A HISTORY OF THE PROGRAM OF VOCATIONAL HOME ECONOMICS IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF MICHIGAN 1917-13 THROUGH 1952-53 by 9“" Rosalind Ment zer A THESIS Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of an state College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Michig DOC TOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Secondary Education 195M ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The writer wishes to express her sincere appreciation to Dr. Victor H. Noll, chairman of her Guidance Committee, who provided invaluable counsel and encour CLgement during the course of this investigation. She also wishes particularly to thank Dr. Carl H. Gross for helpful suggestions and criticisms relating to the thesis. To the other members of her committee, Dr. Harold M. Byram, Dr. C. V. Millard, and Dr. Ruby Junge, she wishes to express her sincere gratitude for their encouragement and interest in the study. The writer also wishes to acknowledge the COOperation she received from Llrs. Rex Todd Withers, Chief of Homemaking Education in Michigan, and the members of her staff in making records available for use in this study. She also wishes to thank the teacher trainers of the various institutions for information which they provided. She is eSpecial.. ly grateful to Miss Estelle Bauch of Michigan State Normal College and to Mrs. Gladys Love Rowe of Western Michigan College of Education for refer— ring her to sources of material concerning the early years of the program. She wishes to thank the Sheldon Equipment Company of Iviuskegon, Michigan, for furnishing 'oiC tures of early departments of home economics. 1‘ c a) \' ,_ 13'.) J 04;)L THE-4815 A.HISTORY OF THE PROGRAM OF VOCATIONAL HOME ECONOEICS IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF MICHIGAN 1917-18 THROUGH 1952—53 by Rosalind Mentzer AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Secondary Education 195M r—f——_ Rosalind Mentzer THESIS ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to trace the history of vocational home economics in the secondary schools of Michigan from its beginning in 1917 to the end of the fiscal year June 30, 1953. The data were obtained from legislative acts, Congressional Records, annual reports of the state supervisor and of the state SUperintendent of public instruc- tion in Michigan, books, bulletins, periodicals, other published and unpublished materials, and interviews with persons who have participated in the program in a.professional way. A review was made of the early history of home economics in the United States and of its beginning in the schools of Michigan. The history of legislation providing for vocational home economics in the secondary schools of the United States was compiled. Several aspects of the program in Michigan were studied including supervision and in- service training of teachers, curriculum and method, equipment for de- partments of vocational home economics, and the preparation of teachers. Among the more important findings of this study, the following may be mentioned: 1. Legislation seems to have provided an incentive for the devel- Opment of vocational home economics in secondary schools of Michigan. Funds have been provided for salaries of teachers from local, state, and federal sources with the greatest amount being provided from local sources. There has been an increase in number of programs in vocational home economics in secondary schools from five in 1917—18 to two hundred seventy—seven in 1952—53. rm Rosa]. ind Mentzer 2 2. State supervisors and an itinerant teacher trainer provided leadership in the development of the program in secondary schools. During the last fifteen years covered by the study there appeared to be a trend toward more democratic methods in supervision. 3. There was an increase in number of stated goals as the program developed accompanied by an increase in phases of subject matter recom- mended for study. Curriculum and method appeared to have been influenced by state and regional conferences, visits to schools, bulletins, and school visitation. The depression and World War II seemed to have in— fluenced changes in curriculum. h. Trends in equipment for departments of home economics appeared to be from heavy, immovable furniture to light, durable furniture that could be adapted to several uses. There was also emphasis on selecting and arranging furnishings so that rooms would appear home like. 5. Changes in the program for training teachers of home economics have included an increase in the number of credits required in education and a re-distribution of credits required in home economics and related subjects. There has been less emphasis on "Food" and "Clothing" and increased emphasis on "The Family" and "Housing." There has been a reduction in science credits and the addition of social science as a required field of study. Recommendations: As a result of this investigation it was recommended (1) that there be a state-wide study to determine the needs of pupils in the field of home economics to be used as a basis for planning goals for the state program; (2) that a study be carried out to determine the housing nUb‘aJJJlU. menu 281‘ 3 and equipment most effective for teaching home economics; (3) that the history of the Michigan Home Economics Association be studied and written; (N) that the same be done with the history of part-time schools and adult programs in home economics; and (5) that more adequate records be kept of several aspects of the program. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION.. ........................................ ..... The problem. ..... .... ................ . ........... . ....... Statement of the problem.. ............................. Importance of the study. ............................... Definition of terms..... .............. .... ............... Home economics.... ....... ................ ............ .. Reimbursed.program. ............................. ....... Secondary school. ................... . .................. State plan. ............................................ Limitations of the study. .................... . ........... Sources of data. ....................................... .. Organization of the study. ............................... 11 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. .......... ... ...... ............... III THE FEE-VOCATIONAL PERIOD. ........ .......... ............... Early history of education for the home in the United States.................. .................. ...... Science applied to the household. ....... . ................ The Kitchen-Garden Movement . . . . ..... . ............... . . . . . The Manual Training Movement. ............................ The Committee of Ten. ................................... . Other influences important in the deve10pment of the home economics movement.. .............. ......... Michigan, a.part of the national picture. ................ PAGE -4 U1 ;' x» u; x» 25 25 27 29 31 33 314 35 iv CHAPTER PAGE Public interest and support for manual training in Michigan........................... ..... . ........... 37 State legislation affecting home economics during the pro-vocational period in Michigan. ............... .. 39 The number of schools offering home economics in Michigan..190071915 ................................. hi The grade level at which home economics was taught....... he The curriculum in home economics 1900—1915. .............. M3 1900.. ....... .. ........ . ......... ... ................... an 1907. ....................... . ....... ... .............. .. nu 1910-11.. ................. . ................... . ....... . h? 191h.15. ......... . ..................................... Ms Summary.. .......................... . ....... ... ........ ... 50 IV LEGISLATIVE ACTS AFEECTING HOME ECONOMICS. ................ . 52 Historic sketch of federal legislation. ............. ..... 52 The Smith-Hughes Law... ............ . .................... . 58 Provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act... ....... ..... ....... . 68 Legislation for vocational education in Michigan. ....... . 71 The Smith-Hughes Act and home economics. ................ . 73 The George—Reed Act.... ............... . .................. 75 The George-Reed Act and home economics. ............. ..... 77 The depression and the Economy Act. ...................... 77 The George—Ellsey Act. .......... . ...... .................. 79 The George-Ellzey.Act and home economics...... ...... ..... 80 CHAPTER The George-Deen Act... ................................... The George-Dsen Act and home economics................... Michigan's Second Acceptance Act. .............. . ........ . The George-Barden Act................ ..... . ..... ......... The George-Barden Act and home economics.... ............. The influence of federal legislation on the organization of the Michigan.program................... The influence of legislation on the growth of the Michigan.program.. .................................. ... Number of programs.... ........ .... ............. . ...... . Number of teachers. .......... .. .......... . ........... .. Number of pupils.... ....... ............................ The effect of legislation on amount of funds expended and sources of funds for salaries of teachers of vocational home economics............... Total amount expended for salaries of teachers of vocational home economics... .................... .. Sources of funds ....................................... Summary... .................................... . ......... . V SUPERVISION AND IN;SERVICE TRAINING OF TEACHERS.... ........ Provisions for state supervision in.Michigan ........... .. Provisions for itinerant teacher training in niobiganooeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee eeeeee eeeeeeeeeeeeee Qualifications of state supervisors of home economics as conceived by the federal board... ....... .. PAGE 81 83 83 8n 85 86 100 101 103 105 107 108 111 112 vi CHAPTER PAGE Qualifications of state supervisors in Michigan ......... . 11M Educational requirements........... ........ . ........... 115 Teaching experience... ............................... .. 117 Vocational experience.. ................................ 118 General qualifications....... ...... . .................. . 120 Qualifications of itinerant teacher trainer in Michigan.................................. ......... . 121 Duties of the state supervisor of home economics as conceived by the federal board............ ........ .. 122 Responsibilities of state supervisors for in-service training in Michigan....... ........ ......... 123 Outline suitable courses of study” ................... . 125 Organize teaching materialS. . ...... . . . . . . .............. 126 Give personal supervision to schools giving home economics education.. ............ . ............. . 126 Cooperate with teacher training institutions. ......... . 127 Call state or group conferences. ....................... 13} Prepare bulletins essential to the promotion of home economics education...... ........ .. ......... . 135 Encourage teachers to take courses for professional growth......... ...... ...... ....... ...... 135 Improve pre—vocational programs or non-reimbursed programs with vocational objectives... ............. .. I37 Cooperate with, assist in establishing, supervise and encourage the Future Homemakers of America....... 138 CHAPTER Responsibilities of state supervisors of home economics in Michigan relative to promotion of vocational programs... ............. . ............ .... Make preliminary investigations and surveys in localities where home economics schools may be established.................... ................. Cooperate with local authorities and other groups desiring home economics or shall persuade such groups to become interested in vocational home economics..... ....... .............. .......... ... CoOperate with local school authorities and other community groups desiring vocational home economics, meeting with them to explain possibilities,requirements, and.policies and to assist in establishing eligible classes........... Promote vocational education in accordance with needS........................................... Prepare suitable literature for the explanation and promotion of home economics education.. ...... .... Cooperate with the home economics associations and other organizations in the state................. Responsibilities of state supervisors of home economics in Michigan relative to inspection of vocational programs. ..... ........................... Rooms and equipment. .......... . ......... . ............. . vii 138 139 1111 1111 1M2 1M2 1M3 1M6 1M7 CHAPTER VI Number of pupils. ................................... ... Local interest. .............. . ................. . ...... . Organization of work... ............... ......... ...... .. Teachers' qualifications.. ............................ . Effectiveness of instruction.. ........................ . Possibilities for future develOpments...... ........ .... Give general supervision to all project work. .......... Counsel with teacher training departments. ............. Administrative responsibilities of state supervisor of home economics in Michigan. ............ .. Submit an annual report . . . . . .......................... . Aid in selection and.p1acement of teachers. ........... . Plan and.prepare budgets.. .......... . ................. . Prepare plans and recommend policies for Operation... ..................................... .... Recommend rates of reimbursement. .................... .. Summary. ............ ...................... ......... ...... CURRICULUM AND METHODS OF INSTRUCTION........ ............ .. The purposes of vocational home economics...... ........ .. Time requirements for vocational home economics. ......... Bases for determining course content.......... ......... Phases of subject matter recommended for courses in home economics. ...... . ................. . ........... . Methods of instruction.... ......... ........... ..... ...... viii PAGE INS 1M9 1M9 150 150 150 150 151 151 151 152 153 153 151+ 158 158 162 168 170 177 CHAPTER VII Course content and methods of instruction in programs of vocational home economics in Michigan. ........... . ..... ............... ...... ..... The early years. .................................... .. Problem method. ....... . ................ . ........... ... The depression years..... .............................. Teacher-pupil planning.......... ..................... . Effects of World War II... ...... . ..... ..... ..... ...... Home and family living... ..... . .............. . ....... . Related subjects recommended for home economics... ...... Related subjects in programs of home economics in.Michigan......................... ...... ............ Providing learning experience through home practice and home projects...................... .......... ..... Providing learning experience through Club actiV1tieBOOOOOOOOIOOOOO 000000 000.000.00.000... Home economics curriculum organization in Michigan....... ................ .... .............. .. summaryoooo ooooooo o ooooooo oooooooo oooooooo 00000000000000 HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT FOR DEPARTMENTS OF VOCATIONAL HOME ECONOMICS............................ Recommendations for housing and equipping depart- ments of vocational home economics. ................... SW9. 0000000000000000000 ......OOOOOOOIOOIOOOO0.0. ix 182 182 186 186 188 200 202 219 223 226 230 231 251+ v1 CHAPTER VIII THE PREPARATION OF THE TEACHER OF VOCATIONAL HOME ECONOMICS.. Institutions designated for training teachers of vocational home economics. ..... . ............ ........ Requirements for teachers of vocational home economics... ................ . ......................... . Requirements in home economics and related subjects... .......................................... Requirements in the field of education. ............... . Student teaching. ..................................... . Classes in methods of teaching home economics .......... Required vocational experience in homemaking activities. .......................................... Summary........ ................................ . ..... .. IX SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS... ............................ . Recommendations... ....................................... EURJOGRAPHY ..................... . ............................... . APPENDIX ............. . . . . . . ................. . .................. PAGE 256 256 261 262 268 5270 275 TABLE II III IV VI VII VIII IX XI XII XIII XIV LIST OF TABLES Number of Schools Teaching Domestic Science................ Grade Level at Which Manual Training for Girls Was Offered in 1900...................................... Rural High Schools, Courses for Girls in Work Related to the Home.. .......... . ..... ...... County Schools of Agriculture, Courses for Girls in Work Related to the Home....... .......... . ...... ......... Qualifications of State Supervisor, Educational Requirements......... ........ ................ Qualifications of State Supervisor, Teaching Experience........................ ............ .. Qualifications of State Supervisor, Vocational Experience. .............. . ................ .... Qualifications of State Supervisor, General Qualifications ...... ... ........ ....... ....... .... Responsibilities of State Supervisor for In-Service Training of Teachers,. ....... . ....... ..... Promotional Responsibilities of State Supervisor,,,,,,,,,,, Inspectional Responsibilities of State Supervisor, ......... Administrative Responsibilities of State Supervisor. ...... . Time Requirements for Courses in Vocational Home Economics 1917-27. ..... ......... ........ .. ........ .. Time Requirements for Courses in Vocational Home Economics as Outlined in the 1932 State Plan............. PAGE ’41 NZ 1*5 1+6 115 117 120 121+ 11+o 1147 152 163 TABLE XV XVI XVII XVIII XIX XXI XXII XXIII Time Requirements for Courses in Vocational Home Economics as Outlined in the 1937 State Plan. ......... ... Time Requirements for Courses in Vocational Home Economics as Outlined in the 19% State Guide. ........ Bases for Selection of Course Content for Vocational Home Economics in Secondary Schools ...................... Phases of Subject Matter in the Area of Clothing Recommended for Courses in Vocational Home Economics in Secondary Schools................. ............ ........ Phases of Subject Matter in the Area of Foods Recommended for Courses in Vocational Home Economics in Secondary Schools. ......... .... .......... . ............ ... Phases of Subject Matter in the Area.of Housing and Home Furnishings Recommended for Courses in Vocational Home Economics in Secondary Schools.. ........... ..... ...... ... Phases of Subject Matter in the Area of Home Management and Consumer Buying Recommended for Courses in Vocational Home Economics in Secondary Schools........... Phases of Subject Matter in the Area of Child Care, Personal and Family Relationships Recommended for Courses in Vocational Home Economics in Secondary Schools. ...... ...... ..................... ... Phases of Subject Matter in the Area of Health and Home Care of the Sick Recommended for Courses in Vocational Home Economics in Secondary Schools...................... xii PAGE 165 167 169 170 172 173 173 171+ 175 TABLE XXIV XXVI XXVII XXVIII XXIX Phases of Subject Matter in the Area of Use of Leisure Time Recommended for Courses in Vocational Home Economics in Secondary Schools....... ................... Related Subjects Recommended for Reimbursed Programs in.Home Economics in Michigan............. ........ Housing Recommended for Departments of Vocational HomeEconomics...OIOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ....... 0000...... Minimum Number of Term Hours Required in Four Areas of Home Economics for Teachers of Vocational Home EconomicBOOOOOOOOOO0.0.0.0000...I.... ........ Minimum Number of Term Hours Required in Four Areas of Related Subjects for Teachers of Vocational Home Economics.oo.0O0.00....OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO Requirements for the Teacher of Vocational Home Economics in the Field of Education........ ............. . xiii PAGE 176 199 232 261+ 265 269 FIGURE 10 11 LIST OF FIGURES Number of'Programs of Vocational Home Economics in Secondary Schools in Michigan. .......... . ...... ....... Number of Teachers of Vocational Home Economics in Secondary Schools of Michigan................. ....... . Number of’Pupils Enrolled in Vocational Home Economics in Secondary Schools of Michigan ...... . .................. Total Amount Expanded and Sources of Funds for Salaries of Teachers of Vocational Home Economics in Secondary SChOOlB Of hIiChigan. 0 I O O O O O O C 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O C O ......... O . An.Early Room for Study of Sewing. ....................... .. An Early Room for Study of Cooking.. ............ . ......... . A.Laboratory for Study of Food Showing the Beginning of the Unit Kitchen..... ....... .. ............. . An Apartment Used to House a.Department of Home Economics........... ..... ............... ........... . The Modern Unit Kitchen Arrangement.... ...... ..... ........ . A Unit Kitchen in an AllAPurpose Room ...................... A.Home Living Center in an Alquurpose Room. ........... ..., PAGE 91 95 102 235 237 2M2 2146 2149 253 253 ...... "I... O- I vlv 1., N S CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In order to understand the development of vocational home economics in the secondary schools of Michigan, it is necessary to determine its origin and trace its evolution over a period of years. A program in the field of education does not remain static: changes are constantly occurring. It is important that these changes be re— viewed in order to give clarity to the present situation as well as to give some direction to the future by pointing out influences which have been significant in the past and trends which have emerged as the program has developed. The Problem MM 2!; £132 122M. The purpose of this study is to present an account of the history of the reimbursed program in home economics in the secondary schools of Michigan from its beginning in 1917 to the close of the fiscal year, June 30, 1953. W 9; the 25.11.91. The data concerningthe reimbursed program in home economics in the secondary schools of Michigan have never been accumulated, classified, and interpreted. A written report based on these data will provide a source of reference for any person concerned with the development of the program of home economics in the secondary schools of the state. Such a report will be of special value to persons new to the program in Michigan by providing a means whereby they may rather quickly get an overview of the development of this aspect of the vocational program. The writer became interested in this study as a result of over fifteen years of experience in the program of vocational home economics in Michigan. She has participated in the program as a,classroom teacher, as a supervising teacher, and as a teacher-trainer. As one participates in an educational program over a.period of years, it becomes fairly evi- dent that changes in emphases occur from time to time. The writer was interested in discovering what these changes had been and, if possible, some of the reasons for the changes. Definition of Terms gage economics. Home economics is that field of study concerned with food, clothing, housing and home furnishings, child deve10pment, health and home nursing, personal, social, and family relationships, and management of time, money, and energy in the home. The term ”homemaking” or 'homemaking education” has been used with increasing frequency in the past several years when referring to home economics at the secondary level. However, home economics is the term used in all of the legislap tive acts which provide for reimbursement for vocational education. For this reason, and to avoid confusion, the term “home economics" is used exclusively throughout this study. Reimbursed.program. A.reimbursed.program in home economics in a secondary school is a program for which the school district receives a partial refund from federal end state sources for money paid for salaries of teachers of home economics or related subjects. Reimbursed programs are sometimes called vocational programs, approved.programs, or eligible programs. Secondgry gghggl, The.secondary school as used in this study means grades nine through twelve. MILLER.- The State Plan is the contractual agreement between a state and the federalgovernment. These §l§p§.set up regulations con- cerning all aspects of the reimbursed.programs in vocational education within the state. Each state revises its State Plan from time to time, usually every five years. Limitations of the Study The limitations which are inherent in any type of historical research were experienced in making this study. It was not difficult to trace trends in recommended.practices. There was adequate evidence in the professional literature and in reports compiled by the state supervisor and her staff to identify these trends. The more difficult task was to attempt to determine to what extent these recommendations had been put into practice. For example, the inclusion of a.particular phase of subject matter in the recommended course of study in the State Plan is no assurance that this phase was actually taught in the schools. In attempting to determine practice generally followed in the schools, it was necessary to rely upon written reports. The researcher must proceed with caution in using reports as evidences of practice. It was difficult at times to detect whether reports represented typical or atypical situations. When discrepancies were apparent in light of other’evidences obtained, these discrepancies were pointed out. Another limiting factor was that for the past few years the annual reports pre— pared.by the state supervisor and her staff concerning home economics in secondary schools were limited almost entirely to information of a statistical nature, such as number of programs, number of pupils, and number of teachers. There was very little information about areas of study emphasised, methods of teaching used, changes in housing and equip- ment, and other aspects of the pregram which would describe what was being done in classes in home economics in the secondary schools. Sources of Data Sources for this study have been both primary and secondary. The primary sources consisted of state and federal bulletins, Congress- ional Records, Public Acts of Michigan, the Statutes at Large of the United States of America, published reports of meetings held by organiza- tions, minutes of meetings held by the State Board of Control for Voca- tional Education, minutes of meetings held by the State Board of Educa- tion, books, college catalogs, and interviews with persons who have participated in the program in a professional way. The secondary sources consisted of the annual reports compiled by the state supervisor of home economics and her staff over the thirty-six year period from 1917 to 1953, annual reports of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, the Michigan Home Economics Association Newsletters, books, periodicals, and United States Bureau of Education Bulletins. The majority of the sources for this research were found in the Michistm State College Library, the Michigan State Library, the files of the Office of Vocational Education of the Michigan Department of Public Instruction, and the files of the Office of Home Economics Education of Michigan State College. Organization of the Study Chapter 11 includes a review of a number of similar studies in the field of home economics. Chapter III traces the development of education for the vocation of homemaking from its beginning in the United States over a period of more than seventy-five years to about the turn of the twentieth century when schools in Michigan began to include such education in the program of studies offered. The growth and deveIOpment of this type of education in Michigan from this beginning to 1917 when legislative acts were passed providing for reimbursement from federal funds is also traced in this chapter. The legislative acts, both federal and state, which have been concerned with vocational education in home economics are discussed in Chapter IV. This chapter also reveals how these acts influenced the develOpment of the program in vocational home economics in Michigan. Chapter V traces the deve10pment of supervision and in-service training in the reimbursed program in home economics in Michigan. Changes in curriculum and methodology in vocational home economics in the secondary schools of Michigan from 1917 to 1953 are discussed in Chapter VI. Chapter VII is a discussion of housing and equipment for depart- ments of home economics in Michigan showing changes which have taken place in recommendations made and in facilities provided during the thirty- '11 year period covered by this study. The development of the program for training teachers for reimbursed programs in home economics is presented in Chapter VIII. Chqater IX includes a summary of the findings in this study and some recommendations for deve10pment of the program in the future, CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE The literature concerned with home economics in secondary schools provided an important source of data for this study. During the course of the investigation all federal bulletins and bulletins published in Michigan relative to vocational home economics in secondary schools were read and have been referred to at appropriate times throughout the study. A few studies were found which were concerned with trends in the deveIOp- ment of home economics education.“ This chapter is devoted to a review of these studies. As far as the writer was able to determine, the pioneer study concerned with the history of vocational home economics in secondary schools within a state was done by Bancroft in 1931.1 She made a study of vocational education in the all—day schools of Ohio from 1918 to 1930. The study was based on reports, bulletins, courses of study, interviews, and correspondence. It was found that the program in vocational home economics in secondary schools expanded rapidly in Ohio. There were six schools in 1918 and this number had increased to ninety in 1930. There was a marked decrease in the number of city schools offering programs of vocational home economics with an accompanying increase in the number of rural schools offering such programs during this period of time. ‘ Clara M. Bancroft, "Vocational Education in Home Economics in :20 All DAV Schools of Ohio from 1918 to 1930." Unpublished Master's esis, The Ohio State University, Columbus. 1931 The curriculum was planned originally to prepare for future flying. The trend in 1930 was to adapt the curriculum to the present-day needs and interests of the girl as well as to prepare her as a future homemaker. The course of study was developed democratically by the teachers themselves and was based on problem solving. There had been a change in equipment for teaching home economics from formal laboratory equipment to that more nearly resembling home conditions. For the most part, departments of home economics in Ohio were housed in rooms in school buildings rather than in cottages. The home project program in Ohio was different than that found in most states in that six months of supervised home practice were re- quired from the beginning of federal reimbursement for home economics.' This requirement was patterned after the requirement for agriculture which stipulated that each pupil should do six months of farm practice, Other states required that a pupil complete a certain number of home projects or spend a certain number of hours in home project work. Pro- Jects could be carried out at any time during the school year, but in- tensive project work started the first of February and continued through Juli. Most of the schools allowed one fourth unit of credit for home Project work, but some gave no credit for projects and withheld credit in home economics until project work was satisfactorily completed. Nichols studied the program in Ohio from 1930 to 19‘4IHO.2 Her study differed from that of Bancroft in that she included the evening school ”061'“ in her investigation. Data for the study were secured from ‘ 2 in Helen Estelle Nichols, “Vocational Education in Home Economics Th the Schools of Ohio from 1930 to 19’403I Unpublished Master's thesis, e Ohio State University, Columbus, 19%. l‘l annual financial and statistical reports, courses of study, and inter- views. The study reveals that the emphasis in vocational home economics in Ohio was upon aiding the individual to solve persistent problems. Due to an increase in local, state, and federal funds, there had been a large increase in the number of all-day schools offering voca- tional home economics, in the number of pupils enrolled, and in the number of teachers employed during the ten year period. Failure of local schools to provide funds for the evening school program had resulted in a decrease in the number of evening school classes and in the number of adults enrolled in such classes. Wherry made a stuw of the development of the program in voca- tional home economics in Iowa 1911-4931;,3 Sources for the study were: state and federal bulletins and pamphlets and official records from the office of Public Instruction, the office of Vocational Education, and Iowa State College. Wherry found that bachers employed in departments of vocational hose economics which had been in existence for ten years or more had received higher than average salaries and had a longer tenure in one school than did teachers in schools with departments in existence for a shorter period of time. Eleven of the two hundred fifty-nine teachers emplayed from 1918-19 through 1927-28 did not hold a Bachelor's degree, In 1933-3“. there were no non-degree teachers, sixty-three held Bachelor's and two a Master's degree. — 3Sarah Marguerite Wherry, "Vocational Homemaking in Iowa 1917—315" Unpublished Master's thesis, Iowa State College, Amos, 1931!. 10 The mean age of existing departments in 1933-31+ was 7.8”: years. One third of the departments had been in existence only one to four years. The number of departments of vocational home economics in Iowa increased from three in 1918-19 to sixty-three in 1933-3)4. About three fourths of the departments in 1933-3h were located in the country or in towns with less than two thousand population, The number of classes in home economics for adults increased from one in 1918-19 to twenty-eight in 1933-3“, The subjects taught in the early adult classes were millinery, clothing, and foods. The curriculum broadened to include classes in nutrition and meal planning, clothing selection and design, home furnishings, home nursing, home management, family relationships, and child care in 1933-314, In 1923-934, five home projects for each pupil were required in vocational classes in home economics. The number was reduced to four in 1926 and to two in 1929, From a required number there was a change to a required amount of time for home projects for each pupil after the George-Reed Act was passed in 1929. There was a. trend beginning in 1925—26 toward decreasing the num- ber of units offered in secondary schools in foods, nutrition, textiles, clothing, and home management and increasing the number of units in family relationships and child development. Riedel traced the influences which had been significant in the ”18111 end development of the home economics movement in Maryland,“ Sources used in this study were records from the Grange, Farmers' -—__ Erna Marta Riedel, “History of Home Economics in the State of “Inland." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Maryland, College Park, 1936. 11 Institutes, and Extension Service; correspondence, interviews, and news» paper clippings. The study reveals that both the Farmers' Institutes and the Maryland Grange had been influential in promoting training for the vocation of homemaking in Maryland. The work of the Institutes was dis- continued with the passage of the George—Lever Act in 1911+, The Extension Service of the College assumed responsibility for the informal education of girls and women for homemaking formerly done by the Institutes. The Grange continued to promote home economics. Each Grange had a committee on home economics and these committees sponsored legislation favorable to home economics. The first home economics taught in the public schools was in 19014. i traveling teacher was employed who worked a circuit giving lessons in cooking one day at each school, In 1912 there were fifty-eight such schools and in 1918 there were seventy. Vocational home economics was first offered in 1919 in five schools, Many of the Maryland schools could not qualify as vocational schools because of poor equipment. In 1936 there were thirty-six schools with vocational programs in home economics, The emphasis in this study was on the early history and influences in the development of home economics in Maryland. This bears a resem— blance to the chapter on "The Pro-Vocational Period" in the present study, There was no evidence of rural groups influencing the development of the ”08’8“! in Michigan as had been true in Maryland, A Study by Gregg traced the development of departments of home economics in the secondary schools of Louisiana from 1908 to 1935.5 ‘ 5Kathryn Gregg, "The Development of Home Economics Departments Secondary Schools of Louisiana 1908 to 1935.“ Unpublished Master's Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, 1936. in the thesis , 12 The study reveals that home economics was first taught in the public schools of Louisiana in 1908. Three schools offered work in the mbject, but it was given without credit. In 1910 a bill was passed by the state legislature authorizing credit in home economics and making an appropriation for part payment of salaries of teachers. By 1917-18 two hundred seventeen schools included home economics in the program of studies. The number of schools teaching home economics increased to two hundred eighty, or 75 per cent of the schools in 1935. Although home economics was an elective course in Louisiana high schools, more than half the girls in secondary schools were enrolled in a course in home economics. In 1935 the curriculum had broadened to include every phase of home economics. It was found that Louisiana had ninety cottages for housing departments of home economics in 1935. This type of housing was used by more departments in Louisiana than any state in the Union, In 1935 Louisiana had one hundred ninety-five clubs for pupils of home economics. This state led all the other states in the number of home economics clubs. The Louisiana study bore little relation to the present study, Although it was limited to secondary schools, it was not limited to reimbursed programs in such schools. The chief emphasis was on the kinds of housing and the number of home economics clubs in the state. Buer traced the development of home economics in all of the public 6 high schools of New Mexico from 1912 to 1939. The sources for the —_ U 6Ethel Buer, "Development of Home Economics in New Mexico." MnP‘m-hhed Master's thesis, Colorado State College of Agriculture and Behanic Arts, Fort Collins, 19%. I .v '2 1" 4’8’ 13 study were state bulletins, reports, courses of study, and State Plans fbr New Mexico, as well as personal interviews. Buer found that home economics was introduced into the public schools of New Mexico through an act of the state legislature in 1912 which provided for the teaChing of industrial education of which domestic science was a part. Federal legislation also served as a factor in the promotion of home economics in the state. The growth in the number of departments of home economics in New Mexico‘was fairly steady. Three schools offered such a course in 1913; this number had increased to fifty-seven in 1919. In 1939 there were eighty-nine departments of home economics in the secondary schools of New Mexico. The home project program was slow in deveIOping but by 1920 the deority of girls enrolled in vocational classes in home economics were deing home projects. In 1938, eight teachers were employed on a year- rblind basis to supervise home projects during the summer. The curriculum changed in emphasis from courses in cooking and "ving in 1913 to education for home and family living in 1939 which included every phase of homemaking. Home economics clubs for girls in classes of home economics in New Mexico were first reported in 1925. At that time there were twelve (Hubs. The number grew to twentyaone in 1930 and to thirty-three in 1938. The study revealed that very meager equipment for teaching home economics was considered adequate in the schools in 1913. By 1917 equipment for laundry work and home nursing were recommended in addition to equipment for study of food and clothing. Eleven of the seventy-nine .n A’s k1. 11+ schools in 1939 had provided equipment for teaching all areas of family living. These departments included a living-dining room, bedroom, kit- chen, and bath. Black made a study of the development of home economics in the high schools for colored students in Oklahoma from 1918-1939.? Data for the study were secured from state and federal bulletins, state reports, and interviews. The study reveals that home economics has been included as a part of the curriculum of public and private schools and colleges for Negroes in the United States since 1890. Langston University in Oklahoma began a training program for Negro teachers of home economics in 1923, but this school was not approved for federal aid under the Smiths-Hughes Act until 1926. The enrollment in the course increased from nine in 1927 to eighty-one in 1938. The cur-— ricular emphasis for training teachers changed from technical subjects in 1923 to general, related, professional, and technical courses in 1939. Prior to 1938, there were only three years in which a secondary Behool for Negroes received reimbursement from federal funds. After increased funds were made available in 1938 through the passage of the George-Deen Act, twelve secondary schools were approved for reimburse- lllent. The following year this number had increased to fifteen. The curriculum was limited to cooking and sewing the first few years after the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917. In 1921+ home nursing, child care, and handicraft were added. In 1936 the curriculum was revised to include 7Zella Justine Black, "DevelOpment of Homemaking in the High Schools for Colored Students in Oklahoma." Unpublished special report, Colorado State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Fort Collins, 1951 . 15 a wide range of subject matter in home economics. However, foods and <flbthing received more emphasis than any other areas during the entire period. , A.study by Williams traced the development of the home economics program in Texas 1917 to 1937.8 Sources for the study were bulletins, reports, newsletters to homemaking teachers, and newspaper articles. It was found that in 1917 there were one hundred eight high schools in Texas in which home economics was taught. Three of these received federal aid. In 1937 there were six hundred sixteen high schools with an enrollment of forty-five thousand thirty-six pupils in high schools receiving federal and state aid. In the beginning no school was granted federal aid for more than five years, but the depression and favorable legislation which increased funds changed the plan to one of continuous subsidy. The curriculum originally was limited to skills in cooking and sewing, The curriculum was enlarged until in 1937 every phase of home- making was taught in courses in high school. The first conference in Texas for training teachers ineservice was held in 1923. Conferences have been used continuously as a means of ineservice training since that time. In the early years supervisors had assumed responsibility for planning conferences but in later years teach- ers were allowed to choose topics for discussion. The first "Girls' Clothing’Contest" was held in 1920. The purpose was to assist girls in selection of proper clothing. In 1929 the contest SDoris Williams, "The Deve1opment of the Home Economics Program in Texas, 1917 to 1937." Unpublished Master's thesis, Colorado State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Fort Collins, 1939. 16 was changed to include other aspects of the curriculum in home economics. The number attending the contest had increased from fifty-nine in 1920 to fifteen hundred in 1937. These contests provided a great deal of favorable publicity for home economics. In Texas a very different plan for reimbursement of schools has been developed than was deve10ped in Michigan since only in fairly recent years have Texas schools been permitted to remain on the reimbursed list for longer than five years. ApprOpriations from state sources had lacked the stability provided by law in Michigan. The changes in curriculum and the use of conferences for in-service training of teachers were similar to developments in Michigan. Williams traced the development of vocational home economics in Arkansas from 1917 to 1939.9 State bulletins, reports, State Plans for Arkansas, returns from a questionnaire, and personal interviews provided data for the study. The study reveals that qualifications for supervisors and white teachers remained fairly constant throughout the period until 1937 when an additional requirement of one year of graduate study beyond the Bachelor's degree was made for supervisors. At the same time the require- ment for colored teachers was raised from two to four years of college training. At the beginning of the study in 1917, many departments of home economics were housed in basement rooms in the school building. In 1938, nearly three fourths of the departments were housed outside the school 9Kate Williams, "DevelOpment of the Vocational Home Economics Program in Arkansas from 1917 to 1939." Unpublished Master's thesis, Colorado State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Fort Collins, 19kl. \s. 17 building in separate cottages. By 1938, emphasis in curriculum had changed from skills in cooking zmd sewing to include every phase of homemaking with particular emphasis on personal, family, and community relationships. Course objectives and units of work had originally been planned by supervisors or teachers. The trend in 1937 was toward cooperative planning by pupils and teachers. Thirty-two hours of home project work was recommended in 1922. This was changed to a requirement in 1927. No credit was given for the work, The requirement was raised to one hundred thirty-five hours in 1929 with one half credit allowed for project work. Because of the very small grants for home economics from Smith- Hnghes funds in a state that was predominantly rural, the number of programs in vocational home economics was limited. Not more than five schools were approved any one year before the George Reed Act of 1929. In.l939 Arkansas had ninety-five departments of vocational home economics for‘white children and.twenty-one for colored children. Leetham made a study of the development of vocational home eco- nomics in the secondary schools of Arizona over a twenty-five year period from 1917-1942.10 The study analysed.printed materials including bullee tins, reports, courses of study, State Plans for Arizona, school laws, and similar sources. Interviews with supervisors and teachers also provided data for the study. The study reveals that qualifications for supervisors and teachers remained fairly constant. Graduation from a four year college course O Rosabelle G. Leetham, "Development of Home Economics Education in Arizona from 1917-19N2.” Unpublished Master's thesis, Colorado Agri— cultural and Mechanical College, Fort Collins, 19h5. sls 18 in home economics was required for both teachers and supervisors in 1918-19. In 1927 a supervisor was required to hays a.Master's degree. The areas of study in home economics were limited to foods and (nothing in 1917-18. The trend had been to increase both the number of areas and the phases in each area in l9h2 with special emphasis on edu- cation for family living. Typical housing of departments changed from one room in the base- ment of the school building in 1917-18 to well-lighted modern rooms equipped for teaching all areas of family living in 19N1-M2. In the original plan for Arizona no school was granted federal aid for longer than five years, but supplementary favorable legislation changed the plan to one of continuous subsidy. There were five subsi- dized high school programs in Arizona in 1917-18. The number had increased to forty-seven in 19h1-h2. Home project work was slow to develop in Arizona. Five of the seven schools reported such work in 1921-22. It was given an impetus at state conferences and by 1931-32 all schools with vocational programs Were including such work as a requirement in home economics. The first clubs for pupils in home economics in Arizona were reported in 1929-30. They were sponsored by the Arizona Home Economics Association. Some responsibility for assisting teachers in club activi- ties was assumed by the state supervisor of home economics. State and district conferences, visits to schools, correspondence, and publications were methods used by supervisors as a means of in-service training of teachers. In the early 1920's courses of study were prepared by supervisors and sentto schools. In 1930-31 teachers participated in development of courses of study by trying out and evaluating units which 19 had'been prepared by the supervisory staff, In general, the trends revealed in the Leetham study were similar althose found in the present study, although a less intensive investi- gation of various aspects of the program was done in the Arizona study. The history of vocational home economics in the secondary schools of'Arizona was brought up to date with a study by Pintz which traced the development of the program from 19N0-h1 through 1949-50.11 This was essentially a continuation of the study by Leetham. Pints found that qualifications for teachers of vocational home economics in Arizona were raised in 1950 to include completion of a fifth year of college work in the educational field of home economics. The only additional requirement for supervisors during this period was admin- istrative experience. The curriculum for vocational home economics in secondary schools was in a process of continuous change. Conferences for teachers were used for develOping units for courses of study. The emphasis changed from skills alone to increased emphasis on attitudes, appreciations, abilities, and interests. Departments of home economics were housed in combination rooms in which all areas were taught in one room, in separate laboratories for teaching foods and clothing, and in cottages. Bases for granting federal reimbursement to schools were: class enrollment, a qualified teacher, and housing and equipment approved by the state supervisor. There has been little gain in the number of schools 11Lucille T. Pints, ”Development of the Homemaking Education Pro- gram in Arizona from 19h1 to 1951." Unpublished report for the Master's degree, Colorado Agricultural and Mechanical College, 1952. 20 receiving reimbursement since 19h0. The number increased from forty-five in 191+o—hl to forty-nine in 1949-50. Home projects were required in all reimbursed.pr0grams in home economics. A decrease in the number of projects during the war was attributed to girls working away from home or having increased home duties due to mothers being employed outside the home. There was a steady decrease in both the number of girls enrolled in home economics clubs and in the number of clubs after 19% until the organization of the Future Homemakers of America in 19N5-N6 with twenty- three chapters. There had been a.gain each year in the number of chapters of this organization. For a number of years the work of the state supervisor of home economics had.been limited to assisting schools through conferences, Visits, correspondence, and publications. During the 19N0's the super- visor had been responsible for initiating a.state-wide study for evaluat- ing the status of home economics in Arizona, c00perating with other agencies interested in family welfare, assisting communities with surveys, and helping local schools develop long-time plans for their departments. There has been no attempt in Michigan to require one year of work beyond.the Bachelor's degree for teachers of home economics. Branegan made a study of teacher training in home economics under the Smith-Hughes Act.12 Data.were secured from the official reports and documents on file in the office of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, Washington, D. C. 12Gladys Alee Branegan, Home Economics Teacher Training under the Smith-Hughes t, Contributions to Education, No. 350. New York: Bureau of’Publications Teachers College, Columbia University, 1929. 