AN INFORMATION SYSTEM
AND ITS USERS:
A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY

Thesis for the Degree of Ph. IDY
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
THOMAS W. MERCER
1971

wast—n

This is to certify that the
thesis entitled
An Infornation System and Its Users:

A Descriptiue Study

presented by

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Thomas W . Mercer

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

__P.h_.D_.__degree in Jurricnlum '

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Date August 11, 1971

 

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ABSTRACT
AN INFORMATION SYSTEM AND ITS USERS:
A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
BY

Thomas W. Mercer

Introduction
Knowledge about the world around us is accumulat-
ing at a phenomenal rate. This is true in the field of
education as well as in all other areas of life. Tech-
nology is now available to provide educators with rapid

and accurate knowledge about their field.

Purpose

This study is designed to determine the effect of
the introduction of a new information service product
on decision—making. In addition, a determination of the
impact of a training manual on the utilization of the

product of the new information service system.

Procedure
Ninety educators in Michigan Public School Systems
made up the population. The treatment in the study was
. a (1) Directory of Descriptions (DD)--a computer-generated

composite of the "Section 3" proposals for the 1969—70

   

Thomas W. Mercer

school year plus other educational developments and (2)
Training Manual (TM)--an artifact which consists of

(a) procedural steps to take to effectively use the DD,

(b) a description of the DD content, and (c) suggestions
on how the content of the DD can be helpful to the user

in his curriculum leadership role.

The population was randomly split into three sub-
populations and the three permutations of the treatment:
(a) DD+TM, (b) DD only, and (c) base—line-—no information
were randomly assigned.

After a ninety—day exposure to the treatment, a
structured telephone interview procedure was used to
collect the data on the acceptance and use of the DD

and TM.

Major Findings
An overall analysis of the data shows that the
presence or intervention of the DD or DD+TM had no
observable impact on the behavior of the population as
a whole. Impact is operationally defined here as those
changes of behavior hypothesized.

Some specific findings are:

1. Many of the building principals do not see them-
selves in the process of needing information

about other school districts' programs.

Thomas W. Mercer

2. The central office administrators were found to
need information about other school districts'

programs.

3. School districts represented by the population
generally rely on within-district sources for

information.

4. Printed materials was not mentioned as a source

of information on school programs in Michigan.

5. The results were not productive in terms of the

testing of hypotheses in the study.

Conclusion

This study accomplished the following:

1. Ascertained the reaction and response of a
clientele to a new, previously untested infor-

mation service system and,

2. Developed understandings and interpretations of
the communication and information-gathering
patterns of a, heretofore, unresearched group
in the area of user studies.

Hypotheses and questions for further research are
suggested, some of which are fundamental and should be
answered before this study is replicated. Assumptions

found to be faulty in this study are apt to be faulty

in other studies of this sort;
research should more carefully

the nature used in this study.

Thomas W. Mercer

therefore, subsequent

examine assumptions of

AN INFORMATION SYSTEM AND ITS USERS:

A DESCRIPTIVE STUDY

BY

9‘"
Thomas W. Mercer

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Secondary Education and
Curriculum

1971

 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The writer wishes to sincerely thank Professor
Ted W. Ward, chairman of his doctoral committee, for his
interest in the study, his aid in identifying and delimit-
ing the problem, his suggestions during the development of
the training materials, and his assistance and consultation
in the completion of the dissertation.

A special thanks to Louis Kocsis and Clarence Wills,
administrators, State Department of Education, Compensatory
Education Division, for their cooperation and advice in the
compilation of public school program information.

The writer is appreciative to the other members of
his committee, Professors Dale Alam, Norman Bell, and J. Ed
Green, for their cooperation throughout the duration of the
study.

The writer is also grateful to Joseph Coughlin,
graduate assistant in the Learning Systems Institute, for
his efforts in the compilation of abstracts and for his
assistance in designing and preparing the information

products used in the study.

ii

 

In addition, the writer wishes to express thanks
to the public school administrators, who constituted the
population for this study, and whose cooperation was
indispensable for the completion of the study.

Finally, sincere appreciation is extended to his
wife, Janet, for her aid, cooperation, and encouragement,

despite many trying circumstances.

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter Page

I. DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM . . . . . . . 1

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . l

Rationale . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Assumptions. . . . . . . . . . . 3

Research. . . . . . . . . . . . 4

Purpose of the Study. . . . . . . 4

Hypotheses to be Tested. . . . . . 4

Theory Related to the Study . . . 5

Definitions of Terms and Artifacts . . . 11

Organization of the Study . . . . . . 12

II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND RESEARCH . . . . l4
Decision-Making and the Information Prob-

len‘ C C I O O O O O I 14

Information Systems . . . . . . . . 16

Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . 20

Indexing. . . . . . . . . . 20

Classification. . . . . . . . . 22

Abstracting. . . . . . . . . . 23

User . . . . . . . 25

Mechanization of Information Systems . . 27

Studies of Users . . . . . . . . . 28

Forms of Studies of Users . . . . . 28

Related Studies . . . . . 31

Information Center Activities. . . . . 33

Information Centers in Education. . . . 33

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

III. METHOD OF RESEARCH . . . . . . . . . 40

Description of the Population. . . . . 40

Design _. . . . . . . . . . . . 40

iv

Chapter Page

Testable Hypotheses . . . . . . . . 42
Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Artifacts Development . . . . . . 45
Distribution and Follow-up. . . . . 47
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . 50
IV. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS . . . . . . . . . 51
Complement of Questions. . . . . . . 51
Mainline Questions . . . . . . . 51
QZlSeries . . . . . . . . . . 52
Q418er1es . . . . . . . . . . 53
Discussion of the Data . . . . . . . 53
Presentation of the Data . . . . . . 59
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . 73
V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. . . . . . . . 75
Assumptions of the Study in Retrospect. . 75
Hypotheses for Further Research . . . . 78
Questions for Further Research . . . . 80
Value of the Study . . . . . . . . 81
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . 82
BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
APPENDICES
Appendix
A. EDIC Project Information Sheet . . . . . 90
B. Cover Letter for A . . . . . . . . . 92
C. Criteria for "Section 3" Funding. . . . . 93
D. Sample Pages From the Directory of
Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . 95
E. Excerpts From the Training Manual (TM). . . 98

 

CHAPTER I

DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM

Introduction

Knowledge about the world around us is accumulat-

ing at a phenomenal rate. This is true in the field of

education as well as all other areas of life. Technology

is now available for establishing dissemination services

to provide educators with rapid and accurate knowledge

about their field.

service

1.

In order to fulfill its purpose, an information

system performs these operations:

Determines the information using habits of its

users .

Procures units of information occurring in the
environment that correspond to needs of the user

population.

From these units extracts elements of information

to be processed.

Processes these elements into a predetermined

order or format.

5. Maintains cumulative storage of these elements.

6. Provides and distributes information services

and products based on these elements to the user

population according to their using habits.

In an analysis of the acceptability and effective-
ness of an information service system, one of the main
factors to be considered is frequency of usage. Even
more than many communication models, an information
service system is largely receiver-controlled communi-
cation in that the user determines utilization of the
system and, consequently, its success. That is, the
success of an information service system is contingent
on the achievement of the system's objectives. One of
the objectives is frequency and extent of utilization.
Other principal success indicators, in terms of benefits
to users are timeliness, degree of relevancy, usefulness
(implied by information quality), and value of information

(applications of information to decision-making).

Rationale
The assessment of success of an information service
system, then, will benefit the design of others. More
specifically, additional understandings (information) of
user behavior in the educational arena will benefit further
development, utilization, and evaluation of educational

service systems.

Assumptions

The following assumptions constitute the basis

of the rationale for the study:

1.

Information about instructional ideas, strat-
egies, and programs can be useful in curricular

decision-making.

A computer-based information system provides a
curriculum leader a selective yet extensive con-
frontation with educational development activities
external to his immediate environment. The flex-
ibility, selectivity, and accessibility of a
computer—based storage-retrieval system provides
an additional and effective basis for curricular

decisions.

Easy access to such a system will attract curric-

ulum leaders to use it.

The current situation in public schools is that
each school system tends to operate as a pioneer
in its curricular endeavors. Understandings are
usually built to the exclusion of utilization of

relevant outside information.
The curriculum leader is a change agent.

The curriculum leader in his role as potential

change agent needs information.

 

Purpose

The curriculum leader tends to have only a general
cognizance of pertinent experiences of others who
have dealt with the particular development prob—

lems in other places.
The building principal is a curriculum leader.

The Directory of Descriptions (DD) and the Train-
ing Manual (TM) will motivate the recipients to
desire more specialized information about programs

of interest through inter-population communications.

Research

of the Study

 

1.

To determine the effect that the availability of
an information service has upon Michigan public
school curriculum leaders' decisions on "Section 3"*

school proposals.

To determine the effect of the availability of a
training procedure to the use of an information

service.

Hypotheses to be Tested

 

l.

The Directory of Descriptions (DD) will be per-

ceived as valuable to the curriculum leader.

 

*
"Section 3" refers to the Michigan School Aid

Act, Section 3.

2. The availability of the DD will increase the
number of planned changes in the next "Section 3"

proposal.

3. The DD will be a medium of interpopulation com-

munication concerning "Section 3" programs.

4. The presence of the DD will increase the number
of interpopulation communications concerning

"Section 3" programs.

5. The Training Manual (TM) will be perceived as

valuable in using the DD.

6. The TM will increase the number of persons who

perceive the DD as valuable.

7. The TM will increase the number of planned

changes in the next "Section 3" proposal.

8. The availability of the DD and TM together will
increase the number of interpopulation communi—

cations concerning "Section 3" programs.

Theory Related to the Study

 

There is a lot less information on users of infor-
mation systems in education than one would like, but there
are two bodies of literature which are useful. First,
there is the literature on diffusion of innovations, which
is concerned with adoption of new practices and inventions;

second, there is the literature on information science.

Rogers describes the process of adopting inno-
vations as a special kind of decision-making.1 He says
that when a person makes a rational decision to adopt
something new or different, he goes through a number of
stages. One rarely finds any of these stages skipped if
a decision to change is made. The initial stage is aware—
ness that some alternative to current practice exists.
Next, a motivated person will try to get more specialized
information. Having had his interest answered with more
information, he then engages in an evaluation of whether
this new idea relates to him, whether it promises higher
rewards than his current practice, the problem he lives
with, and so forth. If the product of his evaluation
effort is favorable, he will, undoubtedly, go through a
time period in which he tests out the innovation on a
limited scale to see whether the innovation does indeed
work for him. This trial period also allows time to
adapt the innovation to the local setting. Finally if
the trial is successful, the rational innovator will
accept and perhaps expand the innovation on a continuing
basis until it is replaced by something better.

This adoption process, particularly and primarily,
relates to the study. As a person progresses through the

adoption process, he uses different information sources

 

lEverett M. Rogers, Diffusion of Innovations (New
York: The Free Press of Glencoe, 1962).

 

é-~
A

at each stage. Awareness comes from mass-media—-from
technical reports or abstracts perhaps, and from the
kinds of testimonials about new practices that charac-
terize much writing about education in newspapers and
magazines. If sufficiently motivated, the potential
adopter is now not satisfied with the kind of super-
ficial information found in such testimonials. He wants
materials which interpret what the innovation is about
in some detail and the situations in which it has been
tried. A personal two-way communication with an earlier
adopter is most likely to provide the most relevant
response to his interest.

When the adopter gets to the evaluation stage, he
relies heavily on interpersonal communication; he will go
to the people who have tried it, who have lived with the
problem. As Rogers puts it, during the pre-trial evalu—
ation adopters are more likely to believe people than
documents. The result is that in medical, agricultural,
and particularly educational settings, there is a heavy
reliance on interpersonal communication during the pre-
trial evaluation stage. During the trial and adoption
stages, we find ever-increasing emphasis on interpersonal
contacts and communication.

