SQCSAL NTEMCTWN PATTERNS mm GCCUPATIONAL
ASPER‘BTWNS 0F SELECYED HIGH “HOOK. STUDENTS

‘g‘éxmsis far em 5):»ng o-f Ph. D.
MlfiHifiAN STATE UNIVERSIYY
PM! It. Messier
€916!

This is to certify that the
thesis entitled
SOCIAL INTERACTION PATTERNS AND OCCUPATIONAL

ASPIRATIONS OF SELECTED HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

presented by

Paul Raymond Messier

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

_Eh.._D.__ degree in Jdtmaiion

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Major professor

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Michigan State
University

 

ABSTRACT
SOCIAL INTERACTION PATTERNS AND OCCUPATIONAL
ASPIRATIONS OF SELECTED HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
by Paul R. Messier

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to analyze the relation-
ships between the social interaction patterns of high schools
and the occupational aspirations of students of low socio-‘
economic background. The rationale of the study indicates
that the attitudes and aspirations of individuals are influ-
enced by groups that are characterized by personal, affective,
social interaction patterns rather than by groups character-
ized by impersonal, cognitive, social interaction patterns.
Rosearch.was cited which established that 1) schools have
middle class orientations, and 2) the occupational aspira-
tions of students are positively rolated to their socio-
economic backgrounds. Therefore, students of low socio-
economic background have occupational aspirations that differ
from those deemed worthy by the school. The aspirations of
these students should be more like those of the school when
the schools is characterized by personal, affective, social-

interaction patterns.

Procedures of the Study
The student involved thirty-four public schools located

in twenty-three different states. These schools were selected

Paul R. Messier

on the basis of such factors as pupil-teacher ratio, enroll-
ment per grade, and per pupil expenditure.

The design of the study controlled for two variables:
1) the socioeconomic level of the high school student bodies,
and 2) the college aspirations of the students' parents.

Eight social interaction factors were measured in
each of the thirty-four high schools. These factors were
designed to reveal information related to the social inter-
action patterns cf the high schools. These social interac-
tion patterns were as follows: 1) the degree to which the
school's social system served as a source of peer friendships
for students, 2) the degree to which the school's social
system served as a source of adult friendships, 3) the degree
to which students turned to fellow students for assistance in
solving problems, 4) how well teachers knew students, 5) the
degree to which students turned to people within the school's
social system‘when encountering problems,7) how frequently
students socially interacted with staff personnel, and 8)
the degree to which teachers relied upon within-the-school
contacts when.identifying students whom they felt they knew
best. A twenty-five per cent sample of the student bodies
was used to determine these factors. [The total student “7’
population was used to determine the socioeconomic level of

l
r

the student bodies.1 The occupational aspirations of the

’ ~.a

junior and senior male students of low socioeconomic back-

ground were measured. A total of 36,467 students and 1,994

Paul R. Messier
teachers was used in the study.

Hypothesis of the Study

The main hypothesis of the study was that the occupa-
tional aspirations of students having low socioeconomic
backgrounds would be influenced in the direction of the
middle class orientation of the schools in high schools
characterized by personal, affective social interaction
patterns. Fifty-five research hypotheses were stated and
tested. Tests were made on each of the social interaction
factors separately, as well as between schools scoring
either high or low on the majority of the factors. Special

tests were conducted on teacher-pupil interaction patterns.

Results of the Study

The results indicated that no relationship exists
between the social interaction patterns as measured in this
study, and the occupational aspirations of junior and senior
male students of low socioeconomic background in these
thirty-four high schools. The results did reveal that the
occupational aspirations of these students were significantly
higher in high schools characterized by a high degree of
college aspirations for the students among parents, as well
as in those schools in which there is a high socioeconomic

level of the student body.

SOCIAL INTERACTION PATTERNS AND OCCUPATIONAL
ASPIRATIONS or SELECTED HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

By M

.{x

foul R?\Messier

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

College of Education
1961

i i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Special acknowledgement is expressed to Dr. Floyd
6. Parker, my major adviser, whose patience and encouragement
were of great assistance to me during the study. My sincere
gratitude is given to Dr. Archie 0. Heller for his helpful
suggestions concerning research procedures. Appreciation
is also expressed by the writer to Dr. James w. Costar
and Dr. Thomas F. Green for their ideas, guidance, and
support in the completion of the study. The author is
indebted to the administrators, teachers, and students of
the thirty-four high schools that participated in the study.
Finally,~the writer wishes to express sincere appreciation
to his wife, Mhry Ann, for her assistance and understanding
throughout the entire project.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . .-. . . . . .
IJST OF TABLES . . . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER
I.

II.

III.

IV.

PROBLEM AND RATIONALE .v . .

Introduction . .
Definition of the Problem
Importance of the Problem
Rationale of the Study .
Statement of Main Hypothess
Definition.of Terms . . .
An Overview Of the Study
smry o o o o o o o o o

monomer OF THE STOUT . .

Introduction . . . . . .
Solectibn of Schools .
Dolimitations of the Study
Instrumentation . ; .

Procedures . . . . . . .
Design of the Study . . .
Student Samples . . . . .
Research Hypotheses . . .
Statistical methods . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . .
RESULTS 0 O O O O O O O O 0
Student Hypotheses‘ ; . .
School Hypotheses . . . .
Related Hypotheses . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . .

SUMMARY AND-CONCLUSIONS . .

Summary . . . . . . . . .

Conclusions . . . . . .

Implications for Further Study

BIBumHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O

o. 0'. go. O'O'O'

OO-OO'O'O‘O

~OO~O‘O‘

-o o-o‘ooo-o-O-O

OO'O‘O-O-O-O'O'O'O'

OO'O‘O'OvO-O-OOO‘O-

' O O O O

'0 0‘0'00'0'0'0‘

OO‘O‘O'O'O‘O'OO'O'

O 0.. 0

iii

Page
ii

113
115
115
126
136
139
140
140
144
146

150

CHAPTER

APPENDIX‘A

APPENDIX C
APPENDIX . D A
APPENDIX E

APPENDIX r

APPENDIX C

‘APPENDIX B

Selection Of Schools
letters and Forms . . . . . . .

.Characteristics of the Schools.

~Socioeconemic Data .° . . . . .

Data on Parent Repes'fOr'
0011.36 o o o o o o o o o o o o

Data on SOCial'InteractiOn'.'
Factors t.- . . . . . . . . . .

Occupational Aspirations Data .

iv
Page
165
174

177
187

189
191
200

TABLE
I.
II.
III.

IV.

VI.
VII.

VIII.

XI.
XII.
XIII.

XIV.

XVI.
XVII.

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Correlation of Interaction Factors . . . . 89
Socioeconomic Breakdown of Schools . . . . 90

School Breakdown on Parent Hopes for
COIICgC O O O O O O O O O O O O - O O 0 o 92

1.

Possible Combinations Resulting From

Breakdown of Schools on Soc oeconomic'

Level of Student BOdy and Parent Hepeo’

far COIIGEG o‘o o o o o o o o o-o o o o 92
Breakdown Of School. on Socioeconomic

LeVel.of Student Body and Parent' '

“‘9‘? f°r c°11°5‘ ? 2 : t 2 t : t : : r 93
Design of the Study . . . . . . . . . x,- 94

Correlations Between Control variables and
, Independent‘Variables . . . . . .g. . . 95

Breakdown of Schooli On'SOCIal InteraCtion
FaCtOt' O O O O O O O C O O O O O . O C O 97

Breakdown of Schools on Social InteraCtions
Factors: Highenigh Group. ... '.° . . 98

Breakdown of Schools on Social InteraCtion
Factors: High-Low Group . . . . .f. . 99

Breakdown of Schools on Social Interestion
FQCEOI'I 3 " M-High erp o o o o o o o 1.00

Breakdown of School on Social'InteractIOn'
AFactors: Low-Low Group . . . . . . . . 101

Division Of Schools Into Integrative and
Hon-Integrative Types . . . . . ._. . . 103

Division of Schools lnto Teacher Integrative
and Teacher Non-Integrative Types . . . 104

Test of Student Hypothesis Number One . . 116
Test of Student Hypothesis Number Two . . 117
Test of Student Hypothesis Number Three . 118

XVIII.

xxv11..
xxv111.

XXIX.

xxx1.
xxxrr.
XXXIII
xxx1v.

XXXVI.

XXXVII.
XXXVIII.

XXXIX.

Test
Test
Test
Test
Test
Test
Test

of
of
of
of
of
of
of.

Summary

Student Hypothesis Number
Student Hypothesis Number
Student Hypothesis Number
Student Hypothesis Number
Student Hypothesis Number
Student Hypothesis Number
Student Hypothesis Number

Four
Five

Six

Nine

19“

of Tests of Student Hypotheses

BreakdOwn of SchoOls On Odoupational '
Aspirations ._. . .h. . . '.€ '.r .

Test
Test
Test
Test
Test
Test
Test
Test
Test
Test
Test
Test
Test

Four, and Five

of
of
of
of
Of
of
of
of
of
of
of
of
of

School
School
School
School
School
School
School
School
School
School

Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Hypothesis
Hypothesis

Number
Number
Number
NUmber
NUmber
Number
Number
Number
Number
Number

Five.
Six_.
Seven
Bight
Nine,

Ten ‘.

Related Hypothesis Number One

Related Hypothesis Number Two

Seven.

Eight,

Related HypOtheses Number Three,

vi

Page

1119

120
121
122
123
124
125
127

123
1s9
130
139
131
132
132
133
134
134
135
137
137

138

CHAPTER I
PROBLEM AND RATIONALE
Introduction

Certain attitudes which individual students possess
are determined primarily by parental influences. That is,
the individual student acquires the attitudes held by his
parents during his early childhood, and these attitudes set
the pattern of the student's life orientation. Some of
these attitudes impair or limit the student from making the
most desirable adjustment to society. Schools must contend
with these attitudes if they are to foster the best possible
development of individuals within the limits of their men-
tal capacities. Whether or not the schools can alter and
Oredirect the attitudes of their students is the question
that was the concern of this study.

Research indicates that attitudes are not changed by
the presentation of factual information. ‘Many research
findings support the contention that the attitudes of an
individual are more likely to change when he socially inter-
acts with a group maintaining different attitudes. This is
especially true when the group serves a dynamic function
in his life. A

It then follows that schools which are characterized

by close, friendly relationships and which give evidence of

being dynamic social systems in the lives of their students
are more likely to influence the attitudes of their students
than schools which are not so characterized.

The attitude used in this study is that of occupa-
tional aspirations. These aspirations are primarily deter-
mined for the student by parental influences. The nature
of these aspirations varies directly with the socioeconomic
level of the family; i.e., low socioeconomic families main-
tain low aspirations. Since the orientation of our public
schools is that of the middle socioeconomic class, students
of low socioeconomic class origin may be said to have
aspirations that differ from those valued by the schools.

With these conditions in mind, this study analyzes ‘
eight social interaction factors in thirty-four high ' . ‘
schools located in twenty-three different states. These
factors are intended to reveal the degree to which teachers
and students do or do not work closely together in their
general day-to-day school activities. In a sense, they
are related to whether or not the school is a dynamic
social system.in the lives of the students.

After measuring the social interaction patterns,
the high schools were classified into what can generally
be called dynamic or non-dynamic schools.

The occupational aspirations of the junior and senior,
male students of low socioeconomic backgrOund were measured

in each of the schools. These were then related to the

social interaction patterns of the schools.

It is hypothesized that in high schools in which
students and teachers work closely together, the occupa-
tional aspirations of the students from low socioeconomic
backgrounds may be influenced in the direction of the
higher aspirations present in the middle class orientation
of the school. Stated otherwise, the schools will influ-
ence the occupational aspirations of students from.low
socioeconomic background in the direction of the higher
aspirations of the middle class orientation when the schools

are dynamic social systems in the lives of their students.
Definition of the Problem

The public school system.has been given a large
array of responsibilities by the society which created it.
Among these responsibilities is that of developing every
individual to the highest degree of his capacity. The ful-
fillment of this obligation is considered of the utmost
importance for the maintenance and improvement of a demo-
cratic society.

Because all individuals are not alike, the schools
must accept the challenge of providing for these differences.
With individuals deficient in physical or mental capabilities,
the school exerts much energy in the attainment of its
purpose. Some individuals who possess adequate or even

superior mental and physical capabilities have no desire to

improve themselves beyond the minimal level. These indi-
viduals do not aspire to the same goal as that of the
school, which is to achieve. On the other hand, what is
esteemed by them 'may-inot be considered as valuable by the
school. Because their orientation to life is different
from that of the mainstream.of the culture,and that of
the school, their energies may be inappropriately directed.
The schools are committed to the same goal of the
best possible development with respect to all of their
students. Schools have experienced difficulty in dealing
with individuals who have differing orientations. Although
these individuals have been the focus of much concern
among educators, the schools have frequently been inept
in dealing with them, It is this concern which under-
girds the object of this study.
The sources of the differences in the attitudes,
values, goals, aspirations, and desires of individuals
have been identified in mmerous studies. The social
institution of the family has received considerable study,

and its role in value development has been clarified.1

 

LA. L. Baldwin, "Socialization and the Parent-Child
Relationship," Child ngelopment, 19 (September, 1948),
127-136; Daniel R. Miller andGuy E. Swanson, The Chan i
American Parent. (New York: John Wiley & Sons,_I9585; .53
Sanmon RetEig and Benjamin Pasamanick, "Mbral Value Struc-
guresand Social Class," SociometEY. 24 (March, 1961),

“So

5
The general level of aspirations of students can be decided-
ly influenced by the demands of parents.2 Dynes noted a
relationship between family experiences and occupational .
aspirations.3 With students of the some mental ability
and achievement, Young found that plans to attend college
were determined by parental factors.4 Parental orienta-
tions have been shown to be influential in the educational
and occupational aspirations of students.5

Differences in orientation have been shown to be

related to race and ethnicity. Strodtbeck concluded that
there are ethnic differences in values related to achieve-

ment.6

 

 

2Kurt Lewin,.A ic Theo ‘2; Personality (New
York: McCraw-Hill, I93gg, p. I55.

3R. R. Dynes,.A. C. Clarke and S. Dinitz, "Levels of
Occupational Aspiration: Some aspects of family experience
as a variable," American Sociological Review, 21 (April,
1956), 212-215.

“Donald D. Young, "Parental Influence Upon Decisions
of Scholastically Talented Youth.Concerning Higher Education"
(unpgblished Doctor's thesis, The University of Wisconsin,
1959 .

5David J. Bordua, "Educational Aspirations and
Parental Stress on College," Social Forces, 38 (May, 1960),
262-269; and J. A. Kahl, "EducationaI and Occupational
Aspirations of 'Common.Man' Boys," Harvard Educational
Review, 23 (Summer, 1953), 186-203.

6Fred L. Strodtbeck, "Family Interaction, Values and
Achievements," Talent 53g Society, David C. McClelland,
gs‘gl., editors (Princeton, New Jersey: D. Van Nostrand
Co., 1958), pp. 135-194.

6

Differences in educational and occupational aspirations are
related to race differences.7 In another study, both race
and ethnicity were found to be related to the general
achievement syndrome.8

AA number of studies have indicated the relation-
ship of aspirations, attitudes, values, and goals to social
class status.9 Empey studied the occupational aspirations
of senior high school males of different social classes
and found significant differences.10 Value differences

between social classes were noted in studies by Centers,u

 

7R. C. Holloway and J. v. Berreman, "The Educational
and Occupational Aspirations and Plans of Negro and White
Male Elementary School Students," Pacific Sociological
Review, 2 (Fall, 1959), 56-60.

8 , "Race, Btnicity, and the Achievement
SyndromeT“:AmerICan Sociological Review, 24 (February,
1959) 9 47-60 o

9L. Reissman, "Level of.Aspiration and Social Class,"
American Sociolo ical Review, 18 (1953), 233-242;'William
H. SeweIl, ArcEIe O. HaIIer, and Murray A. Straus, "Social
Status and Educational and Occupational Aspiration,"
American Sociolo ical Review, 22 (February, 1957), 67-73;
' and J. StubEEns, "TEE RelatIonship between Level of Voca-
tional Aspiration and Certain Personal Data," Genetic

Psychology‘Monoggaphs, 41 (February, 1950), 327-358.

10La'Mar T. Empey, "Social Class and Occupational
Aspiration: A Comparison of Absolute and Relative Measure-
ment," American Sociological Review, 21 (December, 1956),
703-709o '

11R. Centers, The Psychology 3; Social Classes
(Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, I959), pp.
151-159.

7
Ausubel,12 and Kohn.13 In a study by Leshan, the results
indicated a difference in immediate and differed goal
gratification orientations between social classes.14
Martin B. Leeb concluded that, "because of the prolonged
intimate relationship especially during childhood, each
social class develops a pattern of behavior and a value
system which differentiates it from.the other."15 The
general achievement orientation varies with the social
status of individuals.16

Rural and urban residence have also been shown to

 

12David 9. Ausubel, _'l_'l_1__eo and Problems 3; Adolescent
Development (new York: Grune & tratton, [9555,pp. 327-325.

13Melvin.L. Kohn, "Social Class and Parental values,"
American Journal 2§_Sociologz, 64 (January, 1959), 337-351.

12L. L. Leshan, "Time Orientation and Social Class,"
Journal of Abnormal 25g Social Psychology, 47 (1952), 589-
592. '

15Martin B. Loeb, "Implications of Status Differentia-
tion for Personal and Social Development," 135 Harvard
Educational Review, 23 (No. 3, 1953), 168.

16Elizabeth Douvan, "Social Status and Success
Strivings," Journal of Abnormal and Social P cholo , 52
(1956), 219-225; 5. CT Rosen, "The Achievement Syndrome:.A
Psychocultural Dimension of Social Stratification,"
American Sociolo ical Review, 21 (April, 1956), 203-211;
Zia—EEEFy K. Schwarzweller, "Values and Occupational
Choice," Social Forces, 39 (December, 1960), 126-135.

be related to the orientation of individuals.17 That is,
rurally reared students have lower occupational and
educational aspirations.

Considering educational aspirations and plans to
attend college as a separate dimension, many of the same
relationships exist.18 Phillips observed that students
with high socioeconomic backgrounr have high educational
aspirations.19 "Rural people in general and farm.people
in particular place a lower value on higher education than

do urban people."20 Coinciding with this, Mulligan found

 

17.Archie O. Heller and W. H. Sewell, "Farm Residence

and Levels of Educational and Occupational Aspiration,"
American Journal g; Sociolo , 62 (January, 1957), 407-411;
Charles‘M. Grigg and Russell Middleton, "Community of
Orientation and Occupational Aspirations of Ninth Grade
Students," Social Forces, 38 (May, 1960), 303-308; Archie
O. Haller, "The Influence of Planning to Enter Farming
on Plans to Attend College," Rural Sociolo , 22 (June,
1957), 137-141; Archie O. Haller, "Researc Problems on
the Occupational Achievement Levels of Farm-Reared People,"
Rural Sociolo . 23 (Dec., 1958), 357-362; and Archie 0.

er, P ann ng to Farm: A Social Psychological Interpre-
tation," Social Forces, 37 (March, 1959), 263-268.

18E. Grant‘Youmans, The Educational Attainment and
Future Plans of Kentuck Rural Youths, KentucEy Agricultural

Euperiment Station, Bu etin No. 364 (Lexington: University
of Kentucky, 1959).

