,

 

r "

n

' ,l

A

r .

» v
u

.' \
1‘ l

‘ .

 

x

. ‘1.

V’ I

g":

'3
{

 

 

 

 

 

  

of
.,

   

 

 

 

 

 

“ v— - - -a-~~- -~--‘. . .. . ‘.‘.... .-_..., . ‘7, ,_,- ._ _,, ,7 W W ~i v—
r ¢ 0 . w- V
‘ . .
vo
‘ .\

AN EXAMINATION or RELATIONSHIPS sawmmz f .
MEASURABLE coaumvrz :c mmsncs or A , x f_ a ;
FRENCH! TEACHER AND THE ms ’
'succass INIHAT counsa ' , .

 

 

Thesis for the Degree of ,Ph. D. . -
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY 7 V '
WW ORT

1971‘ . . 7 3 , . ' , ‘ ‘

 

 

 

   

 

        

.. H _
' n 4.1:.) -
, .. .. w ‘..
‘ I4. I '
' ‘. .l " '
' o.‘

 

fifififififi

  
 
     

  

LIBRARY

Michigan Sta 1e
' University

"u .-
v!

This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

AN EXAMINATION OF RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE MEASURABLE
COGNITIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF A FRENCH I TEACHER AND
STUDENT'S SUCCESS IN THAT COURSE

presented by

Barbara Ort

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Ph. 0- degree in m.

 

M V. (dam

Major professor

Date June 23; 1971

0-7539

 

 

 

s§§9¥¥5577

- I . ‘l’.
“an???“s‘
\ ' {,2 ‘ I.

ABSTRACT

AN EXAMINATION OF RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN

THE MEASURABLE COGNITIVE CHARACTERISTICS

OF A FRENCH I TEACHER AND THE STUDENT"S
SUCCESS IN THAT COURSE

BY

Barbara Ort

The purpose of this study was to investigate data
relevant to more improved curricular conditions within
foreign language classrooms by determining the relationship
of several variables (i.e., teacher, cognitive style
diagnosis, and "like" and "unlike" characteristics of
teacher and student) upon the success of these students'
course.

The new audio-lingual approach to foreign language
education proposed to correct all omission in the process
of producing fluent Speakers of a foreign language. Indi-
cations are that, even with new methodological and
technical treatment of students, little change has occurred
in foreign language drOp-out rates. New data concerning
contributions to successful achievements in foreign language

instruction appeared to be timely.

Barbara Ort

It is generally agreed that all children do not
learn alike. The literature reviewed in this study
indicates that little is known about the structure of
learning. This study deals with the interrelationship of
measurable cognitive characteristics and, in doing so,
provides more data relevant to student learning.

The diagnostic procedure utilized at Oakland
Community College in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, was used
with two classes in French I at two schools, East Lansing
High School and Hannah Middle School (also at East Lansing,
Michigan). Measurable cognitive elements were provided for
each student and both teachers.

The data were analyzed by use of the analysis of
variance technique to show interaction of cognitive sets or
categories of cognitive elements on the hypotheses. In
order to further search for significant elements or
characteristics, the data were further broken down by use
of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Statistical Test Model.

The findings emanating from the Anova Techniques
appear to reject the null hypotheses and call for the
acceptance of the "alternate" hypotheses, i.e., the null
hypothesis-~there is no difference between the mean grade
point associated with teacher I and teacher II, is rejected
and the alternative hypothesis--there is a difference between
the mean grade point associated with teacher I and teacher

II, is accepted. In other words, there is a relationship

Barbara Ort

between the variables of cognitive style groupings and both
teachers and the evaluation both teachers made of their
students.

When component sets of cognitive style were broken
down into discrete characteristics, it was impossible to
show any "like" or "unlike" group relationship of student
and teacher characteristics. However, this was the first
study which attempts to analyze "like" and "unlike"
groupings in terms of individual sets as opposed to the
Cartesian product of three sets which indicate the cognitive
style of an individual.

The implications of the study do have an impact on
curriculum even though discrete characteristics influencial
in predicting relationship to teacher and success in a
foreign language course were not discovered. The analysis
of variance findings, however, did indicate a relationship
of all the variables (teacher, cognitive style set, like
and unlike relationships) to student success as measured by
grades. The fact that "unlike" seems to have been more
associated with success seems to indicate a need for the
total profile including all data to be treated in place of
isolated characteristics. This is compatible to the need
to view the whole child and sheds some doubt on the practice
of "treating" students within the educational environment

based on very limited data (i.e., reading level).

Barbara Ort

The cognitive process described in this study does
add data usually not included in student profiles, but it
does not claim an all inclusive completely predicable
picture of the human organism in his learning environment.
The constant need is for more knowledge regarding the
human learning process not an attempt or even a feeling
that the complete organism can be or should be cognitively

diagnosed.

AN EXAMINATION OF RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE
MEASURABLE COGNITIVE CHARACTERISTICS OF A
FRENCH I TEACHER AND THE STUDENT'S

SUCCESS IN THAT COURSE

BY

u“
BarbaraNOrt

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
College of Education

1971

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Special appreciation is extended to the Michigan
Department of Education and its staff for their cooperation
and encouragement. !

Gratitude is also expressed to the East Lansing
Public Schools including the two French I classes and their
teachers for making the data availab.e

Particular thanks are also due to Dr. Joseph Hill,
President of Oakland Community College, and his staff for
many hours of counsel and advice and for making available
the cognitive style diagnostic instruments used in this
study.

A very Special note of thanks to my family for

their patience and understanding.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . .

LIST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter

I.

II.

III.

IV.

THE PROBLEM O O O O O I O O 0
Need . . . . . . . . . . .
Background of the Study . . . .
Purpose of the Study . . . . .
Limitations of the Study . . . .
Definition of Key Terms . . . .
Questions to be Answered . . . .
Overview of Chapters . . . . .

REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH . . . .

Individual Differences . . . . .
Cognitive Style in Psychology . .
The Educational Science of Cognitive

Style . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . .

DESIGN OF STUDY . . . . . . . .

Source of Data . . . . .
Samples Employed by the Study .
Representativeness of Population
Adequacy of Study . . . . .
Data Collection . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . .

ANALYSIS OF DATA AND FINDINGS . . .

Analytical Techniques . . . . .
Restatement of Hypotheses . . . .
Tables Showing Analysis of Data and

Findings . . . . . . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . .

iii

Page

ii

22
29

32
38

4O

4O
42
45
45
46
50

51

51
54

54
60

Chapter Page

V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . 62
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . 66
Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Implications for Future Research . . . 74
Recommendations . . . . . . . . . 74

BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O l O O O O O 7 7
APPENDICES O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O 82

iv

L I ST OF TABLE S

Table Page
1. Sum of squares . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2. Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3. [T(VQ)-Q(CET)] . . . . . . . . . . . 59

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

Need

 

In 1957 Sputnik soared around the world showing the
world the inventive genius and "educational superiority" of
the Russian people. The initial shock waves produced the
first legislation of a large scale federal support program
for education in the United States.

The National Defense Education Act in its first
fiscal year (1958) allocated some 40 millions to the states
to upgrade the teaching of math, science, and foreign
languages.

Twelve years later the foreign language teaching
profession finds itself completely revolutionized in
method, teacher training, equipment and textbooks. The
so-called "traditional" method so prevalent in 1958 has
all but disappeared in American schools. This can be sub-
stantiated through the virtual disappearance of texts
emphasizing the skills of reading and writing at beginning
levels. Long laborious oral translations from French to
English of major French writers have been discontinued and
in its place came a new reliance on the "natural method"
of language learning. This method assumes that a child

1

llll‘l‘illl'llIl‘llllllll’lllAiAl III

 

learns a second language the same way he learns a first.
This resulted in a method dubbed "audio-lingual." The
term is somewhat misleading in that it indicates the
develOpment of only two skills, understanding and speaking.
In fact, the method and all audio-lingual texts are based
on the development of four skills, understanding, speaking,
reading and writing. The basic difference between "audio-
lingual" and traditional is the order of teaching skills
(1) understanding, (2) speaking, (3) reading, and (4)
writing and the reinforcement quality of dialogue and
drill presentation.

Major publishers prepared "programs" consisting of
texts, tapes, workbooks and, in some cases, visuals in a
tightly controlled linguistic sequence. Great claims were
made of the materials. N.D.E.A. only reimbursed programs
following audio-lingual criteria. The new day of foreign
language instruction had arrived.

In 1970, twelve years later, we cannot substantiate
the claims for the "new method." The best that can be said
is that many colleges say students seem to be better pre-
pared. Indeed, not only do we not have any hard data to
prove the advantages of the new method, there are some
controversial studies which purported to prove "no sig—

nificant difference." The so-called Keating Report out of

Columbia University indicates the "no significant difference"
hypothesis regarding the use of language laboratories.1

The now famous "Pennsylvania Study" done under a
grant from the U. S. Office of Education listed as its
first implication:

Perhaps the greatest implication inherent in the
conclusions of Projects 5-0683 and 7-0133 is that
the foreign language education profession has for
the past decade or more been predicating teaching
strategies, materials, and electro-mechanical
devices on theoretical assumptions, that may not
be entirely valid. While the research conducted
by the Project is admittedly imperfect, it
hOpefully represents the reality of the typical
classroom. The implication for a re-examination
of the theoretical basis for second language
learning in the secondary school environment is
evident in the research.

The implication that foreign language teaching
should revert to the strict 'traditional' classroom
techniques of the 1930's must not be read into the
research. 'Traditional' teachers as defined in the
research had many more insights into human growth,
personal interrelations and the learning process
than did their predecessors of forty years ago.

Countless improvements have been made in the
physical classroom, text format and arrangement,
and curriculum deveIOpment. The generation of
students utilized in this research has always known
television, traveled more widely and seen the
world grow smaller. Neither the teacher, the
school, nor the students are the same from year

to year. Retrogression is not possible and cannot
be regarded as an implication of the research.

The recasting of theory, perhaps once adequate,
into current society is implied.

 

1R. F. Keating, A Study of the Effectiveness of
Language Laboratories (New York: COIumbia UfiIversIty,
Institute of Administrative Research, Teachers College,
1963).

 

2Philip D. Smith, Jr., and Helmut A. Baranyi, A
Comparison Study of the Effectiveness of the Traditional

School millages are failing. Teachers are demanding
and, in many cases receiving higher salaries.

The cost of teaching materials and plant construction
and maintainance is going up. Schools find themselves in
an environment of rising costs and incomes unable to meet
these basic obligations. Hundreds of teachers have
received letters indicating the possibility of the non-
renewal of contracts.

Foreign languages, once the in" thing in the cur-
riculum, are now looked upon as one of the easiest areas
for cuts. In 1957 there were about fifty (FLES—-foreign
languages in the elementary school) programs throughout the
state of Michigan. As of September there was one FLES
program located in Alpena. Foreign language programs such
as the one located in Birmingham, Michigan received
national acclaim just three short years ago as the most
nearly perfect model. That program has now been dropped
due to a successive series of millage failures. In fact,
the junior high program finds itself under attack.
Therefore, faced with the disappearing foreign
language requirement and a need to attract students to the

classroom, foreign language teachers and administrators are

seeking answers to some of the still unsolved pedagogic

 

and Audiolingual Approaches to Foreign Language Instruction
Utilizing Laboratory Equipment (Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Départment Of Health, EducatiOn and Welfare, Office of
Education, 1968).

problems, i.e., that very sensitive relationship which
exists between students and teachers.

At a conference held at Higgins Lake, made up of
students at various levels of foreign language instruction
(junior high through college) who were picked by their
teachers as successful, the most prevailing reason for a
positive or negative reaction to their foreign language
courses was listed as their teacher. When questioned about
this, students would make such statements as "He was a
good Joe," "He was fair," "I don't know, we just seemed to
get along," and many other such subjective indicators.

Why is it that some students and teachers seem to
"hit it off?" Are there areas of compatability and/or
measurable characteristics which when matched result in the
kind of appraisal mentioned above?

This study will deal with the field of foreign
language instruction and will concentrate on a "mix" of
students and teachers and attempt to isolate some measur-
able characteristics which tend to result in a positive

appraisal of the students' success in class (his grade).

Background of the Study

 

Work in the field of individual differences as it
affects learning is no new endeavor. It has been going on
within educational literature since the turn of the

century (see Chapter II of this study).

Recently several attempts to provide data on student
achievement which can be measured and applied to the educa-
tional process have developed. In Michigan alone three such
attempts are receiving public attention.

In Troy, Michigan, there is a computerized program
which feeds student achievement data and analysis of that
data to teachers for the purpose of pinpointing curricular
problems and possible altering of treatment and learning
environment. This program, known as PACER, a Prescriptive
Analysis for Curriculum Evaluation and Review, was not
appropriate to the present study since the system is geared
to analyze the product of only the student and not those
described characteristics of student and teacher which can
be measured.

A similar program is in operation in the Bridgeport,
Michigan, schools. This project also only considers student
achievement, test scores and their feedback impact upon the
educational process.

The COMET (computer operated method for educational
testing) Program recently funded under E.S.E.A. Title III
is a computerized program giving instant data feedback to
students related to progress as reflected in data banks and
achievement testing within subject areas.

There is a program housed at Oakland Community
College which tests students entering freshmen) and

provides a computerized "cognitive style" printout of the

data from such testing which is used to match students and
teachers and also match students with certain instructional
procedures.

The Oakland Community College program was selected
for this study because of its broad categories of testing
(see definitions of terms, S, E. H), its flexibility and
its attempt to implement this data into more achievement
oriented structural alternatives for students and an
attempt to match compatible learning styles of teachers
and students.