Relating this adoption process to the study,
awareness is provided by the DD, sufficient motivation

to investigate further is stimulated by the TM, and

valuation and program changes (adoption) through inter-
population communication is expected to follow.
Information scientists provide evidence on how
science-oriented practitioners and scientists themselves
seek out information. Menzell identifies a variety of
different approaches to decision-making, or to information
gathering, by both scientists and technologists. This is
similar to what was said earlier about how educators seek
out information. The first pattern is what Menzel calls
the current approach, in which the information seeker
attempts to stay up to date in a field in which he is
already competent. The information systems' develop-
ments, techniques, and products which are responsive to
this current approach are called current awareness
searches such as SDI (selective dissemination of infor-
mation). Second, Menzel describes what he calls the

everyday approach. An example is the physics teacher

 

who does not clutter up his mind trying to remember
chemical or physical properties of materials under
certain conditions of temperature and pressure, but

uses a handbook for this. Another example is the school
principal who draws on many sources of information--the
school counselor, anecdotal records, cumulative academic

records, and teachers when making a decision about how to

 

lHerbert Menzel, "Types of Information Seeking,"
Library Quarterly, XXXIV (1964).

 

deal with a "problem" child. Again, this process requires
a different kind of information from simply the current
awareness where you are trying to tap everything coming
out as it comes out. Third, there is what Menzel calls

the exhaustive approach. Here again, a person is compe—

 

tent in a given area, before starting some new and pre-
sumably major project, attempts to find out everything
he can that relates to this particular problem in his
field. An example in the field of education, is some-
body writing a proposal for special Federal or State
project funding. The fourth approach is what he calls

the brush-up approach. This is where the individual

 

attempts to collect information in an area where he is
not highly knowledgeable. If, for example, a school
attorney is reviewing a legal contract that involves
educational jargon, he must learn very quickly and very
efficiently about that particular phase of education in
that school district. Again, the inference is that the
brush-up approach leads to a need for different kinds of
information and information products than those required
for other purposes. Finally, Menzel describes the EEEEEI
ing approach in which, on a more or less random basis,
one skims through catalogues or indexes or journals, or
other sources outside one's predetermined field of

interest.

 

10

Studies of users of information systems have
repeatedly shown that the first information source used
and the most frequently used information source is the
one which is closest at hand to the user; even when the
user does not think it is very good. Also, interpersonal
communication permits incorporation of the message with
the user's prior knowledge and needs in a way that simply
scanning documents does not. And finally, there is a
phenomenon that some people call user apathy. Paisleyl
calls it "user nonchalance" meaning that most people
simply are not going to try to use information sources
unless they are readily accessible.

The degree to which Menzel's "exhaustive approach"
is operating within the population described in Chapter III
was analyzed. Interpersonal communication and Paisley's
"user nonchalance" are also examined. This is one of the
ways in which the study is expected to contribute to the
building of theory, inasmuch as the theories of Menzel
and Paisley are being applied; the theories are being
tested for their adequacy in explaining the behavior of

the test population.

 

1William J. Paisley, "Information Needs and Uses,"
in Annual Review of Information Science and Technology,
ed.’by Carlos Cuadra, III (Chicago: Encyclopaedia
Britannica, 1968), 1-30.

 

11
Definitions of Terms and Artifacts
Section 3.-—The Michigan School Aid Act, Section 3;

Information Units.--Journa1 articles, technical

 

reports, preprints, drafts, and limited distribution

papers;

Information Elements.--Abstracts (documents or

 

summaries of documents), and descriptions (classification

of documents including key terms);

MERA/EDIC.-—An acronym for the Educational Develop-
ments Information Center sponsored by the Metropolitan
Education Research Association and the Michigan State

University Learning Systems Institute;

Directory of Descriptions.—-The computer generated

 

composite of the "Section 3" proposals for the 1969-70

school year plus other educational developments;

Training Manual.--Consists of three sections,
(a) procedural steps to take to effectively use a MERA/
EDIC Directory of Descriptions, (b) a description of the
DD content, and (c) suggestions on how the content of the
DD can be helpful to the user in his curriculum leadership

role.

12

Organization of the Study

 

Chapter I presented an introduction to the study:
the rationale and purpose for the study, assumptions
within which the study was carried out, the hypotheses,
related theory, and definitions of terms and acronyms.

Chapter II reviews the literature on information
science and systems. A neophyte in this highly technical,
relatively new area, especially in the educational environ-
ment, will find this chapter crucial to the understanding
of the study, the conceptual framework within which it
was carried out, and very importantly, the relevance of
the contribution it makes to this body of knowledge appro-
priately called Information Science and Systems. Nine
sections constitute this chapter, starting with a basic
discourse on decision-making and the information problem,
proceeding into rudimentary information system components
and user study categories, and finally arriving at infor-
mation centers in education. Chapter II is written in
such a way that an educational practitioner can gain an
overview of information systems regardless of the lack of
previous background in this literature.

The writer found two studies which were related
to the investigative procedure of this study; these two
are reviewed in the section Studies of Users, category

seven .

13

Chapter III describes the population, the infor-
mation deprivation schedule, the testable hypotheses,
nature of the interview follow-up process, and the design
and analysis of the data/information collected. It con-
cludes with the procedure which pulls all of the elements
into a logical sequence of events.

Chapter IV presents the analyses, statistically
and descriptively, of the treatment. The treatment Was
the DD and TM. The population was randomly split into
three subpopulations and the three permutations of the
treatment: (a) DD+TM, (b) DD only, and (c) baseline--
no information, were randomly assigned.

Chapter V reviews the assumptions of the study
in retrospect, suggests hypotheses and questions for
further research, and concludes with a statement on the
value of the study to the field of research on information

service systems and users.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND RESEARCH

Information is a composite of facts so organized
(or datum so utilized) as to be knowledge or intelli-
gence.1 It is meaningful data. It is a basic ingredient
of decision-making. Decision-making behavior may be
thought of as a succession of individual choices. Given
that it is accurate and is interpreted accurately, infor-
mation strengthens rational choice decisions.2

Decision-Making and the Information
Problem

 

Every administrative decision is predicted on a
belief in the existence of a causal relationship between
some educational objective and a particular means selected

to achieve that objective.3 Decisions of high quality

 

1P. E. Rosove, Developing Computer Based Information
Systems (New York: Wiley, 1967), p. 3.

2Vincent E. Cangelosi, D. M. Robinson, and L. L.
Schkade, "Information and Rational Choice," The Journal
of Communication, XVIII (June, 1968), 131—43.

3Robert J. Panos and Alexander W. Astin, "On Using
Systematic Information in Making Educational Decisions,"
Education Record, XXXXVIII (Spring, 1967), 172-78.

14

15

require a careful evaluation of possible consequences,
awareness of a school's research and personnel, and
insight into the availability of appropriate action lead-
ing to a favorable response.1 In short, the decision-
maker believes that of all means available, the one
selected is most likely to result in the desired out-
come. Decisions are always made on the basis of incom—
plete information. The extent to which it is possible

to anticipate the consequence of alternative decisions,
however, is a function of the availability of relevant
information. Information—gathering activities, if rele—
vant to the decision-making process, are important because
they help to extend the knowledge available for future
decisions.

The fields of business, science, technology,
government, and education are all concerned with the
growing complexity of interrelationships of information.
In education, new curriculums, evaluation methods,
instructional aids, and other innovations are being
developed and applied in classrooms and laboratories
across the country. It is increasingly recognized that
soundly based decision-making processes are dependent
upon the analysis of information from numerous sources

and diverse fields. The need is obvious——to provide the

 

1L. T. Bishop, et al., "Supervisor and Curriculum
Director at Work; Bases for Priorities and the Improvement
of Decision-Making," ASCD YEARBOOK (1965), 127-30.

 

l6

decision-maker with more information. Yet, as the amount
of relevant information increases, the processes of obtain-
ing, examining, and selecting information required for
decisions becomes very difficult. In addition, more
information is available than there is time to read,

1’2 The infor-

much less digest, understand, and retain.
mation problem is best characterized as a problem of
abundance.3 This urgency demands special techniques for
handling information and the increased usage of machine

support.

Information Systems

 

Man communicates not only by means of gestures
and sounds, but also by means of intelligible information
in such forms as handwriting, printing, photographs,
drawings, sound recordings, and instrument traces. These
clusters of information can be collectively called records.
Information systems exist for the purpose of furnishing
these records which contain the record of knowledge, that

is, the information itself. An information system can be

 

1William F. Williams, Principles of Automated Infor-
mation Retrieval (Elmhurst, Illinois: Business Press,
9 5 , p. 5.

 

 

2Philip K. Piele and Terry L. Eidell, "How to Plug
into School Information Systems," Nation's Schools, LXXXIV,
No. 4 (October, 1969), 68-69.

3"The National Information Problem," SDC Magazine,
IX (February, 1966).

17

described as the means of collecting, analyzing, storing,
retrieving, and disseminating records of knowledge, defined
as information.1

It is essential to differentiate between an infor-
mation system and the particular technology which is
utilized as one feature of the system. A system is an
integration of men, materials, and equipment.2 It is
more than an automatic data-processing system. Rosove
suggests that an information system is the formal or
rationally planned means whereby people record and transmit
information.3 In this sense, an information system may
include automatic data-processing as one aspect of the
information-handling apparatus, but it may also include
oral or written expression. For this presentation, the
concept of information system is delimited to one which
involves recorded information and is concerned with infor-
mation storage and retrieval.4 A system involving both

human and machine elements in its organization.

 

1Paul W. Howerton, ed., Information Handlin :
(WasH1ngton, D.C.: Infor-

First Principles, Spartan Books
mation for In ustry, Inc., 1963), p. 61.

2George Schecter, ed., Information Retrieval: A
Critical View, Based on the Third Annual Colloquium on
Information Retrieval, May 12-13, 1966, Philadelphia, Penn.
(Washington, D.C.: Thompson Book Co., 1967), p. 4.

3Rosove, Computer Based Systemg, p. 4.

4In a sociological sense, retrieval attempts to
predict the needs of one group of people for the products

18

The various literary products tend to use infor-
mation system, information storage and retrieval system,

document retrieval system, and machine literature search-

 

ing system as synonymous for the information process under
discussion. In fact, the entire field of ISAR (Information
Storage and Retrieval) seems to be voluminous and complex
until one realizes the repetition and redundancy occurring
from one source to another.

Vickeryl outlined the elements which make up an
ISAR system. A diagram of these elements was produced by

3’4 The

Wilson and Stephenson2 and by Hayes and Becker.
following diagram is a simplified version of the one by

Hayes and Becker:

 

of another group.' Robert A. Fairthorne, Towards Infor-
mation Retrieval (London: Butterworths, 19615, p. 13.

The products are various types of recorded information

which may have different meaning to different users.

1Brian C. Vickery, On Retrieval System Theory
(Washington, D.C.: Butterworths, 1965).

 

2Thomas D. Wilson and James Stephenson, Dissemi-
nation of Information (New York: Philosophical L1Brary,
I965), p. 58.

3Harold Borko, "The Storage and Retrieval of Edu—
cational Information," J. Teacher Education, XV (December,
1964), 450.

 

4Joseph Becker and Robert M. Hayes, Information

Stora e and Retrieval: Tools, Elements, Theories (New
York: Wiley, 1963), p. 70.

19

A General Information System

 

—-——> -—»——.
4 |
I Jr

l

. Ideas and

@--> El]
l

k

W
I lIndex|-— — J

 

 

Recorded dgpg are received and analyzed for index—
ing, abstracting, classification, and perhaps foreign
language translation. Several paths of physical organi-
zation are possible--filing the documents (File) or using
other modes of referencing (Index). Salton1 and Becker
and Hayes2 offer discussions of possible modes. The user
interacts with the index and/or the file for relevant
information. Ideas and Facts complete the cycle and
enable recycling. That is, what "fresh" material enters

the system is very often dependent on the writers (users)

 

lGerald Salton, Automatic Information Organization
and Retrieval (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968), Chapter nine.

 

2Becker and Hayes, Information Storage and
Retrieval, Chapter seven.

