THE EFFECT OF FIDELITY 0F SIMULATION 0N COUNSELOR TRAINING Thesis for the Degree of Ph. D. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY GERALD LEE STONE 1 97 2. This is to certify that the thesis entitled THE EFFECT OF FIDELITY 0F SIMULATION 0N COUNSELOR TRAINING presented by Gerald Lee Stone has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph . D. Jeme in Education [Mg (m Date June 14, 1972 0-7639 M'Y“ "fiat“ >- D $.. ‘. “L .1213 EX? 1' ' .. . ":P" . a ‘.." sihcsb} 1' practice? .lu‘ys mOdel' Y: ‘ u rt) “any level of S- =;:.‘la:ion? And (4 .~-:..Lce, and test ~. sedation tha“ :t " .. unssimlar fide' To seek an ,A ‘IA .Mng program w nuaauc compari Its-“'5 ~ ‘ « UaEd in t6. 111:? .eteness (CTR: ABSTRACT THE EFFECT OF FIDELITY OF SIMULATION ON COUNSELOR TRAINING BY Gerald Lee Stone This experiment examined the effects of fidelity of simulation in counselor training. In order to assess the effects of the use of simulation methods in counselor education, the following questions were formulated: (1) Are high fidelity models more effective than low fidelity models? (2) Is high fidelity practice better than low fidelity practice? (3) Is an instructional strategy that includes model, practice, and test more effective at a high fidelity level of simulation than at a low fidelity level of simulation? And (4) is such a strategy better when model, practice, and test are presented at the same fidelity level of simulation than when the three components are presented at dissimilar fidelity levels of simulation? To seek answers for these questions, a counselor training program was developed with the intent of making systematic comparisons of outcomes between simulation methods used in teaching a basic skill in counseling called concreteness (CTRL). . 1. . nun i.‘ A“ x a .4 n :u-‘I.:»&U.LSO Ame» " 1'; .‘ “b 05:“ o‘ce-lL-E. SAT (1) manual, ' medal treatment: " we I“ “' - “reaction wit Meal. In order rem ' ~rent did not (3 Manly an indivi 13:. . - u During the I Gerald Lee Stone The simulation methods used within each phase of the study were categorized according to fidelity of simulation, idea., how closely they approximated the actual situation. Manual and audio methods were considered to be low fidelity simulations. Video and in viva methods were considered to be high fidelity simulations. The training procedure con- sisted of three phases: model, practice, and test. The basic design of the study was an experimental "post-test only" design suggested by Campbell and Stanley (1963). Subjects were randomly assigned within each phase of the training procedure. In the modeling phase, subjects were randomly assigned to one of four simulation methods. The four simulation methods used during the modeling phase were: (1) manual, (2) audio, (3) video, and (4) in viva. The model treatments were administered in a group setting. The interaction within each model treatment group was minimal. In order to maintain independence, the model treatment did not depend upon group interaction but was primarily an individual administration within a group set- ting. During the practice phase the subjects within each of the four modeling simulations were randomly assigned to one of two simulation methods. The two simulations methods were: (1) manual and (2) in viva. The practice treatments were administered either in manual or in viva form permit- ting individual administration of the practice treatments. £133.: each of tie e. a ' ..‘ ‘ A. ~ 522.5233, Susie; -. 1 , ' ~ A -- ~~~ ayq ." I” or- . “mad L‘CKI use 3...- (I! ._ 33.3.5130. HEIROCS '5' e--. 5 4 c - ‘AWV “3"”. 0-“ F ' v .V.M4 ~v“.-‘bb-o s ((1 0y. . _-.IA“ m‘fi «~1- vtsu~.?;.‘.s. ‘.Je 534 1 .‘.:~. 5,; +‘h $\1f:~0 ...- _---..?t v. sue Sh—HH“ ye -::.” at ac..inlstra‘. ‘If G“ ; 1 n... ~d 0. tne 0:13; v ' V .ne suz‘ects -:;.‘:’ “ar‘d‘cates l“ .4» “ea-dent \Yarla aerate sixteen-c T he criteri (t Ilaélity c ‘.F l.. 0f thl (Jan tly rated P3339 Gerald Lee Stone Witlflua each of the eight combinations of model and practice sinuLLations, subjects were then randomly assigned to one of tan: simulation methods used during the test phase. The two simulation methods were: (1) manual and (2) in viva. The ‘best treatments were administered either in manual or in viva form permitting individual administration of the test treatments. The same content was administered during each phase of the study to all subjects. Ten weeks following the treatment administration, a long-term measure was conducted with 48 of the original 74 subjects. The subjects for the present study were master degree candidates in counseling at Michigan State University. The treatment variables of model, practice, and test were completely crossed. The subjects were equally distributed within the sixteen-cell design having equal cell frequencies. The criterion measures used in this study were formulated to examine the separate and combined effects of the fidelity of simulation in model, practice, and test. The short-term meaSure was obtained by asking each subject to place himself in the counselor role within the goal- setting stage and to respond to twenty standardized client problems. The same client problems were presented to sub- jects of all of the treatment groups. The responses were subsequently rated by two independent judges on whether the responses were a CTRL or a non-CTRL. Reliability estimates for the ratings were .87 and .85 (manual) and .66 and .60 ...:;.uv~es) . Tie . fl '.‘I.V U“! 0-..: m the r1322: e I Q. -. v-..“ n d Q 1 ‘ ‘ - v-vnqn v A‘: A~ :.;uuvun-1 sage» fit“ '1‘:': wen A . ‘ F- ..... . .sea on t..: serrate for the I It. was t - ' v— LA \ s. ‘ Q ‘V:A.J a. ."“'~M-ey and ta 5 . ' ". 9v ‘ ‘ ‘ Aw n ‘ “4.. .g“ VI ’1 :le "" ~u.\ 1131 Raul d M. .- 4- Suede: Tin". In “"1 193915 O f I. 5-" ‘ ‘ruR-‘E'Sized t‘ Fa ha A‘c‘ F test at a hi: h ~-Ie c": RLS on th' "7;: Oil *h S Q Who rece . «klcally . ‘fl.“ ' : "F“sbg \ 9 “ m0 ::CI;'.\S 1" wet e .. PI “ks A . fig ‘ ‘7‘“ Q Gerald Lee Stone (audiotapes). The long-term measure was obtained by counting the number of CTRLs made by the subjects during a randomly selected five minute excerpt from the last half of their first counseling interview during practicum. The ratings of the long-term measure were done by one of the raters used on the short-term measure. The reliability estimate for the ratings on the long-term measure was .59. It was hypothesized that subjects who received model, practice, and test at the same level of fidelity of simula- tion would make more CTRLs during the short-term measure than would subjects who received the same components at varying levels of fidelity of simulation. It was also hypothesized that the subjects who received model, practice, and test at a high fidelity level of simulation would make more CTRLs on the short- and long-term measures than would subjects who received the same components at a low fidelity level of simulation. It was hypothesized that subjects who received the high fidelity model procedure would make more CTRLs on the short- and long-term measures than would sub- jects who received the low fidelity model procedure. More specifically, in regard to the hypothesized effects con- cerning the model treatments, the four model simulation groups were predicted to order themselves in terms of making CTRLs during the short- and long-term measures as follows (from high to low): In Viva > Video > Audio > Manual. It was also hypothesized that the subjects who received the high a ' l I " ' b: .v'u “F n \_ ”:9555) {sabsace .F‘ I O ’ " “ "N- v 5.2.- a..d long .e. ‘ .'.. ‘ e‘ l . '. I826..63 £6 C'n T. u: 'Iu-VL ‘- v4 v ~ - :..\I “name. Os ue. ‘. ..:...,;.. 1 ....a..:.e 323 "'5 15 . "H v 6 F c you nae. \- 39.9..17.‘3 Alfie Index of 3:5 L) . ‘H"yu .. \. “F ‘F E; l or. tue SF: “tenet lens er a. “Va - natty el and te ::e 'u. r , luLe‘ acthr‘S Gerald Lee Stone fidelity practice procedure would make more CTRLs on the short— and long—term measures than would subjects who received the low fidelity practice procedure. All first and higher order interactions were also investigated. The data were analyzed using a multivariate and univariate analysis of variance and planned contrasts. In order to determine the linear relationship between the score on the Index of Discrimination (Carkhuff, 1969a) (a possible covariate) with the dependent variable in this study (CTRLs), an analysis of covariance was used. The correlation between the covariate and the short~term measure was low (r = .04) indicating that the continued use of this particular subject variable would not be helpful in reducing the posttreatment variance. On the short—term measure significant (d = .05) interactions among the treatment variables of model, practice, and test were found. For all practical purposes, the interactions were ordinal. A statistically significant (a = .05) effect was found due to presenting model, practice. and test at a high fidelity level of simulation. Separate significant (a = .05) effects were found for high fidelity model and high fidelity practice. The differences seem to hold primarily for a particular combination of fidelity of simulation and model, practice, and test. The Low Fidelity Model--Low Fidelity Practice——Low Fidelity Test "31:2;5 I1 and 2"T3t 3:02:35 wao per Fund ny- L“ ‘.Ft - dint- x r-aCL-Ce $.‘I ascramal ylexlmc 'Ihnyqn5.‘ C .- ....:.:. .-3:". C”. ”3" LI.\A.. a; ..'.:, ': .... ._... e:.ects were “ a. Gerald Lee Stone Groups (1 and 2--Table 4) were low in comparison with all other groups who performed about equally. During the long-term measure, a significant (a==.05) model x practice interaction was found. The interaction was disordinal yielding contradictory results eSpecially the interaction of manual model simulation and practice. All other effects were non-significant (a==.05). F5; :11 01) 1 I . x 1“ Patna Dena e runeht THE EFFECT OF FIDELITY OF SIMULATION ON COUNSELOR TRAINING BY Gerald Lee Stone A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Counseling, Personnel Services and Educational Psychology 1972 Ta CHERYL, Corbin, Carrie, and family H“ v- ‘9 «r 0 . r33 “II.C. "' Ipuygh~:+;fl‘q *l“ ‘3-‘2 :-~.:v$u\.LVA LU 5’ ‘v 9 .. . C 4. 3"“ ~ IV ..'\'e lr‘otere ‘ .J .5..l fif‘fi‘r‘ k... ..~.:-.u ‘qu‘ LV‘I b- ,- : L‘n .- . 5 “A %I\ O- ; " IO. 5.135 1L hitCuc L - m "' ‘ I I Y ‘ $0 3. o b~-&-¢ 3:70;}; a 'n I. a: ‘ .....u a: .93 ...C..;:I #~-~~“ «v- I R ‘ h ‘. . A sv- ‘ v- ““ Wweo-Au¢G;e~A I: o a. . . .“IAA‘ ‘ .L:\~ ‘FIC bub-“‘ . d A . 4C7: n..- se.ved as t1“? “Dirtul at. , .0 Drs. lie: :deQ G. JOhnscn' at. 2' ...errher , .‘rtunities f r ' .Mu ' L {F -...’e lIItEIESt 1“ To my f l' generous u ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to recognize and to express his appreciation to the following individuals: To Dr. William C. Hinds, committee chairman and major advisor throughout my graduate study, who exhibited an active interest in this research project, making many helpful contributions, and yet allowing me to experience all that it meant for this to be "my study." To Dr. William W. Farquhar, committee member, who served as the model counselor for the video model simulation and stimulated an interest in experimental research in counseling. To Andrew C. Porter, committee member, who offered expertise in design and statistics. His emphasis upon meaningful research will not be forgotten. To Dr. Dozier W. Thornton, committee member, who ably served as the representative from the Psychology Department. To Drs. Herbert M. Burks, Jr., James R. Engelkes, Richard G. Johnson, Norman R. Stewart, and Bob B. Winborn, faculty members, who gave valuable instruction, provided opportunities for professional growth, and assumed an active interest in my training program. To my fellow colleagues, who served in this study and generously gave of their time, energy and most importantly of themselves. Finally, to Cheryl, my wife, who managed to bring sanity and humor to her husband during those periods of anguish and anxiety. iii “F!“ vhn a s in “LO Q'.‘ n H’Rf~n a 0.35 C: I‘U\t:l£ .29.! I. RA‘TAV"? ‘ ‘L'JL\.~.“~ .- “‘~* 5 “be ‘ P“rC.C.Se . VF P 39.3189: C: Y . .- uCa’ :- in . F I f 0' ‘ 1w». I‘H.. J in it n K—OTTI S; ‘ m i] LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURE Chapter I. RATION TABLE OF CONTENTS S O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O ALE O I O O O O O C O O O I O O O 0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Revi ew of the Literature . . . . . . . Low Fidelity Simulation Methods in Counselor Training . . . . . . The use of manual simulation . The use of audio simulation . . High Fidelity Simulation Methods in Counselor Training . . . . . . The use of video simulation . . The use of in viva simulation . Comparative Effectiveness of Simulation Methods in Counselor - Training . . . . . . . . .,. . . Counselor Tacting Response Lead (CTRL)--Concreteness . . . . . . Fidelity of Simulation in Model Presentation . . . . . . . . . . Fidelity of Simulation in Practice Generalization and Transfer . . . . Additional Variables in Transfer Training . . . . . . . . . . . . sumary O O O O O O O I O O O O O O O 0 II. METHOD OLOGY O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O overView O O O C O O O O I O O O I O O smple O O O I O I O O O O O O O O O O Subj Role Sample Characte istics . . . . . . Subject Assignment . . . . . . . . ect Variable . . . . . . . . . . . Players . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv Page viii coqox 10 14 15 18 24 26 28 29 31 33 33 36 36 37 41 42 . 'z'rar s...u. by. . Facil;:;e- APParatus Measures I“ D. '- 'C’ 'S C) () (D L" :1 (J '1 '9 I ' (J: (J 1- O 1 (J "v.- :1 '..l. (f '1 {r4 r1 ‘. .lc“e‘ 7‘ S'Qn~ :4»\_,‘ N r“; “x V. v A La» 7‘ s“ I Chapter III. Selection Rationale . . . . . . . Characteristics of Role Players . Training . . . . . . . . . . . . Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Model Presentation . . . . . . . Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . Short-Term Measure . . . . . . . Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Short-Term Measure . . . . . . . Long- Term Measure . . . . . . . Procedures . . . . . . . . Obtaining and Scheduling Subjects Treatment Procedures . . . . . . . . Initial Procedure . . . . . . . . Model Presentation . . . . . . . Specific Procedures for Model Presentation . . . . . . In viva . . . . . . . . Video . . . . . . . . . Audio . . . . . . . . . Manual . . . . . . . . . . . Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . Short-Term Measure . . . . . . . Long-Term Measure . . . . . . . . Feedback . . . . . . . . Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . Experimental Design . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Data . . . . . . RESULTS 0 O O O O C O O O O O O O O O O Covariate Effect . . . . . . . . . . Short-Term Measure . . . . . . . Results of the Tests for Hypotheses l- 2 . . . . . . . . Results of the Tests for Hypotheses 3-5 . . . . . . . . Interaction Effect Hypothesis 1 Hypothesis 2 Hypothesis 3 Hypothesis 4 Hypothesis 5 . . . Long-Term Measure . . . . . . . . . Hypothesis 1 . . . . . . . . Results of the Tests for Hypothesis 2 . . . . . . . . . O O O O o O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O I O Page 42 43 43 44 44 46 48 50 51 51 51 54 58 58 59 59 6O 61 61 61 62 63 63 64 65 66 66 68 68 71 71 72 73 76 79 84 85 86 87 88 9O 91 91 v’fl. n ";L Us 13"“- ‘.hfifi II ‘ "Hm L V ‘Vub In G: 33L1x‘ Caesars; PRACTIC TEST FE INSTR‘; ADDIT] RATIX- 2‘35 :3 Q Chapter IV. Results of the Tests for Hypotheses 3-5 . . . . . . . . . Interaction Effect . . . . . . . . Status of the Research Hypotheses . . . DISCUSSION 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Limitations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions and Implications . . . . . Subject Variable . . . . . . . . . Dependent Variable . . . . . . . . Treatment Effects . . . . . . . . . Short-term measure . . . . . . Long-term measure . . . . . . . LIST OF REFEMNCES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O . APPENDICES A. SYSTEMATIC COUNSELING: A GENERAL INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. GUIDELINES FOR EMPATHY TRAINING . . . . . C. CARKHUFF INDEX OF DISCRIMINATION . . . . D. INSTRUCTIONS FOR ROLE PLAYERS--PRACTICE . E. INSTRUCTIONAL MANUAL-~MODEL PRESENTATION F. PRACTICE FRAMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . G. TEST FRAMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H. INSTRUCTIONS FOR RATERS . . . . . . . . . I. ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR RATERS . . . J. RATING FORM FOR THE SHORT-TERM MEASURE . K. INSTRUCTIONS FOR PRACTICUM SUPERVISORS . L. RATING FORM FOR THE LONG-TERM MEASURE . . M. ANNOUNCEMENT TO CLASS . . . . . . . . . . vi Page 92 93 95 97 97 102 107 107 109 111 112 117 120 128 134 137 147 149 157 162 169 170 171 172 173 174 ‘::>‘ :S ..:.. ‘I::C '\" SOV‘ {is .0 \‘L C) I\ """' “Mfr“ ° worn/L‘lv.\_ F F T Y' mvr‘ . Ava I§\S‘R_ ‘ A‘v.\.. APPENDICES N. ROOM ASSIGNMENT SHEETS O. INSTRUCTIONS FOR ASSISTANTS P. INSTRUCTIONS FOR LECTURER Q. INSTRUCTIONS FOR ROLE PLAYERS--MODEL PRESENTATION vii Page 175 177 180 181 UV 0 C71 I “ ‘ .F‘h s‘ “"Wer of I *1 “'1” V” by..3-ie-.u In t d Hoyt R 1; Cf 1285;07 Measure 6: . S Q 3614‘: Re 1 i a OERESPORS Measure Cell Meéns MOdel v Pr; WSIShted Flfielity ksighted. Fifi Area +h| Line :1 t SHOrt_TE Me ans c LC] (SQQrt‘TE Mea 10. 11. 12. LIST OF TABLES Page Number of Subjects Included in the Short- and Long-Term Measure 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o 39 Hoyt Reliability Coefficients for Ratings of Responses Made During the Short-Term Measure 0 O O O O O O O O O I I O O O I I O O 54 Hoyt Reliability Coefficient for Ratings of Responses Made During the Long-Term Measure 0 O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O O 57 Cell Means for the Frequency of CTRLs by Model, Practice, and Test (Short-Term Measure) I O I O O O O O O O O I O I O O O O O 72 Weighted Means for Similar and Dissimilar Fidelity Treatment Contrasts (Short-Term Measure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Weighted Means for Low and High Fidelity Treatment Contrasts (Short-Term Measure) . . . 75 Summary of the Analysis of Variance (Short-Term Measure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Means for Low and High Fidelity Model Groups (Short-Term Measure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Means for Manual, Audio, Video and In Viva Model Groups (Short-Term Measure) . . . . . . 78 Means for Low and High Fidelity Practice Groups (Short-Term Measure) . . . . . . . . . 78 Means for Fidelity of Model x Test Interaction (Short-Term Measure) . . . . . . . 79 Means for Practice x Test Interaction (Short-Term Measure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 viii h‘loq Means for F; Test Intera: Measure) Weigh tEd Me 3. Treatment Cc S'rnary of t (Long‘Term 5’.- Means for M: (Long-rem 3.3. TABLE Page 13. Means for Fidelity of Model x Practice x Test Interaction (Short-Term Measure) . . . . 84 14. Cell Means for the Frequency of CTRLs by Model, Practice, and Test (Long-Term Measure) 0 O O O O O I O O O O O O C O I O O O 90 15. Weighted Means for Low and High Fidelity Treatment Contrasts (Long-Term Measure) . . . 92 16. Summary of the Analysis of Variance (Long-Term Measure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 17. Means for Model x Practice Interaction (Long-Term Measure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 ix ’V Sabject A Pictcrial Design Graph of Fidelity Measure) Graph of Practice Graph of Model and n 5:- vs "I l'- the th» P: LIST OF FIGURES Subject Assignment Procedures . . . . . Pictorial Representation of Experimental Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Graph of the Interaction Effect Between Fidelity of Model and Test (Short-Term Measure) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Graph of the Interaction Effect Between Practice and Test (Short-Term Measure) Graph of the Interaction Effect Between Model and Practice (Long-Term Measure) Page 38 69 80 82 94 \ fl -mWO'Lt ' ljr .q' '- ‘ ‘- .‘:4I"o WiltE‘t " a? 3 novice =2e:.atic stuc .as been carrl alts p-epari"< iii vocational :1: lCdl psych: CHAPTER I RATIONALE Introduction Teaching beginning counselors how to counsel is one of the most challenging issues facing counselor education (Krumboltz, 1967; Matarazzo, Wiens, & Saslow, 1966; Wrenn, 1962). Whiteley (1969), in a review of counselor education literature, has singled out the educational process of training novice counselors as being in particular need of systematic study. Instruction in basic counseling skills has been carried out in educational institutions with stu- dents preparing for many professions including educational and vocational counseling, medicine, nursing, psychiatry, clinical psychology, the ministry, and sub-professional helping roles. In this study, the focus of concern will be on those students preparing primarily for the counseling profession, including those who plan to work as counselors in school and college settings, rehabilitation agencies, and crisis centers. Unfortunately counselor education has often been a hit-or-miss affair with intuition or personal conviction being stressed without due consideration for the need of avatezatlc 1:1? :a:r-.mg .135 r. ‘ 5’ ‘- fl: ”1‘— '“e “8 UL Al‘.. Thrcug va‘...‘ u,“ “ l .:.&:u I; '1 l ‘L “1e systematic investigation. Many would agree that counselor training has not generally been efficient or economical in the use of human resources (Ivey, 1971; Whiteley, 1969). Throughout the years counselor educators have relied with little empirical evidence on a variety of teaching methods. Lectures, demonstrations, role-playing, readings, case studies, group counseling, and audiotapes have been the most commonly used approaches to counselor training. Recently the systematic use of simulation methods has also been advocated in counselor training (Delaney, 1969), but little empirical evidence has been offered in support of the comparative effectiveness of these methods. The current state of training procedures not only exists in counseling but also in the field of psychotherapy as described by Matarazzo, Wiens, and Saslow (1966) who concluded the following: From the studies cited and from our review of the literature, we have concluded that there is essentially no published research regarding the teaching of psychotherapy, the supervisory process, how learning of effective psychotherapy takes place, and how to teach psychotherapy efficiently. Many reports of training programs are available and it is evident that many psy- chotherapists talk about teaching, but few report systematic innovations, comparison of methods, and/or student skill before and after a course of instruction (p. 608). Most recently, Whiteley (1969), after reviewing much of the counselor education literature, reached a similar conclusion. n .L 99‘ L 32159131? pqnn VF 1 FR it’s-v .Atfioo: . . uv‘»..-o.-4 ‘.s J ":5: WQrks '~ tile 11" usL_ \p.‘ “Paratiw J‘ CCunSe l< all... I ‘59. § ‘Qse . ‘ The present study was based upon the contention that counselor education has neglected systematic investigation concerning the nature and comparative effectiveness of its teaching methods. Recent studies in counselor education have been based upon personal conviction and research strat- egies (i.e., treatment no-treatment model) which perpetuate distinctions between training programs by maximizing the occurrence of "positive" outcomes (Blocher, 1967; Edwards & Cronback, 1952; Frank, 1959; Krumboltz, 1967; Paul, 1967; Sprinthall, 1967; Thoresen, 1969). These studies completely neglect the question of comparative effectivenss or, as some call it, the "challenge of accountability" (Horan, l972)-- what works, with whom, and under what conditions. In light of the limited resources available for training counselors, comparative studies are needed which focus upon the methods of counselor training in order to justify their use and expense. Specifically needed is the development of a counselor training program which can provide a framework in which a comparative study can be undertaken to determine which methods of counselor training are most effective in teaching which basic skills to what type of trainee. Recently an instructional strategy based upon social learning principles and used in some counselor training pro- grams (Ivey, 1971) appears to hold promise. This strategy as used in counselor training requires the operational defi- nition of a skill considered basic in counseling. Some of :ebasic counseliz. taught in counselor :rstructicnal stra: Szmngton, Miller, feelmg (Ivey e: .2 Leais (C115) (Else Leaf (CTRL) was the Once the s}: Proz'zaes learners w. filewed by Opportm learners attempt to feeihack concerning :ty is provided W 36591, practice . an 5315 Strat . egy - The L Sent compara the basic counseling skills that have been defined and taught in counselor training programs using this particular instructional strategy include attending behavior (Ivey, Normington, Miller, Morrill & Haase, 1968), reflection of feeling (Ivey et al., 1968), and Counselor Tacting Response Leads (CTRLs) (Eisenberg, 1969). Counselor Tacting Response Lead (CTRL) was the specific skill focused upon in this study. Once the skill has been specified this strategy provides learners with a model of the counseling skill followed by opportunities for practice. During practice the learners attempt to match the modeled performance and receive feedback concerning their performance. Finally, an opportu- nity is provided to measure the effects of the program. Model, practice, and test are the important components of this strategy. These components provided the framework for the present comparative study. PUI‘EOSG The present study was undertaken in an attempt to compare simulation methods in counselor training. Simula- tion, by definition, means assuming the appearance of without really being and can be best understood in terms of a continuum called "fidelity" (Bandura, 1969). Fidelity used as a critical dimension in this comparative study was conceptualized as an index of the similarity between training and the actual counseling situation. Thus, a simulation of counseling may be of high fidelity, a "live" (in viva) demonstration simulating most of the elements of an actual counseling session or a simu- lation of some degree of fidelity where progressively less of the elements of the actual situation are included. A simulated situation may be made even more like the actual situation if the simulated condition is arranged so that the counselor's mode of response is similar to the way he would be performing in an actual counseling situation. This study was designed to test the proposition that simulation methods used in counselor training are differen- tially effective in increasing the use of Counselor Tacting Response Leads (CTRLs). More specifically, the objectives of this research study were: 1. to investigate the short- and long-term effective- ness of low and high fidelity simulation models; 2. to investigate the short- and long-term effective- ness of low and high fidelity practice of modeled performances; and, 3. to investigate the short- and long—term effective- ness of specific interactions of particular combinations of simulation methods with model, practice and test. 5‘ Iran? ..v‘ .1 ll"! 6 In t CE 5 ~~“ May‘ssed . . an" “R “.