should not favor certain students because they are from wealthy homes and have influential parents. Stu- dents of all classes should be treated equally. The teacher should be undiscriminating with his students and have the same warm feeling for all students regardless of their socio-economic class. She should accept the rich and the poor student alike. 92 The teacher should make home visitations. He should talk with parents to be sure that the student's home life is conducive to the child's proper upbringing. The teacher should see that all children are enrolled in school. The teacher should visit sick students to see that the parents are properly taking care of the child. The tea- cher is supposed to have a better understanding of a child's health needs than his parents, who in some cases are uneducated, and should call a doctor if necessary. The teacher should be responsible for maintaining class- room order and discipline and for appropriate student con- duct. Teachers should be responsible to report to the parents. The teacher should not take part in any arguments, be involved in any scandal, and should not gossip or carry words from one person to another or ever be the cause of trouble. The teacher should be a good citizen, possess good moral ethics, and should not lose his temper. The teacher should perform his duties and through his con- duct set a good example for his students. The teacher should engage in a moderate social life. If the teacher attends a party or a wedding he must always be careful how he conducts himself. He should be serious but sociable. He can have one drink or one glass of wine. The teacher should be careful in his associations with people and must always be polite. The teacher must leave the party early and without any arguments so that he can get a good night's sleep and be ready tovvork at school in the morning.3 Dimaras also describes the duties of students during this same period as follows: Greek Student's Duties Students are to obey and respect the teacher. Students are not to talk to each other when the teacher is giving them their lessons. 93 Students are not to bother or annoy other students and are not to fight with others, but instead are to be friendly and love each other like brothers and sisters. Students are not to tear their books and not to break their slate pencils. Students are not to take anything that does not belong to them either from another person or from the school, and if they should find something that does not belong to them, they should turn it in to the teacher. Students should always tell the truth. Students should be kind and polite to other people. Students must not be unkind to animals. Students are to honor and obey their parents and their elders. Students are not to make fun of anyone who is sick or handicapped. Students are not to associate with bad company. Students are to walk quietly and to behave when they are on the road. Students are to behave and study at home. Students are to attend church on designated holidays and stand quietly when they are worshiping during the liturgy and the holy prayers. Students at all times should be well-behaved children. They should carry out their assigned duties quietly and carefully. Students should obey the student assistants and teacher helpers. Students should obey all of the school's rules.40 In 1975 during school visits and interviews with Greek teachers the writer found them to possess personality traits common among most Greek people, that is, a warm and sincere love for children. The Greek people see in their children hope for continued 94 freedom from enemy oppression and for the perpetuation of their traditions, language and religion. Teachers and parents have high aspirations and expectations for student achievement. The problem arises not in lack of love--but in the fact that love is not enough when Greek teachers and students are inhibited by fear of criticism for trying something new, different, innovative, and creative but not in conformance with the Ministry's outline of course of study. Guidance and counseling are not a part of the Greek educa- tional system and intelligence or aptitude tests are not used at the secondary school for diagnostic purposes. Teachers are not provided with technical help. The future of an individual student is in the hands of the teacher whose knowledge of pedagogy may be questioned. However, some attempt is made to channel students according to aptitude during the fourth year of school, at which point, secondary education becomes specialized for those who intend to pursue uni- versity degrees. School programs for boys and girls are identical. Mrs. Magda Softi, a graduate from the University of Utah, provides a private guidance and diagnostic service in Athens at the Educational and Vocational Guidance Service for those students whose parents are willing to pay for this service. During the writer's interview with Mrs. Softi, she was told that the Stanford California Diagnostic Tests, which have been translated in Greek, are used for educational diagnostic evaluations.4] Extra-curricular activities are not provided in the Greek secondary schools. The Greek students are very serious. They are 95 interested in politics and look forward to some day holding a political position. Catsioulas states: There is some evidence that Greek secondary education is beginning to give some attention to pupil participation in school activities, but in the main the meager social life and authoritarian organization are not conducive to the development of pupil initiative and responsibility.42 Polychronopoulos' impressions of Greek teacher-student relations are as follows: Teacher-student relationships are not very friendly and personal. Disciplinary measures include both positive and negative reinforcement. Poor conduct is recorded on the stu- dent's report card. Corporal punishment is not permitted. He States: Depending upon the infraction, the student is subjected to one of the following levels of punishment: (1) reprimand by the teacher; (2) being sent to the principal's office; and (3) appearance before the council of teachers. In the event of a serious offense, the pupil may be expelled.43 The teacher in the Greek secondary schools accepts the individual student not for what he is but for what he is expected to be and this is a crucial issue in Greek education. The Greek secon- dary school teacher expects the individual to possess the skill and ability necessary to achieve the secondary school curriculum. If the student fails, many teachers believe it is his fault. Polychronopoulos states: Rivalry and antagonism among students are prevalent. In fact, the selection of the "best" is done through com- petition. All the extrinsic rewards, the grades, the merits, and the promotions feed and maintain this system positively; all the punishments, the scoldings, the failures feed and maintain this system negatively. As far as I know, therearelno intrinsic rewards used in the 96 Greek schools. The joy of learning, the satisfaction that comes with understanding, the awe of discovery, the pride of creation and of expression are very rare in these classrooms. The punishing character of the screening system is manifested in the various expressions of the teachers and students. "Ton ekopsa," (I cut him),"tha kopis," (You will be cut), "kopika," (I was cut), expresses the "cut-off" sense of failure; "perasa" (I passed), "tha peraso," (I will pass), show the "passing sense of advancement." Often students see the teacher as the enemy: "Tha ton skiso,” ("I will tear him apart"--”I will get such a high grade that the teacher does not expect; I will surprise him"); "ton koureliasa," (I shred him to rags/pieces--I did so well, I beat him; I showed him who I am). Often teachers view the students as adversaries: "tha se kopso!" (I will cut you, fail you). Passing is considered a favor, luck, at the expense of another, rarely as a deserved reward, or as a result of competence. There is an irony in all of this: the stu- dent must pass, he is pressured to pass, for failure is unacceptable; yet failure is built into the system. One must pass, yet one is made to fail! 4 Polychronopoulos further writes: The Greek classroom is still called "ethousa paradosis" (delivery chamber, like the delivery room in a hospital), where the school teacher (and the university professor) deliver their messages which the students passively record. These messages/knowledge are "subjectized," that is, made into lessons to be memorized (not to be explored) and are delivered in utter profundity and dead seriousness. Mathematics, grammar, physics, etc., are studied in the Greek schools in a profound and deadly serious manner as if they were being studied in graduate schools by professionals specializing in these areas. This is not only true of the secondary schools, but also of the primary schools.45 He cites Dimaras as supporting his contention as follows: Even such "subjects" as body conditioning, music, arts and crafts, etc., are subjectized and given such air of pro- fundity and seriousness that the purpose of these activities is literally killed.46 From these quotations it seems apparent that little concern is given to the students' totally well-adjusted personality. Further, a student who cannot meet pre-set standards of academic 97 achievement and who is labeled a failure in his school efforts may have every interest, incentive and ambition for his future destroyed. Therefore, it is really not so important that everyone be educated for superior intellectual contribution but most important that everyone be recognized for the unique contribution he can make within his abilities and limitations. In spite of the inadequacies of the school curriculum, teacher preparation and other aspects of Greek education, the people show a significant confidence in schools and teachers. Especially in the past schools or teachers were never questioned and blamed for the failure of the students. It was the individual to be blamed for his own failure. This can still be seen in villages and small towns where deference for the teacher and confidence in his justice, professional qualifications and objectivity still exists. This genuine confidence and deference shows a significant decrease from small communities to metropolitan cities where everything is questioned. This can be con- sidered as the beginning of change. If change and improvement are to take place in the Greek schools as in all schools, then teachers ought to accept the process of education which Bruner's famous dictum states, "Any subject can be taught to anybody at any age in some form that is honest and interesting.47 In addition, the teacher-student relationship of superior- subordinate could be replaced by one in which the teacher is viewed as a friendly and capable personality whose role it is to assist the student toward mutually recognized important goals. The teacher 98 ought to be both a teacher and friend to the student and should utilize both child and educational psychology to help the student. School and Community Relations in Greece School and community in Greece are separate and unrelated socially and educationally. There is no direct citizen involvement in the formulation of educational policy, in curriculum construction and content selection. There is neither parent participation in the affairs of the school nor participation in decision-making processes regarding the short-range and long-range educational plans for their children. Since Greece has a centralized system of education, educa- tional policy, curriculum and decision-making are the exclusive authority of the directors at the Ministry of Education and Religion. The curriculum designed at the central office of the Ministry of Education and Religion does not provide for local community needs. Georgoussis cites Constantinos Michalakis as follows: Citizens and laymen do not have a word in making decisions about education. This might leave the impression that professional people in education cooperatively make the decisions. This is not true either because a large part of the professional people are excluded from taking part in making decisions. The decisions are made by administrators in the Ministry of Education and Religion, who comprise a very small percentage of the professional people in educa- tion. This results in a great gap between theory and practice.48 Greece has at least two distinctly different cultures: the predominantly rural culture of subsistence farmers and the urban culture of the city dwellers. The irrelevance of the curriculum and the lack of citizen involvement to construct a curriculum which will 99 meet the needs of the people in the community is especially evident in the Greek villages. The curriculum designed in Athens reflects the culture and values of urban living which seems remote and unrelated to the experiences and needs of the villager and to the village child. Antonakaki maintains that the social body of Greece is the villages with 58% of the people living in rural villages.49 However, the centralized educational system does not consider the local com- munity needs. The Greek curriculum is devised by authorities out- side of the local setting. This results in the perpetuation of the traditional curriculum which does not foster local community develop- ment. If the existing curriculum of elementary education had been devised to adequately meet the needs of Greece, it would have been inconceivable for school and village to be divorced from each other.50 The Greek centralized school system which separates school from life is a crucial issue in Greek education because it has resulted in static individual, community and national development rather than in dynamic, individual, community and national develop- ment. Georgoussis observes: The uniformity of textbooks contradicts the state policies. Although the state tries to make the rural children love rural life, the subject matter of the books is urban rather than rural; for example, the hero of the best elementary reader, which has influenced the present grown-up generation, is an urban boy who visits the country just to admire the scenery.51 Greek educators should be willing to change the traditional centralized system of education if rural reconstruction and 100 economic development are to be achieved. Education should be made relevant to local needs. A UNESCO report states: "Rural education and rural reconstruction must proceed simultaneously."52 Effective education requires cooperation between homes, schools and community. This contention is further supported by Ernest O. Melby who states: Biologists and psychologists tell us that the human organism reacts as a totality with the totality of the environment. Education, therefore, must be concerned with the whole child, with his out-of-school as well as his in-school experience. Only through the closest cooperation of homes, school and community do we stand any chance to build effective education. Not only is it unwise to control from remote places the education of individual children, but it cannot be controlled even by the individual teacher working with an individual child without constant communication with the child's parents and constant and vital relationships to the many com- munity agencies which affect the life, growth, and development of the child.53 Centralized control of Greek education and a standardized school curriculum which does not allow for individual differences does not meet the needs of the individual member of the community and does not provide the opportunity of lay citizen involvement as the basis of present and future successful school community relations. Education in Greece should be decentralized to meet the needs of all of the Greek people: the villagers as well as the urban dwellers. To be democratic, education ought to meet the needs of the peasants as well as the needs of the elite. If all Greek pe0ple are to share equally in the benefits of education then education should provide for local community participation in the formulation of school policy, curriculum and decision-making. The Ministry of Education's lOl role in community education should be one of guidance, cooperation and coordination with local authorities. The school curriculum should be fitted to the needs and interests of the community. This can be done through continuous surveys based on community resources and their standards.54 The community school concept should be adapted in Greece. The school doors should be open to the public at all times and parents should be encouraged to observe their children in classes. Parents should be encouraged to display a supportive attitude regarding the child's education throughout the child's school years. Most important of all parents should be encouraged to participate actively in educational decision—making concerning their child. An inter-disciplinary team approach could be used in educa- tional planning and community develOpment. School administrators, teachers, sociologists, psychologists, scientists and laymen should work cooperatively in pooling their expertise for the development of child-centered and community-centered educational planning. The recent establishment of Parent Teacher Associations in the Greek urban communities is a step in the right direction for soliciting citizen involvement in education. The Draft Law on Special Education, Special Professional Training, Employment and 55 which is discussed hi Social Welfare of Disadvantaged Persons, 1977; Chapter V, also provides for the establishment of P.T.A.'s for the parents and teachers of handicapped students. Antonakaki expresses her view of the need for Greek school and community relations as follows: 102 It is expected that the closer cooperation of the schools with the people will become a steppingstone toward the amelioration of the national and socio-economic problems of Greek education and toward the change of the ivory-tower school into a home for education and life in a paideia- centered society, which is the Greek classic and the modern democratic ideal.56 cit., p. 103 FOOTNOTES: CHAPTER III 1Georgoussis, op. cit., p. 106. 2 . Kazamias, "Greece: 41. 0501-500 Ibid. 7Ibid. 81bid. 9Ibid. 10 Georgoussis, op. cit., p. 107. Dimaras, op. cit., p. 216. Catsioulas, op. cit., pp. 58-60. , pp. 60-61. , p. 62. Decree Law No. 842/1971, ”On the Reorganization of the Pedagogical Academies," Kingdom of Greece, National Ministry of Education and Religion. 11 12 Ibid 13Ibicl 14 15 16 17 Ibid Ibid 18 19 20 21 ., Article 1. Ibid. ., Article 2. Ibid. Ibid. ., Article 3. ., Article 4. Ibid. Catsioulas, op. cit., p. 46. Georgoussis, op. cit., p. 94. Education in Greece, op. cit., p. 13. 22Catsioulas, op. cit., p. 67. 23 cit., p. 43. Kazamias, "Greece: Modernizing Secondary Education,‘ Modernizing Secondary Education," op. 104 24Catsioulas, op. cit., p. 66. 25Decree Law No. 748/1970, "The Further Training of Secondary Teachers and the Reorganization of the College for the In-Service Training of Secondary Teachers (C.I.T.S.T.)," Kingdom of Greece, National Ministry of Education and Religion, Athens. 26Ibid., Article l 271bid. 281oid., Article 3 29Michigan Statistical Abstracts, vol. 12, 1977, p. 205. 3OIbid., p. 233. 31Visit and interviews in Greece, OLME, Secondary Teachers' Organization, June 1975. 32Kazamias and Massialas, op. cit., p. 111. 33Antonakaki, Kalliniki Dendrinou, Greek Education, Reorganization of the Administrative Structure (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1955), pp. 61-62. 34Decree Law No. 748/1970, op. cit. 35Visits and interviews in Greece, Ministry of Education and Religion, Athens, July 1975. 36Rupert C. Lodge, Philosophy of Education (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1947), p. 78. 37Decree Law No. 748/1970, op. cit. 38Polychronopoulos, op. cit., pp. 373-374. 39Dimaras, op. cit., p. 100. 40 41Visit and interviews in Greece, Educational and Vocational Guidance Service, Athens, July 1975. 42 Ibid., p. 97. Catsioulas, op. cit., p. 70. 43Polychronopoulos, op. cit., p. 375. 44Ibid., p. 378. 105 45Ibid., p. 375. 451bid., p. 376. 47Bruner, op. cit., p. 6. 48Constantinos D. Michalakis, "Improving Supervision of the Public Elementary Schools in Greece," Ph.D. dissertation, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1958. Cited by Panayiotis Georgoussis in "Post World War II Greek Elementary Education and Elementary School Curriculum Development," Ed.D., Utah University, 1972, p. 47. 49Antonakaki, Kalliniki, and Dendrinou, op. cit., p. 102. 50Georgoussis, op. cit., p. 77. 5'Ibid. 52 UNESCO, Rural Education and the Training of Rural School Teachers, Education Abstracts 7:5, November 1955. Cited by Panayiotis Georgoussis in "Post World War II Greek Elementary Educa- tion and Elementary School Curriculum Development," Ed.D. disserta- tion, Utah University, 1972, p. 100. 53 _ - ErneSt 02 Melb i Administerin c ~ - (Prentlce Hall, 1955), p7 130. g 0mmunlty Education‘ 54 . . GeorgouSSls, op. c1t., p. 100. 