The program at Oakland Community College has the
desirable components of flexibility and personal feedback.
Using the cognitive style map and subjective information
gathered in private conversation with the student, a team
of teachers and the student jointly develOped a personalized
education program which is geared to his strengths and
weaknesses--a program which is his personal prescription
and which is intended to give every possibility for his
success. Computers are used to expedite the process.

Counselors from Oakland Community College report
that most students consider this process as giving them
more decision-making data and not placing them in a mold.

The student is then presented with course objectives
and procedes to follow these instructional procedures
jointly arrived at in the counseling session. These

alternatives are:

l. Individualized Programmed Learning Lab (IPLL)
where students can work on programmed material independent
of the help of the instructor.

2. Carrel Arcades where students can utilize
video taped materials and private study facilities.

3. Seminar where a student sits with the instructor
in a small group situation to clarify difficulties.

4. Youth-tutor-youth where students work with
students towards instructional objectives.

5. Lecture discussion where a more traditional
approach to instruction predominates, i.e., material is
presented and students are allowed to ask questions.

The process of attempting to tailor-make the
student to the process and instructor has thrust Oakland
Community College toward their objective of ninty per cent
success in achievement of instructional goals.

This provides one of the possible theoretic basis
for solution and implementations of individual differences.
This approach presents a conceptual framework for educa-
tion and a diagnostic procedure whereby cognitive
characteristics can be identified. This stage in the
process has been unavailable and is at present undergoing
extensive research. If fully implemented this could
bring us closer to a scientific treatment of differences
for the purpose of diagnosing the relationship of these
definable characteristics related to the educational

process.

 

Through this process of accommodating individual
differences, the educational institution might begin to
develop the achievement potential of students. One of the
accommodations mentioned which an institution can make is
to attempt to relate the cognitive learning styles of

students to that of the teachers.

Purpose of the Study_

 

The purpose of this study is to determine the
relationship of the cognitive characteristics of foreign
language students and teachers to success in the course.
This will be accomplished by mapping the profile of
teachers and students in two classes of French I and com-
paring characteristics on a "like" and "unlike" basis to
success in the course as measured by letter grades.

It is necessary for the author to assume that the
letter grade is a valid measure of the teachers' estimate
of success. This is the "real world" measure for students
and parents and until a more valid measure is achieved
(and utilized by schools) this symbol is assumed to be a
valid representation of "success." The study does not
have as its purpose the validation of letter grades as a

measure of success.

Limitations of the Study

 

This study is dealing only with the relationship

of isolated measurable cognitive characteristics of

10

student and teacher and the teachers' estimate of the
student's success. It must be understood that there are
many other significant elements which relate to the final
learning and happiness of any one student. Motivational
elements are not dealt with or many of the affective
influences which are important to any learning process.
The human organism cannot be totally analyzed, the only
hope is to find some relationships between certain
described characteristics and certain outcomes of the
educational process.

The whole field of the educational sciences and the
diagnosis of cognitive style is just now beginning to
attract the attention of educators. The process must be
approached with caution and precise attention to thorough
understanding as to what it can do and what it does not
glaim to do. Most baiscally it will only affect those

things which one can measure and relate to success and

 

claims and implementations cannot and should not be made

 

beyond this level.

Definition of Key Terms

 

Educational Sciences
A common structure within which inquiry of
significance for the basic aspects of the applied field of

education can be conducted.

ll

Cognitive Spyle Mapping

 

The map of cognitive style gives a limited picture
of the way a student derives meaning from his environment
and personal experience based upon those discrete character-
istics which can be measured. Each map, like each student,
is different. A student's cognitive style is concerned
with a description of the observed and measured behavior
which reflects the way he takes notice of his total
surroundings-~how he seeks meaning--how he becomes informed.
Is he a listener or a reader? Is he concerned only with
his point of view or is he influenced in decision-making by

his family or by his group associates?

EXAMPLE OF COGNITIVE STYLE MAP*

 

12

 

 

T(AL) T(VL) 1 M D
Q(CET)

= Q(CEM)
g Q(CS)
q(ck)
q(ch) r r

x a(+) x d m

 

 

10

 

*
Personalizing Educational Programs utilizing

cognitive style mapping, Oakland Community College,
Publication.

Three Cartesian Sets of Mapping

l. Symbolic Orientation refers to the ability of

 

an individual to mediate either theoretical or qualitative

symbols into meaning. For example, if the individual has a

12

"good to high" (50-99%) ability to read and write ap_a
particular level of educational development, he would be
accorded a "major" theoretical visual linguistic symbolic
orientation, which would be written as TVL.

2. Modalities of Inference are the types, forms,

 

or patterns of a six-step inferential process employed by
an individual in the process of drawing conclusions.

3. Cultural Determinants are the meanings that

 

man assigns to symbols in the category of "cultural
influences." These cultural influences are (F) family,
(I) individual, and (A) associates.

Two Types of Symbols in All
of Symbolic Orientation

 

 

1. Theoretical Symbols are those symbols which

 

present to the individual's nervous system something dif-
ferent from that which the symbol itself is (e.g., the
word "chair" representing the object chair).

2. Qualitative Symbols are those symbols which

 

present and then represent to the nervous system of the
individual that which the symbol itself is to that individ-
ual (e.g., a particular strain of music, or the color of a

given object).

Four Theoretical Symbols

 

l. T(AL)--Theoretical Auditory Linguistic--the

sound of a word.

l3

2. T(AQ)--Theoretical Auditory Quantitative--
the sound of a number.

3. T(VL)--Theoretical Visual Linguistic-—the
written word.

4. T(VQ)--Theoretical Visual Quantitative--a

written number.

Fifteen Qualitative Symbols

 

l. Q(A)--auditory--the ability to perceive
meaning through the sense of hearing;

2. Q(O)--olfactory—-the ability to perceive
meaning through the sense of smell;

3. Q(S)--savory-—the ability to perceive meaning
by the sense of taste;

4. Q(T)--tactile--the ability to perceive meaning
by the sense of touch;

5. Q(V)--visual--the ability to perceive meaning
by the sense of sight;

6. Q(P)--proprioceptive--sometimes referred to
as the sixth sense--vehicle for conveying meanings
associated with "Programmatic effects;"

7. Q(CES)--code esthetic--the ability to identify
with, or have a vicarious experience of, another person's
feelings, ideas or volitions;

8. Q(CEM)--code-empathetic-—the ability of the

individual'under consideration to View with enjoyment the

l4

"beauth" and "pureness" of a resulting product, situation
or idea;

9. Q(CET)--code-ethic--a commitment to a set of
values, a group of moral principles, obligations, and/or
duties;

10. Q(CH)--code—histrionic--staged behavior, or a
deliberate exhibition of emotion or temperament to produce
some particular effect on other persons;

11. Q(CK)--code-kinesics—-the ability to communicate
by means of non-linguistic functions such as blushing and
motions of the body, such as shrugs, smiles and gestures;

12. Q(CKH)--code-kinesthetics-—motor skill
abilities;

13. Q(CP)--code-proxemics--the ability of an
individual to judge the acceptable "critical“ physical
and social distance between himself and others as per-
ceived by the other person;

14. Q(CS)--code-synnoetics--personal knowledge of
oneself in all qualitative and theoretical symbolic forms
in relation to one's environment;

15. Q(CT)--code-transactional--the ability to
maintain a positive communicative interaction which
significantly influences the goals of the persons involved

in that interaction.

15

Four Modalities of Inference

 

l. (M)—-Magnitude inference process is a form of
"categorical thinking," and utilizes norms categorically
classified, and attitudes accepted as true by the individual
as the basis for acceptance or rejection of advanced
hypotheses;

2. (D)--Difference deals with hypotheses of
difference such as one-to-one contrasts or comparisons of
selected characteristics or measurements;

3. (R)--Relationship process considers a relation-
ship between two or more characteristics or measurements;

4. (L)--Appraisal type of inference considers,
with equal weight, hypotheses of all the previous three
(magnitude, difference, and relationship) in arriving at a

probable conclusion.

Qualitative Predominance

 

Qualitative Predominance is a symbolic condition
of an educational task which mainly involves qualitative
symbols supplemented by occasional references eXpressed in

theoretical symbols.

Theoretical Predominance

Theoretical Predominance is a symbolic condition
of an educational task which mainly involves theoretical
symbols supplemented by an occasional reference eXpressed

in terms of qualitative symbols.

16

Cognition

 

When Hill, gE_al., speak of the cognitive style
they are speaking of various methods and environments in
which a child seeks meaning. He seeks meaning through the
interpretation of many types of symbols. In many cases
these symbols represent what Bloom would call "affective"
meaning. Therefore, the word "cognition" in this case has
meaning more in the general sense of "awareness" rather
than the Opposite of affective (cognitive) as defined by

Bloom.

Questions to be Answered

 

1. Is there a relationship between the measurable
cognitive characteristics of a French I teacher and student
and the student's success in French I as measured by
teachers' grades?

2. What are the cognitive elements within the set
of symbolic orientation which tend to show a major and
minor "match" between teacher to student in cases of
success of foreign language courses?

3. What are the cognitive elements within the set
of cultural determinants which tend to show major and minor
"match" between teacher and student in cases of success of
foreign language courses?

4. What are the cognitive elements within the set
of modes of inference which tend to show major and minor
"match" between teacher and student in cases of success of

foreign language courses?

l7

5. Does the age level of the student affect the
relationship of cognitive match and success in a course?

Although the questions posed will be answered mainly
on the basis of what is termed "logical, rational analysis"
of information pertaining to the domains covered by the
questibns, in order to proceed with as much efficiency as
possible, there will be certain aspects of the questions
that will be answered on the basis of statistical inference.
In these cases, the following six-step process will be
employed toward the development of a statistical hypothesis.

1. State the null hypothesis, e.g., HO: MI = MII’
a two-tailed test of the "null" that there would be no

significant difference between the means of the levels I

and II, respectively, of the factor of "teacher."

2. Set a level of significance, e.g., a = .05.
Si Si.
3. Employ the F ratio: F = —7; and F = —§—;
S S
R R
where Si and SII are the values of the variance ascribed to

levels I and II of the factor of "teacher," and 8% denotes
the "residual" variance of the within cells interaction.

4. Determine the critical region of the F distribu-
tion, i.e., determine the critical value of the F ratio at

the .05 level of significance, under (N-l) and (N—l) degrees
I II

of freedom, respectively. This value may be read from any
table of critical values (.05 and .01 level values) of the

F distribution.

18

5. Calculate the value of the F ratio.

6. Depending on whether the calculated value of "F"
occurs in the critical region, or does not occur there,
reject (in the first case), or do not reject (in the

latter case) the null hypothesis: HO: M = M If the

I II.
"null" (Ho) can be rejected by the data of the sample being
employed, then its statistical alternative hypothesis (H1),
for the example that has been employed throughout this

discussion, (H1) would be: H MI # MII’ may be accepted.

1'
This action would indicate that it was highly probable that
the operational hypothesis from which (H1) was derived was
true. Under these circumstances, the acceptance of (H1)
would lead to the acceptance of the "operational" with
which (H1) was associated, and thereby would lead to the
acceptance of that aspect of the research hypothesis
covered by the Operational hypothesis in question.

If the "null" (HO) cannot be rejected by the data
of the sample, i.e., the value of the "calculated" F ratio
does not fall in the critical region of the distribution,
then its "statistical alternative" (H1) cannot be accepted;
and, in turn, the "Operational" from which (H1) was
devised cannot be accepted. Under these circumstances, the

aspect of the research hypothesis covered by the operational

hypothesis under consideration, cannot be accepted.

19

A basic pperational hypothesis that can be used

 

in these cases where statistical inference is employed in
the study to provide answers to the general questions posed
is:
There is a difference between group mean
"grade points" (A-4.0, 3—3.0, etc.) associated
with the factor of grouping (like and unlike)
cognitive style characteristics by set, and
those associated with the factor of teacher.

The example of a statistical alternative hypothesis that

 

could be devised from this operational would be:

H1: MI ¢ MII; where M indicates the pOpulation mean grade

I

point associated with teacher I and M denotes the popula-

II

tion mean associated with teacher II.

The null hypothesis derived from this "alternative"

 

would become HO: M = M where the notation is the same

I II’
as that associated with (H1). This "null" can be submitted
to a two-tailed statistical test, and depending upon the
results would be "rejected" in favor of (H1), or "not

rejected," which would mean that (H1) could not be accepted.

Overview of Chapters

 

Chapter I--Introduction
of tfie Problem

 

 

The need, background, purpose of the study, limita-
tions, definition of key terms, description of hypotheses

and questions to be answered.

20

Chapter II--Review of the
ReIated’Literature

 

 

Review of the related literature in terms of

research in the field of individual differences.

Chapter III--Research Design

 

Source of data, samples employed by the study,
representativeness of pOpulation, adequacy of study, data

collection procedures, instruments and summary.

Chapter IV--Analysis of Results

 

Analysis of results-~a description of analytical
techniques used--tab1es showing the results of the analysis
of data and findings related to the hypotheses.

Chapter V--Summary of the
Study and Discussion

 

 

Summary, conclusion, discussion, implications for

research and recommendations.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH

Literature in the field of foreign language
research in the past decade has been related to methodology
and audio-visual components. No research has been done to
try to relate this methodology or any other instructional
inputs (including teacher characteristics) to individual
cognitive characteristics of students. In fact, the
literature tends to reflect an attempt to do the Opposite--
to find a methodology and a teaching package which renders
the greatest possible potential situation of success for
the student. Since the present study is attempting to show
the impact of the relationship of individual measurable
characteristics of students and teacher to success in the
classroom, the pertinent related literature lies in studies
on individual differences and how they affect the learning
process and the concept of cognitive style as it is
interpreted in psychology and in the educational sciences.
The present study is related to the individual differences
of students and teachers and how they relate to success in
the classroom. Concern for individual differences on the

part of researchers is not new.