-"u 4 .. q. dost l L «D i . s » ... ~ \‘ '5 Effectiveness was evaluated by two outcome measures. The outcome criteria used in carrying out the comparisons during the short-term measure was the frequency of Counselor Tacting Response Leads (CTRLs) made in response to twenty standardized client statements. During the long-term measure, the outcome criteria used in carrying out the comparisons was the frequency of Counselor Tacting Response Leads (CTRLs) made during a randomly selected five minute excerpt from an actual counseling interview. Review of the Literature In this section, several simulation methods will be discussed in terms of their use in counselor training pro- grams. Most of the empirical evidence regarding their effectiveness will be critically reviewed. Next, the didactic purpose of the training program will be discussed. Finally, the components of the training program, including, model, practice, and test will be discussed in terms of social learning principles and relevant research. L23_Fidelity§imulation Methods in Counselor Training Manual and audio simulation methods are extensively used in counselor training programs. These simulation methods are considered to be low fidelity methods when they are compared to the actual counseling situation. Following are some examples and empirical evidence demon- strating their usefulness in counselor training. The use of manual simulation.--Written materials have been traditionally used in counselor education programs. These are usually eXperienced by the trainee in the form of textbooks, assigned readings, and instructional manuals. Usually, the purpose of written materials is supplementary to other learning experiences. These materials assist the trainee in defining the basic counseling skills and provide additional illustrations. Instructional manuals are used in this manner by most counselor training programs today. Ivey (1971) uses instructional manuals as a part of the microcounseling approach to counselor training, an approach which uses a manual to describe basic components of particular counseling skills, such as attending behavior and reflection and sum- marization of feeling which is integrated into an overall program using video modeling procedures and supervision. In the systems approach to counselor education advocated at Stanford and Michigan State Universities, instructional manuals are prepared for each component of the training program and are integrated into the overall instructional system (Horan, 1972). These manuals provide the trainee with the purpose, objectives, directions, tasks to be accomplished, and self-exercises with immediate feed- back for each specific learning experience. There does not appear to be much interest in researching the question of manual simulation in counselor training. A prob emulation is us: :1; act'vities 51 approach to CO‘dt‘. :oevaluate the L: counselor tr; 3’35 in counse :ot a central c 3‘“ frequentb 25911 the USE O ‘AJaw tilii 5511;: recording of t :38538 of re_ ‘ ) tnod the an; 3:16 ‘nt‘counsei Mth ‘ aiEu‘ :13. u methOds . ”Odel :‘ESEn training. A problem with this research is that manual simulation is usually embedded in a network of other train- ing activities such as in the microcounseling and systems approach to counselor training. This makes it difficult to evaluate the specific contribution of manual simulation in counselor training. There are some empirical studies dealing with the comparative effectiveness of different types of programmed texts in counselor training (Scherman, 1972), but this is not a central concern in this study. The use of audio simulation.--Traditiona11y, the most frequently used approach to counselor supervision has been the use of audiotapes. In the traditional supervisory model, the supervisor and supervisee use an audiotape recording of the trainees' actual counseling behaviors as a means of re-creating the counseling session. Through this method the audiotape serves as a vehicle for improving client-counselor interaction and instruction. Much of the research reported on the use of audio simulation methods has been of the treatment no-treatment model. Therefore, statements concerning their comparative effectiveness in regard to other methods await investigation. Following are some examples of the research on audio simula- tion methods. Models of desirable therapeutic behavior have been presented to trainees via audiotape recordings (Carkhuff & fruax, 1965; Paine Patterson, 1963). :t-ieling condi io: iasired direction Beaird an sherience to tra orgaitive and aff apermen ta 1 C “ 01 exgerience) inorc greater rate tha' :...;o simulation ‘ .s of these r. 'a‘as e‘ 5 ~ *3: rective in Truax, 1965; Palmer, Fosmire, Breger, Straughan, & Patterson, 1963). Trainees eXposed to the audio-recorded modeling conditions evidenced behavior changes in the desired direction. Beaird and Standish (1964) used an audio-simulated experience to train counselors to discriminate between cognitive and affective client responses and to use coun- selor reSponse leads to facilitate more affective client responses. The data indicated that the performance of the experimental group (those who received audio simulation experience) improved over time and at a significantly greater rate than the control group (those not receiving audio simulation training). The authors claimed on the basis of these results that the audio simulation procedure was effective in training a particular class of counselor response leads. High Fidelity Methods in Counselor Training Video and in viva simulation methods in counselor training have recently been advocated in the literature (Ivey, 1971). These simulations are considered to be high fidelity methods because of their similarity to the actual counseling situation. In this section, the use of high. fidelity simulation methods and the supportive empirical evidence are reviewed. . .. ”a ...v es 1 . I AaAfl“ 7 (pa 7 Ito-V‘I'u‘- of '1’? “2"Cr“ uoOV " I or IE». ‘Qi‘t "i - Ell ”Bits :-~ 9 llQa a~-~ _ . r.” 10 The use of video simulation.--In recent years counselor training programs have been using videotaping procedures with ever greater frequency and in an increasing variety of ways (Delaney, 1969; Eisenberg & Delaney, 1970; Ivey et al., 1968; Kagan, Krathwohl et aZ., 1967; Miller Morrill, & Uhlemann, 1970; Poling, 1968a, 1968b; Ryan, 1969). Perhaps the most frequent application is to utilize video simulation in practicum supervision (Poling, 1968a, 1968b; Ryan, 1969) where a counselor with either an actual or role- played client is videotaped. Counselor-trainee and super- visor then critique the videotape in much the same way that audiotapes have traditionally been used for critiquing. Vidoetapes offer an opportunity to observe not only vocal events but non-vocal events, such as eye contact, body posture, position in seat (e.g., sitting forward or leaning back). Kagan, Krathwohl, and Miller (1963) and Kagan, Krathwohl et a1. (1967), have conducted a number of novel studies with videotape. They describe their particular application of video simulation as Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR). The basic IPR Process involves videotape recording a counseling session and then playing back the videotape so that client, counselor, or both can study their reactions and experiment with new behaviors. The particular approach to the replay of the videotape is the unique and fundamental part of the basic IPR procedure. When the counseling session is over and the videotape recording is ready to be p] a: 'interrogator' 1'32 room with the :esticns at ce r 51::e part of ti“. ragazor and cl tescne aware ofi In orde P3163;- w affect 3293.: ance, Se L13 were $310,”! :3 3E a pot 11 is ready to be played back, a second counselor labelled an "interrogator" by Kagan, Krathwohl et al. (1967), enters the room with the subject whose task it is to ask certain questions at certain points in the counseling process. Since part of their research was to investigate the client's feelings during the session, the interaction between inter- rogator and client was structured to enable the client to become aware of his behavior in relating to the counselor. In order to make the basic IPR methodology more potent, affect simulation was developed and incorporated (Kagan & Schauble, 1969). Affect simulation films were produced in which an actor or actress looks directly at the viewer and engages the viewer in intense rejection, pseudo- acceptance, seductiveness, guilt, or affection. Counselors who were shown portions of the videotape were then video- taped while observing the emotions of the actors. The authors believed that by applying their interrogation process after this experience, counselors would become more aware of how they react emotionally to such real life inter- personal eXperiences. The affect simulation procedure seems to be a potent tool in combination with the basic IPR methodologies (Schauble, 1970) or as a treatment by itself (Danish & Brodsky, 1970). Recently, a further attempt has been made to increase the effectivenes of the IPR process by the addition of another feedback mode (Kagan, 1971). Measures of ;‘.:;siologica1 a: seek to subjecrs izzerp- rsonal t the interesting ag-plication cf 5",“Y *9- :.-\:.ins a“d t |. 5. HyAAA " f. v"- :0‘1Ie . F ar :3: \ RAJ. . “‘239‘11“ ..g a: fi 35:9 and Del .'. video 1 RE 12 physiological activity are recorded, videotaped, and played back to subjects as one more basis for understanding his interpersonal behavior. For the purpose of this review, the interesting features of their project are the novel application of videotape procedures to counselor training programs and the plethora of data offered to support their procedure. Far more germaine to the interest of this study in terms of design are the investigations concerning the micro- counseling approach to counselor training by Ivey (1971) and the use of video simulation in counselor training by Eisen- berg and Delaney (1970). Microcounseling refers to a method of video instruction of counselors in the basic skills of counseling within a short period of time. Drawing on the concepts of microteaching (Allen, 1967) microcounseling uses a scaled down model of social interaction in which individ- uals talk to one another during 5 minute video-recorded sessions. The trainees are then presented with models and reading materials. After the modeling sequence, the train- ees practice the skill and receive feedback. Finally, another five minute segment is video-recorded in which the skill is demonstrated. The authors have developed micro- counseling training procedures for three different skills: attending behavior, reflection of feeling, and summarization of feeling. Recently there have been efforts to extend the microcounseling approach to the skill of test interpretation u"ler, Morrill. *m-orofessiona “bets in beha'l =-‘~'on (Higgins , .. . F. s:::;es, tne ...l< Iarkhuii‘ 3 (lg it instruct: c; 13563. and tk' ‘ 5“ ‘v «511011 or n I. l Rese- atation life 9reSe E1 a: ~,l ‘ .1 tlc‘eg S if 4- ‘ $1311. 2: s. “: “leul 7‘5 ‘ ‘\“‘~L) . “3‘s 13 (Miller, Morrill, &Uhlemann, 1970), in the training of para-professionals (Haase & DiMittia, 1970), and in training clients in behavioral skills that are useful in daily inter- action (Higgins, Ivey, &Uhlemann, 1970). In each of these studies, the microcounseling approach has demonstrated to be a viable approach in teaching behavioral skills to both counselors and clients. The microcounseling approach utilizes a behavioral skills model similar to the skills model underlying Carkhuff's (1969a, 1969b) systematic training procedures. An instructional strategy used in both the behavioral skills model and this study was to provide trainees with a demon- stration or model of the performance to be learned (model presentation) followed by opportunities for them to match the model and to receive feedback as to how closely they have approximated the desired performance (practice). In the present investigation, the instructional components of model presentation and practice were of central interest. Eisenberg and Delaney (1970) investigated the use of video simulation in training counselors. Using video simulation, the authors compared several procedures in terms of their effectiveness in facilitating the acquisition of a particular counseling skill--Counselor Tacting Response Lead (CTRL). These procedures included presentation of a model, systematic reinforcement, and a combination of both. Easier effects f ‘iziinos were that tare the greatest the lack of transf Eisenberg :fizterest becau. . , , 1 1 :crseling sxi “. The 1186: r~ \— y \ ipzroach to couns r~~ 5.: or to serve a Siistegerd. 1966 irathw oh v.11 & F arc 3??!cac‘n, the Q zeronstrates t1“. :2» uselors. Bandure a», «we On Obser. A: Emeline in 43%) in his "M‘ . ~‘itlc a1 Sourc 14 Transfer effects were also assessed. The most important findings were that model procedures were demonstrated to have the greatest effect on the trainees' use of CTRL and the lack of transfer effects. Eisenberg and Delaney's investigation (1970) was of interest because this study focused upon the same counseling skill. The use of in vivo simulation. Another traditional approach to counselor training is for the trainer or super- visor to serve as a model (Bonney & Gazda, 1966; Driekurs & Sonstegard, 1966; Fraleigh & Buchheimer, 1969; Kagan, Krathwohl & Farquhar, 1965; Ruble & Gray, 1968). In this approach, the counselor educator usually lectures about and demonstrates the skills of counseling to prospective counselors. Bandura (1969) in his extensive review of the liter- ature on observational learning points out the effectiveness of modeling in behavior change. Recently Carkhuff (1969a, 1969b) in his research on interpersonal skills and counselor effectiveness has focused on the counselor-trainer as a critical source in learning. Role-playing as a training experience has been recommended by Gysbers and Moore (1970), Panther (1971), and Schwebel (1952). In a role-playing situation, the trainee has an opportunity to practice behavior in safe settings and be reinforced for making appropriate responses. Itere is some evio‘ :sie in role-play: :sai-iiie situatio A good pcr iszusseo in the scatselors is due was reviewed action and inves 'r‘e f3resoing Ce £22065 indicate Lives-t igatEd On: :s-treatment a1: tens to Perpet S‘PN ' I y a!“ h. ‘rt‘r‘raches . T' igarati ve no 5 .3». _ S‘waraFlve E1 T:::llat10n 39* RN Only EELUV I train-1n Q mOdEl 15 There is some evidence (Mann & Mann, 1966) that responses made in role-playing situations will be repeated in similar real-life situations. A good portion of the problem in counselor education discussed in the Introduction on how we teach beginning counselors is due to the fact that most of the training methods reviewed above were based more upon personal con- viction and investment rather than on empirical evidence. The foregoing description of the research on simulation methods indicates that the bulk of contemporary studies investigated only one level of simulation. A treatment no-treatment approach yields very little information and tends to perpetuate "models" of counselor education without ever justifying their effectiveness vis a vis competing approaches. Therefore, a study based upon a multivariate comparative model is needed. Comparative Effectiveness of Simulation Methods in Counselor Training .47 Only a few studies on simulation methods in coun- selor training have been based upon a multivariate compara- tive model. Following are some examples. Carkhuff (1969a, 1969b) makes the contention that his systematic training on the scales of counselor effec- tiveness (e.g., Empathy) can be reliably done with audio as well as written stimulus sources. The contention lacks empirical data. Higgins, I aggro ches in tea: trial cormuni ca t: :satrent (media s:;srvision , p re N Vu J - inn Q z..- programeo t6 2:2:cme showed t: '_‘:'#u w.- (a) full :sxt; and (c) p: :5 tnat the lean: anetwcrk cf Ct: 1'“: attive invo ‘i‘lss it diffic “ each method. Eisenb. k . ..er V16 l6 Higgins, Ivey, and Uhlemann (1970) compared three approaches in teaching clients in dyads the skills of direct, mutual communication. The approaches were: (a) full treatment (media therapy) including: video models, in viva supervision, programmed text, and feedback; (b) video models and programmed text only; (c) programmed text only. The outcome showed the following ordering in terms of improve- ment: (a) full treatment; (b) video models and programmed text; and (c) programmed text. A problem with this research is that the levels of simulated environments are embedded in a network of other training activities, sometimes including the active involvement and guidance of supervisors. This makes it difficult to evaluate the specific contribution of each method. Eisenberg (1969) suggests that an important question is whether videotape when used as a training method is more effective than audiotape used in the same way. Poling (1968a) offers theoretical reasons to believe that videotape should be more effective than audiotape. In 1969, Eisenberg concluded that there was no relevant data to be found on this question. Since that time, a study by Yenawine and Arbuckle (1971) has addressed itself to this question. Their study compared and contrasted the effects of using audiotape and videotape recording techniques on counselor-trainee expe- riences within the counseling practicum. Data was gathered ;:;:arily through unique iorn cal‘ pre-experinental issig: problems . :2: the confoundi: :21: to interpret tie study render 3:2;osition betwe Itomselor's Log) variation not co: A recent fitter-(+- “r ~99 to ev 5 «ac; ‘ mu client ‘39 of “Perv; 1‘. H. \i‘e ' The re .r .q H l7 primarily through a structured questionnaire of a practicum critique form called a "Counselor's Log." The study was a pre-experimental investigation with a small sample and design problems. The fieldwork settings were not controlled and the confounding variable of supervision makes it diffi- cult to interpret the results. The sampling procedures of the study render impossible the assumption of equivalent composition between groups. The use of a questionnaire (Counselor's Log) was too non-specific and subject to variation not controlled by the design (e.g., response set). A recent study by Ward, Kagan, and Krathwohl (1972) attempted to evaluate the use of Interpersonal Process Recall (IPR) with videotape, as opposed to more traditional methods. The treatments included: (a) video-IPR; (b) audio- IPR; and (c) supervision using an audiotape of a regular counseling session. The results did not demonstrate the expected effectiveness of IPR or any one treatment procedure. Some of the problems discussed by the authors concerning the design of this study included: (a) problems in the use of a coached client; (b) low interrater reliability; (c) confound- ing of supervision and treatment; and (d) lack of specificity in the training. The results of these studies contribute very little in determining which simulation methods are most effective in teaching a particular counseling skill. As indicated above, evidence is either completely lacking, incomplete, n: arbiguous dilé research design starrents stati 2:22. method as srpgort. On th e :1: have are alreao‘y existir training until scnant empiric; eiucation has ‘rsiefined met}: .44. a. "#L '..-.ble outco Va: ‘fiu earch model 1‘. :- iESCh' ilpthn 1 Eras 18 or ambiguous due to the inappropriate and incomplete research design used. Thus we have numerous subjective statments stating the advantages of one particular simula- tion method as opposed to others with little empirical support. On the other hand, the comparative studies that we do have are so incomplete and ambiguous as to bolster already existing personal convictions concerning counselor training until they become implacable and immune to dis- sonant empirical findings. It appears that counselor education has not matured beyond the level of using an undefined method in teaching unspecified skills with unpre- dictable outcomes. There appears to be a need to adopt research models which seek to define techniques, circum- scribe their limits of applicability, and demonstrate their comparative effectiveness in those limited contexts. In order to adopt such research models, one of the first tasks is to define the dependent variable clearly enough so as to be able to measure the effectiveness of the various methods. It is time to turn to this task. Counselor Tacting Response Lead (CTRL)--Concreteness The didactic purpose of the program was similar to that used in the study of Eisenberg (1969). The following description is based upon his study. The purpose was to train counselors to use response leads which will evoke client verbal tacting responses. Skinner (1957) has defined Herbal tacting ':es;o:se in 91‘" g a oartiCular ‘ event (PP- 81' (l) . q "a F ' "V, H v..b.3l taCt is t" 1‘ . . croqect In ” Ct to\— O 3 actual enVlIO . .. .gvh‘ Mal respcr se 5 ::re operational cf whatever it i :ate. Verbal ta :sscriptions of ‘ . sore 'uu .Jiors . 19 a verbal tacting response as a verbal operant in which a "response in given form is evoked (or at least strengthened) by a particular object or event or property of an object or event" (pp. 81-82). A very important consequence of the verbal tact is that it directs attention toward an event or object in the environment. Tacts tie verbal responses to actual environmental props. Thus tacts may be considered verbal responses which: (1) describe abstract concepts in more operational or behavioral terms; or (2) give examples of whatever it is the individual is attempting to communi- cate. Verbal tacts may be descriptions of behavior or descriptions of environmental events associated with behaviors. Four classes of client verbal tacting responses may be delineated: (1) those which offer operational defini— tions to previous abstract referents (e.g., "When I said I can't concentrate, I meant that when I sit down to study I think about things other than what I should be studying"); (2) those which are physiological and behavioral descrip- tions of emotional experiences (e.g., "When I said I felt nervous, I meant that my hands shake, I stutter, and I feel butterflies in my stomach"); (3) those which tie generaliza- tions about events to specific stimulus events (e.g., "One time I felt especially left out was when the team leader chose someone else for the job and did not choose me"); (4) those which tie generalizations about events to a also felt left on: :all and did 2101 1} I l '(J arents went 0 L What Ski: tsrz, verbal tact scanselor educatz 'cancreteness" (“ isscribing abstr environmental CC of" # acts" and c The dime i- . . s Counseling a: 4“ A n a. sauce Of c. 20 variety of other specific stimulus conditions (e.g., "I also felt left out when my brother went out to play basket- ball and did not ask me to come with him, and the time when my parents went out for dinner and did not invite me"). What Skinner defines by the somewhat cumbersome term, verbal tacting reSponse, is very similar to what other counselor educators and psychotherapists mean by the term "concreteness" (Carkhuff & Truax, 1964). Both talk about describing abstractions in specific terms of behaviors or environmental conditions. Thus, in this study the terms of "tacts" and concreteness will be used interchangeably. The dimension of concreteness has an essential role in counseling and psychotherapy. Some inferences of the importance of concreteness for psychotherapy may be drawn from the research and theoretical literature of analytic, client-centered, eclectic, and behavioral theorists. Freud's (1950) initial position stresses two points, both of which remain basic to psychoanalytic theory: (a) the recovery of repressed memories, and (b) the handling of repressed affects. Relief of repression is emphasized as essential to successful therapy, if not an essence of suc- cessful therapy. From Freud's discussion, it is clear that even when these memories and affects are fantasy productions, they are concrete and specific and not abstract. In his discussion of emphatic understanding, Rogers (1951) refers to the specific, rather than abstract experiences of the patient. neraoe‘otic Chara & £933) has been n-w- AVA. ...... ere tutorial elements of the“ concreteness i 21 In particular, Ellis (1959) and Sullivan (1954) have stressed the importance of specificity and the non- therapeutic character of abstract interactions. Thorne (1950) has been emphatic on these points. He advocates concrete tutorial personality counseling emphasizing systematic learning, relearning or "unlearning" techniques, based upon intensive differential diagnosis of specific etiologic factors productive of maladjustment. Present research efforts (Carkhuff, 1969a; Carkhuff & Berenson, 1967; Truax & Carkhuff, 1964; Truax & Carkhuff, 1967) which attempt to come to grips with the essential elements of therapy lend support to the crucial dimension of concreteness in counseling and psychotherapy. Carkhuff (1969a) believes that concreteness is most critical during the initial and final stages of helping, first acting to complement the helpee's expressions and later to develop directionality. The relevance of concreteness to the counseling process is most clearly demonstrated in the behavioral approach to counseling. Krumboltz (1964, 1965, 1966) has stressed that a necessary step in the counseling process is to obtain a clear and unambiguous description of the goals for counseling. Such goals must be operationally defined. The goal setting process requires: 1: a description of the current behaviors about which the client is dissatisfied; 2 a descrl‘ Which t“ .... isfine which b izwhich they A desc inhibition the .szcretenes s . The basis that . . . can be mad evoki 9 st these I‘. first eqi &nxiet es tion 22 2. a description of the environmental conditions in which these behaviors occur; and, 3. a description of the new behaviors the client would like to acquire and make under the environmental conditions previously established (target behaviors). Once such behaviors and associated environmental events have been carefully described, both client and counselor have a clear understanding of the goals for counseling. Client tacting responses are necessary in the essen- tial step of establishing the goals for counseling because they operationally define the target behaviors which are the goals for counseling, and they help the client and counselor define which behaviors are inappropriate and the conditions in which they are inappropriate. A description by Wolpe (1960) of reciprocal inhibition therapy clearly indicates the importance of concreteness. The basis of reciprocal inhibition therapy is that . . . if a response incompatible with anxiety can be made to occur in the presence of anxiety- evoking stimuli, it will weaken the bond between these stimuli and the anxiety response. . . . The first requirement of a planned attack on neurotic anxieties on the principle of reciprocal inhibi- tion is to determine in what circumstances (stimulus conditions) anxieties are aroused in the patient (p. 91). Another essential step in this desensitization technique is the construction of an "anxiety hierarchy" which is a "list of stimuli to which the patient reacts siiimadapti‘m a. :1 the list accor assoc; ted W113 t “9995?. that it ‘2 using Verbal "use CouI‘aselo: ““1“ to yo A CD 23 with unadaptive anxiety" (p. 94). The stimuli are ordered on the list according to the intensity of the fear responses associated with the various stimuli. Thus concrete responses help specify the circumstances in which anxiety is aroused and, therefore, are instrumental in the process of constructing the ordered list. The importance of concreteness in therapy would suggest that it is essential for therapists to acquire skill in using verbal leads which will evoke client verbal tacts. These counselor responses may be called Counselor Tacting Response Leads (CTRLs) whose purpose is to evoke client tacting responses of one of the four classes described on page 19. Examples of CTRLs designed to evoke client re- sponses described on page 19 would be: (1) "Tell me what you mean when you say you can't concentrate"; (2) "How do you feel inside when you say you are nervous? What happens to you?" (3) "Tell me a specific time when you felt espe- cially left out"; (4) "Tell me other times when it has seemed to you as though you were left out." A counselor response may be considered a CTRL if it requests: 1. a behavioral description of a particular abstract term (1 and 2 above); 2. a description of environmental conditions related to undesirable events (3 and 4 above). is indicated by ‘ a counselor ref considered a tat" firing the course :reviotsly discus 1959a) t‘nat ccnc initial and f ina The goal Corrselors to ma iss'inptions of 1 are learned and learning. As d czples of SOcia Process, Part ?A u Counse lor t1 3‘. ‘ i‘de‘i " ‘t of Si! 24 As indicated by the examples above, CTRL need not be in the form of questions. For the purpose of this study, the counselor response "Tell me more about it" was not considered a tacting response lead, since it is not at all clear from this statement what the counselor is interested in. Appropriate timing for the use of concreteness during the counseling process is an open question. As previously discussed, there is some evidence (Carkhuff, 1969a) that concreteness is most effective during the initial and final stages of counseling. The goal of this study was to train student- counselors to make CTRL to client problems. One of the assumptions of this study was that such counselor behaviors are learned and are, therefore, subject to the principles of learning. As described in the next section, several prin- ciples of social learning may be applied in the training process. Part of the purpose of this study was to determine how the principle of fidelity of simulation may be applied to counselor training. Fidelity of Simulation in Model Presentation A current trend in the literature concerning behavior change focuses on the techniques of social learning in developing and maintaining a new response class. Bandura (1969), Bandura and Walters (1963), Kagan, Krathwohl, and Parnhar (1965) , of various trees ‘, ‘ n‘nqvne‘ “05+ n: rum I ‘ .d . . . K'Qwr-A\ f“ - y'v":a ‘5 to out“) . Irena—4» "“ration i: Cris..