55 . u . Appendix C, About the Draft Law on Special Education, SpeClal ProfeSSlonal Training, Employment and Social Welfare of Disadvantaged Persons" (Athens: National Ministr of ' Religion, 1977). y Educatlon and 56 . . . . Antonakakl, Kalllnlkl, and Dendrinou, op. cit., p. 259. CHAPTER IV SELECTED AREAS OF SPECIAL EDUCATION IN GREECE AS COMPARED WITH THE STATE OF MICHIGAN This chapter on special education in Greece and in Michigan is divided into four sections. The first section deals with the history and philosophy of special education in the United States and the present situation in Greek special education. The second sec- tion discusses special education of the visually impaired in Greece and Michigan. The third section deals with the present situation in Greek and Michigan special education of the hearing impaired. The fourth section deals with the education of the educable mentally impaired in Greece and Michigan. Discussion of special education in these three areas in Michigan serves as a basis for ascertaining the caliber of special education in Greece today. It also serves as a baseline for evaluation of the proposed 1977 Greek "Draft Law on Special Education, Special Professional Training, Employment and Social Welfare of Disadvantaged Persons," which is discussed in Chapter V. 106 107 Special Education Historygand Philosophy of Special Education in the United States The political philosophy of a society determines the education of that society and is reflected in the type of school atmosphere, the quality of education, and the availability of equal educational opportunity to all of the children in that society. The United States is a democracy. The democratic ideals of America are stated in the Declaration of Independence, in the Con- stitution of the United States, and in the Bill of Rights. The democratic political philosophy of the United States adheres to the belief that the state exists for the welfare of the individual. Education provided by the state exists for the welfare of the individual child, regardless of his limitations, and schools operate within a democratic framework to provide equal educational opportun- ity to all children. The American democratic philosophy of educa- tion is implemented in the schools where modifications of regular school programs adapt and individualize instruction to meet the needs of each child. Historically, the concept of educating each child to the limits of his ability is relatively new. Society's view of those who deviate has reflected changes in attitudes from persecution, neglect, mistreatment, protection and pity to accepting the handi- capped and integrating them into society.2 Changing attitudes toward the deviant child can be seen in the educational history of the United States. In the first decades 108 of the 1800's Horace Mann, Samuel Gridley Howe and Dorothea Dix established residential schools for the blind, deaf, retarded, epileptic, orphaned and others, as was being done in Europe. These schools provided for training and a protective environment, often covering the life span of the individual.3 Special education at this time was provided as segregated education for the handicapped. The reasons for the segregation of handicapped children for educational purposes in the 1800's was that the severity of the deviant child's needs could not be coped with in regular public schools. Regular public schools both in Europe and in the United States at this time were rigid, undifferentiated and undifferentiating.4 These early schools did not have an understand- ing of individual differences, and individualized instruction to meet the needs of each child. The curriculum was confined to reli- gion and the rudiments of reading, writing and arithmetic. Samuel Gridley Howe the first directorlwfthe Perkins Schoolfbr the Blind in Massachusetts, in 1871 predicted the future educational provisions for all handicapped children. Although Howe was mainly involved with the education of blind children, his insights extended to other areas of special education.5 Howe held the con-_ viction that the education ofblind children should be conducted in the same way as that of seeing children.6 He predicted the need for integrating or mainstreaming handicapped children into the "common" schools with "common" classmates in all possible areas. He also foresaw the changing role of residential schools in special educa- tion to meet the needs of multiple-handicapped children who could 109 not be integrated into the regular public schools.7 The public school movement began in the 1800's and has developed into public school programs to meet the needs of all types of handicapped child- ren. The ideal of free and compulsory education for all who are educable and scientific concern for individual differences is less than 100 years old. Economic changes in the United States have affected the role, function and scope of education of all citizens including the handicapped.8 The psychological mental testing movement in the early 1900's refined techniques for assessing individual differences.9 These diagnostic methods made possible modern concepts and recogni- tion that differing types and degrees of handicap require dif- ferentiated methods and programs. The particular characteristics of each handicap and their effect on the intellectual, social, emotional, and physical development of each child necessitated attention to individual differences and modern special education programs. Special education programs in Michigan, as in many other states, mandated diagnostic prescriptive teaching, specific means of remediation, individualized instruction, individual performance objectives and individual education programs fitted to the needs of each child. In recent years there has been an educational rights movement toward accepting the handicapped and integrating them into society with normal peers to whatever extent is compatible with his fullest 110 10 Federal and state mandatory education acts potential development. for the handicapped are the outcome of the educational rights move- ment which began on May 17, 1954, when Chief Justice Earl Warren read the unanimous decision of the United States Supreme Court: "Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal." And "In these days it is doubtful that any child may reasonably be expected to succeed in life if he is denied the opportunity for an education. Such an opportunity, where the state has undertaken to provide it, is a right which must be made available to all on equal terms (Supreme Court of the United States in Brown v. Board of Education).11 This decision made the "separate but equal" school provisions for black children illegal. Black children were integrated into regular schools but placement in these schools alone could not make up for the cultural and economic disadvantages under which these children had spent their preschool years.12 This decree resulted in programs such as Head Start and com- pensatory education. Federal and state legislative measures strengthened the movement that had a general impact on public school education. In addition, this decree affected the rights of handicapped children who also constitute a minority group in the United States. The handicapped childrens' rights were stressed in 1972 in the decision of the Pennsylvania Association for Retarded Children v. the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. This case established education for all children as a public responsibility. The decision reached by the court includes the following historical clause. 111 Having undertaken to provide a free public education to all of its children, including the exceptional children, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania may not deny any mentally retarded child access to a free public program of educa- tion and training. It is the Commonwealth's obligation to place each mentally retarded child in a free public program of education and training appropriate to the child's capacity . . . among the alternative programs of education and training required by statute to be avail- able, placement in a regular public school class is preferable to placement in a special public school class and placement in a special public school class is pre- ferable to placement in any other type of program of education and training.1 Many states have passed legislation that established mandatory education for all handicapped children. For example, 14 the Michigan Mandatory Education Act, P.A. 198, 1971. Further, Federal legislation, Education for All Handicapped Children Act, Public Law 94-142, l975,15 guarantees handicapped children equal educational opportunity. Critical stipulations of the Federal act which must be adhered to by all states as well as public school districts include the following: 1. Assurance of extensive child identification proced- ures. 2. Assurance of full service goal and detailed timetable. 3. A guarantee of complete due process procedures. 4. The assurance of regular parent or guardian consulta- tion. 5. Maintenance of programs and procedures for comprehen- sive personnel development including inservice train- ing. 6. Assurance of non-discriminatory testing and evaluation. 7. Assurance of special education being provided to all handicapped children in the least restrictive environ- ment. 8. A guarantee of policies and procedures to protect the confidentiality of data and information. 9. Assurance of the maintenance of an individualized pro- gram for all handicapped children. 10. Assurance of an effective policy guaranteeing the right of all handicapped children to a free, appropriate pub- lic education at no cost to parent or guardian. 112 ll. Assurance of a surrogate to act for any child when parents or guardian are either unknown or unavail- 16 able, or when said chlld 15 legal ward of the state. The provision of equal educational opportunity to all child- ren necessitates quality education to develop the potential of each child. In order to do this the following requirements are necessary: (a) trained teachers and administrators, (b) research to find methods to meet the needs of eachchl'ld, (c) adequate programs and guidelines for the imple- mentation of these programs, (d) early identification, intervention, diagnosis, placement, infant and preschool programs, and parent education, and (e) facilities in school and community to meet the physical and recreational needs of these youngsters. Present Situation in Greek Special Education The Greek nation has come a long way from the ancient practice of infanticide of the abnormal infant, but the progress has been slow. Historically, Greek society's attitudes and treatment toward the handicapped person have passed through stages of neglect, protection and isolation. These attitudes are being replaced with attitudes of acceptance and maximization of potential. The Greek education of handicapped children has paralleled this attitudinal progression from neglect to acceptance of the concept of maximization of potential through attempts at the establishment of special schools and programs for the handicapped. Historically, in Greece, special education dates back only forty years. The need for special education programs and instruc- tional methods for the handicapped was recognized in 1937 with the 113 Emergency Law 453/1937, ”About the Creation of a School for the '7 and Law 1049/1938, "About 18 Abnormal and Disadvantaged Children," the Revision and Supplementation of Law 453/1937." These laws provided for the establishment of special education schools for the mentally retarded. A few schools were established but the programs and teacher training were inadequate and had little effect. It was not until Greece was well underway to recovery from the ravages of World War II and the Communist attempt at takeover that a Law 1904/1951, "About Protection and Restitution of the Blind,”9 was passed in 1951, establishing schools for the blind and compulsory education for blind children. These were private insti- tutions with inadequate programs and instructional methods. In 1956, recognition of the need for education of the deaf and hearing impaired resulted in the enactment of Law 3635/1956, "About Recognition of Private Elementary Schools for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students as Equal to the Public Ones and About Their Programs and Curriculums and About Government Assistance of Such."20 The year 1965 brought the recognition of a private high school for the deaf and hearing impaired with the enactment of Law 4466/1965, "About Recognition of the Model Special Educational Institution Operated Private High School for the Hard of Hearing and Deaf Children as Equal to the Public High Schools."21 The most recent proposal concerning special education is contained in a 1977 Draft of a "Law on Special Education, Special Professional Training, Employment and Social Welfare of Disadvantaged 22 Persons," and will be discussed in Chapter V. 114 Presently Greek education of handicapped children is achieved by both public and private institutions and varies according to the goals established by each institution. There are presently sixteen schools for mentally retarded children, nine private and seven public. The staff totals 147 with 54 teachers, 33 scientific personnel, 55 assistants and 5 laboratory personnel. There are five schools for the blind, four private and one public. The staff totals 63 and con- sists of 29 teachers, 27 assistants, 1 scientific person and 6 laboratory assistants. There are nine schools for the deaf and hard of hearing, seven public and two private. The staff numbers 101 and consists of 54 teachers, 44 assistants and 3 scientific people. The public schools are financed by the government and are free. The private schools charge tuition.23 Three representative institutions will be discussed in this section: (1) The Athens School for the Blind, (2) The Athens Schoolfor the Deaf, and (3) The Maraslionlhfinmry School, which has a program for the Educable Mentally Retarded. Education for the Visually Impaired Greek Education for the Visually Impaired Blind Individuals' Progression through Successive Educational Levels The primary goal of Greek regular education and special education for the blind is to provide normal development of physical, mental and intellectual faculties of children through six years of 115 elementary education (see Chapter II). Students with exceptional intelligence, including the blind who can pass the entrance examinations for the secondary school and can keep pace with the above average non-handicapped child are admitted to the secondary school and are integrated or, in modern jargon, mainstreamed. This is done with the assistance of teachers from the Athens School for the Blind. Very few blind students are qualified to enter secondary school much less to complete this phase of their education. Little effort is given to vocational training and the only vocational training that is provided is that of on-the—job training as telephone operators. The children who attend the school for the blind are a homogeneous group of blind children. Their only physical handicap 24 With specialized training in orientation and is lack of vision. mobility, training in braille reading and writing and in typewriting, these children probably could be successfully mainstreamed in regular school programs. Mainstreaming the visually handicapped child with high or even average intelligence is not considered by most educational planners in spite of its educational, social and economic advantages. Mass screening as known in_the United States for the early identification of the visually impaired is not done in Greece. Thus, the identification of the visually impaired child in infancy and referral of these individuals to special education preschool programs is nonexistant. 116 Curriculum The Athens School for the Blind utilizes a traditional elementary school curriculum for teaching the blind. The curriculum includes the following subjects: reading and writing braille, arithmetic, listening skills, typewriting, cane travel, physical education, arts and crafts, music and home economics. In addition, the curriculum utilizes the senses of hearing, touch, smell and taste. It also includes adaptations of the general curriculum, specialized materials and equipment. Reading and writing.--The Greek blind children learn to read braille and to write braille through the use of the Perkins Brailler. They also learn to write braille with the slate and stylus. However, the blind at this school were not being instructed in handwriting or learning to write their signature. Arithmetic.--Arithmetic is learned in braille and also through mental arithmetic and by the use of the Japanese abacus. Listening skills.--Attempts at the development of adequate listening skills are being made to enable the visually handicapped child to obtain information from listening and remembering details by use of conversation and tapes. Physical education.--Physical education is a routine part of the curriculum at the Athens School for the Blind. The physical education teacher assists the visually handicapped child through verbal directions and demonstration to participate in physical 117 education activities. Gymnastics and dancing are a part of the physical education program. However, the writer learned through observations and inter- views that orientation and mobility, social and daily living skills, early elementary typewriting instruction, individualized instruction, additional stinullaticln, infant and early childhood self-activity, and use of residual vision were not given emphasis in the cur- riculum.14 Therefore, in these aspects the curriculum is incomplete and is not meeting the needs of the blind child. Orientation and mobility skills.--Orientation and mobility skills are limited to cane travel in the education of the blind. The curriculum emphasizes literacy with little regard to the need for the blind child to sequentially learn to command his environment through the acquisition of orientation and mobility skills. Orientation and mobility specialists are not employed at the Athens School for the Blind. A regular staff member teaches cane travel to the older blind children and although her intentions are good, since she is not a specialist, her knowledge of the subject is limited and inadequate. Special educators should realize that they cannot be all things to all children. Social and daily living skills.--The visually handicapped child's parents and teachers can help him to acquire socially acceptable behavior and personality traits through a social and daily living skills program. Greek special educators have no established program in this area and continue to emphasize the 118 traditional methods of education which concentrate primarily on teaching subject matter. Social and daily living skills are left in the hands of the parents. The lack of special infant school,parent education and preschool programs 0-5 years of age result in a neglect of cultivation of physical and intellectual faculties at a crucial stage of development. Typewriting,--Typewriting, which is important for the education of the blind, because it is their only means of written communication with sighted people who do not read braille, received little emphasis. The writer learned that typewriting is offered to the children in the sixth grade, the last year of their education. The school does not have a special typewriting teacher or formal typewriting classes. Individualized instruction.--During the writer's school visits it appeared from observation that the curriculum was not flexible and did not allow for individualized instruction, and additional stimulation. Additional stimulation is necessary to keep the blind child from living a restricted life. The blind children rarely are taken out of the classroom to places that will stimulate their interests. Further, interesting people are invited infre- quently to visit the school and to discuss various subjects with the children. Use of residual vision.--During the writer's visit to the Athens School for the Blind she did not observe any utilization of 119 residual vision. No optical aids were available to help children maximize the use of their residual vision. Whether this was due to fear that further vision loss would incur if the child were encouraged to use whatever residual vision was present could not be ascertained. It appeared that this area of training, which is also relatively new in the United States, has not been implemented. Specialized Materials and Equipment The specialized materials and equipment for the education of the visually handicapped in Greece include appropriate lighting, braille materials, tapes, arithmetic aids, and embossed and relief maps. Teacher Preparation The Greek teachers at the Athens School for the Blind have been trained in the standard two-year elementary teaching curriculum. Consequently, individualization is not stressed. Teachers lack training in diagnostic, prescriptive teaching and individualized instruction. Further individual performance objectives and individualized educational programs fitted to the needs of each child could be utilized. The teachers are fortunate to have on their faculty a blind teacher who received her education at the Perkins School for the Blind in Massachusetts. This teacher gives the other teachers training in methods for teaching the blind. 