21 The study reveals that some of the trends in 1927 were to reduce the number of hours of technical instruction in home economics, provide more electives, reduce the emphasis on science, extend the amount of time devoted to art, require economics and sociology, provide direct experiences with children, and establish courses in family relationships. Branegan lists a number of problems in the area of teacher train- ing'which need further consideration. The following problems remain unsolved: 1. Need for better selection of candidates for teacher education in home economics. 2. Develop satisfactory ways of checking vocational experience of prospective teachers. 3, Provide experiences in reimbursed schools for all student teachers. Kent studied the effect of planning for vocational education in home economics in the white schools of twelve southern states from 1917 to 1933.13 The study was based on official reports and State Plans for individual states and reports of the Federal Board for Vocational Educa- tion. Kent drew the following conclusions: 1. Planning has led to an orderly, consistent develop- ment of a comprehensive education program within a relatively short period of time. 2. The plans and reports as developed in this program have resulted in a detailed, systematic record of its organization and administration. 3. Administration of this program has resulted in the dif- fusion of leadership throughout the region rather than in a concentration of leadership in a purely administra- 13Drusilla Crary Kent, 5 Stu_dy 9; the Results 3; Planning for Home Economics Educgtion 1p.the Southern Stgtes. New York: Bureau of Publica- tions, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1936. 22 tive group. It. Experimentation within the program and adaptation of the program to local situations is possible in an educational program organized under national acts. 5. Provision for individual differences within a given State or locality is possible insofar as the act itself does not proscribe freedom in regard to the organization and administration of the program.1b' Recommendations were made concerning planning in the future. Some of these would seem to be pertinent ,in Michigan today. They are: 0 O O O O O O 0 e O 0 e 0 e e e e e e e e e o e e e e e o 2. That State plans be developed upon a.more objective basis or that provision be made in the plan to indicate the basis of planning in regard to specific items. 3. That State plans be set up to permit a choice of pro- grams or that local communities, under certain conditions, be permitted to submit their own plans for approval to the State Boards for Vocational Education. h. That definite provision be made for evaluating the results of the prOgram in terms of plans. 5. That provisions be made in reports for instance of specific achievements in local communities. These studies reveal some very clear trends which have emerged in the program of vocational home economics in secondary schools in differ- °ht states. There are some striking similarities in the findings reported. AInorig these are the following: 1. There has been growth in the program of vocational home economics in the secondary schools. This is shown by the increase in 11+ 112.19... p. 135. 15 Ibid., p. 136. 3. 23 number of schools, in number of teachers, and in number of pupils enrolled in classes. The changes in emphasis in curriculum have been very similar. From a study of cooking and sewing, the curriculum has broaden— ed to include study in every phase of home economics, such as nutrition and meal planning, housing and home furnishings, child development, health and home nursing, personal, social, and family relationships, and home management. The curriculum was originally planned by persons in authority. There is clear evidence of a trend toward.participation by teachers and sometimes by pupils in planning of curriculum. The problem-solving method of teaching appears to have been introduced in the late 1920's. This method continues to be recognized as an effective method of teaching. Emphasis on home economics in high schools has changed from preparing for the future to meeting present-day needs. The home project was introduced in the early 1920's. Various methods hare been used to insure that projects would be done by pupils. Each pupil was required to do a definite number of projects or to devote a.specified number of hours to project work. The study by Pints l9h0-hl to 19h9-50 reveals that there was a.decline in number of home projects completed during the war e The club movement for pupils in home economics started for the most part in the late 1920's or early 1930's. It has grown rapidly. Housing and equipment for departments has changed from one or 21+ two rooms often in the basement of the school building to rooms equipped for teaching all phases of family living. The use of cottages or residences for housing departments of home economics has been common in some of the Southern states. The present study is similar to these studies in certain respects. It investigated the growth of the program in Michigan, changes in emphasis in curriculum, the trend toward cooperative planning by pupils and teacher, the introduction of the problem-solving method of teaching, the use of needs as a basis of program development, the trends in the home project program, the club movement for pupils enrolled in home economics, and a study of changes in housing and equipment for departments of home economics. In addition this study investigated the following aspects of the program: 1. The origin of the movement in home economics on a national scale. 2. A.study of the history of the enactment of federal legislation ‘ for vocational education. 3. An account of the early history of home economics in Michigan. 1:. A detailed analysis of the various State Plans in Michigan to show the bases for the development of the several aspects of the program of vocational home economics in the secondary schools. 5. A.study of some of the influences such as the depression, lorld War II, and the use of occupational analysis for develop- ment of curriculum which have been significant in the emergence of various trends as the program has developed. n'? in ' I . ,. 1,, . , 4 7 ’V ‘r a (IV I M ‘O I. "1 \ q I l o r . '¢ 1 N -‘ 1‘ r. r ,-. 9. _< . , 4 I“ .‘ _, - .p 4 . . . '1 -,~_."‘ '1“ - i I z [1}. w": \s.’ . P ' ' . 'I‘ ‘ " . A It I -_,-w ’t a ‘ i I ' . . ~ . 3 '1‘ - s, ’ ’ \ ix Y 1,; I . 1. F l w r ‘ .01. (t ’ ’4" 1 1‘ ‘ '.’ 1,) K ,- - w\ 1* («I ..n. ‘\ '\ .\ r- I’ § "'7 , , . .. . ,‘ r... , . r, , L. .. 4 . , . - . ..J «A - h - -— - are) ”4 -- A e .4 .. . . - — . . .L ‘ r r 6 ’ ‘ I ,_ c . , - .- » - U ' 7 ~ | C r "t . r , , . . e , . r , A ' rs ' Iv ‘ 7A - - ,- f' ‘ r ’- '4 ‘ ~¢ :. : ..., .... * ‘ '~I\ " '\ w ’ 5-. r i ‘ ‘1 -¥,\ . a.". '~’.‘ .9 r or e. g) :l“ ~I‘ .s~1'-o;- ' ‘ . .1 ‘1 4 or n 2“. a." :- -A‘e.-L ‘: r‘ a I I s I s 3 ,- ’ t r erx - "““f\“~ ‘AI‘ l 0‘ 'A"" ‘_': I\ ‘ fl‘ . " l '1 ‘1 ,-.-\ ‘l - i v‘ 1 2‘" r\;“l\' ‘ r ‘ I r. '1 IV C I f ; . , . _. J - 1 f l ' ‘ 7 | . e s , 1 r a s .* I 0 a. .' . V I $ I L .7: I ‘ f I J g . ‘ - V O l l i I I ' 3 CHAPTER III THE FEE-VOCATIONAL PERIOD Early History of Education for the Home in the United States In the early Colonial days, the training of the girls of the family for the duties they would eventually assume as homemakers was carried on by the mother within the home. It was not until the first quarter of the nineteenth century that the idea of a.plan for organized instruction in homemaking began to evolve. The idea originated and was developed in its early stages by women. Apparently the first to give voice to the thought was Mrs. Emma.Hart Willard who had been a teacher in a.private school for girls at Middlebury, Vermont. In 1818 she requested a grant from the New York Legislature for the purpose of deve10p- ing a program of studies for girls which would prepare them for their future duties in "housewifery." She outlined her plan and purpose as follows: It is believed that housewifery might be greatly improved by being taught not only in practice, but in theory. There are right ways of performing its various operations: and there are reasons why those ways are right; and why may not rules be formed, their reasons collected, and the whole be digested into a system to guide the learners' practice!1 Another woman who had a vision of a.plan for education for the home which is still reflected in many of the ideas of present-day educators was Miss Catherine Beecher, a sister of Harriet Beecher Stowe, 1Benjamin H. Andrews, Education for the Home, United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin.No. 36, Part 1. Washington: Government Printing Office, 19114. Pp. 10-11. ml ‘I 26 and the oldest child in the famous Beecher family. Miss Beecher had maintained a.private school at Hartford, Connecticut, from 1820 to 1832. In 18h1 she wrote what was probably the first textbook for home economics entitled A Treatise o_r; Domestic Economy in which she presented convincing arguments for domestic training for all girls no matter what their social class. She felt that the only way in which girls would obtain the necessary information for their jobs as wives and mothers was through organized instruction. She stated: Another reason for introducing such a.subject, as a distinct branch of school education, is, that, as a general fact, young ladies will not be taught those things in any other way. In reply to the thousand-times-repeated remark, that girls must be taught their domestic duties by their mothers, at home, it may be inquired, in the first place, what prOportion of mothers are qualified to teach a.proper and complete system of Domestic Economy? When this is answered, it may be asked, what proportion of those who are qualified, have that sense of the importance of such instruc- tions, and that energy and perseverance which would enable them actually to teach their daughters, in 1 the branches of Domestic Economy'presented in this work? The author made a plea for endowments for schools, the chief purpose of which would be the training of girls for their life work. In such schools, the girls would have actual practice in the performance of household tasks including laundering, mending, cleaning, and other duties related to the household.3 The major portion of the book was devoted to various topics with which the author felt young ladies should be conversant. Among these were "Health," “Healthful Food,“ "Healthful 2Catherine E. Beecher, AiTreatise on Domestic Economy. Boston: Marsh, Capan, Lyon, and Webb, 18 1. Pp. 1- 3. 311151.. p. 39. 27 Clothing,“ "Habits of System and Order," "The Care of Infants," and "The Care of Domestic Animals, Barns, etc." The preface of a revised edition published in 18kg showed the earnest and sincere belief of the author in the worth of domestic econ- omy as a subject for study in schools when she stated: The author of this work was led to attempt it, by discovering in her extensive travels, the deplorable suffer- ings of multitudes of young wives and mothers, from the combined influences of poor health, pgor domestics, and,g defective gpmestic eduCQtion. The measure which, more than any other, would tend to remedy the evil, would be to place domestic economy on an equality with the other sciences in female schools. Science Applied to the Household During the nineteenth century, an interest began to develop among a few scientists in applying their knowledge to problems related to the household. .A famous American.physicist, Benjamin Thompson, who was perhaps better known as Count Rumford showed how knowledge of physics might be applied to heating, lighting, and ventilating the house.5 Edward.L. Youmans, in a book published in 1859 Called ngsghold Scigncg, brought together subject matter from chemistry, physics, and biology6 in an effort to show the relation of these sciences to problems of the household. Mrs. Ellen H. Richards served on the faculty of the Massae chusetts Institute of Technology as a sanitary chemist. Her chief 1‘Catherine E. Beecher, A Treatise 93; Domestic Economy, revised edition. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1859. Preface. Smdrews, _o_p_. gi_., p. 12. 6Loc. cit. 28 interest was the application of science to food, clothing, and shelter.7 Although Mrs. Richards saw more opportunity for scientific application to the area of food than to other areas, she was interested in all aspects of sanitation in relation to health. She wrote, for erample: The elementary science lessons now given in so many schools form an admirable and sufficient general work for the consideration of the effect of foul air and dust on health.8 She believed that the introduction of cooking as a school subject pro- vided some very worthwhile learning experiences for the pupils involved and that this subject would be a means of correlating information which they were already learning in science classes. Mrs. Richards stated: The school girl who has had the elements of chemistry and.physics which are often taught as abstract subjects, sump med up and applied to the making of a simple dish, has had her mind awakened to the relations and interdependence of things, as no other training now given can awaken it.9 The activities of Mrs. Richards were not confined to her writings concerning domestic economy in public education and her work as an in- structor of sanitary science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technol- Ogy. She is perhaps better known to home economists of the present day as the founder of the modern home economics movement. She served as chairman of the Lake Placid conferences, the first of which was held in 7111.81.” P- 13- 8Ellen H. Richards, Domestic Economy gs; _a_ Factor lg Public Educa- tion, New York College for the Training of Teachers Educational Monographs, Vol. II, No. M, Whole No. 10, July, 1889. London: Thomas Laurie, 28 Paternoster Row. P. 117. 91bid. , p. 12h. 29 1899 at Lake Placid, New York. These conferences were held annually for a period of ten years. At the meeting in 1908, the tenth confer— ence, it was decided to form a national organization to be known as The American Home Economics Association.10 The purpose of the confer- ences was to get "some united action on the part of those most interested in home science or household economics."11 At these conferences various phases of home economics were discussed along with methods of teaching the subject. One of the topics which was suggested for discussion at the first conference was "standard of living as affected by sanitary science," Mrs. Richards, a sanitary chemist, was much interested in this aspect of home economics. Probably to her more than to any other person should go the credit for the place that science has held in the development of the whole field of home economics. The Kitchen-Garden Movement The Kitchen-Garden Movement was a direct outgrowth of the kinder- garten movement in the United States. It originated in a mission school on the east side of New York City about 1876. Miss Emily Huntington, the founder, was so distressed at the low housekeeping standards of the women in the area which the mission served that she devised a plan patterned after the kindergarten for the training of small girls of the locality in household tasks. She organized the little girls into classes of twenty-four. They used miniature plates, silverware, napkins, brooms, 1OLake Placid.Conferences on Home Economics. Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Conference held at Chatauqua, N. Y. 6—10 July, 1908. Boston, Mass.: Whitcomb & Barrows, 1908. Pp. 189-90. 1lLake Placid Conferences on Home Economics. Proceedings of the first, second, and third conference, September 19-23, 1899; July 3-7, 1900; June 29~July 5, 1901, Lake Placid, N. Y., 1901 [n.n.] p. 3. 3o dustpans, and other household equipment for their classes. The tasks of the household were performed to rhymes which the children sang as they worked. .A rhyme to teach them how to serve prOperly was: we pass the tray like this, we pass the tray like that Try to hold it, always hold it, very, very flat. As the children sang, they used their miniature equipment and went through the motions of the activity. A.rhyme which taught the proper procedure for dusting a chair went like this: First the back, then the seat Next the rungs, and then the feet. Persons interested in the KitchennGarden Movement joined together to form the Kitchen-Garden Association for training teachers in Kitchen- Garden methods. This organization, a few years later, became the 12 Industrial Education Association. Andrews gives the purpose of the Industrial Education Association To train women and girls in domestic economy and to promote the training of both sexes in such industries as shall enable them to become self-supporting; to study the methdds and systems of industrial training and secure their introduction into schools.13 Introduction of Domestic Economy into the Public Schools Some of the early dates of introduction of domestic economy into 12Laura Winnington, "The Kitchen Garden," gh_e Outlook, 68:52—56, May h, 1901. The nomenclature here is rather confusing, but the new subject which had been called domestic economy by Catherine Beecher had assumed various titles. Perhaps because training for industry and train- ing for work in the home were both concerned with a practical kind of education, the two were joined in an effort to promote this type of education. 