- ‘Mnative C of learn ‘ldn 25 Farquhar (1965), and Whalen (1969) have shown the impact of various types of modeling on direct, immediate behavior change. Most counselor training programs give considerable emphasis to modeling procedures. These include the micro- counseling approach (Ivey at aZ., 1968), the IPR approach (Danish, 1971), and the systems approach (Horan, 1972) to counselor education. A concern of this study was whether or not the degree of fidelity of simulation in the model presentation influences learning. Studies by Bandura and Menlove (1968) may be interpreted to suggest that high fidelity models are more powerful than low fidelity models in influencing learning. In their studies of vicarious extinction of dog-avoidance behavior in children, they found that symbolic modeling was less powerful than live demon- strations of essentially the same behavior. Their studies, however, dealt with the learning of motor responses to a highly anxiety-producing stimulus while this study is con- cerned with verbal skills performed under conditions of generally low or moderate anxiety. Bandura (1969), in his extensive review of the research on observational learning, concludes that the behavior of models often serves as dis- criminative cues for observers which facilitate the expres- sion of learned responses. While simulations of high fidelity may seem to hold more promise, they may, in fact, introduce extraneous cues which interfere with learning. 26 An objective of this research was to investigate the relative effectiveness of low and high fidelity models in teaching a specific set of verbal interaction skills. Fidelity of Simulation in Practice A second concern of this study was how the learners' mode of response during practice affects learning. Bandura (1969) in his overview of the variables governing retention processes, discusses practice as a variable that effectively stabilizes and strengthens acquired responses and which has been virtually ignored in theories of imitation learning. Margolius and Sheffield (1961) found the level of observa- tional learning considerably enhanced through practice or overt rehearsal of modeled behaviors. The learner's responses or attempts to match the modeled behavior during practice can be high fidelity responses closely simulating the actual behavior desired or low fidelity responses. In this study, the goal was to teach a counseling skill which involves verbal interaction in a face-to-face interview. Thus a high fidelity practice would be a sit- uation that closely approximates a counseling interview and requires verbal responses, such as in role-playing. While, for the purposes of this study, a low fidelity practice would be under conditions of performing the skill through writing. rolic deserts: tion is Superio 27 In the area of desensitization studies (Bandura, Blanchard, & Ritter, 1968; Garfield, Darwin, Singer & McBrearty, 1967; Meyer, 1966), it has been found that symbolic desensitization combined with performance extinc— tion is superior to symbolic desensitization alone. In their study of the vicarious extinction of snake phobias, Bandura, Blanchard, and Ritter (1968) found that modeling accompanied by physically guided performance produced greater changes than modeling with verbally guided enactment, which in turn was superior to brief demonstration alone. However, the desensitization studies are not directly appli- cable to this investigation because again these studies are dealing with a highly anxiety producing stimulus situation and the learning of motor skills whereas this study is con- cerned with verbal skills performed under conditions of generally low or moderate anxiety. Even though this is true, they add qualified support to one concern in this study-- whether or not the degree of fidelity of the practice of modeled behaviors influences learning. A second objective of this study was to investigate the relative effectiveness of low and high fidelity practice of modeled performances in learning specific verbal inter- action skills. 28 Generalization and Transfer Greenspoon (1962) has suggested how critical the issue of the generalization of the response is in evaluating any conditioning procedure. The data on the effects of conditioning procedures and generalization are weak. Part of the difficulty lies in the methodology. Most studies provide models and rehearsal Operations focused upon devel- Oping the subject's vocal responses (high fidelity) and then administer some sort of paper and pencil or projective test (low fidelity) to assess whether the reinforced response class has generalized to the testing situation. However, in the case of the paper and pencil test, the response mode has changed, for subjects are no longer making vocal responses. In using the projectives, the stimulus charac- teristics of the testing situation are vastly different from the stimulus characteristics of the training situation. As Thorndike's theory of transfer of training (Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901) suggests, the degree of generalization will depend upon the number of stimulus and response elements the training and testing situations have in common--the more identical the elements, the greater the transfer. In general, Bandura (1969) believes that high fidelity training procedures, which include model, practice, and test at the high fidelity level are more effective than low fidelity training procedures. A third the relative e-- . , “dc =izulat10n me- ‘A“Ot}1€ n the Weak a: Cinditioning ‘ lliqg‘terlfl e f f .~ H Q . “6&0 lngs are ~: P. ..;s. the fi :e S Q hort- 391m selor t: féjitifimal % 29 A third objective of this study was to investigate the relative effectiveness of specific interactions of simulation methods with model, practice, and test. More specifically, the objective was to investigate: l. the relative effectiveness of similar and dis- similar fidelity training procedures; and, 2. the relative effectiveness of low and high fidelity training procedures. Another factor mentioned by Bandura (1969) involved in the weak and contradictory generalization effects for conditioning procedures is the lack of studies involving long-term effects. Many studies of behavior modification utilize only the assessment of immediate effects. These findings are important. Yet, it is also imperative to determine if the treatment effects "wash out" over time. Thus, the final objective of this study was to investigate the short- and long-term effects of fidelity simulation in counselor training. édditional Variables in Transfer Training In counselor training programs and recent research (Eisenberg & Delaney, 1970), many variables related to the facilitation of transfer training are ignored. In the social learning situation, in addition to the fidelity of simulation, other variables related to the facilitation of ali2a' era? \. ‘1‘ p .4" F L} ass to ' Q 3‘ \no “on tra ~§ . . v.1“fi v!_ . “‘J‘MQ entie 9. V» “A h c 30 generalization effects includes: labelling of response class to be learned (Dollard & Miller, 1950); discrimination training (Bandura, 1969); rewarding consequences of using the target behavior (Bandura, 1969); status of the model (Bandura, 1969); and observer characteristics (Bandura, 1969). This study attempted to include these variables and overcome the weaknesses of the Eisenberg and Delaney study (1970) which indicated a lack of generalization effects. A modeling procedure was used in this study which included labelling of the response class to be learned, discrimina- tion training which helped the trainee to learn the circum- stances in the counseling process in which CTRLs were appropriate, and a demonstration and explanation of the potentially useful consequences of making such a response. The model used in this investigation appeared as an expe- rienced counselor. Kanareff and Lanzetta (1960) reported that the observer characteristic of level of competence is associated with different observational patterns. Therefore, in order to gain precision, the level of competence of the trainees in interpersonal functioning as measured by the Index of Discrimination developed by Carkhuff (1969a) was investi- gated as a possible covariate. 31 Summary In conclusion, the rationale for this study rests on two factors: (1) the variety of training methods advo- cated for counselor training; and (2) the lack of compara- tively derived research findings supporting the choice of these methods in teaching a specific counseling skill to a particular type of trainee. The decision to use these particular training pro- cedures and simulation methods was based upon their exten- sive use in existing counselor training programs. Similar reasoning was used in selecting the dependent variable. Concreteness seems to be a skill that most "schools" of psychotherapy and counseling consider important in the helping process. The counseling skill of concreteness also yields itself quite satisfactorily to operational definition and in so doing reduces measurement problems. The subject variable of competence in interpersonal functioning as measured by the Index of Discrimination (Carkhuff, 1969a) was investigated because of its avail- ability and possible use as a covariate for the purpose of reducing the posttreatment variance. The comparative approach was chosen for the follow- ing reasons: (a) it allows for a test of the relative effectiveness of each of the simulation methods; (b) it aids in answering a crucial question in counselor education by pinpointing which method(s) works best with which skill(s) :nn: '- am 9! c'.-. ‘- .‘m‘ o s (U 111 (D a... . V‘v.l: '\ fi.“ “a. ‘_‘\" t I 1)) (I) “I ‘ (I 4 ('I' 32 and what type of trainee(s); and (c) it provides for the elimination of several rival, yet plausible, explanations of the obtained results, which is the goal of empirical research (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). Follow-up data was collected in order to reduce the placebo effects and to check to see if the learning as a consequence of the treatments was effectively assimilated and implemented into action. Too often, follow-up is not incorporated into research designs with the effect being that treatments are branded effective or ineffective on the basis of spurious information. Fundamentally, this study tests the proposition that simulation methods used in counselor training are differen- tially effective in increasing the use of concreteness by prospective counselors. In conclusion, the purpose of the study was: first, to develop a counselor training program which would provide a framework for a comparative study; and, second, to use the training program to examine the short- and long-term compar- ative effects of simulation methods in model presentation, practice, and testing situation on the learning of a spe- cific class of counselor behaviors called Counselor Tacting Response Leads (CTRLs). CHAPTER II METHODOLOGY Overview The major purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of the fidelity of simulation in counselor training. In order to carry out this purpose, a counselor training program was developed to teach prospective coun- selors to use counseling responses (CTRLs) which would help clients specify their concern. CTRL was the dependent vari- able in this study. Model, practice, and test situation were the treatment variables studied. Also, the subject variable of competence in interpersonal functioning as evaluated by the Index of Discrimination (Carkhuff, 1969a) was investigated. The use of simulation methods in counselor training has been advocated by many counselor educators and in sev- eral counseling "research" studies. The majority of the work in using simulation methods in counselor education currently lacks support from comparative studies. Previous research did not investigate the separate and combined effects of simulation methods used in modeling, practice, and testing situations. Separate measures on the short- and 33 .A'IH-+ \ .‘v‘sov 1 ‘ I “"‘ :, "gow II I.-\ 5‘ 1 u‘H-I “ .- ' Q.“ ... I~“O v.- .P A! On. ‘5‘ In: H ' , f 1). ,ll' 34 long-term effects were lacking. The effect of subject variables were similarly not included in the research studies conducted to date. The separate and combined effects of the treatment variables on the performance of a basic counseling skill were the major areas investigated in the present study. The use of model, practice, and test as a training procedure in counselor education was based upon social learning theory (Bandura, 1969). The choice of simulation methods was based upon their extensive use in counselor education and advocacy in the literature. Of particular interest in the formula- tion of the simulated treatments used in the present study was the concept of "fidelity of simulation" (Bandura, 1969). This study was conducted with 74 master degree candidates at Michigan State University enrolled in the Systematic Counseling Program for Winter and Spring Terms during the academic year, 1972. The subjects (Ss)* were randomly assigned within each phase of the treatment pro- cedure, i.e., the model, practice, and test phases. Each §_was assigned to a practicum setting during the long-term measure. The simulation methods used in this study were categorized according to their fidelity of simulation. *(The) Subjects will be abbreviated for this chapter and in the hypotheses ((the) Subject: S and (the) Subjects: Ss). ' ‘ Ayn A a a 1% ‘v'nAlV‘: k. ‘” ES “1:“ 4 ”an s. ‘nt‘vv‘ _. r“: 35 Manual and audio simulations were described as low fidelity methods. Video and in viva simulations were characterized as high fidelity methods. The model phase consisted of four simulation methods including manual, audio, video, and in viva. Each of the four modeling groups received the same content. The dif- ference between the modeling groups was in terms of the simulation method used to present the learning unit on concreteness. The content was the same during the practice phase for all gs, but the simulation method used was different. The manual and in viva simulation methods represented the two levels of practice. The testing phase consisted of short- and long-term measures. During the short-term measure the testing situa- tion consisted of two levels: manual and in viva simulation. The test content was the same for each level. During the long-term measure an audiotape was collected from each S and a five minute excerpt of an actual counseling interview was recorded. The criterion measure used in evaluating the short- term effectiveness was the frequency of making CTRLs to twenty standardized client statements. In the long-term phase the criterion measure was the frequency of CTRLs made during a five minute excerpt from an actual counseling interview. . ... .. n .,.r ,. I“.G.‘.C ‘ .Q Pf‘fiov-A ”'~‘~v'».-.c O. :f the - aw,- .~-lc 36 Both a multivariate and a univariate analysis of variance and planned contrasts were performed to test the hypotheses. Reliability estimates were computed for each of the criterion measures. Sample A sample of 74 gs was obtained from the second term master degree candidates enrolled in the counseling block courses in the Systematic Counseling Program (see Appendix A) at Michigan State University during the Winter and Spring Terms, 1972. Following is a careful delineation of the sample and sampling procedure in order to allow the reader to judge how this population compares with some populations which he might wish to generalize (Cornfield & Tukey, 1956). Sample Characteristics 1. Sex: 33 males, and 41 females. 2. Age: range = 21-49 years, mean = 26.4 years, and median = 24 years. 3. Marital status: 38 married, 34 single, and 2 divorced. 4. Class standing at Michigan State University: second term master degree candidates in counseling. 5. Program: 38 in rehabilitation counseling, 16 in community college counseling, ll in secondary school counseling, and 9 in elementary school counseling. 6. Location of undergraduate work: Most of the sub- jects attended college in the State of Michigan and neighboring states. The other large portion of subjects was from the South. The breakdown by Subject 37 states was as follows: 49 attended college in Michigan, 5 in Ohio, 5 in Pennsylvania, 3 in Indiana, and 1 each in Illinois, Indiana, New York, and Wisconsin. The rest attended college in the South: 2 in Texas and 1 each in Florida, Louisiana, Maryland, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. Undergraduate major: 21 majored in education, 17 in liberal arts, 17 in psychology, 8 in social science, 4 in history, 4 in social work, 2 in mathematics, and l in business. Employment: 37 are full-time students, 16 are teachers (average number of years employed: 2.8 years), 7 are rehabilitation counselors, 4 are dormitory advisors, 2 are psychometrists, and 1 is employed in each of the following categories: care- taker, construction worker, librarian, military service, minister, probation officer, and secretary. Assignment The original subject pool of the experiment con- sisted of all the master degree candidates enrolled in the counseling block courses in the Systematic Counseling Program at Michigan State University (84). The procedural steps in the random assignment of §$ are presented in Figure 1. In the modeling phase (Step I), gs were assigned to four simulations, including manual (Ml), audio (M2), video (M3), and in viva (M4). In the practice phase (Step II), §§ within each of the four modeling simu— lations were randomly assigned to either low (LP) or high fidelity practice (HP). Within each of the eight combina- tions of practice and model simulations gs were then randomly assigned to low (LT) or high fidelity test (HT) during the short-term measure (Step III). gs were finally 38 mmusomooum unmacvflmmm uomflnsm .H madman oan SM n v: umma wuflampflh 30a n BA mofluomnm aufiampflm 30A n ma owww> u m2 umwe >Uflao©flm swam u an moauomum wuflampflm swam H mm oflosm n N: BA 93 BA BS BA Bx BA 83 8Q BS BA — BS BA 83 Ba Em ma mm m..." mm ma * mm mg mm v NZ amass: n H: ammo: u 2| muomnndm H mm umme "HHH mmum mofluomum “HH mmum cowumucommum Hana: "H swam doom pomflnsm n: a. o .5.“ av- ,- 7‘9 .- . an». are We‘- ‘o-p 'il' 7 ‘ba 5“; J». h E 9‘ .aa 4H .i is .,v h! ‘ v... .5 \‘Q 39 assigned to practicum settings on the basis of their program (e.g., elementary school counseling gs were assigned to an elementary school). On the day of the administration of the treatment procedures, including the short-term measure, gs who were absent from their counseling block course on that day were removed from the subject pool (10). The remaining 74 gs were randomly distributed within the sixteen-cell matrix with all treatment variables completely crossed as illus- trated in Table 1. Table 1 Number of Subjects Included in the Short- and Long-Term Measure Number of Subjects Short-Term Long-Term Model Practice Test Measure Measure Manual Low Low 5 3 Manual Low High 5 4 Manual High Low 5 4 Manual High High 4 3 Audio Low Low 5 3 Audio Low High 4 3 Audio High Low 4 3 Audio High High 4 3 Video Low Low 4 4 Video Low High 5 4 Video High Low 5 4 Video High High 5 4 In Viva Low Low 5 4 In Viva Low High 4 3 In Viva High Low 5 3 In Viva High High 5 3 I‘A'. uatv‘ U a 4 .fi‘!’ .vi‘- 0 Rav- b’voos fifi s Ala 40 The subject pool was further reduced during the short-term measure by randomly withdrawing subjects from all of the cells that had a subject frequency greater than four. The resulting matrix had equal cell frequencies of four. The 64 §s remaining in the sixteen-cell matrix were considered the sample for the short-term measure (Cornfield & Tukey, 1956). During the long-term measure, the 74 gs partici— pating in the initial phase of the study were reduced to 55 gs (Table 1). Subject mortality in this study was mainly due to the fact that gs who were lost were unable to obtain clients in their practicum setting (13). An additional six gs were lost because of inaudible tapes. The subject pool for the long-term measure was further reduced by randomly withdrawing subjects from all of the cells that had a subject frequency greater than three. The resulting matrix had equal cell frequencies of three. The 48 gs remaining in the sixteen-cell matrix were considered the sample for the long-term measure. A comparison was conducted of the tests of hypoth- eses for this study using matrices having unequal and equal cell frequencies. This comparison indicated that the results of the hypotheses tested were not meaningfully altered using the matrix with equal cell frequencies. The statistical analyses reported in this paper used the data matrix with equal cell frequencies. 'r:4 4‘ 5“; 6.4 AZJEX I .4 a“"‘ F1 .‘u'k‘O‘l f' ‘r " the “ Q -A'flo':' Wlb u 41 Subject Variable During Fall term, 1971, Se were involved in empathy training (see Appendix B). A post-test based upon the Index of Discrimination developed by Carkhuff (1969a) was administered (see Appendix C). The discrimination proce- dure involved presenting S with varying examples of high, moderate, and low levels of helper-offered conditions in writing and asking S to identify the levels at which the helpers in the respective excerpts were functioning. Those whose ratings agree closely with those of experts with demonstrated predicted validity of ratings were considered high discriminators; those whose ratings deviate greatly (i.e., deviations of 1.0 or greater per excerpt) were con- sidered low discriminators. For the purpose of the covar- iance procedure, the total raw score of the number of excerpts correctly rated (less than 1.0 deviation per excerpt) was used. The rationale for selecting this particular subject variable was based upon availability and Carkhuff's (1969a) research on selection procedures. Carkhuff (1969a) believes that the best index of future functioning in the helping role is a previous index of functioning in the helping role. This prOposition has led Carkhuff (1969a) to posit a number of selection indices. One of them is the Index of Discrim- ination. Even though the evidence reported by Carkhuff (1969a) supporting a strong predictive relationship between 42 the Index of Discrimination and training outcome is equivocal, it was assumed that the Index and the measures of this study were assessing the same basic skill. The Index supposedly assesses the discriminative functioning of S concerning interpersonal functioning. One of the "core conditions" of interpersonal functioning is concrete- ness (Carkhuff, 1969a). Concreteness is also the dependent variable of this study. Thus it was assumed that using the Index of Discrimination score as a covariate would increase precision. Role Players Selection Rationale Role-playing served as the high fidelity condition during the practice and short-term testing phases. Twenty role players, each with a minimum of 30 hours of human relations training in which role-playing was a major training method, were available and willing to participate. Because of the large sample size involved, it was impossible for each §,to be exposed to a different role player. As a consequence, the problem of dependence is raised. Ideally, each §_shou1d have been exposed to a different role player for the purpose of maintaining independence. 43 In order to reduce the effects of the violation of the assumption of independence, the researcher standardized the procedure as much as possible. The format and content of the role-playing experience was standardized for each role player. It was assumed on the basis of the similar training experience of the role players and the standard- ized role-playing procedures that the role-playing experi- ence was equivalent for all gs. Following is a delineation of the characteristics of the role players used. Characteristics of Role Players 1. Sex: 13 males, and 7 females. 2. Age: range 19-37 years, mean = 25, and median - 24. 3. Minimum of 30 hours training in human relations: 20 role players. Training Each role player was presented with a standardized format (see Appendix D). The procedures were explained. The use of the cassette audio recorder was demonstrated. The role players were then asked to go to their assigned rooms an hour before the practice and testing phases were to begin to practice their procedure. The researcher monitored their rehearsal and made suggestions. 236 E . UKRA ‘4v‘b1 “Pan . I Dav». . 9' A.“ 'évu I) M,‘ It, (I) 44 Materials Various materials were required for all phases of the study and were developed by the researcher. Model Presentation In the modeling phase, four simulated modeling procedures were developed by the researcher. An instruc- tional manual, audiotape, videotape, and lecturette (in viva) were constructed. The content presented in the modeling phase was the same for each level of simulation. The only difference between the four levels of the modeling treatment was in terms of the fidelity of simulation. Some gs received the modeling experience via instructional man- uals (low fidelity), some through listening to an audiotape (low fidelity), some through observing a videotape (high fidelity), and others observing a "live" (in viva) lecture (high fidelity). The sequence of events in the modeling phase was the same for each simulation. It was ordered as follows (see Appendix E): 1. Introduction 2. Relevance 3. Purpose 4. Discrimination 5. Rewarding consequences 6. Procedural instructions 7. Modeling frames (l-lO). 