19Florence L. Phillips, "A Socie-Economic Study of
College women" (Unpublished Doctor's Thesis, Bloomington:
Indiana University, 1958).

20Everett‘M. Rogers, Social Cha e in Rural Socie
(New York: .Appleton-Century-Crolts, nc.{—l9357, p. 55.

thg farming, semiskilled and unskilled groups under-
represented and the white collar group over-represented

at Indiana University.21 In a survey conducted by the
National Opinion Research Center fifty-four per cent of the
total sample felt college training was needed to get along
in the world compared to forty-seven per cent of the far-
mers indicating this sentiment.22 Howard‘w. Beers' study
uncovered the same orientation.23 5 .

Of course, the argument that these differences
represent the results of what is sometimes termed "social
justice" can be introduced. That is, people of lesser
natural ability fall to the lower strata of society and
assume simpler tasks. To support this argument, many.
studies could be cited which indicate significant rela-
tionships between intelligence of children and the social

and occupational level of their parents.24 This cannot

 

21RaymondA.‘Mu11igan, "Socie-Economic Background
and College Enrollment," American Sociological Rev ew,
(April, 1951), 188-196.

22National Opinion Research Center, "Jobs and
Occupations: .A Popular Evaluation," Class, Status, 25g
Power, Reinhard Bendix and Seymour M. Lipset, edi tors
(Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 1953), p. 42.

i zsfloward'w. Beeri, "Rural-Urban Differences: Some
Ev dence From Public Op nion Polls " Rural Sociology 18
(March, 1953), 1-11. .' ""'""' '

24S. B. Sarason, and T. Gladwin, "Psychological and
Cultural Problems in.Menta1 Subnormality: A Review of

Research," Genetic Ps cholo ical Mono a ha, 57 (Feburary,
1958), 86; and Robert J. Havxgfiurst anfi Fay H. Breese,
"Relation between Ability and Social Status in a Midwestern

C mmunit II . Pr' Me 1 Menta1.Abi1ities " Journal
0? Educalional Bfiyéggfx ’nig (December, l946),’24I=247T—

 

10

be accepted inasmuch as in many of the studies cited above,
the intelligence of the student groups was held constant
while the results continued to indicate the basic differences
in orientations. Furthermore, what is referred to as
intelligence in the above argument is the score obtained

on some form of intelligence test. These tests have been-
shown to favor verbal and symbolic abilities. With this in
mind, it is interesting to note that several studies have
found the middle class to be more strongly oriented toward
verbal and symbolic behavior than the lower class.25 Even
language is a matter of orientation; i.e., the patterning
and redefining of a scattered set of possibilities.26
Kagan, Sontag, Baker and Nelson have demonstrated that
changes in achievement, competitive striving and curiosity
orientations are correlated with gains in the intelligence

quotient.27 This entire question leads one to a considera-

 

25Lee Rainwater, "A Study of Personality Differences
between.Midd1e and Lower Class Adolescents: The Szondi
Test in Culture-personality Research," Genetic Ps cholo ical .
Mono a he 54 (August, 1956), 3-86; and M. C. Templin, ‘
"Relation of Speech and Language Development to Intelligence
and Socioeconomic Status," Volta Review, 60 (September, 1958),
331-334. .

26Clark L. Hull, Princi les of Behavior (New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts, I943), p. 397.

27J. Kagan, et al., "Personality and I.Q. Change,"

Journal 2; Abnormal and Social Psychology, 56 (1958),
23l:233.

11

tion of the perenniel problem of heredity versus environ-
ment. This problem is too broad to be covered here.
Suffice to say, that the position favoring heredity loses
much strength when intelligence is defined as the score
obtained on a so-called "intelligence test."

The point of the matter was well stated by Kluckholm

as follows:

From all the studies we have learned much
that Americans have been unwilling to admit or
discuss in past years. we know that there are
great differences between the classes in atti-
tudes toward education and politics, in
association memberships, in family life, in
'eccupational interests, and a host of other
things. Yet in spite of all the differences
observed and recorded, what is remarked is that
the behavior and attitudes of some classes are
harmoniously in tune with the generalized creed;
‘whereas, those of other classes are off pitch
and limited in range. That the value themes
themselves might be different is seldom suggested.28

It is suggested here that they are both different
and off pitch in some cases. Thinking along the same
lines, Eells stated that "there are three types of culture
in the United States."29 These three cultures are found

in the upper, middle, and lower socioeconomic class levels.

 

28Clyde Kluckholm, "Dominant and Variant Value
Orientations," Personali ‘33 Nature, Socie and Culture,
Clyde Kluckhohm, enry.A. MMrray, David H. gohfizider,
editors (New‘York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1959), p. 355.

29Kenneth Eells, et al., Intelli ence and Cultural
Differences (Chicago, 111.: University 0 icago Press,
, p. 7.

12

This can all be taken "to indicate that the general socio-
economic background of the child is an important factor
in his honesty, attitudes, opinions, and knowledge of right
and wrong."30

In.summary, different orientations of individuals
have been shown to be related to a number of different
social factors. The family influence upon the development
of an individual's value orientation is undoubtedly of
prime importance.31

A second social system or institution, the school,
has been the subject of some studies in this area.
Although the family has exhibited an almost complete
dominance in.va1ue development, some aspects of the
school have been shown to be related to value orientation
changes. The school friendship patterns have been
examined with results indicating that to some extent

attitudes are affected by such interactions.32 The general

socioeconomic level of the student body, a related variable,

 

3oHugh Hartshorne, et al., Studies in the Or aniza-
tion of Character (New York? The Macmillan-50., 19305,
p. 222.

31Ralph F. Berdie, "Why Don't They Go To College,"
Personnel and Guidance Journal, 31 (March, 1953), 352-356.

32Archie 0. Keller and C. E. Butterworth, "Peer
Influences on Levels of Occupational and Educational
Aspiration," Social Forces, 38 (May, 1960), 289-295.

13

is influential in value development.33

What, if any, influence the general social inter-
action patterns within the school have upon the value
orientations of individuals remainlto be examined. Can
the social system of the school play any part in the value
orientation of its students? If so, under what conditions
does this occur? Are there certain types of interaction
patterns that are more conducive to this than others? Can
the school exert an important influence upon individuals
so as to better direct their energies? To these questions

this study is addressed.

Importance of the Problem

Although this study was specifically concerned with
occupational aspirations, the approach may lend itself to
implications for other attitudes, values and aspirations.
‘Occupational aspirations are attitudes that are basically
given to the individual by the family orientation in.vhich
he was nurtured. Many other similar type attitudes, values
and aspirations set the life orientation of the individual.
The means by which the schools can alter the occupational
aspirations of students may also indicate the means by

which other important attitudes, values and aspirations of

 

33Alan B. Wilson, "Residential Segregation of Social
Classes and Aspirations of High School Boys," American
Sociological Review, 24 (December, 1959), 836-845.

14

individuals may be changed. The implications of such an

approach were found in several important areas.

Learning Theogy

Even before he has an adequate background of
appropriate experience, a child may form many
intense and lasting attitudes toward races and
professions, toward religion and marriage, toward
morality and sin. A parent's tone of voice in
disapproving of the ragamuffins who live alo the
railroad track is enough to produce an uncrit cal
attitude in the child who has no basis in his.
experience for the rational adoption of the parent's
point of view. It frequently happens that subsequent
experience is fitted into the attitude thus
uncritically adopted, not -- as the mental hygienist
advocates -- made the basis for the attitudes. In
such cases every contact is prejudged, contrary
evidence is not admitted, and the attitude which
was borrowed second hand is triumphant.34

This background conditions the perceptions of an
individual, and he responds to reality as he perceives it.
If education is the process by which behavior is changed,
it must then change perceptions. Means by which changes
in the basic affective orientations of individuals can be
brought about are vital if education institutions are to
accomplish their purpose.

Social'Mobility
"In the United States, in particular, the element

of social mobility has taken on the character of a central

 

34Leonard W. Doob, Social Ps cholo : An Anal sis
2: Human Behavior (New York: Henry Holt and Co., l95§;,
p. 555.

15

tenet of the democratic faith. Our history makes this
abundantly clear.":55 The underlying assumption is that
individuals should be free to attain any position in the
strata of society that is commensurate with their ability,
worth, and performance. Social mobility is viewed as
necessary in order to maintain a viable, dynamic society.
It is aligned to the dearly held "freedom.of opportunity. "
With the decreasing opportunities of realizing social '
mobility by means of property acquisition or by moving up
the occupational ladder, the educational pathways have

assumed even greater importance.36 Lipset and Bendix made

a similar point in stating:

Our data show that Americans who have only
graduated from high school spend the greater part
of their careers in manual occupations, and that
persons with at least some higher education spend
more time in non-manual occupations.

and also:

When we compared respondents whose educational
attainments were the same, but whose family
backgrounds differ, we find that the sons of manual
workers most often enter the labor market in
manual jobs, while the sons of non-manual workers
usually enter the labor market in non-manual jobs.
Only college education enables manual workers' sons
to enter the labor market in a middle-class occupa-

 

35Gordonc. Lee, "Government and Education Mobility

in a Democracy, " The Harvard Educational Review 23 (no. 3
1953), 211. ““"‘""' "'"""" '

36Natalie Rogoff, "Recent Trends in Urban Occupational
Mobility," Class Status and Power, Reinhard Bendix and Sey-
mour M. Lipset, “editors‘lalencoe, 111.: The Free Press, 1957),
pp. 442-454.

16

tion.37
Although the educational systems have been broadened and
made more accessible, a large number of talented students
do not avail themselves of the educational opportunities.
The lack of desire or lack of an appropriate orientation,
on the part of the student, to advance in social status has
offered a fonmidable answer to this occurrence.38 Some have
denied this and have asserted that the problem is simply
one of financial ability. This position.does not satis-
factorily explain why students withdraw from free public
high schools.39 In a study of college enrollments, Mulligan
stated his conclusions as follows:

It appears the absence of talented students
from the white collar and skilled groups in insti-
tutions of higher learning is due, on the whole,
to economic factors, but that, in general, the

1 absence of talented students from farming, semi-
skilled and unskilled groups in institut ons of

higher learning is due, on the whole to culturza
factors rather than to purely economic factors.

 

37Seymour Martin Lipset, and Reinhard Bendix, Social
‘Mobiligylig Industrial Sociegy (Berkeley, Calif.: University
0 a 9 , p.

ornia ess, 197.

SBHyman, loc. cit. ,
39JosephC. Bledsoe, "An Investi atien of Six

Correlates of Student Withdrawal from.H gh School," Jour-
nal gg Educational Research, 53 (September, 1959), 3-6.

4oMulligan, loc. cit.

17

These cultural factors are important and as noted above are
related to socio-economic class and are nurtured in the
family systemt {As these orientations are passed on from
generation to generation the stratification of society
solidifies or, conversely, social mobility stagnates. To

break this cycle is conducive to continued social mobility.

Societal Talent

In order for a society to fulfill its highest poten-
tial, the highest development of all capable individuals is
gigg,gggflggg. Yet, hundreds of thousands of talented and
sometimes brilliant youngsters in the United States not
only lack the means to go to college but do not even aspire
to go. Sociologists sometimes refer to these youngsters
as the "culturally deprived." They are usually Negroes,
Puerto Ricans, and poor whites who do not know that they
are bright. Others are slum and farm.youths ignored by
colleges because they go unacceptable schools. "Of the
nation's 26,500 high schools, a mere 5,000 produce 82% of
all college students."41 Harvard College's Dean.John‘Munro
states: "In a 'rich and fat' country, we just cannot sit
cheerfully any more and watch good young minds by the
thousands shrivel away."l‘2

 

alnwaated Talent," Time, 86 (November 2]., 1960), 53-
“21bid.

18

The nation's shameful waste of talent is no
exaggeration, About 20% of those in the upper quarter of
their class do not stay on through high school; about
half of the top 10% of high school seniors do not go to
college; 40% of all college students fail to graduate. In
sum: each year 400,000 talented U. S. youngsters quit
school and college."3 The key to the waste is environment
according to Dean Horace Mann Bond of Atlanta University,
who compared opposite ends of the social scale and reported:

"Culturally disadvantaged" families produce
only one talented youngster for every 235 from

"culturally advantaged" families. In affluent

suburbs, 25% of all youngsters score 125 or above

on 1.0. tests. In poor neighborhoods, only 6%

do so. The reason is partly that 1.0. tests,

though aimed at measuring intelligence rather than

learning, necessarily reflect "normal" exposure

to books, conversation and even material gadgets.

Without such riches, the bright slum kid seems to

get dumber as he grows older. Schools treat him

accordingly. With a dwindling sense of worth, he

accepts the verdict and quits schools. 4
Whether or not the schools are capable of realigning the
energies of these able students is not yet known. It is
apparent that redirecting these students will require

changes in their attitude and value orientations.

Cultural Lag

The expression "cultural lag" . . . refers to
the fact that in.modern times material culture has

 

 

 

19

changed far more rapidly than the social setting.
Progress in economic, political, and social rela-
tionships with our fellow men has lagged behind
progress in science and technology . . Our
institutions have changed5 far more slowly than
our technical equipment.

.Also, in what is referred to as the Tandem Theory,
the concept has been defined in a slightly different manner.

Inventions are usually accepted into cultures
in two stages. To begin with, people change their
day-to-day behavior to accommodate the new device
. . . . Then, considerably later on, people change
their institutions and belief systems to allow for
the invention, and arrange means for controlling
its effects in the interest of society. The time
between the first and the second stage is known4
as the cultural lag, a term invented by Ogburn. 6

Stressed in these definitions is the adjustment to
technology. Clearly, as the time between inventions is
shortened and the inventions increase in magnitude the
problem is aggravated. In relating this to modern times
and attitudes, Sherif and Sherif set forth the following

statement:

In spite of all the forces in society that
work toward social change, as a general rule the
change in attitudes of individuals and groups
tends to lag behind the change in actual conditions.
Because of what the sociologisucall "cultural
lag," many prevalent attitudes are highly at

variance with existing facts, social or otherwise.47

 

45Harry Elmer Barnes and Oreen‘M. Ruedi, The American
We of Life: Our Institutional Patterns and SociEl'Pro
Izsoaac liffs, New Jersey: Prentice-_—ll Co., Inc.,
1942-1950)’ po 5o,

46
Stuart Chase, The Pro er Stud of Mankind (New
York: Harper Bros., Inc., *19539, p. ll5._—

471Muzafer Sherif and Carolyn'W. Sherif, .An Outline of

Social Psychology (New York: Harper Bros., 1956). p. 242.

20

People who have found security with their old attitudes
are not willing to give them up readily. In some cases,
these are positive attitudes toward certain types of
occupations. Some occupations, due to the changing com-
plexion of the labor force, are no longer needed. For
example, with the increase of technology and automation,
the needs for manual, unskilled, or semi-skilled laborers
have decreased; whereas, the needs for technicians, managerial
expertnesst scientific efficiency, etc., have correspondingly
increased.48 People who are themselves and who in turn
orient their children to laboring-type occupations are out-
of-tune with reality if the numbers doing so do not reflect
the changing complexion of the occupational distribution,
but remain preportionate to the labor demands existing
prior to the technological improvement. This situation
does in fact exist in the United States today.

In relationship to this, Freedman made the obser-
vation that,

In very small populations the division of

labor rests largely on age and sex differences .

. . . There are not enough age and sex differences

to fully represent the numerous functional dis-

tinctions that develop in a large population.

Specialization based upon attitudes is more impor-
tant in large population groups.

 

48"Unemployables," Time, 77 (May 199 1951), 93'94-

49Ronald Freedman,'g§‘gl., Principles of Sociology
(New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1956), pp. 210-211.

21

The relationship between urbanization and the distri-
bution of occupations was presented by Lipset and Bendix in
the following chart";0

.2222.2£ Community .IZEE.2§ Occupations

Non-manual Manual

Farm. 41% 59%
Rural non-farm and I

urban to 250,000 53% 47%
urban over 250,000 65% 35%

The effects of technology and the accompanying
urbanization are not only to be found in the realignment

of occupations.51

.It has also created a host of new social
arrangements requiring the adaption of different values
and attitudes. Rural people moving into the urban setting
are confronted with societal schemes requiring drastically
different approaches. This represents another dimension

to cultural lag. Many of these people make inappropriate
adjustments or fall into the state of anomie. It is not

 

soLipset,‘gp. cit., p. 205 (A complete breakdown of
occupations is also given; e.g., professional, self-
employed, skllled, semi-skilled, unskilled, etc.)

51Francis R. Allen, g§'§1., Technology and Social
Change (New York: Appleton-Century- ro ts, nc., 1957).

22
unrelated to this fact that approximately fifty per cent
of the criminals imprisoned in.Michigan in 1959-1960 were
from the rural south. Here again, what is needed is some
known means by which individuals can be reoriented to the
demands of BOCiOtY-

Concerned with the same problematical area, Gordon
W. Allport wrote:
M Our plea is for an accelerated development of
social engineering based on social research, to
the end that we may overtake and control thes2
ravages of a rampant and amoral technology.
The purposa placed upon education are not unrelated
to this problem. That this problem should be attended to
is implicit in.Margaret Mead's statement.
Civilization has long been in an unbalanced
state due to the different rates of progress in
the social and physical sciences, but now that the
atomic age gas arrived, the situation is becoming
dangerous.5
Cross-Cultural Education
Invariably involved in cross cultural education are
two different sets of cultural orientations. Many attempts
to educate people of a different culture have failed because

of an inability to cope with this problem, e.g., education

of the American Plains Indians. Frequently, this aspect

 

.52Hornell Hart, "Social Theory and Social Change,"
S osium.on Sociological Theory, Llewellyn.Gross, editor
o: Rm-

vanston{—ll eterson, 1959), p. 768.

 

53Margaret Mead, "Science and Civilization," New
York Herald Tribune (June 16, 1946). p. 10.

23

has been completely overlooked, and programs in foreign
cultures have consisted of dissiminating technological.
improvements, subsequently producing something akin to
cultural lag. The United States has been engaged in a .
number of such programs of technical assistance with the
view in.mind of developing democratic nations. The results
of these endeavors do not indicate that basic changes in
the orientations of the people occur. In fact, the
technological skills have been used to establish social
and political arrangements that do not resemble a democracy.
These problems indicate the need to understand the means by
which value orientation changes occur. Following the study
of'an underdeveloped community in Italy, Bonfield stated:
In some underdeveloped lands, economic develop-

ment can take place only when bonds of custom

and tradition which prevent the individual from

izgiggegaziog:ltynigahis self-interest are

For example, certain types of orientations are pre-
requisite to the articulation of a community development
program. An orientation toward deferred goal gratification
is needed rather than one aimed at obtaining short-run

material advantage.55

 

54sdward c. Banfield, The Moral Basis‘gf g Backward
Sociegy (Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press,-l958), p. l66.

551bid.