21

22

Individual Differences

 

Early in this century educators acknowledged the
fact that peOple differ in the way they perceive their
environment and, therefore, in the manner in which they
learn. Earl Kelly, an early proponent of the concept of
individual differences described the process by which each
person perceives his or her environment and reflected on
the erroneous assumption that all people see things the
same way under the same circumstances.

Our perceptions do not come simple from the objects
around us, but from our past experience as function-
ing, purposene organisms. We take a large number

of clues, none of which is reliable, add them
together, and make what we can of them. All that
this gives us is an estimate of our surroundings.

It is never exactly right. It is never the same

for different individuals.

It is like a statistical average, a useful device
for making a prognosis, but always wrong in any
particular instance.

Since the perception is the usable reality, and
since no two organisms can make the same use of
clues or bring the same experiential background
to bear, no two of us can see alike. We have no
common world. Each has his own to which he
responds in his own way. Because our forecasts
usually approximate correctness, we make the
mistake of assuming they are perfect, and that we
do have a common world.

While Kelly regarded individual differences as a
product of differing experiences, others have cited

biological diversity as an important factor in determining

 

3Earl C. Kelly, Education for What is Real (New
York: Harper and Row, 1947i, p.*34T

23

the "uniqueness" of individuals. The present study effort
could be considered to be related to Kelly's work in that
the aSpect of cognitive style pertaining to cultural
determinants is another approach to "perception" as Kelly
viewed it.

Hardin has supplied considerable evidence of bio-
chemical variation among people who, on the basis of usual

medical criteria were considered "normal."

Variability of "Normal" Healthy Human Beings4

 

(The factor of variation is calculated by dividing the
greatest value by the least value of the figures included
within a range considered normal.)

Characteristic Factor Of

Variation
1. Phosphate concentration in blood 2
2. Sodium concentration in blood corpuscles 3
3. Protein-bound iodine concentration in blood 3
4. Acetylcholine concentration in blood plasma l6
5. Glycine concentration in plasma 7
6. Vitamin A concentration in blood 15
7. Arginase enzyme concentration in blood 4
8. Thyroid glands, weight 6
9. Gonads, adult weight 5
10. Androgens, concentration in adult male, urine 11
11. Alcohol, minimum intoxicating percentage
in blood 8
12. Minimum perceptible movement in peripheral
vision 42
13. Daily dietary calcium needs, adult 5
14. Vitamin B, requirement 4

 

 

4Garrett Hardin, "Biology and Individual Dif-
ferences," Individualizing Instruction, The Sixty-first
Yearbook of Ehe National Societygfor the Study of
Education, Part I (Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1962), p. 13.

 

24

In light of the above variations and other bio—
logical variations such as the tendency toward ulcers,
insulin deficiency and the presence of the hemOphilia gene,
Hardin observes, ". . . if we think of the word ‘equal' in
a nonevaluative way, the evidence drives us to the con-
clusion that (with the exception of identical twins) all

"5
men are unequal.

To the extent that cognitive style provides a means
of differentiating between individuals in the process of
seeking meaning, or in learning activities, the present
study is indirectly related to Hardin's work.

Accounting for Individual Differences
Affecting the Learnifig Process

As early as 1906, Thorndike stated:

The practical consequence of the fact of individual
differences is that every general law of teaching
has to be applied with consideration of the
particular person in question. Every stimulus

must be given not to men or to children in general,
but to a particular individual or group character-
ized by certain peculiarities.6

While the existence of individual differences,
whether due to genetic diversity or varied past experiences,

may be generally accepted by most educators, a method for

identifying differences which significantly affect the

 

51bid., p. 11.

6Edward L. Thorndike, quoted in Morris L. Bigge and
Maurice P. Hunt, Psyghological Foundations of Education
(New York: Harper and Row, 1968), p. 1I4.

25

learning process continues to be elusive. Noting this

persistent problem, Gagne makes the following comment:
At the present time it seems fair to say that we
know considerably more about learning, its
varieties and conditions, than we did ten years
ago. But we do not know much more about indi-
vidual differences in learning than we did
thirty years ago.7

Some progress has been made in identifying personality

traits that appear to interact with certain kinds of

learning experiences.

Carpenter and Haddan's8 study seems to indicate
that students who are successful in the "information
getting" stage (as distinct from the stages of "applica-
tion," "analysis" and "creativity") possess a high degree
of docility, suggestibility, industriousness, need for
achievement and trusting. They also suggest that success-
ful students will possess relatively little independence,
flexibility, theory-orientation, aggressiveness and
coubtfulness.9

The results of Bigelow and Egbert'slo comparison

of an independent study group and a traditional study group

 

7Robert M. Gagne, Learning and Individual Differ-
ences (Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc.,
I967), p. xi.

 

8Finley Carpenter and Eugene E. Haddan, Systematic
Application of Psychology_(New York: Macmillan Company,
I964).

 

 

91bid., p. 105.

10Gordon S. Bigelow and Robert L. Egbert, "Person-
ality Factors and Independent Study," The Journal of Educa—
tional Research, Vol. 62, No. 1 (September, 1968i, 27-29.

 

26

showed no significant difference in personality traits (as
measured by the California Psychological Inventory) between
successful students in the two groups. However, within the
independent study group, successful students scored sig-
nificantly higher on Intellectual Efficiency and
Responsibility than did the unsuccessful students.

Rokeach'sll

studies have suggested that person's
possessing the personality trait of dogmatism or closed-
mindedness tend to rely heavily on authority and direction.
In support of this notion, Mouw12 demonstrated that as
learning tasks become more complex or autonomous, Open-
minded individuals increase in their ability to success-
fully complete the task. One implication of Mouw's
investigation is that, ". . . the degree of dogmatism
possessed by individuals should be a consideration in the
education process, especially when the emphasis is on

self-directed learning or problem solving skills."13

l4

Hedley's study showed that certain personality

traits seemed to be related to scientific and mathematical

 

11M. Rokeach, The Open and Closed Mind (New York:
Basic Books, 1960).

12John T. Mouw, "Effect of Dogmatism on Levels of
Cognitive Processes," Journal of Educational Psychology,
Vol. 60, No. 5 (1969), 365-369.

13Ibid., p. 368.

l4Carolyn Neal Hedley, "The Relationship of Per-
sonality Factors to Scientific and Mathematical Ability
Factors," School Science and Mathematics, Vol. 68 (1968),
265-271.

 

I

27

ability. It was observed that individuals with scientific
ability tended to be high in anxiety, sensitivity, self-
doubt, literary and musical interest.

Majer's15 comparison of personality traits of‘
college physics students utilizing computer assisted
instruction (CAI), with those taught by lecture, demon-
strated that students less mature in their "academic
style," more sensitive and who were not scientifically
oriented achieved at a higher rate useing the CAI method.
Also, students who were more autonomous, independent
thinkers with scientific interests and a scientifically
oriented method of inquiry tended to have greater success
when taught by the lecture method.

A five-year study by Stroupl6 indicated that Math
and Verbal Scholastic Aptitude Tests correlated higher
with college freshman grade-point average than did any of
the eighteen scales of the California Psychological

Inventory.

15Kenneth Majer, "Differential Relationships
Between Personality and Performance Under Dissimilar
Modes of Instruction," AV Communication Review, Vol.
18, No. 2 (Summer, 1970T} 169-179.

16Atkee L. Stroup, "The Prediction of Academic
Performance from Personality and Aptitude Variables,"
The Journal of Experimental Education, Vol. 38, No. 3
TSpring, 1970T) 83e86.

 

 

28

In a study of personality traits of college proba—
tionary students, Smith and Winterbottoml7 found unrealist—
ically optimistic expectations concerning grades, defensive-
ness, lack of positive motivation for academic work and
dependence on parents to be characteristic of the group.

Snow18 and his co-workers examined the relationship
between individual differences and the effectiveness of
instructional films. Their study suggests that college
physics students characterized as active, self-assured,
assertive and independent achieved at higher levels under
the conditions of live presentations than did similar
students using instructional films. Conversely, students
characterized as passive, lacking self—confidence and
dependent on others tended (although not significantly)
toward higher achievement using films. The study also
implied that persons with high "numerical aptitude" and/or
high "verbal aptitude" tended to perform better on recall
tests when they were taught by live lecture/demonstration
methods.

These studies are related to present study in that

investigation is somewhat similar regarding the effect of

 

17Charles P. Smith, Miriam T. Winterbottom,
"Personality Characteristics of College Students on
Academic Probation," Journal of Personalipy, Vol. 38, No. 3
(September, 1970), 375-39I.

18Richard E. Snow, Joseph Tiffen and Warren F.
Seibert, "Individual Differences and Instructional Film
Effects," Journal of Educational Psyghology, Vol. 56,
No. 6 (19637, 315-326.

29

certain characteristics at play in the educational process
but also is being conducted in foreign language as

opposed to other academic areas.

Cognitive Style in Psychology

 

Perhaps, as suggested in Chapter I of this study, a
practical method (for identifying individual differences
for the purpose of matching characteristics in students and
teachers which give greater chance for learning) is needed
in order to discuss the application of the construct of the
cognitive style.

The concept of cognitive style as it has been
variantly described and defined within the field of
psychology is somewhat different from the educational
science of cognitive style. In the latter half of the
1930's, Allport19 referred to "style of life" and to
"modes of adaptation" as a means of identifying distinctive
personality types. In the late 40's researchers became
concerned with concept formation, that process which occurs
between perception and response. This group became known

as one that studied "cognitive processing,‘ and as Gardner

notes, they considered a response to a stimulus as,

 

19Gordon W. Allport, Personality, A Psychological
Interpretation (New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1937),
p. 47.

 

 

30

". . . coerced not by stimulus alone, but also by the organi-

zational dispositions of the responding system . . . ."20

Klein21

identified the organizational processes
referred to by Gardner as "cognitive control principles."
While Gardner22 suggested that the term "cognitive style"
should pertain only to those control principles within an
individual, other recent studies have considered cognitive
style in terms of an individual's response to specific
stimuli.

Broverman argued that certain kinds of cognitive
style as defined by Klein and Gardner appear to correspond
to certain broad classes of behavior; and therefore that
". . . cognitive styles seem promising parameters on which
to order a perplexing array of individual differences in
human behavior."23

Some contemporary researchers who have considered

cognitive style as a consistent form or pattern of behavior

have examined types of cognitive style in relation to

 

20R. W. Gardner, et a1., "Cognitive Control: A
Study of Individual Consistencies in Cognitive Behavior,"
Psychological Issues, Vol. 1, No. 4, p. 3.

21G. S. Klein, "The Personal WOrld through Per-
ception," in Perception:__An Approach to Personalit , ed.
by R. R. Blake and V. V. Ramsey (New YofE: Rona Press,
1951).

22R. W. Gardner, "Cognitive Styles in Categorizing
Behavior," Journal of Personalipy, Vol. 22 (1953), 214-233.

23D. M. Broverman, "Dimensions of Cognitive Styles,“
Journal of Personality, Vol. 38 (1960), 183.

31

certain personality factors such as dependency, anxiety
and passivity.
Witkin24 defined the concept of field-dependence
independence. Individuals described as field—dependent
were those observed to be relatively unsuccessful in
positioning a luminous rod or themselves to a vertical plane
in a room (field) after the rod and/or the field, and/or
they themselves were tilted. Field-dependent types were
also less successful in an embedded figures test. Persons
who were relatively successful in these tests were
identified as being field-independent. Witkin's studies
revealed that field-dependence was associated with such
personality traits as: lack of self-awareness, high
anxiety, low self-esteem and general passivity. Field-
independence was observed in subjects characterized by
high activity, self-awareness, low anxiety and high self—
esteem.

Barron25 found that persons who had shown inde-
pendence of judgment in an experimental social situation
tended to prefer complexity in drawings; place a higher

value on creativity, close interpersonal relations and the

individual rather than the group. So called yielders in

 

24H. A. Witkin, "Individual Differences in Cases
of Embedded Figures," Journal of Personality, Vol. 19,
pp. l-lS.

25Frank Barron, "Some Personality Correlates of
Independence of Judgment," Journal of Personality, Vol.
21 (March, 1953), 287-297. ‘

32

the same eXperimental situation tended to be practical~
minded, somewhat "physicalistic" in their thinking and
group oriented.

The Educational Science of
Cognitive Style

 

 

A method of exploring cognitive style, the "educa-
tional science of cognitive style," as used by Hill and
others, is somewhat different from the concept as it is
described in the literature of psychology. Their approach,
however, is an attempt to describe a "style" or broad
pattern of behavior using symbolic language.

Hill describes cognitive style in the educational
sciences as: "a Cartesian product, §_composed of three
sets, S, E and §_where § denotes the set of elements defin-
ing symbolic orientation, E indicates the set of cultural
determinants of the meaning of symbols and §_designates the

26 An individual's

set of modalities of inference."
cognitive style is considered to be, "a set g, a Cartesian

product of sub-sets (s, g_and h) of appropriate elements

 

drawn from (all of the possible elements in)27 sets g, E
and H."28
26

Joseph E. Hill, "Cognitive Style as an Educational
Science" (unpublished paper, Oakland Community College,
1968), p. 2.

27Refer to p. 11 of this study for a description
of the possible elements in each set.

281bid., p. 4.

’1

33

The following explanation of this method of
treating cognitive style includes all the studies which

have examined this approach.

Symbolic Orientation

 

Symbolic orientation, as set §.of an individual's
cognitive style, refers to the manner in which that
individual acquires knowledge and meaning through the use
of symbols.

29 in his study of the cognitive styles of

Shuert,
successful mathematics students, found that the following
elements of symbolic orientation were unique to the
successful group.