120 Education for the Visually Impaired in Michigan Mass Screening Mass screening programs exist with the goal of finding the visually impaired child at the earliest possible time. This is specified as follows in the Michigan guideline: Identification of the visually impaired child at infancy is extremely important to parents and child. A determined effort should be made to alert the various public health, welfare and social service agencies and medical facilities of the importance of such early identification, and the procedure for referring visually impaired (V.I.) persons to special education. Particularly strong channels should be developed with the local Department of Public Health Office, which has on file a list of persons who have been identified as having a vision problem. Families of pre- primary children who have been referred to the intermediate district should be contacted promptly by school personnel and appropriate programs developed. Pre-school records and inggrmation should be maintained by the school dis- trict. Definition Visual impairment is defined as follows: Rule 8. "Visually impaired" means a person identified by an educational planning and placement committee, based upon an evaluation by an opthalmologist, or equivalent, and other pertinent information as having a visual impair- ment which interferes with learning and having 1 or more of the following behavioral characteristics: (a) A central visual acuity of 20/70 or less, in the better eye after correction. (b) A peripheral field of vision restricted to no greater than 20 degrees.25 121 Eligibility Eligibility for special education programs established within regular schools and special classes at intermediate school districts or at the Michigan School for the Blind are based on an in depfllevaluation to ascertain the degree of visual impairment and the degree of interference with the learning process. If some vision exists then these individuals are evaluated at low vision clinics to ascertain the need for low vision aid. Following evalua- tion a program and/or service is recommended. This placement may be at a residential school facility such as the Michigan School for the Blind if it is ascertained that the degree of impairment will result in inability to compete in the integrated regular or special classroom. Efforts are made to keep the child at home if intermediate districts have the expertise to provide an appropriate program for the child; if not, then he is eligible for residential school placement. The education of the blind is special because it departs from the regular curriculum in areas in which the child needs special consideration. The areas of departure from that of the regular cur- riculum are first in the methodology of the education of the blind, second in a consideration of the emotional problems caused by blind- ness and by the specific social atmosphere which blindness creates in the blind child and in his environment.27 122 Teacher Preparation The teachers of the visually handicapped in the United States are university graduates. Their education consists of a balance of content subjects and special teaching methods for the visually impaired, student teaching and teaching internships. Education of teachers of the visually impaired at Michigan State University encompasses a four-year education program culmin- ating in a Bachelor of Arts degree. Selection criteria for accep-- tance into the program are basechlprevious experience as well as other factors. These include intensity of interest in education of the visually impaired as evidenced in tutorial and/or volunteer work with the blind. Evidence of commitment to the field is another factor, as well as previous academic preparation and achievement. Finally, the candidate is evaluated in terms of interpersonal relationships, child relationships and personal characteristics with relevance to teaching the visually impaired. Admission to special education comes in the third year of university. The applicant must have a minimum of 60 credit hours of experience as a teacher aide in a class of visually impaired children; summer camp for visually impaired children; recreation program for visually impaired children and/or half—way house experience for visually impaired. The bachelor of arts program for teachers of visually impaired children includes the following credit hours: 18 hours of language arts; 18 hours of social science including psychology; 18 hours of science-mathematics including physiology of the eye; 123 30 hours of fine arts including music, art, humanities and creative dramatics; and 50 hours of elementary education including student teaching. The special education requirements include the following credit hours: Educational Provisions for Visually Handicapped (3 hrs.); Curriculum Methods and Materials for Visually Handicapped (4 hrs.); Braille (4 hrs.), Low Vision and Its Facilitation (3 hrs.); Daily Living Skills for Visually Handicapped (3 hrs.); Communication Modification for Visually Handicapped (3 hrs.); Education for Exceptional Children (3 hrs.); Provisions for Physical Education (3 hrs.); Educational Procedures for Mentally Retarded (3 hrs.); Psychological-Educational Characteristics of the Emotionally Disturbed (3 hrs.); Intern Teaching Visually Handicapped (17 hrs.); Field Practice: Teacher Aide (3 hrs.); Field Practice: Low Vision Facilitation (1 hr.); Field Practice: Daily Living Skills (1 hr.); Typewriting (2 hrs.); Recreation Handicapped; Creative Dramatics (3/4 hr.); Special Education (core 15 hrs.); Laboratory Field Teaching Optacon (1 hr.). Upon satisfactory completion of this program the individual is certified to teach Special Education Visually Handicapped K-12 28 and elementary, all subjects K—8. The teacher must also possess a valid Michigan teacher's certificate. 124 Blind Individuals' Progression through Successive Educational Levels The visually handicapped children in the United States are given equal educational opportunity to progress through the suc- cessive educational levels which are made available to seeing child- ren. In addition, recent legislation guarantees the rights of maximization of potential through special education for handicapped individuals by making it possible for blind persons to remain in school through their twenty-fifth year. Early childhood education.--Parent involvement is important in pre-school years when the child is at home. Parent involvement with the child's education enhances and encourages the child's development. The school or other agencies are helpful in training parents in ways to help the visually handicapped child learn to command his environment. Early intervention, infant and pre-school programs are provided for ages 0-5 in Michigan. In preparation for school it is stated in the guidelines that: Parents should be helped to provide orientation instruction for their visually impaired infant so that he may develop a healthy self-image and establish interaction with his environment. Parents can be helped to encourage their child to develop independent mobility. In the school setting, a mobility instructor can work in coordina- tion with teachers, parents and with the individual child to encourage independent travel. Programs and/or services are a requisite for the pre- school visually impaired child. Such programs should include a home training service for parents of visually impaired infants, leading into center programs or group eXperiences for the pre-primary child. The family should have early and ongoing support of a teacher or a teacher consultant for the visually impaired. 125 Communication skills are improved by emphasis on auditory and tactile methods of sensory stimulation, which utilize residual vision. Social adjustment should be emphasized so that the child may learn to relate to his peers.29 Studentsirlprograms for the visually impaired are to be insured accessibility to the curriculum components of the regular school program. To accomplish this end, cer- tain special provisions are essential. These include, but are not limited to: Regular vision examinations; the availability of low vision aids, with instruction in their use in order to help students utilize residual vision; the availability of instruction in orientation and mobility; provisions needed to guarantee the participation of visually impaired students in both outdoor and indoor recreational and social activities beginning at an early age; and total planning for students which includes ongoing contact and coordination with the parents, medical authorities, com- munity agencies and resources.3 Programs for the visually impaired student must include mobility instruction at all age levels as part of the per- sonal adjustment component (R 340.1733b). In order to implement the minimum content of personal adjustment, and of pre-vocational and vocational training, the curriculum for visually impaired children should provide general academic studies, and should include home economics, shop instruction, and orientation and mobility instruction at all age levels in order to help achieve a high degree of personal independence. It is essential to teach daily living skills and self-care activities to each visually impaired individual from his earliest years to the end that he may become an acceptable and personable being-- free of blindisms, and socially attractive to others. It is important that school personnel foster a positive atti- tude in the student toward the use of special devices. The students developing a sense of humor and a healthy self-concept may constitute the difference between adequate and inadequate life adjustment.31 Kindergarten.--Visually handicapped children are encouraged to participate in as many activites as early as possible. The blind child is not at a disadvantage in oral activities such as listening to stories and telling about his experiences and interests. 126 Modifications are made in playing with motor activities. Braille reading readiness activities are included in the kindergarten pro- gram.32 Earlyielementary education.--Specialized instruction in reading print or braille for the visually handicapped child begins in the first grade. In the event that the child is mainstreamed into the regular school program,the itinerant teacher or resource room teacher provides the specialized materials and instruction. The materials and aids are brought into the class in which the child is enrolled; regular print books, large print books, optical aids, and braille are furnished to each child. The special teacher gives visual training and any other remedial work necessary to help the child adjust into the regular grades. Middle grades fourth through ninth.--At this stage the visually handicapped child is expected to learn the same information learned by the seeing children. The curriculum parallels that of the regular school and is supplemented by materials such as talking books, recorded audio lessons and remedial work. Secondary education.--The blind child of average intelligence can be mainstreamed in the regular secondary school. He is helped by readers, itinerant teachers and resource rooms. However, he can con- tinue his education in a specialized school for the blind if he desires to do so. Visually handicapped students at the Michigan 127 School for the Blind have the option and opportunity to continue their education through twenty-five years of age. The curriculum on the junior high levelshould include a continuation of orientation and mobility instruction and physical education. At this level, home economics, industrial arts, spelling and typing, and skills of taping and transcription are important. New emphasis should be placed on occupational information and elements of sex education. The senior high school level should further perfect skills already well developed in the visually impaired student relative to orientation and mobility, physical education, speech and communication techniques. Student performance objectives might relate to: braille shorthand; the use of recording devices; record keeping and note taking; vocational education and the refinement of home care and personal care skills.33 Vocational education.--High school vocational training for the visually impaired is available at the Michigan School for the Blind as well as in the intermediate school district schools. High school students may require placement at Michigan School for the Blind for vocational training. Michigan School for the Blind offers a number of vocational education courses such as: Personal Service Occupations (Massage Therapy, Child Care Aid); Clerical and Sales Occupations (Computer Programming, Distributive Education, Medical Transcription); Bench Work Occupations (Piano Tuning and Repair, Home Industries); Machine Trades Occupations (Volkswagon Technician, Small Engine Maintenance and Repair). For those students who are qualified and plan to go on to college there exists the Bureau of Blind Services, Michigan Department of Social Services, which can provide evaluation and testing services, medical services, special aids and appliances, and undenwrite certain expenses incurred in college training of the legally blind. Partially sighted 128 students may be eligible for similar benefits under Voca- tional Rehabilitation Services, Michigan Department of Education.35 Class size.--Specific requirements for programs for the visually impaired are described in the Michigan guidelines as follows: (A) Class size shall be determined primarily by the severity and multiplicity of the impairments of the vis- ually impaired. A special class with one teacher shall have an enrollment of l of the following: (I) Not more than the equivalent of 7 full-time pupils diagnosed as being blind. (11) Not more than the equivalent of 10 full-time pupils diagnosed as being partially seeing. (III) Not more than the equivalent of 8 full-time pupils when blind and partially seeing are grouped together, with not more than 4 being blind or visually impaired and also otherwise handicapped.36 Curriculum The curriculum throughout the educational process is flexible and allows for the educational method to be determined by the stu- dent's needs. A personally prescribed program of education is prepared based on the individual child's degree of residual vision, capabilities and social and emotional needs. It entails an inter- disciplinary team approach, diagnostic, prescriptive teaching, individual performance objectives and an individual education pro- gram for each child. Skillful teachers utilize a modification and adaptation of educational methods and equipment in teaching the academic subjects. In addition, Lowenfeld's principles for teaching the blind which are based on the psychological effects of blindness 129 and include individualization, concreteness, unified instruction, additional stimulation and self activity are incorporated in the curriculum for the education of the blind. These principles are discussed in the following sections. Individualization.--The curriculum for the education of the blind is flexible and allows for individualization of instruction. Teachers are trained to recognize individual differences which exist among visually handicapped children. Factors which are considered in determining differences among blind children are intelligence, degree of visual impairment and home backgrounds. In addition, teachers determine the special teaching problems caused by these intellectual, physical and environmental factors. Thus, they are able to plan individual educational programs which are fitted to the particular needs of each child. Teachers recognize that educationally the blind student gains knowledge from hearing and touch and takes this into consideration by providing him with the necessary concrete objects which he can touch and manipulate. In this way the student learns to understand the world that is designed for the sighted. The difference and distor- tion of models of objects are explained to the blind child. Further, wherever possible, the real object rather than the model is observed. Unified instruction.--The blind child's inability to see makes it necessary for him to rely on experiencing things and situa- tions through the senses of hearing, smell and touch. However, with- out the sense of vision the child merely receives impressions and is 130 unable to experience things and situations in their totality. It is necessary, therefore, that these impressions be unified and structured in order to become meaningful experiences. For example, a sighted child entering the grocery store will see the relation of shelves and objects in space. The teacher of the visually handicapped child supplies him with information which he cannot gain by observation or casual contact. Through the unit plan of instruction units on the grocery store give the blind child information which seeing children can obtain naturally. Additional stimulation.--The blind child receives deli- berately planned experiences which stimulate his interest. Addi- tional stimulation is necessary because if blind children are left alone they will live a restricted life. Teachers of the blind plan instruction within the curriculum guidelines which include provisions for many and varied opportunities for experiences which the blind child cannot gain on his own. The blind children are taken on excur- sions, field trips, and museum visits where they gain actual knowledge of objects and situations. In addition, the teacher invites community resource people to visit the classroom and to share their interests with the children. Classroom visits by interesting people are stimulating and educational for blind children. Preparation and follow-up work are essential parts of these activities. The blind child receives experiences through systematic stimulation. Programmed stimulating experiences provide the child a means by which he can learn his way in familiar and unfamiliar 131 surroundings. These experiences begin when the child begins to walk and continue through his school years. Mental orientation begins by having the child fhuihis way around the classroom through the use of a map; later, he is oriented to the larger school and finally he is oriented to the community through travel instruction. Self-activity.--A seeing child learns actions and skills through visual imitatknn Since the blind child cannot see an action or skill being performed, many actions and skills are difficult and slow in developing. Therefore, self-activity is initiated which enables the blind child to learn from his environment. The blind infant is not visually attracted to objects and will not reach out for an object. He must know of its existence by smell or hearing. Thus, his rate of development may be slower than that of the sighted child. This is evident in such areas as walking, talking, prehension and socialization. The blind child's maturation is aided by parents and teachers and he is given opportunity and encouragement to do things for himself. By learning to do things for himself he becomes active and "blindisms" are overcome.37 Orientation and mobility,--The attitude that blind children will travel independently has only recently and gradually developed in the United States. For many years it was assumed that the majority of blind children would be unable to learn to travel on "their own."38 Orientation and mobility skills in the United States are stressed as one of the important areas in the education of the 132 blind. It is recognized as important because curriculum which emphasizes literacy without regard to the greatest limitation imposed by blindness, which is the inability to move and travel independently, is unrealistic and impractical. The area of orienta- tion and mobility requires expertise which in the United States is acquired by specialists at universities. The current curriculum trend for the education of the blind in the United States is the introduction of orientation and mobility training for young blind children by specialists. Marilyn Jane Bailey observed that: With the help of specialists, teachers can broaden their knowledge of basic concepts of size, shape, and perception of space as they relate to independent travel and teach for transfer. Teachers can help specialists to recognize that the content of orientation and mobility instruction includes more than a particular collection of techniques and that the necessary matrix of experience is not 9 acquired by most children through incidental learning. Teaching command of the environment to the blind child begins at an early age. The blind child and his parents are helped to overcome fear of new experiences and injury. Parents are cautioned against over-protection. The blind child's early experiences parallel those of a sighted child and he experiences freedom for control of himself and his environment. Richard Droulliard and Sherry Raynor advocate that the blind child from early childhood ought to be provided the opportunity to develop his strength and muscles through physical activity on the playground and in the yard. The child should be given the oppor- tunity to explore and to discover new things.40 133 Edith Kirk has devised a mobility evaluation report for parents which was used as an evaluation of mobility skill instruc- tion by both parents and teachers in the Detroit school program in 1968. The program operated on the premise that mobility skills must be shared at home as well as at school. Detroit's Mobility Evaluation Report was developed by teachers of the visually handicapped in consultation with the mobility instructors and the supervisor. It was determined that the report should have the following five sections: (a) Posture and Walking, (b) Use of Senses, (c) Use of Basic Knowledge and Concepts, (d) Indoor Mobility, and (e) Outdoor Travel. Later a section entitled Needs or Inadequacies was added. The ratings used are "S" for satisfactory, "N" for needs to improve, and "X" for not expected to accomplish at present. The report is signed by both the mobility instructor and the special teacher.41 The Detroit schools mobility evaluation report improved school-parent communication. It assured parents of the child's mobility readiness at each level of the program. Parent fears were eliminated and in addition they were informed on ways by which they could help their child with mobility skills at home. The inclusion of orientation and mobility skills in the educational curriculum for the blind results in blind adults who are independent, socially active and vocationally employable. L. Knowles studied characteristics of the blind in relation to success in voca- tional rehabilitation and reports: "Orientation and mobility led the list of 13 variables which correlate with success.42 The area of personal mobility and independence is significant to the development of poise and independence, in self-respect and in gaining the acceptance and respect of others. 134 A crucial determinant of a blind individual's personal, social and emotional adjustment is the degree at which he can command his environment. Command of his environment involves learning to move about with ease, in finding objects and places and self- orientation to new physical and social situations.43 By learning to command his environment the blind child will have a high estimation of himself as an individual which will contribute toward the develop- ment of a positive self—image. The types of vocations, avocations and recreational activities that will be available to him in adult- hood will depend on how well he can command his environment. Command of environment includes other aspects of daily living in addition to mobility skills. It involves independent eating habits and the ability to use a knife and fork. It involves marking and organizing one's clothing for coordinated good grooming. Social and daily living skills.--The visually handicapped child's parents and teachers help him to acquire socially acceptable behavior and personality traits. It is recognized that in addition to teaching subject matter education ought to develop the personality which is the total impression that one makes on others. Desirable personality traits are developed with the visually handicapped children by teaching the skills of successfully determining what is customary in grooming, eating, etiquette and the social graces. Most blind children are at a personal and social disadvantage by their very appearance. Cosmetic upgrading is among the first goals in their education. Training in grooming, dress, manners, and 135 self-confidence are essential parts of the curriculum for the visually handicapped. Additional goals include training in specific habits that make life more pleasant for the visually handicapped child and for his associates. These habits may include health and safety prac- tices as well as occupational routines and recreational activities. On the relationship of mannerisms to vocational success Geraldine T. Scholl reports: One superintendent observed at an earlier meeting that he felt appearance was an important variable in determining successful employment. Utilizing data from the Michigan sample, one graduate student did find that the more suc- cessful subjects tended to have fewer mannerisms (Sherwood, 1970). Those subjects with a single or no reported man- nerisms tended to be among those employed for a greater percentage of time, more were found in the upper income levels, and more were employed in occupations with a higher socio-economic index.44 Typewriting.