45 Briefly, the counseling skill-to-be-learned was introduced to each S. The skill was defined and its relevance to the counseling process was discussed. Appro- priate and inapprOpriate examples of the skill were demon- strated and discussed. The rewards of using the skill in counseling were pointed out. Finally, 10 modeling frames were provided in which appropriate examples of the use of the skill in counseling were demonstrated and discussed. The content of the modeling frames consisted of the following: 1. a "client" presented a "typical" problem of a high school student, followed by, 2. a counselor who appeared as an expert and who made a CTRL to each presented problem. In the middle and during the end of the model frame presentation, the counselor would summarize each client's problem and explain how his response was a CTRL. For a more specific account see Appendix E. The client statements used in this study were based upon statements developed from typescripts and audiotapes of actual counseling sessions and experiences by Eisenberg (1969). The selection of the 10 client problems used in the modeling phase was done by the researcher. In order to demonstrate the counseling skill-to-be-learned effectively, 10 typical problems encountered by high school students as v . ”7“": 4.6» J 4 you-a- . ‘ - nAU:I V. II D. ,. ~u..\- 'T‘A“ '4 ’ ~‘-‘. . A..- s SF" in &g“\ 46 judged by the researcher were selected. Of the 10 selected, those problems judged most likely to receive a CTRL (Eisen- berg, 1969) were placed in the beginning. The problems selected were concerned with study habits, depression, lack of friends, fear, sexual difficulties, inferiority, decision- making, and fantasies. The counselor model responses (CTRLs) were based upon Eisenberg's (1969) description and examples of CTRLs. The researcher presented the model frames to two counselor educators who had extensive experience in counseling and knowledge concerning the dimension of concreteness in coun- seling. After their evaluations and suggestions, the researcher developed the counselor model responses. Practice The practice phase had two levels of simulation: low and high fidelity practice. A practice manual and role- playing script were developed for low and high fidelity practice, respectively. The content used within each level of practice was the same. The only difference between the levels of practice was in terms of the fidelity of simula- tion (mode of presentation and mode of SS response). Those §s experiencing the low fidelity practice received the practice procedure in written form and were asked to make a written response. The other Ss'were involved in high fidelity practice in which the practice material was d ‘ . (A I' F“ .LJ‘T. . .bn‘ilhtO‘ . a “in! I... laws 1 1 0f‘ v Lyn S. (nu «a» lah are I,‘ I‘ ctice an the t 0586 P25 5n ounseli re A b 47 role-played (in viva) and each §_was asked to respond orally. The sequence of the practice phase was ordered as follows (see Appendix F): 1. Instructions 2. Practice frames (1-10) 3. Standard feedback. Briefly, each S was informed of the nature of the learning task. Ten practice frames were then presented in which a client problem was presented. Then each S was given an opportunity to respond as a counselor. Finally, after each § had responded to a problem, he was provided with a counseling response which was typical of the class of responses called CTRLs. This sequence was repeated for each practice frame. The selection of the client problems used in the practice phase was done by the researcher. From Eisenberg's (1969) pool of problems 10 client statements were selected on the basis of providing practice with similar kinds of problems encountered in the modeling phase. Additional problems were included for the practice phase; these dealt with areas that were not specifically covered in the model- ing phase, which provided gs with some experience in generalization. 48 After each practice frame, a "typical" counselor response from a class of counseling responses considered to be a good CTRL was provided as feedback. In developing the feedback procedure, the researcher secured the evalua- tions and suggestions of the same two counselor educators used in the modeling phase. After their evaluations and suggestions, the researcher constructed the feedback procedure. Short-Term Measure The measure for the short-term effects consisted of two levels of simulation: low and high fidelity test. A test manual and role-playing script were developed for the low and high fidelity testing situations, respectively. The content used within each testing situation was the same. The mode of presentation and gs response were different between testing situations. These differences were similar to the differences between the two levels of practice. The low fidelity test presented the testing procedure in written form and asked each §bto write his response. In the high fidelity test situation, the testing procedure was role- played (in viva) and each S responded orally. The sequence of events during the short-term testing phase was ordered as follows (see Appendix E): 1. Instructions 2. Test frames (1-20). 339‘ = u.»- -. .1 Oily. 9A IV a: 'H. h AV“! .Fa‘ ‘\ 5; bit 49 Briefly, each §_was introduced to the testing procedure, including the nature of the task and the con- fidentiality of their responses. Twenty test frames were then presented in which a client problem was identified. Each §_was asked to place himself in the counselor role within the goal-setting stage of counseling and to respond to all twenty test frames. The selection of the 20 client problems used in the testing situation was done by the researcher. Twenty prob- lems were left after selecting 10 problems for the modeling phase and 10 problems for the practice phase from the pool of items develOped by Eisenberg (1969). At this point a word needs to be mentioned concern- ing the 40 client problems used in this study. Eisenberg (1969) reported that not all of the client problems were equally likely to receive a CTRL even by those who learned to make the response. This would suggest that it is much more difficult to make CTRLs to certain client statements than to others. Similarly, even though the items used in this study differed from those used in Eisenberg's study (1969) in terms of wording and use (e.g., some test items in Eisenberg's study (1969) were used as model items in the present study), it is likely that the frames used in the modeling, practice, and test phases differed in their like- lihood of receiving CTRLs. Since the frames used in the modeling, practice, and test phases were assigned their 50 position for the purposes of instruction and not randomly assigned, it may not be assumed that these frames are of equal difficulty. In order to control for item difficulty, all gs were exposed to the same client statements used in the modeling, practice, and testing phases. Random assign- ment of all the frames would have reduced the degree of transfer between the modeling and practice phases and the test phase. Facilities A large classroom and smaller counseling laboratory rooms with one-way mirrors in Erickson Hall at Michigan State University served as the facilities for this study. In the model presentation phase of the study, a large classroom and three of the smaller rooms in the counseling laboratory were used. All the rooms in the counseling lab- oratory and one large classroom were used in the practice and testing phases. Local community colleges, elementary and secondary schools, and rehabilitation agencies served as the practicum settings for the long-term measure. The issue of confounding of treatment with room size needs to be mentioned. Ideally, the use of similar facilities would reduce the issue of this extraneous vari- able and the possible problem of dependence. Because of practical limitations, this was not feasible. It was assumed that the effects of the facilities were minimal. 51 Apparatus Ampex 5100 VR equipment was used to construct the videotape used in the video model presentation. Such equipment requires one inch tape and has the advantage of yielding the high video and audio facility. The audio recording used in the audio simulated model treatment was taken directly off the videotape used in the video simulation. It was made on one-half inch audio- tape with seven inch reels. Therefore, the audio quality was similar for the video and audio model simulations. All responses made during the high fidelity test for short-term effects and during the measure of long-term effects were sound recorded on Sony cassette audio recording equipment on one-fourth inch tape. Measures Two measures were used to compare treatment out- comes: One sought to measure the short-term effects; the second sought to assess the generalization and long-term effects in the actual setting. Short-Term Measure The short-term measure sought to determine the fre- quency of CTRLs made by each §|to 20 standardized client problems. gs were either asked to respond in written form 52 if in the low fidelity testing situation or in oral form if in the high fidelity testing situation. The 20 client problems used as test items in this study were based on actual incidents of counseling developed by Eisenberg (1969). All §s in the study were exposed to the same test items. In order to prevent any type of order- ing effect, the items were randomly assigned a position within the test. All of the completed test manuals and audiotapes were collected, coded and randomly assigned to two raters. The two raters (both females) had masters degrees in coun- seling and were doctoral candidates in curriculum. Their graduate training was very similar. They were not familiar with any of Se in the present counseling program. The raters were trained by the researcher to score the written responses and audiotapes made during the testing situations. They were given instructions (see Appendix H). Their training consisted of the following sequence of experiences. 1. Introduction to CTRLs 2. Explanation of skill 3. Models 4. Discrimination training 5. Practice. _\.-— v‘.-‘ is 2a A» qh‘ is v s .5 .\ 53 The raters training material consisted of the discussion of the dependent variable in this study (Chap- ter I) and the manuals used by the low fidelity groups in the modeling and practice phases (see Appendices E and F). They were trained to rate on the basis of the criteria described in the CTRL section of the present study and in the sheet entitled "Additional Instructions" (see Appendix I). Audiotapes and written responses were randomly assigned to each rater. Then the raters observed, listened to, and scored gs responses to each of the 20 standard client problems (test frames 1-20) as to whether or not it was a CTRL. A scoring sheet similar to the one used in the Eisenberg study (1969) (see Appendix J) was used. Rater reliability was estimated using an analysis of variance technique developed by Hoyt (1941). The ANOVA was calculated on a Control Data 6500 computer using a program developed by Jennrich (1961). This procedure yielded esti- mates of reliability of the ratings on the two simulation levels of testing for short-term effects by rater. The results are reported in Table 2. The subject pool used in estimating the rater reliability was reduced by randomly withdrawing subjects from all cells that had a subject frequency greater than 18, the smallest cell frequency in the four-cell matrix. This resulted in randomly removing two subjects. fitérs :8: Ga. iidivi‘ “¢.3-m. “ 54 Table 2 Hoyt Reliability Coefficients for Ratings of Responses Made During the Short-Term Measure Rater l Rater 2 Manual .87 .85 Audiotape .66 .60 As can be observed from Table 2, both raters do about equally well. However, it appears that the dependent variable is more easily discriminated by the raters in manual form rather than on audiotape. Ideally, for the purposes of stable estimates, both raters should have rated each g. In so doing, a mean score for each § would have been provided instead of relying on individual scores which are less reliable estimates. Long-Term Measure Ten weeks after the experimental treatments, the researcher asked the practicum supervisors of each §_to collect "the audiotapes of the first interview of each g in which at least 10 minutes were devoted to the discussing of client concerns" (see Appendix K). The supervisor was also asked to mark on the cassette tape the length of the counseling interview. The researcher then took five minute excerpts from each tape and put them on separate and coded ,‘Iu A: no. u\ 55 cassette tapes. The selection of the five minute excerpts was a random selection from the last half of the first counseling interview. More specifically, since the supervisor had marked the end of each cassette tape, it was easy to divide the taped interview into four phases by locating the middle and then, the third and fourth phases. Within the last half of each tape, a random five minute selection was made. The random selection was made by dividing the last half of each tape by making one-sixteenth inch vertical lines on the sur- face of each tape where necessary (some tapes already have these marks) and then making a random selection from these divisions. The rationale for taking the excerpts during the last half of the counseling interview was based upon the assumption that this was the Optimal time for the use of CTRLs. This assumption was based upon the researcher's practical eXperience in counseling and the type of practicum supervision (Winborn et aZ., 1972) to which gs were exposed. Both.factors pointed to the last half of the interview as the optimal time. The selection of the first interview tape was a practical decision based upon gs practicum supervision and upon previously cited research (Carkhuff, 1969a). Several factors related to the precision of the long- term measure should now be addressed. The use of audiotape recording equipment in the practicum setting is a standard |’|\ :. s iv 5C ..\‘. QC. HI» ,«I. 56 practice in practicum supervision in most counselor education programs. Most novice counselors are required to tape their counseling interviews during practicum. Therefore, the use of audiotapes in this study for the long-term measure was not an artificial requirement. The effects of supervisor and practicum setting need to be discussed. Ss were assigned supervisors for practicum during Spring Term, 1972. The practicum student load for each supervisor ranged from two to nine with an average of five practicum students. An attempt to reduce the variance attributable to differing supervisors was made by taking the first interview tape before active supervision began. Since the assignment of gs to practicum setting was beyond the control of the researcher it cannot be assumed that the type of client interviewed was the same for each S, nor can it be assumed that the problems dealt with were of the same difficulty. For example, a S who sees an ele- mentary school child about his study habits and a S who interviews an alcoholic patient are dealing with different problems. More than likely, one type of problem would quite easily elicit CTRLs from a counselor whereas another would not. Also the optimal timing may not be the same for each client and/or type of problem. Each of these factors may be contributing to an inflation of the variance and, as a consequence, the pre- cision of the long-term measure may be reduced. A. U. . q I ; I. 57 The rating for the long-term measure was done by one of the raters who was used in the earlier measure. The other trained rater was unavailable. A scoring sheet was used to record the frequency of CTRLs per minute (see Appendix L). Rater reliability was again estimated using an analysis of variance technique developed by Hoyt (1941). The ANOVA was calculated on a Control Data 6500 computer using a program developed by Jennrich (1961). This proce- dure yielded estimates of reliability of the ratings on the long-term measure. The results are reported in Table 3. Table 3 Hoyt Reliability Coefficient for Ratings of Responses Made During the Long-Term Measure Audiotape .59 As can be observed from Table 3, the reliability estimate on the audiotapes for the long-term measure is about the same as those for the audiotapes on the short-term measure (Table 2). Again, it appears the dependent variable is more difficult to discriminate on audiotapes. It would have been helpful to have additional raters in order to ascertain interjudge reliability. A mean score for each g is a more stable estimate than an individual score by one rater. .‘sunuuu 58 Procedures Obtaining and Scheduling Subjects The counselor training program developed for this study was integrated into gs training. The scheduling was done during their class time. The components of the program used in this study were not dissimilar to the kinds of experiences (e.g., modeling, use of videotapes, role- playing, and instructional manuals) they had already encountered. There was an announcement previous to participation regarding the experimental nature of the learning task (see Appendix M). Because §s were told of the experimental nature of the learning task, the problem of external validity needs to be raised. Campbell and Stanley (1963) describe the artificiality of the experimental setting and gs knowledge that he is participating in an experiment. In order to reduce the effects of reactive arrangements, the eXperimen- tal procedures were very similar to the type of experiences §s had already encountered. The careful delineation of the sample and the experimental procedures provide the reader with enough knowledge about how their population compares with some population which he might wish to generalize (Cornfield & Tukey, 1956). ‘rd r0 ."1 59 Treatment Procedures Initial Procedure The initial procedure for Ss was exactly the same. When Ss arrived for their scheduled class they were greeted by their instructor. The instructor then described the purpose of the class meeting in the following manner (see Appendix M): 1. Experimental nature of the learning task; 2. Purpose--to help us improve instruction; 3. Considered part of counselor training; and, 4. The ungraded nature of the task. The instructor then handed a room assignment sheet (see Appendix N) to each S. The sheet directed each S’to the appropriate room for the modeling phase of the program. When S arrived at the appropriate room, he was greeted by an assistant, i.e., doctoral student in counseling, who had been given previous instructions (see Appendix 0). The assistant explained to each S that he was to observe or listen to a simulation concerning a basic skill in counsel- ing; that S should pay close attention to the simulation; and that S would receive all instructions from the simula- tion itself. The total time for the administration of the treat- ment procedures, including the short-term measure, was one hour and twenty minutes. 111C 5 .4 ca: . flu. h "an ‘ 60 Model Presentation For all Ss, the model presentation began with a brief introduction by a person who appeared to be an expert in counseling (except the manual simulation). All Ss, including those in the manual group, were introduced to the basic counseling skill-to-be-learned. The purpose, relevance, and rewarding consequences of the use of the skill in counseling were described. Appropriate and inapprOpriate examples were discussed in order to clar- ify the use of the counseling skill. The modeling frames were provided in which a client presented a problem and the "expert" counselor responded with a CTRL. In the middle and at the end, the "expert" counselor summarized each client's problem and explained why the counselor's response was a CTRL. The content and sequence of events during the modeling phase was the same for all Ss except for slight modifications due to differing simulated environments. The model treatment procedure for all groups took about twenty minutes. The modeling phase consisted of four simulations: manual, audio, video, and in viva. Ss were randomly assigned to one of the simulation methods and experienced the modeling phase as a particular group. The number of Ss in each group was equivalent, but the facilities used were not of equal size. The question of the effects of A V «‘6 Adv .C a - .~. Au. .—u Pu :u w; y. (l 2‘ A\5 a: u“ "6‘“ 'v'v a. CAH‘ we. 61 facilities for the modeling as well as the other phases was described earlier. Each assistant reported that the interaction between SS within each of the model simulations was minimal. Specific Procedures for Model Presentation In viva.--Ss in the in viva modeling condition met in a small counseling room as a group and observed their course instructor as the expert. Instructions for the course instructor were provided (see Appendix P). The "expert" guided Ss through the modeling phase as described above and role-played the counselor during the 10 model frames giving a CTRL to each frame. The "clients" in the in viva model condition were role-played by two doctoral students in counseling (male and female). Instructions were given to each role player (see Appendix Q). ziggg.--Ss in the video simulation met as a group in a small counseling room and observed a different expert" during the modeling phase than Ss in the in viva condition. Since Ss were not exposed to the same person in the modeling condition, "expert" is a confounding variable. Attempts to reduce the effect of this extraneous variable included standardizing the content and selecting "experts" with similar characteristics. The content was the same for all levels of the modeling phase. Both "experts" were (It 62 male and professors in counselor education who had extensive experience in counseling and counselor education. A question regarding the "expertness" of the coun- selors used in the model simulations needs to be discussed. No attempt was made to assess Ss estimation of the expert- ness of the counselor, but the model presentation emphasized his experience and present position so as to appear as an expert. The "clients" used in the video simulation were different from those used in the in viva condition. In the video condition, five high school students (three males and two females) were used. Again the effects of a confounding variable arise. The content was standardized and a minimum of 30 hours of human relations training for each role player was required. It is likely, however, that high school stu- dents are more effective than doctoral students in role- playing high school students. Therefore, the equivalence of role-playing within the in viva and video model simula- tions cannot be assumed, and the issue of controlling this extraneous variable is incomplete. Aggig.--The audio was taken directly off the video- tape and served as the audio simulation. Therefore, Ss in the audio simulation were exposed to the same procedure and personnel as in the video condition. They met as a group in a small counseling room. 63 Manual.--The instructional manual consisted of the same content used in the other three simulation methods, the only difference being in terms of the mode of presentation. Ss in the manual simulation met as a group in a large class- room and were exposed to the modeling condition via instruc- tional manual. Practice After the modeling experiences, all Ss were involved in practice. Ss referred to their room assignment sheets for the prOper rooms for practice following the modeling. treatment. During the practice phase, each S was greeted by an assistant if in the low fidelity condition or by a role player if in the high fidelity condition. Each S was provided instructions and given an opportunity to practice individually. The assistant or role player emphasized that each S pay close attention to each client presented problem and consider himself involved in the actual counseling situation. Each S was then given the opportunity to respond to 10 standardized client statements and to receive feedback in the form of a typical CTRL. The practice treatment procedure for all Ss took thirty minutes. The content used in the practice phase was the same for all Ss. The differences between the two levels of practice was in terms of mode of presentation and mode of Ss response. In the low fidelity practice, the client statements used in practice frames were presented in the "‘ Fm: L'V “Ms 1 Y a laic q. \hart. '“V‘ 64 form of a written manual; and Ss were asked to practice by responding as a counselor in written form. Whereas in the high fidelity condition, the practice frames were presented in viva; and Ss were asked to practice by orally responding to the frames as a counselor. Ss in the low fidelity situation met as a group in a large classroom. Each S was provided an individual prac- tice manual and responded individually. The assistant reported that the interaction among the SS was minimal. In high fidelity practice Ss were seen individually by a role player in small counseling rooms. Short-Term Measure After the practice phase, all Ss again referred to their room assignment sheets for the proper rooms for the testing phase (short-term measure). During the testing phase, each S_in the low fidelity condition was greeted by an assistant or in the high fidelity condition by a role player. Each S was provided instructions. The assistant or role player, depending upon the condition, emphasized that each S pay close attention to each client presented problem and consider himself involved in the goal-setting stage within an actual counseling situation. Each S was then given an opportunity to respond to 20 standardized client statements. The test treatment procedure took 30 minutes. 2:: #74::7‘“: all Il.‘ I 65 The content used in the testing phase was the same. The only differences between the two testing situations were in terms of the mode of presentation and the Ss mode of response. In the low fidelity situation, the test frames were presented in the form of a written manual and Se were asked to respond in written'form. On the other hand, Ss in the high fidelity situation were asked to respond orally to the test frames which were presented in viva. Ss in the low fidelity test situation met in a large classroom as a group. Each S was presented with an individ- ual test manual and responded individually. The assistant reported that interaction among the S was minimal. In the high fidelity test situation, Ss were seen individually by a role player in small counseling rooms. Long-Term Measure Four weeks after the treatment procedures, including the short-term measure, all Ss were assigned to a practicum setting on the basis of their program (e.g., school counsel- ing, rehabilitation counseling, etc.) and feasibility. Each S was assigned a practicum supervisor. Six weeks after Ss practicum assignments were made, the first interview tapes were collected and rated. The reason for the six week delay was due to the lack of clients in the practicum settings. Or, '00 66 Feedback After the study had been completed, the researcher met with all Ss during their class period. During this time, the nature of the experiment was fully described. Its implications and related issues were fully discussed. Hypotheses One of the major purposes of the present study was to examine particular simulation methods in specific train- ing procedures. For this reason, the interactions of model presentation x practice x test situation is of particular interest. Thorndike (Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901) suggests that transfer of training is dependent upon the number of stimulus and response elements the training and testing situations have in common. The greater the simularity the higher the level of transfer. The first expectation of this study was that those Ss who had similar training and testing experiences would make more CTRLs during the short-term measure than those Ss who had dissimilar training and test- ing experience. To test this expectation, the following directional hypothesis was formulated: 1. Ss who receive treatment procedures which include model presentation, practice, and testing situation at the same level of fidelity will make more CTRLs an the short-term measure than those 83 who receive the same treatment procedures at dissimilar levels of fidelity. 