24

It is one thing to engineer consent by the

techniques of mass manipulation; to change a

people's fundamental view of the world is quite a

different thing, perhaps especially if the change is

in the direction of more complicated and

demanding‘morality.53
Juvenile Del inguency

One viewpoint sees the delinquent subculture as
arising out of the socially structured gap between the
aspirations of lower-class boys and the means realistically
flavailable to them to realize these aspirations. According
to this view, lower class socialization does not equip
boys to perform according to the requirements of middle-
class dominated institutions such as the school, and,
consequently, the boys suffer "status deprivation" and
low self-esteem. The presence of large numbers of such
boys in "effective interaction" in urban areas leads to
the generation of a set of group-held values which serve
simultaneously to recoup the loss of self-esteem and to
insulate the boys from.further "status punishment." The
delinquent subculture values precisely what middle-class

institutions devalue; e.g., "hanging around" instead of

industriousness; agressiveness instead of self-control.57

 

551bid., p. 155.

57David J. Bordua, "Sociological Theories and Their
Implications for Juvenile Delinquency,"Juvenile Delin uenc :
Facts and Facets (washington: U. S. Government Prlnting
ce:_l96 .

25

similarly, Cohen advances the theory that juvenile

delinquency sometimes takes the form.of a subculture based
upon the norms of the larger culture in reverse - what is
"bad" in the major culture being "good" in the subculture.
Although in this way members of the subculture derive
satisfaction and status which might otherwise be denied them,
they are ill-equipped to meet society's demands.58

In a very real sense, this is a form of inappropriate
orientation which is related to the socio-economic status
of the family.59 Delinquents have been shown to have a
present-time orientation rather than one of deferred goal
gratification.6o The relationship between this and the
problems of community development and educational aspira-
tions cited above is apparent. Related to this are stu-
dents termed "alienated" by Havighurst and Stiles.

Some 15 per cent of young people do not
grow up in a satisfactory way . . . the "alienated"
s an appropriate name for this group, because it

expresses the fact that they are somehow alien

to the larger society in which they live. Such

youth have been unsuccessful in meeting the stan-

dards set by the society for them -- standards of
behavior, of learning in school, of performance on

 

58Albert K. Cohen, Deli uentB s: 9The Culture o_f
theG mg (Glencoe, 111.: The Free Press,

59L. Burchinal, et al., "Children's Personality
Adjustment and the Socie-Economic Status of Their Families, "
Journal Lf Genetic Psychology, 92 (June, 1958), 157.

60Robert J. Barndt, "Time Orientation in Delinquents,"
(unpublished Master's thesis, Michigan State University,
East Lansing, 1953).

26

a job. By the time they reach adolescence these
boys and.girls are visible as the misfits in school.
Either they are hostile and unruly, or passive and
apathetic. They have quit learning and have dropped
out of school psychologically two or three years
before they can drop out physically.

It should be emphasized that alienated youth
can be found 111 all IQ ranges and from middle and
upper class homes, although the percentages are
higher in the 75-90 IQ bracket and among groups
which are culturally disadvantaged. Any child
who lacks recognition at home or in the school,
or who is emotionally insecure, can become alienated.

Within this alienated group are found the
majority of juvenile delinquents. Among the girls
of this group are found the majority of 16 and 17
year old brides.

The 15 per cent about whom.we speak are found
in a community which has a normal cross-section of
American youth. But in the slum area of a big
city the proportion may be doubled. ‘As many as
30 or 40 per cent of the eighth or ninth graders
in some of our city schools are alienated youth.
Again, we find a relationship between this problem

and that brought by urbanization described above.
Frequently proposed is the concept that these
malaligned orientations of youth are due to a basic con-
flict between adolescent and adult values.62 Adolescent
gangs are an outgrowth of conflict between adolescent
boys and adult society rather than a phenomenon of low

socioeconomic status, according to Bloch and

 

. 61RobertfiJ. Havighurst and Lindley J. Stiles, "National
Policy for Alienated Youth," Phi Delta Kappan, 42 (April,
1961), 283-291.

62Paul H. Mussen and Mary C. Jones, "Self-conceptions,
Motivations, and Interpersonal Attitudes of Late and Early-
maturtng Boys," Child Development, 28 (June, 1957), 243-

256; and Ausubcl, 22. cit., p. 336.

 

27

Niederhoffer.63 The conflict between youth and adult
arises in reaction to the prevailing culture's inability
to let growing youth plan an adult part in family life,
gainful employment, and sexual behavior.

An isolation between adults and adolescents is
perceived which is dysfunctional to the society. This gap
is described by Coleman as it appears in the modern.American
high school.64 He found that the high school has become
the center of the adolescent culture in its informal system.
This system is social in nature and contributes strongly
to the norms of behavior. The adolescent seeks status

through these norms . 65

The formal system.is still directed
toward academic tasks and learning. Its norms are fre-
quently in conflict with those of the informal group. Indi-
vidual behavior which contributes to the "school" is given
great prestige in the informal structure, e.g., athletic
achievement. Individual achievement which is solely for
the individual is rewarded by the formal system. Investi-

gating the consequences of this conflict for the high school
system, Coleman indicated that a possible effect of the

 

63Herbert A. Bloch and Arthur Niederhoffer, The Gang:

A Stud in Adolescent Behavior (New York: Philosoph1cal
IiErary 1,9).58

64James S. Coleman, "The Competition for Adolescent
Energies, Phi Delta Kappan, 52 (March, 1961), 231- 236.

550. ‘Wayne Gordon, The Social System.of_ the Hi 1gh.School:

A Stud in the Sociolo of Adolescence encoe, . :
'The,¥;Ee_§ress, 1957.,

28

student value system.on education is the removal of highly
intelligent students from an academic-achievement orienta-
tion to one that holds greater prestige among peers.66 He
contended that there may be need for restructuring educa-
tional programs in order that academic achievement can
enjoy a status among students comparable to that of foot-
ball, cheerleading, and other school—sponsored activities.

In essence, the problem.is to incorporate the
adolescent social life into the school and have it con-
tribute to the goals of the institution, i.e., learning.
Close social interaction between students and staff appears
necessary if this is to occur. newcomb makes the observa-
tion that,

Individual hostility is most likely to be
reduced when institutionalized barriers to commu-

nication with members of the group are crossed,
with t shared support of members of one's own

group.
also

The likelihood that a persistently hostile
attitude will develop varies with the degree to
which the perceived interpersonal relationship
remains autistic -- its privacy maintained by
some sort of barriers to commication.5

 

66James C. Coleman, "The Adolescent Subculture and
Academic.Achievement," American Journal of Sociolo ,
65 (January, 1960), am: . No‘t—fi'é’e t rETa_—_Figztions p with
the problems cited under "Cultural Lag" cited above).

67Theodore H. Newcomb, "Autistic Hostility and
Social Reality," Human Relations, 1 (June, 1947), 81.

681bid., p. 69.

29

The need for research in this area has been recog-
nized.69 The juvenile delinquent, the "alienated," the
adult-adolescent conflict revolves around problems of

value and attitudinal orientations.

Educational Administration

Administration can be defined as the process of
maintaining and enhancing a social system. Enhancing
refers to the improved articulation of the social system's
components toward the attaiment of its purposes . The
educational administrator is responsible for the social
system of the school. The educational administrator is
concerned with the grouping of students and teachers , their
interactions and their effects upon the goal attainment
of the school.70 The educational administrator, through
organizing the lines of commication, the decision-making
process, and ways in which teachers and students are
grouped, can guide the kinds of social interactions that
develop. To do this on a rational basis, an understanding
of the outcomes of various social interaction patterns is
mandatory. Barriers to comunicat ion and informal sub-

groups that are dysfunctional to the social system must

 

6Wilbur B. Brookover and Gottlieb, "Sociology of
Education," Review _9_f_ Educational Research, 31 (February,
1961), 38-56e

7°Daniel s. Griffiths, Administrative Theo (New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., [9595, p. .

30

be understood as well as the means by which they can be
corrected.

Many such dysfunctional aspects have been discussed
above. ‘Whether or not the schools are to cope with the
problems of the misdirected energies of adolescents and
the many other problems of value and attitudinal orienta-
tions will, in large part, depend upon the social engi-
neering abilities of the educational administrators. This
ability will rely heavily upon an understanding of social
interaction patterns and their implications.

In an analysis of the student social system in
high schools, it was found that the formal system was at
variance with the informal system. This observable pro-
blem.is discussed in Griffiths' administrative theory,

If the formal and informal organization
approach congruency, then the total organization
will approach.maximnm achievement. By "approaching
congruency" is meant that the formal and informal
organizations must perceive the task of the organ-
ization as being the same for both, and both
must behave in much the same way to carry out the
task. In all probability congruency could never
be attained; in fact, it would be undesirable if

it ever were attained since there would then exist
a statglof balance in which there would be no pro-

gross.
Griffiths stresses the implications of the decision-

making process upon the congruency or lack of congruence
between the formal and informal systems. Viewing this

problem from the individual's point of reference, Argyris

 

711b1d., p. 90.

31

and Bakke's concept of role-fusion is pertinent.72
Since the individual lives to fulfill his
needs and achieve his goals and cannot do this
without the or anization, and the organization
exists to fulf ll its needs and achieve its
goals, a fusion of the two (individual and
organization) is necessary.73
The fusion process is said to occur when the indi-
vidual obtains the highest expression of his personality
that is possible, and, simultaneously, the organization
has its demands fulfilled at the highest possible level.
When the individual finds his highest personality
expression in the informal system and this informal
system orients the energies of the individual in a way
that is dysfunctional to the purposes of organization,
the need for administrative expertness is apparent.
This problem and many other administrative pro-

blems are fraught with social interaction implications.

A number of other implications will be discussed below.
Rat ionah of the Study

Culture is the pattern of learned behavior and the
products of behavior shared by the members of a society

and transmitted among them over a period of time.74 These

 

721bid., p. 56.
731bid., pp. 56-57.

7“John F. Cuber, Sociolo (New York: Appleton-
Century—Crofts, 1959), pp. 6 - .

32

cultural patterns are acquired by socially interacting with
other members of the society. Cultural patterns can be
acquired through the close observation of roles that_the
individual will be required to perform at some later time,
e.g., son observes father's role.75 Ferals and isolates
offer evidence that personality and culture are learned
through interaction with the social patterns. It cannot

be acquired without human contact.

Indeed, culture seems to be internalized
largely through assutnption of roles in group
liv1ng, or through covert internal rehearsal
of observed roles in anticipation of enacting
them overtly sometime in the future.

Allen concluded that,

There emerges a conception of personality as
an internal organization of attitudes and roles,
in dynamic equilibrium, structured by repeated
gratification of organic and psycho-social needs,
through social interaction largely culturally
patterned. The roles which seem to leave the
deepest imprint are these which, of the many tried,
have been found satisfying or necessary to the
social interaction in which one must participate,
particularly those roles with‘which one has become
most deeply ego-involved. These roles may have
emerged from trial-and-error or they may have been
adopted by way 3f one's identification with an
admired other.7

 

75Arnold w. Green Sociology (New York: McGraw-
Hill, 1952), p. 165. '

76Philip J. Allen, "Childhood Background of Success
in a Profession,".American Sociological Review, 20 (April,
1955), 189.

77Ibid., p. 190.

33

In looking at personality and character deve-
lopment as it s affected by the social class, all
the general principles of culture and personality
are pertinent. This means that in growing up,

a child learns particular ways of satisfying needs
and drives.78

Different social classes evaluate behaviors and
orientations differently as more or less desirable.79 In
the basic socialization of the child, the membership
group exerts a strong influence on the orientation of the
individual. In role theory, we find that the most dynamic
or need-satisfying groups influence the individual's per-
ceptions. In reference group theory, the same relative
influences as noted in role theory are found. Kelly
states,

The term "reference group" has been used in
at least two different ways: we can utilize
the convenient distinction of the campgrative
reference group and the normative reference group.
To use a group of people as a cam arative
reference group is to use it as a frame of
reference within which to make some judgment. To
use a group as a normative reference group, on
the other hand, is to take over its norms, to
emulate its members. Applying the latter meaning
specifically to social mobility, reference group
theory suggests that the potentially upward mobile
usually reveals anticipatory socialization, that
is, they absorb the norms and behavior traits of
higher strata long‘before theyBBave actually
changed their sec 1 position.

With respect to this, Merton and Rossi noted that,

 

78Loeb},loc. cit.
79Ibid.

80H. K. Kelly, "Two Functions of Reference Groups,"
Readi s in Social Psycholcgy, Guy E. Swanson, gt fin
e tors (New York: Henry Holt and Co., 1952).P. 413.

34

". . . peeple who 'conform' to norms of groups of which
they are not yet members, become 'non-conformists' within
their group of origin."81

Hmman found that the standards people set for
themselves are determined largely by reference groups to
which they related themselves.82 A.considerable number of
studies and reports have indicated the impact of dynamic
and membership groups upon the perceptions, attitudes,
values,and judgment of individuals.83

In studying the group behavior of boys and girls,
Cunningham.made the following observation: "Identifica-
tion, the psychological merging of one's self with another

person or group seems to carry with it the acceptance of

the goals of the person or group,"34

 

81R. K. Merton and Alice S. Rosei, "Contributions to
the Theory of Reference Group Behavior," Social Theo and
Social Structure, R. K. Merton, editor (Glencoe, III.:'T53
Free Press, [937), p. 264.

82Herbert H. Hyman, "The Psychology of Status,"
Archives 2; Psychology, 269 (June, 1942), 49.

83Solomon E. Asch, "Studies of Independence and

Conformity: A Minority of One Against a unanimous Majority,"
Ps cholo ical Mono ra ha, 70: No. 9, whole No. 416 (1956);
Muszfer §Eer1f, ’A y of Some Social Factors in Percep-
tions," Archives of Pa cholo , 27 (July, 1935), 5-60; and
Solomon E. Ksc5,'"§ffects of Group Pressure Upon the Modi-
fication and Distortion of Judgments," Readi s‘ig Social
Psycholog, Guy E. Swanson, Theodore M. fiwcomb and Eugene
L. Hartley, editors (New York: Henry Holt, Co., 1952), p.286.

84Ruth Cunningham, et al., Uhderstandigg Grou

Behavior of Bgys and Girls-(fiew‘Yor : eac ere Co ege;
‘Colfiisia'fifiiversity,‘193r7, p. 74.

35

Sims and Patrick found that the attitudes of indi-
viduals changed once in contact with a group possessing
strong attitudes which differed.85 Informal groups have
been of use in changing the values of inmates.86 Konopka
describes the effectiveness of group procedures in the
treatment and rehabilitation of juvenile delinquents.87
McCorkle, Alias, and Bixby describe the operation of a
rehabilitation center for delinquent boysf’8 At the core.
of the treatment is a form of group therapy called "guided
group interaction" which is designed to: (1) help the boys
gain insight into their behavior; (2) to accept responsi-
bility for it, and, (3) to change their attitudes and con-
duct. Rogers found informal groups to be very important
influence in convincing farm people to accept new agri-

cultural practices.89

 

85V. M. Sims and J. R. Patrick, "Attitude Toward the
Negro of Northern and Southern College Students," Journal
2; Social Psychology, 7 (May, 1956), 192-204.

86George H. Grosser, "The Role of Informal Inmate
Groups in Change of Values," Children, 5 (January-February,
1958), 25-29.

87Gisela Konopka, "The Generic and the Specific in
Group‘Work Practice in the Psychiatric Setting," Group Work

in the Pa chiatric Setting Harleign B. Trecker, editor
TN'ew YorE: Whiteside Press: 1956), pp. 11-27.

88Lloyd W. McCorkle, Albert Elias, and F. Lowell Bix-
by, The Hi hfflids Sto :‘ég Experimental Treatment Progect
for Tent u 0 e ers (New or : enry Holt Co., 1 .

89Everett'M. Rogers and George M. Deal, "The Impor-

tance of Personal Influence in the Adoption of Technological
Changes," Social Forces, 36 (May, 1958), 329-335.

36

The sentiments and habits of individuals which
impede social change are derived from experience and
can be modified most effectively by using a group
approach to the problem.

Sociological research during World War II esta-
blished the importance of the primary group in motivating
troops in combat situations. A soldier’s buddies consti-
tuted a very primary group that was based on mutual depen-
dence. Combat veterans in both the Pacific and Mediterranean
theaters agreed that the feeling that you shouldn't let
the other men down was rated as a major source of support
in combat. Officers and enlisted men alike attached little
importance to such idealistic motives as patriotism and con-
cern about war aims.91 Also noted was the fact that enlisted
men.whose attitudes on various military issues were closer
to the attitudes of officers than to those of the average
enlisted man, were much more likely to become officers
than those who conformed to the enlisted man's scheme of
values.92

In a study by Kurt Lewin, housewives were urged to

serve sweetbreads and other variety meats such as tripe,

 

90Meyer F. Nimkoff, "Obstacles to Innovation,"
Technolo and Social Change,F. R. Allen, et al., editors
(New YorE: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1957), Ch. 4.

91Samuel A. Stouffer, 22 al., The American Soldier:
Combat 32g Its Aftermath.(Vol. II of Studies‘ig Social
Ps c5310 ‘ifiqwofld War‘ll, 2 vols. Princeton, New Jersey:
Princeton University—Press, 1949), p. 136.

928amuel A. Stouffer, et‘gl., The American Soldier:
Adjustment During Arm Life (V31. 1 oI—Stfidies‘;n Social
PE‘EEBI6""IE"W3F1 arfIIT'2 vols. Princeton, New Jersey:
Princeton university'PFess, 1949). PP. 259-265.

37
heart, and kidneys during the meat shortage in World War
II. Some housewives were given lectures about sweet-
breads, and others participated in group discussion about
sweetbreads. In the lecture situation individuals seldom
adopted the new meats-~only 3% served sweetbreads; whereas,
after group discussion 32% of the housewives served the
sweetbreads.93

. Similarly, industrial sociologists have generally I

found the primary or face-to-face group to be important
in determining the productivity of factory workers. In
Western Electric Company's Hawthorne Works in Chicago, the
man who under-produced or over-produced (a "rate-buster")
was ridiculed by his fellow'workers. He might be punished
by force of group opinion or even by "binging," that is,
being hit on the arm'muscle.94

Group acceptance of an individual entails his
acceptance of the group's norms and aspirations.95

Levine and Butler compared the lecture method with

group discussion in inducing factory supervisors to over-

 

93Kurt Lewin, "Group Decisions and Social Change,"
Readings in Social WPszcholoEz, Guy E. Swanson, et al.,
e itors Neww or :Henry 0 t and Co., 1952), pp. 459-473.
94F. J. Roethlisberger and Dickson,‘Management and

the Worker (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1539 .

95Russell N. Cassel and Randolf G. Saugstad, "Level
of Aspiration and Sociometric Distance," Sociometry, 15
August-November, 1952), 319-325.

38

come their biased performance in the ratings of workers.
The lecture group did not change. Group decision was more
effective than the lecture in overcoming resistance to
change.96

Not only are group procedures more effective in
influencing the orientations of individuals than are
lectures, but certain types of groups are more effective
than others.

.A general research finding is that greater 7
group pressures are exerted in more primary groups.9

The role of the primary group has been recog-
nized in bringing about change among individuals. '
A common.research finding is that group discussion
is more effective in bringing about change than
is the lecture or similar types of communications.98

While lecture and one-way person-to-person
communication as obviously more efficient where
information is lacking, research findings indicate
that group discussion is generally a better method
for changing individual's attitudes and behavior.99
The type of leadership under which the group oper-

ates influences the nature of the group. Bovard studied
"group-centered" leadership in which direction stemmed from

the group and "leader-centered" in which direction.was

 

. 96Jacob Levine and JohnnButler, "Lecture vs. Group
22231;: amazemenw-TWI 2?- L“ _,___.. m-
97Rogers, _o_p. cit., p. 76.
931bid., p. 74:

99Ibid.