--Typewriting is an important aspect in the curriculum for the education of the blind in the United States because it is recognized as being the only means of written communication that the blind individual will be able to use with sighted people who do not read braille. Typewriting instruction begins in the third or fourth grade and is given in a special typewriting class by a teacher who has specialized in teaching typewriting in addition to his specialization in teaching the blind. The children learn to type from dictation, to transcribe braille on the typewriter and to compose on the typewriter. Type- writing permeates all subjects of the academic curriculum. In addition it is integrated with the language arts program. Typewriting 136 proficiency can lead to future careers in medical and legal trans- cription.45 Optacon training.--One of the latest innovations which is currently being used at the Michigan School for the Blind for teaching reading to the blind is the Optacon. The Optacon is a portable electronic device weighing only four pounds which produces a tactile likeness of print symbols on the finger of the blind per- son. It scans print and converts print into 144 tactile pins. These pins, when activated by the print, produce a vibratory image of the letter on the finger of the blind person. The Optacon is used in a variety of reading situations.46 Another curriculum addition in some schools for teaching the blind is compressed speech. "Perhaps it would be more meaningful to use the term "time-compressed speech" rather than "compressed speech," for it is the time that is compressed, not the speech."47 Recent research on compressed speech indicates it is possible for a blind person to comprehend recorded voices at 275 words per minute which is comparable to reading print.48 Use of residual vision.--One of the major relatively recent additions to the curriculum at the Michigan School for the Blind is specific training for the utilization of residual vision through the low vision clinic.49 Most legally blind children have some residual vision. Both near and far vision aids are prescribed and used under the direction of an opthalmologist. Instruction in the process of learning to see and in the use of visual aids is gradual. As the 137 child learns to interpret the images he sees and to increase his concentration, his visual efficiency improves.SO Research results 5] indicated that visual perception can by Natalie Baranga in 1964 improve through use and training and that it is not harmful to use whatever sight an individual may have. Education for the Hearing Impaired Greek Education for the Hearing Impaired Interviews with the principal at the Athens School for the Deaf indicated that there are 1,500 kflgwg_hearing impaired children in Greece. Only 600 (40%) of these children have been diagnosed and placed in appropriate programs for the hearing impaired. 900 children (60%) have not been placed in any educational programs.52 How many additional hearing impaired who have not been identified cannot be estimated. Michigan, with a comparable population to Greece, and which has a mass screening program has identified 3,750 hearing impaired children.53 The children enrolled at the Athens School for the Deaf total 170, are ages 5 1/2 to 9 and come from all parts of Greece. The school facilities can accommodate only the admittance of 20 pupils annually. Diagnosis and Placement The children are placed in special schools for the deaf on the basis of a diagnostic hearing evaluation conducted by an audiologist. Referral is made by parents and family physicians who 138 diagnose the child as having a hearing impairment. Mass hearing screening programs are not conducted in Greece. The interdisciplin- ary team approach which involves psychologists, audiologists, physicians, social workers, educational diagnosticians, teachers and parents is not being utilized in determining the educational place- ment of hearing impaired children. Parent Involvement Once the child has been placed in a program for the hearing impaired at the age of 5 1/2 or 6 there is very little parent involvement. Parents infrequently make school visits to observe the child in the school setting, nor do they interact with teachers to provide input relative to the educational objectives for the child. In addition, parents are not encouraged to be aware of normal child growth and development. Early identification, intervention and diagnosis of hearing impaired infants and young children as a means to influence the child's later receptive and expressive language and speech develop- ment is not taking place in Greece. There are no pre-school programs for hearing impaired children ages 0-5, nor does the school provide parent education programs to assist parents in the use of specific techniques with which to help their child's receptive and expressive language development. Greek special educators at the Ministry of Education and Religion are aware that the most important developmental period of a hearing impaired child is ages 0-5, yet, these children receive no pre-school training. The proposed "Draft 139 Law on Special Education, Special Professional Training, Employment and Social Welfare of Disadvantaged Persons, 1977," includes pre- school training ages 3-5 for the hearing impaired.54 Teacher Preparation Teachers at the Athens School for the Deaf are two-year elementary teacher graduates of the Athens Pedagogical Academy. The only specialized training they have obtained in this area is from other teachers who have received training in foreign nations and through independent reading. During interviews with teachers at the Athens School for the Deaf the teachers told the writer of their personal awareness for the need to be better trained. These teachers recognize that the education of the deaf is technical and complex and that it requires specialized training. However, specialized training in this area is not available in Greece.55 A sufficient number of specialized teachers are needed to coordinate and to integrate the various complex and technical aspects of the education ofthe deaf into a total comprehensive and integrated program. Further, specially trained supervisors or coordinators of the program are needed at the Athens School for the Deaf. Curriculum The curriculum at the Athens School for the Deaf utilizes the oral mode for the education of the hearing impaired. The goals of the program are to develop speech and language through auditory training and the use of residual hearing, speechreading, and reading 140 and writing. Alternative methods of communication are not provided. In addition, the curriculum includes subjects of the regular elementary school (see Chapter II). The beginning elementary school years are actually pre- primary level in that attempts are made to prepare the child with language, speech and reading readiness necessary for the elementary 56 However, by the time a hearing impaired child is school program. 5 l/2 to 6 years of age he may already be 6 years educationally retarded if he has not received pre-school training between the ages of o - 5,59 as compared to hearing children of the same chronological age. Thus, the educational objectives of the Greek teachers of the hearing impaired are made even more difficult to attain. In addition, the educationally retarded hearing impaired child without appropriate assessment could be mistaken for a mentally retarded child and deprived the opportunity for appropriate placement. Interviews with the teachers at the school revealed that although the specialized curriculum includes the essential components for the implementation of the oral method in teaching the hearing impaired these components could be better integrated into the total educational program.58 Formal speech lessons could better coincide with incidental speech lessons. The curriculum could be more flexible in order to focus on classroom language as the content source of speech and language development and to allow for an integration of all aspects of the school program. There is a need for coordination and integration of the various aspects of the 141 program for a comprehensive total educational program for the hearing impaired. Written stories which combine and integrate language and reading and reading with language and speech and which are based on the children's interests, experiences and classroom language could receive more emphasis in the school curriculum. In addition, the program for the hearing impaired could provide more extra-curricular social experiences outside of the school such as field trips, going out for entertainment at the theater and festivals, eating out at restaurants and shopping at stores. All of these enjoyable social and recreational activities could be stimulating and could create an exciting enthusiasm for speech and expressive language development. Excessive emphasis on religious teaching and stories about the lives of the saints in the Greek School for the Deaf are irrelevant to the child and subjects to which he cannot relate. Since religious instruction is compulsory in Greece, some religious teaching is necessary. Individualized instruction.--The classes at this school have a teacher-pupil ratio of 1:8. The children in this class had a severe hearing loss and with this ratio individualization of instruction is possible. However, Greece lacks adequate numbers of teachers with specialized training to meet the needs of the hearing impaired child through diagnostic, prescriptive teaching, individualized instruction and individualized performance objectives. 142 Individualized instruction involves an understanding of the many environmental factors which influence the hearing impaired child's educational development such as intelligence, degree of hearing impairment, age of onset of hearing impairment, other handicaps and home background. Performance objectives and individual program planning fitted to the needs of each child are not being utilized. Although speech development for hearing impaired children is the ideal goal for the education of the hearing impaired child at oral schools for the deaf, individual differences exist among hearing impaired children and there are some hearing impaired children who are not capable of developing functional speech and oral communica- tion. These children should be prescribed alternative methods of communication. Special Supplies and Equipment The classrooms at the Athens School for the Deaf are clean, well maintained and attractive. Since 1972 attempts have been made for the utilization of appropriate amplification for individual pupils on the basis and recommendations of audiological appraisals. The classroom was equipped with group hearing aids and,in addition, each child had his individual hearing aid. Auditory amplification prescribed by the school audiologist for auditory training was used 59 There is a need for audio-visual for all instruction as needed. aids such as movie projectors, slide projectors, instamatic cameras, and overhead projectors. 143 The Audiologist The Athens School for the Deaf has a part-time audiologist who is a physician and full-time member of the medical staff at the Hippocratou Hospital in Athens. His services at the school involve hearing appraisals and prescribed amplification. It was on this audiologist's recommendations that the school was equipped with 60 His involvement and support of group hearing aids in 1972. teacher and pupil needs in educational planning is somewhat limited due to his full-time employment at the hospital. The writer's interviews at the Hippocratou Hospital with the audiologist and the otolaryngologist, who is also the President of the Athens School for the Deaf, indicated that there is a need for a coordination of audiological and educational services. In addition, speech pre-tests and post-tests are needed along with cumulative progressive records and continuous hearing and educational placement evaluation and re-evaluation of each child. Education for the Hearing Impaired in Michigan "Hearing impaired" means a person identified by an educa- tional planning and placement committee, based upon an evaluation by an audiologist and otoknyngologist, and other pertinent information as having a hearing impairment which interferes with learning.51 This broad definition encompasses persons with varying types and degrees of auditory deficits. Appropriate evaluation may require various kinds of supportive intervention and educational services. Cfrildren suspected of having a hearing loss are referred for a medi- cal history and evaluation prior to placement. 144 The education of the hearing impaired is a controversial matter in the United States. Professional educators of the hearing impaired traditionally have differences of opinion concerning the appropriate approaches by which to teach deaf children.62 Such classical issues as manual vs. combined vs. oral approaches, the day school program vs. the residential school vs. mainstreaming and formal vs. natural methods of teaching speech are still debated. However, although individuals involved with the education of the hearing impaired hold differing views on the methods and placement to be used in teaching hearing impaired children, the one point on which they all agree is that the major emphasis should be5 ‘P S- H I r— C. 3 m a— "'- 44 :3 U Q— m I- : m "'3 w- o w— o P- 0) w- 'U +3 H O S- C: a: m ‘U S- "O O “U r— m S- M C S: :— >5 6 G. M G— (U U) .C Q) r- l ‘U U) Q) U '- M >a ‘U ‘U s: r— as '4- ..0 C P Q) C ‘6 3‘0 (U a: C - t‘U O. U ’P (U P" ‘1’ ,5 "' *" "' P- l; c 3 fi 3 O. «U U - '1'- fi? n: P— lg cn ca :: a: :: c> I— Public 28* - - 4 4** 7 l l*** l**** 46 Private 9 l l - 3 2 4 l l 22 Total 37 l l 4 7 9 5 2 2 68 * 20 more schools for E.M.R. will be in operation in the next two years. ** One of them is a kindergarten *** Neurological and Psychiatric Institutions **** For orphan girls and girls of broken homes, with emotional problems. 239 240 2. FINANCING OF SPECIAL EDUCATION a. Public Schools: They are financed by the State (Ministry of National Education and Religion, Ministry of Justice, Ministry of Welfare, etc). Private Schools: Organizations, Tuition fees, subsided by the Ministry of Welfare, etc. 3. SCREENING OF CHILDREN For the screening of the children we are using American and European tests, adapted to Greek reality. The diagnostic work is done by: Centers of Mental Health. Medical and Pedagogical Stations Teacher Training Colleges The Psychology Departments of the Universities of Thessaloniki and Ioannina ! 4. LAWS AND REGULATIONS Our legislation in this area is not complete. The existing legislative decrees cover the following cases: a. Organization and operation of Schools for Socially Mal- adjusted Children Organization and operation of School for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Establishment of Schools for Mentally Retarded Postschool adjustment (rehabilitation) of blind. The Special Education Office of the Ministry of Education (established in l969) is working out a Draft of Law about the organization of Sp. Ed. Administration of Special Schools, etc. 241 5. STAFF* Type of STAFF School Scientific Teaching Assistant Laboratory Total 1 Mentally Retarded 33 54 55 5 l47 2 Orphanage 3 8 3l - 42 3 Socially Maladjusted l2 l8 9l 6 127 4 Deaf and Hard of Hearing 3 54 44 ' 10] 5 Crippled- Spastic 25 l9 9 4l 94 6 Blind l 29 27 6 63 Total 77 l82 257 58 574 *Data of 1972. Many of the educators dealing with Sp. Ed. are holders of degrees from American and European Universities (M.ED., ED. Sp., Ph.D., etc.). Elementary education teachers, who want to work in Special Schools, specialize in teaching Mentally Retarded Children by com- pleting a year's in-service Special Training. APPENDIX B QUESTIONS POSED TO THE MINISTRY OF NATIONAL EDUCATION AND RELIGION ON GREEK EDUCATION AND WRITTEN REPLIES, JULY 1975 242 l. How is education organized in Greece at the national, regional and local levels? A. The Greek educational system is a centralized one. All important decisions for primary, secondary and higher educa- tion are taken by the Ministry of Education in Athens. The agents who are responsible for the application of the national educational policy to schools are: a. b. C. in big regions: a number of educational counselors and general inspectors. in counties: county inspectors (separate for primary and secondary education). in each school: the headmaster. 2. What are the different types of schools--primary, secondary, higher education? . A. Primary education: I. 2. 3 Six year schools for normal children Special schools for exceptional children Three-year technical schools (admit primary school leavers) Secondary education: I. (II-#0)“) Six year high school (gymnasium) of general education differentiated at the third grade into academic-type (classical) and practical-type (math-science) high' school. Technical schools Six-year high schools of economics Six-year commercial high schools Seven-year religion (ecclesiastical) schools (for educating candidates for priesthood) Higher education: I. 2. 3. Universities comprising faculties of Greek and foreign languages, philology, law, medicine, divinity, etc. Higher school of commerce (marketing) Higher school of political science 243 244 4 Higher school for industrial management 5 Polytechnical institute in Athens (Note: The Universities of Thessaloniki and Patras have polytechnical schools, too) 6 Higher School of Fine Arts 7 Military Schools 8. Physical Education Colleges 9. Teacher Training Colleges l0 Kindergarten teacher training colleges ll Home-economic colleges l2 Centers of higher technical education. Are there both public and private schools? What is the difference? Who controls the private schools? A. There are public (state) as well as private schools (kinder- garten, primary and secondary). Both types of school apply the same curriculum and are under state control. The difference between them is that private school students pay fees. How are the schools financed in Greece? Taxation? Rates? Tuition? Is it at both the federal and local levels? A. The state schools are financed by the government. The private schools charge fees. How are the schools administered? Is there something comparable to the local school boards in the United States? A. The Greek schools are administered by the Ministry of Educa- tion, educational counselors, general insepectors, county insepectors, regional inspectors and headmasters. What is the curriculum at the various levels? Who determines the curriculum? A. The subjects taught at each grade of primary and secondary (academic) schools can be seen in the attached photo copies. The curriculum is determined by the Ministry of Education. One should note that presently a committee of our Directors designing new primary and secondary school curricula. What are the methods of instruction? A. Basically, the methods of instruction depend on the teacher, the kind of school and the level of education. 8. 10. ll. 12. 245 Usually young teachers practice child-centered methods while traditional teachers follow conservative methods (emphasis on lecturing rather than the child's activities). How are teachers prepared? Is there a difference in preparation depending on the level the teacher is going to teach? A. (a) Primary and kindergarten teachers are prepared during a two-year course in the teacher training colleges. (b) Secondary teachers are prepared in the Universities (three or four year courses depending on the specialty). (c) There are also in-service (two-year) courses and various short courses (seminars) for both the above categories of teachers. (d) There are differences in preparation between primary and secondary teachers, but not within each category, i.e., all primary teachers are trained similarly and no dif- ferentiation exists in the preparation of every specialty of secondary teachers. Are there any professional teacher's organizations? Who controls them? A. There are four professional teachers' organizations. a. Primary Teachers' Federation b. Secondary Teachers' Federation c. Private School Teachers' Union (The same union for both primary and secondary teachers) d. Union of graduate primary and kindergarten teachers who have not yet been appointed in state schools. All the above organizations are controlled by elected councils. What is done in the area of special education? Mentally handi- capped? Blind? Deaf? Physically handicapped? A. Data on what is done in the area of special education in Greece are given in the attached paper, number 2. Where are the textbooks obtained? A. The selection, publication and distribution of the textbooks is undertaken by the Ministry of Education. The official textbooks which are distributed by the Ministry are free. Is Greece influenced by any other country in her educational system? A. The persons who are responsible for designing our educational policy consider the educational systems of all the educationally 246 advanced countries. Nevertheless the Greek educational system is adapted to the reality and needs of this country. l3. What part do examinations play in the educational system? How are students promoted from one class to another? How do they gain admittance to the various educational systems? A. Exams play an important role. Formal written examinations at the end of the school year start from the fifth rade of primary school and continue throughout Schooling (primary and secondary). There are also informal (oral and written) examinations (tests) during each school year in every grade of primary and secondary education. Apart from the above formal examinations, which are necessary to get promotion from grade to grade, there is a written exam for entrance to secondary school and another examination for secondary leavers who want to continue their studies in a school of higher education. 