67 High fidelity training is more effective than low fidelity training (Bandura, 1969). To test this proposition, the following direction hypothesis was formulated: 2. Se who receive the high fidelity treatment proce- dures including high fidelity model presentation, practice, and testing situation will make more CTRLs an the short- and long-term measures than those Ss who receive the low fidelity treatment procedures including low fidelity model presen- tation, practice, and testing situation. The research reported by Bandura (1969) may be interpreted to suggest that high fidelity models are more powerful than low fidelity models in influencing learning. To test this proposition, the following two directional hypotheses were formed: 3. Ss who receive the high fidelity model treatment procedure will make more CTRLs an the short- and long-term measures than those Ss who receive the law fidelity model treatment procedure. 4. S8 who receive the model treatment procedure via i1 viva simulation will make more CTRLs on the short- and long-term measures than those Ss who receive the model treatment procedure via video simulation. Ss who receive the model treatment procedure via video simulation will make more CTRLs an the short- and long-term measures than those Ss who receive the model treatment proce- dure via audio simulation. Ss who receive the model treatment procedure via audio simulation will make more CTRLs an the short- and long-term measures than those Ss who receive the model treatment procedure via manual simulation. In the area of desensitization studies (Bandura, Blanchard & Ritter, 1968) and skill learning (Margolius & Sheffield, 1961), it has been suggested that high fidelity practice of modeled behaviors is more powerful than low v...— P?. :- IPL u‘ll He ‘2“ ha... \Wk 68 fidelity practice of modeled behaviors. To test this suggestion, the following directional hypothesis was formulated: 5. Ss who receive the high fidelity practice treatment procedure will make more CTRLs an the short- and long-term measures than those Sp who receive the law fidelity practice treatment procedure. *1 Experimental Design .‘. ‘ This investigation used the "post-test only" design strongly suggested for eduCational and psychological research by Campbell and Stanley (1963). The random assignment of Ss to treatment groups permitted the absence of pre-test measures. A fidelity of test (2), by fidelity of practice (2), by fidelity of model with two models nested within each level was used as the basic matrix. Figure 2 provides a pictorial representation. A total of 64 Se were included in the experiment analysis procedure for the short-term measure with Ss distributed equally within the sixteen-cell matrix. A total of 48 Se were included in the long-term measure with Ss distributed equally within the sixteen-cell matrix. Analysis of Data Data were keypunched and verified at the Michigan State University Computer Center. The statistical analyses 69 l 2 M1 5 1 s1 1 M 2 S 1 M 3 2 M4 P l M l 1 M 2 S 2 M 3 2 M4 M1 1 M 2 S l M 3 F 2 M 4 P 2 M S l 2 1 M 2 M3 F2 M4 S64 S48 S = Subject R Random assignment F = Fidelity of model M a Model P Practice F1 = Low fidelity M1 = Manual P1 Low fidelity F2 = High fidelity M2 = Audio P2 - High fidelity S = Test situation for M3 - Video T Test (measure) short-term measure M4 = In viva T1 Short-term measure 81 = Low fldellty T2 Long-term measure 32 = High fidelity Figure 2. Pictorial Representation of Experimental Design were CE I 1H ' 3.3.15. IA? v" I: bad I V 2“ it?" ¢AB. h an as a1 70 were calculated on a Control Data 6500 computer using an analysis of variance program developed by Jennrich (1961). The initial step in the analysis was to check and determine if the covariate employed was, in fact, signif— icantly related to the measures of the dependent variable. An analysis of covariance was carried out to test this relationship (Finn, 1970). Both a multivariate and univariate analysis of variance and planned contrasts were computed to test the hypotheses. The effects of the treatment variables of model presentation, practice, and test situation, as well as all first and higher order interactions were examined. The results of these various analyses procedures to test the specific hypotheses of interest in this study are reported in Chapter III. my“ 5 by f: level CHAPTER III RESULTS The results of the present study were based upon two outcome measures--short- and long-term measures. Although the two measures were concerned with the same dimension (concreteness), the test situations were different. There- fore, the analyses and results will be presented separately for each measure. A multivariate and univariate analysis of variance and planned contrasts were used in testing the hypotheses. For all hypotheses the .05 probability of a Type I error (alpha) with the appropriate degrees of freedom was used. A fidelity of test (2), by fidelity of practice (2), by fidelity of model (2) with two models nested within each level represented the data matrix used. Covariate Effect The score on the Index of Discrimination developed by Carkhuff (1969a) was predicted to be highly correlated iJi a positive way with the dependent variable used in this study. In order to determine the linear association between these two variables, an analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was 71 cor: 33‘ 7"; U‘. ‘ s t; , ~§\ IRE 2.... . u. «Wkfi VAwU Ct .k. n1» \,1 72 computed. A low correlation (r==.05) was found indicating that the use of the Index score as a covariate was not helping in gaining a more powerful significance test. Because the unadjusted and the analysis of covariance adjusted means would not differ meaningfully, the covariance procedure was dropped in order to simplify the interpreta- tion of the results of the analysis. F Short-Term Measure E The short-term effects can be observed in terms of the resultant means for all groups on all variables in Table 4. Table 4 Cell Means for the Frequency of CTRLs by Model, Practice, and Test Low Fidelity Test High Fidelity Test Low Fidelity High Fidelity Low Fidelity High Fidelity Practice Practice Practice Practice Low Fideligy Model: a Manual 8.25 (1) 15.25 (5) 14.25 (9) 14.00 (13) Audio 6.00 (2) 15.75 (6) 12.75 (10) 12.75 (14) High Fidelity Model: ‘Video 15.00 (3) 14.25 (7) 14.25 (11) 14.25 (15) In viva 15.75 (4) 16.75 (8) 11.50 (12) 14.50 (16) aIn order to identify which specific cells are combined in the following hypotheses the cells are numbered and are referred to by num- ber (e.g., Low Fidelity Model--Low Fidelity Practice--Low Fidelity Test Groups (1 and 2) . Unless specified, numbers refer to cell means in ‘Table 4. V an "27" in V5 . u,“ n Hana; 73 Results of the Tests for Hypotheses 1—2 Hypothesis 1 was formulated to test Thorndike's theory of transfer of training (Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901) which suggests that the more identical the elements involved in the training and testing situations the greater will be the transfer. For this study, Thorndike's theory of trans- fer of training (Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901) translates into a comparison of the four groups that received model, practice, and test at the same fidelity level of simulation (1, 2, 15, and 16) with the 12 groups that received model, practice, and test at dissimilar fidelity levels of simula- tion (3-14). Hypothesis 1 stated that the Similar Fidelity Groups (1, 2, 15, and 16) would make more CTRLs on the short-term measure than the Dissimilar Fidelity Groups (3-14). The planned contrast between Similar and Dissimilar Fidelity Groups was tested using a one-tailed E test. In the computation of the planned comparison, the four Similar Fidelity Group means (1, 2, 15, and 16) were weighted one-fourth. The 12 Dissimilar Fidelity Group means (3-14) were weighted one-twelfth. The weighted means used in this comparison are displayed in Table 5. The difference in means between the Similar Fidelity Groups and the Dissimilar Fidelity Groups was opposite to the predicted direction and so was not statistically sig- nificant (_t_=4.09, df 48). 74 Table 5 Weighted Means for Similar and Dissimilar Fidelity Treatment Contrasts Similar Fidelity Groups 10.76 Dissimilar Fidelity Groups 14.65 Hypothesis 2 was based upon the proposition of Bandura (1969) that high fidelity training procedures are more effective than low fidelity training procedures. For this study, Bandura's proposition (1969) translates into comparing the means of the groups that received model, practice, and test at a high fidelity level of simulation (15 and 16) with the groups that received model, practice, and test at a low fidelity level of simulation (1 and 2). Hypothesis 2 stated that the High Fidelity Groups (15 and 16) would make more CTRLs on the short-term measure than the Low Fidelity Groups (1 and 2). The contrast between the High and Low Fidelity Groups was tested by a one-tailed E—test. In the computation of the planned comparison, each of the group means was weighted one-half. The weighted means used for this comparison are reported in Table 6. The difference in means between the High Fidelity (Groups and the Low Fidelity Groups was in the predicted Video >Audio >Manual. The means for the model groups are displayed in Table 9 in order to determine the direction of the differences . 78 Table 9 Means for Manual, Audio, Video, and In Viva Model Groups Manual Model Group 12.94 Audio Model Group 11.81 Video Model Group 14.44 In Viva Model Group 14.63 The difference in means between the model groups was not statistically significant (F==.476, df l, 48) and so were not ordered as hypothesized. Hypothesis 5 stated the proposition (Bandura, 1969) that high fidelity practice of modeled behaviors is more effective than low fidelity practice of modeled behaviors. The means for the practice groups are presented in Table 10 for the purpose of determining the direction of the differ- ence . Table 10 Means for Low and High Fidelity Practice Groups Low Fidelity Practice Group 12.22 High Fidelity Practice Group 14.69 ‘2; u-qr 0.0!. a or r U. L O '-.+- .u .t 79 The difference in means between the group receiving high fidelity practice and the group receiving low fidelity practice was statistically significant (F==8.93, df l, 48) and the difference was in the predicted direction. Interaction Effect The F test statistic for fidelity of model with test interaction was 5.66, which is statistically significant. The fidelity of model x test interaction indicates that the fidelity of model effect was not constant across all testing situations. In other words, there was an effect due to particular combinations of fidelity levels of model and test. Therefore, the overall fidelity of model effect may not hold up for each level of test. The means for fidelity of model x test interaction are presented in Table 11. Table 11 Means for Fidelity of Model x Test Interaction Low Fidelity Test High Fidelity Test Low Fidelity Model 11.31 13.44 High Fidelity Model 15. 44 13 . 63 80 The graph in Figure 3 illustrates that the interaction of fidelity of model with test was ordinal, the High Fidelity Model Groups doing better than the ILow Fidelity Model Groups across testing situations. Means 201 ___ High Fidelity Model 15 - __i 104 "“- Low Fidelity Model 5 q 0 # 4% Low Fidelity Test High Fidelity Test Figure 3. Graph of the Interaction Effect Between Fidelity of Model and Test. An ordinal interaction, such as displayed in Figure 3, is less restrictive to generalization of the results than the disBordinal type. Though fidelity of model and test interact, t11€313e does seem to be qualified support that fidelity of Inc><1€el and test interact in a non-contradictory way. Figure 3 seems to indicate that the High Fidelity MC)Cieel Groups do better than the Low Fidelity Model Groups on t7hl€3 low fidelity test. However, on the high fidelity test, the difference between the model groups is small suggesting th . . Ei1: the effect of fidelity of model may not hold for the h . 191’) fidelity test. ¥ 81 A post-hoc technique (Scheffé, 1959) was computed to determine if the fidelity of model effect holds for the high fidelity test situation. In the actual computation, the means of the High Fidelity Model--High Fidelity Test 15, and 16) were weighted one-fourth. The Groups (11 , 12 , Ineans of the Low Fidelity Model--High Fidelity Test Groups (9, 10, 13, and 14) were also weighted one-fourth. The (difference in means between the High Fidelity Model--High Ftidelity Test Groups (11, 12, 15, and 16) and the Low Fidel- jsty Mode1--High Fidelity Test Groups (9, 10, 13, and 14) was iii the predicted direction but was not statistically signif- ixzant (F==.23, df 15, 48). This indicates that the effect due to fidelity of model does not hold for the high fidelity test. The F test statistic for practice with test inter- action was 4.65, which is statistically significant. The Practice x test interaction indicates that the fidelity of practice effect was not constant across all testing situa- tions but was due to particular combinations of the levels CnE' Ipractice and test. Therefore, the overall fidelity of préictice effect may not hold up for each level of test. The means for practice x test interaction are re3E3<3rted in Table 12. 82 Table 12 Means for Practice x Test Interaction Low Fidelity Test High Fidelity Test Low Fidelity Practice 11.25 13.19 Iiigh Fidelity Practice 15.50 13.88 The graph in Figure 4 illustrates that the practice 3: test interaction was ordinal, high fidelity practice doing laertter than low fidelity practice across testing situations. Me ans 20 - High Fidelity Practice 15“- \ 10.. --------------- Low Fidelity Practice o A. t Low Fidelity Test High Fidelity Test Figure 4. Graph of Interaction Effect Between Practice and Test. Even though practice and test interact, they do not as . . . fiiegnn to do so in a contradictory manner. However, the dif- :E Eilrfiénce between the High and Low Fidelity Practice Groups 83 on the high fidelity test (Figure 4) suggests that the fidelity of practice effect may not hold for the high fidelity test. A post-hoc technique (Scheffé, 1959) was computed “to determine if the fidelity of practice effect holds for the high fidelity test. In computing the contrast, the means of the High Fidelity Practice--High Fidelity Test Groups (13, 14, 15, and 16) were weighted one-fourth. The means of the Low Fidelity Practice—-High Fidelity Test Groups (9, 10, 11, and 12) were also weighted one-fourth. The difference in means between the High Fidelity Practice and Low Fidelity Practice Groups on the high fidelity test was in the predicted direction but was not statistically significant (F= .68, df 15, 48) , indicating that the effect due to fidelity of practice does not hold for the high fidelity test. Thus, fidelity of model and practice appear to interact with test in a similar fashion. The F test statistic for fidelity of model x prac- tice x test interaction was 8.93, which is statistically Significant. The means of the interaction of fidelity of Inc>del x practice x test are displayed in Table 13. A comparison of the means in Table 13 illustrates that for all practical purposes the interaction appears to b . . . . e ordinal. An interesting observation appears to be that all groups do about equally well except for the groups that e J{perienced model, practice, and test through low fidelity s . lullalation methods represented by the first mean (1) . ¥ 84 Table 13 Means for Fidelity of Model x Practice x Test Interaction Low Fidelity Test High Fidelity Test Low Fidelity High Fidelity Low Fidelity High Fidelity Practice Practice Practice Practice Low Fidelity .Model 7.13 (l) 15.50 (3) 13.5 (5) 13.33 (7) High Fidelity Model 15.38 (2) 15.50 (4) 12.88 (6) 14.38 (8) Even though all interactions were considered to be ordinal, the separate and combined effects described pre- viously concerning fidelity of model, practice, and test were not constant and need to be interpreted in terms of particular levels of model, practice, and test. It is now time to return to the hypotheses and interpret the results of the short-term measure with the Pr0per qualifications . Hypothesis l.--In this study, based on Thorndike's theory concerning transfer of training (Thorndike & Wood- worth, 1901) , the groups that received model, practice, and test at the same fidelity level (1, 2, 15, and 16) were pr edicted to make more CTRLs than the groups who received model, practice, and test at differing levels of fidelity (3‘14). The difference in means between the groups were 0 pposite to the predicted direction with the Dissimilar 85 IEfldelity Groups appearing to do better. One reason for ‘this is the poor performance of the Low Fidelity Groups (1 and 2) in comparison with all other groups who perform .about equally. Hypothesis 1 was not supported. It stated: Ss who receive treatment procedures which include model presentation, practice, and testing situation at the same level of fidelity will make more CTRLs on the short-term measure than those 58 who receive the same treatment procedures at dissimilar levels of fidelity. Hypothesis 2.--Bandura (1969) asserted that high fidelity training procedures are more effective than low findelity training procedures. In this study the groups who traceived model, practice, and test at a high fidelity level (1.5 and 16) were predicted to make more CTRLs than the groups who received model, practice, and test at a low fiddelity level (1 and 2). Hypothesis 2 received qualified Support. A comparison of the means in Table 4 indicates that the significant difference found between the groups that received model, practice, and test at a high fidelity level (3.5 and 16) and the groups who received the same three come Ponents at a low fidelity level (1 and 2) does not seem to hc>11d for other groups (3-14) who experienced model, prac- tice, and test at different levels of fidelity. Hypothesis 2 received qualified support. It stated: _ "r._..i.w..-. , ..., 86 S8 who receive the high fidelity treatment procedures including high fidelity model presentation, practice, and testing situation will make more CTRLs an the short-term measure than those Ss who receive the law fidelity treatment procedures including low fidelity model presentation, practice, and testing situation. Hypothesis 3.--High fidelity models are more powerful tflnan low fidelity models (Bandura, 1969). The High Fidelity biodel Groups were predicted to make more CTRLs than the Low Ftidelity Model Groups. Hypothesis 3 received qualified support. The High Fidelity Model Groups (3, 4, 7, 8, ll, 12, 15, and 16) appear to do equally well across each level of LDJractice and test. The Low Fidelity Model Groups (1, 2, 5, 6 , 9, 10, 13, and 14) do equally as well across levels of £>Jractice and test except in combination with low fidelity E>Iractice and test (1 and 2). In fact, all differences k>eatween the Low and High Fidelity Model Groups appear to k>€e ndnimal except under the conditions of low fidelity E>Iractice and test (1 and 2 versus 3 and 4). In this situa- 115.Video >Audio >Manua1. (In terms of cell means the reader is referred to Table 4 (e.g., Cell means 4 > 3 > 2 > 1, etc.)). Hypothesis 4 was not sup- Ported in terms of the specific ordering of the model Simulation groups but was partially supported in light of the qualified support for the effect due to the high fidel- ity model treatment (Hypothesis 3). If the cell means in Table 4 are examined, it will be seen that the only substantial difference between the Itlodel groups are when the manual and audio simulation methods are combined with low fidelity practice and test (1. and 2). 88 This is consistent with the observations between high and low fidelity models combined with low fidelity practice and test (Hypothesis 3). Hypothesis 4 was partially supported. It stated: 83 who receive the model treatment procedure via in viva simulation will make more CTRLs an the short-term measure than those Ss who receive the model treatment procedure via video simulation. Ss who receive the model treatment procedure via video simulation will make more CTRLs an the short-term measure than those Ss who receive the model treatment procedure via audio simulation. Ss who receive the model treatment procedure via audio simulation will make more CTRLs an the short-term measure than those Ss who receive the model treatment procedure via manual simulation. Hypothesis 5. High fidelity practice is better than 11cm» fidelity practice 6Bandura, 1969). In this study, the High Fidelity Practice Groups (5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14, 15, and 1(5) were predicted to make more CTRLs than the Low Fidelity Practice Groups (1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 11, and 12). Hypothesis 5 :received qualified support. The High Fideltiy Practice Groups do equally well aKIross levels of model and test. The Low Fidelity Practice c§roups do equally as well across levels of model and test e3-Kcept for the combination of low fidelity model and test (1.and 2). Under the conditions of low fidelity model and test, the difference between high and low fidelity practice 118 large and in the predicted direction. In fact, all other Video > Audio > Manual. It was also hypothesized that the subjects who received the high 101 fidelity practice procedure would make more CTRLs on the short- and long-term measures than would subjects who received the low fidelity practice procedure. All first and higher order interactions were also investigated. The data were analyzed using a multivariate and univariate analysis of variance and planned contrasts. In order to determine the linear relationship between the score on the Index of Discrimination (Carkhuff, 1969a) (a possible covariate) with the dependent variable in this study (CTRLs), an analysis of covariance was used. The correlation between the covariate and the short-term measure was low (r==.04) indicating that the continued use of this particular subject variable would not be helpful in reducing the posttreatment variance. On the short-term measure significant (a==.05) inter- actions among the treatment variables of model practice, and test were found. For all practical purposes, the interac- tions were ordinal. A statistically significant (a==.05) effect was found due to presenting model, practice, and test at a high fidelity level of simulation. Separate signif- icant (a==.05) effects were found for high fidelity model and high fidelity practice. The differences between the Same and Dissimilar Fidelity Groups and the differences between the In Viva, Video, Audio and Manual Model Groups were not significant (a==.05). The differences seem to hold primarily for a particular combination of fidelity 102 of simulation and model, practice, and test. The Low Fidelity Mode1--Low Fidelity Practice--Low Fidelity Test Groups (1 and 2--Table 4) were low in comparison with all other groups who performed about equally. During the long-term measure, a significant (a==.05) model x practice interaction was found. The interaction was disordinal yielding contradictory results especially the interaction of manual model simulation and practice. All other effects were non-significant (a==.05). Limitations Before considering the many positive conclusions and implications of the present study, it is appropriate to review some of its limitations in order to properly qualify inferences and to suggest possible refinements for future research. In terms of the internal validity of the experi- mental design, the "post-test only design" (Campbell & Stanley, 1963) controls well for variables which might con- found the experimental treatment effects. However, treat- :ments were assigned to different settings including small counseling rooms and large classrooms. The researcher did not control for this extraneous variable, and.it.remains as a possible source of systematic error. Future research Inight control for setting in order to be assured that the 103 treatment effect was not the result of the specific attributes of the setting. Also,the "experts" and role players used in the in viva and video model simulations were not the same. They are possible confounding variables. Though the researcher believed he could establish their equivalence on the basis of the standardization of the content and their similar experiences, the use of the same "experts" and role players across model simulations remains the best assurance that the treatment effect was not the result of the specific attri- butes of the "expert" and/or role players. Using only 20 role players for the high fidelity condition during the practice and test phases raises a question regarding the validity of the assumption that the replications were independent. Though the researcher believed he could establish the equivalence of the role- playing experience on the basis of the standardization of the content and the similar training of the role players, the use of a different role player for each subject remains the best assurance of independence. A.possible threat to external validity was the reactive effects of the experimental arrangements which might preclude generalization about the treatment effects upon persons being exposed to the program in non-experimental settings. The presentation of the treatments was not an out- of-the-ordinary experience, but the announcement concerning 104 the "experimental nature" of the task must have created expectations and attitudes that are not identical to persons in non-experimental settings. A random sample of some population was not possible; so strictly speaking, the results cannot be generalized beyond the sample in this study. However, such a random sample is rarely possible in research. Therefore, the sample and sampling procedure were carefully delineated (see Chapter II). All subjects, who were present on the day of the administration of the treatments, participated. This allows for broader generalization than if a large number refused to participate. Overall, the sample was considered representative of master degree candidates in counseling. An additional factor limiting external validity was the possible interaction effect of selection biases and the experimental