 

0*

20

having retrieved and assimilated the information and
generated new documents.1

The next two sections will focus on definitions,
methods, and problems of analysis and the E§g£—-the two
decision or logic components of the preceding block dia-

gram.

Analysis
The detailed tasks of document analysis are index-

ing, classification, and abstracting.

Indexing

One of the most important operations in an infor—
mation system is indexing. The word "index" refers to
indicating, pointing out, guiding, denoting, or some list—
ing that allows for referencing.

Indexing, as it pertains to information systems,
consists of establishing some bridge between documents
which are stored in the information file, and a means of
finding those documents which are desired without reading
the sources, abstracts, and/or extracts of every article

contained in the file. There are two main types of

 

1For an elucidation of each of the unit operations
see Allen Kent, Textbook on Mechanized Information
Retrieval (New YorE?’ Wiley, 1962), Chapter eight; Allen
Kent, Information Retrieval in Action (Cleveland, Ohio:
Press of Western Reserve University, 1963), Chapter eight;
Allen Kent and John Canter, Specialized Information Centers

fl

(Washington, D.C.: Spartan Books, 1965), pp. 25-29.

 

 

21

indexing: yggd and controlled. Kentl’2 provides a thorough
discussion of each. word indexing is usually performed by

a non-technical person. The method consists of selecting
"keywords" from source documents which appear to be impor-

3.4.5.6, 7 8,9,10,11

tant. "KWIC" "KWOC" , and "UNITERM" are

examples. The inadequacy of these approaches lies in the

fact that the indexer is free to select or ignore words

 

1Kent and Canter, Information Centers, pp. 85-90.

 

2Kent, Mechanized Retrieval, p. 105.

 

3Howerton, Information Handling, p. 102.

 

4Salton, Organization and Retrieval, p. 86-88.

 

5Benjamin F. Cheydleur, ed., Colloquium on Techni-
cal Preconditions for Retrieval Center Operations (Washing—
ton, D.C.: Spartan Books, 1965), p. 66.

6H. P. Luhn, (KWIC Index) Keyword-in—Context Indgx
for Technical Literature (Yorktown Heights, New York: IBM
Corporation, Advanced Systems Development Division, 1959).

 

 

7Kenneth Janda, Information Retrieval: Appli-
cations to Political Science (New York: The Bobbs-Merrill
Co., 1968), p. 47.

 

 

 

8Williams, Automated Retrieval, p. 125—26.

9Becker and Hayes, Tools, Elements, Theories,
pp. 46-48.

10

M. Taube, et al., "The Uniterm Coordinate Index-
ing of Reports," in The Technical Report, ed. by B. H.
Weil (New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation, 1954),
p. 319.

11F. W. Lancaster, Information Retrieval Systems:
Characteristics, Testing, and EvaIuatIOn (New YorE:
Wiley, I968), p. 32.

i 22
and/or concepts which he feels are not relevant to the
document. Thus, duplication of terminology and lack of
consistency of approach often result. The user must pro—
vide the missing links between the source document, the
selection of words and terms by the analyst, and the
manner in which the user views the information which he
wishes to retrieve.

An approach which attempts to resolve this problem

is called controlled indexing. This method implies a
selection of input into the indices in order to prevent,
as far as possible, the scattering of related topics
under unrelated headings.l One of the main reasons to
use controlled indexing is to maximize the recall factor,
which is the percentage of relevant documents in the file
that are actually retrieved. A very thorough treatment
of indexing theory, the problems of terminology, and the

growth of specialized vocabularies is given by Jonker.2

Classification

Classification is the process of arranging infor-
mation into similar categories by comparing similar and
dissimilar attributes. The object of classification is

economy and increase in efficiency in the use of documents.

 

lKent, Mechanized Retrieval, p. 90.

 

2Frederick Jonker, Indexing Theory, Indexing
Methods, and Search Devices (New York: The Scarecrow
Press, I964).

 

23

A "universal or logical" classification of things does
not exist.1
The analyst, as he scans the document, will select
the topic that he feels is most nearly representative of
the entire body of information. This is often called a
pigeonhole or rigid classification. The alternative,
diametrically opposite, method in use is called multi-
dimensional. Each document appears under as many class
headings as there are bodies of information contained in
the source document. The main problem is that the classi-
fication decisions made by the analyst are difficult to

communicate to the retriever (user).

Abstracting

Abstracting, as it relates to an information sys-
tem, is primarily a summary of a publication accompanied
by a bibliographical description to enable the publication
to be traced. It is possible to identify three types of
abstracts from library and document literature: (1) con-
ventional, (2) extracts, and (3) telegraphic.

A conventional abstract may be distinguished as
descriptive--a general statement of the nature and scope
of a document, or informative-—a concise but comprehensive
summary of the significant contributions to the fund of

knowledge contained in the document. The function of a

 

lKent, Mechanized Retrieval, p. 98.

 

24

descriptive abstract is to alert possible readers to the
article and provide sufficient information so that he

can decide whether to retrieve the original article. The
function of an informative abstract is to present a brief
but complete coverage of the article, especially noting
all high points.

The function of abstracting in information sys-
tems is rather poorly defined, both in method and result.
There are divergent opinions on the benefits of descrip-
tive and informative abstracts, and as to which method
should be used with each type of information.1

One real problem is that the analyst may interject
his personality too deeply into the abstract procedure,
and thus remove the intent of the author's thoughts one
additional step from that of the receiver (user).

Extracting is a process of selecting sentences,
phrases, words, and/or paragraphs from the original docu-
ment. These selections should embody the basic theme.
This method reduces personal interpretation but there
still is the subjective decision of what fragments are
significant and the difficulty of reading items out of
context. Extracts are convenient forms to produce by
machine. Frequency and distribution of key words in the
textual material are used as the basis for determining

the relative significance of each sentence in the document.

 

1Kent and Canter, Information Centers, p. 97.

 

25

This method is often called "auto-abstracting." The
problem here is that there is no idea of how much meaning
that was implied in the original document will survive
the transfer to the auto-abstract. The procedure can be
practical if a sufficient part of the meaning is retained
in enough cases.

A telegraphic abstract is a detailed index to a
record. It is composed of (1) significant words selected
from the document, (2) code symbols called roll indi-
cators which supply a context for the chosen words, and
(3) punctuation symbols which separate and group words
and role indicators into units not unlike the traditional
role of conventional punctuation. This method is used
in connection with machine information retrieval systems.
The abstract provides input to the machine in a consistent
and predictable form so that the machine can be programmed
to search for certain predictable forms of information
within this input. The main problem with this method is

that thoroughly trained analysts must do the abstracting.

1521:

Retrieval obtains responses from storage based on
predetermined criteria. Indexing and retrieval are input
and output responses respectively. Storage is the transfer
function. Information retrieval means two things. One,
document retrieval, the finding of documents having certain

indexed descriptors and two, content retrieval or "fact

 

I

.‘

26

retrieval" which is used with a document-free system.
This type of system contains integrated knowledge to
which the user may address questions. A unified treat-
ment of the two types is given by Licklider.l

Two major retrieval problems are envisioned in the
literature. The first is devising a searching strategy
appropriate to the organization of the file. Vickery
points out that retrieval is not simply a matching process
of question codes against descriptor codes but must include
more inclusive terms, included terms, and related terms.2
The other problem is decay of categories and indices.3
Retrieval assumes that all information in the system is
consistent and true and has no gaps. In reality, beliefs
are constantly changing; "knowledge" in the system has to
be frequently readjusted or rearranged.

Dissemination is distribution of information for
use. The major objective of an information system is to
bring relevant data in usable form to the right user at
the right time so that the data can be of help in decision-

making and problem-solving procedures.

 

1J. C. R. Licklider, Libraries of the Future (Cam-
bridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1965).

2Vickery, Retrieval System Theory, p. 40.

 

3Schecter, Retrieval: A Critical View, p. 194.

 

27

The means of dissemination can be divided into
two groups: (1) those directed toward all users (present
and potentia1)--abstract lists, accession lists, and
(2) those directed toward groups of users or individuals.
SDI (Selective Dissemination of Information) is a common
practice. Veal and Clague provide a comprehensive dis-

1

cussion of SDI. SDI was first proposed by Luhn.2

Mechanization of Information Systems

 

In the preceding paragraphs a number of infor-
mation analysis and dissemination methods were described.
Many of these analysis, search, and retrieval procedures
are being incorporated into fully automatic text process-
ing and retrieval systems. SMART is a good example.3
Vickery has broken down the unit operations of an infor-
mation system and discussed the requirements for its com-

plete mechanization.4 The main reason for developing

 

1D. C. Veal, "An Experiment in the Selective Dis-
semination of Chemical Information," and P. Clague, "The
Selective Dissemination of Information in Electronics," in
Computer-Based Information Retrieval Systems, ed. by Ber-
nard Houghton (Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1969).

 

2H. P. Luhn, "Selective Dissemination of New Sci—
entific Information With the Aid of Electronic Processing
Equipment" (Yorktown Heights, N.Y.: IBM Advanced Systems
Development Division, 1959).

3Salton, Organization and Retrieval, Appendix A.

 

4Vickery, Retrieval System Theory.

 

28

totally mechanized systems is two-fold: (l) the amount of
documentary information produced is increasing exponen-
tially each year and (2) manpower available to store and

select from this growing mass of information is limited.

Studies of Users

 

Studies of users are relevant to the determination
of information needs by yielding data on communication
gathering behavior together with data on the aims, success,
and effect of that behavior and on the utilization of the

information yielded.

Forms of Studies of Users

 

Studies of users tend to fall into one of seven

categories as indicated:1

1. Preference and Evaluation Studies.--These

 

studies attempt to obtain preferences, evaluations, and
facilities that do not refer to specific information-
receiving events. This type of study can be an aid in
planning a new information center. Respondents react to
subject matter, information channels, and service possi-

bilities.

 

lHerbert Menzel, "Information Needs and Uses," in

Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, ed.
by Carlos A. Cuadra, American Sociéty for Information
Science (Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., 1966),
pp. 41-69.

 

29

2. Demand Studies.--Requests for information or

 

documents that were actually made by persons in the course
of their activities, form the data for this type of study.
Data may be in the form of written orders or requests, and
telephone calls. The researcher typically classifies the

requests and orders for analysis.

3. Channel Studies.--This type of study concen-

 

trates intensively on one communication channel, using a

multitude of methods to investigate usage.

4. Critical Incident Studies.--These studies seek

 

to sample information-receiving episodes from a selected
group's experiences, and to associate with each episode
detailed descriptions of how it came about, the communi-
cation function it served, the person's satisfaction with

the information obtained, or other matters.

5. Dissemination Studies.--An attempt is made in

 

these studies to look at the communication process from
the point of View of the author of documents as a dissemi-
nator of information (rather than as a receiver). Authors
are queried concerning feedback they receive from speaking
engagements at conventions and the possible effects of

the feedback on their subsequent work and dissemination
efforts. Some of the questions to be answered are: What
are the dissemination channels that you use? In what

forms are the documents conveyed--orally, preprints,

30

articles? What kinds of feedback were experienced? What
action or change in behavior did you take as a result of

the feedback?

6. User Feedback Studies.--These studies are used

 

with quality control aspects of SDI systems. Here members
of the system audience are sent notification presumed to
be pertinent to their activities and interests, and are
asked to indicate which of the items sent were actually

of use to them.

7. Diaries and User Records.--The researcher asks

 

the cooperation of a designated group of users to follow

a record-keeping procedure of their information activities.
The participants set aside documents selected via con-
sultation of an index. A telephone call or personal con-
tract is used to query each participant in order to
ascertain how the index was used to track down each
document.

Paisley pOints out the complexity of the user's
environment and consequent difficulty in studying his
information-processing behavior.1 He suggests that an
investigation of user behavior should focus on the various

systems affecting him. These systems, by controlling and

 

1William J. Paisley, "Information Needs and Uses,"
in Annual Review of Information Science and Technology,
ed._By Carlos A. Cuadra, American Society for Information
Science (Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1968).