39

100

given by the leaders. The "group-centered" leadership

fostered member-to-member verbal interaction; whereas, the.
"leader-centered" curtailed it. His results show that

the "group-centered" leadership was superior in its power
to alter the perceptions of individuals in the direction of
a common group norm than was the "leader-centered" leader-
ship.

The present experiment suggests that para-
doxically enough the group having the widest
initial latitude of behavior possible is also the
one in which.more conformity can be obtained
from.the individual in those areas where the group
demands it. And it suggests that the fundamental
process in the creation of such a permissive, yet

basically powerful group is verbal interaction
among its members.1 1

Not only do "group-centered" units enjoy more free-
dom due to a stronger normative base, but they also deve-
lop stronger positive feeling toward the group and greater
communication of feelings among group members.102

Group-centered process results in a signi-
ficantly higher rating of interpersonal affects
than leader-centered process.

The factor in group-centered process clearly

related to the enhancement of interpersonal affect
4

 

100Everett W. Bovard, Jr., "Group Structure and

Perceptions," Journal g§.Abnormal and Social Psychology,

1°11b1d., p. 404.
102Everett W. Bovard, Jr., "Clinical Insights as

a Function of Group Process," J urnal‘g§.Abnonmal and
Social Psychology, 47 (1952), 534-339.

40

ratings is the high level of member-to-member
verbal interaction maintained.

While in both group-centered and leader-cen-
tered process, the group-as-a-whole is, on the averge,
rated higher in affect than individuals comprising
the group, this difference is significantly greater
for group-centered process.103

It was also noted that human relations were improved:
under the "group-centered" process by correcting the per-

ception the members had of one another.

A faulty perception of the other implies a
defect in takin the other's role. It seems to
lead to predictive errors regarding the other's
behavior and feelings because the hypotheses
on which these predictions are based are erroneous.

The value of verbal interaction, then, is that
it corrects erroneous perceptions of the other's
feelings and behavior because the derivative hypo-
theses are constantly subject to check through
predictions made from them in the form.of behavior.
It may be said to correct the permanent drift
toward distortion in interpersonal relationships
arising from the field in which they occur and
from the internal needs of the participants.
Conversely, a reduction in the freedom of verbal
interaction (such as is obtained in leader-centered
process) reduces the likelihood that unrealistic
self-other assumptions will be subject to correc-
tive experience. 04

Groups plan an important role in the orientations of
individuals. Certain types of groups lend themselves more

readily to a normative interplay than others.

 

103Everett W. Bovard, Jr., "The Experimental Pro-
duction of Interpersonal Affect," The Journal 2; Abnormal
and Social Psychology, 46 (October, [951), 328.

Sherif

41

To the extent to which the behavior of members
is coordinated with the requirements of its norms,
the group possesses a mode of integration which
may be called normative. 0

and Sherif present a succinct overview of the area

as follows:

'When individuals unite to act to ether in’a
situation brought about by common motives, interests,
or deprivations, or by some turn of events, the '
interactiop tends to produce some sort of new group
formation. 06

In this formation the values, norms, and aspirations of the

group emerge. These are required for group membership.

twined

‘Men's socialization is revealed mainly in
his attitudes formed in relation to the values
or norms of his reference group or groups.

His conception of the scope of his world,
his standards of living, his aspirations toward
wealth, women, and status are well regulated, his
goals are set, by prevailinglierarchy 9f social
organization and norms of his group. 0

Kilpatrick dramatically states how man is inter-
with the group matrix as follows:

Outwardly he behaves in the fashion upheld
by the group culture. Inwardly, he thinks the

group thoughts, feels the group values, accepts
the group standards, and thus becomes the group-

'type person. His very self is built on the group

model -- and he approves.

 

105Freedman,|gp.‘gi£., p. 171.

loésherif and Sherif, 93. _c__i_§.. p. 156-

107m., p. 203.

108WilliamH. Kilpatrick, "Culture and the Indivi-

dual," The Sociales ects 2g Education (Illinois: Interstate
Printers and—PEEIis ers, Inc., 1951), p. 32.

42

The evidence indicates that man acquires attitudes
in social interaction with groups. Particular types of
groups exert greater influence on.the individual's orienta-
tions than others. These are characterized by a high
frequency of verbal interaction, face-to-face relation-
ships, and a dynamic function for the membership. .Another
characteristic must be noted which follows from the
ensuing statement.‘ "There is much documentation for the
conclusion that people who have attitudes tend to acquire
and retain information in their serviceg." 109.

This implies that factual information in itself need
not necessarily alter the opinions and attitudes of an
individual.

If the reality changes are not recognized,
no opinion change can be expected; if factual
material is presented in such a way that the
individual is generally unaffected by it, his atti-
tude will not be affected.

It is important to recognize that the shifts
in attitude are dependent upon changes in percep-
tion.

It is a fact that much of the material
available in the general community that contributes
to the structuring of perceptions is not of the
"factual" variety. 10
People tend to reject information that does not

eagree with their perceptions. Facts which are in agree-

ment with their perceptions are readily accepted.

 

1°9Newcomb,_o_p. cit., p. 82.

110Eugene L. Hartley and Ruth E. Hartley, Fundamen-

tals of Social Psychology (New York:.Alfred.A. Knopf., 1955),
p7'7307”"‘--

 

43
{A person soon forgets the ideas he has which
are not consonant with his predisposition but

retains without loss or even with an increment
those ideas consonant with his predisposition.111

Lewin and Grabe concluded, following a study of
attitudes and behavior, that fundamental attitude change
(re-education) was dependent on identification with a
group.

It is basic for re-education that this linkage
between acceptance of new facts or Values and
acceptance of certain groups or roles is very
intimate and that the second frequently is a pre-
requisite for the first.112
Research on educational films has obtained results

which indicate that the predisposition of an audience to
accept or reject an attitude or opinion operates to influ-
ence the individual's interpretation of the communication.113

In sum, this evidence leads to the conclusion that:

 

IIICarl I. Hovland, Arthur A. Lumsdaine, and Fred D.
Sheffield, Ex eriments on.Mhss Communication (Princeton,
New Jersey: Princeton Ufiiversity Press, 1959), pp. 192-193.

112Kurt Lewin and P. Grabbe, "Conduct, Knowledge,

and Acceptance of New Values," Cha i ‘Attitudes and Be-
havior, Publication No. 3 (Cambridge, Mass.: Research 53n-
ter for Group Dynamics, Department of Economics and Social
Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, l945),p. 12.

-113John P. Kishler, "The Effects of Prestige and Identi-
fication Factors on Attitudes Restructuring and Learning
from Sound Films," Technical Report SDC 269-7-10, Instruc-
tional Film Research Program.(Pennsylvania State University,
March, 1950); and Alice M. McFarlane, "A Study of the Influ-
ence of Educational Geographical Films Upon the Racial
Attitudes of a Group of Elementary School Children,"
British Journal of Educational Psychology, 15 (November,

’ pa [31-13-3-o '

44

"Attempts at changing attitudes or social prejudices
experimentally by the dissemination of information of
factual argument have been notably unrewarding."114

Consequently, groups in which interaction revolves
around the exchange of factual information are unlikely
to influence the orientations of individuals. Interactions
of this sort can be referred to as cognitive. Interactions
in which sentiment or feelings are involved can be referred
to as affective.

Typologies have been established which reflect the
different interaction patterns of groups. One such typo-
logy uses the termgpgigggy‘gyggp for those characterized
by face-to-face, affective relationships and secondary
gyggp for those characterized by impersonal, cognitive
relationships. The concept primagy gyggp was first developed
by the early American sociologist, Cooley. He regarded
the neighborhood, the family, and the children's play
group as primary. He chose the term primagy for this
kind of group (1) because these groups are the first in
which a child finds membership, and (2) because of their
importance in socialization and the development of per-
sonality.”5

The differences between these types of groups have

 

114Sherif and Sherif, 22. cit., p. 238.

115 - - -
Charles H. Cooley Social Organization (New York:
Scribner and Sons, 1909), pp. 23-24.

been viewed as follows:

116

PRIMARY GROUPS

Personal and intimate rela-
tionships among members.

Small size.

Much face-to-face
communication.

Permanency - members are to-
gether over a long period
of time.

Members are well acquainted
and have a strong sense of
loyalty or "we-feeling"; a
strong amount of group
pressure is present.

Informality is most common;
the group usually does not

have a name, officers, or a
regular meeting place.

Group decisions are more
traditional and non-
rational.

45

SECONDARY GROUPS

Impersonal and aloof
relationships among
members.

Large size.

Little face-to-face
communication.

Temporary - members
spend relatively
little time together.

Members are not as
well-acquainted and
anonymity prevails.

Fonmality prevails -
group often has a‘
name, officers, and
a regular meeting
place.

Group decisions are
more rational and
the emphasis is on
efficiency.

Although Rogers identifies a number of characteristics,

not all of these are mandatory for the existence of a parti-

cular type of group.

In brief, some of the given charac-

teristics are more fundamental to the identification of a

particular type of group than others.

By the same token,

a number of the characteristics are interrelated as was

indicated in the research cited above.

 

116Rogerstgp. cit., p. 68.

It should also be

46

be noted, that Rogers is mainly concerned with groups in
which membership is voluntary.

Becker, in differentiating types of groups, termed
them."Sacred" or "Secular."117 "Sacred is roughly compar-
able to "Primary," and "Secular" is roughly comparable to
"Secondary." Redfield used the terminology of "Folk" and
"Urban." In this case, "Folk" is roughly comparable to
"primary," and "Urban" is roughly comparable to "Secondary."118
Although these typologies frequently refer to entire
societies, the same dichotomy in types of human interaction
is noted. .

‘Williams labels the dichotomy with the terms
"Associational" and "Communal."119 He describes their
differences in the following statements:

The.associational society has a large number

and variety of specific associations, a loose

articulation of the component units of the social

structure, and few universally practiced behavioral

codes; it gives an.important place to law and
administrative controls.1

 

117Howard Becker, "Sacred and Secular Societies,"
Social Forces 28 (May, 1950), 261-376; and Howard Becker,
Through Va ues 22 Social Interpretation (Durham, N.C.:
Du e University Press, 1950).

118Robert Redsfield ' '

. . , Tepotzlan. A Mexican Village
(Chicago: university of Chicago Press: 1930); and o rt
Redfield, The Folk Culture g£_Yucatan (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1941).

119Robin.M. Williams, Jr., American Society: A
Sociolo ical Interpretation (New‘YorEk Alfre A. Knopf,
nc., 6).

.1201bid., p. 451.

social

47

The communal society, in pure type, would show
relatively slow social change; few specialized, free-
standing associations; rigid co-ordination or inte-
gration of subunits; many universally accepted values,
goals, and norms of conduct; relative lack of specia-
lized and impersonal mechanisms of social control.121

‘In so far as relations are associational they
are precisely instruments, a meani in the pursuit
of ends, not the ends themselves. 22

Communal relations are likely to stress diffuse
attitudes (for example, respect, affection, loyalty,
and so on) rather than rationally instrumental
actions. Associational relations typically imply
separateness of interacting persons; whereas, in
communal relations it is presupposed that the parti-
cipants are linked together by many comon activitbs
and values. Closely related to this is the speci-
ficity of associational relations: typically they
are narrowly and explicitly defined and restricted
to a specific interest or life area.

In associational relations the major emphasis
tends to center upon objective rights and overt
performance; in communal relations, and the stress
moves toward guestions of meaning, intent, motives,
and feelings. 24

Implied in the schematic description given thus
far is the tendency to define associational rela-'
tions as emotionally neutral, or at least to con-
sider the feelings of the participants as formally
irrelevant.125

An interesting component of these two types of

arrangement is the nature of valuations. "Extrinsic

 

12;;2299

12?;229:

1232229. .
12§l§i§., p. 452.
1251229.

48

valuations" are related to the "Associational" type, and
"Intrinsic valuations" are characteristic of the "Communal"
type.

Extrinsic valuations are those judgments of
value that depend upon generalized social categories
and external symbols of status sach as‘sex, age,
~nationa1ity, occupation, rank, income, wealth,
medals, race, authority. Intrinsic valuation has

to do with the immediately personal qualities of

the individual apart from any categorical social
attributes, and its presence is demonstrated wherever
one person feels an obligation to treat another
person as - in any degree - an end in himself

rather than purely as a means.126

Extrinsic valuation focus upon what a person
has; intrinsic valuation concerns what the person
is gua individual.127
Gerdinand Toennies called the dichotomy "Gemein-

schaft" and "Gesellschaft."128 In dealing with societies
in general Toennies states that "Gemeinschaft" is a
. . . social order which - being based upon
consensus of wills - rests on harmony and is
developed and enobled by folkways, mores and
religion.129
Gessellschaft is an,

. . . order which - being based upon a union of

 

 

 

128Ferdinand Toennies, Communit and Socie -
Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft; translated an introduced

5; CEEFIes P.—I30mis (East EEnsing, Michigan: Michigan
State University Press, 1957).

1291bid., p. 223.

49
rational wills - rests on convention and agreement,
is safeguarded by political legislation. and finds
its ideological justification in public Opinion. 30
The "Gemienschaft" social arrangement is also char-
acterized by other elements. Human relations are treated
as ends in themselves. Intimacy and sentiment are expected
among the actors. Norms are traditional and clearly under-
stood. The knowledge of individual members is great.
Capabilities and personality variations of members are
known intimately and accounted.for in interactions.131

In the "Gesenschaft" arrangement, relations and
actors are used instrumentally. MacIver makes a similar
observation: "The face-to-face group depends upon the
congeniality of the members. The large association puts
other requirements first."132

The "GeseUschaft" arrangement is also characterized
by impersonal and affectively neutral interactions. The
actors are not known in their entirety to each other.
Norms are rational rather than traditional.133

It should be noted that the above dichotomy is con-

ceptualized for the purpose of identifying differences.

 

13°Ibid.

1310harles P. Loomis, Social Systems: Essaysigg their
Persistence and Cha e (Princeton, J.J.: D. Van Nbstrand
Co., I935),‘E§3ay ; harles P. Loomis and J. Allan Beegle,
Rural Social 8 stems (New York: Prentice-Hall Co., Inc.,
1930); and Char es P. Loomis and J. Allan Beagle, Rural
Sociolo ' (Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall,
Co., nc., 1957).

132R' ' . ‘ J
. M. MacIver Sociegy (New York: Farrar and
Rinehart, 1941) . ' -

50

In actuality, societies and groups may vary along a continuum
between the two polar types.

In general, groups possessing Certain types of inter-
action patterns have been more closely identified with the
sentiments and orientstions_of its members. These differ-
ences have beenexpressed in various typologies. Research
indicates that groups with affective inter-relationships
influence the attitudes of its members. Sherif and
Sherif relate this to the changing of attitudes as follows:

Since attitudes are formed (learned) in
relation to objects, persons, groups, or norms" 134
(values), it follows that they are not unchangeable.

Groups play a major role in shaping attitudes
in man. In fact, it may be safe to assert that
that formation and effectiveness of attitudes
cannot be accounted for without relating them to
their group matrix.135

. . . attitudes are not acquired in a social
vacuum. Their acquisition is a function of relating
oneself to some group or groups, positively or
negatively.136

The process of attitude change involves She
same factors as those in attitude formation.1

 

134Sherif and Sherif, 122. £153
13?;pgg., p. 138.
13§;2;g., p. 154.
13?;239., p. 240.

51

. . . the introduction of a standard or refer-
ence frame from some "congenial" group (reference
oup) effects a substantial change in individual

Judgment.138
Adding the power of identifying with the "congenial"

group can create changes in previously held attitudes.139

. One may contend that man "ought" to change his
attitudes on the basis of a rational decision. .Although
this may be the case with some individuals“ what will
berequired of man in the future, in general, this is not
the case today._ There is the possibility that man can be
effectively changed to an orientation which espouses the
rational determination of man. This remains to be seen.
At present, even mass media rely in very large measure
on affective responses in order to attract and to retain
their audiences as well as to change attitudes and
Opinions.140

Be that as it may, the nature of social inter-

actions bears upon the probability of an attitudinal change
occurring. If the individual's relationship to a group of
differing attitudinal orientation is cognitive, there is

little likelihood of an attitudinal change ensuing. On

 

1381bid.
139Ibid.

140Gerhart D. Wiebe, "Mass Cummunications," Funda-
mentals 2; Social Ps cholo , Eugene L. Hartley and Ruth
Eggnirgley, editors (dew York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1955). DP.
.9.

52

the other hand, should the individual's relationship with
the group of differing attitudinal orientation be affec-
tive, an attitudinal change is likely to occur. In this
situation, the individual must reconcile his attitudes
with those of the differing group if his identification
with the group is to be secure. Changes of this nature
can best be fostered in a group characterized by more per-
sonal or primary social interactions. For the purposes
of this rationale, groups of this type will be called
Integrative, inasmuch as the individual in some fashion
is merged with the group and identifies with it. Groups
with which the individual is not merged and with which he
does not identify will bemlled Non-Integrative. The
differences in the characteristics of the two groups can

be listed as follows:

 

Integrative Egg-integrative
l. Gemeinschaft-like l. Gesellschaft-like
2. primary 2. secondary
3. affective 3. cognitive
4. personal 4. impersonal
5. folk-like 5. urban-like
6. sacred-like 6. secular-like
7. accepting 7. indifferent
8. informal 8. formal
9. strong identification 9. weak identification

10. familistic

._.:
O
.

contractual

..-—.—

53

ll. sentiment ll. rational

l2. intimate 12. aloof

l3. communal l3. associational

l4. intrinsic valuation l4. extrinsic valuation

_Consequently, schools characterized as Integrative
will exert a greater influence upon the attitudes of an
individual student than schools characterized as Non-
Integrative. .

I The direction of the attitudinal change of students
remains to be considered. The above has simple indicated
that certain types of social systems are conducive to
influencing attitudes: whereas, others are not. As to the
direction of the attitudinal change, one must consider the
norms of the group with which the individual is socially'
interacting. In this case, the school or educational

system is being considered. The schools and teachers have
been traditionally and consistently "middle class" oriented.141
This connotes a high valuation upon individual success, the
acquiring of a respectable social status (prestige), striving

to "better" oneself, etc. Concisely, this orientation

 

141Frederick L. Whitney, "The Social and Economic

Background of Teachers Colleges and University Students,"
Education, 47 (April, 1927), 449-456; John W. Best, "A
Study of Certain Selected Factors Underlying the Choice
of Teaching as a Profession," Journal of Ex erimental
Education, 17 (September, 1948), EDI-239; Willard S. Elsbee,

Amer can Teacher (New York: American Book Co., 1939);
Fldrence Greendoe, “Community Contacts and Participation of
Teachers," (Washington: American Council on Pupil Affairs,
1941); and Robert J. Havighurst and Hilda Tabs, Adolescent

Character and Personality (New York: John Wiley and Sons,
Inc". {12949 )',' . .

54

places high value on financial and occupational achieve-
ment. No attitudinal change can be anticipated in an
individual adhering to the same orientation as the social
system (school) with which he is interacting. Conse-
quently, attention is centered here upon the students of
the "blue collar" or low socioeconomic class orientation.
The attitudinal change of such students should be in the
direction of middle class orientation of the school.