1. Major theoretical visual quantitative (TVQ);

2. Major theoretical auditory quantitative (TAQ);

3. Minor theoretical auditory linguistic (TAL).

Dehnke's30 findings indicated that there seemed to

be a pattern of symbol mediation among successful English

teachers.

 

29Keith L. Shuert, "A Study to Determine Whether a
Selected Type of Cognitive Style Predisposes One to do Well
in Mathematics" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State
University, 1970).

30Ronald E. Dehnke, "An EXploration of the Possible
Isomorphism of Cognitive Style and Successful Teaching of
Secondary School English" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Wayne State University, 1966).

34

Wasser31 discovered that teachers of mathematics,
language, health, social studies, science, reading and .
spelling tended to give higher grades to students who made
use of auditory and visual theoretical symbols.

Robinson,32 investigating the changes that occurred
in the cognitive style of participants in a "Higher
Opportunities Program in Education," found increases in
theoretical visual and quantitative orientation. He also
found that increase, or lack of increase, of theoretical
visual and quantitative orientation can be related to
certain qualitative codes.

Zussman33 identified "collective" cognitive styles
among groups of public-school and community-college
administrators. Both groups of administrators exhibited

theoretical visual and auditory orientations as well as

qualitative code empathetic and kinesthetic orientations.

 

31Laurence Wasser, "An Investigation into Cognitive
Style as a Facet of Teachers' Systems of Student Appraisal"
(unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan,
1969).

32Richard L. Robinson, "A Descriptive Study of
Specific Achievements and Aptitudes of the High Risk
Students in Oakland University's Higher Opportunities
Program in Education" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Wayne State University, 1969).

33Steven P. Zussman, "A Pilot Study Exploration of
Cognitive Style and Administrative Style as Defined in the
Educational Sciences" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Wayne State University, 1968).

35

Cultural Determinants of
theTMeanings of SymboIs

 

 

The cultural determinants, included in set g_of an
individual's cognitive style, are considered to be those
that comprise the educational science concerned with the
main cultural influences at work on the individual
throughout his life, and the ones particularly significant
in his continual search for meaning by the process of
symbolic mediation.

Shuert34

observed the minor, positive associates
determinants (a(+)) to be characteristic of unsuccessful
mathematics students. There were no cultural determinants
unique to the successful student in his study.

Zussman35 found major individuality and minor
positive associates determinants to be common elements
among both public school and community college administra-
tors.

Cotter's36

study demonstrated a trend in which
students who possessed a major individuality (I) most
frequently selected community-college curricula which

stress fundamental disciplines (i.e., Science and Liberal

 

34Keith L. Shuert, 0p. cit.

35Stephen P. Zussman, op. cit.

36Jude T. Cotter, "The Affects of the Educational
Science of Cultural Determinants of the Meanings of Symbols
on Curricular Choice" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Wayne State University, 1970).

36

Arts curriculum) as Opposed to Applied Sciences and Arts
curriculum. Cotter notes, however, that while this trend
and others were indicated, the hypothesis of a significant
difference between the cultural determinants of students

in the two groups could not be supported.

Modalities of Inference

 

The modalities of inference in set S.of an
individual's cognitive style are defined as the form of
inference processes used mainly by an individual in the
process of deriving conclusions.

Rankin37 delineated the modalities of inference in
terms of models, isomorphism and hypotheses and in essence
added data to support the behavioral description of the
symbols attached to this (modalities of inference) set.

The model theory to which Rankin's study refers is
based upon the property of "isomorphism" associated with
set theory in mathematics. In mathematics, a set is con-
sidered to be a carefully defined collection of elements.
If two sets are examined, and if (a) there is found to be
a one-to-one correspondence between the elements included
in the sets, and (b) that certain structures are preserved,
then the two sets are said to be "isomorphic." If two sets
are isomorphic to each other, then either set can serve as

a model for the other.

 

37Stuart C. Rankin, "A Theory of an Isomorphism-
Model-Hypothesis Method of Thought" (unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Wayne State University, 1964).

37

Dehnke38 observed isomorphism between modalities
of inference and successful English teaching.

Shuert39 found the major appraisal and major
deductive inferential processes to be elements unique to
successful math students.

Community college administrators in Zussman‘s4
study possessed the modalities of appraisal, major dif-
ference and minor relationship. There were no modalities
of inference in common among the public school administra-
tors.

Other investigations utilizing the educational
science of cognitive style includes the works' of DeLoach,

43

Fragale42 and Wyett. DeLoach found that similarity of

administrator and instructor cognitive style acts as a

 

38Ronald E. Dehnke, op. cit.

39Keith L. Shuert, 0p. cit.

40Steven P. Zussman, Op. Cit.

41Joseph F. DeLoach, "An Analysis of Cognitive
Style Disparity as an Antecedent of Cognitive Dissonance
in Instructional Evaluation: An Exploratory Study in the
'Educational Sciences'" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
Wayne State University, 1969).

42Marvin Joseph Fragale, "A Pilot Study of
Cognitive Styles of Selected Faculty Members and Students
in a Community College Setting" (unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Wayne State University, 1969).

43Jerry L. Wyett, "A Pilot Study to Analyze
Cognitive Style and Teaching Style with Reference to
Selected Strata of the Defined Educational Sciences"
(unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State University,
1969).

41

38

a significant variable in the administrator's evaluation
of the instructor. He also noted that similarities of
teaching style between administrators and instructors were
significant to the evaluation process.

Fragale identified "collective cognitive styles"
among teachers and students included in his sample.

Wyett identified a general cognitive style orienta-
tion for each teacher who participated in the "Teacher
Education Experimental Project" at Wayne State University.
His study also implied that certain teaching tasks are

related to certain cognitive styles.

Summary

This chapter has reviewed selected research related
to individual differences, cognitive style in psychology and
cognitive style as explored in the educational sciences.
The present study is the first to test the use of a cogni-
tive style diagnostic process in an attempt to provide
better learning situations in foreign language classes.

The study attempts to determine the existence of common
cognitive characteristics of students and teachers which
may affect the teacher's evaluation of the student.

Since the theory of cognitive style in the educa-
tional sciences is a descriptive theoretical model, and
still being tested, it seemed necessary to at least mention
all available research on this model. The information

presented in this chapter is intended to establish a

39

foundation for the design and interpretation of the

findings of the present study. Therefore, a description of
the symbolic explanation of "cognitive style in the educa—
tional sciences" is included in the chapter. The design of

this study will be presented in Chapter III.

CHAPTER III

DESIGN OF STUDY

Source of Data

 

East Lansing, Michigan, is located in the south
central section of the state of Michigan. It is an
adjacent suburb of Lansing, the capital of the State.

The city houses Michigan State University, a state
supported university. The permanent resident population
consists of 18,125. The student population living off
campus totals 11,786 and the student population living

44 I O
The average annual income 18

45

on campus, 21,434.
estimated at $15,000.
The East Lansing Public Schools has a student
pOpulation of 5,162 and a total staff (administrative,
teaching and custodial) of 561. There are 261 teaching
personnel. The classroom teaching staff includes one
doctorate, 135 with masters, 120 with bachelor degrees and

5 with less than a bachelors.46 Eighty per cent of the

 

44Based on 1970 U.S. Bureau of Census statistics pro—

jected by Michigan Planning Commission, City Hall, East
Lansing.
45

projected.
46Final Report, East Lansing Public Schools 1970-71.

Based on 1960 U.S. Bureau of Census Statistics

40

41

students go on to college with an estimated 60 per cent
completing college.

The offering of foreign language begins in grades
6 and gives the student a potential sequence of grades 6
to 12. Students may begin a foreign language at any
grade level; therefore, any one student can have a
continuum of from 1 to 7 years. There are 535 students
taking foreign language in the high school and 286 in the
two middle schools. There are 252 students taking French
in the high school with 136 in the middle schools. There
are 10 foreign language teachers, 3 teaching French in the
high school. Each middle school has one teacher of French
giving a total French teaching staff of 5. There are 58
students taking French I in the high school and 62 in the
two middle schools.

There is one teacher of French I in the East Lansing
High School and one each in the middle schools. For the
purpose of this study, the one teacher of East Lansing High
School and one from Hannah Middle School were tested with
their classes. Both of these teachers have tenure. The
high school teacher has taught in East Lansing for ten years
and the Middle School teacher for eight years. The high
school teacher has a B.A. Degree with a major in Latin.
The middle school teacher has an M.A. Degree in French.
Both teachers are married and permanent residents of East

Lansing.

42

Samples Employed by_the Stugy

 

Since it was impossible to employ all the persons,
processes, and properties included in the defined pOpula-
tion, the student includes one French I class in the high
school and one French I class in the Hannah Middle School
and a sampling procedure was used to estimate and infer
about 34 selected characteristics in three sets of cognitive
styles. Specifically, the pOpulation included a total of
46 students enrolled in the two French I classes. The
respective teachers of these two classes were also tested
in the study. Twenty-five students were tested in the high
school. Their ages ranged from 15 to 18. Twenty-three
students were tested in the Hannah Middle School. Their
ages ranged from 11 to 13.

The main criterion employed in this study was the
grade (A=4.0, B=3.0, C=2.0, etc.) point accorded a student
by the teacher for the student's performance in the courses.
These grade points were entered in appropriate cells of the
Anova Grid shown below. For example, if a student
"matched" his teacher in the high school in symbolic orienta-
tion and received an A (4.0) in the course, a 4.0 was
entered in the "like" cell under S (symbolic orientation).
The variables represented by the data included two teachers
(I and II), I being the high school teacher, three
cognitive style sets (S--Symbolic Orientation, E--Cultural

Determinants, H--Mode of Inference) for each of the two

 

43

teachers and two groupings representing like (L) and unlike
(U) for each of the two teachers. The letter X was used
to denote the teacher's grade point estimates of success of
the students in the sample. Further examples are in the

Anova Grid below:

 

 

 

 

 

I II

S E H S E H

X X X X X X
L 4.0 4.0 4.0
4.0 3.0 4.0
I 3.0 1.0 4.0
3.0 2.0
1.0 2.0
0.0 1.0
E 0.0 0.0
U 4.0 4.0 4.0 3.0
N 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
3.0 3.0 3.0
L 3.0 0.0 3.0 3.0
I 3.0 0.0 3.0 3.0
2.0 0.0 2.0 3.0
K 2.0 2.0 0.0
E 0.0 0.0

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In the above hypothetical example in a class of 15
students of teacher I, two students were "like" the teacher
in symbolic orientation and received a grade of A (4.0),
two "like" received B (3.0), one "like" received a D (1.0)
and two "like" received an E (0.0). In the same class

8 students were "unlike" the teacher in symbolic

44

orientation: one received an A (4.0), four received a B,
two received a C, and one received an E. This process

was then continued for the stypes E (Cultural Determinants),
and H (Modes of Inferences). The same procedure was
carried out for teacher II (middle school). The data were
then analyzed through the use of the statistical technique
described in Chapter IV called Analysis of Variance.

Then, in an attempt to break down sets into discrete
characteristics and to isolate significant effects of
measurable characteristics of cognitive styles regardless
of teacher, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov two sample test (Like
and Unlike Groupings) was used. The two samples' cumula-
tive distribution of relative frequencies of occurrence
over the "categories" of A, B, C, D, E, were analyzed by

the process described in Hill and Kerber.47

Kolmogorov-Smirnov

Symbolic Orientation (S)
RegardIess of TeacHer

 

i.e., T(VL), T(AL). T(VQ).
A=4 B=3 C=2 D=l E=0 of Teacher was "matched"

 

 

 

 

 

Like by students whose "grades"
were distributed over A,
Unlike B, C, D, E, categories.

 

 

 

 

Repeat for Cultural Determinants i.e., T, F, A.

Repeat for Mode of Inference i.e., M. R. D.

 

47Joseph E. Hill and August Kerber, Models, Methods,
and Analytical Procedures in Educational Resources (Detroit:
Wayne State University Pressfgl967), pp. 154-155.

 

 

45

It should be noted that the sample is made up of a
collection of those cognitive characteristics which are
measurable in the symbolic set alone, and does not employ
the total cognitive style of the student, i.e., a
cartesian product of the three sets S, E, H; or G=S x E x H.

See Appendix.

Representativeness of POpulation

 

Since the sample employed in the study was drawn
from the defined pOpulation (two French I classes) to fit
the Anova Grid, and since the sampling involved all students
in the population when each category of the Grid was con-
sidered, and since both teachers (the total number of that
aspect of the defined pOpulation), the sample was con-
sidered to be highly representative of the defined pOpula-
tion), the sample was considered to be highly representa-

tive of the defined pOpulation from which it was drawn.

Adequacy of Study

 

Since the study was designed to examine the data
at a pilot study level of consideration, it was agreed
that small-sample theory could be employed apprOpriately.
Under these circumstances, a sample of 25 or more could

be considered adequate.

46

Data Collection

 

The aspect of the study dealing with data collection
is described in two parts (A) the instruments and techniques
and (B) the procedures which were followed during data

collection activities.