 

31

filtering processes, determine the availability of infor-
mation. Paisley views each user within a set of concentric
circles (systems). These systems are culture, politics,
professional membership, reference group, invisible col-
lege, (friends with mutual interests), formal organization,
work team, "his own self," legal/economic, and formal

information-retrieval.

Related Studies

 

Two studies relate to the methodological problem
of the research plan presented in Chapter III. Both

studies fall into the Diaries and User Records category

 

(seven, above). Jahoda, Hutchins, and Miller1 as well
as Werner2 attempted to investigate the use of personal
indexes--to investigate information-related activities.
Jahoda's information users were twelve science and engi-
neering researchers and Werner's sample was constituted
by four medical researchers. Both used dictation via
telephone to record information-related activities

instead of log-keeping.

 

lG. Jahoda, Ronald D. Hutchins, and D. M. Miller,
"Analysis of Case Histories of Personal Index Use," in
Progress in Information and Technology, ed. by Donald V.
Black, Proceedings of the American Documentation Institute,
1966 Annual Meeting, October 3-7, 1966, Santa Monica, Cali-
fornia (Woodland Hills, Calif.: Adrianne Press), pp. 245-54.

 

2David J. Werner, "A Study of the Information-
Seeking Behavior of Medical Researchers" (unpublished
Masters Thesis, Dept. of Industrial Engineering and Man-
agement Sciences, Northwestern University, Evanston,
Illinois, December, 1965), p. 102.

32

The dictation via telephone by both Jahoda and
Werner was determined as a failure because of poor
response. The subjects were either unable or unwilling
to dictate records. It was reported to be "bothersome"
and "time-consuming."

Jahoda, to stimulate cooperation, substituted a
procedure in which the participants set aside documents
selected via consultation of their personal indexes.
Jahoda's assistants then telephoned the participants
weekly to find out whether they had used their personal
index. In addition, they visited each participant in an
attempt to reconstruct how his index was used to track
down a document.

Jahoda points out that this technique relies
heavily on participants' memories and produces no records
of null searches. Another shortcoming indicated is the
lack of representativeness of use patterns that it pro-
duces.

Werner augmented the telephone-recording technique

by distributing information activiEy cards which amounted

 

to a check list of search types. Any search that could
not be described on a card was to be reported by telephone
dictation. It is not clear to what extent this comple—
mentary technique was actually followed.

User studies in the diary category generally

demonstrate that the very act of examining an individual's

33

information-gathering patterns, with his knowledge, has

the effect of altering them.

Information Center Activities

 

There are about twelve thousand special libraries
and infonmation centers in the United States and Canada.1
The following list illustrates their activities; the
degree of each activity will, of course, vary from one
center to another:

Acquisition

Storage

Reference Searchings

Retrieval

Hard-COpy Dissemination

Micro-copy Dissemination

Preparation and Dissemination of Abstracts
Preparation and Dissemination of Indexes
Accessation Lists

Preparation of Bibliographies

Technical Question Answering Service
Preparation and Dissemination of Analytical
Studies

Referral Service

\Dmflamkwwh‘
......

l—‘T—‘H
NI—‘O
o

l—'
U.)

Information Centers in Education

 

Although a few leaders have been aware of the dupli-
cation of effort going throughout the country in education
and have foreseen the problem of exchanging information,
we still find many people struggling to "rediscover the

wheel."2 Much of the development in education (school)

 

1Anthony T. Kruzas, Directory of Special Libraries
and Information Centers (2nd ed.; Detroit, Mich.: Gale
Research Co., The Book Tower, 1968).

 

2Don D. Bushnell and Dwight W. Allen, eds., The
Computer in American Education (New York: Wiley, 1967).

34

systems has been accomplished in isolated centers by indi-
viduals or small groups. These individuals proceed with
their immediate problems without documenting their find-
ings. As a result very little of the information is dis-
seminated to those who need it. Hughes (Director of the
Division of Compensatory Education, Title I, ESEA)

supports these comments in School Management.1 "What

 

we are asking for is really something new and untried,"
Hughes says. "We are asking state and local people to
put aside a portion of Title I funds strictly for infor-
mation dissemination. . . . We are most eager that dis-
semination be a continuous program, conducted by people
who can give their full time and attention to it."

Polley (former State Superintendent of Public Instruction
in Michigan) has said "proqress in education, as in
virtually every other field, often is delayed simply
because we too seldom know about the achievements of
others. If an administrator or teacher only had brief
information about a program being conducted in another
part of the state (or country), he often would be able to
save invaluable time and effort in revising a program which

he might be planning."2

 

1John F. Hughes, "Spreading the Word About Success-
ful Projects," School Management, XI (May, 1967), 25.

 

2Ira Polley, PACE In Michigan, ESEA Title III Pro-
grams (Wayne, Michigan: Statewide Dissemination Service,
November, 1968).

 

35

One of the few information networks actively oper-
ating in the field of education is the Educational Research
Information Center (ERIC). ERIC was created in May, 1964,
to "facilitate and coordinate information storage and
retrieval efforts in all areas of educational research.

To insure widespread distribution of educational research
results, $1.7 million was allocated for the creation of
this national network of clearing-houses, or document

centers.2'3

ERIC acquires, abstracts, indexes, stores,
retrieves, and disseminates the most significant research
documents. Subject specialists at the clearing houses
screen the documents for quality and usefulness.4 Those
documents selected are summarized, then indexed using

ERIC's thesaurus terms, and c0pied on microfiche. The

microfiche is stored at ERIC Central in Washington, D.C.

 

1Lee G. Burchinal and Harold Haswell, "The Story of
ERIC," Education Digest, XXXII (September, 1966), 44-47.

 

2Office of Education, "ERIC, Educational Research
Information Center--A National Information System Dedicated
to the Progress of Education Through the Dissemination of
Educational Research Results and Research Related
Materials," Brochure (Washington, D.C.: Government
Printing Office, 1966), 6p.

3H. Marron and L. G. Burchinal, "ERIC--A Novel Con-
cept in Information Management," in Proceedings of the 30th
Annual Meeting of the American Documentation Institute TNew
York: Thompson Book Co., 1967), pp. 268-72.

 

4Kruzas, Special Libraries and Information Centers,
Appendix twelve.

36

and upon request, retrieved and replicated on hard copy
or microfiche. ERIC Central also publishes indexes and
annals of new acquisitions. In regards to the future of
ERIC, Burchinal and Haswell state, "we believe the day
is not far distant when the ERIC network will link uni-
versities, professional organizations, school systems,
boards of education--the entire education community-~to
speed all research results to places where they are
needed and when they are needed."1

Smith and Dickson note that the U.S. Office of
Education has installed an on-line, remote inquiry system
that allows the personnel of a number of federal, state,
and local agencies throughout the United States to com-
municate directly with the central computer, located in.
Washington.2 The data cover surveys, applications of
congressional acts, socio-economic school data, and

abstracts and some educational research projects. New

 

1Lee G. Burchinal and Harold A. Haswell, "How to
Put 2 1/2 Tons of Research Into One Handy Little Box,"
American Education, II (February, 1966), 23-25.

 

2Jack W. Smith and William C. Dickson, "An On-line
Nationwide Remote Inquiry System for the Dissemination of
Educational Data," AEDS Journal (September, 1967), 5-14.

 

37

York State,1 Oregon,2 and Wisconsin3 have similar state
plans. California has a regionally oriented plan in
which information is stored on drop-outs, education
buildings, attendance, and other administrative matters.4
"RISE" (Research and Information Services for Education),
is a research-oriented information center in Montgomery
County, Pa.5

Educational Products Information Exchange (EPIE),
an independent nonprofit organization created in 1967,
is the first major effort for the exchange of information
on educational products.6 The National Science Foundation
operates a referral center (NRC). It directs people who

seek information to organizations or individuals with

specialized knowledge of that subject. Phi Delta Kappa

 

1"An Overview of Educational Data Processing in New
York State," AEDS Monitor, VI (September, 1967), 6-7.

 

2Lowry M. Bennett, "Oregon Begins Implementation of
Project OTIS--An Advanced, State-wide, School Information
System," AEDS Monitor, VI (November, 1967), 3-5.

 

3William G. Katzenmeyer, "The Wisconsin Information
System," AEDS Monitor, V (March, 1967), 3-5.

 

4Alvin Grossman, "The California Education Infor-
mation System," Datamation, XIII (March, 1967), 3-7.

 

5"A One-Stop Information Center," American Edu-
cation, IV (July, 1968), 26.

 

6Piele and Eidell, "How to Plug Into School System."

38

began SRIS (School Research Information Service) in 1967.
The purpose of the service is to communicate educational
information gained through research and innovative prac-
tices. EDUNET is a proposed information network at the
university level, an outgrowth of the organization of
EDUCOM in July, 1966.1 The last chapter of the book

EDUNET is an open proposal to develop, in three phases,

a countrywide information network for educational use.

Summary

This chapter presented an overview of the compo-
nents of information systems in general preceded by a
rationale for their existence-~the information problem.
Studies of users of information system products were
discussed via categorization. Two studies by Jahoda2 and
Werner3 were delineated in terms of their methodology.
The writer appropriately points out here that this study

differs from Jahoda's and Werner's in the following ways:

1. The participants were practitioners in edu-

cation, not researchers.

 

1George W. Brown, James G. Miller, and Thomas A.
Keenan, eds., EDUNET, Report of the Summer Study on Infor-
mation Networks (New York: Wiley, 1967).

 

 

2Jahoda and Others, "Case Histories of Index Use."

3Werner, "Study of Behavior of Medical Researchers."

39

2. The participants were only questioned once, after
at least a ninety-day exposure period to the DD
and TM; that is, the participants were not
"prodded on to act or change" by weekly tele-

phone calls.

3. The participants were not asked to record infor-
mation-gathering activities but their responses
were based entirely on recall, a possible weak-
ness of this study. It was decided to sacrifice
accuracy of recall in favor of a lengthy exposure
time.

The chapter concludes with a "state of the art"
discourse on information centers in education.

Chapter III will map out in detail the design of
the study, population characteristics, statistical choice
for treatment of the data, development of artifacts,
and nature of the structured telephone follow-up inter—

view for each investigative level.

CHAPTER III

METHOD OF RESEARCH

This study is designed to determine the effect of
the introduction of a new information service product on
decision-making. In addition, a determination of the
impact of a training manual on the utilization of the

product of the new information system.

Description of the Population

 

Ninety educators in Michigan Public School Sys-
tems made up the pOpulation. Part of the population con-
sisted of principals of elementary school buildings in
which "Section 3" programs were operative. The other
portion were primarily federal and state project coordi-
nators who were responsible for writing and submitting
"Section 3" proposals to the State Department of Edu-

cation.

Design
The treatment in the study was the DD and TM.

The population was randomly split into three subpopulations

4O

41

and the three permutations of the treatment: (a) DD+TM,
(b) DD only, and (c) base-line—-no information, were
randomly assigned.

The results of this randomization process are

tabulated by school district as follows:

DISTRIBUTION SCHEDULE

School District DD+TM 22’ No Information

 

 

Baldwin
Battle Creek
Beecher
Benton Harbor
Detroit
Ecorse
Ferndale
Flint

Grand Rapids
Inkster
Kalamazoo
Lansing
Muskegon
Muskegon Hts.
Oak Park
Pontiac 1
Port Huron

River Rouge 2
Romulus 1 1
Saginaw 4
Westwood

Ypsilanti 2
Highland Park 1 1
Jackson 1 1

FJN
nedkam

NtocerocsH
g...

H w
PJHeokaeLohwaoxH

Ht‘
PJHtOFJN

NU)
DJ

Totals 30 30 30

The graphic model on the next page describes the

procedure that was followed:

42

Information Dissemination Design

 

Section 3

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Population
&’H‘/\’
ubpopulation Subpopulation
With DD Without DD
Subpopulation Subpopulation
With TM Without TM

 

 

 

 

Testable Hypotheses
The hypotheses are restated from Chapter I. Each

hypothesis is also presented in parenthesis in a quantita-

tive statement or symbolically.