About the teacher's influence on students' attitudes,
little evidence is present.

Considering the central role which teachers
occupy in the socialization process, the limited
amount of systematic research regarding their
impact on the lives of youth is surprising. 2

By virtue of their dominant role in the educational system,
teachers are in a position of influence once the proper
relationships are established. As Jones and Thibaut

state:

By the very nature of the role relationship,
normative evaluation and the application of
sanctions will play a critical part in the inter-
actions between superiors and subordinates.143

The general image of a teacher is that of an aloof

and somehow different kind of person. Being a sterotype,

 

142Elmer.Van Egmond, "Socialization Process and
Eduigtion," Review of Educational Research, 21 (February.
96 , 85.

143Edward E. Jones and John W. Thibaut, "Inter-
action Goals as Bases of Inference in Interpersonal Percep-
tion," Person Perce tion‘ggd Interpgrsonal Behavior, Renato
Tagiuri and Luigi Petrullo, editors (Standard, California:
Stanford University Press, 1958), p. 168.

55

it is an exaggerated and preconceived image of a category
of people.144 It is known that an increase in the freedom
of verbal interchange increases the likelihood that un-
realistic perceptions of others will be subjected to
corrective experience.145 Hence, this barrier is capable
of being overcome in the appropriate social milieu. A

Some research indicates that teachers frequently
function in a manner that is not conducive to the develop-
ment of close social interrelationships. Flanders, for
example, observed that teachers use less than 3% of talking
time in praise and encouragement and less than 5% of talking
time in reacting to and using ideas initiated by students.
He found that 85% to 95% of communications were devoted to
intellectual (cognitive) aspects and only 5% to 15% to
social-emotional (affective) aspects of the classroom
experience.146

Other research related to the influence of teachers
upon the attitudes of students is contradictory. Merton,
Reader, and Kendall found that the faculty communicated

the value and attitudes of students is contradictory.

 

144William Buchanan, "How Others See Us," Th, Annals,
295 (1954). 1-11 .

145Stanley G. Estes, "Concerning the Therapeutic
Relationship in the Dynamics of Cure," Journal gf Consulting
Psychology, 12 (March-April, 1948), 76-8l.

146Ned A. Flanders,"Teacher-Pupil Contacts and Men-
tal Hygiene," Journal 2; Social Issues, 15 (1959), 30-39.

56

Merton, Reader, and Kendall found that the faculty communi-
cated the values and attitudes of the medical profession
to the students in medical schools.147 It should be added
that medical schools are noted for small classes and an
intimate relation between staff and students. Sanford,
Freeman, and Jacob in separate studies concluded the changes ‘
in student attitudes or values were not the result of
faculty or curricular influences.1489149v150 In.most cases,
they felt that peer influences were more important.
Goldsen, although not concerned with either faculty or ‘
peer influences specifically, concluded that the general
social millieu affects the "academic educational values"
of college students.

Certain teaching methods have been more sensitive '
to the role of the teachers in attitude change than others.

L

147Robert K. Merton, George Ga Reader, and Patricia

L. Kendall, The Student Ph sician (Cambridge, Massachusetts:
Harvard university Press, l957)

148Nevitt, Sanford, "Knowledge of Students Through
the Social Studies " Ssotlight on the College Student
(Washington: American ounci ofidEducation, 959), pp. 47-89.
149Mervin‘W. Freedman, "The Passage Through Gellege,"
Journal 2:,Social Issues, 12 (November, 1956), 13-28.
150Philip E. Jacob, Changigg‘Values'ig’Colle e:
An Exploratory Stud 2; the)lmpact‘g§ College eac 12g (New

Ydr : per & 08., l

57

After reviewing the research on the subject, Birney and
McKeachie stated that the goals of student-centered teach-
ing are determined by the group, placed emphasis upon

affective and attitudinal changes, and showed attempts to

develop group cohesiveness.151
Homans sums up this entire topic by stating:

. . . if the scheme of activities is changed, the
scheme of interaction will, in general change,
change also, and vice versa.

. . . people who interact frequently with one another
tend to like one another.]-535

If the interaction between the members of a
group are frequent in the external (formal) system,
sentiments of liking will grow up between them,
and these sentiments will lead in turn to further
interaction over and above the interactions of
the external system.154

. . . persons who feel sentiments of liking for

one another will express those sentiments in
activities over and above the activities of the
external (formal) system, and these activities

may further strengthen the sentiments of liking.155

 

151Robert Birney and Wilbert Mcxeachie, "The
Teaching of Psycholo : A Survey of Research Since 1942,"
Psychological Bulletin, 52 (January, 1952), 51-68.

152George C. Humans, The Humar Grou (New York:
Harcourt, Brace and Co., Ind., 1955), p. 2.

153Ibid., p. 111.
1541bid., p. 112.
1551bid., p. 118.

58

The more frequently persons interact with
one another, the more alike in some respects both
their activities and their sentiments tend to
become.156

Statement of Main Hypothesis

AUnder the rationale of this study two dichotomous
types of social arrangement were discussed. One in which
the attitudes and'sentiments of the members came into
play and could be influenced was termed Integgative.
Another in which the interactions were affectively neutral
was termed Non-Integrative. It was also remarked that
schools and teachers are of a "middle-class" orientation.
This study was concerned with students of low socio-econo-
mic background and attitudes.

Therefore, the main hypothesis of this study is as
follows: .

The attitudes of students of low socio:economic
background will more nearly approach the middle class
orientation in Integrative schools than will the
attitudes of students of low socio-economic background in
Egg-Integrative schools.

This main hypothesis undergirds the specific

research hypotheses that is stated under Methodology.

 

1561bid., p. 120.

59
Definition of Terms

Aspiration

Anaspiration is a desired future state of affairs.
In terms of social position, it is a desired future social
status. Social status is closely linked to occupations in
our society. Therefore, occupational aspirations are

fundamental to desired future social status.

Social Status

Social status is the position of an individual or
group relative to others inta society. It is the position,
rank standing, or locus of an individual or group in the
social scale. Within the limits prescribed by an indivi-
dual's status in society generally, he may occupy different
statuses in different groups and institutions. The assign-
ment of statuses and the definition of their duties and
rewards are crystallized in and sanctioned by the culture.
Some of the criteria by which status is judged are leader-
ship, dominance, ability, accomplishment, occupation, or
other means of recognition designated by title, degree,
membership, dress, behavior or other devices for securing

attention.157

 

1 157Henry Pratt Fairchild (ed.), Dictiona of
Soc ology and Related Sciences (Paterson J. 3.: Littlefield,
A ams ’

an Co., l96l), p. .

6O

Social‘glggg

Social classes are abstract categories of persons
arranged in levels according to the social status they
possess. It is a stratum.in society composed of groups of
individuals of equal standing.

Family background, friendships, moral attitudes,
amount and kinds of education, success in occupation,
taste in consumption, possession of usable wealth, type of
vocation, degree of prestige of one's political, religious,
and racial affiliation all contribute to fixing or idenfi-

fying one's social class.

Social Stratification

Social stratification is the arrangement of social
classes in order of higher and lower. It need not refer
to social classes only. It can refer to the arrangement
of various societal elements into groups on different
horizontal levels. The ordering of statuses in terms of
varying superiority and inferiority can comprise a social

stratification.

Social Mobil igy

Social mobility is the movement of individuals from
social group to social group. It is specifically referred
to as vertical social mobility when the movement of the
individual is up and down through the social classes. This

is the meaning most frequently intended in common usage.

61

It, in fact, comprises a change in social status when being
so defined. Lateral social mobility refers to the movement
of individuals from position to position.within a social

class.

am

Power is the degree to which an individual can in-
fluence or control the actions of others. Every social
order is s systemeof power relations with hierarchical super
and subordination and regulated competition and coopera-
tion.158

Jan him
For the.purposes of this study, the high schools

will be limited to thoso‘within the public educational
systems. High schools are educational institutions which
contain either grades »ton through twelve or nine through
twelve.

Teagggy
A teacher is a person employed.by an educational

institution.whose msin.dutios consist of the instruction
of students.

Student
A student is a person enrolled in an educational
institution for the purpose of learning.

 

153nm. , p. 227.

62

§_og_i_a_l Interaction

’ Social interaction is the reciprocal action which
occurs when two or more individuals confront or communicate
with one another. The interstinulat ion and responses of
personalities and groups conprise social interaction.

Reference _G_r_ou_p _

A reference group is a group with which an indivi-
dual identifies and fro. his perceptions is vital. It is
a group that influences the behavior of an individual.

Ror-
A norn specifies what action should be carried out
in a given situation.”9 "A nor: is a person's idea of.

what behavior ought to be in given circuastances , and norms
can often be realized.“-60

Group Nora
A group nor- is accepted or. required behavior for

a person in a particular situation which is con-only agreed
upon by a number of socially interacting individuals.

 

l'59‘vl’ill.ians, _p. c__i__t., p. 380.

16ollenry w. Riecken and George G. Romans, "Psycho-
logical Aspects of Social Structure, " Handbook of Social
Pa cholo , Gardner Lindsey, editor (Cambridge,-_ Mass.:
afiison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1956), p. 788.

63

my; Relation

A given interaction pattern which is repeated often
enough to give rise to relatively stable expectancies among
the' actors is a social relation.151

§.-_e.t_-.; m

A social system comprises, "all these social rela-
tions or complexes of relations that are clearly guided
by culturally stylized rights and obligations shared by
the participantald'éz

Deferred Gratification

Deferred gratification is the postponement of
short-range rewards in order to secure more long-range
rewards and the resulting satisfaction.153 It is frequently
called "deferred goal gratification."

§_o_c_i_a_)_._ Sanction

A social sanction isthe sentiment of approval or 1
disapproval which a society places upon various behavioral
patterns. It is related to the punistnent-reward systen of

 

“Williams, _og. 9_i_t_., p. 380.
162lbid.
163Leuis Schneider and S. Lysgsard, ”The Deferred

Gratification Pattern," American Sociological Review, 18
(April, 1953), 142-149.

64

the society.15" It is the threatof punishent or the promise
of reward set by or for a group upon the conduct of its

mnbers .

sales.
A belief is a conviction that something is or the
acceptance of any given propos ition as true. It establishes
a mental condition in the individual which may serve as the
basiaryfor voluntary action. The reality of a particular
belief my be" based on sound factual evidence or upon pre-
judice, intuition, or misleading appearances. The percep-
chair the individual influences the nature of his
beligfidhbelief systen and vie: versa: The nature of its
derivation does “not affect the potency of belief itself.

Va 13‘ s

- Values are thus "things” in which people are
interested, things they "want, desire to be or
become, feel as obl story, worship, enjoy. Values
are nodes or organiz conduct-meaningful,
affectively invested pattern principles that

guide human action. 6

All‘valuos are culturflLY‘l-I!” by definition.165

LL 1____

17

164W111impfio slat-e. po ”0o
l‘53-'Willi'a‘uls, 32. 515., p. 375.

“hem.

65

A value is a person's idea of what is desirable,
what he or others ought t8 want, not necessarily
what he actually wants .15
Values are hardly every fully attainable.168
If gold or a big car are values, it is hard to be
too rich or to get too big a car.

Social values are abstract and often monscious
assumptions of what is right or important. 5

Socialvalues, however, are not only shared by
a Innber of individuals but are regarded as
matters of collectivt welfare by an effective con-
sensus of the group. 7°
Values concern the goals or ends of action
and are, as well, components in the selection of
adequate means.1 1
Allport distinguishes between two types of values.172
The "End-Value" refers to the type in which the object, as
given, completely satisfies axcharacteristic need. The
need intensity varies and the value object remains constant.
In the ”second type of value, called "Mean-Value," the degree

to which the object will satisfy a standard, or constant

 

167Riecken, loc. gig.
158nm.

159Kimball Young and Raymond w. Mack Sociolo
939 Social Life (New York: American Book Go.: 15355, p. 70.

"Williams, loc.g_§_t_.
171Ibid., p. 376.

172 '
Floyd B. Allport The ies of Perce tion and the
Concept of Structure (New Yorffi'wney and Sons, Inc. ,
9 PP. SSE‘SSIo

66

need may be partial or incomplete. In this case, the need
is held constant and the value objects may be arranged on a
satisfaction hierarchy.

Williams' ”Qualities of Values" indicates a varying
interpretation of the concept from that of Allport. The
"Qualities of Values" are asfollows:

(1) They have a conceptual element - they are
more than pure sensations, emotions, reflexes,
or so-called needs. Values are abstractions
drawn from the flux of the individual's ilmlediate
experience. (2) They are affectively charged: they
represent actual or potential emotional mobiliza-
tion. (3) Values are not the concrete goals of
action, but rather the criteria by which goals
are chosen. (4) Values are imptrgant, not
"trivial" or of slight concern.

Attitudes

'An Attitude is an effective orientation to an
object.17‘

Anything people 93f ine as real may be the object
of an attitude.1

lacking a statement of behavior, this def i-
nition impl es 1that an attitude may or may not
be acted upon.17

 

17"Williams, 32. _c__it., p. 374.

17".4tx-chie 0. Haller, Some Princi les of Attitudes
n: uIcEE“

andBehggior (East Lansing, any on State
mversity, 1960) Dittoed, p. 2.

1751bid.
175nm.

67

By contrast, the two following definitions imply a
"propensity to act" in one direction or another with respect
to an object.

An attitude is an acquired, or learned, and
established tendency to react toward or against
something or somebody. It is evidence by either
approaching or withdrawing types of behavior,
and the obJect of the reaction becomes thereby
either a positive or negative value, respectfully,
from the subject's viewpoint. An attitude may
be social in the sense that it may be fh9racteris-
tic of a homogeneous group of persons. 7

An attitude is an abstract ion used to refer
to an individual's inferred characteristics that
account for such consistency in his behavior and
expressions as he may manifest, characteristics
that are not prescribed by situational imperatives.178
Attitudes have four linear parameters: (1) direction,
which may be negative or positive, (2) degree, that is,
it may be weak or strong, (3) intensity, which refers to
the degree of conviction, (4) salience, which refers to its
relative importance to the individual};9 "Social attitudes
are group norms acquired by the individual as a function
of his identification with the group."180

It should be noted that a value differs from an

 

177Fairchild, 22. cit., p. 18.

17BClyde W. Hart, "Attitudes and Opinions," Funda-
mentals ,1; Social Psycholou, Eugene L. Hartley and EutE E.
Etley, editors ( w or : Alfred A. Knopf, 1955). P. 683.

179nm.

l'80Ibid. , p. 684.

attitude in that an attitude may be positive or negative:
whereas, a value is always positive in the directional
sense. Further relationships are brought out in the
following statement.

A cognitive consistent attitude is one which
follows logically from the person's view of an
event in relation to his goals. More precisely,
an attitude is said to be cognitively consistent
to the degree that (a) the value on which it met
rest are not inherently contradictory, (b) the
focal event is clearly perceived in relation to
the values, and (c) the valence of the attitude
(both direction and strength) is congruent with
the individual's perception of the object-goal
relationship.18

. . . differential attitudes exist when two
or more people invest an object with a different
degree or direction of affect, or when an object
is uncognized by one or more people but is cog-
nized egg invested with effect by one or more
others. 2

Inasmch as they are of importance to the work that
follows, two aspects of "The Behavioral Consequence of
Attitudes" must be set forth.

Principle 1. The Object Behavior Consequences
of Differential Attitudes: when greens differ -

in their attitudes toward an o ect, t e

attims will 5 sitivel correla w th their

vorwt res cttoteo ec.

 

181William A. Scott, "Cognitive Consistency, Response
Reinforcement and Attitude Change ," Sociometn, 22 (Septem-
ber, 1959), 227.

l'leiallor, gp. 9_i__., p. 3.
18"’Ibid.

69

Principle 2. The means Behavior Consequence
Differential Attitudes: when rsons differ
in their attitudes toward an oEJect, their atti-

 

 

 

 

Edes will 5 ositively correlated thh their
Savior with respect to objects viewed as means

 

 

 

 

 

fir omot their es ireleehavior toward t5;
o§3ect og’tée attitfieJa‘

Level __o_f_ Occupational Aspiration

The level of occupational aspiration is a special

type of aspiration. The desired future status, in this

case‘, refers to a position in the occupational prestige

hierarchy .

and ,

The level of occupational aspiration as an attitude

Like all attitudes, level of occupational
aspiration is personal orientation to act ion with
respect to a social object. As an orientation
to action, it represents the person's conception

- of and desire for a future state. The social

object is the occupational structure, with parti-
cular occupations ranked from highest to lowest
in terms of prestige. A person's level of occupa-
tional aspiration thus stands for his orientation
to action with respect to a point or a limited
range of points on the occupational prestige hier-
archy.185 ‘

 

Level of occupational aspiration is closely
related to the concept oal. A oal may be consi-
dered to be a special k nd of obfiect toward an
object conceived as a goal, but only in the degree
to which they are favorable. They are not unfavor-
able. But the level of occupational aspiration's
particular objects are more complex in that they

 

13‘18id.
I'85Archie 0. Bauer, "The Occupational Aspiration

Scale: Theory, Structure: and Correlates of an Instrument
Designed to Measure Differential Levels of Occupational As-
piration" (Unpublished report to the United States Office of
Education, Department of Health, Education and Welfare,

February 28, 1961), p. 12.

70

are alternatives. The particular one chosen.may

be considered a oal, but the rest of the alternatives
are not necessar 1y viewed even as substitute goals
by any one person. He will reject some altogether.
Only the particular range to which the person is186
oriented may be considered to be a goal for‘hha.

Level of occupational aspiration.may also be related
to the concept value.

The concept "value” is used in at least two
different ways. For one it is sometimes used to
indicate that which has positive affect for the
person. Since a person‘s level of occupational
aspiration is a desired level, it may be consi-
dered to be a value for him in this sense of the
term. Level of occupational aspiration is also
related to the concept of personal value orientation.
In the writers' opinion the value orientation of
the person may be considered to be his attitude
toward a widely accepted cultural value. .A
cultural value, in turn, may be considered to be
a societally-defined maxim holding that a certain
behavior or object is inherently good. Insofar
as high occupational prestige levels are cultural
values, then a person's level of occupational
aspiration may be considered to be his value orienp
tation with respect to the higher levels.187

An Overview of the Study

This study was concerned with.high schools as social
systems and their influence upon the attitudes of their
students. It identified a number of social interaction

 

186Ibid, p. 13.
1871bido’ ppo 13-14o

7].

patterns that occur within the schools and related these to
one specific attitude of the student. Considerable empha-
sis was given to social interactions between the staff and
student personnel. The interaction patterns were not
observed directly in a manner that would produce a socio-
gram. Rather, information was obtained that reveals the
nature of a number of modal patterns of social interaction.

This study was conducted concurrently with a
research project being conducted by the College of Education,
iHichigan State university, under a grant from.the united
States Office of Education, Department of Health, Education
and welfare (Project 918, Contract SAE 8687). The Project
Director was Dr. Karl T. Hereford, Co-Investigators were
Dr. Floyd G. Parker and Dr. Donald J. Lou. The author was
Assistant Director for the project.

This sponsored research project was mainly concerned
with studying the relationships between school building
design and the social interaction patterns of student and
staff personnel. It was also concerned with certain atti-
tudes of the student and staff personnel and their evalua-
tion.of their physical environment. .