Instruments

 

The tests used compose a battery designed at Oakland
Community College to determine cognitive style. The battery
is divided into two parts. The first part is a selection
of 12 theoretical tests requiring 2 1/2 hours to complete,
the first six of which represent aptitude testing. All
of the tests have item validity. The second six tests of
the first part are inventories which give both qualitative
and theoretical information about a student. The second
section of the test is a qualitative non-written test
requiring 90 minutes to complete. This section is composed
of performance tests of sensory accuity. A complete test
battery can be found in the appendix. The characteristics
described by particular instruments are:

Theoretical Test:

Test #1: Verbal Reasoning--TUL

Test #2: Listening--TAL (Recording)

Test #3: Numerical Reasoning--TUQ

Test #4: Reading--TUL (Gates)

Test #5: Numerical Listening--TAW (Tape)

Test #6: Grammar-—TUL

47

Inventory #9 and #10: Cultural Determinants-—IAF

Inventory #11: Modalities of Inference--MDRL

Inventory #12: Personal Code Inventory
Qualitative--Non Written:

Test #1: Qualitative Auditory

Test #2: Qualitative Olfactory

This battery is a descriptive bettery at the

present time and as gives such descriptive information
about the student being tested. Items are taken from a
variety of instruments, such as the Iowa tests of Educa-
tional DevelOpment, the Gates Reading Tests, the Vineland
Social Maturity Scale and the Science Research Associates
Batteries. Attitudes, interests and values are measured
by inventories and check-lists employed to provide informa-
tion about specific vocational interests, social activities
and such broad fields of interest as mechanical, electronic

or computational devices.

Procedures of Data Collection

 

During the summer, a contact was made with the
Director of Instructional Services of the East Lansing
Public Schools, Dr. Robert Docking. The idea was presented
regarding the use of two French I classes in East Lansing
Public Schools for the purpose of this study. A description
of the process of cognitive style was presented to Dr.
Docking. The application of this diagnostic technique was

eXplained in relation to current problems in foreign

48

language education with an attempt to relate this to some
possible findings which could benefit Dr. Docking in his
work with foreign language students and teachers in the East
Lansing Schools. Dr. Docking accepted this explanation and
proceeded to stipulate the obligations which this study
would have to the administration, teaching staff and
students. The following data collection procedures were
agreed upon:

1. An interview was set up with the principal of
East Lansing High School and the principal of Hannah Middle
School to explain the purpose of the testing and the
advantages to the school system. Both principals agreed
to c00perate and make students available for testing.

2. An interview was set up with the two teachers
involved to explain the testing procedure and the value to
them and their students. A particular emphasis was placed
upon the type of testing used. It was very necessary that
the students understand that no evaluation was being made
of them in order to prevent any feelings of intimidation
which might affect the validity of the data. Both teachers
were anxious to c00perate.

3. A letter was sent to parents explaining the
testing procedure along with purposes and benefits. A
c0py of the letter is included in the appendix. None of

the parents objected to their children being tested.

49

4. An agreement was made with the assistant super-
intendent to give feed-back to the parents, students and
administrators concerning the final data and its implied
implications to benefits to the school system.

5. An interview was then set up with Dr. Joseph E.
Hill, President of Oakland Community College, to facilitate
testing procedures. Dates were verified for the convenience
of both OCC and East Lansing Schools.

6. Students in the East Lansing Hannah Middle
School were given the cognitive style test battery
(described above) on the morning of November 3, 1970, by a
mobile testing unit provided for that purpose by Oakland
Community College (administrative offices located in
Bloomfield Hills, Michigan).

7. On the same day (November 3) in the afternoon,
the same battery (completion time 2 1/2 hours) was given to
the East Lansing High School French I class. The students
were released from their classes for this purpose. The
teachers of both the high school and middle school were
tested at the same time. The data were then provided at
Oakland Community College on a series of print-outs giving
a computer based description of student and teacher
characteristics.

8. The mobile unit of Oakland Community College
returned to the East Lansing High School and Hannah Middle

School on January 3, 1971, to test the two classes for

50

qualitative data. Those data provided printouts similar
to those provided from the theoretical data. Samples of

the two descriptions can be found in Appendix A.

Summary

French I classes in East Lansing High School and
Hannah Middle School were used as the pOpulation which
provided data for the study. The students were tested by
a battery made available by a mobile testing unit from
Oakland Community College in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan.
The data were then entered on an Anova Grid for further
analysis. Individual characteristics of students were
entered upon the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Grid.

The study is considered representative as it
related to the defined pOpulation from which it was drawn
and it is considered adequate under the definition of a
pilot study.

The feed-back on the findings of the study was
promised to the East Lansing schools after completion of

the study.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF DATA AND FINDINGS

The first three chapters of the study treated the
background, purpose, need, related literature, and design.
The purposes of the present chapter are:

l. to consider the analytical techniques
employed in the study; and

2. to present the findings (not the conclusions)
resulting from the analysis.

Analytical Techniques

 

In addition to analyzing information provided by
conversations with school administrators, teachers and
students, two statistical techniques were employed to
analyze grade point data and "grouped" cognitive style
elements respectively. These techniques, the analysis of
variance, and the Kolmogorov-Smirnov, the two independent

techniques, are described below.

Analysis of Variance

 

The analysis of variance (anova) technique, or

testing, is described by Rosander48 as:

 

48A. C. Rosander, Elementary Principles of
Statistics (New York: D. Van Nostrand, 1951).

 

51

52

. . . In its broader aspects, analysis of
variance means the analysis of the total variation
of a given set of observations into its components.
These components are factors or categories which
are of major importance in interpreting the data.
If one of these components constitutes the random
or residual variation after the variation due to
the principal causes or factors has been eliminated,
then this variance can be used as the basis of z
or F tests of the significance of the other com-
ponents. In terms of specific statistical
operations, analysis of variance requires the
cross-classification of the data by categories or
factors, a tabulation which is a definite counter-
part of reflection of the initial design of the
statistical inquiry. In terms of calculations it
requires the following magnitudes which are usually
arranged in a compact tabular form: the number of
degrees of freedom for each of the components, the
sum of squares of deviations about the mean for each
of these components, the estimated variance or mean
square, and a z or F value for each test that is
made.

Analysis of variance can be of considerable
practical value in analyzing a complex set of data,
even though all four conditions for the z or F test
are not met, especially if the sampling is random
and the categories are independent, that is, if the
first two conditions are met. The reason is that
the procedure of analysis of variance is a way of
making maximum use of all the data, and considerable
value may be derived from such an analysis even
though no 2 or F test seems to be justified . . . .

Statistical Tables Using
Analysis of Variance

 

 

The following approach was used to employ this
technique (analysis of variance) through the use of the
anova grid. I and II represent teacher I and teacher II.
Teacher I is from the high school; teacher II is from the
middle school. S, E and H represent the three sets of

cognitive style. S means symbolic orientation; E means

53

cultural determinants; H means modes of inference. Student
groupings are represented by L and U, or like and unlike.

Kolmogorov-Smirnov Statistical Test Model is
described by Hill and Kerber as

. . . The two-sample test is concerned with the
degree of agreement between the two cumulative
distributions of the relative frequencies observed
in the respective samples. If the two samples have
actually been drawn from the same pOpulation, or
pOpulations having the same distribution, the
cumulative distributions of both samples should be
reasonably close to each other over the range of
values involved. If the two-sample cumulative
distributions evidence too much divergence at any
point, there is a given probability that the
samples might come from different pOpulations.

If the deviation between the two cumulative dis—
tributions at any point is so great that it would
occur, according to the apprOpriate Kolmogorov-
Smirnov probability distribution, less than 5 per
cent, or 1 per cent of the time, due to chance
factors alone, the null hypothesis (no difference
between the respective cumulative distributions)

is rejected in favor of the statistical alternative
hypothesis (H1).

An analysis of how this technique was employed in the study
is shown below.

To determine if there was a statistically signifi—
cant difference between like and unlike groups where group
membership was established on the basis of whether the
student matched or did not match the teacher in terms of
the binomial element of [T(AL) - Q(CES)] in the symbolic
set of cognitive style the following grid was used to

apply the above statistical model.

54

TAL - QCES

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

In similar fashion this approach was employed on
the sets relating to cultural determinants and modes of
inference. Findings resulted from these analyses are

reported later in this chapter.

Restatement of Hypotheses

 

Qperational Hypothesis

 

There is a difference between group mean
"grade points" (A=4.0, B=3.0, etc.)
associated with the factor of grouping
(like and unlike) cognitive style
characteristics by set, and those
associated with the factor Of teacher.

Statistical Alternative

 

H1: Ml # M11.

Null Hypothesis

 

Ho: M1 = Mll

Tables Showing Analysis of Data
and’Findings

 

The purpose of Table l is to locate the total sum
of squares. This procedure is used when a simple two

column variance cannot be employed. In this case, this was

55

 

 

 

 

mm H wa mm n mxw Hma n wa em n wa mm n mxw m u mxw
Am n zv Am u zv Ava u zv an n zv an n zv Am u zv o
n n xw mm H XN me n xw m n xw SH n xw e u xw
Nva u mxw HHH n Nxm mm n mxw pea n mxw NHH u wa mma u wa
“ma n zv Am n zv Am u zv “om u zv Ame n zv Aam u zv A
me n xw an n xw mm H xw Hm u xw me u xw mm H xw
m m m m m m
.oum .Hu .oum .uo
m m m m m m mcfimsouw
Dom .um .000 new .um .moo unopsum

 

HH Hocomma

 

H Hocomoa

 

.moumswm mo EdmII.H mqmda

56

the result of an unequal number of entries in each cell.

As indicated by Table 1, it will be noted that the total

sum of squares equals 1034.2, which is represented by A.

The total sum of squares is found by computing within each

square the sum of X, which is the total arrived at by

computing the sum of all grade points using A=4, B=3,

C=2, D-1, and E=0. Therefore, in the first cell, the sum

of the squares equals 55, the number of entries are 21 h
and the cell is represented by iggli. The procedure used
to arrive at the sum of squares is explained in Hill and
Kerber.49 It must be kept in mind that the study is
seeking to show the interaction effect of sources of

variation upon the hypothesis (Ho). The statistical

—'2
formula for analysis of variance = 82 = i§§%l—u Table 1

represents the factors and their levels (e.g., teacher,

2 levels, I and II) associated with "grade points" derived
from the letter grades assigned to students by the teachers.
The variance table (Table 2) represents the
analysis of sources of variation in terms of interactions
and main effects; i.e., teacher, cognitive style set, and

student grouping. The "work tables" showing the actual

analyses of the data can be found in the appendix.

 

49Hill and Kerber, Op. Cit.

57

 

 

 

 

mm.Hmm.m asses
= Hm.s n wmnws em.sm em.sm sarcoma
. n IMMHHH . . a
= em A mom.em mom em Ho ass ma am
am.» u .mquH mm.em mm.em sensuous
mm em
= Hm.e u mmmww mm.sm mm.sm Sensuous x racemes
= mm.s n.1mquH mHo.mm No.0ea meanness x masum
was me
= mm.s n Immqu mam.em ma.msa mfisum x nanomme
mam mm
m>w o 0
pm we uwmmwm as.» n mmqu ss.mm em.mea genomes x masum x mmcnasouu
u- mm.HH He.aom.d Amaamo assuage nouns
oumcvm moumcvm
coamflomo oaummnm new: mo 85m cowumeum> mo moucom

 

.00:maum>lt.w mamda

58

Consulting Table 2, it is interesting to note that:

1. There is a significant difference between
groupings "like" and "unlike" when groupings were determined
on basis of single set matches; i.e. (S matches S) or
(E matches E), not on total Cartesian Product of Sets.

The mean score of the "unlike" groups were found in certain
cases to be significantly higher than those of the "like"
groups.50 It is interesting to note that this is the

first study with this finding. Heretofore "like" groups
classified on the basis of the Eppgi style of the indi-
viduals involved have always shown higher group mean scores
than the "unlike" groups.

2. There is a significant difference in the level
of grading of the two teachers. Teacher II (middle school)
graded considerably higher on the average than did Teacher I
(high school). (For actual teacher means, see Table 7, in
the Appendix). For teacher II the average grade point was
found to be 3.2 (3+). Teacher I was found to be 2.5 (C+).

3. Since all the group mean scores of main effects
were found to be significantly different between levels and
since all interactions proved to be statistically signifi-
cant, the findings required interpretation in each factor.
(See work tables in the Appendix).

The Kolmogorov-Smirnov Grid (Table 3) represents

one example of a discrete characteristic, in this case

 

50See Table 2.

59

 

 

mmm mmm mmm mmm N - H n
0 am we om H axxv m Axe m1 a
Axmzv
u mmm .mmm mmm mmm mmm m
mmm Ammvxamv mm mmm mmm msm mas o Axe m
on m

n mmm mmm mmm mmm mmm a

mum Ammvxama mm som mes mam m ems e a Axe m
Hmpos o H m m s

 

.Hxamovouxo>se_nn.m mamas

6O

T(VQ)-Q(CET) or theoretical visual quantitative-qualitative
code ethic, as applied to the statistical test described
earlier.

Applying the necessary X2 formula with two degrees

of freedom, e.e., 2df:

__']___n1 n2
2 _ 6 25) (217'
X - 4 [32-05] E 46 — + .6

Since the value of X2 = .6 is not significant; i.e.,

 

it does not exceed the critical value of x2 = 5.991, the
null hypothesis cannot be rejected, and its alternative
(that the two groups are different in terms of the element
[T(VQ)-Q(CET)] cannot be accepted.

The remainder of these types of working tables can
be found in the Appendix. It should be noted that in each
case of analysis, the null hypothesis could not be rejected
and, therefore, its corresponding "alternative“ could not

be accepted.

Summary

Table 1 shows the techniques used to manipulate the
data in the variance, Table 2. The purpose of this table
was to locate the sum of squares. This procedure is used

when there-are an unequal number of entries in each cell.

1 Film,

 

 

61

It should be noted that by breaking down the entries into
S, E and H, or cognitive style sets, any one student could
have both "like" and "unlike" sets to the teacher.

The variance table (Table 2) carries the summary
data of the Anova-Grid since all the group mean scores and
mean affects were found to be significantly different
between levels and since all interactions proved to be
statistically different, the findings required interpreta-
tion in each factor. Each factor also called for the
rejection of the null hypothesis and the acceptance of the
alternate hypothesis. In other words, there is a relation-
ship between the variables of cognitive style teachers and
groupings of "like" and "unlike."