1. The Directory of Descriptions (DD) will be per-
ceived as valuable to the curriculum leader.
(75% of the subpopulation in possession of the
DD will state it a valuable source of information.)
2. The availability of the DD will increase the num-

ber of planned changes in the next "Section 3"

proposal.

(Hl : M1' M2 > M3)

3. The DD will be a medium of interpopulation com-
munication concerning "Section 3" programs.

(25% of the group in possession of the DD will
state that it was an enabling agent to interpopu-
lation communication concerning "Section 3" pro-

grams.)

Symbols:

43

The presence of the DD will increase the number
of interpopulation communications concerning
"Section 3" programs.

(Hl : M1' M2 > M3)

The Training Manual (TM) will be perceived as
valuable in using the DD.

(80% of the group in possession of the TM will
state it of value in using the DD)

The TM will increase the number of persons who
perceive the DD as valuable.

(Hl : Ml > M2)

The TM will increase the number of planned changes
in the next "Section 3" proposal.

(H : M > M

1 l 2)

The availability of the DD and the TM together
will increase the number of interpOpulation com-
munications concerning "Section 3" programs.

(H 'M >M2)

1 ' 1
1 mean of group with DD+TM

3
ll

3
ll

mean of group with only DD
M = mean of group without DD and TM

H = alternative to the null hypothesis

44

Analysis

There are two types of responses from the
structured telephone interviews: (1) verbal and (2)
numerical. The verbal responses are listed by subpopu-
lation and analyzed.

For the numerical analysis, the writer treated
the "Section 3" population as a sample from an unspeci-
fied, hypothetical or real, larger population which has
similar characteristics. Cornfield and Tukey discuss
this choice of statistical model for a population study
of this nature.1 The statistic is Two-Way ANOVA, Mixed
Model. The treatments (availability of information) are
randomly assigned and the geographical characteristic
(metropolitan or nonmetrOpolitan) is fixed.

This choice of statistical model not only
strengthens the study in a credibility sense, but also
allows for a greater extension for the conclusions,
implicit or explicit, to a larger population.

The statistical treatment is able to establish
the statistical significance of the numerical frequency
differences between columns (treatments) and the inter-
action effect (a determination of whether there exists a

frequency response pattern because of geography).

 

lJerome Cornfield and John Tukey, "Average Values
of Mean Squares," Annals of Mathematical Statistics,
XXVII (Baltimore, Maryland: Waverly Press, Inc., 1956), 913.

 

45

Procedure

 

The major tasks of artifacts development, dis-
tribution, and follow-up interviews were completed in a

time span of one and a half years.

Artifacts Development

 

Particulars of the development of the DD and TM

are as follows:

Directory of Documents.--On December 8, 1969, an

 

EDIC Project Information Sheet,1 with an explanatory cover
letter,2 was sent to sixty-six elementary schools in
twenty-four school districts who were recipients of
"Section 3" funds. The elementary building principals
were asked to verify the information given on the project
information sheets. The writer had completed the project
information sheets beforehand by taking the pertinent
information from the "Section 3" prOposals that were sub-
mitted to the State Department of Education.

It was asked that the form with any necessary
changes made be returned by December 19, 1969. Twenty-
five per cent of the forms were returned by December 24,

1969; 80 per cent return by January 5, 1970, and

 

1See Appendix A.

2See Appendix B.

46

98 per cent return soon after follow-up telephone calls
during the week of January 12, 1970.

On January 13, 1970, the forms were deposited with
the EDIC project staff. The information was transferred
to IBM cards; a computer print-out of the information in
the EDIC abstract format was prepared, and the printing

of the DD with its abstracts and indices was accomplished.

Training Manual.--The key document of the study is

 

the training manual. The writer (and others) felt that
EDIC-type abstract document composites are not fully
appreciated nor used as a source of information. A
training manual with the following characteristics was
assumed to be needed to increase the knowledgable use of

the DD:
(1) Procedural steps in effectively using the DD;
(2) description of the DD content, and

(3) suggestions on how the DD can be useful in a
decision-making process.
Ten different trial versions of the manual were
developed before a decision was made. It was felt that

the style should:

(1) Differ from the usual pamphlet that goes across

the desk of an administrator;

(2) be "eye-catching";

47

(3) be easy to follow;

(4) list educational topics upon which decisions are

made each year, and

(5) contain a sample abstract that can be found in the

DD, rather than a fabricated one.

Distribution and Follow-up

 

The materials were distributed during the third
week of November, 1970, according to the random-selection
schedule indicated in the design.1 The materials were
distributed in November in order to be timely. The
Michigan Legislature approved the distribution of
"Section 3" funds in December, 1970, for the 1970—71
school year. The DD and TM, being distributed one month
earlier, could have an impact on local decisions that
were made concerning the use of these funds.

The timetable called for at least a ninety-day
exposure to the DD and TM. The follow-up, therefore, was
scheduled for March, 1971. The data were collected by a
structured telephone interview. Each interview consisted
of queries generated to ascertain at the first investiga-
tive level:

Subpppulation Having Access to the DD

1. In what ways, if any, was the DD valuable?

 

1See p. 38.

2. In what ways, if

ning the 1970-71

3. How many changes

last years?

4. How many changes

having access to

48

any, was the DD of help in plan-

"Section 3" proposal?

were made in this proposal from

were planned as a result of

the DD?

5. How many communications were made with other

"Section 3" schools concerning their proposal or

program? Name them.

6. How many of the communications were a result of

having access to

the DD?

7. How many "Section 3" programs in other schools

can they describe?

Subpopplation Not Given the DD

 

1. How many changes

last years?

were made in this proposal from

2. How many communications were made with other

"Section 3" schools concerning their proposal or

program?

3. How many "Section 3" programs in other schools can

they describe?

4. How many are aware of a DD?

5. If aware, how did they find out?

49

The persons in this subpopulation that come, by
other means, to have access to a DD were asked to respond
to the questions for the subpopulation in possession of
the DD. They were treated separately, as a subgroup,
however.

At the second investigative level questions were

asked to ascertain:
Subpopulation Having Acess to the TM

1. How many can understand and use the DD? (A series
of questions were formulated from the contents of

the DD and TM to determine this.)
Subpopulation Not Given the TM

1. How many can understand and use the DD? (A series
of questions were formulated from the content of

the DD to determine this.)
2. How many are aware of a TM?

3. If aware, how did they find out?

The persons in this subpopulation that came, by
other means, to have access to a TM were asked to respond
to the questions for the subpopulation that were in pos-
session of the TM. They were treated separately, as a

subgroup, however.

50

Summary

The schedule of tasks in this study is as

follows:

Work Task Actual Time Period

 

 

1. Build the information

file: abstract, verify, December, 1969 to
and enter the "Section 3" February, 1970
Projects.
2. Construct the DD and March, 1970, to
develop the TM. September, 1970
3. Distribute the DD and TM. November, 1970

4. Collect the data/information

via telephone interviews. April, 1971

5. Analyze the data/information. May, 1971

Conclusion

 

The design is experimental. Feasibility of experi-

mentation with a not-yet-adopted innovation is dependent

on the validity of all assumptions underlying the design

of the innovation. The information service under study

is new and untested in the field. Before the experimental
question can be answered, the issue of acceptance of the
system by the users, must be determined. The information
service (EDIC) is, in itself, an innovation and subject

to all of the processes of diffusion of innovation as set

forth in the theory section of Chapter I.

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

As was previously stated, the data were obtained

through structured telephone interviews. A flowchart of

the order in which the questions were asked and the com-

plement of questions follows.

Complement of Questions

Mainline Questions

 

Introduction:

Q1
Q0

Explanation

Q2
Q3

This is Tom Mercer. In November of last
year I sent you some information-~a
directory of abstracts of educational
projects in Michigan, primarily "Section 3"
projects and a User Manual which can be
used as a guide to the use of the directory
of abstracts.

Did you receive these?

Would you like copies sent?

These documents were part of a communication
effort to distribute information on Federal
and State projects under a foundation grant.
Would you answer a few questions?

Basically, I would like to know in what
ways, if any, were these materials used

in planning programs this year. What can
you recall about the directory?

51

 

52

In what ways, if any, was the directory of
use?

In what ways, if any, was the directory of
help in planning this year's "Section 3"
programs?

What changes were made in this year's
"Section 3" program?

How many of these changes can be attributed
in any way to having the directory?

Did you use the directory to call any other
school districts on their "Section 3" pro-
gram? Name them.

Are you acquainted with any other "Section 3"
programs in other school districts?

Describe them.

What can you recall about the User Manual?

Was the User Manual helpful in any way? How?

Who is the person most likely in need of
information about other school districts?

Are you really in that process at all?
To what degree?

Are you involved in writing program pro-
posals or submitting ideas for proposals?

Do you need information about other pro-
grams in your role?

Did you realize that the directory con-
ta1ned information about other programs in
Michigan?

Did you have any occasion to use it this
year?

In what ways?

Series

 

53

In what ways, if any, do you have contact
with other school districts in terms of
their academic program? In other words,

are there any sorts of schools or programs
that you systematically or regularly inquire
or read about?

How many personal contacts have you made
with other school districts this school
year in order to inquire about programs?

Are you satisfied with the amount and
quality of information that you receive
about programs in other Michigan schools?

How many changes were made in your
"Section 3" program this year from last
year?

Did you call any other school districts on
their "Section 3" programs this year? Name
them.

Are you acquainted with any other "Section 3"
programs in other school districts? Name
them.

The Flowchart of the Structured Telephone Inter-

view appears on pages 54 and 55.

Discussion of the Data

Commentary and analysis of the data are presented

by order of figures. Each question is stated to assist

immediate association of the discussion with the data.

54

Flowchart of Structured Tblgphono Interview

 

 

 

 

  

'3' Subject.

/’ Q
41
--———-—, > >15“

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

--—--~ - - >
> A 021
Set
04 / STOP
.-!9 ‘)H.-_______
Legend
“A“ Subpopulationl with
information
'8' Subpopulation without
0 1 information
7
“A1' Subpopulation with
DD + TH
.41....
1 I "A2“ Subpopulation with DD
0
3 I
LT‘
, -_
°9

  
 

. 2.
AM+

' 1' Subjects (:Egégz::::)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

55

Flowchart (Cont.)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Q

21 041
J, i
Q

22 Q42
IL A
Q23 043

-I
Q24

025 NO >r

A I
Yes
Q27
NO I
“"*‘ I
Yes
4— Q28

Q29

Q3o

Q31

 

 

 

STOP

 

Figure 4.1

 

01‘

Figure 4.2

 

Q21

Figure 4.3

 

Q22

Did

1.

56

You Receive These? n: 58

Half of the building principals and a
half of the central office administrators
recall receiving the information, DD or
DD+TM (over 90 per cent of this group
have the information readily available

in their office).

Recall rate was considerably higher for
the medium and small school districts
than it was for the large school dis-
tricts.

Who Is The Person Most Likely In Need of
Information About Other School Districts?

n:

1.

Are

86

Every central office administrator indi-
cated that he needed information about
other school districts' programs.

One-third of the building principals felt
that they were in need of information.

There is an inverse relationship between
the number of principals who felt that
they need information and the size of

the school district in which they function.

There is no observable difference of
response among the three subpopulations.

You Really In That Process At All? n: 86

Every central office administrator indi-
cated that he was definitely in the
process.

Twenty-six out of the sixty-four building
principals felt that they are in the
process.

Figure 4 . 4

 

923‘

Figure 4.5

 

924‘

Figure 4.6

925‘

TO

57

There is an inverse relationship between
the number of building principals who
felt that they are in that process and
the size of the school district in which
they function.

There is no observable difference of
response among the three subpopulations.

What Degree? n: 48

The central office administrators appar-
ently are more involved in the process
than building principals.

There is an inverse relationship between
the degree of involvement and school dis-
trict size.

There is no observable difference of
response among subpopulations.

Are You Involved In Writing Program Proposals
Or Submitting Ideas For Proposals? n: 48

1.