14. What assistance is given to students? Financially? Study abroad? A. l5. How There are no tuition fees and textbook charges in higher education. There are state and private scholarships for a small number of students who are at the top of their class in almost every type of school or higher education. Good students who do not get a scholarship can apply for a loan which is paid back by them when they get a job, after finishing their studies. College and University graduates who wish to continue their studies abroad have the chance to take a scholarship from the State Scholarship Foundation (after a successful com- petition) or from elsewhere. has Greek education developed over the years? It is difficult to answer this question breifly. However, one could refer to some important developments which have occurred during the last 15 years. Among them we underline: a. primary and secondary education the building of new school buildings the enrichment of schools with modern teaching aids the continuous improvement of teacher-pupil ratio the increase of the number of primary and secondary teachers who attend in-service courses #WN-J 247 5. the increase of the number of kindergartens and the running of two-year in-service courses (since l974- l975) for nursery school teachers. 6. the effort to expand special education by training primary teachers in this area and establishing special schools in every teacher training college of the country and the major urban centers of Greece. 7. the expansion of secondary technical and vocational education (both in number of schools and in number of specialties) b. in higher education l. The most important development here is the establish- ment of three new universities* and the expansion of technical and vocational education through the newly established Centers of Higher Technical Education (K.A.T.E.). *Old universities; In Athens and Salonica --New universities in Patras, Ioannina and Thrace. 2. The increase of the number of students attending higher education. 3. The increase of scholarships, loans to students and student residence halls. 4. Free text books. l6. What attempts have been made to equalize educational opportunity in Greece? What is being done for the children of the rural agricultural sections? What is being done for the children in the laboring class? 17. A. More kindergartens and branches (three or four grades) of high schools have been established in rural and laboring class areas. However, as the most important step toward equalizing educa- tional opportunity is considered here the goal of "free education for all." What is being done to plot Greece's educational needs according to the exigencies of demographic change and a changing society? A. The overgrowth of the big urban centers of the country has resulted in an urgent need for more school buildings in the above areas. Unfortunately these needs cannot always be satisfied. This means that in many cases two schools have to use the same school building. One school in the morning and the other in the afternoon. 248 l8. What effect has the development of the European Economic Com- 19. munity, the postwar political vicissitudes and changes on the world scene had on Greek education? Have scholars and experimenters of Greece participated more closely and in complementary ways with colleagues in other countries? A. l8-l9 In view of our connection with the European Economic Community a committee has been appointed by the Ministry of Education to study the consequences of this event for the Greek educa- tion and to suggest measures that have to be taken. With the increase of postwar international contacts and the development of international relationships and cooperation it has been understood that, if Greece wants to be in touch with the developments in our changing world more emphasis has to be given in foreign language learning and the teaching of social studies in our schools. The increase of scholarships for post-graduate studies abroad and the progress in the areas of: a. student exchanges b. cooperation of Greek scholars with colleagues in other countries c. of the representation of Greece in international con- ferences and d. the recent establishment of a "Ministry of Culture and Science." All of the above reveal a new spirit in our post-war educational philosophy. 20. Instead of displaying exclusively the best that Greece has to offer 2l. and justifying a continuance of the old regime have at least some Greek researchers and scholars in a position of influence shown readiness to cooperate in a comparative approach to the problems perplexing all of us? A. Question not clear. This is the basis for present educational reform, but some resistance is posed by traditional educators, the church and the University of Athens. What is being done in the area of Guidance and Vocational Coun- seling? Are students encouraged to train for occupations to meet present and long-range manpower needs? Is information given on how career opportunities are changing with new developments? Do Greek educational planners view development as depending upon 249 changes in the essential characteristics of people rather than on economic factors? A. Vocational guidance in our country is not developed as much as in the educationally advanced countries. Testing in schools for vocational guidance purposes is almost non- existent. A Vocational Guidance Center which is in Athens is more or less an institution of underlining the importance and need of vocational guidance and not an agent providing Vocational Guidance. There are also guidance services in a number of urban areas of the country. These services give advice to parents of primary school leavers about the existing vocational oppor- tunities for children who do not enter into an academic secondary school. 22. How are students in higher education channeled into careers for which there is a demand? Are scholarships offered to recruit students into professions where there is a demand? Are limiting admissions quotas set for professions where there is an over supply? 23. 24. A. The number of candidates who get admission in schools of higher education is decided each year by the Ministry of Education, according to the existing demands in each pro- fessional area. Since the number of candidates for each professional school is always much bigger than the number of those who are to be accepted, no scholarships or any other advantages are offered in order to attract candidates. What impact have student strikes and demonstrations had on educa- tional reform? A. One could not easily assess the degree of influence of student strikes and demonstrations upon educational reform. The only thing that can be said here is that student demonstrations are always influencing the educational policy regarding higher education. How has the arrival of television in Greece altered the orienta- tion of education and its instrumentation? A. So far the arrival of T.V. has had no influence in the orien- tation and the instrumentation of education. However, a coma ' comnittee has been recently appointed by theMinistryof EduCation to study the possibility of putting into operation a T.V. channel for educational purposes. 25. 26. 27. . and teacher? What is the informal relationship between principal 28. 250 What is being done to solve the language problem? What happens to a child when he speaks one language at home and another language at school? ' A. There is a Turkish speaking minority in the North Greece. Education to children of this minority is provided by schools with Turkish speaking teachers. These teachers are prepared in a special Teacher Training College in Thessaloniki. Do school administrators receive any special training? How are school principals appointed? What criteria is used? Does the Ministry of Education provide a handbook for school principals with necessary guidelines? A. No special training is given to school headmasters. The criterion of becoming a headmaster is to have spent over l5 years in teaching children successfully. A teacher who gets promotion and becomes a headmaster con- tinues to teach a class of children, but he teaches less periods per week than other teachers. There are books about the duties of headmasters, but they are not provided by the Ministry of Education. What is the formal professional relationship between principal and teacher? Do teachers have the right to change school policy by majority consent? How are faculty meetings conducted? Is democratic procedure followed in faculty meetings? A. (a) Each headmaster has the right to inspect the teachers of his school and submit a report to the local inspector. The inspectors make their own inspections and reports, but they also take into account the headmasters' reports. (b) In most of the schools headmasters and teachers cooperate with each other friendly. (c) Faculty meetings are conducted by the headmasters and the procedure followed is generally democratic. However, if there are differences between the headmaster and one or more of the teachers the one who resolves the conflict is the inspector. What kind of teacher-pupil relationship exists in Greece? What is the formal teacher-pupil relationship? What is the informal teacher-pupil relationship? Do the schools have extra-curricular activities? A. Modern teachers are in favor of informal and friendly rela— tionships with pupils. Conservative teachers have some 251-” reservations as regards this policy. (Corporal punishment is not something unknown in many schools, though officially it is forbidden.) With reference to formal relationships the teachers are responsible for teaching their pupils, giving homework to them, examining and marking them frequently. Extra-curricular activities exist in many forms. Teachers are responsible for many of them (e.g. attending church services with their pupils, teaching Sunday Schools, lectur- ing to classes of adults, etc.) 29. What kind of school-community relations exist in Greece? Is the school an integral part of the community with lay citizen par- ticipation or is it apart from the community? Does the P.T.A. have an input in school program and instruction? Does the P.T.A. participate actively in school functions? (P.T.A. = Parent's Organization) A. School-community relationships depend on the area of the school. The school is an integral part of the rural com- munity. In urban areas there is not usually such a close relationship between teachers and parents. However, one can find in some urban schools an admirable spirit of cooperation between teachers and parents. School Committees (appointed by the inspectors in every school) and P.T.A. (existing in some schools as independent associations, elected by the parents) participate actively in school functions, but they do not have any input in school program and instruction. 30. What is being done in the area of home education? Adult education? Continuing education? Lifelong education? A. There are frequent lectures in every school during each session aiming at educating the parents and the other members of the community. Apart from these lectures the "Department of Adult Education" in the Ministry has established committees throughout the country. These committees work out programs of adult educa— tion, (lectures, discussions, film projections, organization of libraries and courses for illiterate adults). There are night schools (private and state) of continuing education. 3l. What is being done in the area of moral education? A. Moral education is closely connected with religious education. The subject of religion is taught in every grade of both 252 primary and secondary schools. There are also Sunday Schools for every level of education. 32. What proposals are now being considered for educational reform? A. l l e) f) crm AA AA AA 0. O Reform of primary and secondary school curricula Establishment of new universities in Crete and in the Ionian Sea Islands Improvement of teacher-pupil ratio Abolishment of entrance examinations from primary to secondary schools Expansion of compulsory education from six to nine years The use of "demotiki'(popular) instead of "katharevousa," (official-formal) language in the primary school text- books, and in some textbooks of secondary education The expansion of special education. APPENDIX C DRAFT LAW OF 1977 253 About Special Education, Special Professional Training, Employment and Social Welfare of Disadvantaged Persons CHAPTER ONE DEFINITIONS-PURPOSE-IMPLEMENTATION Article One Objectives The object of the present draft is to provide special education and professional training to disadvantaged individuals. The enactment of social care legislation and the individuals' inclusion according to their capabilities, in the social and professional activities of the society through the implementation of special education programs in accordance with medical and other specific social provisions. Article Two Disadvantaged Persons 1) The term "disadvantaged persons" as used in this draft includes children and adolescents, which for physical, psychological or social reasons appear to have disturbed psychosomatic structure to such a degree that forbids, impedes or seriously disturbs their attendance and understanding of the general or professional educa- tion given to the general public and their inclusion to societal activities. 254 255 2) Among the disadvantaged people are included: a) The blind and those having serious eyesight disturbance. b) The deaf and hard of hearing. c) Those having kinetic disturbances. d) The epileptics. e) The lepers. f) The mentally retarded. g) The mutes. h) Those having mental illnesses. i) Those who are or have been in mental institutions and because of this show emotional depressions and withdrawal from society. j) Those suffering from diseases requiring prolonged treatments and stay in treatment centers, clinics or institutions of disease control. k) Those having specific difficulties in comprehension or those who ' in general are educationally inaccessible or immature. l) Those showing antisocial behavior, antidisciplinary tendencies and those being in moral danger. m) Anybody among children and adolescents not included above who shows personality disturbances regardless of causes or reasons. Article Three Special Edugation, Special Professional Training, Employment and Social Care l) Special education and special professional training are divided in pre-school, elementary and lower professional training, either private or public. Public special education and training is the obligation of the government and is provided free of charge. 2) Under special provisions the government is allowed to establish high schools for the deaf, hard of hearing, blind and 256 other physically disabled persons whose disability requires special care or medical attention. 3) The special education, professional training and social care of disadvantaged persons is provided through schools or other units of special education. These include: a) b) 9) h) Specialized kindergartens or independent special schools for their possible inclusion in special programs. Specialized schools, classes or groups operating in special branches within psychiatric, orthopedic or children's hospitals and reformatories. In exceptional cases special education will be provided for individuals at their home and at the same time information will be given to their families with regards to the handling of handicapped persons under the observation of specialists. Specialized lower professional schools or specialized sections of professional education within such educational institutions. 'Specialized kindergartens and independent special schools. Specialized parallel classes, sections or groups operating within regular schools of elementary schools of lower professional training, special classes and sections under observation oper- ating for the purpose of better understanding and the problems of disadvantaged individuals for their possible inclusion in special programs. Learning schools, laboratories and factories or in any kind of businesses. Specially protected teaching laboratories and production lines, especially designed for professional training of people with substandard capabilities. Institutions, associations, chronic disease control centers, shops for the under aged, etc., where children and adolescents who regardless of reasons are subject to special living condi- tions and under the danger of being institutionalized or show antisocial deviations. 257 4) By presidential decree issued after the recommendation of the Minister of Education and Religion the following are specified: a) The selection and enrollment of students on the appropriate type and grade of institutions or in other units of special education. b) The organization, operation and supervision of schools and other units of special education. c) The registration, transfer, program, promotion and discharge of the students included in "Article One" above or those attending the institutions or schools mentioned in paragraphs 2 and 3 of Article Three including the models of such. d) The examinations of any kind. e) The beginning and end of the academic year. f) The suspension of classes due to extraordinary conditions. g) The diploma certifications. ' h) The internal structure by grades, the faculty structure by sex and the number of students per class. i) The maximum limit of weekly work load for the faculty of the specialized schools and the lower professional training centers. j) The composition of the faculty and the Parent or Guardian Associations. k) The procedure to be followed for registration, transfer and enrollment of blind, hard of hearing and physically impaired persons into schools of general and professional education. l) Every necessary and related detail. 5) If the units included in subsection of paragraph 4 operate within institutions under the supervision of other ministries, their minister should also collaborate in the issue of the presidential decrees. 258 Article Four Establishment and Abolition of Schools and Other Units of Special Education l) The establishment or the promotion of schools mentioned in Article Three, paragraph 3, and the additional capacity achieved through such actions is brought about by presidential decrees following the recommendations of the Minister of Education and Religion. 2) The abolition, demotion or merger of the above and the decrease in capacity resulting from such actions is brought about by presidential decrees following the recommendations of the Min- ister of Education and Religion and other persons of authority. 3) The needed financing for the establishment, operation and equipment of the above schools and units of special education is provided by the government and part of the budget of the Min- istry of Education and Religion or any other ministry responsible for the operation of those units. Article Five Medical Care Services l) Special education and special professional education are provided following diagnostic examination for determination of the type and degree of impairment of the disadvantaged. 2) The diagnostic examination takes place in Medical Care Stations as specified in the Law Decree lO4/l975, "About Mental Health and Care of the Mentally Retarded." 259 Article Six Compulsory Attendance l) The attendance of the disadvantaged persons at schools and other units of special education is compulsory from the sixth up and until the end of the sixteenth year of their life. 2) In extraordinary cases the attendance could be prolonged up to and including their l8th year. 3) By presidential decree issued following the recommenda- tion of the Minister of Education and Religion the following is specified: a) The individuals that are exempted from compulsory attendance b) The criteria and the procedure to be followed for extension of class attendance for students until the end of their l8th year. Article Seven Special Programs la) For the purposes of special education and professional training, special programs are established for the individuals depending upon the type and degree of their disadvantage, their capacity to apprehend and their professional and societal adaptability subject to the social, economic and cultural conditions as they exist in their environment. lb) By presidential decrees issued following the recom- mendations of the Minister of Education and Religion, the analytical and hourly schedules along with the curriculums are established. 260 2) By resolutions by the Minister of Education and Religion or other competent authorities courses in therapeutical child care could be added in the curriculums of the following institutions: Child Care Academies, Schools of Pre-School Teachers Academies of Physical Education, Higher Schools of Home Economics. Schools of Social Labor, Higher Schools of Nursing, Schools of Infant Care Personnel, and any other school which trains people for services to infants, children and adolescents. Article Eight l) The inclusion in the professional activity is based upon the ability of the disadvantaged individuals and it is accomplished through the care of a competent authority in: a) The several branches of economic activity. b) The protected work centers. 2) The inclusion of the disadvantaged persons in profes- sional activity is regulated by presidential decree issued follow- ing the recommendation of the Minister of Employment. Article Nine Social Care Social care, as broadly defined, includes any measure aimed at the provision of medical, pharmaceutical, therapeutical and institutional care. Social employment and crime in accordance with the laws of the period. 261 Article Ten Executive Agencies The responsible executive agencies for special education, professional training, employment and social care for the dis- advantaged persons are as follows: l) For matters of special education and professional training, the Ministry of Education and Religion. The above mentioned functions as generally described in Article Twenty-One of the Presidential Decree l47/l976, "About Organization of the Internal Structure of the Ministry of Education and Religion" are exercised by the therein established office of the director of Special Education. 2) For any matters dealing with medical help (prevention, protection, diagnosis and care) and social care for the disad- vantaged: the Ministry of Social Services and Supervision of Institutions for Care of the disadvantaged and Treatment Center as mentioned in Article Nine above. 