variables. The selection biases were the "experts" and role players used in the experimental treat- ments. Important characteristics have been delineated in Chapter II which allows the reader to assess how comparable the "experts" and role players in this study are to those to which he might wish to generalize. Also, the specific counselor training program and the specific client problems used in the modeling and prac- tice phases are carefully delineated for the reader to 105 assess how comparable the characteristics of the program in this study are to others to which he might wish to generalize. The instrumentations used have their limitations. .A threat to external validity is the possibility that the specificity of effects might be due to the specific instruments (test frames, raters, rating criteria, practicum settings, selection of excerpts) used in this study. The 20 standardized test frames used during the short-term measure did not constitute a random sample of client statements from some population. However, such a random sample is rarely possible. Strictly speaking, the results of the short-term measure cannot be generalized beyond these specific test frames. Therefore, the test frames have been carefully delineated in Appendix F which allows the reader to assess how comparable the test frames in this study are to those which he might wish to generalize. . Item difficulty was controlled in this study because all subjects were exposed to the same items. The long-term measure variables had several possible limitations. First of all, the subjects were in different practicum settings (e.g., elementary and secondary schools, community colleges, and rehabilitation agencies) during the long—term measure. Overall, these settings were considered representative of practicum settings used in counselor training programs. F“ ,&-.. ,r p.544: 1 106 Secondly, a five minute random sample from the last half of the first counseling interview was taken. The five minute sample was considered representative of the optimal time for using CTRLs. Finally, the type of counselor training program and practicum supervision experienced by the trainees limits the generalizability of the results. Each one of the limitations is a threat to external validity in that the specificity of the effects of the long- term measure may be a result of the specific measurement variables. Therefore each of the measurement variables has been delineated for the reader to assess how comparable the measurement variables in this study are to those to which he might wish to generalize. Future studies employing the same basic methodology could improve the long-term measure by reducing the amount of time between training and transfer. Other refinements would include taking excerpts from a series of interviews with the same client to observe changes in the dimension of concreteness. An important improvement would be to ascer- tain some measure of the impact of concreteness on the client's behavior in terms of a number of outcome measures (e.g., Carkhuff Scales on Facilitative Dimensions). The rating material and criteria used appeared to be reliable. The application of the criteria and discrim- ination of CTRLs by the raters seem to be easier to make 107 when in manual form (.87 and .85) than on audiotapes (.66 and .60). As was suggested in Chapter II, the use of more raters and the rating of each subject by more than one rater would have given more reliable estimates for each subject. The raters were described so that the reader can assess their comparability to other populations of raters to which he might wish to generalize. A final limitation in this study is the failure to establish a level of "meaningful significance" (Thoresen, 1969). Educational-economic research needs to be conducted in order to establish the cost-efficiency of each of these simulation methods and to determine if the results of com- parative investigations of these methods warrant the more expensive high fidelity methods. Conclusions and Implications The conclusions and implications of this investi- gation must be interpreted in terms of the population used in the study and the procedures and materials employed in the treatments as well as the criterion measures. The range of generalizability in light of these facts is to be determined by the reader. Subject Variable An interest of this study was in examining how counselor-trainees might differ in their pretreatment 108 levels of concreteness. A measure of within counselor differences prior to treatment would allow for systematic use of the measure as a possible covariate, thus optimizing precision. The Index of Discrimination develOped by Carkhuff (1969a) was selected as a possible covariate. The results of the present study indicated a low relationship between the score on the Index and the training outcome (r==.04). Several explanations are possible. The assump- tion based upon common definitions that the Index and the measures in this study were assessing the same dimension may, in fact, be unwarranted. It must also be remembered that the Index is a manual simulation and measures only written behavior, therefore, leaving one to generalize to other simulation methods and behavioral dimensions of inter- est. The low correlation obtained between the Index and the measures in this study may be a function of the differing simulation methods used. Lastly, the results of this study support the growing number of research studies cited by Carkhuff (1969a) supporting a low relationship between discrimination and training outcome. Clearly, the use of the Index through different modes of presentation as a predictor of training outcome needs further investigation. Future research should continue to examine a number of "subject characteristics" (e.g., interpersonal competence) for the purpose of precision. Another use of "subject Characteristics" in research is for the purpose of external 109 validity. Research studies in the future using the same basic programs and methodology could attempt to find subject type by simulation type interactions. Assessment of motiva- tion (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark & Lowell, 1953), learning style (Kagan, 1965), information processing (Kagan et al., 1964) and particular personality variables (e.g., introvert- extravert as measured by the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator) r “I“. ._ could be made and these assessments statistically examined to determine associations between any of these variables and particular simulation methods. In terms of actual use, it might be helpful to have an entry profile on each trainee describing his learning style, interpersonal competence, and his mode of processing information in order to select the most effective training procedures. A "diagnosis" of such trainee differences prior to counselor training might allow for systematic and indi- vidualized instruction, thus optimizing training efficiency and trainee gains. Even though the present study's use of a "subject characteristic" was for the purpose of precision and, therefore, does not offer evidence regarding such a differential training emphasis, its potential appears promising. Dependent Variable The posttreatment data on the short-term measure (Chapter III) indicate that counselors can be trained to use CTRLs. The rater reliabilities of .87 and .85 for 110 manual simulation suggest that raters can learn this reSponse category clearly enough to be consistent in their discriminations between CTRL and non-CTRL. This is less evident when the rating was done on audiotapes (.66 and .60). A possible explanation for the low reliability on the audiotapes is that CTRL is more difficult to discrim- inate on audiotapes because they are embedded within a taped interview which lacks the discreteness and clarity of an instructional manual. A variety of additional research studies may be generated using this same basic paradigm. Studies might begin to investigate whether the particular training pro- grams used in this study are also effective in training counselors to use other counselor response categories, such as self-disclosure responses, clarification responses, interpretation responses, confrontation responses, and emphatic responses. Each of these counselor response classes may be appropriate at certain stages in the coun- seling process. The effectiveness of a counselor is in- creased when he has available in his repertoire a number of response classes and has also learned when it is appropriate to use each of them (Ivey, 1971). This would suggest that counselor educators spend more time and effort on carefully identifying the kinds and classes of counselor responses which will either facilitate 111 or interfere with the counseling process, identifying the various consequences of each of these kinds of responses at various stages in the counseling process, and discrim- inating when each of these responses may be most appropriate. The short-term results of this study suggest that appropri- ate use of a given class of counseling responses could be trained with one program. An implication for counselor education is that a whole series of integrated programs could be developed, with each program using a module approach in which subjects are trained to use one particular response category in a short period of time. Treatment Effects In order to identify the treatment effects the specific treatments are identified by numbers appearing in brackets which correspond to the numbered cell means in Table 4 of Chapter 3. A number of counselor educators (Ivey, 1971; Kagan, Krathwohl et al., 1957) have advocated the use of high fidelity simulation methods in counselor training because they are considered to be more powerful in influencing learning. In the present study, the following questions were formulated to assess the use of high fidelity simula- tion methods in teaching novice counselors to use CTRLs: (1) "Are high fidelity simulation methods more effective than low fidelity simulation methods?" More specifically, (2) "Is the instructional strategy which includes model, 112 practice, and test more effective when presented at a high fidelity level of simulation than at a low fidelity level of simulation?" (Bandura, 1969); (3) "Are high fidelity models more powerful than low fidelity models?"(Bandura, 1969) and, (4) "Is high fidelity practice more effective than low fidelity practice?" (Bandura, 1969). Short-term measure.--In regard to each of these questions examined by this experiment, the results (short- term) give qualified support, namely, that the effects of high fidelity model, high fidelity practice, and the com- bination of model, practice, and test at the high fidelity level appear to hold only when compared to low fidelity simulation methods used consistently across model, practice, and test phases (1 and 2). Another concern examined in this study was: "Is the presentation of model, practice, and test more effective at the same fidelity level of simulation than at dissimilar fidelity levels of simulation?" This question was based upon Thorndike's theory of transfer of training (Thorndike & Woodworth, 1901) that "improved efficiency at one task, acquired as a result of training, would transfer to another task only insofar as the two tasks had identical elements." In terms of this study, the more similar the elements involved in training and testing the more transfer was expected. The results of this study do not appear to support Thorndike's theory. Rather it appears 1;.- uamhnn... .1»; -3 =n 113 that CTRLs were learned and transferred to differing conditions (1, 2, 15, and 16 versus 3-14). In examining the cell means in Table 4, it appears that the groups who received model, practice, and test at a low fidelity level of simulation (1 and 2) are primarily responsible for the relatively poor performance of the Similar Fidelity Groups (1, 2, 15, and 16). A possible explanation for the relatively poor performance of the Low Fidelity Groups (1 and 2) can be attributed to the role of attention in learning (Trabasso & Bower, 1968). Perhaps the subjects involved in the low fidelity simulation treatment became inattentive due to repetitious stimulation. As a corollary, according to Hebb (1955), each individual needs a certain level of arousal in order to function. Possibly the external sources of stimu- lation were so low during the low fidelity treatment that it led to boredom and inattention. Within the same explanatory framework, the signif- icant effect due to the dissimilar fidelity treatment (3-14) can be attributed to presenting model, practice, and test through a variety of simulation methods. The use of a variety of stimulus situations appears to maintain a suffi- cient level of arousal for efficient discrimination. Within the dissimilar fidelity treatment, the high fidelity compo- nents could be considered as "energizers" which break the monotony of the repetitious stimulation of the low fidelity 114 simulation methods; and the low fidelity components could be considered as "relaxers" where the stimulation is reduced in order to regain a better level of functioning. As a corollary, Bandura (1969) suggests that exposure to a variety of stimulus components facilitates generalization (response). It would appear the results of this study lend support to Bandura's (1969) suggestion. The possible facilitating effects of the contrast of high and low fidelity components becomes a plausible explanation for the curious observations concerning the performance of the High and Low Fidelity Model (Figure 3) and Practice Groups (Figure 4). The Low Fidelity Model (Figure 3) and Low Fidelity Practice (Figure 4) Groups did better on the high fidelity test. The opposite is true of the High Fidelity Model (Figure 3) and High Fidelity Prac- tice (Figure 4) Groups. These groups did better on the low fidelity test. Even though the differences were not signif- icant, the conceptualization of high fidelity components as "energizers" and low fidelity components as "relaxers" needs investigation. The constructs of attending behavior and the level of arousal appear to be fruitful areas of investigation. Measurements of arousal and attention could be made in relationship to different simulation methods at different times during counselor training. Perhaps such measurements could give counselor educators a method of determining when ”*3 ”in—”‘— :‘l A 115 and at what level of fidelity the particular trainee should be exposed to specific learning experiences (e.g., practicum). Finally, the failure of the specific model groups to order themselves in terms of performance as predicted, i.e., In Viva >Video >Audio >Manual (Table 4) can possibly be explained by noting that the differences between the model simulations within each level of fidelity of model (e.g., high fidelity model) are not as substantial as hypothesized. For example, media research supports the conclusion that there is no significant difference in amount learned from direct (in viva) and from televised instruction (video) (De Cecco, 1968). The next step in comparing simulation methods might be to compare individual methods such as videotape with combined methods such as videotape and manual in terms of model, practice, and test. The possibilities for future research using the basic methodology of this study appear to be unlimited. More specifically, each phase of the training program in this study provides a variety of directions for research and use in counselor training. In terms of the modeling phase, additional studies might investigate the effects of specific model character- istics in relation to particular simulation methods. Such 116 model attributes as competence, age, sex, personal attracticeness, social power, and ethnic status could be investigated using video simulation with the same basic content and methodology. Counselor educators could also begin to develop a library of simulation models (e.g., videotapes, audiotapes and slides, simulation games) demonstrating the use of basic skills in counseling. r Practice and feedback procedures could also be m u -_ - . investigated. Appearing to have potential is the develop- ment of branching programs concerned with counseling skills for video simulation where problems are presented with an opportunity to choose among alternatives followed by the consequences of each alternative. A library of simulation practice exercises could be constructed for each phase of the counselor training program. Experimentation with dif- fering feedback procedures (e.g., videotape) also needs to be done. Assessment in counselor education is also a poten- tial area for the investigation of the effects of fidelity of simulation. In this study the use of simulation methods during the testing phase was for the purpose of precision. Future research should investigate different simulation methods used as assessment procedures in counselor education in order to help improve prediction of counselor effective- ness. Perhaps the assessment procedures for certification 117 needs to be broadened from typical paper and pencil simulations to include higher fidelity assessment procedures. Long-term measure.--When learning effects demon- strated on the short-term measure do not transfer, it is necessary to offer hypotheses to account for such results. Several are available. The first is that the negative results in the trans- fer situation were due to simple forgetting. There was a ten week interval between the treatment and the transfer experience. Perhaps the treatment was not powerful enough to sustain transfer effects. A second hypothesis is that the degree of transfer required from simulations to the actual setting was too high. There were several important differences between the two situations. First, the short-term measure may be considered a discrete response situation, while the transfer situation was clearly a free operant situation. That is, in the former situation, each subject made only one response to each client. He received feedback in the form of a positive example of a CTRL. During the long-term measure clients responded as a result of the subject's response without giving Specific feedback concerning his response. Second, in the short-term situation client statements appeared one after the other in rapid succession. As Appendix F suggests, each presented problem was different from the one which pre- ceded it. This demands that the subject attend closely to 118 the problem being presented and ignore the problems he attended to before. In contrast, in the presence of an actual client during the long-term measure, the subject saw one client at great length; and in this situation his task was to attend closely to all that the client said-— past and present. Finally, it is possible that the demand characteristics (Orne, 1962) present during the short-term measure (e.g., experimental setting) were not present during the long-term measure. A third hypothesis concerns the imprecision of the long-term measure due to different practicum settings, different clients, the method of selecting the five minute excerpt, and the use of audiotapes for rating. The optimal time for using CTRL is probably dependent upon the client and, therefore, the target response might not occur at all, and even if it does occur, it might not necessarily occur during the time when the excerpt was taken. Even if the target response was made during the proper time interval, it may not be clearly discriminated because of poor sound or because of being enveloped in the flow of the interview. Each.one of these factors contributes to an increase in variance reducing the power of the long-term measure and its ability to pick up differences. The interaction effect between model and practice (Figure 5) appears consistent with the findings of the short-term.measure (Table 4). The Manual Model Group does “:1 1‘;- 119 better when combined with high fidelity practice. This finding is also consistent with the theoretical rationale concerning the level of arousal. High fidelity practice can be viewed as an "energizer" which brings the subjects' level of attention up for better functioning. Of course, speculation about this particular interaction effect must ! be tempered by the knowledge of the number of sources of variation, each at the .05 level. In this context, the r“:-r-r-§ interaction of model and practice may simply be a Type I error. In discussing the conclusions and implications concerning this study, the focus has been on the training of counselors. In addition, its potential in training clients in useful behavior such as concreteness needs to be explored. Increasing numbers of counselor educators are developing a common theme--"training as a preferred mode of treatment" (Carkhuff, 1969a, 1969b). A large number of educators and students are calling for greater emphasis on the skills and conditions necessary to live creatively and effectively in a chaotic world. Counselor educators have often responded in terms of mutually exclusive and artificial dichotomies of meaning or rigor. Some say: "More research is needed!" Others respond: "Let's get practical!" The basic program outlined in this present study appears to be a promising integration of research and training. LIST OF REFERENCES 2- “a. LI ST OF REFERENCES Allen, D. 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Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1964, 33, 264-267. Truax, C. B., & Carkhuff, R. R. Toward effective counseling and psychotherapy: Training and practice. Chicago: Aldine, 1967. Ward, G. R., Kagan, N., & Krathwohl, D. R. An attempt to measure and facilitate counselor effectiveness. Counselor Education and Supervision, 1972, 33, 179-186. Whalen, C. K. Effects of a model and instruction on group verbal behaviors. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology: 1969, 33, 509-521. Whiteley, John M. Counselor education. Review of Educa- tional Research, 1969, 33, 173-187. Wolpe, J. Reciprocal inhibition as the main basis of psychotheraputic effects. In H. J. Eysenek (Ed.) Behavior therapy and the neuroses. New York: Pergamon Press, 1960. Pp. 88-113. . F‘s—”'1 127 Wrenn, C. G. The counselor in the changing world. Washington, D.C.: American Personnel and Guidance Association, 1962. Winborn, B. B., Stewart, N. R., Burks, H. M., Johnson, R. G., & Engelkes, J. R. Performance criteria and supervision checklist for systematic counseling. College of Education, Michigan State University, 1972 (Mimeo.). Yenawine, G., & Arbuckle, D. S. Study of the use of video- tape and audiotape as techniques in counselor education, Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1971, 33, 1-6. it; 55.1.:- A‘ x. 1 -‘ ‘ES'ZT APPENDICES APPENDIX A SYSTEMATIC COUNSLING: A GENERAL INTRODUCTION .4 r APPENDIX A SYSTEMATIC COUNSELING: A GENERAL INTRODUCTION *James R. Engelkes Herbert M. Burks, Jr. Richard G. Johnson Norman R. Stewart Bob B. Winborn Counseling Systems Research Project Department of Counseling, Personnel Services, and Educational Psychology College of Education Michigan State University April 1971 *Permission granted by the above for the purpoSe of .reproduction. 128 *1 .A ’ 129 SYSTEMATIC COUNSELING In 1967 the counselor education faculty at Michigan State University made an evaluation of the master's degree program in counseling. From this study, which revealed a number of weaknesses in the existing program, a new model was developed for counselor preparation. This model was entitled "System- atic Counseling." The purpose of this brief paper is to provide an introduction to this approach. Systematic Coun- seling will be defined, its scientific bases will be speci- fied, and its distinguishing features will be outlined. Finally, a brief overview of the major steps in the Systematic Counseling process will be presented. I. Definition Systematic Counseling is an approach in which the various aspects of the counseling process are clearly identified and organized into a sequence designed to resolve the client's concerns efficiently as well as effectively. II. Scientific Bases Systematic Counseling represents a synthesis of three scientific approaches--learning theory, systems analysis, and educational technology. Learning theory and the principles of behavior modification provide the theoret- ical and experimental base. Systems analysis provides the organizational framework, and educational technology is the source of methods and materials. III. Distinguishing Features There are several features of this approach which, when taken in combination, serve to distinguish it from other approaches to counseling: A. Counselor and client establish a mutually agreed-upon objective and counseling and then work toward the attainment of that objective. B. The objective is stated in terms of specific observ- able behaviors. C. The counselor directs Specific learning experiences designed to help the client attain his objective. D. As suggested in the proposed definition, an attempt has been made to identify the elements of the counseling process and to place them into an optimal sequence. It should be stressed, however, that while IV. 130 this sequence is considered ideal for most situations, flexibility is provided for situations which deviate from the usual. E. In this approach, counseling is viewed as a learning process. Through counseling, the client learns new ways of obtaining information, new ways of making decisions, and new ways of responding to his environ- ment. Moreover, he learns how to apply these learn- ings to other situations beyond those concerning the problem which brought him in for counseling. F. The counselor uses a wide variety of resources in ‘ terms of both techniques and people in helping the c client to attain his objective for counseling. h- Besides such "standard" counseling techniques as listening, reflecting, clarifying, asking questions, summarizing, and furnishing information--near1y all of which are strictly verbal in nature--the counselor uses a number of additional techniques or procedures as well. For example, he may arrange for the client to observe a model of the desired behavior, whether live, audio-taped, or video-taped; he may arrange for a client to visit a place of business; he may set up behavior contracts or use other forms of contin- gency management; he may use counter-conditioning or role-playing. Most of the latter procedures are not limited to the verbal medium. The counselor also frequently involves significant others in the client's environment (e.g., teachers, parents, and peers) as observers of client behavior and as dispensers of reinforcement for appropriate client behaviors. G. Evaluation of both client and counselor performance is a built-in aspect of this approach to counseling. H. Finally, systematic counseling has a self-corrective mechanism built into it, in that the results from evaluating the counselor's behavior are fed back to the counselor to help him in working with other clients. Major steps in Systematic Counseling Attached is a simplified flowchart of the major aspects of the Systematic Counseling process. A flowchart is merely a graphic, sequential description of the functions and decisions involved in the counseling process. You will note that each element, or function, of counseling is enclosed in a box and is labeled by a verbal state- ment, or descriptor. The arrows indicate the order in which the various functions are to be performed, 131 starting at the top and proceeding in counter-clockwise direction, and ending again at the top. Let us now look more closely at certain sections of the flowchart: Function 3327-In Systematic Counseling, as in other approaches, we start with the counselor as the main functionary. Succeeding aspects of the flowchart will show what the counselor does. Function 2.0--The first specific function with which the counsEIEr is concerned is that of processing the client referral. The referral may originate in a number of ways. It may be based on counselor obser- vation; or the case may be called to the counselor's attention by others, such as teachers or other school personnel, by individuals or agencies in the commu- nity at large, or by parents or other members of the client's family. Or, the client may be a self- referral. The counselor then analyzes the appro- priateness of the referral. If he decides that this is not.an appropriate case for him to handle, he will help the client find appropriate assistance from other sources. Function 3327-If the counselor accepts the referral, he then prepares for the interview. This involves arranging for an appointment and reviewing any available data on the client. Function 4.0--During the first interview, the counselor estabIIEhes structure with the client, i.e., he explains the counseling process. This involves explaining briefly the purpose of counseling, the respective roles of counselor and client, the kinds of things focused on in counseling, and the limits under which counseling is conducted. Function 332f-The counselor then proceeds to construct a model of the client's concerns, i.e., he engages the client in conversation about the difficulty so as to understand the problem in all relevant aspects. He then verifies or checks his picture of the client's concerns with the client himself. Function 6.0--Next, counselor and client decide upon a mutuaIIy'acceptable goal for counseling, along with a determination of any intermediate objectives which may need to be accomplished on the way to the ulti- mate objective. 