Do
In

1.

Of the twenty-six building principals who
felt that they were in that process,
twenty were involved in submitting ideas
for proposals.

The central office administrators were
involved in writing proposals or in super-
vising the writing of preposals.

The number of building principals who
assisted in the writing of proposals was
larger in the small and medium size
school districts than in the large school
districts.

You Need Information About Other Programs
Your Role? n: 86

Every central office administrator indi-
cated that he needed information in his
role.

 

 

Figure 4.7
026‘
Q27'
028‘
Figure 4.8
029‘

58

2. Thirty-one out of the sixty-four princi-
pals felt that they need information.

3. There is an inverse relationship between
the number of building principals who
felt that they need information and the
size of the school district.

4. There is no observable difference of
response among the three subpopulations.

Did You Realize That The Directory Contained
Information About Other Programs in Michigan?
n: 29

Did You Have Any Occasion To Use It This Year?
n: 29

In What Ways? n: 29

1. Five out of twenty-nine respondents did
not realize what the DD contained.

2. Seven out of twenty-nine persons had an
occasion to use the DD. Three of these
made contacts.

3. Of the twenty-nine respondents, twenty-
four gave the DD some degree of attention.

4. There is no observable difference of
response between the two subpopulations
who were in this group.

In What Ways, If Any, Do You Have Contact
With Other School Districts In Terms of
Their Academic Program? n: 86

l. Fifty-four out of eighty-six respondents
indicated that their primary (and for
most of them, their only) source of infor-
mation about other school districts' pro—
grams is another person or persons within
the district in which they function.

2. Fourteen respondents indicated regional
or professional organizations.

 

Figure 4.10

 

Q31.

59

Thirteen respondents indicated personal
contacts as their primary source.

Printed materials, as a vehicle of infor-
mation about other programs, was not
mentioned.

Fifty-one out of the sixty-four building
principals indicated that they rely on
with-in district sources.

Three out of the twenty-two administrators
rely on with-in district sources.

How Many Personal Contacts Have You Made With
Other School Districts This School Year In
Order To Inquire About Programs? n: 86

l.

2.

Sixty-five respondents have not contacted
other school districts this year.

Thirteen building principals and eight
central office administrators indicated
that they have made personal contacts.

Are You Satisfied With The Amount And Quality
Of Information That You Receive About Pro-
grams In Other Michigan Schools? n: 86

l.

Thirty-six respondents are satisfied. The
proportion is the same for building princi-
pals as for central office administrators.

Seven respondents indicated that they do

not receive information about other
Michigan schools.

Presentation of the Data

In this account each figure is headed by the

question which elicited the data. The data are collated

and tabulated along several axes within each figure.

60

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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71

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72

Summary

No reference has been made from the data to the
hypotheses postulated and enumerated in Chapters I and
III. An overall analysis of the data shows that the
presence or intervention of the DD or DD+TM had no
observable impact on the behavior of the population as
a whole. Impact is operationally defined here as those
changes of behavior previously hypothesized. Some degree
of attention was given to the DD and TM by most of the
persons who recall receiving it. In fact, seven persons
had an occasion to use the DD.

In an attempt to determine the real need for
information, if any, it was found that many of the build-
ing principals do not see themselves in that process. The
principals who do see themselves in that process are gen-
erally involved in determining building programs to the
degree of submitting ideas when asked. The central
office administrators were found to need information
about other school districts' programs.

School districts represented by the population
generally were found to Operate in isolation. Few personal
contacts were made this year with other school districts
on their programs and most of the pOpulation relies pri-

marily on with-in district sources for information.

73

Many of the building principals were satisfied
with the amount and quality of information that they
presently receive, primarily because they are not
involved in program determinations or are involved to
a limited degree. Some central office administrators
were satisfied because they have developed personal
channels of information.

Printed materials was not mentioned as a source
of information on school programs in Michigan. This
result has implication for the information system under
study.

These results were not productive in terms of the
testing of hypotheses in this study. They were produc-
tive, however, in gaining a better understanding of the
population within which the information system under

study must operate.

Conclusion

 

Generally speaking, the larger the school system,
the more restrictive, inflexible, and isolated is the role
of the building principal in terms of program input and
determinations. Through conversations with the respon-
dents it was found that their role as defined by the
Central Office does not require them to seek out infor-

mation and information sources. Principals generally

74

operate their building curriculum on
basis. Tentative programs that have
funding commitments are presented to
The principal has the prerogative of

rejection.

an accept/reject
State or Federal
each principal.

acceptance or

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

As a formal experiment this study was not as
productive as it was intended to be. In effect, the study
is an unfulfilled experiment which has been converted to
a descriptive study in order to learn from the circum-
stances of the study. The reason for this lesser pro-
ductivity lies primarily in faulty assumptions that were
made in the design of the experiment. The assumptions
are reviewed in light of the experience of the research.

Assumptions of the Study
in Retrospect

 

 

Nine assumptions were given as the basis of the
rationale for the study in Chapter I. The assumptions

are as follows:

1. Information about instructional ideas, strategies,
and programs can be useful in curricular decision-
making.

COMMENT: The research identified no basis for
discounting this assumption.

75

2.

76

A computer-based information system provides a
curriculum leader a selective yet extensive con-
frontation with educational development activi-
ties external to his immediate environment. The
flexibility, selectivity, and accessibility of a
computer-based storage-retrieval system provides
an additional and effective basis for curricular
decisions.

COMMENT: The research identified no basis for
discounting this assumption.

Easy access to such a system will attract curricu-

lum leaders to use it.

COMMENT: Although this assumption still stands,
the research revealed that the "easy

access" factor alone is inadequate to
stimulate use on a widespread basis.

The current situation in public schools is that
each school system tends to operate as a pioneer
in its curricular endeavors. Understandings are
usually built to the exclusion of utilization of
relevant outside information.

COMMENT:' The research identified no basis for
discounting this assumption.

The curriculum leader is a change agent.

COMMENT: The research identified no basis for
discounting this assumption.

The curriculum leader in his role as potential

change agent needs information.

77

COMMENT: The research identified no basis for
discounting this assumption.

The curriculum leader tends to have only a general

cognizance of pertinent experiences of others who

have dealt with the particular development problem

in other places.

COMMENT: The research identified no basis for
discounting this assumption.

The building principal is a curriculum leader.

COMMENT: According to the criteria used in this
study, namely:

(1) Felt need for information about
other school district programs,

(2) Belief on the part of the principals
that are involved in the process
and the degree of involvement, and

(3) Contact with educators in other
school districts concerning pro-
grams,

the majority of building principals
cannot be classified as curriculum
leaders although they may be such
according to other criteria.

The Directory of Descriptions (DD) and the Train-
ing Manual (TM) will motivate the recipients to
desire more specialized information about programs
of interest through interpOpulation communications.
COMMENT: This assumption is faulty. It was
crucial to the study. Three out of
'twenty-nine persons who recalled receiv-

ing the materials made personal contacts
requesting more specialized information.

78

Since some of the basic assumptions of the study
seem to be faulty, the study should be seen, in retrospect,
as a descriptive study rather than an experiment. Since
descriptive research has as its primary purpose the build-
ing of hypotheses, the next part of this chapter will be
devoted to specifying hypotheses which would allow sub-
sequent testing of relationships observed in the present

study.

Hypotheses for Further Research
The following hypotheses are suggested by review

of the data gathered through the structured interviews:

1. Given that the operators of an information system
understand the role of the recipients (Users) as
the recipients understand it, then the information
system can function in filling perceived needs in

curriculum develOpment.

2. The information system can assist users and opera-
tors to perceive needs which they would not have
perceived without the broad base of information

provided by the system.

3. Given the fact that professional person-to-person
contacts outside the school system are rare among
the users, and their scope of information thereby
restricted, the system can be useful in allowing
haphazard communication to be carried out more

systematically.

79

4. A higher degree of interaction among potential
users will correlate positively with the use of

an information system.

5. Contacts of a salesmanship and training sort will
correlate positively with the use of an infor-

mation system.

6. Giving priority to a smoothly functioning
bureaucracy over effective curriculum building

does not encourage the use of information systems.

7. The information system will affect decision-
making when the information it provides is per-

ceived as pertinent by the decision-makers.

8. The information system can help raise the edu-
cational attainment level of students indirectly
by providing information which assists educators

to make effective decisions.

9. If the principal is involved in decision—making
about the curriculum, then access to and use of
information systems relating to curriculum develop-
ment will be perceived by the principal as being
of value.

Through the conversations engaged in and data
collected, certain questions can be raised which do not

relate to information systems and users per se, but

80

which are noteworthy and would require further research

in order to understand. These questions are recorded

following:

Questions for Further Research

 

The role of the building principal in large school
systems is narrowly defined either because the
system limits the principal's flexibility or
because the principal himself defines his role
narrowly or there may be other causes. Does the
role definition of a building principal limit his

effectiveness as a curriculum leader?

Does the reliance of within-district sources of
information make for smooth operation of the sys-

tem but inhibit the development of new ideas?

Is printed information not perceived as a useful
source of information for making decisions in the

development of curriculum?

Why do building principals sometimes not see
themselves to be involved in curriculum develop-

ment?

What do central school administrations believe
about the building principal and his role in cur-

riculum development?

81

6. Is information perceived to be pertinent actually

used in making decisions?

7. Does the use of information perceived to be per-

tinent result in effective decisions?

8. What other services must be provided along with
the information system in order that educators

use the information system that they desire?

9. What factors must pertain in order for educators
to perceive that they have time to use available

services?

Value of the Study

 

This study accomplished the following:

(1) Ascertained the reaction and response of a clien-
tele to a new, previously untested information

service system;

(2) Developed understandings and interpretations of
the communication and information-gathering pat-
terns of a, heretofore, unresearched group in
the area of user studies.

The value, if any, of the Training Manual (TM)
developed and distributed as an aid to the understanding
and use of the information system product--the Directory

of Descriptions (DD), was not revealed in the study. It

82

behooves further research efforts to accept, reject, or
modify the Training Manual dependent on the results

incurred.

Conclusion

 

In closing it should be again noted that this
study was not as productive of theory-building data as
it was intended to be primarily because faulty assumptions
were made. These assumptions proved to be crucial to the
productivity of the study. Hypotheses and questions for
further research have been suggested, some of which are
fundamental and should be answered before this study is
replicated. Assumptions found to be faulty are apt to
be faulty in other studies of this sort; therefore, sub-
sequent research should more carefully examine assumptions

of this nature.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Works Cited

 

"A One-Stop Information Center." American Education, IV
(July, 1968), 26.

 

"An Overview of Educational Data Processing in New York
State." AEDS Monitor, VI (November, 1967), 3-5.

 

Becker, Joseph, and Hayes, Robert M. Information Storage
and Retrieval: Tools, Elements, Theories. New
York: Wiley, 1963.

 

 

Bennett, Lowry, M. "Oregon Begins Implementation of Pro-
ject OTIS-~An Advanced, State-Wide, School Infor-
mation System." AEDS Monitor, VI (November, 1967),
3-5.

 

Bishop, L. T., et a1. "Supervisor and Curriculum Director
at Work; Bases for Priorities and the Improvement
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Borko, Harold. "The Storage and Retrieval of Educational
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Brown, George W.; Miller, James G.; and Keenan, Thomas A.,
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Burchinal, Lee G., and Haswell, Harold. "The Story of
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44-47.

 

, and . "How to Put 2 1/2 Tons of Research
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(February, 1966), 23-25.

Bushnell, Don D., and Allen, Dwight W., eds. The Computer
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83

84

Cangelosi, Vincent E.; Robinson, D. M.; and Schkade, L. L.
"Information and Rational Choice." The Journal
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Cheydleur, Benjamin F., ed. Colloquium on Technical Pre-
conditions for Retrieval Center Operations. Wash-
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Cornfield, Jerome and Tukey, John. "Average Values of
Mean Squares." Annals of Mathematical Statistics,
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Fairthorne, Robert A. Towards Information Retrieval.
London: Butterworths, 1961.