It was impossible to break down to the most basic
binomial elements to show any significant effect to "like"
and Runlike" "matches." Therefore, it was impossible to
find any discrete characteristics which had a significant

relationship upon the teacher's mean score.

.‘ .1322.

E :2.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

Foreign languages in the past twelve years have

gone through major methodological changes. Teachers,

2_iima

parents and students were dissatisfied with the visual
approach (heavy emphasis on reading, writing and grammar)
which is now termed the "traditional" approach.

Most were unhappy that students could not Speak a
foreign language and our federal government viewed this
lack as hurting our international intellectual stature.
Therefore a new approach called "audio-lingual" was
developed and large sums of federal monies (National
Defense Education Act 1958) went into providing materials,
equipment and inservice education to receptive school
systems.

The new audio-lingual approach to foreign language
education prOposed to correct all omission in the process
of producing fluent Speakers of a foreign language. The
new doctrine of introduction of the four skills in the
proper order, listening, speaking, reading and writing.
Dialogues were memorized, pattern drills repeated, language
laboratories purchased and hOpe for a new age in language

learning prevailed.
62

63

For several years the profession has indicated a
general dissatisfaction with the audio-lingual approach.
Perhaps too much was expected of it but little change seems
to have occurred in drOp-out rates from foreign language
courses. Students are not instantaneously fluent speakers.
However, it must be noted that colleges are saying that the
students they get are better prepared. Enrollments not
only have not increased, but are going down. We still have
not found a way to interest a large majority of students
in foreign language.

Foreign language teachers are being bombarded by
eager critics anxious to lay much of education's--and
indeed society's--omissions at their feet.

Many prestigious institutions such as Yale,
Stanford, Brown and Wesleyan are now dropping their
undergraduate foreign language requirements.

And in the high school, for these and other
reasons, school administrators and students across the
nation are showing a disinterest in either offering or
learning foreign languages. Enrollments are drOpping and
the place of foreign language instruction in the curriculum
is being challenged.

While this Situation has stemmed in part from a
changing society, a realignment of social and educational
priorities and the"cannonization of relevancy," such circum-
stances alone would not be sufficient to produce the current

attacks.

64

It is generally agreed that all children do not
learn alike. The literature reviewed in this study indi-
cates that little is known about the structure of learning.
The study deals with those cognitive characteristics which
are measurable and, in doing so, Sheds more light on
student learning.

The diagnostic procedure utilized at Oakland
Community College in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, was used
with two classes in French I at two schools, East Lansing
High School and Hannah Middle School (also at East Lansing,
Michigan). Measurable cognitive elements were provided
for each student and both teachers.

The data were analyzed by use of the analysis of
variance technique to Show interaction of cognitive sets
or categories of cognitive elements on the hypotheses. In
order to further search for significant elements or
characteristics, the data were further broken down by use
of the Kolmogorov-Smirnov Statistical Test Model.

The findings emanating from the Anova Techniques
appear to reject the null hypotheses and call for the
acceptance of the "alternate" hypothesis. (The null
hypothesis stated that there is no difference between the
mean grade point associated with teacher I and teacher II.
It is rejected.) There is a difference between the mean
grade point associated with teacher I and teacher II. In

other words, there is a relationship between the variables

65

of cognitive style groupings and both teachers and the
evaluation both teachers made of their students.

When component sets of cognitive style were broken
down into discrete characteristics, it was impossible to
Show any "like" or "unlike" group relationship of student
and teacher characteristics. However, this was the first
study which attempts to analyze "like" and "unlike"
groupings in terms of individual sets as opposed to the
Cartesian product of three sets which indicate the cogni-
tive style of an individual. The studies cited in the
related literature compared the total cognitive styles of
the students and teachers in making "like" and "unlike"
comparisons. The present study sought to determine the
influence of one component of a characteristic (for
example, [T(AL)-Q(CEM)]]. It is also possible that the
issue involved may be less "like/unlike the teacher's
style" than a matter of "like/unlike the instructional
experience style." This could indicate the possibility of
another variable somewhat compatible to methodology and
teacher style.

Therefore, conclusions from the related literature
may still be valid. Furthermore, we have another
dimension which has been added to the evaluation process

of foreign language instruction.

66

Conclusions

 

1. In answer to the question: Is there a relation-

ship between the measurable cognitive styles of a French I
teacher and student and the student's success in French I?
The response can be given on the basis of the rejection of
the null hypothesis in the analysis of variance by saying:

Due to the observed "F-ratio" being greater in

value than that of the critical values of the

"F-ratio," there is a Significant difference

between "like" and "unlike" group mean scores

associated with the individual sets comprising

 

the Cartesian product denoting the cognitive

style of an individual, i.e., there is a signifi-
cant difference between "like" and "unlike" group
mean scores according to symbolic orientation,
cultural determinants and modes of inference,
reSpectively. The fact that the mean scores, in
some cases, favored the "unlike" group, while in
others favored the "like" group, at a significant
level, would indicate that the total cognitive style
should be used to "predict" which group, "like" or
"unlike," the teacher's evaluation (letter grade)
might favor. A relationship does exist between the
students' and teachers' styles, but analyzing the

relationship in terms of the individual sets

 

67

comprising "style" instead of analyzing it in terms of
the total cognitive style yields an "unpredictability"
factor that otherwise does not seem to exist. For
example, this finding, and conclusion, is not supported

by Lawrence Wasser'sSl

study which clearly Showed that,
employing total cognitive style to determine "like"
and "unlike" groupings, teachers tended to mark groups
with "like" styles Significantly higher than the group
of students with styles "unlike" those of the teacher.
In other words, Since the total cognitive style was
broken down into the three component sets when the
characteristics of the student and teacher were
matched, they were matched on the basis of independent
sets. This could mean, for example, that one student
could be "like" the teacher in one set and "unlike"
in the other two sets. If the total cognitive profile
had been taken into account, that one student could have
been entered as a total "like" or "unlike" character-
istic within the profile. This seems to indicate that
scores function differently when treated in smaller

component parts in an attempt to relate it to an upper

tier which is made up of those three parts.

 

51Wasser, op. cit., p. 27.

68

2. In answer to the question: What are the
cognitive elements within the set of symbolic orientation
which tend to show a major or minor "match" between teacher
and student in cases of student success in foreign language
courses?

According to the data analyzed by the Kolmogorov-
Smirnov Statistical Test no significant findings
were yielded through the analyses which involved

the characteristics being broken down this minutely,
and when used in isolation from the total cognitive
style. Again, the "whole picture," so to Speak,

is needed.

3. In answer to the questions: What are the
cognitive elements within the set of cultural determinants
which tend to Show major and minor "match" between teacher
and student in cases of success of foreign language
courses? and

4. What are the cognitive elements within the set
of modes of inference which tend to show major and minor
"match" between teacher and student in cases of success
of foreign language courses?

The conclusions also arrived at for question 2 are
apprOpriate for the sets of cultural determinants

and modes of inference.

69

5. In answer to the question: Does the age level

Of the student affect the relationship Of cognitive match
and success in a course?

The findings indicate that the two teachers did 22E

have the same grading procedure. It may be that

the different age levels of the two groups, high

school and middle school, affected the grade mean

Of the two teachers (teacher II graded significantly

higher than teacher I). This was probably only one

factor responsible for this finding. Another

factor may be that there is a different philosophy

Of grading Operating at each school.

Discussion

 

This study appears to have created more questions
than answers. Many Of these questions need to be pursued.
The specific direction Of those questions is discussed in
some detail in the section of "Implications for Future
Research." At the conclusion of the study the implications
for curriculum tend to follow in two general categories.

' is based

The first of these, "Individual Differences,‘
upon the statistical findings. The second implication is
related to the whole question of the validity of grades

and are more observations than findings.

70

Individual Differences

The most significant statistical finding of the
study is the discovery that it is impossible to isolate a
discrete characteristic which has a significant impact on
the hypothesis. Applying the present findings to the
concept Of individual differences, one finds that there
is considerable objective support in the present data for
the need to view the individual child as a whole rather
than as a set Of isolated emotional-social-cognitive
characteristics. Even with supportive data which implies
the importance Of complete profile data, there is still an
incomplete picture Of the learner. Indications are that
reading level alone or any other standardized test
measurement cannot and should not play as significant a
role in school as it presently does. A study Of the total
cognitive style can become a contribution when it is
utilized for the purpose Of providing apprOpriate learning
situations for the child as this gives to educators a
much more complete picture of the student.

This becomes particularly significant in foreign
language instruction. Four skills have been defined as a
part of the total ability to speak another language.
Comprehension, speaking, reading and writing are necessary
for effective communication; however, in most schools
there is one grade given to represent performance in all

Of these skills. Furthermore, one methodology is provided

71

tO accommodate all students pursuing proficiency in
foreign language usage. If, indeed, students are dif-
ferent, why must they be guided through the educational
process with limited data being used for decisions regard-
ing learning and why must he be placed in a learning
environment which gives the impression all students learn
alike? It must be noted that the relationship of

specific profiles to certain curricular environments was
not a part of this study and must remain for future action
research.

In summation, various descriptive tests and inven-
tories can give feedback information provided by the
child about himself and, in turn, could be used as a way
Of guiding him through a more intrOSpective experience in
education whether it be the choice Of a teacher or an
alternative learning environment.

Educational theorists constantly are reminding us
to lOOk at the whole child, yet practitioners on a daily
basis are making decisions concerning children by use of
very isolated and rigid testing data.

Perhaps the true picture would look something like

this:

72

Institution

4 f __

{ Manipulatable Pedagogic Variables

 

 

I

 

 

 

 

1 Social Interaction Behavior I
Cognitive Structure of the Learner (in relation
of Learner to his various contexts of

 

 

experience).f

 

x j /

v

Learner

Here we see the institution dealing with available
manipulatible pedagogic variables which affect the learner
in both his structured learning and his social experiences.
The institution should and must continue to research
better ways to interact with the learner within this area;
however, one must always keep in mind that there are
aspects Of both cognitive structure and Of social inter—
action behavior which lie outside the domain of manipulat-

able pedagogic variables.

Grades

None Of the findings either directly support or
repute the use Of grades; however, there were Observations
made throughout the study which are worthy Of mention.

The queStion Of validity Of grades was approached
at the beginning Of the study. The grade was never intended

to serve as a valid representation of proficiency or a

73

symbol of success. It represented merely the teacher's
judgmental, real-world evaluation.

After this study, less confidence is expressed in
the present grading system to measure success in foreign
language. In fact, there is a possibility that the
tendency Of the second teacher to grade high may have
resulted in the matching Of "unlike" characteristics to
success in the class.

The middle school teacher expressed an unwilling-
ness to assign grades to the students. She said that
students who were failing drOpped out so she gave no D's
and E's and did give mostly A's and B's. Her approach
to success in the class was much broader and less based
upon test grades and stylized performance.' She eXpressed
a lack Of confidence in grades and supported the Hannah
Middle School practice which does not provide for their
use. In other words, her evaluation Of the student
included more input than the performance Of the student
in foreign languages. As mentioned before, this probably
threw off the data, but as it affects grading procedures
it become evident that many subjective influences effect
"grades." Parents and students usually assume that grades
represent performance whereas in reality they represent,
as in this study, many variables, i.e., teacher philOSOphy,

school philOSOphy, test grades, behavior, etc.

74

Implications for Future Research

1. The existing study should be replicated by
using a valid statement for measuring proficiency in
foreign languages.

2. Once accurate assessment is made of proficiency,
a comparison could be made Of the total cognitive styles
of teachers and students as they relate to a more efficient
measure Of proficiency.

3. Two teaching techniques could be provided, one
audio-lingual and one traditional, and they could be
related to cognitive style to determine tOlerance to
different curricular environments.

4. The present studies could also be replicated
in other cOgnitive areas tO assess the same types of
data.

5. It would be interesting to compare high school
test behavior under the same general condition in a dif—

ferent socio-economic-strata high school.

Recommendations

 

The recommendation, therefore, is to strive for
understanding and cautious attention to future research.
‘KIE Cognitive style diagnosis is very new and Offers
much promise for future research. The possibilities are
great, but much care must be taken in utilizing these

kinds Of data.

75

The impact Of cognitive style diagnosis curriculum
could be significant or damaging. Both its limitations
and possibilities must be Observed by professional
educators.

TO blindly accept this procedure as another educa-
tional panacea would be disastrous; to categorically
dismiss it and hOpe it will go away is foolhardy.
Researchers should examine findings carefully before
rushing forward to implement innovations based on them.

2. Courses in cognitive style mapping, diagnosis
and use of data should be examined for inclusion in the V"
programs Of major teacher training institutions.

3. Inservice courses should be held in secondary
schools to familiarize teachers with the theory and
terminology Of this approach to cognitive style. This is
only one approach to the theory Of cognition. It is
assumed that other theories Of cognition and cognitive
develOpment have valid methods of measurement.

4. Further instruments and techniques to give
feedback to students concerning progress should be
develOped and researched as an alternative to the rigid
and, in this study, ineffective teacher grade to measure
success in the class.

5. Foreign language teachers having extensive

profile data on students Should do some action research to

76

try to assess the tolerance Of certain profiles to certain

curricular environments.

I1]

13“” — - _
,.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

77

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allport, Gordon W. Personality, A Psychological Interpre-i
tation. New York: Henry Holt and Company, 1937.

 

Barron, Frank. "Some Personality Correlates of Indepen-
dence Of Judgment." Journal of Personality, Vol.
21 (March, 1953), 287-297}

 

Bigelow, Gordon S. and Robert L. Egbert. "Personality
Factors and Independent Study." The Journal of
Educational Research, Vol. 62, NO. 1 (September,
1968), 27429.