13Benjamin At Andrews, 22, 22£,. pp. 18-19. 1111 31 the schools are: manual training for girls in Montclair, New Jersey, 1880: sewing in Paris, Illinois in 1881: sewing in Springfield, Massa- chusetts in 1883; domestic science in Toledo, Ohio in 188“; domestic economy in San Francisco High School in 1885.11‘L The Manual Training Movement The discussion up to this point has centered around domestic economy as a subject for instruction in the school. However, it was only a part of the whole manual training movement which also included agriculture and shop work among the studies which were gaining recogni- tion as having some educational value. Evidence that manual training for girls had at last been accepted in the program of studies as a desirable subject is shown in the Addresses 913; Proceedings 2; _t_h_e_ National Education _Atssociatigg £93; l_8_8]_. An address on the subject, "Manual Education in Urban Communities," was given by Francis A. Walker, President of Massachusetts Institute of Technology.15 Mr. Walker discussed various phases of manual training before he reached the subjects of sewing and cooking. He stated that no person who knew about the work being done in sewing would question "either the practical utility of the results achieved or the appropria- t6Iless of sewing in the school curriculum, as a strictly educational agency."16 \ He was, if possible, even more enthusiastic about the work ll“Itid.. p. 19. 15Francis A. Walker, "Manual Education in Urban Communities,” 1131:. Journal 2.; Proceedings and Addresses 2;; 1h; fiational Edugartional Association, Chicago, Illinois, 1887. Salem, Mass.: National Education Association, 1888. Pp. 196-205. 16lhid., p. 20%. 32 being done in cooking. He remarked: As a great object lesson in chemistry; as a means of promoting care, patience, and forethought; as a study of cause and effect; as a medium of conveying useful information, irrespective altogether of the practical value of the art acquired; the short course which alone the means at command allowed to be given to each class of girls has constituted, I do not doubt, the best body of purely educational training which any girl of all those classes ever experienced within the same number of hours.17 After lectures on the subject of manual training by several per- scuis, the meeting was thrown open to discussion. There seemed to be qlrite general interest in the question of manual training for girls. Some of the discussion is quoted below: Professor Greenwood of Missouri. Do not the girls generally from the country know how to sew, how to make garments, and how to cook? Mrs. Rickoff. No. President Sheldon. No, says Tennessee. No, from Kansas. What say you, ladies-~do you know how to use the needle and scissors? A Chorus of Voices. Yes, yes, yes. President Sheldon. Let all the teachers who can sew raise their hands. All hands up, and it is unanimous. All can saw, and I knew it would be 80.18 This was followed with a discussion as to how much difficulty there wt>111d have been in even bringing the question out on the floor in open meeting five years before. A gentleman from Great Britain had previously raised the question as to how the group actually felt about the value of g 171bid., p. 205. 18lbid.. p. 233. 33 manual training as a subject of instruction in the schools. One of the members felt that his question had not received enough consideration and brought this fact to the attention of the president. The president presented it to the group: President Sheldon. Ladies and Gentlemen: Those of you who think manual training is of value and importance in a system of education in the United States will please manifest it by saying aye. A unanimous response.19 Thus manual training received the approval of the National Educa— tional Association by a unanimous decision and the way was open insofar as the Association was concerned for incorporating the new subject into the program of studies offered by schools. This vote of confidence Probably gave an impetus to the developing of courses in manual training Dyer the country as the meeting was widely attended and the arguments were quite convincing. The feeling was fairly general among educators, if the National Educational Association is a fair representation, that the training for home activities was not being properly carried out in 1"he home . The Committee of Ten As can be seen by the previous discussion, there was a general t-1'end toward enlarging the program of offerings in the high schools of America during the latter half of the nineteenth century. In addition t0 the scientific movement with its influence on science training and 19lbid.. p. 237. 314 the introduction of manual arts which included training in shop work, qufiiculture, and home economics, there was also interest in including conunercial subjects in the high school. These new subjects combined with the classical subjects resulted in a program of studies which was over—crowded. The problem was attacked by the National Educational Association in.21892 with the appointment of the Committee of Ten headed by Charles W} ZEliot. This committee was to study uniformity in school programs sand in college entrance requirements. Some of the recommendations were: that each subject should be treated the same way for all pupils, that entrugh time should be given each subject to gain mental training from Btiidying it, that approximately the same amount of time should be devoted tO' each subject.20 Four choices of curricula were proposed, all of which lmafii a large percentage of time devoted to the traditional, classical Buflojects.21 The Committee of Ten did not stem the tide of prOgram exZpansion, and the newer subjects continued to gain a.place in the public SGhools. Other Influences Important in the Development of the Home Economics Movement There were other factors which influenced the inclusion of home echomics in the schools. There was a general faith that education could Solve many difficulties. The development of cooking schools for adults in the eighteen-seventies gave evidence of the interest of women in ‘ 20National Educational Association, Rgport 93; the Committee 21; Ten .03 Secondagy School Studies. Chicago: The American Book Co., 1894. P. 1m, allbid. . pp. 146—147. 35 improving household techniques. Young women were demanding and securing opportunities for higher education. In many colleges, especially the land grant institutions, this training centered around work which women did in their own homes. The trend in the high schools toward a practical education which trained young peOple for activities in which they would engage in adult life naturally resulted in training girls for the work of the home. The expanding program of studies offered by the schools was paral- leled by an eXpanding enrollment in the high schools. The high school was becoming much more a peoples' school. It was not limited only to those who planned to attend college, but many other students were also beginning to afford themselves of the opportunity for further education. The increase in enrollment and the expansion of the high school naturally resulted in an accompanying increase in cost of schools. Many persons felt that the offerings should be broader and should provide more than simply a college preparatory course. Michigan, a Part of the National Picture Michigan reflected the national picture in its establishment of Courses for girls which centered around activities related to the home. The Michigan Agricultural College had established a women's course in the school year 1896-1897 which was designed to prepare women for the Vocation of homemaking by the application of science to the tasks of the household.22 Young women were enrolling in increasing numbers each Year in the new course offered by the college. The establishment of such k ZZCataIOgue Officers and Students of the Michigan State Agricul- tural College for the Year 1895-6. Agricultural College, P.0.: Publish- ed by the College, 1896. Pp. 92-95. 36 a course at the collegiate level may have been an influence in gaining status for similar work in the public schools. The influence of the manual training movement nationally was be- girxndng to be felt in.Michigan. Evidence for this is shown by the fact that forty pages of the Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for 1900 are devoted to the subject of manual training.23 The Superintendent of Public Instruction, Mr. Jason E. Hammond, had requested and been granted the sum of one hundred dollars for the purpose of? carrying out an investigation on manual training in public schools. Questionnaires were sent and visits made to schools both in Michigan and 111 other states. The results were summarized and information was given for each school on subject matter included in manual training, grade Placement, date of establishment of the courses, and the attitude toward the subject in the local communityfiu Although enrollments were increasing, much concern was eXpressed over the small percentage of young peOple in Michigan who were enrolled 111 high schools and the still smaller percentage who continued in high aChool until graduation. Mr. Hammond presented the following in his report: Some Michigan Statistics From the latest reports received in this office from M} leading cities of Michigan, we have compiled the followa ing statistics for 1899: 23Sixty-fourth gnual Report 9_f_ the Sgemntendent 2.1; Public Instruction 2;; the State 9;; Michigan, 1900. Lansing, Mich.: Depart- ment of Public Instruction, 1901. Pp. 16-56. zuIbid-e! PP. 37")4'80 37 Total enrollment, 173,250. Number in high school, 13,270. Number graduating, 1,332. From the most careful computations, taking into con- sideration that there are four high school and eight primary grades, and that only one class graduates each year, we de- duce the following: Less than 16 per cent of the total enrollment enter the high school: and less than no per cent of this 16 per cent, or less than 7 per cent of their total enrollment, graduate from the high schools. ... Something must be done to improve these conditions. Will manual training do it?2 Eflauly educators firmly believed that the introduction of so-called "prac— tixzal courses,“ such as manual training for boys and girls, would increase the holding power of high schools and would help to solve some of the <>tller difficulties which the schools were encountering. Public Interest and SUpport for Manual Training in Michigan From the reports which the Superintendent of Public Instruction received as a result of his survey, it was evident that lay persons were also interested in manual training as a school subject. The building arui equipment necessary for teaching such courses was presented to the city of Calumet by the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company.26 Grand Rapids attempted several times to secure an apprOpriation 1-11 the school budget to cover the cost of the subject in their schools, 'but the attempt had met with defeat. Techniques which are in common use today were utilized to educate the public to the value of such courses. 25Ibid., p. 21. 26Ibid.. p. 37. 38 Meetings were held at which lectures were given on manual training in the schools; newspapers devoted a great deal of space to its discussion; and influential men who opposed the idea were persuaded to visit manual training classes in other schools. Finally the apprOpriation was voted by the council.27 Manual training for boys preceded that provided for girls by several years in Ishpeming. This city reported that the courses were started on an experimental basis on a small scale and that public sentiment was in favor of the work because the peOple had been able to see the results for themselves.2 Kalamazoo presented the idea of courses in manual training to the people at their annual school meeting. The vote was in favor of includ~ ing the work in their schools and an appropriation for funds to carry out the plan was also voted.29 How much had been done to inform the public previous to this meeting was not stated. A fire which had destroyed the school building at Marquette resulted in evidence of public support of courses in manual training. Some public—spirited citizens had indicated their intention of donating $1,000 or more for equipment for a new build- ing. The implication in the report was that this money would be spent for manual training equipment.30 Muskegon had profited by a.gift be- stowed by one of its wealthy citizens, Mr. Charles H. Hackley, who had not only given money for building and equipping a manual training school but had agreed to give a sum of money annually for running expenses for 271..b_1d_.. p. 39. 281bid., p. ho. 29222, 213-. 3°lbid., p. kl. 39 the school. He was also to provide an endowment at his death, the income from which was to be used for running expenses for the manual training school.31 Women do not seem to have played a major part in the establishment of manual training courses in schools except in Menominee. The report stated: Manual training work in Menominee is the result of a sentiment created by a zealous, believing, working woman's club, seconded by a progressive, courageous superintendent of schools. At first a small amount of money was raised by subscription as an eXperiment. Members of the Woman's Club attended the schools and supervised the sewing work. Meetings were held to discuss the matter. As a result, sufficient interest was developed to secure a vote for an appropriation to establish manual training in the schools.32 Other schools gave no specific report as to the part the community had played in establishing such courses. However, they made statements as to how well the courses were being received, how much interest there was, and in several cases noted that they were planning to eXpand their offer- ings in manual training. The evidence of community support for the sub- ject would indicate that there was public sentiment in favor of what was termed "practical education" at that time. State Legislation Affecting Home Economics During the Pre—Vocational Period in Michigan Legislation does not appear to have played a very important role in the establishment of courses which would provide a."practical educa- tion“ for boys and girls during this early period. The legislative 31pgg. cit. 32lbid., p. uh. acts, however, do reflect the interest of the general public in such courses. The first legislation which was concerned with the "practical courses” was Public Act No. lhh of 1901 entitled, "An act to provide for the establishment and maintenance of rural high schools." This Act pro- vided that a township not having an incorporated village or city within its limits could establish a rural high school. The course of study was to be four years in length and "said course of study may include instruc- tion in manual training, domestic science, nature study, and the elements of agriculture."33 Only two such schools were Operating in 1915 at which 31+ time an act was passed to permit their discontinuance. The second act concerned with these courses was Public Act NO. 35 of 1907, which.pro— vided for the establishment of County Schools of Agriculture and Domestic Economy. Section 6 of this Act provided that "... instruction shall also be given in manual training and domestic economy and such other related subjects as may be prescribed."35 It was not until this Act was amended by Act No. 219 in 1909 that state aid was provided for these schools. By meeting certain requirements as to equipment, buildings, and title to land which was to be used in connection with the teaching of agricul- ture, the school might receive an amount equal to two-thirds of the amount 6 3 This was the first act which provided expended for a.year up to $h,000. state aid which included home economics specifically. This plan apparent- 1y was not too well received since even by 1917—18 there were only two 33Public gets pi; Michigan, 1901, p. 195. 3“‘Public Acts 31; Michigan, 1915, p. 31. 35Public Acts of Michigan, 1907, pp. 37—.uO. 36Public Acts of Michigan, 1909, pp. 14034;. M1 37 such schools operating in the state. The establishment of separate schools evidently did not answer the need which the legislators had felt would be met by the passage of such legislation. The Number of Schools Offering Home Economics in Michigan 1900-1915 A question as to whether or not domestic science was taught in the schools was included in the annual reports which each school made to the Superintendent of Public Instruction beginning with the year, 1901 and continuing through the school year, 1917-18. This information was included in the Annual Reports of the Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion. The information for 1900 was included in the survey report which was discussed earlier.38 Table I shows the number of schools which taught domestic science in 1900, 1905, 1910, and 1915. TABLE I NUMBER OF SCHOOLS TEACHING DOMESTIC SCIENCE"I W Number of schools Year teaching domestic science m 1900 11 1905 17 1910 53 1915 98 1"Derived from the Annual Reports of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Michigan for the years 1900, 1905, 1910—11, 1915—16. 