 

Grossman, Alvin. "The California Education Information
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Howerton, Paul W., ed. Information Handling: First Prin-
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Hughes, John F. "Spreading the WOrd About Successful
Projects." School Management, XI (May, 1967), 25.

 

Jahoda, G.; Hutchins, Ronald D.; and Miller, D. M. "Analy-
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Progress in Information and Technology. Edited
By Donald V. Black, Proceedings of the American
Documentation Institute; 1966 Annual Meeting,
October 3-7, 1966, Santa Monica, California.
Woodland Hills, Calif.: Adrianne Press, 245-54.

 

Janda, Kenneth. Information Retrieval: Applications
Political Science. New York: The Bobbs-Merrill
Co., I968.

 

 

Jonker, Frederick. Indexing Theory, Indexing Methods, and
Search Devices. New York: The Scarecrow Press,
1964.

 

 

Kent, Allen. Textbook on Mechanized Information Retrieval.
New York: Wiley, 1962.

 

. Information Retrieval in Action. Cleveland,
Ohio: Press of Western Reserve University, 1963.

 

Kruzas, Anthony T. Directoryiof Special Libraries and
Information Centers. 2nd ed. Detroit, Mich.:
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85

Katzenmeyer, William G. "The Wisconsin Information Sys-
tem." AEDS Monitor, V (March, 1967), 3-5.

 

Lancaster, F. W. Information Retrieval Systems: Charac-
teristics, Testing, and Evaluation. New York:
WiIey, 1968.

 

Licklider, J. C. R. Libraries of the Future. Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Press, 1965.

 

Luhn, H. P. (KWIC) Index) Keyword-In-Context Index for
Technical Literature. Yorktown Heights, N.Y.:
IBM Corporation, Advanced Systems Development
Division, 1959.

 

"Selective Dissemination of New Scientific
Information With the Aid of Electronic Processing
Equipment." Yorktown Heights, N.Y.: IBM Advanced
Systems Development Division, 1959.

Marron, H., and Burchinal, L. G. "ERIC--A Novel Concept
in Information Management." Proceedings of the
30th Annual Meeting of the AmeriCan Documentation
Institute. New York: Thompson Book Co., 1967.

 

Menzel, Herbert. "Information Needs and Uses." Annual
Review of Information Science and Tegpnology.
Editediby CarIos A. Cuadra, American Society for
Information Science. Chicago: Encyclopaedia
Britannica, Inc., 1966.

. "Types of Information Seeking." Library
Quarterly, XXXIV (1964).

 

Office of Education. "ERIC, Educational Research Infor-
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ton, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1966.

Paisley, William J. "Information Needs and Uses." Annual
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Edited by Carlos Cuadra, III. Chicago: Encyclo-
paedia Britannica, 1968.

 

 

\Panos, Robert J., and Astin, Alexander W. "On Using Sys-
tematic Information in Making Educational
Decisions." Education Record, XXXXVIII (Spring,
1967), 172-78.

 

86

Piele, Philip, D., and Eidell, Terry L. "How to Plug
into School Information Systems." Nation's
Schools, LXXXIV, No. 4 (October, 1969), 8-9.

Polley, Ira. PACE in Michigan, ESEA Title III Programs.

Wayne, MiCh.: Statewide Dissemination Service,
1968.

 

\Rogers, Everett M. Diffusion of Innovations. New York:
The Free Press of Glencoe, 1962.

 

\
Rosove, P. E. Developing Computer Based Information Sys-
tems. New York: Wiley, 1967.

 

Salton, Gerald. Automatic Information Organization and
Retrieval. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1968.

 

 

Schecter, George, ed. Information Retrieval: A Critical
View. Based on Ehe Third Annual Colloquium on
Information Retrieval, May 12-13, 1966, Phila-
delphia, Penn. Washington, D.C.: Thompson
Book Co., 1967.

 

Smith, Jack W., and Dickson, William C. "An On-Line
Nationwide Remote Inquiry System for the Dis-
semination of Educational Data." AEDS Journal
(September, 1967), 5-14.

 

Taube, M., et al. "The Uniterm Coordinate Indexing of
Reports." The Technical Report. Edited by B. H.
Weil. New York: The Reinhold Publishing Corpor-
ation, 1954.

 

"The National Information Problem." SDC Magazine, IX
(February, 1966).

 

Clague, P. "The Selective Dissemination of Information
in Electronics." Computer-Based Information
Retrieval Systems. Edited by Bernard Houghton.
Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1969.

 

 

Veal, D. C. "An Experiment in the Selective Dissemination
of Chemical Information." Computer-Based Infor-
mation Retrieval Systems. Edited by Bernard
Houghton. Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1969.

 

 

Vickery, Brian C. On Retrieval System Theory. Washington,
D.C.: Butterworths, 1965.

 

87

Werner, David J. "A Study of the Information-Seeking
Behavior of Medical Researchers." Unpublished
Masters Thesis, Dept. of Industrial Engineering
and Management Sciences, Northwestern University,
Evanston, Illinois, December, 1965.

Williams, Williams F. Principles of Automated Information
Retrieval. Elmhfirst, Illinoig: Business Press,
1965.

 

 

Wilson, Thomas D., and Stephenson, James. Dissemination

of Information. New York: Philosophical Library,
1965.

 

 

General References

 

Abramson, Norman. Information Theoryiand Coding. New
York: McGraw-Hill, 1963.

 

Ash, Robert B. Information Theory. New York: Inter-
science Publishers, 1965.

 

Baly, Charles F., and Stanwood, Richard H. Literature on
Information Retrieval and Machine Translation.
Wt. Plains, N.Y.: IBM Corporation, 1966.

 

Barhydt, Gordon C. "Information Retrieval in Education."
Data Processing Education, IV (October, 1965), 1-3.

 

, et a1. "Educational Media Research Information
Center (EMRIC): A Progress Report." AV Communi-
cation Review, XIII (Fall, 1965), 296-302.

 

 

 

Borko, Harold. Automated Language Processing. New York:
Wiley, 1967.

 

Bourne, Charles P. Methods of Information Handling. New
York: Wiley,il963.

 

. Bibliography on the Mechanization of Information
Retrieval. Menlo Pk., Calif.: Stanford Research
Institute, 1958.

 

 

Connor, Judith Holt. "Selective Dissemination of Infor-
mation: A Review of the Literature and the Issues."
Library Journal, LXXXXII (August, 1967), 373-90.

 

Frank, Otto, ed. Modern Documentation and Inforpation
Practices: A Basic Manual. The Hague, Inter-
national Federation for Documentation, 1961.

 

 

88

Gardin, J. C. SYNTOL-VOL. II. New Brunswick, N.J.:
The Rutgers University Press, 1965.

 

Giuliano, Vincent E., and Jones, Paul E. "Study and
Test of Methodology for Laboratory Evaluation
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Air Force Systems Command: Tech. Report ESD-TR.
Cambridge, Mass.: Arthur D. Little, Inc., 1966.

Holzbauer, H., comp. Mechanized Bibliggraphy of Docu-
ments and Information Sciences. Rev. ed., Jan.,
1967. Washihgton, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Interior
Library, 1967.

 

Howe, R. L. "Information System for the Schools; Cali-
fornia Total Educational Information System
(CTEIS)." CTAJ, LXIV (March, 1968), 18-21.

Kent, Allen, and Taube, Orrin E., eds. Electronic Infor-
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Books, 1965.

 

, et a1. Electronic Handlipg of Information;
Testing and EvaIuation. Washington, D.C.:
Thompson Book Co., 1967.

 

, and Perry, James W. Centralized Information
Services: Opportunities and‘Problems. New York:
The Press of Western Reserve University, 1958.

Kochen, Manfred. Some Problems in Information Science.
New York: Scarecrow Press, 1965.

. The Growth of Knowledge; Readings on Organi-
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Machol, Robert Engel, ed. Information and Decision Pro-
cesses. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1960.

Meister, David, and Sullivan, Dennis J. "Evaluation of
User Reactions to a Prototype On-Line Information
Retrieval System." NASA Contractor Report CR-
918. Canoga Pk., Calif.: Bunker-Ramo Corp.,
October, 1967.

Overhage, Carl F. J., and Harman, Joyce R. Intrex: A
Report of a Planning Conference on Ififormation

Transfer Ex eriments, Sept. 3, 1965. Cambridge,
Mass.: MIT Press, 1965.

 

89

Packer, Rod E. "Computers, Education, and the Government."
Computer Automation, XIV (March, 1965), 14-17.

 

Perry, James W.; Kent, Allen; and Berry, Madeline M.
Machine Literature Searching. Cleveland, Ohio:
The Press of Western Reserve University, 1956.

Rubinoff, Morris, ed. Toward a National Information Sys-
Eem, Second National Colloquium on InformatiOn
Retrieval, April 23-24, 1965, Philadelphia,_Penn.
Washington, D.C.: Spartan Books, 1965.

Scientific American. "Information." San Francisco:
W. H. Freeman, 1966.

Sharp, Harold. Reading in Informatign Retrieval. New
York: The Scarecrow Press, Inc., 1964f

Slamecka, Vladimir, ed. The Coming Age of Information
Technology. Bethesda: DocumentatiOn Inc., I965.

 

Spangler, Marshall R. General Bibliographyjof Information
and Retrieval. Phoenix, Arizona: General
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Taube, Mortimer, and WOoster, Harold, eds. Information
Storage and_§etrieval Theory, Systemg, and Devices.
New York: Columbia University Press, 1958.

 

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

EDIC PROJECT INFORMATION SHEET

APPENDIX A

EDIC Project Information Sheet #568/ 1169

Use a separate form for each. project. If project not previously entered in EDIC, please check.B
If updating previously entered project. please check.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. TITLE
2. DISTRICT D BATTLE CREEK DHIGHLAND PARK D ROYAL OAK
D DETROIT D LANSING D SOUTHFIELD
CI rum CI ammo rmemn U
D GRAND RAPIDS D PONTIAC
3. CONTACT person for this project PHONE
last, firpt {lanai 1 area code, telepfipne number
1' 3
* * Project involves buildipg(s) no pa one j
W
4. START Indicate starting date of project.
D FEE-1965 D 1966 D 1968 D 1970

D 1965 D 1967 D 1969 D 1971

5. END Project is expected to END 19

 

 

 

 

 

 

give year
6. Source of FUNDS? Check major sources of support.
D wCAL U FEDERAL D FOUNDATION
D STATE E] INDUSTRIAL
* * Exact source of funds ’
if federal, give bill title, number or name
7. Grade LEVEL involved? Check all appropriate boxes.
* * CI FEE-KINDERGARTEN D loch grade D RGH-SCH-UNGRADED
D KINDERGARTEN D 5th grade ELEM-LATE D 9th grade
D ELEM-UNGRADED D 6th grade B 10th grade
B lat grade B INTERM-UNGRADED E] 11th grade HIGH-SCHOOL
2nd grade ELEM-EARLY E] 7th grade E] 12th grade
3rd grade CI 8th grade , INTERMEDIATE D DROP-OUTS
e191
8. Number of STUDENTS involved?
UVERY-SM-ENROLLMENT (less than 31) DMED—LG-ENROLLMENT (501-1000)
DSMALL ENROLLMENT (31-100) D LEGS-ENROLLMENT (1001-2000)
DMED—SM-ENROLLMENT (101-200) DVRY-LG-ENROLLMENT (over 2000)
MED-ENROLLMENT (201-500)
* * Give exact number of students participm in project ’

 

90

10.

Re."

91

Number of instructional STAFF involved?