3) For any matter concerning the absorption of the dis- advantaged in the labor force and also the improvements of their working conditions as specified in Article Eight above (respon- sibility is assumed) by the Ministry of Employment. 4) For any matter concerning the prevention and curtailment of juvenile crime and for such reasons creation, organization,' operation and supervision of reformatories, medical and educational centers, excluding those under the responsibility of the Ministry 262 of Education and Religion, responsibility is assumed by the Ministry of Justice. 5) Independent units at the departmental level one created by the Ministries of Justice, Social Services and Employment. For the purposes of exercising the related functions of these minis- tries and automatically became integral parts of the ministerial structure as specified by Law Decree 5l/1975. The composition and naming of these units follow the stipulation of the above law decree. 6) Special education, professional training and social care are also provided by individuals with training in the fields of public and private justice, associations or cultural and charitable organizations. 7) By presidential decrees issued following the recom- mendations of the Minister of Education and Religion or any other person of authority, the following are stipulated: prerequisites and conditions to be met; the necessary documents to be submitted and the procedure to be followed for the creation and operation of schools and other units of special education as defined in the previous paragraph; including institutions for care of the dis-- advantaged which were set up by individuals in the field of private justice or by associations or individuals with cultural and chari- table aims. 263 Article Eleven Committee of Special Education Coordination l) A Coordinating Committee for Special Education is created with the following composition: a-b) Two representatives of the Ministry of Education and Religion, upon the recommendation of higher education administrators serving in the Office of the Director of Special Education. c-e) One representative from each of the Ministries of Justice. Employment and Social Services, preferably selected among Special Education Specialists serving in appropriate positions in their ministries and recommended by the ministers them- selves. f-g) Two scientists specializing in matters of special education. 2) The committee is under the auspices of the Ministry of Education and Religion and assembles regularly once every two months and on special occasions if the need arises. 3) The agenda is composed from topics suggested.by the appropriate committee members. Other subjects concerning the committee . . . Article Eighty of the Presidential Decree 147/1976 "About Organization of the Internal Structure of the Ministry of Education and Religion" applies. 4) The committee has the following powers and duties. a) It coordinates the actions of the Special Education Units of Article Ten. b) It suggests measures for the promotion of the work of Special Education. c) It advises on questions referred to the committee, by any of the Article Ten specified units that are not included on the present draft. 264 d) Following common agreement by the Ministers of Justice, Education and Religion, Employment and Social Services. CHAPTER TWO PERSONNEL Article Twelve Divisions--Specializations l) The personnel of schools and units of any kind of special education as described in paragraph 3 of Article Three is determined by division and specialization as follows: Permanent Personnel Category A No. of Positions a) Child Education Specialists 300 b) Education Specialists lOO c) Speech Specialists 15 d) Technical Education Specialists 20 e) Physical Education Teachers 20 f) Music Teachers 10 g) Sociologists 20 h) Psychologists 20 i) Physical Trainers 20 j) Technical Educators l5 k) Nurses and companions _l§_ . Sub Tota1 555 Category B a) Technical Educators 30 b) Administrative Personnel 25 c) Hospital Attendants _l§_ Sub Total 70 265 If for any reason the filling of two positions of the Category A nurses and companions becomes difficult. Nurses with limited experience are hired. Leaving equal number of positions for Category A open for later fulfillment. Category C a) Ushers 20 Under Contract Personnel a) Cooks-busboys 30 b) Cleaning Persons (Janitors) _;§1 60 Total 705 2) By presidential decree issued once, following the recom- mendations of the Ministers of Governmental Structure, Education and Religion and Finance or other persons of authority are specified the distribution of the permanent positions by ministry department and seniority excluding the positions of Special School Inspectors which are mentioned in Article Three above. Also by presidential decrees issued following the recommendations of the Ministry of Governmental Structure or any other person of authority are specified: the minimum qualifications of the applicants for their appointment at a specific position and the procedure to be followed for the fulfillment of these positions by appointment, transfer, promotion or detachment from other positions. 3) In any case of difficulty in obtaining permanent personnel the hiring of salaried temporary as such is allowed 266 while serving on Category A or B Specialists in institutions of public or private justice. This action requires a joint decision of the Minister of Education and Religion, Finance and Social Services and is not subject to stipulations with regard to dual employment in the Public Sector. 4) The positions created in paragraph 1 are filled in stages and according to the needs of creation and operations of schools and other units of special education. Article Thirteen Inspectors of Special Schools Article Twenty-Two of Law Decree 309/1976 "About Organiza- tion and Administration of General Educatiod'is supplemented with the following: l) Three positions of Inspector of Special Schools at the ninth wage scale and one at the tenth wage scale are created. 2a) Following a selection process educators are promoted to the positions of Inspector of Special Schools, if they meet the following requirements: over fifteen years of governmental service in the educational field. The qualifications set forth in Article Fifteen below and also specialization in special education acquired at the Maraslion Academy or at a foreign institution from which they graduated. 2b) The concerns with regards to selection process which could employ written examination and interview and also any other 267 needed details are specified in presidential decrees issued upon the recommendation of the Minister of Education and Religion. 3) In case of a vacancy to the position of Inspector of Special Education at the tenth wage scale an Inspector of the ninth wage scale with a minimum of three years of successful service at that post is promoted. Article Fourteen Post Graduate Studies and Specialization of Personnel l) The post graduate education and specialization of personnel of any kind in matters of special education and special professional training is accomplished by: the stipulations of the Law Decree l222/l972, "About Post Graduate Studies of the Elemen- tary Education Faculty etc., along with the stipulations of Law Decree 227/1975, "About the Post Graduate Studies on Special Education at the Maraslion Academy etc." or through the Foundation of State Scholarships or finally through their sending overseas (in special education institutions) for visits, trips, seminars or conventions based on programs drawn up by special education admin- istrators and in accordance with the present stipulations regarding the grant of sabbaticals or overseas training programs including those on paragraph 3 of Article Two of the Law Decree 232/1975, "About Post Graduate Education of Public Servants." 2) The prerequisite for the implementation of the present article stipulations, the procedure to be followed for the approval of the programs and any other detail are stipulated by resolutions 268 from the Ministers of Education and Religion and Finance or any other appropriate authority. 3) For post graduate education of special education a three-year educational institution is established. Admission is granted to graduates of lyceums or the former sixth grade of high school. Matters concerning the creation, organization, operation, faculty composition, curriculum, examinations, supervision, granting of diplomas and other detail are stipulated by presidential decrees issued upon the recommendations of the Ministers of Education and Religion and Finance. 4) The private educational or post graduate institutions for special education are subject to the present law stipulations. Article Fifteen Professional Discretion la) With the special law stipulations and the special duties of the public servant preserved including those which are derived from higher moral order or social duty. All employees of any institution for the disadvantaged,regardless of their position, are expected to show discretion about private consultations or other matters that come to their attention while working there in their professional capacity. b) In case the above mentioned employees are called to testify in a court of law or any other authority about such discreet matters, they are required to declare their professional 269 identity and all their commitments with regard to the profession of their professional discretion. c) They are also required in order to protect their profes- sional discretion to guard the files and the correspondence of their services. CHAPTER THREE SPECIAL STIPULATIONS Article Sixteen Special Allowance l) The public servants and the employees of the public corporate body which are occupied with special education, as stipu- lated on this draft, receive a bonus equal to one fourth of their basic pay (for persons on the sixth wage scale) or one fifth for persons on the seventh and eighth wage scale. The personnel entitled to such bonus is specified upon the decisions of the Minister of Education and Religion and Finance. Article Seventeen Accreditation of Degrees (Diplomas) from Overseas l) For the purposes of accreditation of diplomas on special education from overseas and also for the purpose of their recogni- tion by level the Minister of Education and Religion appoints a committee of three knowledgeable scientists. 270 Article 18 Subsidies Loans E.T.C. la) For reasons of improving their performance, institutions or associations serving special education could be directly sub- sidized or equipped with the necessary laboratory equipment, utensils, instruments, machinery, educational books etc., following the decision of the Minister of Education and Religion or any other person of authority. The expenditures are written in the budget of the ministry responsible for their supervision which is exercised concurrently with the Ministry of Finance with regards to the allocation and use of the money and material involved. b) Under the same procedure the measures for improvement of the disadvantaged with regard to their professional performance can be.specified regardless of their age. These include special econ- omic benefits (low or no interest loans, subsidies, etc.) and supply of equipment, utensils, instruments and machinery or any articles for the assistance of the scientists involved. 2) Special instruments used for the neutralization of treat- ment of the physically handicapped or for their education are imported free of tax. 3) Expenditures paid by insured or non-handicapped individuals, regardless of their age, and which under Article Eleven of the Coordinating Committee are judged to be necessary for reasons of special education, are regarded to be of medical and pharmaceutical relief/nature and are recognized as such by the government or the insurance funds involved. 271 CHAPTER FOUR FINAL AND TRANSITORY DISPOSITIONS Article Nineteen Recognition of Schools and Other Units as Special Schools and other units whether public or private, domestic or foreign operating in Greece, which provide education to the disadvantaged and are recognized by the Minister of Education and Religion or any other person of authority as specialized in their following the opinion of the inspector in charge. These schools and units, following their recognition, become subject to the stipula- tion of the present draft. Article Twenty Legitimation of Schools and Other Units of Special Education l) Legal persons of public or private justice, or persons who provide special education or professional training to the disadvantaged without permit (for the creation and operation of such educational units) are required within a year to take the appropriate steps for the creation and operation of such units, otherwise they disqualify themselves from their right to provide special education and training upon the completion of the academic year which ends following the enactment of the present law. 2) The Minister of Education and Religion can, at any time, discontinue the provision of special education by anybody if he 272 decides along with the Inspector of Special Schools that the individual in question did not keep high standards with regard to the provision of special education, regardless of the status of his application (for creation and operation of educational units). Article Twenty-One Conversion of Private Schools E.T.C. of Special Education into Public 1) By orders of the Ministers of Education and Religion and Finance it is possible for private special kindergartens, schools, classes and special educational schools that are parts of institu- tions or associations directed by persons of public or private justice to become public following their application to become such. 2) The faculty serving the above described institutions are appointed to public education positions and are at the disposal of the Ministry of Education and Religion which appoints them, preferably, to the schools where they were previously serving if: a) They possess the qualifications for their appointment into a position in the public education sector. b) They have served a minimum of two years at a special school or institution for disadvantaged persons. c) On the basis of the criteria used regarding priority appoint- ments by the Ministry of Education, all the teachers and child care specialists who graduated during that academic year have already been appointed for positions. 3) Depending on the years of service, such personnel joins the list of public below their colleagues which have graduated at the same year and now serving in the public education sector and is also called upon to attend post graduate studies in the special 273 education field or five years of minimum service in such units while being over 40 years old. 4) Following the decisions of the Ministers of Education and Religion and Finance or any other persons of authority. The remaining personnel of the special kindergartens and schools,etc., described in paragraph 1 of the present article are similarly appointed and assume public education positions in the appropriate categories, branches and levels as described in Article Twelve of the present law if they possess the anticipated qualifications. Article TWenty-Two Operational Adjustments of Private Institutions , of Special Education l) Within a five-year period of the enactment of the pre- sent legislation, all private institutions of special education, regardless of their type and level,are required to adjust their educational programs and the qualification of their faculty according to the stipulation presented here. 2) The post graduate education is provided by the govern- ment free of charge, preferably in evening sections which the personnel is required to attend with the exceptions stated in Article Twenty-One, paragraph 3, of the present draft. 3) All subjects, regarding the implementation of the stipu- lations presented here, are decided by decrees from the Ministers of Education and Religion and Finance, when public expenditures are involved. 274 Article Twenty-Three Personnel Issues in Regulations of PublicSpecial Education Schools la) The educational personnel consisting of child care specialists and teachers which at the time of the enactment of the present legislation are serving in public special kindergartens, schools, etc., and which have not received post graduate education in special education are at the disposal of the appropriate Inspection Committee for appointment on a regular school of the same district or they can remain in the same position which they hold, if they so wish, assuming that they have a minimum service of five years in special education institutions. b) Those in the second case are called upon the post graduate studies in special education if they have not passed the 40th year of age and with all the entrance examinations requirements waived in exception to the rule. 2a) The remaining educational personnel hold on to the position and are enlisted in the corresponding categories branches and levels of Article Twelve of the present, assuming they possess the required qualifications of the time. b) The enlistments are determined by the Ministers of Education and Religion and Finance or any person of authority. c) The subjects concerning the post graduate studies in special education are determined by the Ministers of Education and Religion and Finance. 275 3) The graduates of the year-long session of post graduate studies in special education at the school of public education and those having a long-term post graduate diploma are becoming of the same rank of those having a two-year post graduate studies diploma in special education. Article Twenty-Four Graduates of the Social Therapeutical Child Care School Those who until the publication of the present law have graduated from the social therapeutical child care school of the Center of Psychology of Northern Greece can be appointed as special educators to the special kindergartens, schools, etc. Article TWenty3Five Special Educators from Other Schools la) During the first enactment of the present law and until the creation of special educators in special schools, it is allowed in order to satisfy existing needs to appoint to the positions of special educators graduates of the school of Home Economics, Social Labor, Infant Care, Child Care. b) Those appointed in accordance with the provisions of the previous paragraph are required without exception before assuming their positions to attend an educational seminar on matters of special education at least three months in length in accordance with the stipulations of Article Fourteen. 276 Article Twenty-Six Model Special School of Athens The Emergency Laws 453/l937 "About Creation of a School for the Abnormal and Disadvantaged Children," and lO49/l938, "About Revision and Supplementation of 453J'are revoked and from this moment the Model Special School of Athens is subject to the stipula- tions of this act and it is annexed by the Maraslion School of Public Education on a Full Model Special School for mentally retarded children for the purposes of providing practical training to teachers taking post graduate studies in special education. APPENDIX D COMPULSORY LAW 2193/1940 277 About Creation of Public Grade schools, Orphanages, or Other Public Utility Institutions and.Amendment and Completion of Some Educational Stipulations. GEORGE THE 2ND KING OF GREEKS Following the recommendation of the Ministerial Council we decided and order: Article One 1) Within the existing orphanages or other public utility institutions, regardless whether they are private or public, are allowed to operate public schools of elementary education under the authority of the Ministry of Education and Religion, which shall be created in accordance with the presently existing stipulations. 2) The curriculum of the elementary education schools of the previous paragraph is similar to that of the rest of the elementary schools, and any deviation (from such a curriculum) is allowed only after the recommendation of the local general Inspector of Elementary Education and the approval of the Higher Council of Education. 3) The stipulations of Article 3, paragraph 4, section 2, of the Law Decree 4397/1929 "About Elementary Education" are allowed to be implemented for the elementary schools of the present article of the institution assumes the responsibility of 278 279 returning to the National Treasury at the beginning of each three month term, a sum equal to the additional expenses assumed by the government due to the implementation of the above stipulations or determined by the Minister of Finance. Article Two For the institutions of the previous paragraph is allowed the creation of an additional faculty position for physical education following a Royal Decree issued after the recommendation of the Minister of Education and Religion and with the approval of the Higher Council on Education. That position is subject to the article of Law Decree 6359/l934 (Governmental Register issue 376) dealing with numbers of teaching and physical education posi- tions. Article Three During the initial filling of the positions established in Article One of the present law, it is allowed following the recommendations of the Institute administrator to appoint the existing Institute faculty by passing the present stipulations with regards to appointments of elementary and secondary education personnel. The appointees continue to serve until the positions are officially established and their previous educational service to the Institute is acknowledged with regards to the present stipulations regarding promotions. 280 Article Four Disregarding the present stipulations for the priority of appointments to the Honokopios Higher School of Homemakers in Kallithea is added one faculty position for an Instructor of Literature in which it can be transferred or appointed a certifi- cated philologist with ten years of service as a teacher in a public primary school and one teacher of homemaking sources. The positions created in the present article are subject to the stipulations of Article Four, paragraph 4, of the Compulsory Law 1849/1939'About Secondary Education" as they have been revised by Article Three of the Compulsory Law 1863/1939 (Governmental Register 308/7-3l-l939) regarding the upper limits of teaching personnel positions. Article Five Article Eleven of the Compulsory Law 782/1937 "about organization of the Central Agency of the Ministry of Education and Religion" is replaced by the following: "If the General Director is absent hindered or the posi- tions unfilled he is substituted by one of the other directors serving in the General Directory. The director is substituted by another director or one of the department heads serving in the General Directory or one of the office heads serving in the same department. In all cases above the substitute is appointed by a ministerial order following the concerns of the Administrative Council." 