132 Function 7.0--The next major phase is to conduct task operaEIEhs. Here, the overall counseling strategy is determined, operational steps are specified, and the tasks involved are performed. Function 8.0--We now move to a series of functions involVIfig evaluation and termination. First, client performance is evaluated, both in terms of improve- ment over the initial, presenting level of problem behavior and in terms of whether the objective for counseling has been attained. If the objective has not been attained, it is then necessary for counselor and client to "recycle" through, or repeat task Operations, after which client performance is again evaluated. Function 3327-As soon as the objective has been attained, the counselor proceeds to terminate contact with the client. He does this by verbally structuring the termination operations, managing any client resis- tance to termination, and finally, conducting transfer-of-learning operations, i.e., emphasizing how the problem-solving or decision-making strategies and skills involved in the counseling process can be applied by the client to future problems. Function 10.0--The next phase involves an evaluation of the counselor's performance. This may be done through introspection on the part of the counselor, through obtaining the reactions of his supervisor, client, teachers, parents, fellow counselors, and others familiar with the counselor's work with this client. In the next and concluding step, the information resulting from the evaluation of the counselor's performance is transmitted or "fed back" (as indi- cated by the symbol "F") to the counselor to help him adapt his methods so as to be more effective and efficient with the next client. This closes the loop and completes the cycle, thus emphasizing the self- corrective nature of the Systematic Counseling process. m<>rc>4 n noczmnror tnaflow! .. 133 uncommm oszq mmnmmmbrm - a «maxi»: noczmmcza Po- No vanuyan $3me noczmmrzs no» m<>rc>4m 9.524 .2435: mmrfiazwzz. uo pmmmoz3bzom so a x 8 III! oozmdzcoq zoomr 0... amazon 302% 3222 «pm.» 05ml... no: ooczmmCzo 2.35.05 4 oozomxzm - . 9L Po APPENDIX B GUIDELINES FOR EMPATHY TRAINING APPENDIX B GUIDELINES FOR EMPATHY TRAINING I. Each of the sessions of empathy training will follow a schedule. 15 min. Reading feedback 30 min. Staff presentation (modeling) 60 min. Groups 15 min. Break 60 min. Groups 136 min. II. Staff presentations will follow a schedule. First session:" What is empathy? Second session: Giving good feedback Third session: Guidelines for role playing Fourth session: Testing empathy skills Fifth session: Testing empathy skills III. The group sessions will follow a general format. 1. One person (the problem presenter) will present a problem to another member of the group (the listener) for a three minute period. 2. After the three minute interaction, the listener will be given feedback for seven minutes by two other members of the group (the consultants), the problem presenter, and a staff member, if present. 3. The last person to give feedback before the next interaction will be the listener himself. During this time, the listener will tell the group how he thought he did in the interaction. 4. Using the above format there will be six ten minute listening-feedback segments in an hour. 5. Feedback will always consist of the following two things in order. (1) Empathy rating (Use only 1, 1-1/2, 2, 2-1/2, 3, 3-1/2, 4, 4-1/2, 5) 134 IV. 135 (2) Short, specific feedback relative to the rating ("I gave you a 2 because...."). 6. On at least the first two nights, all the problems presented in the groups will be real problems. The problem presenter is responsible for presenting a problem that is appropriate for empathy training. If your mother is presently dying of cancer, you may not want to be cut off after a three minute interaction. Just the same, you are encouraged to present real problems that are presently bothering you. Group members will be expected to perform different roles. Leader Each group will select a different leader for each of the five sessions of empathy training. The leader will be responsible for the following tasks. (1) The leader will keep the group on the time schedule. (2) For each interaction, the leader will appoint a listener, a problem presenter and two consultants. The leader will participate in the group (e.g., be a listener, consultant, etc.). When he participates, he will delegate his leader's role to another member of the group. Problem presenter Present a real or role-played problem to a listener. Give feedback to the listener. Listener Respond empathically to the problem presenter. At the end of the feedback segment, rate yourself and tell the group your reasons for the rating. Consultant Give feedback to the listener. It is usually helpful to write down feedback comments during the interaction. Staff members will enter and leave groups at various times. During the feedback segments, they will be given prece-- dence. 136 VI. After the first night, when individual group members feel they are ready to be tested, they will contact a staff member. VII. The focus of the training is to learn to respond empathically, not to learn the specific group structure and roles. The guidelines are intended only as a means of learning empathic skills. The guidelines are not an end in themselves. APPENDIX C CARKHUFF INDEX OF DISCRIMINATION ‘1 APPENDIX C CARKHUFF INDEX OF DISCRIMINATION A DESCRIPTION OF HELPER RESPONSES TO HELPEE STIMULUS EXPRESSIONS: AN INDEX OF DISCRIMINATION Introduction and Instructions The following excerpts involve a number of helpee stimulus expressions and in turn a number of helper responses. There are 16 expressions by helpees of problems, and in response to each expression there are four possible helper responses. These helpees can be considered to be helpees in very early contacts. They may not be formal helpees. They may simply be peOple who sought the help of another person in a time of need. In this example the same helpee and the same helper are involved. You may rate these excerpts, keeping in mind that those helper responses which the helpee can employ most effec- tively are rated the highest. 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 l l J l I None of Some of the All of the All of the All of the these condi- conditions conditions conditions conditions tions are are com- are communi- are com- are fully communicated municated cated at a municated, communi- to any and some minimally and some cated simul- noticeable are not. facilitative are communi- taneously degree in level. cated fully. and con- the person. tinually. <3ross ratings of facilitative interpersonal functioning. inhe facilitator is a person who is living effectively himself (and.who discloses himself in a genuine and constructive fashion in response to others. He communicates an accurate empathic understanding and a respect for all of the feelings 137 138 of other persons and guides discussions with those persons into specific feelings and experiences. He communicates confidence in what he is doing and is Spontaneous and intense. In addition, while he is open and flexible in his relations with others, in his commitment to the welfare of the other person he is quite capable of active, assertive, and even confronting behavior when it is appropriate. You will read a number of excerpts taken from therapy sessions. Rate each excerpt 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5 or 5.0, us1ng the above continuum. Excerpt 1 Helpee: I don't know if I am right or wrong feeling the way I do. But I find myself withdrawing from people. I don't seem to socialize and play their stupid little games any more. I get upset and come home depressed and have headaches. It all seems so superficial. There was a time when I used to get along with every- body. Everybody said, "Isn't she wonderful. She gets along with everybody. Everybody likes her." I used to think that was something to be really proud of, but that was who I was at that time. I had no depth. I was what the crowd wanted me to be--the particular group I was with. Helper responses: 1. You know you have changed a lot. There are a lot of things you want to do but no longer can. 2. You are damned sure who you can't be any longer but you are not sure who you are. Still hesitant as to who you are yet. 3. Who are these people that make you so angry? Why don't you tell them where to get off! They can't control your existence. You have to be your own person. 4. So you have a social problem involving interpersonal difficulties with others. Excerpt 2 Helpee: I love my children and my husband and I like doing most household things. They get boring at times but on the whole I think it can be a very rewarding thing at times. I don't miss working, going to the office every day. Most women complain of being just a housewife and just a mother. But, then, again, I wonder if there is more for me. Others say there has to be. I really don't know. 139 Helper responses: 1. Hmm. Who are these other peOple? 2. So you find yourself raising a lot of questions about yourself--educationally, vocationally. 3. Why are you dominated by what others see for you? If you are comfortable and enjoy being a housewife, then continue in this job. The role of mother, homemaker can be a full-time, self-satisfying job. 4. While others raise these questions, these questions are real for you. You don't know if there is more out there for you. You don't know if you can find more fulfillment than you have. Excerpt 3 Helpee: Sometimes I question my adequacy of raising three boys, especially the baby. I call him the baby--well, he is the last. I can't have any more. So I know I kept him a baby longer than the others. He won't let anyone else do things for him. If someone else opens the door, he says he wants Mommy to do it. If he closes the door, I have to open it. I encourage this. I do it. I don't know if this is right or wrong. He insists on sleeping with me every night and I allow it. And he says when he grows up he won't do it any more. Right now he is my baby and I don't discourage this much. I don't know if this comes out of my needs or if I'm.mak- ing too much out of the situation or if this will handi- cap him when he goes to school--breaking away from Mamma. Is it going to be a traumatic experience for him? Is it something I'm creating for him? I do worry more about my children than I think most mothers do. Helper responses: 1. So you find yourself raising a lot of questions as to if what you are doing is right for your child. 2. Is it perhaps possible for you to have the child become involved in a situation such as some expe- riences in a public park where the child could play and perhaps at a distance you could supervise--where the child can gain some independence? 3. Could you tell me--have you talked to your husband about this? 4. While you are raising a lot of questions for your- self about yourself in relation to your youngest child, you are raising some more basic questions about yourself in relation to you. In lots of ways you're not certain where you are going--not sure who you are. AWE IE. 140 Excerpt 4 Helpee: It's not an easy thing to talk about. I guess the heart of the problem is sort of a sexual problem. I never thought I would have this sort of problem. But I find myself not getting the fulfillment I used to. It's not as enjoyable--for my husband either, although we don't discuss it. I used to enjoy and look forward to making love. I used to have an orgasm but I don't anymore. I can't remember the last time I was satisfied. I find myself being attracted to other men and wondering what it would be like to go to bed with them. I don't know what this means. Is this symptomatic of our whole relationship as a marriage? Is something wrong with me or us? Helper responses: 1. Perhaps you feel your marriage and role of mother is holding you back and preventing you from being some- thing else you want to be. Your resentment here against your husband is manifested in your frigidity. Perhaps it is your way of paying him back for keep- ing you down in this role, for confining you, for restricting you. 2. What about your relationship with your husband, his role as father and companion? 3. You don't quite know what to make of all this but you know something is dreadfully wrong and you are determined to find out for yourself, for your marriage. 4. What's happened between you and your husband has raised a lot of questions about you, about him, about your marriage. Excerpt 5 Helpee: Gee, those people! Who do they think they are? I just can't stand interacting with them anymore. Just a bunch of phonies. They leave me so frustrated. They make me so anxious. I get angry at myself. I don't even want to be bothered with them anymore. I just wish I could be honest with them and tell them all to go to hell! But I guess I just can't do it. Helper responses: 1. They really make you very angry. You wish you could handle them more effectively than you do. 2. Damn, they make you furious! But it's just not them. It's with yourself, too, because you don't act on how you feel. 141 3. Why do you feel these people are phony? What do they say to you? 4. Maybe society itself is at fault here--making you feel inadequate, giving you this negative view of yourself, leading you to be unable to successfully interact with others. Excerpt 6 Helpee: They wave that degree up like it's a pot of gold at the end of the rainbow. I used to think that, too, until I tried it. I'm happy being a housewife, I don't care to get a degree. But the people I associate with, the first thing they ask is, "Where did you get your degree?" I answer, "I don't have a degree." Christ, they look at you like you are some sort of a freak, some backwoodsman your husband picked up along the way. They actually believe that people with degrees are better. In fact, I think they are worse. I've found a lot of people without degrees that are a hell of a lot smarter than these people. They think that just because they have degrees they are something special. These poor kids that think they have to go to college or they are ruined. It seems that we are trying to perpetrate a fraud on these kids. If no degree, they think they will end up digging ditches the rest of their lives. They are looked down upon. That makes me sick. Helper responses: 1. You really resent having to meet the goals other people set for you. What do you mean by "it makes me sick?" Do you honestly feel a degree makes a person worse or better? And not having a degree makes you better? Do you realize society perpetrates many frauds and sets many prerequisites such as a degree. You must realize how doors are closed unless you have a degree, while the ditches are certainly open. 4. A lot of these expectations make you furious. Yet, they do tap in on something in yourself you are not sure of--something about yourself in relation to these other people. 2 3 142 Excerpt 7 Helpee: I get so frustrated and furious with my daughter. I just don't know what to do with her. She is bright and sensitive, but damn, she has some characteristics that make me so on edge. I can't handle it sometimes. She just--I feel myself getting more and more angry! She won't do what you tell her to. She tests limits like mad. I scream and yell and lose control and think there is something wrong with me--I'm not an understand- ing mother or something. Damn! What potential! What she could do with what she has. There are times she doesn't use what she's got. She gets by too cheaply. I just don't know what to do with her. Then she can be so nice and then, boy, she can be as ornery as she can be. And then I scream and yell and I'm about ready to slam her across the room. I don't like to feel this way. I don't know what to do with it. Helper responses: 1. So you find yourself screaming and yelling at your daughter more frequently during the past three months. 2. Why don't you try giving your daughter some very precise limitations. Tell her what you expect from her and what you don't expect from her. No excuses. 3. While she frustrates the hell out of you, what you are really asking is, "How can I help her? How can I help myself, particularly in relation to this kid?" 4. While she makes you very angry, you really care what happens to her. Excegat 8 Helpee: He is ridiculous! Everything has to be done when he wants to do it, the way he wants it done. It's as if nobody else exists. It's everything he wants to do. There is a range of things I have to do--not just be a housewife and take care of the kids. Oh no, I have to do his typing for him, errands for him. If I don't do it right away, I'm stupid--I'm not a good wife or some- thing stupid like that. I have an identity of my own, and I'm not going to have it wrapped up in him. It makes me--it infuriates me! I want to punch him right in the mouth. What am I going to do? Who does he. think he is anyway? Helper responses : 1. It really angers you when you realize in how many ways he has taken advantage of you. 143 2. Tell me, what is your concept of a good marriage? . Your husband makes you feel inferior in your own eyes. You feel incompetent. In many ways you make him sound like a very cruel and destructive man. 4. It makes you furious when you think of the one- sidedness of this relationship. He imposes upon you everywhere, particularly in your own struggle for your own identity. And you don't know where this relationship is going. Excerpt 9 Helpee: I finally found somebody I can really get along with. There is no pretentiousness about them at all. They are real and they understand me. I can be myself with them. I don't have to worry about what I say and that they might take me wrong, because I do sometimes say things that don't come out the way I want them to. I don't have to worry that they are going to criticize me. They are just marvelous people! I just can't wait to be with them! For once I actually enjoy going out and interacting. I didn't think I could ever find people like this again. I can really be myself. It's such a wonderful feeling not to have people criticizing you for everything you say that doesn't agree with them. They are warm and understanding, and I just love them! It's just marvelous! Helper responses: 1. Sounds like you found someone who really matters to you. 2. Why do these kind of pe0ple accept you? 3. That's a real good feeling to have someone to trust and share with. "Finally, I can be myself." 4. Now that you have found these people who enjoy you and whom you enjoy, spend your time with these people. Forget about the other types who make you anxious. Spend your time with the people who can understand and be warm with you. Exce rgt 10 Helpee: I'm really excited! We are going to California. I'm going to have a second lease on life. I found a marvelous job! Its great! It's so great I can't believe it's true--it's so great! I have a secretarial job. I can be a mother and can have a part-time job which I think I will enjoy very much. I can be home when the kids get home from school. It's too good to 144 be true. It's so exciting. New horizons are unfolding. I just can't wait to get started. It's great! Helper responses: 1. Don't you think you are biting off a little bit more than you can chew? Don't you think that working and taking care of the children will be a little bit too much? How does your husband feel about this? 2. Hey, that's a mighty good feeling. You are on your way now. Even though there are some things you don't know along the way, it's just exciting to be gone. 3. Let me caution you to be cautious in your judgment. Don't be too hasty. Try to get settled first. 4. It's a good feeling to contemplate doing these things. Excerpt ll Helpee: I'm so pleased with the kids. They are doing just marvelously. They have done so well at school and at home; they get along together. It's amazing. I never thought they would. They seem a little older. They play together better and they enjoy each other, and I enjoy them. Life has become so much easier. It's really a joy to raise three boys. I didn't think it would be. I'm just so pleased and hopeful for the future. For them and for us. It's just great! I can't believe it; it's marvelous. Helper responses: 1. It's a good feeling to have your kids settled once again. 2. Is it possible your kids were happy before but you never noticed it before? You mentioned your boys. How about your husband? Is he happy? . Do you feel this is a permanent change? 4. Hey, that's great! Whatever the problem, and you know there will be problems, it's great to have experienced the positive side of it. .Excerpt 12 Iflalpee: I'm really excited the way things are going at home with my husband. It's just amazing! We get along great together now. Sexually, I didn't know we could be that happy. I didn't know anyone could be that happy. It's just marvelous! I'm just so pleased, I don't know what else to say. 145 Helper re3ponses: 1. 2. 3 4 Excerpt It's a wonderful feeling when things are going well maritally. It's really exciting to be alive again, to feel your body again, to be in love again. Is your husband aware of these changes? Now don't go overboard on this right now. There will be problems that lie ahead and during these periods that you have these problems I want you to remember well the bliss you experienced in this moment in time. 13 Helpee: I didn't know any existed. so well. alive again. I'm so thrilled to have found a counselor like you. You seem to understand me It's just great! I feel like I'm coming I have not felt like this in so long. Helper responses: 2. Excerpt Helpee: Gratitude is a natural emotion. This is quite nice but remember, unless extreme caution is exercised, you may find yourself moving in the other direction. That's a good feeling. Hey, I'm as thrilled to hear you talk this way as you are! I'm pleased that I have been helpful. I do think we still have some work to do yet, though. 14 No response (Moving about in chair). Helper responses: E_xcerpt Helpee: along together and you could help me. be getting anywhere. don't know I'm here. me. You can't really say all that you feel at this moment. A penny for your thoughts. Are you nervous? Maybe you haven't made the progress here we hoped for. You just don't know what to say at this moment. 15 Gee, I'm so disappointed. I thought we could get We don't seem to You don't understand me. You I don't even think you care for You don't hear me when I talk. You seem to be 146 somewhere else. Your responses are independent of anything I have to say. I don't know where to turn. I'm just so--doggone it--I don't know what I'm going to do, but I know you can't help me. There just is no hope. Helper responses: 1. I have no reason to try and not to help you. I have every reason to want to help you. 2. Only when we establish mutual understanding and trust and only then can we proceed to work on your problem effectively. 3. It's disappointing and disillusioning to think you have made so little progress. 4. I feel badly that you feel that way. I do want to help. I'm wondering, "Is it me? Is it you, both of us?" Can we work something out? Excerpt 16 Helpee: Who do you think you are? You call yourself a therapist! Damn, here I am spilling my guts out and all you do is look at the clock.~ You don't hear what I have to say. Your responses are not attuned to what I'm saying. I never heard of such therapy. You are supposed to be helping me. You are so wrapped up in your world you don't hear a thing I'm saying. You don't give me the time. The minute the hour is up you push me out the door whether I have something important to say or not. I--uh--it makes me so goddamn mad! Helper responses: 1. You are suggesting I'm wrapped up in myself. Do you think that perhaps, in fact, this is your problem? 2. I'm only trying to listen to you. Really, I think we are making a whole lot of progress here. 3. You are pretty displeased with what has been going on here. 4. All right, you are furious, but I wonder if it's all mine or is there something else eating you? APPENDIX D INSTRUCTIONS FOR ROLE PLAYERS--PRACTICE APPENDIX D INSTRUCTIONS FOR ROLE PLAYERS--PRACTICE General Instructions Check room assignment. When subject arrives, make sure he is in right room and phase. Refer to "Room Assignment Sheet." Circle nam -- if a "no-show." Subjects are seen individually. Materials you need: a. Room Assignment Sheet b. Instructions for Role Players c. Practice Frames Manual d. Test Frames Manual e. Cassette recorder f. Cassette tapes (one tape per each subject) g. Pen or pencil. Specific Instructions Phase II 1. 2. Read instructions to each subject from the manual entitled "Practice Frames." Next, observe the following procedure: a. Role-play client statement with proper affect b. Allow sufficient time for subject to respond c. Convey feedback to the subject through reading a typical counselor response found on the last page of the "Practice Frames Manual" entitled "Answers." Follow this procedure for all 10 frames. 147 1 {F—u 148 4. Dismiss subject to Phase III assignment. Phase III 1. Read instructions to each subject from the manual entitled "Test Frames." 2. Next, code tape before putting in recorder (one tape per subject). a. Room number b. Subject's code (number at side of subject's name). 3. Set recorder for taping (if not working prOperly, ask for assistance). 4. Then, observe the following procedure: a. Role-play client statement with proper affect b. Allow sufficient time for subject to respond 5. Follow this procedure for all 20 frames. 