37Eighty-First Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Michigan, 1917-l8. Lansing, Mich.: Depart- ment of Public Instruction, 1918. P. 100. 38Sixty—rourth Annual Report, pp. 931., pp. 37—15. he The increase in the number of schools which taught domestic science was rather small for 1900 to 1905 when the number grew from eleven to seven- teen. The rise was more rapid from 1905 to 1910. In 1910 the number of schools was slightly more than three times that Of 1905. The growth was more moderate in the next five-year period when the number was slightly less than twice the previous number. In 1915, however, there were nearly nine times as many schools teaching domestic science as there had been in 1900. The Grade Level at Which Home Economics Was Taught In 1900, work in home economics, or manual training as it was then called, seemed to be concentrated at the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grade levels. Ishpeming did not report as to the grade level in which manual training for girls was offered. Table II shows the schools which reported the subject at each grade level. Of the ten schools report— ing, one offered it in third grade, two in fourth, eight in fifth and sixth, and eight in seventh and eighth. Only Calumet failed to offer the subject below ninth grade and only four schools included it as a subject fOr high school students.39 TABLE II GRADE LEVEL am WHICH MANUAL TRAINING FOR GIRLS WAS OFFERED IN 1900 Grade level 7th and 8th Bay City Ann Arbor Ann Arbor Bay City Bay City Bay City Calumet Detroit Detroit Kalamazoo Grand Rapids Flint Muskegon Kalamazoo Grand Rapids Muskegon Kalamazoo Menominee Muskegon Saginaw Menominee 39 ‘43 The results of a study of forty schools which were included in the Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1910-ll, revealed the grade level at which domestic science was given in these schools. All but three of these forty schools offered domestic science in the fifth and sixth and/or the seventh and eighth grades. Fifteen of the schools offered no course above the eighth grade.ho This shows that the work in domestic science was still concentrated at the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth grade levels and even a smaller percentage of schools offering it in the high school than did in 1900. None of the later Annual Reports of the Superintendent of Public Instruction indicate the precise grade levels at which domestic science was given. However, in the statistical tables included in the 1916-17 Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, information is given as to whether the subject was offered in the elementary grades and/or in high school for the school year 1915-16. There was a decided increase in the number of high schools which were teaching domestic science. Ninety-nine reported that it was given in the high school and ninety—four reported that it was given in the elementary grades. The Curriculum in Home Economics 1900-1915 The Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the years 1900, 1907, and l9lH—15 each include a.prOposed course of study ‘ noSeventy-Fourth Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Michigan for the Year 1910—11. Lansing, Mich.: Department. of Public Instruction, 1911. P. 133 and p. 135. 1uEightieth Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion of the State of Michigan for the Year 1916-17. Lansing, Mich.: Department of'Public Instruction, 1917. Pp. 250-72. for work in home economics. How many of the suggestions were actually carried out in local schools it would be impossible to ascertain. The Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for l9lO~ll included the results of a survey in which schools reported what was being taught in their courses in domestic science and domestic art. 1399, There was little breadth to the curriculum in home economics which was prOposed in the early schools. An examination of the suggested course of study for 1900 shows that the work in third, fourth, fifth, and sixth grades was to consist almost entirely of hand sewing. Cooking was to be taught in the seventh and eighth grades. In the seventh grade, although there were some suggestions for teaching the application of science principles to cooking, the major emphasis was on cooking of food. The eighth grade was to review the previous year's work, with special emphasis on pastry cooking. The pupils in this grade were also to plan menus at stipulated costs. This course of study did not make any sug— gestions for work beyond the eighth grade.u2 $321. It will be recalled that two legislative aCts had been passed which provided for the establishment of special schools in which home economics was included in the program of studies.u3 The first of these provided for the establishment of Rural High Schools and the second fbr County Schools of Agriculture and Domestic Economy. In the Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for 1907, plans for courses of study were given for both types of schools.uu The plan for “ZSixty-Fourth Annual Report, gp. cit., pp. 33-3h. “39.2. p. 1&0. m‘Seventy-J‘irst Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for the State of Michigan for the Year 1907. Lansing, Mich.: Department of Public Instruction, 1908. P. 27 and p. 39. 1"3 Rural High Schools included several courses for girls in work related to the home. These are shown in Table III.145 Sewing was to be offered TABLE III RURAL HIGH SCHOOLS COURSES FOR GIRLS IN WORK RELATED TO THE HOME 10th grade 11th grade 12th grade Sewing Sewing Hygiene, nursing Millinery Domestic science Domestic science Domestic science Household economics House furnishing & decorating M two years; domestic science was to be offered three years; the other subjects, household economics, hygiene and nursing. house furnishing and decorating, and millinery, were each to be offered one year. Sewing was sometimes called by the title of domestic art and that was obviously the meaning when it was listed along with domestic science in the more detailed description of the courses which follows: Domestic Science and Art. This work will include basting, stitching, gathering, buttonholing, darning, patching, feather stitching, and application of these on small garments and other useful articles, such as kimonos, aprons, sewing bags, etc. The eye must be trained to ac- curacy. In the latter part of the work of sewing we may include measuring, drafting of fitted linings, waists and skirts. and cutting from drafts and.patterns. In the work of cooking we should include building and care of the fire. oven temperature, source and composi~ tion of foods, food values, and classification of food, chemical changes in the process of cooking, and for prac- tical work a study of marketing, cuts of meat and carving. To this will be added laboratory work in which each student will prepare representative foods such as beverages cereals, eggs, meats, soups, vegetables, breads, cakes, etc.h “51b1d.. p. 27. M6Ibid.. p. 32. us Although household economics, hygiene and nursing, house furnish— ing and decorating would be included as a.part of a course in home econ- omics in most present-day schools, they were evidently considered subjects separate from domestic science and art in 1907. The course of study for County Schools of Agriculture provided for only two years of high school training. of courses for girls in work related to the home. The plan included a number These courses are shown in Table IV.147 It can be seen that the course offerings in these First Semester Cooking and sewing Domestic hygiene _.__.J__._.___. TABLE IV COUNTY SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE COURSES FOR GIRLS IN WORK RELATED TO THE HOME First year i Second year Second Semester Cooking and. sewing Domestic economy First Semester Cooking and sewing Domestic Economy Home decorations (3 days) Laundry (2 days) w Second Semester Chemistry in foods Millinery (2 days) Nursing (3 days) Dressmaking (3 days) schools did not differ too much from those proposed for the Rural High Schools. This plan included all the subjects proposed for the Rural High Schools plus a course in laundry and one in food chemistry. Whether or not these courses of study were followed, it would be impossible to ascertain. mandatory. It was not clear as to whether the plan was recommended or The fact that there was an attempt as far back as 1907 to broaden the course offerings in home economics is an indication that there was some trend in that direction in theory even if it had not been u7lbid., p. 39. \ l*7 accomplished in actual practice. 1 lO-ll. The foregoing has centered around proposed courses of study in home economics with some rather detailed suggestions as to the subject matter which should be included in the courses for the various MS grades. In the study of forty schools referred to earlier, data were secured as to the subjects being_taught in courses in domestic science and domestic art. All of the schools teaching courses at the elementary level (37)1+9 reported that sewing and cooking were taught in the elemen— tary grades. Other domestic art or domestic science subjects which were reported for elementary grades were: cardboard construction, raffia work, basketry and weaving, reed work, crocheting, and knitting. Only six of the thirty~seven schools reported teaching any of the above, however, so the work offered was confined to a large extent to sewing and cooking in the elementary grades.50 In the upper four grades, some schools taught only sewing or only cooking, while others taught both. The other subjects which the schools reported teaching in courses in domestic science and domestic art were: laundry reported by three schools, sanitation by two, chemistry of foods, art work, textiles, nursing, home decoration, and dietetics, each report- 51 ed by one school. It becomes apparent that even though suggestions had been made for a course of study which would offer a much broader program of studies for girls in the home economics field, the curriculum usSeventy—Fourth Annual Report, g2. cit., p. 133 and p. 135. 1+992- 19. 1+3. 0 5 SeventyaFourth Annual Report, loc. cit. 51ng. cit. 1&8 was still pretty much confined to sewing and cooking. 1 lh—l . In the Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion for l9lh-15, the work in home economics appears for the first time under the title of Household Arts. In this report suggested plans are given for four different curricula. They are: Literary, Agricultural, Household Arts, and Commercial. The proposed course of study in House- hold Arts would require sewing two days per week in the seventh grade and cooking two days per week in the eighth grade. The ninth and tenth grades would be required to take sewing five days per week and the eleventh and twelfth grades cooking for the same number of days. The Literary and the Household Arts curricula were to be identical in the seventh and eighth grades except that the sewing and cooking were extra requirements in the Household Arts curriculum. In other words, those students who elected Household Arts would have had two more periods of class per week in both seventh and eighth grades than would those who were enrolled in the Literary curriculum. Another interesting fact about this plan was that in none of the other suggested curricula are any of the courses in Household Arts listed as electives.52 The detailed outline suggested for the work in Household Arts indicated that an attempt was being made to incorporate work beyond cook- ing and sewing. A study of textiles was to be given in seventh grade sewing, while care of utensils, digestibility, food value, and proper combinations of food were to be taught in eighth grade cooking. In ninth grade a set of undergarments made in class was to be compared with a I52Seventy-Eighth Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction of the State of Michigan for the Year lng-lB. Lansing, Mich.: Department of Public Instruction, 1915. Pp. 1+2-3. 1&9 similar set of ready—made. Wardrobe planning including cost, care of clothing, and budgeting was to be taught in tenth grade sewing. In cook- ing given to the girls in eleventh grade, the following were to be taught: use and care of equipment, experiments on combustion, care and storage of supplies, care of the kitchen, foods, menu.planning, and milk as a cause of disease. The cooking which was designed for twelfth grad- ers was called "household science" in this outline. In this course meal planning was to be studied in relation to cost, occasions, meals for high school pupils, reducing cost and labor (now a part of home manage- ment), and preparing meals at home and reporting back to class (now termed home experiences). Serving of food was to be studied along with prOper use of linen and silver for serving. Another tapic to be included in this course was special diets for the infant and the sick. In this proposed plan, there was evidently no idea of isolating the school from the community for many suggestions were made which would call for cooperative effort between the two. Suggestions for field trips included the following: a dairy; a market to learn about marketing, food costs, cash and credit; and homes under construction to study floor plans of kitchens. It was also suggested that class members make special studies and report to the class on conditions existing in the community in relation to care of streeta,water and milk supply, and condition and source of food.53 Here again was evidence that the work to be offered in the course in sewing and cooking was not to be confined to those two activities but was to include a study of textiles, food value, meal planning and serving, special diets, consumer education, and home management. There 53Ibid.. pp. hh_56. 50 were to be Opportunities to correlate the work given in the school to the life of the community. Summary The idea of organized instruction in homemaking began in the United States in the early part of the nineteenth century. Mrs. Emma Hart Willard was apparently the first person to give voice to such an idea. Several years later (18141) Catherine Beecher wrote what was probably the first textbook in home economics. The study of science related to household.problems became an important part of the develOping body of subject matter. Mrs. Ellen H. Richards was one of the chief exponents of the belief in the importance of relating science to home problems. She is recognized as the founder Of the modern home economics movement. Another develOpment was the organization of the Industrial Education Association which was an outgrowth of the Kitchen-Garden Association. The development of home economics as a subject for organ- ized instruction was a.part of the larger manual training movement. With the addition of new subjects to the classical subjects already established, the prOgram of studies in the schools became over—crowded. A committee known as the Committee of Ten was appointed by the National Educational .Association to investigate the problem of secondary school studies. Their report tended to encourage the continuance of more traditional classical subjects. In spite of this fact, the prOgram expansion con- tinued. This was the situation, in general, at the end of the nineteenth century. Home economics was introduced into the public schools of Michigan 51 at about the turn of the twentieth century. Michigan reflected the national picture in its establishment of courses for girls in work re- lated to the home. The Michigan Agricultural College had recently established a Women's Course at the collegiate level. The influence of the national movement for manual training was beginning to be felt in Michigan. Forty'pages Of the Annual Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for 1900 were devoted to this subject. This report gave evidence of public interest and support for manual training in the public schools. Two legislative acts were passed to encourage the high schools in rural sections to provide this instruction for their boys and girls. These acts evidently did not answer the problem for rural com- munities. The number of public schools Offering home economics increased rapidly from 1900 to 1915. In 1900, there were eleven schools, while in 1915 there were ninety-eight who offered courses in home economics. There was also a change in the grade levels at which the courses were offered. Only four of the ten schools which offered home economics in 1900 gave the work in high school while eight of the ten gave it in the elementary grades, In 1915-16, ninety-nine schools were teaching it in the high school and ninety-four of the schools reported teaching it in the elemen- tary grades. There was also a change in curriculum over the years, at least there was a change in theory. It is impossible to determine what was actually taught, but the courses of study which were prOposed indicate a trend toward a much broader curriculum than the cooking and sewing proposed for schools in 1900. 