281 Article §i_ Article Eight, paragraph 4, of the Compulsory Law 782/1937 "About the Structure of the Central Agency of the Ministry of Religion and Education" is replaced by the following: 1) To the position of Director on the Physical Education Directory is appointed a certificated instructor of physical education with a minimum of two years special studies on physical education in Europe and with a minimum of ten years' successful service in a secondary education institution or a Pedagogic Academy or in the position of General Inspector of Physical Educa- tion or Director of the Physical Education Academy. In the same position can be promoted a certificated Physical Education Instructor and Department Head of the first leVel of the Central Agency, having three years of service on such or a minimum of five years' service in the position of Department Head of the first or second level with at least twenty years of governmental service. Article Seven Article Thirty-One, paragraph 2, or Law Decree 1849/l939 About Secondary Education Schools Governmental Register 300/7-25- 1939 is replaced as follows: 2) Section 1 of Article Fifty-One of Law 1242 A "About Secondary Education" (Governmental Register 190/l9l9) is revoked by enactment of the stipulations of Article Seven, paragraph 2, of the present law in addition to the laws which legislate the suc- cessive abolition of the six grade high schools and technical 282 lyceum of the past. For promotion to the position of the Director of a Technical Lyceum in addition to the certificated physics majors of the Physical Science and Mathematics Department of the domestic universities also qualify the chemistry majors of such. Article Eight In the Vellon Seminary starting with the 1939-1940 academic year. The two lower grades of the six grade high school and the two upper grades of the elementary school established by Article Four of the Compulsory Law 247/1936 (Governmental Register 460/ lO-7-l936) are consolidated into the four lower grades of the six grade high school established by the Compulsory Law 1849/1936 (Governmental Register 300/7-25-1935) without an increase in the number of active faculty positions of the seminary. Article Nine The until October 1939 extension of the 1939-1940 academic year registration dateline for secondary education institutions given by the Minister of Education and Religion is approved (and becomes law). Article Ten The appointment of General Inspectors to the positions specified in Article Thirty-Four of the Compulsory Law 2180 (Governmental Register 14/1-21-1940) is allowed within 2 months following the enactment of the present law without the restrictions of Article Thirty-Five, paragraph 1. 283 ATHENS, JANUARY 24, 1940 KING GEORGE THE SECOND THE MINISTERIAL COUNCIL PRESIDENT J. METAXAS Members: Agis Tampakopoulos, J. Doureutes, J. onanites, Agg. Economon, Hel. Kriubon, M. Spentzos, St. Polyzogopoulos, M. Papacleunos, P. Economakos, Ar. Demetratos, K. Bourbonhs, Th. Hikoloudis, K. Maniachakis, M. Kiriakopoulos. Approved and officially sealed Athens, January 27, 1940 Minister of Justice Agis Tampakopoulos APPENDIX E LAW 1904/1951 284 About Protection and Restitution of the Blind. PAUL KING OF GREEKS Following the unanimous agreement of the Parliament we decide and order Article One As used in the present law, blind is defined any person that: a) is totally deprived of light perception, or b) has an optical sharpness below the one twenty fifth that of the normal and in either case unable to do any kind of work due to his blindness. Article Two I l) A blind person is eligible for the benefits of the present law if he is registered in the lists for the blind of the Ministry of Social Care and possesses a special identity card. 2) Any details with regards to the registration procedures and the place where identity cards can be obtained, one to be specified in a Royal Decree. Article Three Royal Decrees issued following the recommendations of the Ministers of Social Care, Education and Finance will specify a) The compulsory registration of the blind children in special schools. 285 b) The creation of such schools which should not exceed four throughout Greece, including the ones already in existence, with the necessary stipulation that at least fifty students should be registered in each one. Such schools should operate like public corporate bodies. c) The division of such schools according to their contents, the subjects to be taught and also the degree of equivalence of their diplomas to those of the rest of the public schools, including the ones already operating. d) The sanctions to be taken against parents or guardians who neglect the registration of blind children to the schools. e) Any detail regarding the education of blind children. Article Four Professional Restitution Within the limit of the resources in its disposal the government looks after the able to work blind persons by providing for their learning of a profession or a trade. By Royal Decree issued following the recommendations of the Ministers of Social Care and Finance one specified all the details regarding the professional restitution of the blind, including any assistance to those working at their homes. Article Five Relief To the blind who for reasons of age or physical or psyco- logical inability to learn, are unable to work a relief is 286 287 provided which becomes part of the budget of the appropriate governmental agency and which is arranged by a common decision from the Ministers of Social Care and Finance. Eligible are the blind who cannot receive any private or public financial relief and who are deprived of such needs as medical attention and treatment and lack the basic means of living as jointly determined by the Minister of Social Care and the Council for the Protection of the Blind of Article Six. Such a relief can be of a monetary nature and accord- ing to the decision of the Minister of Social Care can be given either to the blind person himself or to the family that he is living with, or to the proper institute for the protection of the blind that provides care for the person. The above described relief is given for the first two years since the enactment of the present, only to the totally deprived of light perception blind persons, and it is possible to include those of Article One following a joint decision by the Ministers of Finance and Social Care and agreement by the Council for the Protection of the Blind. Article Six The Ministry of Social Care is in charge of creating a A "Council for the Protection of the Blind" which advises the Minis- ter in related subjects. The composition, operation and authority of the Council is specified by Royal Decrees. Similarly by Royal Decrees are specified the details regarding the authorities of the social care centers dealing with the implementation of the present law which is assigned to the Minister of Social Care. The present law which passed through the Parliament is ratified and sent for Publication in the Governmental Register, thus becoming the law of the land. ATHENS, JULY 28, 1951 PAUL THE 2ND Approved and officially sealed The Minister of Social Care For. Zaimis Athens, August 1, 1951 The Minister of Justice A. Bouropoulos APPENDIX F LEGISLATIVE DECREE NO. 3635/1956 289 About Recognition of Private Elementary Schools for the Hard of Hearing or Deaf Students as Equal to the Public Ones, Establishment of Their Programs and Curriculums and About Government Assistance of Such. PAUL KING OF THE GREEKS Having knowledge of the directives of Article Thirty-Five of the Constitution, and the since November 14, 1956, expressed approval of the appropriate Parliamentary Committee (as described in the same Article Thirty-Five, paragraph 2) and following the recommendation of the Ministerial Council we decide and order: Article One The "Model Special Education Institution," a private school on Ecinikas in Athens, which includes kindergarten and grade school for the hard of hearing and deaf children is recognized as equal for the public kindergarten and grade schools and the Certificates of Studies issued by it have the same validity with the Certificates of Studies issued by the public grade schools. Article Two By Royal Decrees issued following the recommendations of the Minister of Education and Religion and the Central Advisory and Administrative Council on Education the recognition of other pri- vate kindergartens and grade schools for the hard of hearing and deaf children as equal to the public ones is allowed if they are 290 291 legally established by persons belonging to the public corporate body. Article Three The kindergartens and grade schools for the hard of hearing and deaf children mentioned in Articles One and Two of the present are required to include in their curriculum courses corresponding to those of the public schools. However, due to their special nature, the schools can through their internal statute adjust their educational and pedagogic programs to correspond to the internationally accepted on such without having to follow the program guidelines established in schools for regular students. Article Four To the private grade schools for the hard of hearing and deaf children of the present Legislative Decree,which are recognized as equal to those public ones, the provision of financial assistance approved bythe Minister of Education and Religion is permitted. This assistance becomes part of the special appropriations of the budget of the Ministry of Education and Religion in accordance with Legislative Decree 3558/1956 "About Unification of Expenses" mentioned in Compulsory Law 1556/1950 and Royal Decree 2663/1953, and it should lie within the limits or fractions specified in the above Legislative Decree. Article Five The present Decree goes into effect immediately following its publication in the Governmental Register. 291 292 Athens, November 16, 1956 PAUL THE SECOND For the,Ministerial Council For Presiding Vice President ARIDREAS APOSTOLIDES Members: _ D. Helenis, D. Makris, P. Levonitis, Ch. Thebeos, St. Koliades, . Baurnias, K. Isalsos, D. Davakis, H. Athananoniou, D. Alibrandis, A H. Montis, Ch. Korapipperis, Tr. Triandajillakos, D. Manentes, J. Pseneas. Approved and officially sealed Athens, November 16, 1956 The Minister of Justice K. Papalostanvinou APPENDIX G LAW DECREE NO. 4466/1965 293 294 About Recognition of the "Model Special Educational Institu- tion" Operated Private High School for the Hard of Hearing and Deaf Children as Equal to the Public High Schools. CONSTANTINE KING OF THE GREEKS Following the unanimous agreement of the Parliament we decide and order: Article One The private high schools for the hard of hearing and deaf children established in Kallithea, Athens, under the title "Model Special Education Institution" is recognized as equal to the corres- ponding public high schools of the Legislative Decree 4379/1964 and the certificates awarded by it have the same validity with those of the public high schools. Article Two To the above equal to the public established high school is annexed the "Model Special Education Institution" of Kallithea, Athens, an elementary school for the hard of hearing and deaf child- ren which was established by the Legislative Decree 3635/1956 on equal to a public grade school. Article Three The above high school for the deaf and hard of hearing stu- dents is expected to offer the same courses offered in the public high schools. The possible necessary deviations from that program due to the school's special nature, one approved from the Minister of Education and Religion following the recommendation of the officials of the Pedalogic Institute assuming these deviations conform with the international by accepted educational and teaching methods. Article Four 1) By a Royal Decree issued following the recommendation of the Minister of Education and Religion the establishment of a private lyceum of the deaf and hard of hearing students is allowed and the lyceum is annexed to the above mentioned "Model Special Education Institution." There it would operate as equal to the public lyceums and it should offer the same courses as they do. Possible necessary deviations from the approved programs are approved by the Minister of Education and Religion following the agreement of the Pedagogic Institute. 2) The admission of students into the lyceums follows entrance examinations, which are stipulated by the Minister of Education and Religion following the agreement of the Pedagogic Institute. 3) In the following Article Five of the present law, and in the second sentence the term "and a possible established lyceum should be added following the word, "high school." Article Five To the above established as equal to public, private high school for the deaf and hard of hearing children can be provided a 295 296 financial assistance by the Minister of Education and Religion which is itemized in the Ministry budget. The above law after passing through the Parliament is ratified by me and will be published in the Governmental Register, thus becoming a law of the land. ATHENS, APRIL 21, 1965 CONSTANTINE THE 2ND The President of the Government and Minister of Education George Papandreou Approved and officially sealed Athens, May 4, 1965 The Minister of Justice Nicholaos Bacopoulos APPENDIX H ROYAL DECREE NO. 702/1969 297 About the Analytical Hourly Curriculum of Elementary Schools. CONSTANTINE KING OF THE GREEKS Having knowledge of: a) Article Twelve of the Compulsory Law 129/1967 about "organization and administration of general education, etc." b) The acts 51, 66, 96, 102 of 1968 and 18, 22, 30, 34, 36 of 1969 of the Highest Advisory Council of Education and c) The 758/1969 advisory act of the State Council which followed the recommendation of my Minister of Education and Religion, we decide and order: The hourly analytical program of the courses taught in elementary schools, starting with the academic year 1969-1970 is specified as follows: Article One Elementary School Goals The goals of the elementary schools are: a) To create and consolidate in the heart of the student his love for the Greek nation, the Christian Orthodox beliefs and the moral life. b) To give to the students the correct perceptions with regards to their environment according to children's understanding. 298 299 c) To make the students adaptable to their school environment, to make them understand the importance of the individual's engage- ment to society life. Article Two Weekly Hourly Programs of Courses 300 rem uz~zum czuzu=u .e ~\~ ~\N N\~ agoumwz .m m m N o m mmmamcmF xmwgu .N «\m ~\~ N\N ~\N. eowmvpaz ._ m m o u m < mmmcaoo AmommmpuV mmcmgm an.mcm;ummu we mesa: mpoogum «anew gogommuuozk Am 302 mm «\m «\e «\e mm mm «\m m ~\m m\¢ «\e mzomhumm >m wz~=uguosomm a u_ume;uwg< .m acaogmoww .o mucwsm_m gupmm: ucm xgumpsmsu .mupmagm . m mmmuzum paucmscogv>cw .e zgoump: .m N cannons. xmmgw . 83:3. .. m o u m Ammmmmpuv mmumgm an m:_:ummu we mesa: mmmesou .cogum Logoampummgch Au 303 ¢~_ wzuzucm .e N N xgoumw: .m op m m m mmm:m:m. xmmco .N N N ~\N =o_mppa¢ ._ m m o u m < mmmcaoo AmommapuV mmumgm xmlmcpgummu we mesa: _oo;um cmsumou-gaou Ac 304 “mp wz~=u=m .v N N N N Ngoamzz .m a m o. a N N manageap emote .N m m N N N\N =o_m__a¢ .. L N a u m < momtsou Ammmmmpuv mmumgm x9 awesome“ we mesa: Foogum Logommuum>_m Am 305 em. ez~=eem .e N N N N Neoemwz .N N m o. o. m a penance. gauze .N m m N N N N =o_ew_mm .F a N o e m < memeaoe Amemmepev meeeem an mevgeeeu we meeez peegem eeceeeu-x_m A; APPENDIX I ROYAL DECREE NO. 723/1969 306 307 About the Hourly Analytical Curriculum of High Schools CONSTANTINE KING OF GREEKS Following the recommendation of our Ministerial Council we decided and order: Having knowledge of: 1) paragraph 2 of Article Two, paragraph 2 of Article 8, paragraphs 2 and 4 of Article Ten, and paragraph 1 of Article Twelve of the Compulsory Law 129/1967, 2) paragraph 3 of Article Twenty-Seven of the Law Decree 3971/1959 as is related with paragraph 9 of Article Two of the Law Decree 4379/1964, 3) the opinions of the Highest Educational Council as they appear in their No. 56, 60, 61, 63 and 70/1969 acts along with the opinions of the Highest Advisory Council on Education as they appear in their No. 8, 10, 12 and 16/1969 acts, 4) the No. 682/1969 opinion of the Council of State and also following the recommendation of the Minister obeducation and Religion, we decided and order: The hourly analytical curriculums for high schools are specified in the following articles: PART ONE Daily Classical High School ARTICLE ONE Hourly Programs of Courses N_N NN NN NN NN «N NN Azmzezv .NNN 4No gene: :eNm_>Nc sexed Amemgeeov Neueweem m:_;eNeN Ne .NL: 308 309 PART TWO Daily Practical High School Article Three Hourly Program of Courses 310 moN NN NN NN NN «N NN Azuzozv 4No em 2 eeNmN>No Lezeg Nemgeeo mNeueN maeefieem meNgueeN No .me: 311 Article Four Analytical Program of Courses Lower Division (Grades l-3) The subjects taught at the corresponding grades of the classical high schools. Upper Division (Grades 4-6) Religion. For Grades 4, 5, 6: The subjects taught at the correspond- ing grades of the classical high schools. Modern Greek language and grammar (comtemporary Greek). For Grades 4, 5, 6: The subjects taught (covered) at the corresponding grades of the classical high schools. Ancient Greek language and grammar (ancient Greek). Grade 4: (6 hrs. weekly) The subjects taught (covered) at the fourth grade of the classical high schools. Grade 5: (5 hrs. weekly) A. Glossology — Topics covered at the fifth grade of a classical high school (1 hr. weekly for the entire year . B. Translation of works. a) Reading and translation of "Kriton" by Plato like they do at the fifth grade of the classical high schools (2 hrs. weekly for the first quarter). b) Reading and translation on simple harangue by Thoukidides, like they do at the fifth grade of the classical high schools (2 hrs. weekly during the second quarter). c) Reading and translation of one of the rapsodies in "Iliad" like they do at the fifth grade of the classical high schools (1 hr. weekly during the first quarter). 312 d) Reading and translation of one dramatic work by Euripides as in the fifth grade of the classical high schools (3 hrs. weekly during the second quarter). e) Reading and translation of the "Defence of Socrates" by Plato and extraordinary parts of the ”Memoirs" by Xeuophon as in the fifth grade of the classical high schools. Grammar - Subjects covered at the fifth grade of the classical high schools. APPENDIX J MICHIGAN MANDATORY SPECIAL EDUCATION ACT, ACT NO. 198, PUBLIC ACTS OF 1971, DECEMBER 22, 1971 313 Act Va. 198 Public Act: of I971 Approved by' Governor December :2, 1971 STATE or MICHIGAN 78TH LEGISLATURE REGULAR SESSION or 1971 W by Raps. MeCollmgh. Kain. Symon, MoNeely, Inca, O'Ndll, Vaughn, Dively, Goa-lingo, Mahouy, Snyder, De Stigta, Weber, “mumwmmrmy, 5:115!!wa singc, Richard A. Young, Walton, Payant, Web-ugh, Thou-s EM Kildeo, Stopezymlti and m Reps. Wanner, Bryant,” Jacobotti and W mandala-sponsors Enrolled House Bill No. 4475 AN ACT to amend sections 291:. 3173, 318:, $1. 613 and 732 of Act No 2% of the Public Acts of 1955. entitled ”An act to provide a system of public hub-Isobar: and primary schools; to provide {or the classification. :pnintion, regulation and maintenance of schools and school disticb: did: rights, powers. duties and privileges: to provide for :p'stration of school districts. and to presa-ibe powers and duties with respect thereto: to provide for and prescribe the powers and duties of oeruinboudsandoffidals; topreoaibepemlb’mandtorepealceruin acts and parts of acts." as amended and added by Act No.13 of the Public Acts of 1957. Acts No. 246 and 270 of the Public Acts of 1% and Act No. 320 of the Public Acts of 1968. being sections 340.2913. 340.3173, 340.318a. 340.631. 340.613 and 340.732 of the Compiled Laws of 1948: to add sec; tions 10, II. 12. 5213. 298c, .3290. 6013. 601b, 771a, 7723. 773a and 780k: and to repeal certain acts and parts of acts. The Psaple of the Stat: of Michigan enact: Section 1. Sections 2913. 3173. 318:, ml, 613 and 732 of Act No. 2% of the Public Acts of 1955. as amended and added by Act No. 135 of the Public Acts of 1957. Acu No. 246 and 270 of the Public Act: of 1% and Act No. 320 of the Public Acts of 1963, being sections 340.291a, 340.31%, 30318:. 340.631. 340.613 and 340.732 of the Compiled Laws of 1948. are amended and sections 10. ll. 12. 52b. fie. 329C. $18. mil). 771a. flh, 773: and 780: are added to md as follow”: (118) 314 315 Sec. 10. 'Soedal education programs and unitvs' as Inod in dais ad means educational and traimng pmgnn‘m and \l rvuvs designed for handicappalpe Isons Opa'tttt‘d by local school (ltsl‘l’ifis iIItI Hardin!!