This area of the sponsored research project and,
that of the present study were sufficiently related to make
the design and procedures suitable to both. The research
project related school building design characteristics to
social interactions and attitudes: whereas, this study

72

related social interactions to attitudes.

Sunnary

This chapter began by presenting a brief introduc-
tion to study for the purpose of orienting the reader to
the entire study. A definition of the problem was then
given with pertinent references. Basically, the problem
was whether or not the school can change some of the funda-
mental attitudes of students, e.g., occupational aspira-
tions. This was followed by a discussion in detail of
the importance of the study in a number of areas, e.g.,
learning theory, social mobility, societal talent, cultural
lag, cross cultural education, juvenile delinquency, and
educational administration.

The rationale of the study emphas ized the role of
social interaction in attitude formation and change. It
developed a classification of social systems following
well known typologies. This classification identified
social systems in which social interactions involved the
interplay into play.

The general hypothesis of the study was then stated.
This was followed by a definition of terms and an overview
of the study which described the relationship of this study
to a sponsored research project. This classification identi-
fied social systems'in which social interactions involved the
interplay of attitudes and those in which attitudes do not

come into play.

CHAPTERII
METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY
Introduction

This chapter first describes the sampling procedure

' 53

used in the selection of the high schools used in this study. f~
The relevant characteristics of these schools are given.

The instrumentation used in this study is presented,
and the rationale of each instrument is discussed. Corre-
lations between the various instruaents are examined.

Tito control variables are identified, and the
design of the study is developed. The application of the
design is made using pertinent statistical data. The depen-
dent variable and the eight independent variables are
defined.

The research hypotheses are stated, followed by the
statistical procedures that were employed. The chapter:
concludes with a summary.

Selection of Schools

The school population used in this study consisted

 

of senior high schools. Several junior-senior high school
combinations were also incorporated, but only the senior
high portions of these schools were used. Hone of the
schools involved was constructed prior to 1950, and the

 

74

majority were not constructed prior to 1955. The size of
school enrollment was delimited so as to include only those
schools that have a minimum of one hundred fifty students
per grade.

The sampling procedure reflected the interest of
the sponsored research along with which the data for this
study were collected. This procedure sought a sampling
which lent itself well to the purposes of this study.
Interesting design and utilization features which increased
the likelihood of obtaining noteworthy differences in social
interaction patterns were sought. Efforts were made to
obtain a nationwide representation.

State departments of public instruction in all
forty-eight continental states of the United States, leading
school building architects and noted school building con-
sultants were sent a letter introducing them to the study.*
They were requested to submit a list of new and interesting
high schools. A.form.was enclosed for this purpose. The
state departments were requested to recommend high schools
within their respective states. The architects and consul-
tants made recommendations on a nationwide basis. All
forty-eight state departments of public instruction responded.

 

tAppondix A presents all the letters and forms
referred to in this section.

75

We of those indicated they did not feel they could recs-mend
any. of the new high schools in their states. A return of
approximately eighty per cent was obtained from the archi-
tects and consultants.

From a review of pertinent journals (1'93 Overview,
Architectural .R__e_v_i_e;_!, American m 59359 Journal, _T_l_1_e_
Nation's Schools, American §9_ho__g_l 93g University, _Ar_c_l_1_i_-
tectural Fo_____m) a list of schools receiving awards or cita-
tions was compiled.

From these sources, a list of four hundred-one
different high schools was obtained. These four hundred-
one schools were sent an introductory letter and a ques-
tionnaire. The state departments were informed of this
contact. An eighty per cent return was obtained, and ninety-
four and three tenths per cent of these schools indicated a
positive interest in the study.

On the basis of the information that was obtained,
many schools were eliminated from further cons iderat ion.
Eighty-two schools were surveyed by members of the staff-of
the College of Education, Michigan State University. Ver i-
f icst ion of information previously obtained and the accu-

mulation of further information were accomplished during
these surveys. Additional secondary information was also
Obtained during the testing phase of the study.

Thirty-four high schools were selected for study
on the basis of the accumulated information. Efforts were

76

made to obtain schools that were comparable on the basis
of' per pupil expenditure, pupil-teacher ratio, and size of
the administrative staff. High schools within a range of
colmunity types were sought. The characteristics of these
schools and the code number assigned to each school are
given in Appendix B.

Delimitations of the Study

The study was limited to public high schools.
Although a nationwide sample was sought, a bias favoring
the northeast seaboard states is noted. High schools
with fewer than one hundred-fifty students per grade were
not incorporated. High schools located in suburban—type
cos-inities are over-represented in the sample. The study
concerned itself with one attitude which is that of level
of occupational aspirations. Hale senior and junior high
school students who had been enrolled in the particular
school for a minimum of two years and are of low socioeco-
nomic background were used with respect to this variable.

Eight interact ion variables were considered in the
mtudy. A twenty-five per cent stratified sample from-the
student body and the entire teaching staff. was used with
respect to these variables. The student sample was strati-
fied on the basis of sex and socioeconomic level.

These intereact ion variables were not observed

directly. It is asst-ed that the self-reporting procedures

77

used for this and other information obtained an honest
response.

It should be noted that the schools need in this
study are above average in socioeconomic level. The national
average on the Duncan Socio-Economic Index used in this
study is 38. The average socioeconomic level for the
students in the schools need in this study was 46.

Instrmentat ion

Level _o’_§ Occupational Aspiration
The level of occupational aspiration was measured

with the Occupational Aspiration Scale. The scale has
been extensively studied and is of proven validity and
reliability.1

This variable was selected for a number of reasons.
Its importance is found in the fact that "The status of
the white male in America depends primarily on occupation."2
Within the rationale above are contained a number of
implications for the importance of this dimension. Man's

 

l'Archie O. Heller, "The Occupational Aspiration
Scale: Theory, Structure, and Correlates of an lnstrmaent
Designed to Measure Differential Levels of Occupational
Aspiration" (unpublished report to the United States Office
of Education, Department of Health, Education and welfare,
February 28, 1961). p. 134; I. v. Miller, "The Measurement
of Level of Occupational Aspiration" (paper presented at
the meeting of the Rural Sociological Society, University
Park, Pennsylvania, August 26, 1960).

2August B. Hollingshead, "Class Difference in Family
Stability," _T_h_ep Annals _o_f_ the American Acadepz 3g Spgisl
Science , ccncxn (November-7195.67,- "39 .

78

status in society depends upon such dimensions. As Homans
states,

. . in an informal group a man wins status
through his direct exchange with the other
members, while he gets status in the larger
society by inheritance, wealth, occupation,
office, legal authority--in every case by his
position in some institutional sc me, often
one with a long history behind it.

The specific measure of level of occupational aspir-
ations, the Occupational Aspiration Scale, is related to
the educational achievement of students and the number of
years of formal education they will seek to attain.“

‘ Education is a means by which the attainment of
occupational status is possible. That is, education can
supply the avenue by which a given occupation can be
attained. The higher the occupational level desired,
the greater is the need for educational achievement. More
specifically, a student aspiring to the position of truck
driver will view as necessary the limited range of factual
information required for the attainment of this occupation:
whereas, a student aspiring to the position of chemical

engineer will view as pertinent to his purposes a much

 

3George C. Homans, Social Behavior: _I___ts Elements
Porms9(Hew York: Harcourt, Eace m, Inc., 131),
p. 37 .

‘Haller, pp. cit., Chapter IV.

79

larger array of factual information. This relationship
is stated in theoretical formhunder the definition of
”attitude" above (Principle 2). The implications of this
to the educator in the classroom are quite clear. The
fundamental motivation to achieve is related to the level
of occupational aspirations.5

The instrument used to measure occupational
aspirations is presented in Appendix C.

The Occupational Aspiration Scale consists
og eight questions, in each of which the sub-
jects is instructed to select any of ten alter-
native occupations. The eight questions are
designed to tap the person's realistic and
idealistic levels of aspiration at each of two
career periods, initial and mature. In.questions
referring to realistic levels the subject is
instructed to choose the job "I'm.sure I can
get," while in.questions referring to idealistic
levels he is instructed to choose "the job I'd
prefer if I had my choice." In questions
referri to the initial career period the sub-
ject is trusted to choose a job for the time
"when my schooling is f inished," while in ques-
tions referring to the mature career period he
is instructed to choose a job for the time
"when.I'm.3O years old." Each question simul-
taneously taps one level and one career period.
This means that four questions exhaust all the
possible combinations. This number is doubled
by repeat' each once, to give the total of
eight quest ans.

50. A. Minor and a. 6. Heel, "The Relationship
Between.Achievement native and Occupational Preference,"
Journal'pg Counselipg Pszchologz, 5 (1958), 39-43.

80

E hty appropriate occupations, taken from the
Nations Opin on.Research Center study of the pres-
tige of 90 occupations, were distributed among the

8 questions, 10 occupations per question. The highst
prestige occupation is in question 1, the second
highest‘is in. stion 2. and so on down to the'
80tthhich is . Question 8. Thus the alternatives for
each question systematically span the entire range of
occupational presti e. On any one question a person
scores zero points if he chooses the lowest-ranked
occupation, or up to nine points if he”ch6oses the
highest-ranked. The highest possible score 72 and
the lowest possible score is zero.6

It should be noted that the occupations within the
possible responses for each of the questions are not in
rank order from high to low. They are arranged in the same
unrsnked order in each of the eight questions.

Because the above instrument is based upon the
prestige hierarchy of occupations, the international as-
pects of this dimension deserve mention. It has been
found that similar consensus concerning the prestige of
occupations exists among samples taken in twelve societies:
Great Britain, Haw'Zealand, Germany, Japan, the Soviet
Union, The United States, The Netherlands, Australia,
Brazil, the philippines , Mexico, and Okinawa]

 

6Archie O. Heller and C. E. Butterworth, pp. cit.,
Po 292s

7Alex Inkeles and Peter Rossi, "National Comparisons
of Occupational Prestige," American Journal of Sociolo , 61
(1956), 329-339; Ronald rem, Sm rRi—‘T‘gnge o cu-
potions in Australia," British Journal of Sociolo , 4
(1953), 181-187; Bertram.fiEtcEInson, "TEE Social §¥adings
of Occupations in Brazil," British Journal pf Sociolo , 8
(1957), 176-189: Edward A.'TTF§;Ein, "TEe Prest go a uation
of Occupations n a! Underdeveloped Country: The Philippines,"
American Journal of Sociolo , 63 (1958), 390-399; and F. Van
HeeE,‘p§ al., Socizle St ‘pp dali in Hederland Vol. I
(Leyden: F: E. SE'ah'fe'r oese . ., 5U,W .

81

Socioeconomic 1.33;;

In order to determine the socioeconomic background
of the students, information concerning the occupation of
the student's father was obtained. ‘The questions used to
obtain this information from.the students are found under
item 5 of the general information questions in the student
instruments. (Appendix C) 0n the basis of the information
obtained from these questions, the father's occupation was

rated according to the Duncan Socioeconomic Index.8

£95.12! Educational Orientation

Information concerning the educational plans that
parents held for children was obtained from self reports of
the students. In this way, the students' perceptions of
the plans were revealed. The students were asked to respond
to the following question:

Do your parents hope you will go to college? Yeo____
No A double check or a non-response was taken as an

indication of indecision.

Social Interaction Variables
Six social interaction variables were measured.

These were used as the independent variables in the study.

 

8Otis Dudley Duncan, "A Socio-Economic Index for All
Occupations" (Population and Research Training Center,
University of Chicago, 1960) (Dittood).

82

All information was obtained from.self-reports of the
students.

Sources 2g‘gggg Friendships, ‘When the school func-
tions as a dynamic social system in the life of the student,
a larger number of friendships should be made within its
context. On this basis, the following question was asked:

List the name of your best friend that is of your
own age group. (Please print)

Where did you get to know
Last Name First fiame

 

this friend? (Check one)

Classes together

Lives in my neighborhood
Church

 

School club or activities
Out-of-school club

Other (name)

"Classes together" and "School club or activities"
were scored as in-school sources of friendships. The three
other given alternatives were scored as out-of-school
sources of friendships. ‘Uhen the student responded by
indicating an "other," it was scored according to its
appropriate category. Obviously, a student may become
acquainted with another student enroute-to and from school
as well as have classes with the same student in school.
This would supply a dual source of friendship, but what is -
important is the point of activities at which the student

83

perceives of this student as a friend.

Sources _g_f_ M Friendships. When the school
functions as a dynamic social system in the life of the
student, a larger number of adult friendships should be made
within its context. This obviously related directly to
teachers for the most part. On this basis, students were
asked the following questions:

List the name of the adult you like best. 'ggg

parents or relatives. (Please print)

‘Where did you get to know
List Name First fiaie

this person? (check one)

In-school activities

 

Out-of-school activities.
what does this person do for a living?
The name of the person was of no particular interest
except as it served to cause the student to think of one
particular person. The person's occupation is used to
estimate the socioeconomic status of the individual.
Freguencz of Interaction. The more frequently
people interact, the more likely is the development of
primary relationships. The instrument is aimed at revealing
the interaction between staff and students. The instrument
is presented with the student instruments in Appendix C.
General Sources‘ggmgglp, If a high school is
characterized by close, friendly relationships, students are
more likely to turn to in-school sources. On this assumption,

84

an instrument was constructed which is presented with the
student instruments in.Appendix C.

In scoring this instrument, certain responses are
considered as in-school sources of help and others as out-
of-school sources.

Faculty Sources‘gg‘figlp. In order to determine this
factor, the "Sources of Help Inventory" discussed above
was used. In this case, the scoring procedure was changed.
Responses 1, 3, 4, and 5 were considered as faculty sources
of help. Responses 2, 6, 7, and 8 were considered as other
than faculty sources of help. The identity of the indivi-
dual given when response 9 was used to differentiate faculty
sources from other sources. In effect, the adolescent
peer group was separated from faculty sources of help as a
dynamic element in the school social system.

Teacher Knowledge of Students. Teachers who work
closely with students are more likely to acquire both
impersonal and personal information concerning the students
than are teachers who remain aloof from the student body.

On this assumption, an instrument was constructed to deter-
mine the extent of knowledge a teacher possessed concerning
a student which the teacher felt he knew best. This instru-
ment asks the teacher to identify a student whom he feels

he knows best. He was then asked to respond to a number of
questions that seek information about the student. The

student was asked to give the same information concerning

85

himself as was requested from the teacher. The questions
used are given in‘Appendix C.

These questions were contained on separate forms
and administered to both students and teachers simultaneously.
The information provided by the teacher was scored against
that provided by the student. The teachers responses were
marked either right or wrong on all questions except the
one requesting the father‘s occupation and the one con-
cerning the student's hobbies. That is, no credit was
given for answers that approximated that given by the stu-
dent on questions other than the two exceptions just noted.
On the question requesting the father's occupation, teachers
were given full credit for occupations which were closely
related to that provided by the student, e.g., carpenter
and cabinetémaker. On the question concerning hobbies,
teachers were given full credit for hobbies when they were
closely related to those provided by the student, e.g.,
sewing and clothesmaking, checkers and chess, etc.

Student Sources‘gg'gglp. The degree to which stu-
dents work closely together can indicate the degree to
which their student associations are important in their
life activity. On this basis, the degree to which students
turned to themselves for the solution of problem. was
measured. This was obtained from the "Sources of Help
Inventory" cited above. In this case, items 2 and 7 were

scored as student sources of help and all others scored as

86

other-than-student sources of help.

Sources _o_f_ _B_e_s_g M Students. The teachers were
first requested to identify the student whom they felt 'they
knew best. They were then asked the following question:

"Do you know this student from out-of-school contacts?
yes_____ no_______." From the reply to this question, the
teachers indicated whether they knew the students better

from out of school contacts rather than from contacts within
the school. If the school's interaction patterns afford
teachers many close relationships with students, more

teachers will identify students from'within-the-school
contacts as best known rather than from out-of-school' contacts.
Administration _o_§ Instruments

All of the above instruments were administrered to
both the students and teachers in a booklet which also
included the instruments used in the sponsored research
project being simultaneously conducted. The booklet con-4
taining the instruments used in this study are given in
Appendix C.

The booklets were administered to the students by
the regular classroom teachers in each of the schools at
which time the teachers also completed their booklets. They
were administered in the school classrooms during the morning
portion of the school day. All the schools were tested
during the months of November and December of 1960.

87

Reliability __an_d_ Validity _o_f_ Instruents
The social interaction instruments listed above

are sociometric in nature. The reliability and validity
of such instruents are difficult to establish, and no
information concerning these factors is available for the
social interaction instruments used in this study. It is
apparent that an observation procedure for establishing
social interaction patterns would have greater validity
and reliability than can be obtained on a self-reporting

instrtnent .

Correlations 3g _S_o_c_i_a_l Interact ion Factors

The average scores for each high school on“ each
of the social interaction factors were correlated. Table
I presents the results of these correlations.

The table indicates that the social interaction
factors are not all positively or significantly related.
Consequently, the factors are not additive.

Procedures

Socioeconomic M

The average soc ioeconomic level was determined
on the basis of the Duncan Socie-economic Ratings of the
students ' fathers occupations. The entire student body
was used for this purpose. The results of this procedure

are presented in Appendix D.

88

Using the mean socioeconomic rating for the entire
thirty—four schools (46.3), the schools were divided into
no groups. These schools whose mean soc io-economic level
was above the mean for the entire thirty-four schools were
placed into the "high" group: these schools whose mean
socioeconomic level was below the mean for the entire
thirty-four schools were placed into the "low” group.

This procedure was necessary because the socio-
economic lovel of the student body was found to be
related significantly to the average Occupational Aspira-
tion score (r 8 .lol). This was anticipated inasmuch as
Wilson had reported a similar correlation in his study.9

 

S’Alan B. Wilson, "Res idential Segregation of Social
Classes and Aspirations of Hi h School Boys," American
Sociolggical Review, 2!» (I959 , 856-885. .

89

Table I

Correlation of Interaction Factors

 

 

.378 X X

.368 .286 X
-.013 .133 .136
-.029 .104 .403 .777

.185 .331 .362 -.006 .099
-.119 -.118 -.341 .276 -.311 -.196

IGWNUOU>
XNNN
NNNNN
NRNNNN
*NNXNXN
NNNNNNNN

o360 .222 o528 .095 .138 " .263 .020

 

Sources of Peer Friendshi s
Sources oandult Friendsh ps
Frequency of Interactions
General Sources of Help
Faculty Sources of Help
Teacher Knowledge of Students
Student Sources of Help
Sources of Best Known Student

NGWNUOU’

90

This resulted in the breakdown given in Table II.
Thble II

Socioeconomic Breakdown of Schools

 

School number
High 7 8 9 17 18 20 21 22 23 24 28 29 30 31 33
Socio-
economic
Level
Low 1 2 3 4 3 6 10 ll 12 13 14 15 16 19 25 26

27 32 34

 

Because of a skewed distribution, fifteen schools
are found in the "high" group and nineteen are found in the
"low" group. . ‘

Parent College Hopgs
From the findings of mum study,10 it was antici-

apated that the educational aspiration that parents had for
the students would influence the level of occupational
aspirations of the students. As measured, this influence
was related to the findings of Bordua11 which indicate that
parental stress on a college education for their children
is related to educational aspirations of the children.