5 CHAPTER IV LEGISLATIVE ACTS AFFECTING HOME ECONOMICS Legislation has probably had more influence than any other single factor in the development of a program of vocational education in the United States. Prior to the enactment of the Smith-Hughes Law which made provision for federal aid for vocational education for youth in secondary schools, for out-of-school youth, for adults, and for training teachers of vocational subjects. several legislative acts concerned with vocational education had been passed. These acts had provided for voca- tional education for persons enrolled in colleges and universities and for persons engaged in agriculture and in homemaking who were not enrolled in school. A number of bills had been introduced in Congress providing for federal eid for vocational education in secondary schools but all of these had failed to pass. However, both the legislative acts which were passed end attempts to pass legislation helped to pave the way for the enectment of the Smith-Hughes Law. A brief summary of the legisla— tion preceding the Smith-Hughes Law is given below. Historic Sketch of Federal Legislation In 1859. Senator Merrill of Vermont introduced the first bill which would create State Agricultural and Hechenicel Colleges. This bill was passed by Congress but was vetoed by President Buchanan. He felt that the act was unconstitutional and that it might cause the states to lean too heavily on the federal government for support of their edu- cational system. Senator Merrill reintroduced the bill in 1862. It was 53 passed by Congress and signed by President Abraham Lincoln. The Morrill Act gave each state 30,000 acres of public land for each Senator and Representative in Congress to be used for the support of at least one college in each state, the leading object of which would be to teach agriculture and mechanic arts. These Colleges became known as Land- Grant Colleges. The Morrill Act was followed by the Batch Act in 1887. By the terms of this Act agricultural experiment stations were established in each state and $15,000 was appropriated to each state annually from the national treasury for the support of such experiment stations. In 1906, the Adams Act granting an additional sum of $15,000 annually to each state was passed. This money was for the purpose of conducting regional research and experimental work in "agricultural industry." The Nelson Amendment to the Merrill Act was passed in 1907. This Act appropriated $25,000 each year to each state for further support of Iorrill Agricultural Colleges. By the terms of this Act, a portion of the money was to be used for the purpose of preparing instructors to teach agriculture and the mechanic arts. This was the first federal support for training teachers of vocational subjects:l Attemts to enact legislation which would provide federal support for vocational education in the secondary schools were made over a period of ten years prior to the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act in 1917. On January 22, 1907, Representative Davis introduced the Davis Bill which 1W Record, Vol. 5h, Part 1. Washington: Government. Printing Office, 1917. r. 715. h- 'I' 5M was referred to the Committee on Agriculture.2 This bill provided for annual appropriations for both city high schools and agricultural high schools; for maintenance of instruction in agriculture in the agricultural high schools and instruction in mechanic arts in the city high schools, and for instruction in home economics in both types of schools. It also provided for funds for each branch experiment station already established in a state or any which might be established in connection with agricul— tural high schools appropriated for by the Act.3 The bill was not re- ported out of committee. Ir. Daria introduced a similar bill in 1908 which met the same fate.“ In 1909, another attempt by Mr. Daris to get legislation enacted 5 Senator Dolliver for vocational education in secondary schools failed. on January 5, 1910, introduced a bill in the Senate providing for vocap tional education in secondary schools which was not reported out of Committee.6 ILater the same year Senator Dolliver'presented a bill which provided for three different aspects of vocational training. This bill '83: A.bill to cooperate with the States in encouraging instruction in agriculture, the trades and industries, and home economics in secondary schools; in maintaining extension ZCopggessioggl Record, Vol. Ml, Part I. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1907. P. 535. 31bid.. Part 5, pp. mes-5000. l"Coggessiog Record, Vol. 142, Part 3. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1908. P. 2628. 5Coggressiong; Record, Vol. h}, Part 2. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1909. P. 1196. 6Cogggessional Record, Vol. h5,lPart 1. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1910. P. 311. 55 departments in state colleges, and in preparing teachers for these vocational subjects in state normal schools, and to appropriate money and regulate its expenditure.7 Provision for federal aid for vocational education in secondary schools, for extension departments in state colleges, and for preparing teachers of vocational subjects were combined in this one bill which was referred to Committee. No further action was taken. A.bill similar to the second Dolliver Bill was introduced the following year (1911) by Senator Page.8 A companion bill was introduced in the House by Representative Davis of Minnesota.9 Although the Senate Bill was reported favorably, neither of these bills passed. Similar bills were introduced a number of times during this session of Congress but were not reported out of Committee. In 1912, Representative Lever presented a bill which provided for federal aid for extension departments in connection with state colleges. This bill made no mention of federal aid for vocational education in secondary schools or for training teachers of vocational subjects.10 It was referred to the Committee on Agriculture and amended and it passed the House on August 23, 1912.11 It was referred to the Senate Committee on Agriculture and Forestry,12 but was not reported. During the time 79151.. Part 8, p. 8713. 8W Rgorg, Vol. 147, Part 1. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1911. P. 101. 91mg. . p. 519. loggpgggggiggal.Rec rd, Vol. ”8, Part 5. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1912. P. 318. nIbid” Part 11, p. 1171:}, 121nm. , p. 11770. 56 that this bill was being considered Senator Page was continuing an attempt to pass the comprehensive bill which included federal aid for extension work, vocational education in secondary schools, and training teachers of vocational subjects. Representative Wilson was sponsoring a similar bill in the House. Although the Senate Bill was favorably re- ported neither bill passed. On April 7, 1913, Senator Page again introduced the comprehensive bill which included federal aid for vocational education in secondary schools, for training teachers of vocational subjects, and for extension work in the state colleges and for experiment stations. This bill was referred to the Committee on Agriculture and Forestry. No further action was taken.13 On September 6, 1913, Senator Smith of Georgia introduced a bill in the Senate. It was ”to provide for cooperative agricultural extension work between the agicultural colleges in the several States receiving the benefits of an Act of Congress approved July 2, 1862, and of acts supplementary thereto, and the United States Department of Agriculture)“ On the same day a similar bill was introduced in the House by Representa- ”.16 tive Lever."5 This bill passed the House on January 18, 191 One month later the bill passed the Senate.17 The Act, known as the Smith- 13Copggessiogl Record, Vol. 50, Part 1. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1913. P. 51. “9.1.4.. Part 5. p. 1#330. 151144., p. mills. 16nggressiogfi; Record, Vol. 51, Part 2. Washington: Government Printing Office, 191 . P. 19W. 17133.. Part h, p. 3130. 57 Lever Act, was signed by President Wilson on May 8, 191%.18 As can be seen by examining the historic sketch above, there had been attempts since the introduction of the Daria Bill in 1907 to pass some kind of legislation which would give federal support to vocational education for pupils at the secondary level. Many forces were at work which helped to influence the growing demand for such legislation. Among these was the rapid growth of the industrial movement in the United States. Many persons felt that specific training should be given to prepare young men for the Jobs available in industry. There was a belief that not only the youth themselves but the country as well would be served by some pro- vision for vocational education. One of the arguments given in support of the cause of vocational education was that such training would enable young people to be placed in Jobs commensurate with their training and abilities. Through improved placement, these young people would be more efficient than they would be on a Job for which they were not fitted. Thus they would be better able to make a contribution to the develop- ment of industry in the country. Another factor which was related to the interest in vocational education was the growing belief that high school education should be available to all youth. In the year 1899-1900, only 11.1} per cent of youth fourteen to seventeen years of age were enrolled in high school. This percentage had increased to 15.», by 1909-10. This meant, however, that nearly eighty-five out of every one hundred young people of high school age were not availing themselves of the opportunity for high 18M" Part 99 Pa 8719. 58 school training.19 The high school curriculum was criticised for being too academic. Many persons believed that some adjustments should be made so that subject matter of a vocational nature which would appeal to some of the large group of out-of-school youth would be available. There was lack of agreement as to how and where this education should be provided. Some persons felt that the training should be a part of the regular public high school offerings, while others felt that special vocational schools should be established. It is interesting that the decision was left completely to the judgment of the states in the Smith- Hughes Act. In all of the controversy about vocational education, home economics played a very small role. The major part of any discussion was generally devoted to industrial training and less often to training for competency in agriculture. Occasionally, home economics was mentioned in relation 1"0 that might be termed trade occupations such as dressmaking, millinery, 1liftitutional cookery, and the like. Few persons were interested or Named to be even stare of the possibility of training for the vocation 0f homemaking. When the background of the Smith-Hughes Law is studied, it meems little short of a miracle that home economics was included at lill, and it appears even more surprising that the training could have been aimed at the vocation of homemaking. The Smith-Hughes Law While the members of Congress who were interested in vocational 19Rose Marie Smith, §t§tieticg m of Educ tion, 1319-59, Chapter I of Biennial Survey of Education in the United States, Office of Education, United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1953, p. 19. 59 education were focusing their attention upon passing the Smith-Lever Bill which was actually a part of the comprehensive vocational educa- tion bill sponsored by Senator Page and Representative Wilson in the preceding session of Congress, vocational education as a part of the program in public schools was not ignored. This is shown by the fact that even before the Smith-Lever Act was passed, a request was made that a Commission be appointed by President Wilson to study the problem of federal aid to vocational education. In response to this request, an act approving the appointment of such a Commission was signed by Presi- dent Wilson on January 20, 191%.20 The purpose of this Commission was to study the whole problem of federal aid to vocational education, report its findings to Congress. and present, if possible, a plan for vocational education. A grant of $15,000 was made to cover the cost of such a "W. The Commission made a report on June 1, l9lh. The report was quite comprehensive and was published as House Document No. lOOh. In defining vocational education, the following statement is found in the Commission report: Whenever the term 'vocational education' is used . . . it will mean . . . that form of education whose controlling purpose is to give training of a secondary grade to persons over In years of age for increased efficiency in useful employment in the trades and industries, in agriculture, in commerce and commercial pursuig, and in callings based upon a knowledge of home economics. The question of home economics was discussed in Chapter III entitled Winds of Vocational Education for Which National Grants Should Be Given." ‘ ”Warned. m. 51. Part 2. on. cit., p. 2016. ”annuals; Comm 1 nmmmdmnrrnnnamc ti :1 House Document No. 1 . Washington: Government Printing Office, 1913. Pp. 16-17. It was stated: The Commission has given very serious consideration to the whole question of training in home economics. It is strongly of the opinion that preparation for the varied duties of the home should be regarded as a legitimate and integral part of the education of every girl: that it should be given throughout the entire school course, both in ele- mentary and in high schools; and that it should be consider- ed a necessary part of a girl's general preparagéon for life, no matter what her particular calling might be. It would appear that the intent of the Commission was to include home economics in the grants for agricultural and trade and industrial educa- tion as shown by the following: The difficulty of providing for home training in the rural districts, without national aid is apparent. Partly for this reason and partly because the duties of the farmer and the farmer's family on the farm and in the home are so closely interrelated, the Commission has recommended that grants for agricultural education shall include training for 'the oc ation connected with the work of the farm and farm home.| Industrial education was to be defined so as to include training for the work of the dietitian, the cook, the housemaid, the institutional manager, and Others. 2“ On the same day that the Commission made its report, June 1, 19114, a bill was introduced in the House by Representative Hughes25 and an identical bill in the Senate by Senator Smith, ¥ 26 both of whom had served 22““. . p. 1‘1. 23m. sit. “inc. cm. 25W Md. Vol. 51. Part 10. an. git... p. 9612. 26m. . p. 9503. Q 61 on the Commission. The bill was a result of the recommendation of the Commission. It provided for payment of part of the salaries of teachers, supervisors, and directors of agricultural subjects, and of teachers of trade and industrial subjects in public schools of less than college grade. and for preparation of teachers of agricultural. trade and indus- try, and home economics subjects. This bill was referred to the Committee on lducation and Labor in the Senate and to the Committee on Education in the House. It should be noted that the original bill did not provide for federal support for home economics in payment of salaries of teachers in public schools of less than college grade, but only for support of teacher training in this subject. Neither of these bills was reported out of Committee. On December 6, 1915, Mr. Hughes introduced the same bill in the Sixty-Fourth congreee.27 The following day it was introduced in the Sonata by Mr. Smith.28 When President Wilson addressed the Joint Session 01' C“ingress, he urged the passage of the vocational education bill.29 On January 31, 1916, Mr. Smith presented a favorable report on the Senate 3111 from the Committee on Education and Labor.30 On February 10, Mr. Bush» presented a substitute bill in the House. This bill included boa. economics.31 It was referred to the Committee on Education and ‘ 27W may Vol. 53. Part 1. Washington: Government Printing Office, 191 . P. 2 . 2 “nae" p. 92. 2911251.. p. 99. 3°lbid.. Part 2, p. 1731. 3112151... p. 2391. 62 reported favorably February 12.32 There appeared to be some confusion concerning what was meant by training in home economies. In the House Committee Report of February 12, Representative Hughes defined home economics as ”the work of the dietician, cook, and housemaid, institution manager, and household decorator.”3 A few months later when he was discussing the bill in the House, he said: “The term 'agricultural education' as used in this bill, includes education for the farm home as well as for the farm it- 'self. Hence, home economics, as far as it relates to the farm home, is included in the grant for instruction for agriculturefl'fl No further reference was made in the discussions in Congress to this interpretation, but the I'farm home” was included in the final bill when the purposes for which the money could be used were outlined. In reference to agricultural oillncattion the act stated: ". . . shall . . . be designed to meet the needs of persons over fourteen years of age who have entered upon or who are preparing to enter upon the work of the farm or of the farm home."35 The law was never interpreted so that money appropriated for agriculture "I used for home economics. The bill was discussed at some length in the House on December 11, 1916.36 All members who expressed themselves were favorable toward y 321bid.. p. 2M7. 33House Rgpgrts (Public), Vol. 1, 614th Congress, 1st Session, Hausa of Representatives Report No. 181, Feb. 12, 1916. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1916. P. 1. 3“Congesgion? Record, Vol. 53, Part 12. Washington: Government Printing Office, 191 . P. 11821. 