6. Dismiss subject. APPENDIX E INSTRUCTIONAL MANUAL--MODEL PRESENTATION Emmi fluii BASIC SKILLS IN COUNSELING CONCRETENESS COUNSELOR TACTING RESPONSE LEADS INSTRUCTIONAL MANUAL 150 Introduction One of the important steps in the counseling process is to obtain a clear and unambiguous description of the client's concern. This is usually referred to as helping the client become more concrete. Relevance The relevance of concreteness in counseling is that it helps the client and counselor talk clearly about concerns. By being concrete both client and counselor are enabled to sort the appropriate and inappropriate behaviors and conditions. P11172036 The purpose of the dimension of concreteness in counseling is to help the client specify his problem. This purpose is important for both counselor and client for two reasons: first, to facilitate the understanding of the goals of counseling and, second, to make enlightened decisions about counseling procedures. Counselor Tacting Leads Therefore, it is important for counselors-in-training to acquire skill in making responses which will help clients he more concrete. Such counselor responses are called Counselor Tacting Response Leads. For our purposes we will use Counselor Tacting Leads. Verbal tacts are concrete responses. They are specific descriptions of abstract terms. To make this point clearer imagine a ladder of abstraction. At the top of the ladder we have abstraction. Here words mean many things and lead to many interpretations. As we descend the ladder words mean fewer things enabling a greater agreement. At the bottom of the ladder we have concreteness where words are tied to specific behaviors and environmental conditions. When we tie verbal responses to specific behaviors and environmental conditions we are making tacting responses. 151 Thus a counselor response will be considered a Counselor Tacting Lead when it helps the client describe an abstract concern in terms of Specific behaviors and environmental conditions. Examples Let me demonstrate a part of a counseling interview where a Counselor Tacting Lead was used. Client (CL): I can't concentrate on my studies. (Male-M) Counselor (CO): Tell me what you mean when you say you can't concentrate. (M) 93: ‘When I said I can't concentrate, I mean that when I sit down to study at my desk, I begin to fidget, and think about my girl friend rather than study. In this example the counselor made a Counselor Tacting Lead. In terms of our ladder of abstraction the client's concern was high--the word "concentration" can mean many things. The counselor's lead enabled the client to Specify his concern in terms of behaviors--"I fidget"--"I think about my girl friend"--and conditions "study at my desk." Let's now turn to an inappropriate example: CL: I am flunking out of school ... losing my boyfriend ... fighting with my parents--a real bummer ... I am really depressed. (Female-F) O 0: Tell me more about it. (M) O L: What do you mean? About what? The counselor response "tell me more about it" in the inappropriate example is not to be considered a tacting lead, since it is not at all clear what the counselor is interested in. It did not help the client specify his concern in terms of behaviors or environmental conditions and left her confused. Let's examine how the counselor could have helped the client be more concrete in this Situation by making a tacting response. 152 CE: I am flunking out of school ... losing my boyfriend ... fighting with my parents--a real bummer ... I am really depressed. 99: Can you help me understand what it means to be depressed for you? (M) 23: Oh ... I can't decide anything. I have trouble Sleeping and haven't been able to eat a thing since I moved back home! We can use the ladder of abstraction again to illustrate these two counselor responses. "Tell me more about it" can mean many things and therefore, is quite high up on the ladder of abstraction; whereas the second counselor's response "Can you help me understand what it means to be depressed for you" is a tacting lead. It helps the client Specify his concern about depression by tying the client's response to behaviors (indecision, insomnia, and lack of appetite) and conditions (at home). Optimal Time The Optimal timing for making Counselor Tacting Leads within a counseling interview and during a series of interviews is an open question. For our purposes we will consider the initial counseling interview. If we think of a counseling interview (in this case the initial interview) as breaking down into four phases, we will consider the making of Coun- selor Tacting Leads as most crucial during the third and fourth phase. It is during these phases that the counselor most effectively can help the client specify his concern. Before we examine other examples from counseling interviews let us summarize what we have been saying. Summary First, we have said that it is important to help clients specify their concern; second, it is important to foster concreteness in counseling for both counselor and client because it promotes the understanding of goals and imple- mentation of counseling procedures. Next in order to facilitate concreteness you as a counselor need to learn to make Counselor Tacting Leads which help clients describe abstract concerns in terms of behaviors and environmental conditions. Finally, the use of Counselor Tacting Leads in the initial counseling interview is more crucial during the final two phases of the interview. 153 Let's examine the following interviews. This series of high school age clients illustrate the final two phases of the initial counseling interview. Modeling Frames (1-5) #1. g_: I just feel depressed. Nothing goes right. It's really affecting my school work. My grades are slip- ping and I know I'm not doing well. I feel down no matter how hard I try. (F) 99: Describe how you feel--inside--when you're down. (M) £2- 93: I've never really had any close friends. It seems that everyone around me has friends but me. No matter how hard I try, I never feel as though I'm accepted. (M) 99: Can you give me an example when you felt as though you were trying to be friends with someone and felt rejected. (M) _#_3. SE? I'm scared. I'm always scared. I don't know what it is, but I'm always nervous and I'm that way all day long. I never feel relaxed. (F) 99: Can you narrow that down. Give me an example when you were scared. (M) 15.- 93: It's this group of friends I have. Well not really friends exactly because nobody seems to act like a friend. Everybody says we're all friends but we all know it isn't true. We're not really friends at all. But we all want to be friends. Maybe you can help us. (F) 92: Can you give me an example about what not really acting like friends is all about. Describe a situation. (M) 3.5.- < 93: I have this problem. It seems that I have no interest in girls, but boys fascinate me. I just love to sit in class and stare at boys. I could do this for hours. (M) 92: What's going on in your head when you stare at boys? (M) 154 Review Before we continue let's review the first five examples to see how the counselor's responses which we call a tacting lead could help a client be more concrete. In each example the counselor's response attempted to help the client specify his concern in terms of behaviors and conditions. First, with the client who was depressed the counselor asked for specific behaviors--"how does it feel inside?" The client lacking close friends was asked to Specify his H concern in terms of behaviors and conditions by giving an example. The same kind of request was made by the counselor who was interviewing the frightened client. The client was asked to narrow this concern down in terms of behaviors and conditions. In example 4 the counselor was trying to get a handle on the client's concern about her group of friends. He asked the client to describe a situation when her friends were not acting like friends. Again, the emphasis was upon specifying her concern in terms of behaviors and conditions. Finally, the counselor was trying to help this client specify his fascination with boys in terms of specific behaviors-- fantasies. Let's return to the rest of our examples. Modeling Frames (6-10) #6. EE: It's because I'm Short. People don't come right out and say it, but I know deep down they really look down on me and look at me as if I were inferior. I really resent that. (M) 99: I'm wondering what you're thinking about my reactions to your shortness. (M) 17.- 22: I have trouble with my reading comprehension, too. I have to read something three or four times before I pick it up, and I don't feel my study habits are too good. I'm flunking out. (F) 155 99: Could you help me understand what you are thinking about when you begin to read. (M) i3.- 93: Here I am ready to graduate, and I still don't know what I want to do with my life. I just can't seem to make a decision on what to do after high school. Nothing seems interesting or appealing. I'm really getting worried. (M) 99: What kinds of things have you thought about doing after graduation? (M) 1.9.- 95: It's really getting me down. I'm the kind of guy who'd wind up buying the Brooklyn Bridge. I just can't seem to say "no" to people. My life is run by everybody but me. There are so many instances. It upsets me--even frightens me at times. (M) 29‘ I am confused. Give me a "for instance." (M) #10. 9E: ... and one time ... I was walking down the hallway in the school. I got the funniest feeling that I wasn't walking at all but that I was Sliding along the floor like a snake ... like I was really a snake; it was creepy. (F) g_: To help me understand can you describe what else is going on around you when you feel this way. (M) Review Again we can view the last five examples as good Counselor Tacting Leads. Each counselor's response was designed to help the client be more concrete in terms of behaviors and conditions. For instance we have the counselor asking the client to be more concrete about his feeling about being Short. With the client with reading problems the counselor asks what she is thinking about when She begins to read. Again with the client about to graduate the counselor asks about his Specific thoughts about what he might do after graduation. 156 The counselor working with the "I can't say no client" is confused and asks for a specific instance. Finally, the counselor asks the client who feels like a snake to describe what is going on around her. Conclusion In each of these instances the counselor has attempted to help the client descend the ladder of abstraction where concerns mean fewer and fewer things. Finally, when the client is enabled to Specify his concern in terms of behaviors and conditions both counselor and client can move on to set up goals and implement the procedures for change. APPENDIX F PRACTICE FRAMES BASIC COUNSELING SKILLS CONCRETENESS COUNSELOR TACTING RESPONSE LEADS PRACTICE FRAMES Name Code r-u_bi a 158 Code Instructions This is a practice exercise. You are about to examine a series of statements made by high school age clients appear- ing individually for a counseling interview. Each client statement has been taken from actual counseling sessions. These statements were considered to be cricital incidents in counseling; that is, a turning point in the direction of movement in the counseling process. You are asked to make a written response to each client statement. Place yourself in a position or frame of refer- ence as the counselor for this client. You are seeking to help the client specify his concern so as to begin to set up goals and procedures for counseling. A relationship has been established by you with the client and you are in the goal-setting or final phases of the initial counseling inter- view. After reading carefully each client's statement respond in written form as if you were with him as a coun- selor in an actual counseling session. At the end of the practice exercise are typical counselor responses considered to be appropriate. Practice Frames 1. Client (CL): It's this friend of mine. He's worrying ' quite a bit lately. It seems everything worries him no matter how small a matter it is. Could you tell me why he's worrying so much and how can I help him? Counselor (CO): I've been feeling terrible, ... Blahh. It's hard to explain. It's like nothingness. Do you know what I mean? :9 I? '53 IE3 IS I? I8 I? )8 IO '0 159 My father died last month and Since then life has been miserable. My mother has really taken it hard. She cries an awful lot and She's very depressed. I don't know what to do to help her. I just don't seem to be able to do anything right. No matter how hard I try, it's never good enough. Somebody is always criticizing the way I've done it. Nobody ever tells me I've done something right, and now I feel like I can't do anything right at all. I'm really in a spot. Two boys (girls) are interested in me, but I like only one of them. Yet I hate to hurt the other boy (girl). He's (she's) really very nice and kind, but I just don't like him (her) the way I to Tom (Mary). I don't know what to do about this mess. Why do I always get into fights? Every day it seems--another fight. I don't really want to fight with the other guys (gals), but somehow I don't seem to be able to stop it. You know how some people say "another day, another dollar." Well with me, it's "another day, another fight." I? IS IE3 IS 160 I don't know. It's all mixed up. It's just so crazy. I really need help. Everything is so messed up and it just doesn't make sense. I'm so confused. Maybe you can help me. It just seems that nobody cares about me. Nobody seems to want me. Nobody is interested in me. I'm really not very pretty (handsome); I know that, but I just wish somebody would Show me that they care about me. Elevators. I never go on them. I haven't ridden on one in years. Always walk. But that's the problem! Sometimes I lose out on a lot by walking. We went to Chicago a couple of weeks ago. Every- body went to the restaurant on the top floor. I didn't. This thing about elevators is really buggin' me more and more. Boy, I freeze up on tests. Just can't take them and with the ACT'S coming up, I'm concerned. Thought maybe you could help me. l8 l8 [8 l8 IS I8 ('3 O 161 Answers What kinds of things especially worry your friend? How do you feel inside--physica11y--when you get these "blaah" feelings? When do you feel most miserable? Give me a recent example of a time when someone severely criticized you. What do you mean when you say "hurt" the other boy? Tell me about the most recent fight you have been involved in. Can you help me understand what it means for you to be confused. Describe what is going on right now. What makes you think nobody cares about you? Would this feeling about elevators apply to anything else? Tell me about the most recent time you really froze up in a testing situation. APPENDIX G TEST FRAMES 1 Mum—1‘ rm . TEST FRAMES Name Code 163 Code Instructions You are about to examine a series of statements made by high school age clients appearing individually for a counseling interview. Each client statement has been taken from actual counseling sessions. These statements were considered to be critical incidents in counseling; that is, a turning point in the direction of movement in the counseling process. You are asked to make a written response to each client statement. Place yourself in a position or frame of ref- erence as the counselor for this client. A relationship has been established by you with the client and you are in the goal-setting or final phases of the initial counseling interview. After reading carefully each client's statement respond in written form as if you were with him as a coun- selor in an actual counseling session. The results of this exercise in no way affects your academic standing. Your written responses will be coded to insure anonymity and confidentiality. Test Frames 1. Client (CL): This is frustrating. I know that counsel- ing could help me, but it makes me feel worse--not better. It's very discouraging and I don't like that. It just makes me feel worse! Counselor (CO): r I? This has been a trouble all my life. Even when I was little. Now, when I have to give a presenta- tion, or something, all these feelings from all my life build up inside of me. '0 lg} I? '9 If? '8 164 I'm nervous, I guess. I'm not sure if it is nervousness, really. Some kind of feeling like that, I guess. It's hard to explain. I've never, well, with rare exceptions, ever really had close friends. I don't seem to fit in too good. I've got a pretty bad feeling. Could count my friends on one hand. Something happens, I guess, between me and other people. I have put applications in all the places I have known of that work very much, never at Motorola but ... they have to take a physical there and I fear that. But G.E. will be hiring Shortly and maybe they'll pick me up. I can't seem to sleep at night. I'll be awake in bed and toss and turn, but I just can't fall asleep. I'm awake for hours, and then I am just dead tired in school. It's affecting my school work and my relations with my friends too. it”? Lil-“1’ .. mu 10. '9 I? I? I? '0 165 Oh, well, I'm not a stupid person. I mean I've got a certain amount of intelligence. And, uh, I find it pretty fairly easy to get along with people; although I'm terribly shy, and it's hard for me to ... to ... to force myself ... I have to really force myself to do some things, espe- cially by myself. I usually have to have somebody with me to hold my hand, so to Speak. J) '1“ ' ' '4. a-.. ”A mm I'm always getting into trouble with the teachers. They never seem to appreciate me or anything like that. They're always so bossy and order you around and everything. They never show any respect or anything like that. All they do is order you around; screw 'em! I think I'll quit school. People! People really disgust me. They're so good. I mean the way they carry on so, and the way they treat you all the time. PeOple are mean and cruel. It's a rotten world with rotten people. I'm sick of the whole thing. Here I am, a leader in the school. Pe0ple like me, I think, and reSpect me; but yet, I don't have any confidence in myself. I just don't think I am capable of anything. 11. 12. 13. 14. I? I? '8 IO '8 I? I8 I? 166 Whatever I do I can justify it to myself. It doesn't make any difference what it is--no matter how wrong or evil. I can make myself feel better about doing it. There are these funny feelings sometimes when I think something is going to happen. It's occurring more and more. Nothing happens, but I can't seem to shake this feeling. Sometimes it really builds up inside of me. When I'm in this particular class I get all wound up and want to scream or run out of there. I can't decide whether to stay in school or not. I know, everyone says you gotta get an education. You gotta get a diploma. But school just doesn't interest me. I'd rather get a job in the auto Shop working on cars. That's what I'm really interested in. Not sitting all day in a classroom. 15. 16. 17. 18. '8 'fc? IO '8 '5 '0 I? 167 No matter how small a thing it is I do wrong, it bothers me for days afterwards. Guilt, I guess you'd call it. But it's getting out of hand. I have to do something about it. Could you help me? I realize I shouldn't be doing some things, but even when I don't, it still gets to me and I can't do my work with this stuff on my mind. Just a born loser, I guess. All my life nothing has worked out. Like having the opposite of a Midas' touch. Everything turns sour. I don't know what I'm going to do. I get very frightened at all this. It-s forgetting. Everything. Well, not everything exactly. Just things I'd want to forget, yet have to remember at the Same time. Know what I mean? It's hard to explain ... well, you know ... don't you? There's nothing wrong with me at all. The principal sent me in to talk to you so that you "can straighten me out" as he put it. I guess he thinks I need to be straightened out but there's nothing wrong with me at all. ‘famfi ' -1. ._ ...... an n' Sh 19. 20. 168 It's my family. We just don't seem to get along well. We constantly fight and bicker with each other. It's getting so bad that I really dread coming home after school. No matter how hard I try, I just can't seem to avoid these arguments. I was talking about forcing myself on somebody. If somebody does let me know that I am forcing myself on them, that would hurt me--and did hurt me. I fear feelings or being rejected by others. This social rejection, and such. APPENDIX H INSTRUCTIONS FOR RATERS APPENDIX H INSTRUCTIONS FOR RATERS Read: "Instructional Manual." Read: "Counselor Tacting Response Lead." Read: "Practice Frames." Read: "Additional Instructions." Begin to rate manuals and tapes using "Counselor Response Scoring Sheet." 169 APPENDIX I ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR RATERS APPENDIX I ADDITIONAL INSTRUCTIONS FOR RATERS l. A CTRL is not a vague lead: I'm-rm a. "Tell me more." b. "What is going on." c. "Give me an example." 2. A CTRL is not 223y_an empathetic response: a. "You sound angry." b. "You seem upset." c. "That must be tough." 3. A CTRL is not advice: a. "You are interested in auto shop." 4. A CTRL 3g an invitation to the client to Specify his concern in terms of behaviors and conditions, and, therefore, a CTRL is designed specifically to elicit concrete language from the client--behaviors and conditions. 170 APPENDIX J RATING FORM FOR THE SHORT-TERM MEASURE 171 .Hawo museumoummm SH A\V xoono wmmmam “Hmumm on mcoflposuumcH AMBU “OZ HmBU Hmuoe om ma ma NH 0H ma vH ma NH dd 0H m m h m m e H mmmau _ mmcommmm mmEmum umma uwpoo nounm mm¢3m¢fi2 Emmalemomm ”9mmmm GZHMOUm mmzommmm moqmmZDOU mmbmfimz ZmWBIBmomm mmB mom Smom UZHBflm b xHazmmmd ”opoo poonnom APPENDIX K INSTRUCTIONS FOR PRACTICUM SUPERVISORS 1. APPENDIX K INSTRUCTIONS FOR PRACTICUM SUPERVISORS Provide student with purpose. Suggested communication to student: "In order to help us improve instruction in the counseling block an excerpt from 223 of your audiotapes will be taken for the purpose of an on-going research project. The information (excerpt) will remain anonymous and confidential and will not affect your course grade." Select an audiotape from each student on the basis of the following criteria: The first interview Reasonable sound quality At least 10 minutes of time devoted to discussing client concern(s). Include the following information: a. b. c. d. Name of student Practicum setting Length 9f session--*Mark on cassette tape when t e seSSion ended Name of supervisor. 172 APPENDIX L RATING FORM FOR THE LONG-TERM MEASURE APPENDIX L RATING FORM FOR THE LONG-TERM MEASURE COUNSELOR RESPONSE SCORING SHEET: LONG-TERM MEASURE Subject Code Rater Code Instructions to Rater: Listen and rate for five minutes. After each minute of rating stop the recorder for 30 seconds. The procedure is as follows: 1. Listen and rate for one minute. 2. Break for 30 seconds (stop recorder). 3. Repeat until you have rated for five minutes. During the rating periods place a vertical mark (1) in the cell corresponding to the time block in which a CTRL was used by the counselor. Do this for each CTRL made. Time in Minutes 1 2 3 4 5 Total number of CTRL(S) for each time period Total CTRL(S) 173 APPENDIX M ANNOUNCEMENT TO CLASS APPENDIX M ANNOUNCEMENT TO CLASS We will be conducting an exploratory inquiry today in order to help make instruction more effective in the counseling block. All information will be coded and, therefore, confidential. The results will in no way effect your grade. You are about to be introduced to a basic Skill in counseling that is considered to be important by many counselor training programs. Please refer to your "Room Assignment Sheet" for your room assignment for Phase I. 174 APPENDIX N ROOM ASSIGNMENT SHEET APPENDIX N ROOM ASSIGNMENT SHEET Phase I #l--Room 250 #2--Room 224 #3--Room 249 #4--Room 222 * 03 71 ll 44 04 66 08 61 32 65 06 68 35 53 14 60 38 69 15 46 30 59 39 54 19 51 36 35 26 77 33 S6 29 72 13 80 16 74 41 62 17 43 '40 76 02 70 10 45 24 79 82 57 22 58 05 50 09 52 63 37 49 07 81 23 47 78 12 83 31 01 84 73 27 20 34 67 28 42 25 64 18 21 75 48 Phase II Room A Room B Room C Room D Room E Room F Room 242 75 20 51 18 64 01 46 29 73 08 54 27 53 32 66 30 78 24 69 04 65 15 60 11 62 10 61 13 Room 243 Room 244 Room 245 Room 247 Room 248 59 38 31 83 33 35 O9 82 05 40 22 36 28 *Names have been deleted for the purpose of confidentiality. 175 176 Phase II--Continued Room 226 71 67 03 12 72 48 l9 14 43 44 17 39 52 77 23 41 79 74 25 07 47 70 06 42 68 58 26 21 55 49 16 47 80 56 02 76 45 37 57 50 84 63 8 Phase III Room A Room B Room C Room D Room E Room F Room 242 55 32 66 09 65 41 53 16 57 04 50 11 79 22 78 71 13 80 27 49 O3 78 71 13 80 27 Room 243 Room 244 Room 245 Room 247 Room 248 77 22 62 01 46 42 21 83 12 49 03 67 10 84 02 31 Room 226 51 44 38 37 72 59 19 28 43 74 25 06 47 70 34 36 68 58 24 40 76 61 17 14 63 54 29 33 73 56 35 05 64 45 30 07 75 81 26 20 47 18 APPENDIX 0 INSTRUCTIONS FOR ASSISTANTS ~ in. APPENDIX 0 INSTRUCTIONS FOR ASSISTANTS MANUAL GROUP ASSISTANT General Instructions Phase I mwa o o o 0 Take roll. Circle name--if not present. Hand out Instructional Manuals. Collect Instructional Manuals. Dismiss subjects to Phase II assignments. Phase II fl Uluwa Take roll. Circle name--if not present. Hand out Practice Frames. Collect Practice Frames. Dismiss subjects to Phase III assignments. Phase III 1. £11th T%ke roll. Circle name--if not present. Hand out Test Frames. Collect Test Frames. Dismiss Subjects. Specificrlnstructions 2. 3. Location: Raom 226 Name and Code: Make certain each subject puts and code on Practice and Test Frames. Code is number at side (in brackets) of each subject's Return all materials. Instructions to Subjects 1. 2. 3. tion concerning a basic skill in counseling. name name. Explain to subjects that they will observe a simula- Emphasize that each subject pay close attention to the simulation. Further instructions will be received from the simulation.. 177 179 VIDEOTAPE GROUP ASSISTANT General Instructions U'ltfi-UJNH O. 0 Take roll. Circle name--if not present. Play tape. Dismiss subjects to Phase II assignments. Return all material. Specific Instructions 1. Set up and meet in Room 248. Instructions to Subjects 1. Explain to subjects that they will observe a Simulation concerning a basic skill in counseling. Emphasize that each subject pay close attention to the simulation. Further instructions will be received from the Simulation. APPENDIX P INSTRUCTIONS FOR LECTURER APPENDIX P INSTRUCTIONS FOR LECTURER General Instructions bWNH .0 ONUT 0 Take roll. Circle name--if not present. Begin lecture (Instructional Manual). Role players (2) will be present to role-play client statements. Dismiss subjects to Phase II assignments. Return all material. Specific Instructions 1. Set up and meet in Room 250. Instructions to Subjects 1. Explain to subjects that they will observe a simulation concerning a basic skill in counseling. Emphasize that each subject pay close attention to the Simulation. Further instructions will be received from the simulation. 180 “L APPENDIX Q INSTRUCTIONS FOR ROLE PLAYERS-- MODEL PRESENTATION APPENDIX Q INSTRUCTIONS FOR ROLE PLAYERS-- MODEL PRESENTATION General Instructions 1. Check room assignment. 2. Check material. a. Instructional Manual 3. Return all material. Specific Instructions 1. Role-play client statement with proper affect. 2. Client statements are identified by sex. 3. Set up and meet in Room 250. 181