Then correlating the mean occupational aspiration scores

 

1QKahl, loc. cit.
11Bordua, loc. cit.

91

of the low socio-economic students in each of the thirty:
four schools to the percentage of parents having hopes

of a college education for these students a positive
relationship resulted (r8 .698).

.Appendix E presents the data on each school concerning
the percentage of parents having hope of a college education
for the student as perceived by the students.

Due to a high correlation noted above between the
parental hopes for a college education for the students
and the occupational aspirations of the students, the
thirty-four high schools were divided into two groups to
control for this influence. This division was made on
the basis of the average percentage of parents having
hopes of a college education for the students in the
entire thirty-four high schools (Average I 88.4). Schools
that had an average above this average percentage were
placed in the "high" group: schools that had a percentage
below this average percentage were placed into the "low"
group. Table III presents the results of this breakdown.

92

Table III
School Breakdown on Parent Hopes for College

 

School Code lumber

 

High 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 9 10 11 12 14 18 19 2O 24 27
29 32
Parental

Hopes
Low 8 13 13 16 17 21 22 23 25 26 28 30 31 33

Table III reveals that nineteen schools fall into
the "high" group and fifteen schools fall into the "low"
group on the factor of parental college hopes for students
as perceived by students.

Whenncombining the breakdown of schools on the basis
of socioeconomic level of the student body with the break-
down of schools on the basis of parental hopes for college,
four possible combinations emerged. These combinations are
given in Table IV.

Table IV
Possible Combinations Resulting From Breakdown of

Schools on Socioeconomic Level of Student
Body and Parent Hopes for College

Eociiiconomi: Levei iarenfaf soffege
of Student Body Hopes

A __a _‘ h‘

31“§‘.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::';§.1.'5h
L.'---..'--"'"""“""""-'----High

m“--- ...... -----------------------m

93

Table V presents the schools divided into the com-
binations givsn in Table VI . This procedure was fess iblo
because the correlation between the Parental Hopes for
College and the Socioeconomic Level of the Student Body is
low for tho thirty-four high schools ( r I .109).

Table V

School Breakdown on. Socioeconomic Level of Student
Body and Parent CollegeJiopes

 

 

Soc ioeconomic Parental School Code Number
Level of Stu- Hopes for
dent Body College
High High 7 9 18 20 24 29
High Low 8 17 21 22 23 28 30 31 33
Low High 12345610111214192732
Low Low 13 15 16 25 26 34

 

Table V reveals that there are six schools in. the
"high-high" group, nine schools in the "high-low" group,
thirteen schools in the "low-high" group, and six in the

"low-low" group.
Design of the Study

The socioeconomic level of the student body and the
parent hopes for a college education for the students are"
two variables for which this study not control. The above
school breakdowns are for‘the purposes of meeting this need.

94

From this, the design of the study was made. Table VI
presents the design of this study.

Table VI
Design of the-Study

W -

 

Control Independent Dependent

Variables Variables Variables
Socioeconomic Parent Eight Occupational
Level of Stu- Hopes for Social Interaction Aspirations
dent Body Co loge Factors

 

Schools divided into
High "High" and "Low" on Test
. each of the .factors
High

 

Schools divided into
Low "high" and "Low" on Test
each of the .factors

 

Schools divided into
High "High" and "Low" on Test
each of the factors

 

Schools divided into
Low "High" and "Low” on Test
each of the factors

 

9.913833. _I__m_glementat ion

The design indicates that the schools were first
divided on the basis of the socioeconomic level of their
student bodies. Next, they were divided on the basis of
parent college hopes for the students . The groups obtained

95

were then divided on each.of the eight interaction factors.
Before doing this it was necessary to deter-ins whether or
not the control variables were correlated with the indepen-
dent variables. Tahle VII presents these correlations.

Table VII

Correlations between Control Variables and
Independent Variables

 

Parent Hopes Socioeconomic level
for College of Student Body
Sources of Peer
'Friendships r I .124 r 8 -.068
Sources of Adult
Friendships r 8 .082 r 8 .204
Frequency of
Interaction r a .031 r I -.181
General Sources
of Help r 8 -.189 r = -.243
Faculty Sources
.f mlp r . -o213 1' - -o112
Peer Sources
of Help r I .171 r = -.266
Teacher Knowledge
of Students r t .140 r 8 -.013
Sources\of Best
Known Student r I .022 r 8 .393

 

Table VII shows that one of the independent variables
was significantly related to a control variable. To be
significant a correlation had to be greater than .34.

96

This lads it necessary to divide the schools on the average
for the independent variables within each of the school
groups. That is, the schools in the "high-high" group
were divided on the average of the "high-high" group on each
of the independent variables; the "high-low" group of
schools was divided on the average of the "high- low" group
on each of the independent variables , etc.

The data for each of the independent variables upon
which these divisions were Iade are presented in Appendix
F along with the average for each of the school groups.

Dividing the schools on the average score on each
of the social interaction factors for each of their respec-
tive groups, Table VIII resulted.

Maintaining the breakdown of schools on the basis of
the socioeconomic level of the. student body and parent
college hopes, the above information is reorganized. Tables
IX, x, XI, and XII present this organization of this infor-
nation.

The schools were then divided on the basis of the
number of social interaction factors on which they were
"high" for. their group.

97

stle‘VIII

Breakdown of Schools on Social Interaction Factors

ea- Fre—

cher quency

know-of

Friends ledge inter-

on

”I“

ources

of

ources

of

School Best

acu ty ounces
Sources Sources Sources of

of

Huaber ‘Known Friends Help

action

of Peer
Help

of g
Help

Adult

Student

 

ruHIH.LuuLanntuHZuvuuuH2fl1uthnnnnflrbvuuuHZfl'uHIHunnrbnnuu

HZuvunfiflcunrhuuanqhrunTLnnLTLrutfhuuHIHrun2u1uHZHvuthun

HHHHHHLLLLHHHHHLLLHHHHHLLHLLHLHHHH

“nuutfhcutuH2fl1unTLshnuHIH.LvunuHIH'hruL2fl1uHTLun"Zunnuunrh

LHLLLHLLHHLHLHHHHLLLHHHLHLHLLLHLHL

flxuvutfhruu2flvunfhwuflfiuqu'unfhcutzfl'utfhquIHquunflzu1n

.Lvutfhunuunfifl'uuuH2unuquuuH?L.hrufl:flunvuLTL'utuLZH'uuuflfifleh

HHHHLLHHLHLLLLLHHHLLHHHLHLLLLLLHLH

12345678901u345678901236567890.1234
1.1 1111111222222222233333

 

"H" stands for high and "L" stands for low.

Note:

Table III

98

Breakdown of Schools on Social Interaction Factors:

High-High Group

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Social
Interact ion Division School Code Number
Factors
Sources of Peer High 20, 29
Friendships Low 7, 9, 18, 24
Sources of Adult High 7, 20, 29
Friendships Low 9, 18, 24
Frequency of High 20, 24, 29
Interaction Low 7, 9, 18
General Sources High 7, 18, 29
of Help Low 9, 20, 2!.
Faculty Sources of High 7, 18, 20, 24, 29
Help Low 9
Teacher Knowledge High 7, 9, 24, 29
of Students Low 18, 20
Peer Sources of High 9
Help Low 7, 18, 20, 24, 29
Sources of Best High 9, 20, 24, 29
Known Student Low 18

 

Table X

99

Breakdown of Schools on'Socisl Interaction Factors:

High-Low Group

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Social
-- Interaction Divis ion School Code Number
Factors
Sources of Peer High 21, 22, 23, 31, 33
Friendships Low 8, 17, 28, 30
Sources or Adult High 8, 21, 22, 31, 33
Friendshipe Low 17, 23, 28, 30
Frequency of High 8, 21, 28, 30, 31, 33
Interaction Low 17, 22, 23
General Sources High 8, 22, 28, 31, 33
of Help Low 17, 21, 23, so
Faculty Sources High 8, 28, 30, 31, 33
of Help Low 17, 21, 22, 23
Teacher Knowledge High 22, 23, 30
of Students Low 8, 17, 21, 28, 31, 33
Peer Sources High 17, 21, 22, 23, 31, 33
of Help Low 8, 28, 30 '
Sources of Best High 28, 30, 31, 33
Known Student Low

8, 17, 21, 22, as

k

Table X1

100

Breakdown of Schools on Social Interaction Factors

Low-High Group

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Social
Interact ion Divis ion School Code Nunber

Factors '
Sources of Peer High 1,2,3,4,5,6,ll,12,14,19,32
Friendships Low 10, 27
Sources of Adult High 3, 6, 10, 11, 12, 32
Friendships Low , 2, 3, 4, 14, 19, 27
Frequency of High 2, 3, 5, 10, 11, 14,19
Interaction Low 1, 4, ,6, 12, 27, 32
General Sources High 1, 2, 10, 14, 27, 32
of Help Low 3, 4, 3, 6, ll, 12, 19
Faculty Sources High 1, 2, 10, 14, 19, 32
of Help Low 3, 4, 3, 6, ll, 12, 27
Teacher Knowledge High 1, 2, 4, 5, 10, 14, 27
of Students Low 3, 6, 11, 12, 19, 32
Peer Sources of Help High 2 6, 10, 12, 14, 27
of Help Low 1 3, 4, 5, 11, 19,32
Sources of Best High 3, 6, 11, 12, 14,19,27
Known Student low 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 32

 

Breakdown of Schools on Social Interaction Factors:
Low-High Group

Table XII

101

W

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Social
Interaction Division School Code Number
, Factors
Sources of High 13, 15, 26,
Peer Friendships Low 16, 23
Sources of High 13, 15, 16
Adult Friendships Low 25, 26, 34
Frequency of High 13, 15, 25, 26, 34
Interact ion Low 16
General Sources High 13, 15
of Help Low 16, 25, 26,
Faculty Sources High 13, 15, 26
of Help Low 16, 25, 34
Teacher Knowledge High 16, 26, 34
of Students Low 13, 15, 25
Peer Sources High 15, 16, 25
of Help Low 13, 26, 34
Sources of Best High 13, 15, 26
Known Student Low 16, 25, 34

 

102

That is, schools that placed "High" on five or more
social interaction factors were placed into one group, and
schools that placed "High" on fewer than five social inter-
action factors were placed into another group. The schools
that placed ”High" on five or more social interaction
factors can be calkd"Integrative." The term."Integrative"
is used here in the sense described in the rationale. It
is intended to denote schools that are characterized by‘
primary, affective personal relationships. Schools that
placed "High" on fewer than five social interaction action
factors can be called "Non-Integrative." Maintaining the
grouping of schools on the basis of Socioeconomic Level
of the Student Body and Parent Hopes for College, Table
XIII presents the division of schools into Integrative and
Non-Integrative types. 9

It was mentioned in the rationale that particular
attention would be given to teacher-student social inter-
actions. In order to do this, five of the eight social
interaction factors were identified as measures of teacher-
student social interactions. These factors are the follow-
ing: (1) Teacher Knowledge of Students, (2) Sources of
Faculty Help, (3) Frequency of Interaction, (4) Sources of
Adult Friendships, and (5) Sources of Best Known Student.
Schools that placed "High" on three or more of these
social interaction factors are termed "Teacher Integrative";

schools that placed "High” on fewer than three of these

Table.XIII

Division of Schools Into Integrative And
Non-Integrative Types

 

103

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

iNumber
School Groups of High School Code Number Total
‘ Factors _

HighrHigh 1-4 18, 9, 20, 24 4
5-8 7, 29 2

High-Low 1-4 17, 23, 28, 30 4
5-8 8, 21, 22, 31, 33 5

Low-High 1-4 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12, 19, 27 8
5-8 1, 2, 10, 14, 32 5

Low-Low 1-4 25, 16, 34 3
5-8 26, 13, 15 3
Total NonPInte rative 19
Total Integrat we 15

 

104

factors are termed "Teacher Non-Integrative."'Haintaining
the grouping of schools on the basis of Socioeconomic
Level of the Student Body and Parent Hopes for College,
Table XIV presents the division of schools into "Teacher
Integrative" and "Teacher Non-Integrative" types.

Table XIV

Division of Schools Into "Teacher-Integrative" And
"Teacher-Non»Integrative" Types

 

 

 

 

 

Number of
School Groups High Teacher School Code Number Total
Factggs v . .
High-High 0-2 18, 9 - 2
3-5 7, 20, 24, 29 4
High-Low 0-2 17, 23, 28 ‘ _ _' 3
3-5 8, 21, 22, 30, 31, 33 .5
Low-High 0-2 3, 4, 6, 11, 12, 19, 27 7
3-5 1 2, 5, 10, 14, 32 6
Low-Low 0-2 25 1
3-5 13. 15, 16, 26’ 3“ 5

 

Total Teacher Non-Integrative 13
Total Teacher Integrative 21

 

105
Student Samples

It was reported above that the Socioeconomic Level
of the Student Body was determined by using the socioecono-
mic ratings of the fathers' occupations of the entire stu-
dent body. In brief, a one hundred per cent sample was
used for m. purpose. A total of thirty-six thousand,
four hundred sixty-seven students was involved.

A twenty-f ive per cent stratified sample of the
student body was used to determine the social interaction
patterns of the schools. This sample was stratified on the
basis of sex and socioeconomic composition of the student
bodies in each of the schools. A total of over nine thou-
sand students was used in this sample.

The occupational aspirations were measured on all
junior and senior boys that had been enrolled in the parti-
cular high school for a minimum of two years. All of these
boys were of low socioeconomic background, i.e., below a
rating of 44 on the Duncan Socioeconomic Ratings for their
fathers' occupations. Boys were used on this factor because
moreris known concerning the occupational aspirations of,
males. This sample was limited to students that had been
enrolled in the particular high school for a minimum of
two years on the assumption that these students would better
reflect the nature of the school social system than students

that were recent enrollees. This sample was made up of four

106

thousand, two hundred fifty-six students.

All of the teachers in each of the schools were used
in the measurement of variables related to the instructional
staff. The administrative personnel was not included in
thil group. These defined as administrators were principals,
vice-principals, librarians and full-time guidance counse-

'lors.
Research Hypotheses

The hypotheses of this study are presented in three
different groupings. One set of hypotheses is concerned
'with the comparisons of the occupational aspirations of
students enrolled in high schools of differing social
interaction patterns. .Another set is concerned with the
comparison.of schools as units of comparison. The third
set of hypotheses is concerned with a comparison of related
factors. The students referred to in all of the hypotheses

are of low socioeconomic background.

Student gngtheses
These hypotheses are as stated as to refer to the

students as individuals interacting in schools characterized
by differing types of social interaction.

Student glpothesis _Ngbfi 9_I_:e__. Students socially
interacting in schools that have a high average for Sources
of Peer Friendships will have higher Occupational Aspirations
than students socially interacting in schools that have a

107

low average for Sources of Peer Friendships.

Student Hypothesis £99253 Egg. Students socially
interacting in schools that have a high average for Sources
of.Adult Friendships will have higher Occupational Aspira-
tions than students socially interacting in schools that
have a low average for Sources of Adult Friendships.

Student Hypothesis Nggbgg‘zhggg. Students socially
interacting in schools that have a high Frequency of Inter-
action'will have higher Occupational.Aspirations than stu-
dents socially interacting in schools that are low in Fre-
quency of Interaction.

Student Hypothesis __Nlm__b_e_l_'_ Long. Students socially
interacting in schools that have a high average for General
' Sources of Help will have higher Occupational Aspirations
than students socially interacting in schools that have a
low average for General Sources of Help.

Student Hypothesis Number 2135. Students.socially
interacting in schools that have a high average for Faculty
Sources of Help will have higher Occupational Aspirations
than students socially interacting in schools that have a
low average for Faculty Sources of Help.

Student Hypothesislgggbggflgi§. Students socially
interacting in schools characterized by a high Teacher
Knowledge of Students will have higher Occupational Aspira-
tions than students socially interacting in schools charac-
ter ized by a low Teacher Knowledge of Students.

108

Student Hypothesis‘gggbgg,§gggg; Students socially
interacting in schools that have a high average for Peer
Sources of Help will have higher Occupational Aspirations
than students socially interacting in schools that have a
low average for Poor Sources of Help.

Student Hngthesis Number §3§§_. Students socially
interacting in schools that have a high average for Sources
of Best Known Students will have higher Occupational.Aspira-
tions that students socially interacting in schools that
have a low average for Sources of Best Known Students.

Student Hngthesis EEEESEWEEEE- Students socially
interacting in schools that are Integrative will have higher
Occupational Aspirations than students socially interacting
in schools that are Non-Integrative.

Student typothesis _N_l_s_s_b_e_g 2.2!}. Students socially
interacting in schools that are Teacher Integrative will
have higher Occupational Aspirations than students socially
interacting in schools that are Teacher Non-Integrative.

Each of the above hypotheses are applied to the four
school groupings, e.g., High-High, High-Low, Low-High,
Low-Low. It will be recalled that these school groupings
are based on the Sec ioeconomic level of the Student Body
and the Parent Hopes for College. The use of these group-
ings required that forty tests be applied to the above ten
hypotheses.

School Hypotheses
Those hypotheses refer to the schools as units. In

109

this case, the average score of the students on the differ-
ent variables was used as a score for the schools as a unit.

§_c_t_l_o_o}_ Hyathesis m 9_n_e_. Schools which have a
high average for Sources of Peer Friendships will have
students with a high average for Occupational Aspirat ions:
whereas, schools with a low average for Sources of Peer
Friendships will have students with a low average for
Occupational Aspirations.

Sci-Log]; figothesis £992.25 1.19;. Schools which have a
high average for Sources of Adult Friendships will have
students with a high average for Occupational Aspirations:
whereas, schools which have a low average for Sources of
Adult Friendships will have students with a low average for
Occupational Aspirations.

M gathes is Luis; M- Schools which have
a high Frequency of Interaction will have students with a
high average for Occupational Aspirations; whereas, schools
which have a low Frequency of Interaction will have students
with a low average for Occupational Aspirations.

_S_c_h_o_o;_?_1_ Hypothesis W M. Schools which have
a high average for General Sources of Help will have stu-
dents with a high average for Occupational Aspirat ions;
whereas, schools which have a low average for General
Sources of Help will have students with a low average for
Occupational Aspirations.

_S_¢_:_h_o_o_1 Hzmthesis M 3113. Schools which have a

110

high average for Faculty Sources of Help will have students
with a high average for Occupational Aspirations; whereas,
schools which have a low average for Faculty Sources of
Help will have students with a low average for Occupational
Aspirations.

M Hypothesis m _S__i_3_:_. Schools which are
characterized by a high Teacher Knowledge of Students will
have students with a high average for Occupational Aspira-
tions; whereas, schools which are characterized by a low
Teacher Knowledge of Students will have students with a low
average for Occupational Aspfiations.

£93122}. Hzgothesis M was}. Schools which have a
high average for Peer Sources of Help will have students
with a high average for Occupational Aspirations; whereas,
schools with a low average for Peer Sources of Help will
have students with a low average for Occupational Aspirations.

_S_9_h_o_o_1_ geothesis m 3L. Schools which. have
a high average for Sources of Best Known Students will have
students with a high average for Occupational Aspirat ions;
whereas, schools which have a low average for Sources of
Best Known Students will have students with a low average
for Occupational Aspirations.