352.119. Statutes at nge 9; t_h_e United Stgtes 9; wax Vol. 39, Part 1. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1917. P. 93 . 35coegguigpg Recgrd, Vol. 51‘. Part 1. Washington: Government Printing Office, 1917. Pp. 167-177. 63 vocational education but some felt that such a bill was a violation of State's rights. This objection was answered by pointing out how success- ml the Merrill Act had been and how it had operated as an incentive to the various states to develOp their own programs. The large amount of money individual states had themselves provided for these colleges was also called to the attention of the congressman. Hr. Fess, a Representa- tive from Ohio who had served as a member of the Committee on Education and also as a member of the Commission, strongly emphasised that the purpose of the bill was not to subsidise such education but merely to Qpropriate funds which would act as an incentive for such work. The debate was continued in the House on December 22, 1916. At that time the question arose as to supervisors and directors for home economics and industrial subjects. It was felt that it was just as neces- sary to pay salaries for these as for agricultural subjects and an amend— ment to that effect was proposed. Mr. Fess replied that the supervisors and. directors of agricultural subjects were for the purpose of demonstra- tion and practice work. He said that some agricultural programs were doing this sort of thing and he considered it highly desirable. However, 15° Cam no reason for including smervisors for home economics and indus- trial work.” The concept which the men in Congress had of home economics was °10arly that of training for homemaking. This is evident from more Of the discussion of the same day. Hr. Towner of Iowa said in the House: Home economics is a much more comprehensive term than would probably be inferred. In its broad sense it is 37mg... p. 716. ‘ -4: the science of home making. It includes all those means by which the conditions of home life in America can be 1mm'0‘e s e e Every girl should be fitted for home making and for motherhood. No matter what my be the intermediate means of livelihood, it is as a wife and mother that she will attain her fullest development and fulfill her mani- fest destiny. It may be well for her to prepare to earn her own living, but it will be unfortunate for her and unfortunate for the Nation if she be not prepared as well for home making and motherhood. This is why the subject of home economics is of so great, so supreme importance.38 However, a few days later, it became obvious that home economics did not have unconditional support from every member of the House. On January 2, 1917, _llr. Platt of New York proposed the following amendment: Page 1, line 9, after the word 'trade' strike out the words 'home economics,’ and also on page 2, line 1, strike out the words 'home economics.’ In support of his amendment Mr. Platt made the following plea: I yield to no one in appreciation of the importance of home economics, but home economics is an endless subject, more or less taught and generally pretty well taught in every school in the country, even the district schools, and its inclusion in this bill offers an opportunity to dissipate this whole fund in trifles. It does not belong in this bill at all. This is a vocational education bill, and home economics is not, strict- ly speaking, vocational education. I think we would greatly improve the bill if we took the question of home economics out of it. I think if the bill is subject to any legitimate criti- cism it is that it goes too far, anyway, and tries to take in too many subjects. It would be better if agricultural training were taken out of it and that subject left to another bill. We are dividing this fund up in such a way and making the bill so bread that the encouragement will be distributed around so that it may not do any good at all.” 331499.. an. 39M. O p0 757s 65 lr.1Lenroot from Wisconsin then answered that he was going to offer an amendment limiting funds for home economics to twenty per cent of the total funds to be appropriated for trade, industry, and home economics together. Would that satisfy Mr. Platt? Mr. Platt replied he would like to see the home economics section completely removed. He was asked if he would not even include any money for training of teachers. He replied that he felt they were doing a pretty good job of getting teachers of home economics trained and repeated that he felt that it was dividing the money up too much. Mr. Towner who had given home economics his sup- port in an earlier session again came to its defense. He felt that Mr, Flatt,had an entirely mistaken idea of industrial education and that home economics was a part of industrial education and should be included. He puainted out that if it were not, the only funds which would benefit girls would be those which trained them in a trade. The funds provided for in the bill would practically be limited to training for boys because there would be so many more boys than girls interested in the agricultural and trade and industrial aspects of vocational education, In spite of Mr. Towner's impassioned speech in defense of training 01 the future mothers of American citizens Hr. Lenroot of Wisconsin offol-ea the following amendment to the bill: That not more than 20 per cent of the money authorised to be apportioned.under this act for the payment of salaries of teachers of trades, home economics, and industrial subjects for any year shall be eirginded for the salaries of teachers of home-economics subjects. l”14953, cit. ”’1 bid” p. 763. 66 Mr. Lenroot then added: I am a good deal in sympathy with the view of the gentleman from New York, Mr. Platt, that home economics ought not to have been in the bill at all, so far as pro- ’42 viding for the payment of salaries of teachers is concerned. In defense of this point of view Mr. Lenroot explained that he would exclude home economics, not because he felt that it was unimportant, but because he felt that it was a subject which should be a part of the general education of every girl. He re—emphasised the fact that the purpose of the bill was for vocational rather than general education and for providing an incentive to the states to develOp new activities in the field of vocational education.” Hr. Lenroot's amendment was apposed by Mr. Moore of Pennsylvania. He stated: . . . No one has opposed the amendment of the gentle- man from Wisconsin, and I desire to discuss it, because if it is adopted it would appear, providing we were to deal only with the education of girls, that 20 per cent of the pupils would be taught home economics, which means the devel- opment and the preservation of the home, and 80 per cent would be left free to be given instruction as to how to work in the mills. Carried out literally, that is what it would However, the final bill did contain Hr. Lenroot's amendment. The bill known as the Smith-Hughes Act was signed by President Woodrow Wilson on February 23, 1917.“ k I“£33.51... p. 75". “3939,. 9.1;. “Log. 21.1. “5293;" Part 1:. p. 3965. 6? There appeared to be confusion as to the purpose of training in home economics. It was obvious that the intent of the Commission was to provide federal aid for home economics only for the purpose of pre- paring for employment outside the home. An exception was made in the case of rural communities. However, the training for occupations con- nected with the farm home was to be a part of agricultural education. Mr. Hughes accepted the conditions for home economics as set up by the Commission (he was a member of the Commission) mid attempted to interpret them to the members of the House. There would appear to be an inconsistency in what was proposed. If funds could be used in rural diatricts for training for the vocation of homemaking, why were cities to be limited to training in home economics for occupations outside the home? It was evident that the members of Congress were thinking in terms °f training for homemaking. This was true whether they were for or .euinst the bill. In fact, it was because some felt that home economics Ehould be a part of general education that they opposed the inclusion of he» economics in tho bill. In spite of the fact that training for homemaking was the meaning Of home economics to these Congressmen, home economics was linked with industrial education in the writing of the bill. This was probably due to the fact that the Commission had originally included callings based on home economics as a part of industrial education. The purpose of home economics training had changed from that originally intended by the Com- mission, but no one apparently foresaw the problems which would develop in attempting to administer two programs of education with widely dif. ferent purposes. 68 Provisions of the Smith-Hughes .Acth6 The Smith-Hughes Act appropriated $500,000 for the year ending June 30, 1918 for the purpose of cooperating with the states in the pay- ment of salaries of teachers, supervisors or directors of agricultural subjects. The sum was increased until it reached $3,000,000 in June, 1926. After that time $3,000,000 was appropriated annually for the same purpose. A like amount was appropriated for cooperating with the states in the payment of salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects. In other words, the amount appropriated for agri- cultural education was equal to the amount appropriated for the other Con-vices combined: trade, home economics, and industry. The amount of honey which a state was eligible to receive for agricultural education Van based on the proportion which its rural population bore to the total lPun-a1 population of the United States: the amount which a state was digible to receive for trade, home economics, and industrial education “a based on the proportion which its urban population bore to the total urban pepulatien of the United States. There was a provision that not l“(are than twenty per cent of the money appropriated for salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects could be prended for home economics. ‘ A luq: sum which increased each year until the maximum of $1,000,000 was reached in 1921 was provided for the three services for the purpose of training teachers. Provisions were also included which made it mandatory 146m Statute: gt; 9_f_ .t_h_e_ United States g; America, Vol. 39, Part I, 92. 92.1., pp. 929-93 . The complete text of the Smith-Hughes Act will be found in Appendix A. 69 to set up a State board consisting of not less than three members. This board was to cooperate with the rederal Board in administering the Act. A.state had to accept the provision of the Act before it could secure any benefits of it. It was possible to accept the benefits of any or .all of the funds, except that by June 30, 1920, it was necessary to have accepted the benefits provided for in the Act for the training of teach- ers of agricultural, trade, home economics, and industrial subjects in order to accept the benefits for any of these subjects. A.Pederal Board for Vocational Education was created to consist of the Secretary of Commerce, the Secretary of Labor, the United States Commissioner of lducation, and three citisens representing the three interests, agriculture, labor, and manufacturing. There was no represen- tative for home economics. The three citisen members were to receive a .alary of $5,000 per year. This board was to cosperate with the state 't>oerds in carrying out the provisions of the Act. It was also to make cmr'camse to have made studies related to various fields, The Pederal IIBoard for vocational Education could employ such assistants as were thesessary for carrying out the provisions of the Act. The sum of $200,000 annually was previded for the research and study functions, payment of salaries of personnel, and other expenses deemed necessary Way the board. lash State was required to prepare a plan showing what kind of ‘vocational education it was proposing and stating the kinds of schools and equipment, course of study, methods of instruction, qualifications of teachers and, in agricultural subjects, directors and supervisors. lash State Board was to make a report to the Federal Board of Control for Vocational Education on or before September 1 each year on the work 70 of the state, and on receipts and expenditures under the provisions of the Act. The money was to be used only for salaries of teachers of voca- tional subjects named in the Act. Supplementary instruction was to be paid for by the state and local communities. _E_'_a_c_h_ £21335 2; federal mmmgmninnbmm nuanusounhum 2?. mm. A school was not eligible for reimbursement from federal funds for vocational education unless it met the following conditions: 1. Schools and classes were to be under public supervision and control. , 2. The controlling purpose of such education was to fit for useful employment. 3. such education was to be of less than college grade and was to be design ’to meet the needs of pupils over four. teen years of age who had entered or who were preparing to enter the vocation. h. Suitable plant and equipment as determined by the state board were to be provided by the state or local comnity or both. The Act further stated that the school should provide for six months of farm practice for pupils enrolled in agriculture. The following condition applied to trade, home economics, and industrial education: _o_n_3 pg; .t_h_e_ school 9H. LEE. _t_e_ he devoted _t_e_. practical work 93 1 useful gt; productive bgis; the school term was to ‘3 be nine months in length: at least one third of the mount appropriated had to be applied to part—time schools for workers between the ages of 71 fourteen and eighteen; evening schools were for workers already employed who were sixteen years of age or over. The training of teachers was to be under the direction of the state board and in schools which were under public supervision or control. Persons who were training to be teachers in any of the vocational subjects must have had or must be acquiring adequate vocational experience. Not more than sixty nor less than twenty per cent of the teacher training funds could be used for preparation of teachers in any one of the three services. The State Treasurer was made custodian of the fund. Legislation for Vocational Education in lichigan By the terms of the Smith-Hughes Act, it was necessary for each state to enact legislation accepting the benefits of the Federal Act and naking provision for administering the Act in the various states. The legislation enacted in lichigan was Act 189, known as the Tufts Act, thich was passed by the Michigan Legislature in its 1917 Session. The Act was revised in 1919 and the controlling law in Michigan since that time 1... been Act No. ing of tho Public Acts of 1919. This in still hears the name of Tufts who sponsored it.“7 no administration of the program of vocational education in Michigan was delegated to a State Board of Control for Vocational Educa- tion whose membership was to consist of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, the President of the State Board of lducation, the Presi- dent of the University of Iichigan, and the President of the Michigan h.II’ublic 2t. 2; Hichim, 1919, Act No. H9, pp. 275-78, The comlete text of the Tufts Law is found in the Appendix, '2‘ 72 Agricultural College. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction was made the executive officer of the Board. The State Treasurer was not a member of the Board, but he was made custodian of the funds and was uthorised to disburse the funds upon requisition of the State Board of Control for Vocational Education. The local schools were made responsible for providing space and equipment for vocational instruction. They were also to pay salaries for the teaching of vocational classes. At the end of the year they were to receive reimbursement for approved classes. No school was to receive more than three fourths of the total sum expended for salaries of instruc- tors and supervisors in vocational education. The state was to furnish one half the amount which a school received from federal funds. The money allotted from federal funds for teacher training was to be matched by the state and paid to the institution approved for teacher training, The State Board of Control for Vocational Education was to set up rules and regulations for vocational schools and for training of teachers of vocational subjects. Annual reports to the State Superintendent of Public Instruction were required from schools offering vocational educa» tion and institutions engaged in training vocational teachers. Inspection of the work was to be provided by the State Board of Control for Vocational Education. It was on the basis of approval of programs that reimbursements were to be made to the schools and institu— tions, It was also the responsibility of the State Board of Control for Vocational Education to estimate the amount of money which would be needed to meet federal allotments and to report to the Auditor General so that he could include this amount in the tax levy reported to the 73 legislature. An annual report to the Governor and the legislature was required of the State Board of Control for Vocational Education. This report was to include a statement of expenditure of money and an account of the administration of the Act. The SmithnHughes Act and.Home Economics From the viewpoint of home economics, the Smith-Hughes Act left much to be desired. The program for home economics was subject to the