 

Broverman, D. M. "Dimensions of Cognitive Styles."
Journal Of Personality, Vol. 28 (1960), 183.

 

Carpenter, Finley, and Hadden, Eugene E. Systematic
Application of Psychology. New York: Macmillan
Company, 1964.

 

Cotter, Jude T. "The Affects Of the Educational Science
of Cultural Determinants of the Meanings of
Symbols on Curricular Choice." Unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Wayne State University, 1970.

Dehnke, Ronald E. "An EXploration of the Possible
Isomorphism Of Cognitive Style and Successful
Teaching of Secondary School English." Unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State University, 1966.

DeLoach, Joseph F. "An Analysis of Cognitive Style
Disparity as an Antecedent of Cognitive Dissonance
in Instructional Evaluation: An Exploratory Study
in the 'Educational Sciences.'" Unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Wayne State University, 1969.

Fragale, Marvin Joseph. "A Pilot Study of Cognitive Styles
Of Selected Faculty Members and Students in a
Community College Setting." Unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Wayne State University, 1969.

Gagne, Robert M. Learning and Individual Differences.
Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill Books, Inc.,
1967.

78

79

Gardner, R. W., et a1. "Cognitive Control: A Study of
IndividuaI Consistencies in Cognitive Behavior."
Psychological Issues, Vol. 1, No. 4, 3.

 

Hardin, Garrett. "Biology and Individual Differences."
Individualizipg Instruction. The Sixty-first
Yearbook of the NationaIDSociety for the Study
of Education, Part I. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press (1962), 13.

Hedley, Carolyn Neal. "The Relationship of Personality
Factors to Scientific and Mathematical Ability
Factors." School Science and Mathematics, Vol. 68
(1968), 265:271.

Hill, Joseph E. "Cognitive Style as an Educational
Science." Unpublished paper, Oakland Community
College, 1968.

Hill, Joseph E., and Kerber, August. Models, Methods, and
gnalytical Procedures in Educatipnal Resources.
Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1967.

Keating, R. F. A Stugy of the Effectiveness of Language
Sgboratofies. New York: Columbia University,
Institute of Administrative Research, Teachers
College, 1963.

 

Kelly, Earl C. Education for What is Real. New York:
Harper afid Row, 1947.

Klein, G. S. "The Personal World through Perception."
Perception: An Approach to Personality. Edited
by R. R. Blake, and V. V. Ramsey. New York:
Ronald Press, 1951.

Majer, Kenneth. "Differential Relationships Between
Personality and Performance Under Dissimilar
Modes of Instruction." AV Communication Review,
Vol. 18, No. 2 (Summer, I970),T169-179.

Mouw, John T. "Effect of Dogmatism on Levels of Cognitive
Processes." Journal Of Educational Psychology,
Vol. 60, NO. 5 (1969).

Rankin, Stuart C. "A Theory of an Isomorphism-Model-
Hypothesis Method of Thought." Unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Wayne State University, 1964.

80

Robinson, Richard L. "A Descriptive Study of Specific
Achievements and Aptitudes of the High Risk
Students in Oakland University's Higher Opportuni-
ties Program in Education." Unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Wayne State University, 1969.

Rokeach, M. The Open and Closed Mind. New York: Basic
Books, 1960.

 

Rosander, A. C. Elementary Principles of Statistics.
New York: D. Van Nostrand, 1951.

 

Shuert, Keith L. "A Study to Determine Whether a
Selected Type of Cognitive Style Predisposes One W“
to do Well in Mathematics." Unpublished Ph.D.
dissertation, Wayne State University, 1970.

1‘— ‘ ‘7‘” 3‘
a.

Smith, Charles P., and Winterbottom, Miriam T. "Person-
ality Characteristics of College Students on
Academic Probation." Journal of Personality,
Vol. 38, No. 3 (September, 1970), 379-399.

 

Smith, Philip D., Jr., and Baranyi, Helmut A. A Compari-
son Stugy of the Effectiveness of the Traditional
and Audiolihgual Approaéhes to Foreign Langpage
Instruction Utilizipg Laboratory Equipment.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Health,
Education and Welfare, Office Of Education, 1968.

 

 

 

Snow, Richard E., Tiffen, Joseph, and Seibert, Warren F.
"Individual Differences and Instructional Film
Effects." Journal of Educational Psychology,
Vol. 56, NO. 6‘11965T, 315-326.

 

Stroup, Atkee L. "The Prediction Of Academic Performance
from Personality and Aptitude Variables." The
Journal Of Experimental Education, Vol. 38,-N5. 3
(Spring, 1970), 83—86.

 

Thorndike, Edward L., quoted in Morris L. Bigge and
Maurice P. Hunt. Psychological Foundations of
Education. New York: Harper and Row, 1968.

 

 

Wasser, Laurence. "An Investigation into Cognitive
Style as a Facet Of Teachers' Systems of Student
Appraisal." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation,
University of Michigan, 1969.

Witkin, H. A. "Individual Differences in Cases Of Embedded
Figures." Journal of Personalipy, Vol. 19, pp.
1-15.

 

81

Wyett, Jerry L. "A Pilot Study to Analyze Cognitive Style
and Teaching Style with Reference to Selected
Strata of the Defined Educational Sciences."
Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Wayne State
University, 1969.

Zussman, Steven P. "A Pilot Study EXploration of Cognitive
Style and Administrative Style as Defined in the
Educational Sciences." Unpublished Ph.D. disserta-
tion, Wayne State University, 1968.

APPENDICES

82

ll Tl IIIII'T III I! I! l. 'I III-IT {.I’I. III III I."

APPENDIX A

83

e ‘.t.

.5---

Instruments included here are presented by the
initial pages of each test given. They may be found in
their entirity in the library of the Testing Center of
Oakland Community College. For further information

contact Dr. Virginia Spagr, Oakland Community College,

Bloomfield Hills, Michigan.

84

A .l . 1}
H I liflllll‘
ail (III. Tit

TEST '1

DIRE CT 10 NS

ANSWERS ARE TO BE MARKED ON I B M CARDS ONLY

Choose the pair of words so that the sentence will be true and
sensible.

The first word of the pair you choose goes in the blank space at
the beginning of the sentence; the second word of the pair goes in
the blank at the end of the sentence.

When you have picked the pair to fill in the blanks, fill in the
letter for that pair on the I. B. M. card.

"‘“‘_*‘"3

Example X: ..... is to water as eat is to .....

A. continue. . . . . drive
B. foot. . . . . . . enemy

C. drink. . . . . . food ANSWER CARD:
D. girl. . . . . . industry , ~. (~\ §~\ Q
Es drinks 0 s s o enemy X \‘ \‘s. \j ‘

ABCDE

The answer is g. The words drink and food complete the sentence
so it is true and sensible.

.‘-_—._._’I—- *—

Now look at the next example:
Example Y so... is to night 3.8 breakfast is to 0.0000

A. supper. . . . . corner

B. gentle. . . . . . morning

C. door. . . . . corner ANSWER CARD:

D. flow. ... . .enjoy , ‘

E. supper . . . morning Y C: Q} Q Q
A B C D E

The answer is _.§_. If your answer is incorrect, reread example X.
I. Turn the page

2. Read the directions
3. You have 15 minutes for this test.

.4—

85

TEST III
DIRECTIONS

This test consists of 20 numerical problems. Next to each problem
there are five answers.

You are to pick out the correct answer and fill in its letter on the
answer card. ‘If you do not find a correct answer among the first
four choices, fill in the "E" as your answer.

Choice E for every problem is "none of these" which means that a
correct answer is not among the first four choices.

Only one answer should be marked for each problem.

Do your figuring on the scratch paper you have been given, and
reduce fractions to lowest terms. For example, if two choices
are 1 1/2 and 1 2/4, only the 1 1/2 is correct.

The following are examples of problems in the test:

Example X Answers
' ANSWER CARD

22;: x osooo
CDE

13 C. 16 A B
12 D. 59

1"

E. None of these

In Example X, 25 is the correct answer, so the letter B has been
filled in.

Example Y Answers
ANSWER CARD
SUBTRACT A. 15
B. 26 Y g. -‘
c. 16 C‘- U U U 0’
g: D. 8 A B c 1: E
-- E. None of these

In example Y, the correct answer has not been given, so the letter
E has been filled in.

PLEASE DO NOT TURN THE
PAGE.

86

A.

B.

TEST IV

Directions to Students

Do not turn this page of the test booklet until directed to
do so.

There are eight selections in this part of the test. Read

a selection through completely; then answer the questions.
When you have completed one selection, go immediately to
the next. Keep working until you have completed all the
selections or until you are told to stop. To answer a ques-
tion, you may, if you wish, look back at the material you
have read. But do not puzzle too long over any one question.
After a reasonable effort, go on to the next question.

You will have 20 minutes to work this part of the test. When
the examiner tells you to begin, turn this page and start im-

mediately to read Unit I.

Wait for the signal to turn this page.

MAKE NO MARKS ON THIS TEST

BOOKLET

87

FORM ll

TEST I TEST I

DIRECTIONS

Each of the 25 sentences in this test has the first word and the
last word left out. You are to pick out words which will fill the blanks
so that the sentence will be true and sensible.

For each sentence you are to choose from among five pairs of“words to
fill the blanks. The first word of the pair you choose goes in the blank
space at the beginning of the sentence; the second word of the pair goes in
the blank at the end of the sentence. When you have picked the pair to
fill in the blanks, fill in the letter of that pair.

Example X. .....is to water as eat is to.....

A. continue.....drive DRINK is to water as eat is to FOOD.
B. foot.....enemy DRINK is the first word of pair C
C. drink.....food and FOOD is the second word of pair
D. girl.....industry C, so the C has been filled in.

E. drink.....enemy
ANSWER CARD:

Now look at the next example.

Example Y. ..... is to night as breakfast is to .....

A. supper.....corner SUPPER is to night as breakfast is to
B. gentle.....morning MORNING. Pair E has both SUPPER and
C. door.....corner MORNING; SUPPER fits in the blank at
D. flow.....enjoy the beginning of the sentence and
E. supper.....morning MORNING fits in the blank.at the

end. the E has been filled in.

ANSWER CARD:
T P
Y i‘.

x 2*} "*a "E is

You will have 15 minutes for this test. Work as rapidlyand as accurately
as you can. If you are not sure of an answer, mark the choice which is your
best guess. Mark all of your answers on the answer card provided. he sure
to put the correct answer by the correct number.

DO NOT TURN THE PAGE UNTIL YOU ARE TOLD TO DO SO.
88

ms! 111
rssr In FORM I I

DIRECTION 8

This test consists of 20 numerical problems. Next to each prehis-
there are five answers. You are to pick out the correct answer and fill
in its letter on the answer card. If you do not find a correct answer
among the first four choices, fill in the E as your answer. Choice 3
for every problea is "none of these“ which means that a correct answer
is ggg_among the first four choices. Only one answer should be marked
for each problem. Do your figuring on the scratch paper you have been
given, and reduce fractions to lowest terms.

The following are examples of problems in.the test.

Example x.
A. 16 ANSWER.CARD:
ADD 13 B 25' T P
_1_2_ C16 rein”)
D 59 A D c D I
E none of these
In Example x, 25 is the correct answer, so the letter I - has been
filled in.
A 15 ANSNIR CARD:
Example Y. B 26 T .
cm I (l... 1747'
SUBTRACT 30 D 8 A B C D I
39, 3 none of these

In Example‘Y, the correct answer has not been given,-so the letter
--E-- has been filled in.’

Remember, each answer must be reduced to its simplest tern. Per
example, if two choices are l 112 and 1 2/0, only the l ll2 is correct.
no ALL YOUR FIGURING ON THE SCRATCH PAPER, NOT IN YOUR BOOKLET.

You will have 15 minutes for this test. work as rapidly and as

accurately as you can. Do not spend a long time on any one problem.

If you are not sure of an answer, mark the choice which is your best
guess. ‘

DO NOT TURN THE PAGE UNTIL YOU ARE TOLD TO DO 80.
89

FORMII

rssr .6: TEST 1:1

DIRECTIONS

Read these paragraphs. Draw a mark in the circle which has the
letter of the best answer to the question or completes the sentence.
Draw a mark in one circle only. Do the exercises as rapidly as you
can without making errors. This is a timed test.

SAMPLE; All night long the truck driver sat at the
wheel of the huge trailer truck. He drove
the twisting highways until dawn. How did
he feel then?

A. rested B. amused C. tired D. fresh

ANSWER CARD:
T F

1° C=>~::>eyuc:vc:j
A B C D E

On the next pages are more paragraphs similar to this sample. When
your teacher tells you to turn the page, read the paragraphs and
draw a mark in the prOper circle which best answers the question or
completes the sentence. Be sure to do the paragraphs in order

I, 2, 3, etc., in which they are numbered.

DO NOT TURN THE PAGE UNTIL YOU ARE TOLD TO BEGIN.

90

.e .m' c» Any.-
, .

TEST v: FORM " TEST v:

DIRECTIONS

This test consists of a series of sentences, each divided into four parts
lettered A, B, C, D and E. You are to look at each sentence and decide which
part has an error in grammar, punctuation or spelling. When you have decided
which part is wrong fill in the space next to the letter on your answer card.

Some sentences have no error in any part. it there is no error in a

sentence, fill in the space next to the letter E.

Example X: Ain't we/ going to/ the office/ next week?
A B C D E rt?

T F .
ANSWER CARD: \ h h h h
A B C o E

Example Y: i went/ to a bell/ game with/ Jimmy.
A B C D E

TF.
ANSWER CARD: 3 D O D \
A sc 0 E

in Example X, "ain't" is wrong, so the A has been marked. There Is no
error in Example Y, so the E has been marked.