- school (inflicts, the Michigan sdtool fur the blind, tlIt Murhignst ..n'hool hr the deal. department of mtal health department ol sonal wrviou. or any combustion thereof, and ano'llaty profess“ scrvica for pemmrmderedbysgendtzappmvedbydtesntehoudclcdnonthn. Handicappedpnrsnnshaflbedefinedbymbptomtdptndbydsemte boardcfcduation. Handinginclude, hutarcnotlnnltedto, menu-L pmshalluxdudevoadonalmbutneodnotidndeaudanic prom of college or univusIt-y level. Soc. ll. ‘Spedal education pcrsonnnl' as used in dII's act means possum engaged In and having pmfessional responsibility for the train- mgmeandoducstionofhaodicappedpesmnsinspodalndnmfion plo- gramsaodsewioeswhich Include. butamnotlinttedto. undters.aldes. workers. diapsmtic penonnol. physical thereto-1's. campats'onal the-pasts, audiolopsts. speed: ptholopsts. hon-odors“ nudis-mrriculum ' . cmsuhnts. snpavisors and directors. Sec. 12. ‘Special education buildings and equipment' as used In the actmeansastmdiueorportionofasuucture.orpeswnalptopert). accepted. hosed. purchased or othcnv'nc acquired. prepared or used for special educatIon programs and services. Sec. 2521). (1) Por die 1973-74 sdlool year and thereafter the shin board of duration shall: (3) Develop. establish and continually evaluate and modify in a)- m with itItcnnndIatc school dastricts. a state for special whidsshallptovidefordtcdeliveryolspcda educationpso- mandsavioesdaignodtodevelopdtemmnpotentialoievey pped person. The plan shall coordinate all special odnation pro- pan- and services. (b) Boqulreadmmediateschooldlstficttosubmitafian bnbdlvi:(s)cfsoaionw, lnmdancewithdustateplanaod some (c) Pronulgsterulessetfiogiorththe unementscltheplansaod it: abutting them. "I (d) A Into shall be shined to the loan-e on a. u... 1W PM ”9' (e) Thefinalmteplaoshallbembiniundtothelegislann'eonor before March 1,1973, including W603 for handing special education programs and services. . (2) For the 1973-74 school yer and thaeafter, if a local school district claims the existence of an emergency. due to extreme finandal conditmm because of insufficient operating funds or due to a severe classroom and whid: emergency the local district claims renders it unable to provide spedal education programs and services in compliance with section 771a. it shall apply, in writing, to the state board no later than July 1 d the partimlar sclrol year for approval to provide special educa- tionp-op'ams or services which do not comply with section 771a. (3) In its application the local school district shall demonstrate the need i 316 u do noncomplying specIal education prop'ams and services and Include the preposud prop-urns and services it can provide and the dim to be undertaken to allcvmtt- tho emerge . If the state board finds no me cy exists In the local school district or such school ear. the state may approve the providing at nonoomply'lng special ua- W or services and prescribe auditions therefor. The state may extend die filing date for good cause. (4) lfthestateboarddeterminealoalschcoldisoietisnotproviding special education programs and service in compliance with section 771; udthelocalschooldistrlcthas notobtained priorapprovalfi'omthe sate board, the state board shall notify the local school districtln writing. of the noncompliance. Unless the local school district submits proof of “fiance, or of an unforeseen emergency. within 30 days after receipt flue m the state board shall direct the intermdzdiatep‘distfict of h schoo district is a constituent to ' com yin pro- p'an'n or service. The state board shall direct mtg-mediate llama toprevideonlythoseprognnuorservicewhlehthestateboasddeurnhsed are not in compliance with section 7712. . (5) Special education programs or service which the state board direcb an intermediate district to provide shall be funded as if provided by the loci school district and the local school district shall contribute tnthelntemediatedlshicttheunreimbunelcostoftheplopunsor 3 See. ”Is. As used in this cha ter: (a) 'lnmrrnediste school district means the corporate body ebbllshei. in soul-dance with the provisions of this chapter. (M'Loelschooldlstriet’meansap‘ schooldistrict.asdiool disolctotthetourthclass.aschooldistrict thothirdclass,aschool districtofdiesemnddass.sschooldisoictotdiefirstdass,oraspedal district. (c) ’Coostituent sdsool district“ means a local school district whose lsenth-elywidiinsndlsanintepalpartofanintesrnedlateschool 'Board’meanstheboardoteducationottheinternsediatesehool It; is (e) ‘Superintedent' means the superiotendast of the ithe (f) “Reorganized intermediate district" means an intermediate district formed by the consolidation or annexation of 2 or more intermediate school districts as provided in section 3023. 'Area vocational-technical education prop-am' means a propsm of organized systematic instruction designed to piepare the following in- dividuals for useful employment in recognized omupations: (1) Persons enrolled in high school. (2) Persons who live completed or left high school and who are available for full-time study in preparation for entering the labor market. (3) Persons who have alreadv entered the labor market and who need training or retraining to achieve stability or advancement in an- (h) ‘Area' as used in the phr. se ‘area vocational-technical education 317 ' means the geographical territory. both within and without the m of either a {-12 school district. or a community college district whichisdeaignatedasthesermceareafortbeo tionaivocational- tedsnical education programs by the state board 0 education. (i) 'Vocational eduation' means vocational or technical training or retaining which is given in schools or classes, including field a laboratory work incidental thereto. under ublic supervision andcnntrol. and is con- ducted as past of a am «resigned to fit individuals for gainful em. t as semiskil ed or skilled workers or technicians in ' mpations, but excluding any pmgram to fit individuals for employment in occupations which the surintendent of public instruction determines. Wins to be genera y considered professional or as reguiring a ureate or higher degree. The term includes vocational guide” and alanseling in connection with the training, instruction related to the oc- aipatiai for which the student is being trained or necessary for him to badit from the training. and the acquisition and maintenance and repair of instruaional supplies, teaching aids and equipment. and the m donorinitialeqdpnentotbmldingsandtheaoquisinonarmulothnd. See. a: (1) The intermediate board ma . and la the 1973-74 school year and thereafter the intermediate shall: (a) Develop. establish and continually evaluate and modify in co- ‘on with its constituent school districts. a plan for spedal education mosh“! provide for the delivery of special education pregame and services desi ed to develop the maximum potonnal of every handicapped onofw'chthebzahrdisrequiredtomainmisareoadundasub-d 'vision (f). The lan s l coordinate the specia' l ueation an services tedp or contracted for by the mnstituent segl districts and shall submitted to the state board of education for Wk law-mediate district plans shall be submitted to the state on or Mom November 1. "972. (b) Contract {or the delivery of a s ' l education prom at service in accordance with the intermediate ‘ 'ct plan. pursuant to and in ac- ”dance with sections 252!) and 771a. Under the contract the intermediate school district may Operate a special cducntion prop-am or service. furnish tion services and room and board (c) Employ or otherwise engage such special education personnel in accordance with the intermediate district plan. notwithstanding the pro- visions of subdiwsion (h) of subsection (1) of section 298a and appoint a director of special education meeting the qualifications and requirements as set forth in rules promulgated by the state board. (d) Accept and use available funds or contributions from govern- or private sources for the purpose of providing special education propams and services consistent with this act. (e) Lease. purchase or otherwise acquire. vehicles. sites. buildings or portions thereof and equip them. as it deems necessary for its staff, programs and services. notwithstanding the provisions of subdivision (1) of subsection (1) of section 296a. (f) Maintain a record of every handicapped person up to 25 years of age. who has not completed a normal course of study and graduated flan high school and who is a resident of l of its constituent school dis- 318 trim. and the special education prrignms or services in which the handl- apped moon is participating. ii any. as oi the fourth Friday following Labor day and the Friday heinn' Memorial day. The sole bash in de termmmg the local school district of whicha handicapped penal is a maid.“ shall be rules promulgated by the state board. Mg theprovisionsolsectionlléd. ‘T'l'tereoordsslsallhenlintainlsdlnml'tlE Ina with rules promulgated by the state board. (3) Have the right to place in approprhte special eduudon pro morsenicesanyhandicappedpersonlorwhomaconstimatlocal schooldisnictisrequiredtoprovidespedaleducationpmgnnncrsarvicu under section 771a. (h) investigate special education programs and services operated a contractediorbytheboardorcomtstuentschooldistrictsandreportin writing matters it deems constitutes a failure to comply with the provisions of any mun-act. statute or rule governing the special education programs andsewicuorottheintermediatedistsictplantothelocaldisnictand the state board. (i) Pusunt to section 152b, operate the special education pm or service. or coon-ad for the delivery of the special education prop-am or service, as if a local school district under section 7'71a. The contract shall ' forthoeeitemssetforthinsectionfllaandshallbeappmvedby the state board. The intermediate board shall provide for the n-ansporta- Morroomandboard.crboth.ofthepenonsparticipatinginthepro- mossavioeasiialocal board undersectionsfiOl andmla. (l) Receivethereportofanyparentorguardianorwiththeconsait of any par-st or guardian receive the report of a licensed physician. 1'08- istered nurse, social worker. school or other appropriate professionalper sonnel whose training and relationship to handica personspmvide; competencetojudge sameandwhoingoodfaith lievesthataperson under the age of 25 examined by him is or may be handicapped and immediately evaluate such peace in accordance with the rules promulgated bythestateboard. Nopersonmaltingorfilingsuch report. nor-any board. shall incur any liability to any person by reason of filing such report aaeekin suchevaluation. unless lackofgoodfaithisproven. (k) valuate pupils pursuant to and in accordance with section 613. Sec.317a. BoardscomingmidertheprovisionsotsecdmsSMato 324a shall expend funds received under section Site for special educatim purposesinaccordancewithnilespromulgatedbythestateboardofedu- ”Salim BoardsOperatingorcontractinfor theoperationor'special eduation programs or services may carry ch in membership in the same manner as local school districts and shall be entitled to their propor- ticnate share of any state funds available for such programs. Membership shall be calculated on the basis provided in rules promulgated by the state board of eduation. Sec. 3%. The board of an intermediate school district which has adopted the provisions of sections 307a to 3m and which has a constituent school district or districts which heretofore elected not to come under than provisions pursuant to section 329 shall submit before the 1973-74 schoolyeartotheelectorate thequestionofadoptingsectionsaflato 319 324a. The election shall bu culls-ii and hold at the same time and to the same manner as provided in sections 30% and m for the original eleco'rai bddfortheadopc'onofsectionsatflatodfla. Theboardshalluqioy the form of ballot prescribed in section 316a for this election. Sec. 01. The board of education of a local school district may pro vide, and for the 1973-7‘ school year and thereafter shall provide. by an- tract or otherwise for the transportation of handicapped peratptsdwho wouldotherwisebeunableto ci teinanapp'opdatespeda uca- tion program or service operator; tats—acted for by the loal school d11- trict pursuant to section 771a, except for handicapped persons in reddaioe at fatalities invented liv tho Michigan schml for the blind. the Midli- gasi school for the deaf. the department of mental health or the department ofsocialservices. There-ferencestoscctionfléinsecn'oosmandm are deemed to be made to this section. See. mla. The board of education of each local sdiool dhu'id may povlde. and for the 1%“ school year and thaeaftcr shall povide. by contract or otherwise for the room and hoard ot' handicapped perm who mildotherwisebeunabletoparticipateinana tespedzl education program or semen Opt'l’al’l'd or contracted for y the loal school d'utn'ct pursuant to section 771.1. except those operated by the Midn'gln school for the blind. the Michigan school for the deaf. the departmuit d mental health or the department of social micea. Sec. mlb. A board of education of .1 local school district shall not solicit. nor shall it ter-ls. reimhrrrsrniir-nt from a handicapped person or person otherwise liable for the care of the handicapped person for any . art of a special education program attributable to the expense for room aid board. except it shall have the right to reimbursement fw room and boardinsuchamormtascanreasomblybraffordedbysuchpaamand bi acmrdance with rules promulgated by the state board. Sec. 613. The board may authorize or fur-gar the suspension or alps; sionfromschoolofa il ' of $3 'emeanororpa'shtlnt obedience when in infiggmgrr‘ilxhc arms of the school may demand it. If there is reasonable cause to believe that the pupil is handiapped. and the local school district has not evaluated the pupil in accordance with rules of the state board. the pupil shall be evaluated immediately by the intermediate district of which the local school dhtii'ct is corutitueait in acmrdance with section 23c. Sec. 732. In the following cases. children shall not he required to attend the public schools: (a) Any child who is attending regularly and is being taught in a ' te. parochial or denominational school which has cornplied with all e pro- visions of this act and teaches srrhrr-cts comparable to those taught in the public schools to children of corresponding age and grade. as determined by the muse of study for the public schools of the district widiin which such private, denominational or parochial school is located. (b) Any child who rs regularly employed as a page or messenger in either branch of the legislature during the period of such employment. (c) Children under 9 years of age who do not reside within 2% mila. by die nearest traveled road. of ome public school. If transportation is furnished for pupils in the district. this esesnpb’oo shall not apply. 320 (6) Any child 12 to 14 years ofa it while in attendance at confirma- ‘U‘onhclasses conducted for a period not to exceed 5 months in either (a) Any child who is regularly enrolled in the public schools while in “Mmuinaouco’ooclassesfornotmorethaanlasshours p8 wefl. off licschool property during public school hours upon writtai request of the parent. guardian or person in loco ends in ac udanoewidimlesprescribedbythemperintendentofpu instinct-ion. Sec. 771a. (1) The board of a local school disaict may provide, and in die 1973-74 school year and thereafter shall provide, special edumtion m and services dengned to develop the maximum potential of all ppedpenonsinitsdistrictonrecord undersectioomcforwhom anappropriate eduational or trainin rognm can be provided in ac- cudanoe with the intermediate schoof istrict special education plan. in wdthefoflowingwaysoracomhinadon thereof: (a) Ops-ate the special education progam or service. (b) Contract with its intermediate school district. another intennediate school district. another local school district, an adiaccnt school district in a berdering state, the Michigan school for the blind. the Michigan school for the deaf. the department of mental health or the. department of social services or any combination thereof, for dtllVEf)! of the special education manor services, or with an agency approved by the state board of education for delivery of an ancillary professional spt-ci tl education semce. The intermediate school district of which the local school district is con- “Mb-mmmmnmamtiitdoesnotpnro'cipatein the delivery of the program or service. (2) A local school district contract for the provision of a special education program or service shall specifically provide for: (a) Special eduatioo buildings. equith and personnel necessary for the operation of the subject program or service. (b) Transportation or room and board. or both. for persons par- ticipatingiatheprogamsorservicesasrequired undersedioosBOl and ”la. (c) The contribution to be made by the sending local school district if the program or service is to be operated by another party to the con. tract. The contribution shall be in accordance with rules promulgated by the state hoard. This section shall be construed to allow operation of programs by departments of state government without local school district concibution. (d) Any other matters which the parties deem appropriate. ( 3) All programs and services operated or contracted for by a local district shall be in accordance with the intermediate school district's plan. established pursuant to section 298C. (4) A local district may provide additional special eduation pro- m and services not included in or required by the intermediate district Sec. 7723. Special education personnel shall meet the qualifications and requirements set forth in rules promulgated by the state board of edumtion. 32l Sec.773a. Weligibility otspccificpenooafarpeu’aledu- “madmandformdipmtiwlumwmice. ”Mme-Wgtheplacanentofpersomintheplogams or aunties. size of dance. size of programs. quandty and quality of equip- mwppliaudhasflngadequacydmethodsofinsmictionand admdadaooldanhallbehmdancewithmlespro- bythestamboud tivetospeclaledutionproymand Seem Almllshooldistrictofanydanorkindlhallhogov- emdbyaectionswl.mla,771aandallotherrectmofthlsadneces- mytofullydiectmuthepurposesoithosem.nothwidutandingdie mdm21.51.101.141.137.23.351.375uduym Wdhwwhichareinconsistentwiththoaema’whflmld mindéeetthepurpmesthereof. Sealant matamamammmmammmmm 753.771.772.77177t775eo7aototAaNoflotduPubucActsot lauamddathmgmuolefimwmw.m to 340m. 340.587; 340.618 to 340.6”, 240.74? to 30.753, 840.771. mmmmMfllandMflStoMMdtheCanpfl-dhm dim-remind. 'Seuim3. “Wumfluhfiectjulyle xm/ - -10 “lithe!” BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PRIMARY SOURCES 322 Decree Law No. lD49/l938, "About the Revision and Supplementation of Law No. 453/1937." Kingdom of Greece, National Ministry of Education and Religion. Athens: Government Printing House, 1938. Decree Law No. 1904/195l, "About Protection and Restitution of the Blind." Kingdom of Greece, National Ministry of Education and Religion. Athens: Government Printing House, 1951. Decree Law No. 3635/1956, "About Recognition of Private Elementary Schools for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students as Equal to the Public Ones and About Their Programs and Curriculums and About Government Assistance of Such." Kingdom of Greece, National Ministry of Education and Religion. Athens: Government Printing House, 1956. Decree Law No. 4466/1965, "About Recognition of the Model Special Educational Institution Operated Private High School for the Hard of Hearing and Deaf Children as Equal to the Public High Schools." Kingdom of Greece, National Ministry of Education and Religion. Athens: Government Printing House, 1965. Decree Law No. 748/1970, "The Further Training of Secondary Teachers and the Reorganization of the College for the In-Service Training of Secondary Teachers (C.I.T.S.T. ." Kingdom of Greece, National Ministry of Education and Religion. Athens: Government Printing House, l97D. Decree Law No. 842/l97l, “0n the Reorganization of the Pedagogical Academies." Kingdom of Greece, National Ministry of Educa- tion and Religion. Athens: Government Printing House, 197T. Emergency Law No. 453/1937, "About the Creation of a School for the Abnormal and Disadvantaged Children." Kingdom of Greece, National Ministry of Education and Religion. Athens: Government Printing House, l937. Michigan State Department of Education. Guidelines for Special Education Programs and Services in MiChigan. Lansing, Michigan: l973. Michigan State Department of Education. State Plan for the Delivery_ of Special Education Programs and SerVices. Lansing, Michi- gan: February 1971. 323 324 Publication No. lO, Education in Greece. Kingdom of Greece, Ministry of National Education and Religion. Athens: National Print- ing Office, l973. Sgouris, Katherine P. "It's Not the Method--It's the Technique that Makes the Difference." The Volta Review 69 (December l967): 668-669. State of Michigan, Public Act l98 of l97l, "The Mandatory Special Education Act of Michigan." Lansing, Michigan. VISITS 325 Visits during the months of June and July 1975 included the following: The Ministry of National Education and Religion. Athens. The Maraslion Secondary School for Girls and Teacher Training Academy. Athens. The Maraslion Primary School, co-educational, and Teacher Training Academy. Athens. The Maraslion Secondary School P.T.A. meeting. Athens. The Varvarkion Secondary School for Exceptionally Gifted Boys. Athens. The School for the Blind. Athens. The School for the Deaf. Athens. The Maraslion Primary School Program for the Mentally Retarded. Athens. The Secondary Teachers' Organization, OLME. Athens. The Hippocratou Hospital. Athens. The Educational and Vocational Guidance Service. Athens. 326 INTERV I ENS 327 Mr. Constantine Charis, Director of Programs, Studies and Curriculum, Ministry of National Education and Religion. Athens. Mr. Thanos, General Curriculum, Ministry of National Education and Religion. Athens. Mr. Joseph, Programs and Studies, Ministry of National Education and Religion. Athens. Mr. Barelis, Special Education Programs, Ministry of National Education and Religion. Athens. Mr. Christakis, Special Education Mentally Retarded Programs and Teaching Methods, Ministry of National Education and Religion. Athens. Mr. Tsakris, Superintendent, Maraslion Primary and Secondary Schools, Teacher Training Academy. Athens. Mrs. Papaiouanou, Principal, Maraslion Secondary School for Girls. Athens. Mrs. Polaki, Assistant Principal, Maraslhwi~ Secondary School for Girls. Athens. Mrs. Marias, Teacher, Maraslion Secondary School for Girls. Athens. Mrs. Pikaki, Principal-Teacher, Maraslion Primary School, co- educational. Athens. Mr. Zoulios, Principal, Varvarkion Secondary School for Exceptionally Gifted Boys. Athens. Mrs. Helmes, Principal, School for the Blind. Athens. Miss Aphro dite, Primary Teacher, School for the Blind. Athens. Mr. Vasalos, Principal, School for the Deaf. Athens. Miss Tambakopoulou, Primary Teacher, School for the Deaf. Athens. Mr. Christakis, Teacher of the Mentally Retarded, Marasl Program for the Mentally Retarded and a Member of the Ministry of National Education and Religion. Athens. Mr. Michaiel, President, Secondary Teachers' Organization, OLME. Athens. 328 329 Mr. Georgios, Vice-President, Secondary Teachers' Organization, OLME. Athens. Mr. Gkoletsos, Secretary, Secondary Teachers' Organization, OLME. Athens. Dr. Panragopoulou, Otol'ar'yngologist, M.D., President of the School for the Deaf, Hippocratou Hospital. Athens. 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