DSMALI. (1-5) DMEDIUM (16-25) DLARGE (51-100)
MED-SMALL (6-15) DMED-LARHZ (26-50) EVERY-LARGE (over 100)

* * Specify exact number gFOfeSSigta§} members involved in project

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

** " " " pa ara-professional persons involved ’
RESULTS Check as many boxes as needed.
[:JNEW MATERIALS DEVELOPED for or thr0ugh the project
DREPORT AVAILABLE
DOTHER (specify)
List one-word terms which should be used to index this project or to SEARCH for similar projects.
Use as many boxes as needed. Please print. The examples given are a guide and not intended to be
restrictive.
Examples
Mathematics
’ ’ Grouping
Disadvantaged
, r * Scheduling
J I Evaluation
, ’ ’ Audio-visual
Community
Drop-out
Curriculum
’ , Rural
SUMMARY * *
Subject or topical area(s) given attention in the project
9
.Eurpose of the project
-_7---_-._._. 9
St'éjs EaEep ‘5 8553m51535 51'0355?
9
thure pIans for the project
9
o

 

School District

 

Thomas w. Mercer

State of Michigan
Department of Education
P. 0. Box 420

Lansing, Michigan 48902

MERA/ EDIC/LSI /MERCER

APPENDIX B

COVER LETTER FOR A

92

STATE OF MICHIGAN

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION sure some or toucmon

Lansing, Michigan 48902 PETER OPPEWALL
President

THOMAS I. BRENNAN
Vice President
December 8, 1969 MICHAEL l. ”E“
IRA POLLEY Secretary
upcrintendem of Public Instruction >
JAMES F. O'NEIL

Treasurer

LEROY C. AUCENS'I'EIN
MARILYN JEAN KELLY

 

CHARLES Ii. MUR'I'UN
Iil)\\'IN I.. NOV/\K. ().l).
GOV. \VII‘I IAM (l. MILI IKI-N

Ex—Officio

There is a need for a composite review of the Section 3 proposals.
This office is producing an abstract of each proposed project for summary
purposes. Mr. Thomas Mercer will be responsible for carrying out this
dissemination project.

Enclosed is the project summary for Elementary
School. In order to verify the accuracy of our abstract for your project,
your help, or that of the person who is responsible for the project, is
needed. we will appreciate your additions, changes, deletions, and.com-
ments on the enclosed abstract. The abstract form, before being entered
into the information retrieval system, should truly represent your project.
Please take special note of the circled sections, and, if necessary, submit
your comments on a separate sheet.

The compiled information will be of considerable value to the De-
parnnsnt of Education. In addition, when the review is completed, a

composite book of all Section 3 project summaries will be available to
you upon request.

I would appreciate the return of the summary sheet with your
comments by December 19, 1969.

Thank you for your cooperation in this matter.
Sincerely,

gimme 71424

Clarence Wills
Coordinator, Section 3

CH3cv

Enclosure

APPENDIX C

CRITERIA FOR "SECTION 3" FUNDING

APPENDIX C

CRITERIA FOR "SECTION 3" FUNDING*

The State Board of Education shall use the follow-
ing criteria in determining the degree of cultural, eco-
nomic, and educational deprivation of children living
within attendance areas of individual schools within a
school district. Terms used in these criteria shall be
defined by the State Board of Education.

(a) Criterion--There is enrolled a high percentage

of students with socio-economic

deprivation (SED).

Percentage of SED Score Points Allowable

 

1-3 1
4-6
7-9
10-12
13-15
16-18
19-21
22-24
25-27
28-30

waommqooxoo

 

*State Aid Act 1970-71 (Act No. 312 of the Public
Acts of 1957, Section 3, as amended).

93

94

(b) Criterion--There is enrolled a high percentage
of students with low achievement

 

 

levels.
Percentile Points Allowable
l 25
2 24
3 23
4 22
5 21
10 16
15 ll
20 6
25 l

Percentile ratings between 1 and 25 not listed
shall be allowed proportionate points. Points for each
of the criteria shall be added together for each school.
School districts which receive at least 13 points under
criterion (b) or a total of 18 points under criteria (a)

and (b) shall be eligible for funding.

APPENDIX D

SAMPLE PAGES FROM THE DIRECTORY

OF DESCRIPTIONS (DD)

APPENDIX D

SAMPLE PAGES FROM THE DIRECTORY

OF DESCRIPTIONS (DD)

E D I C D I R E C T D R Y
CONTENTS
School District Index ..................................... iii
Project Title Index ........................................ v
Abstracts of Projects Reported ........................... 1 to 231
Search Index .................................. Goldenrod sheets
Population Index .................................. Green sheets

level
student enroIlment
number of staff .

Results Reported ................................. Yellow sheets
Dates of start and finish

Source of Funds .................................... Blue shears

Contact Telephone Directory ........................... Pmk sheets

95

eTITLF
ODISTRICT
sCONTACT
sSTART
OFNn
sFUNDS
OLEVEL
0STHDFNTS
sQT‘FF
RRESULTS
sSEARCH

OSUNHARV

'TITLF
'DISTRICT
sCONTACT
oSTART
sEND
«FUNDS
OLEVEL
OSTHDENTS
OSTAFF
'QESULYS
OSEARCH

OSUMHARY

965

AQSTRACT

SPECIALIZED COURSFLING
BATTLE CREEK

nc cnv, EUGENE PHONE 616 962-5581 EXT 249
1oo5

1970
FFDERAL

INTFRNEDIATF, HIGH-SCHOOL
RFD-SN-ENROLL"ERT

SHALL

otHER REDUCING DROP-OUTS RV COUNSELING
Deon-nuts. DISADVANTAGED. COUNSELING

INVOLVES 6 RUILDINGS. SOURCE OF FUNDS PUBLIC LAR 99-10 TITLF
I. 7TH-12TH GRADE, 12o STUDENTS PARTICIPATION. 2 STAFF
MERRFRS. PLUS run PARA-PROFESSIONALS
INVOLVED IN PROJECT}
SUBJECT AREA COUNSELING.
PURPOSE To Reouce THE DROP-our RATIO OF sruneurs FROM DISADVANTAGFD
HD3550
STEPS TAKEN INDivIDUAL COUNSELING er A COUNSELOR RELEASFD FULL TINE
rn RELF THE STUDENT SOLVE HIS PROBLEMS.
F.“TUR‘: PLANS TO INCREASE THE STAFF IN ORDER TO HOOK HITH "ORE stungtfg
THAT ARE POTENTIAL DROP-OUTS
BATTLF CRFEK.

ABSTRACT 9

TRAVELING HHSFUM
BATTLF CRFEK
chnun, LARRY PHONE 616-962-5581 EXT 226
PRE-1965
197a
FEDERAL
ELEM-PARLY. ELEH-LATE
MFD-LG-FNROLL“ENT
SNALL
NFH MATERIALS DCVFLOPED. REPORT AVAILABLE
DISADVANTAGED. uotIVATInN. AUDIO-VISUAL. SCIENCE. HUSFU“.
MOBILF
xvvotves R RUILnINC: SOURCE OF FUNDS PUBLIC LAN 89-10 TITLE
I. isT-OTH GRADC. 587 STUDENTS PARTICIPATING. 2 STAFF HFHREPS INVOLVED
IN PROJFCT,
SUBJECT AREA SCIENCE IN THE ELEMENTARY GRADES.
PuflPOSE Tn HOTIVATE CHILDREN to LEARN av CREATING A LFARNING SITUATION
THAT DRODUCES CHRIOSITY AROUT THE RDRLD AROUND THEM.
STEPS TAKFN A LARGE TRAILER EOUIPPED TO TRAVEL FROM SCHOOL To SCHOOL
HITH CAREFULLV DESIGNED LESSONS TO HOTIVATE CRILDRENo
FUTURF PLANS to BRING THIS MOTIVATION THROUGH SCIENCE Tn HIGHER LEVFLS
8v CREATING NFH MATFRIALS.
BATTLF CREEK.

97
SEARCHINDEX

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_ 1772195.197-190.
‘C‘Dfintcoliio000000000000000000000.0000013,I
ECHIEVENENT.................. 9"950333'1390
131;144,199;161,

163.179.105,187.

- 19‘02000
‘cf!v!T!ESOIOAcoooago-09.000000000000009029!
:gjug;sg&§.............‘.............:g’§§:'
q 000.000.0000.... 000000000 0 O
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‘DULTOOIOOI...O.DOOO000000.0019.20.32.33'69.
77;ao.ax‘as.9o,

149.191,: 3;162,

17¢;177.192,195.

. I - 197.193.204.
‘DUHT.EDUC‘Y’°NAOOon0.010000000000000000101p
‘DUL'.'U'!LIOIOIOO00.00.00000.0.0.3.‘3..1‘3'
.145-1485152j

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1633174.170.180.

102é1as.137.191.

. _ 194,;99.201.
‘DUL"OOOOOIOIOOOOOQOOOQOOIQOOOOO....OCOt22.
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‘rROI‘HBR!c‘N'OOOOOO0.0.0.000OIIO......922..
N'RUI‘HERIC‘N.50o.oooougoooooooooooooooo09:0
"T!R'QCH°°LCAOcocoa-00.0000000000000000 2 I
‘ COIOOOOOOOOQOOOOO000.000.000.00 9206,50,!
‘°'~TOOIOOOOOOOIOO0Q00.300.000.01oi'1"01900
Aneursoooooooo00000000090000.Ono-00000031590

‘to'ooo 00 000 0000 CO. OO O A o ‘9‘ 18°
trues..1..I...I....i...f..123262191i9.65.rzi

_ - Iss;174.
‘LCOHOLISNOOOOQ0.00100030001000000.000Oléa’l

‘Hl'!c‘NOIIOOOOIOO0.00030001000009...... 0

AN‘UYS’SAoooooooooooooopoooOOOOOIOIOlzoCt‘oI
"'.O'R!‘TEOOOIDOO020,030.09.0000......I1ool

‘RCH!YECTUREOIOOOOA!ooogooogIOOOOIIOOOIO1280
‘R!'"H.?:COOOIIOIOI.000.000’0000009000000690
‘RTQOOI0.00.00.IO.OSOIO‘OOOOIOOO'....... 0

"thUL‘T’°~.IOIOO0000090000... no 003.3130.
"YSOOOOO00.000000000000000015' 605908.!103'
105.100.117.120.

- 1210;2’.130.
‘8s.s’"ENTOOCOOIOIOOOOOIOOOIOOIOOIQOOOOOZtgl
‘.SIST‘NCE.ooo.uooonooogooooooooooooooupoaoo
‘881SY‘NVSIOUOOOOOOOO’C‘O...OOO'OO.OI"’1,23
‘YY'ND‘NOEOIIIOOOOOO00000.001‘2't‘6.1‘.’192'
160,182-184,190,

201.

NYYIYUDI...........:...:...... Q 0 59.15,.
AIIIIUDES....................9§CI§5-139;141,
1‘9I‘51.1,3.

APPENDIX E

EXCERPTS FROM THE TRAINING

MANUAL (TM)

APPENDIX E

EXCERPTS FROM THE TRAINING

MANUAL (TM)

INFORMATION

EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
INFORMATION HAS BEEN GATHERED

INTO ONE DIRECTORY

EXAMINE THE DIRECTORY

Lists of SCHOOL DISTRICTS and PROGRAM
TITLES can be found at the FRONT of the
DIRECTORY.

Indexes for locating INDIVIDUAL SCHOOL DIS-
TRICTS are at the BACK of the DIRECTORY.

INFORMATION CAN MAKE A DIFFERENCE

98

99

INFORMATION
FACILITATES
DECISIONS

Hire additional certified teachers
or paraprofessionals?
DECISION

Improve academic achievement! How?
--programmed materials
--teacher-made materials
--diagnosis

--consultants

--subject specialists

--full day kindergarten

DECISION

More community involvement!
Better human relations! How?

DECISION

Disadvantaged children!
What learning problems?
What teaching strategies?

DECISION

100

Cultural materials needed?
Purchase? Develop?
DECISION

Paraprofessionals in career-
development programs?
DECISION

Consultant or staff led
in-service programs?
DECISION

Saturday workshops--an asset?
DECISION

Plan in-service for teachers and
paraprofessionals collectively?
Parent participation?

DECISION

SCHOOLS ARE MAKING THESE DECISIONS
AND MANY OTHERS THIS YEAR

III

I
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H
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n
S”
E"
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146 3593

1293 03

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