There is no more than 9gg_wrong part in any sentence. When you find a
part with an error, fill in the space next to its letter. Some of the
sentences are entirely correct. it no part has an error, fill in the space
next to the E.

You will have 13 minutes for this test. Work as rapidly and as accurately
as you can. If you are not sure of an answer, mark the choice which is your
best guess. Do all your work on your answer card.

00 NOT TURN THE PAGE UNTIL YOU ARE TOLD TO DO SO

91

TEST VIII FOthll IEST VIII

DIRECTIONS

The following test is untlmed. However, work quickly and give the
first answer that comes to you. Do not spend a lot of time on any one

question. Your first Impression is important. Mark your answers on the
answer card.

There are 32 items and you are to rate each one with regard to how

11_1§_like yo . Fill in the space, on your answer card, under the proper
letter. (A I usually; 8 = sometimes; C = seldom; D 8 never)

 

F1]

EXAMPLE:

K‘— ‘7va5 '1' "T
1
I

i would make a good football player.

A. usually 8. sometimes C. seldom 0. never
T F
Lilli.

ABCD

In this case you believe you would "usually" be good as a
football player.

Rate all 32 items and put your answers in the proper place on your

answer card.

DO NOT TURN THE PAGE UNTIL TOLD TO DO SO

93

FORM Il
TEST IX TEST IX

DIRECTIONS

Following are some stories or incidents that might happen to people in
which they must make a choice as to how to respond or react.

We want to know how you uwould respond, according to what you would do In
real life, if you were required to choose among the possible reactions the one
that was "most like you" and the one that was "least like you".

In the following examples there are three choices. You MUST make two
choices in each example and leave one blank. Make the appropriate mark on
your answer card according to your choice. in each question you must make a
choice of what is "most like you" (A - MOST) and what is "least like you"

(8 - LEAST) and leave one choice blank.

EXAMPLE

A. Sue Bryant is planning to buy a new set of clothes for a long vacation
trip. She should:

i. Consult her parents and sisters on what to buy.
SAMPLE ANSWER CARD

 

 

A). MOST B). LEAST
2. Make her own decision. i. AQTBQFC‘D‘ E“
A). MOST 8). LEAST 2. A%B\C“ O‘E‘
3. Ask the advice of her girlfriends. 3. A‘BQC‘ DQE Q
A). MOST B). LEAST

In the above example it would be most like you to ask the advice of your
friends and least like you to make a decision alone on what to buy.

Remember, you MUST make a choice of what is "most like you" (MOST) and
what is "least like you" (LEAST), and leave one BLANK.

DO YOUR WORK ON THE ANSWER CARD PROVIDED

94

 

TEST X DIRECTIONS TEST X

In this test there are ten (10) situations in which you are asked
to imagine yourself. Each situation has four (4) alternative responses.
You are to decide which response you would "most likely" make as
the first or best solution, then the second best, the third best, and
the fourth best.

Remember YOU MUST RANK ALL FOUR RESPONSES for each
situations

READ ALL FOUR (4) RESPONSES BEFORE YOU MAKE YOUR
SELECTIONS.
EXAMPLE

 

If you had to organize a baseball team, you would:

1. Pick from previously established teams.
A. first choice
B. second choice
C. third choice
D. fourth choice
2. Get all new untried players.
A. first choice
B. second choice
C. third choice
D. fourth choice
3. Bring older experienced players from retirement.
A. first choice
B. second choice
C. third choice
D. fourth choice
4. Compare each choice to an established star.
A. first choice
B. second choice
C. third choice
D. fourth choice

 

 

 

 

T F SAMPLE ANSVIER CARD
10A. 80 c 0 D 8
LACQO c. .0 In this example #1 would be your first
3.AO 3. 00 D 0 choice, #2 would be your third choice,
4-A030¢D .D . #3 would be your second choice, and

' #4 would be your fourth choice.

96

 

 

LTEST vnfi LTEST va

 

DIREC TIONS

The following test is untimed.

Work quickly and give the first answer that comes to you.

Your first impression is imPortant.

Do not spend a lot of time on any one question.

There are 40 items.

Fill in the space on the IBM card under the proper letter.
A = usually
B = sometimes

C = seldom
D = never

EXAMPLE:

I would make a good football player.
A. usually B. sometimes C. seldom D. never

1. A. BO CODOEO

In this case you believe you would "usually" be good
as a football player.

DO NOT MARK IN TEST BOOKLET

97

 

 

[TEST Ifl [TEST DU

DIRECTIONS

Following are some stories or incidents that might happen to
people. Three possible responses are given. You are required
to choose which of these is "most like you" and which is "least
like you". You will leave one choice blank. Read the example.

EXAMPLE
A. Sue Bryant is planning to buy a new set of clothes for a long

vacation trip. She should:

I. Consult her parents and sisters on what to buy.
A. MOST - B. LEAST

2. Make her own decision.
A. MOST B. LEAST

3. Ask the advice of her girlfriends.
A. MOST B. LEAST

1. AD 130 CO D0 EC
2. A0 a, C0 D0 ED
3. A. 3:17 C0 002(9)

In the above example it would be "most like you" to ask the
advice of your friends and "least like you" to make a decision
alcme on what to buy, and you left one choice (1) blank.

98

 

 

[TEST vxfl LTEST v11 ]

DIREC TIONS

The following test is untimed.

Work quickly and give the first answer that comes to you.
Your first impression is important.

Do not spend a lot of time on any one question.

There are 40 items.

Fill in the space on the IBM card under the proper letter.

A = usually

B = sometimes
C = seldom

D = never

EXAMPLE:

I would make a good football player.
A. usually B. sometimes C. seldom D. never

1. A. 30 c0 DOEO

In this case you believe you would "usually" be good
as a football player.

DO NOT MARK IN TEST BOOKLET
99

APPENDIX B

100

WORK TABLES

ANOVA GRID

Table 1 represents the effect of teacher and style
upon the H1. Since there are two groups being acted upon,

the formula must be weighted by 1/2.

WORK TABLE 1.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Teacher I Teacher II
Cognitive Style Set Cognitive Style Set
S E H S E H
gi Gradeégte. é? %% Gradeégte. éi
229X=59 £29X=59 Z£9X=59 £29x=72 229X=58 229X=49
(N=23) (N=23) (N=23) (N=23) (N=18) N=15)
Total Sum of Squares:
l [<59>2 + (59)2 + (59>2 + (72)2 + <58>2 + (49)2 1
2 23 23 23 23 18 15

_ 1026.45 _ _
— ‘T— — 513.225 _ B

101

102

Table 2 represents the effect of style and groupings

upon the H1. Since there are two teachers being acted upon,

the formula must be weighted by 1/2.

WORK TABLE 2.

 

 

 

Student 8 Cognitive :tyle Sets H
Groupings
Grade Point
2X 2X 2X
L ZZtX=82 (N=30) ZZtX=73 (N=29) ZZtX=93 (N=33)
U ZZtX=49 (N=l6) ZZtX=44 (N=l4) ZZtX=15 (N=5)

 

Total Sum of Squares:

2 2 2 2 2 2
l (82) (73) (93) (49) 44) (15)
2T+T+T+T+-l4 + 5]

 

 

_ 1016.96 _ _
— ———§———-— 508.48 — B2
Table 3 represents the effect of teacher and

groupings upon each one. Since there are three styles

being acted upon the formula is weighted by 1/3.

103

WORK TABLE 3.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Teacher I Teacher II
Grouping Grade Point
2x 212:
'3' 3
L 223x = 148 (N=59) 223x = 100 (N=31)
U zz3x = 29 (N=10) 223x = 79 (N=25)
Total Sum of Squares
1 [(148)2 + (100)2 + (29)2 + (79)2] = 1027.59 = 342 53 = B
3 59 31 IO 25 3 ' 3

§ [371.25 + 322.60 + 84.10 + 249.64]

Table 4 represents the effect of groupings upon the
H1. Since the teachers and styles are being acted upon the

formula is weighted by 1/6.

WORK TABLE 4.

 

Grade Point

 

 

 

Groupings £2 6
X
L 22X = 248 (N = 90)
U 22X = 108 (N = 35)
Total Sum of Squares:
l [(248)2 + (108)2] _ 1016.64 _ 169 44 = c
6 ”9T?— T‘T‘ ' 1

104

Table 5 represents the effect of style upon the H1.
Since the teachers and the groups are being acted upon, the

formula is weighted by 1/4.

WORK TABLE 5.

 

Cognitive Style Sets

 

S E H
Grade Point Q
XXX XXX XXX ‘
T T T

 

XXX = 131 (N=46) . XXX = 117 (N=41) XXX = 108 (N=38)

 

Total Sum of Squares:

2 2 2
1 (131) (117) (108) _ 1 014.00 _ _

Table 6 represents the effect of teacher as a
main effect factor upon the H1’ Since the students and
groupings are being acted upon, the formula is weighted

by 1/6.

WORK TABLE 6.

 

 

 

Teacher I Teacher II
Grade Point Grade Point
XXX XXX
3 6

 

XXX = 177 (N = 69) XXX = 179 (N = 56)

 

105

Total Sum of Squares:

2 2
% [(177) + (172) 1 = 1026.20 = 171.03 = c

Table 7 represents the effect of a grade point
mean upon the H1. Since the groupings, students and
teachers are being acted upon, the formula is weighted

by 1/12.

WORK TABLE 7.

 

Grade Point

XXXX

 

XXXX = 356 (N 125)

 

Total Sum of Squares:

l [ (356)2 _ 1013.9
_—___—‘_'—TET——

I7 125 ] = 84.49 = D

106

WORK TABLE 8.--Summary table of sums of squares equations.

 

 

 

Sources of Variation Equations

Interaction:
3 3

l. Groupings x Style x Teacher A - X Bi + X Ci-D
i=1 i=1

2. Teacher x Style B10- (C2 + C3) + D

3. Style x Grouping B2 - (C1 + C2) + D

4. Teacher x Grouping B3 - (C1 + C3) + D

Main Effects:

 

5. Grouping Cl - D
6. Style C2 - D
7. Teacher C3 - D

 

Actual Summations Of:

 

Interaction 1:

 

1034.20-(513.225+508.48+342.53) + (l69.44+253.50+171.03)
-84.49 = 1,628.27 - 1,448.73 = 179.54

Interaction 2:

 

513.225-(253.50+171.03) + 84.49 = 597.72 - 424.53 = 173.19

Interaction 3:

 

 

 

 

508.48-(l69.44+253.50) + 84.49 = 592.97 - 422.94 = 170.03
Interaction 4:

342.53-(169.44+171.03) + 84.49 = 427.02 - 340.47 = 86.55.
Main Effects 5: 169.44 - 84.49 = 84.95

Main Effects 6: 253.50 - 84.49 = 169.01

Main Effects 7: 171.03 - 84.49 = 86.54

 

 

APPENDIX C

KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV STATISTICAL TEST MODEL

107

KOLMOGOROV-SMIRNOV STATISTICAL TEST MODEL

T(VQ) - Q(CET) T(VQ) - Q(CP)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

4 3 2 1 0 4 3 2
L 6 9 8 1 1 L 6 11 9
U 5 10 6 U 5 8 5
T(AQ) - Q(CEM) T(VQ) - Q(CKH)

4 3 2 1 0 4 3 2
L 10 15 11 1 1 L 3 8 5
U 1 4 3 U 8 11 9
T(AQ) - Q(CK) T(AQ) - Q(CES)

4 3 2 1 0 4 3 2
L 8 13 9 1 1 L 7 10 9
u 3 6 5 U 4 17 5
T(AQ) - Q(CT) T(AQ) - Q(CP)

4 3 2 1 0 4 3 2
L 8 11 10 1 1 L 8 14 11
U 3 6 4 U 3 5 3

 

 

108

109

T(AQ) - Q(CET) T(VQ) - Q(CH)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

T(VQ) - Q(CS) T(AQ) - Q(CH)

4 3 2 1 0 4 3 2
L_ 5 11 8 1 1 L 8 15 11
U 6 8 6 U 3 4 3
T(AQ) - Q(CS) T(AQ) - Q(CKH)

4 3 2 1 0 4 3 2
L 9 14 11 1 1 L 7 11 9
U 2 s 3 U 4 8 5
T(AL) - Q(CEM) T(AL) - Q(CK)

4 3 2 1 o 4 3 2
L 8 12 10 1 1 L 6 8 7
U 3 7 4 U 5 11 7
T(AL) - Q(CT) T(AL) — Q(CET)

4 3 2 l 0 4 3 2

 

 

6 8 8 l 1 L 6 9 10
5 10 4

CH?"
0"
I-'
I-‘
m
C.‘

 

 

110

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

T(AL) — Q(CES) T(AL) ~ Q(CP)

4 3 2 1 o 4 3 2
L 4 7 7 1 1 L 7 11 9
U 7 12 7 U 4 8 5
T(AL) - Q(CKH) T(AL) - QlCH)

4 3 2 1 o 4 3 2
L 2 6 6 1 1 L 6 11 9
U 9 3 8 U 5 8 5

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

T(AL) - Q(CS) T(VQ) - Q(CEM)

4 3 2 1 0 4 3 2
L 6 12 9 1 1 L 8 12 9
U 5 7 5 U 3 7 5
T(VQ) - Q(CK) T(VQ) - Q(CT)

4 3 2 1 0 4 3 2

 

 

L 5 7 8 l 1 L 5 8 6
U 6 2

 

 

 

 

 

 

Cultural Determinants Modes of Inference
4 3 2 1 0 4 3 2
L 5 3 3 L 1 9 4

U 5 17 11 l 1 U 9 ll 10

HF‘