§_c__ho__o_l Hzmthesis __Num_b_e_r_ _N_i_._n_e_. Schools which are
Integrative will have students with a high average for
Occupational Aspirations; whereas, schools which are Non-
Integrative will have students with a low average for

111

Occupational Aspirations.

§ghggl gyggthesis‘gggggg‘zgg. Schools which are
Teacher Integrative will have students with a high average
for Occupational Aspirations; whereas, schools which are
Teacher NonPIntegrative will have students with a low
average for Occupational Aspirations.

The groupings of the schools on the basis of the
Socioeconomic level of the Student Body and Parent Hopes
for College were used to establish the average upon which
the schools were dichotomized into "High" and "Low" on the
social interaction factors within their respective groups,
but all thirty-four schools were used in testing each of
the hypotheses.

Related gypgtheses
These hypotheses do not fall within.the main thesis

of this study but are intended to explore the data for
related findings and relationships.

Related synthesis 331229.! 9515. Students will have
higher Occupational Aspirations in schools that have a
student body with a high socioeconomic average than will
students in schools that have a student body with a low
socioeconomic average.

Related gngthes s Eggbggflzgg. Students in schools
characterized by high Parent Hopes for College will have
higher Occupational Aspirations than students in schools
characterized by low Parent Hopes for College.

112

Related Hzggthesis‘gggbggughggg. Students in
schools characterized by high Parent Hopes for College and
a high Socioeconomic Student Body Level will have higher
Occupational Aspirations than students in schools charac-
terized by high Parent Hopes for College and a low Socio-
economic Student Body Level.

Related Hypothesis N__u_m;_b_e_l; 3311.”... Students in schools
characterized by high Parent Hopes for College and a low
Socioeconomic Student Body Level will have higher Occupational
Aspirations than students in schools characterized by low
Parent Hopes for College and a high Socioeconomic Student
Body Level. 7

Related gypgthesis‘gggbgg‘gigg. Students in schools
characterized by low Parent Hopes for College and a high
Socioeconomic Level of the Student Body will have higher
Occupational Aspirations than students in schools charac-
terized by low Parent‘Hopes for College and a low Socio-
economic Student Body Level.

Statistical Methods

All of the correlations in this study were computed

by the use of the following formula:

(x) m
r 3 an --'r—-

<sz = 2x 2 (:2 - an?)
The Student Hypotheses were tested by a "T" test of

 

the means. The variances were computed using the following

113

 

 

formula:
(£302
8x2 ' 23::-'¥eye4
N - ‘1
Assuming:
2 2

The pooled variance was computed by the use of the follow-

 

ing formula: 2 2
2 (N1 - 1) 81 * (N2 - 1) $2
Sp I
N1 + N2 - 2
The formula for the "T" is:
.‘21 -'22

T :

 

2
S (l + 1)
p 1'1 32

The Degrees of Freedom.were computed using the formula:
d.f 8 N1 + N2 - 2
The School Hypotheses were tested by the use of Chi
Square. The following formula was used:
xzau Qw-csz-Ngzlz
A.+ B C + D A.+ C B + D
The Related Hypotheses were tested by a "T" test of

the means. The formulas used were the same as those used

for testing the Student Hypotheses.
Summary

The procedures used in the selection of the sample
of high schools used in this study were presented with

relevant characteristics of these schools. The schools in

114

the sample are located in twenty-three different states.
The instrumentation used in this study was presented.
The form, administration and scoring of the instruments was

discussed along with the rationale of the instrumentation.

The correlations among the instruments used for the social
interaction factors were not all positive or significant.
Hence, these factors were not additive.

Two variables were found to be significantly corre-
lated to the Occupational Aspirations of the students in the
different high schools. These were the average Socie-
economic Level of the Student Body and the Parent Hopes
for a College education for the students. The design of
the study was developed which controlled for these two
variables. The independent variables were defined and the
breakdown of the schools on these variables was given.

The research hypotheses of the study were stated
in three groupings: (1) Student Hypotheses, (2) School
Hypotheses, and (3) Related Hypotheses. The statistical
procedures used in.testing each group of hypotheses were
then stated.

CHAPTER III
RESULTS

The results of this study are presented in the same
order in which the hypotheses were stated in the previous
chapter. The Student Hypotheses are considered first
followed by the School Hypotheses and Related Hypotheses,
respectively.

Student Hypotheses

The Student Hypotheses refer to the students as indi-
viduals interacting in schools characterized by differing
types of social interaction. Each of these hypotheses is
tested within each of the school groupings, i.e., High-High,
High-Low, Low-High, and Low-Low. These groupings were made
on the basis of the Socioeconomic Level of the Study Body
and the Parent Hopes for College. The'hypotheses are accepted
or rejected at the five per cent level of significance. This
means that the difference in the means of an accepted hypo- ,
thesis could occur by chance five per cent or less of the
time.

The following ten tables present the tests of each
of the student hypotheses. The tables identify each of the
four school groupings. For each of these groups, the test
of the hypothesis is made and the statistical information
is given. It should be noted that each of the hypotheses

116

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126

is directional; i.e., they state the nature of a predicted
relationship. When the differences in the means being

tested is contrary to the predicted direction of the hypothe-
sis, a test of significance is unnecessary. Consequently,
the hypothesis is rejected, and no information is given for
a test of significance.

The hypothesis being tested is restated above each of
the tables (See Tables XV through XXIV). The results of these
tests of significant differences are summarized in Table XXV.
This table identifies each student hypothesis by number and
lists the results for each school grouping.

School Hypotheses

The school hypotheses refer to the schools as units.
For these hypotheses, the average score of the students on
the different variables is used as a score for the school
as a unit. The grouping of schools on the basis of Socio-
economic Level of the Student Body and Parent Hopes for College
are not used for these hypotheses. In fact, these hypotheses
were constructed so as to use all thirty-four schools to-
gether. The Chi Square method is used to test these hypothe-
ses. The five per cent level of sighificance is set for the
rejection or acceptance of the hypotheses.

Before proceeding with this analysis, the schools must
be divided on the basis of the Occupational Aspirations of
their students. This was done by dividing the schools on the

Table XXV

Sun-ary of Tests of Student Hypotheses

127

 

 

Student School Groups

Hypothesis

‘Nunber High-High High-Low Low-High Low-Low

l Rejected Rejected Rejected Rejected

2 Rejected Rejected Rejected Accepted

3 Rejected Rejected Rejected Rejected

4 Rejected Rejected Rejected Accepted

5 Rejected Rejected Rejected Rejected

6 Accepted Rejected Rejected Rejected

7 Rejected Rejected Rejected Rejected

8 Rejected Rejected Rejected Rejected

9 Rejected Rejected Rejected Rejected

lO Rejected Rejected Rejected Accepted

 

128

average for their respective schools groupings. (The group-
ings referred to here are those based upon the Socioeconomic
Level of the Student Body and Parent Hopes for College.)
‘Appendix G presents the Occupational Aspirations data upon
which these divisions are made. Table XXVI presents the
breakdown of schools on Occupational Aspirations.

Tab le XXVI

Breakdown of Schools on Occupational Aspirations

 

School Code numbers

High 2 3 4 6 9 ll 13 15 16 l7 19 22 24 27 29 30
Occupational . 31 34

Aspirations
Low 1 5 7 8 lo 12 14 18 2O 21 23 25 26 28 32 33

 

£93129}; mathesis M 993. Schools which have
a high average for Sources of Peer Friendships will have
students with a high average for Occupational.Aspirations:
whereas, schools with a low average for Sources of Peer
Friendships will have students with a low average for Occupa-
tional‘Aspirations.

129

Table XXVII

Test of School Hypothesis
number One

“

Occupational Aspirations

High Low
High 13 lo 23
Sources
of Peer
Friendships
Low 5 6 ll
18 16 34

Chi Square 8 .0564
Result 3 Rejected

 

_S_¢_:_l_1_g_o_]_._ gypothesis W m. Schools which have a
high average for Sources of Adult Friendships will have
students with a high average for Occupational Aspirations;
whereas, Schools which have a low average for Sources of
Adult Friendships will have students with a low average for
.Occupat ional Aspirations.

130

Table xxvxn
Test of School Hypothesis Number Two

 

 

Occupational‘Aspirstions

High Low
High 8 9 17
Sources of
Adult
Friendships
Low 10 7 17
18 16 34

Chi Square = .1180
Result = Rejected

 

§ghggl Hypothesis EggbggHggggg. Schools which have a
high Frequency of Interaction will have students with a high
average for Occupational Aspirations; whereas, schools which
have a low Frequency of Interaction will have students with
a low average for Occupational.Aspirations.

Table XXIX
Test of School Hypothesis Number Three

 

OccupationalnAspirations

High Low
High ll 10 21
Frequency of
Interaction
Low 7 6 l3
18 16 34

Chi Square 8 .0730
Result 8 Rejected

 

131

m yggthesis M _l_"_o_u_r_. Schools which have a
high average for general Sources of Help will have students
with a high average for Occupational Aspirations; whereas,
schools which have a low average for General Sources of Help
will have students with a low average for Occupational Aspira-
tions.

Table XXX
Test of School Hypothesis Huber Pour

Occupational Aspirations

High Low
High 7 9 16
General Sources
of Help
Low 11 7 18
18 16 34

Chi Square : .4463
Result 8 Rejected

SM]; mathesis My _F_’_i_v_e_. Schools which have a
high average for Faculty Sources of Help will have students
with a high average for Occupational. Aspirations; whereas,
schoolswhich have a low average for Faculty Sources of Help
will have students with a low average for Occupational
Aspirations.

132

Table XXXI
Test of School Hypothesis timber Five

 

Occupational Aspirations

High Low
High 8 ll 19
Faculty Sources
of Help
Low 10 5 13
18 16 34

Chi Square 8 1.1635
Result 8 Rejected

 

m gthsis m §_i_a_§. Schools which are
characterized by a high Teacher Knowledge of Students will
have students with a high average for Occupational Aspira-
tions; whereas , schools which are characterized by a low
Teacher Knowledge of Students will have students with a low
average for Occupational Aspirations.

Table XXXII
' Test of School Hypothesis Huber st:

 

Occupational Aspirations

High Low
High 10 ‘7 17
Teacher Knowledge
of Students
Low 8 9 17
18 16 34

Chi Square 8 .1180
Result I Rejected

 

133

§_c__hoo_l; W m m. Schools which have a
high average for Peer Sources of Help will have students with
a high average for Occupational Aspirations; whereas, schools
with a low , average for Peer Sources of Help will have students
with a low average for Occupational Aspirations .

Table XXXIII

Test of School Hypothesis Hunber Seven
Occupational Aspirations

 

High Low
. High 9 7 16
Peer Sources of
Help
Low 9 9 18
18 16 34

Chi Square 8 .0004
Result 8 Rejected

#—

School m thesis Huber High . Schools which have
a high average for Sources of Best Known Students will have

 

students with a high average for Occupational Aspirations;
whereas, schools "which have a low average for Sources of
Best Known Students will have students with a low average
for Occupational Aspirations.

134

Table XXXIV
Test of SchoolHypothesis Huber Bight
. .
Occupational Aspirations

High low
High ‘7 9 16
Sources of Best
Known Students
Low 11 7 18
18 16 34

Chi Square 8 .4463
Result = Rejected

 

S5393]; gathesis m gigs, Schools which are
Integrative will have students with a high average for
Occupational Aspirations; whereas , schools which are Hon-
lntegrative will have students with a low average for Occu-
pat ional Asp irat ions .

Table XXXV

Test of School Hypothesis umber Nine

W
Occupational Aspirations

High Low
High 6 9 15
lntegrat ive
Low 12 7 19
18 16 34

Chi Square 8 1.8043
Result I Rejected

 

135

p§ghggl gzggthes s Egghggmggg, Schools which are
Teacher Integrative'will have students‘with a high average
for Occupational.Aspirations; whereas, schools which are
Teacher Honplntegrative will have students‘with a low aver-
age for Occupational Aspirations.

Table XXXVI ~

Test of school Hypothesis Hunber Ten
W
Occupational‘Aspirations

High Low
High 10 ll 21
Teacher
Integrative
Low ' 8 5 13
18 16 34

Chi Square 8 .6244
Result 8 Rejected

 

Ten.hypotheses have been tested which used the aver-
age scores of the students within.each of the schools as a
score for the school as a unit. These hypotheses were tested
by the use of the Chi Square lethod. The results indicate
that none of the ten hypotheses are accepted. That is, the
relationship between the social interaction factors and the
occupational aspirations of the students predicted by the
hypotheses is rejected by the results of each of the ten
tests.

136

Related Hypotheses

These hypotheses are intended to explore the data
for relationships that are not the main concern of this
study but are related to it. A test of sinificance between
the means is used to test these hypotheses. There are five
such hypotheses. The statistical test of hypothesis Huber
(he is presented in Table XLVII and that of hypothesis
Haber Two in Table XLVIII. The statistical tests of hypothe-
ses Number Three , Four and Five are presented in Table XLIX.
The hypotheses being tested are restated under the tables.
The hypotheses are accepted or rejected at the five per cent
level of sipificance. The acceptance or rejection of a
hypothesis is noted under results in each of the tables.

These hypotheses are concerned with the relationships
of two different variables to the occupational aspirations
of students. The first is the socioeconomic level of the
student body in the high schools. This is determined by the
Duncan Socie-Economic Ratings of the occupations of the
students' fathers. The second is the parents' hopes for a
college education for the students. This is determined by
the percentage of parents having such aspirations for the
students in each of the high schools. It should be recalled
that students referred to in the hypotheses with respect to
Occupational Aspirations are of low socioeconomic background.

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139

Salary

This chapter has presented the results of the sta-
tistical tests of all of the hypotheses. These hypotheses was
divided into three groups: (1) those which were concerned
with the students as individuals interacting in schools of
differing social interaction patterns, (2) those which were
concerned with the schools as units, and (3) those that were
not within the main thesis of this study but related to it.
Of the forty hypotheses in the first group, four were accepted.
There were ten-hypotheses in the second group, and none of
these was accepted. The third group consisted of five
hypotheses, all of which were accepted. The statement of
the hypotheses predicted a positive relationship between
the occupational aspirations of students and the other
variables. A test of significant differences between the
leans was used with the first and third groups of hypothe-
ses. The second group of hypotheses was tested by the Chi
Square nethod.

seam-m IV
SUMMARY AND CWCIDSICNS
Smary

This study has been concerned with the social inter-
action patterns in high schools and the attitudes of students.
Certain attitudes which individual students have are pri-
eerily set for thee. in early childhood by parental influences.
The student acquires the attitudes held by his parents and
maintains these as part of his life's orientation. The
problem which was considered in this study is whether or
not schools can, in any way, redirect or change dysfunc-
tional attitudes held by some students.

The importance of this problon was related to a nu-
ber of societal and school problems. Its ieportance was
also noted in terms of educational administration and
learning theory. ‘

The rationale of this study stated that attitudes
are both acquired and changed through social interactions
with other individuals on a personal and affective level.
It also stated that social interactions that are cognitive
and iepersonal do not affect. the attitudes of the indivi-
duals involved. lhis position was supported with mnerous
research findings and theoretical statements.

Using well-known typologies for social system, two
dichotomous social systems were identified. In one of these,

141

the social interaction patterns are described as personal,
affective, informal, and accepting. This type was termed
Integrative for the purpose of this study. The second of
these types of social systems is characterized by social
interaction patterns that are impersonal, cognitive, in-
different and formal. This type was termed Hon-Integrative
for the purpose of thisistudy.

It was hypothes izod that the attitudes of students
were most likely to be influenced by schools having social
interaction patterns approaching that of the Intepat ive
social system. By consequence, the hypothesis implied that
the attitudes of students would not be influenced in
schools having social interaction patterns approaching that
of the Hon-Integrative type of social system.

The rationale also identified the orientation of the
public schools as that of the middle class. Considerable
ev idence was given to support this content ion. Thi a would
mean that the schools place a high value upon achievement
and social and occupational attaiment. With this orienta-
tion of the school social system in mind, an attitude was
selected for study which had been shown to be related to
socioeconomic class background. The attitude selected was
that of occupational aspirations. Inasmuch as students
with low socioeconomic background would have occupational
aspirations that differed from those valued in the school,
the study concentrated its attention upon this group of

142

students. This enabled the study to look at social systoms
of middle class orientation with students of lower class
orientation interacting‘within them. If the school social
system were Integrative, the attitudes of low socioeconomic
class students should tend to be influenced in the direction
of tbe‘middle class orientation. In terms of the attitude
uder study, this would mean that e... occupational aspira-
tions of the low socioeconomic background would be raised.

To assess the nature of the social interaction
patterne in.the schools, eight social interaction factors
were measured. These social interaction factors determined:
(1) the degree to which.the school social system.served as
a source of peer friendships for students, (2) the degree
to which the school social system served as' a source of
adult friendships, (3) how‘well snd personally did teachers
know students, (4) the degree to which students turned to
people within the school social system when encountering
problems, (3) the degree to which students turned to fellow
students for assistance‘with problems, (7) how frequently
students socially interacted with staff personnel, and (8)
the degree to which teachers relied uponxwithinpthe-school
contacts when identifying students whom.they felt they knew
- best.

These factors were measured in thirty-four high
schools in twenty-three states. ‘The occupational aspirations

of the low socioeconomic class, male students were also

143

measured.

Schools which measured high on the majority of the
social interaction factors were called Integrative. Those
that measured low on the majority of the interaction factors
were called Hon-Integrative. In addition, five of these
factors were primarily concerned with teacher-student social
interaction. Schools measuring high on the majority of
these factors were termed Teacher Integrative, and those
scoring low on the majority of these factors were termed
Teacher Hon- Integrat ive . .

' The design of the study controlled for two variables.
These variables were: (1) the general socioeconomic level
of the student body in each of the high schools, and (2)
the parent hopes that the students would attain a college
education.

Statistical tests were made on fifty hypotheses to
determine whether or not the occupational aspirations of
the low socioeconomic students were significantly different
in the high schools of differing social interaction patterns.
This included tests on each of the social interaction factors
separately. Five hypotheses were tested which did not fall
within the main thesis of the study but were related to it.
The results of the tests were presented with the pertinent
data.

144

Gone lus ions

This study tested fifty hypotheses which predicted
a relationship between the social interaction patterns in
thirty-four high schools and the occupational aspirations
of students with low socioeconomic backgrounds. Only four
of these hypotheses were upheld by the data. On the basis
of these findings, it must be concluded that, in general,
the social interaction patterns as meastn'ed in this study are
not related to the occupational aspirations of the low
socioeconomic class, male students in these thirty-four" high
schools.

Forty of these hypotheses were concerned with stu-‘
dents as individuals socially interacting in schools possessing
differing social interaction patterns. It is within this
group of hypotheses that the four which were upheld are
found. The data were in a positive direction but not
significantlyrso in twenty-two of the remaining thirty-six
hypotheses. Although this disposition of the data is worthy
of note, no concluo ions can be drawn from: it.

Of the four hypotheses that were upheld by the data,
three [were found in schools characterised by a low socioecono-
mic student body level and low parental college aspirations
for the students. The data were favorably disposed but not
significantly so in five of the remaining seven hypotheses
tested on this group of schools. Although these results do

145

indicate that, to a limited degree, a relationship between
the social interaction patterns and the occupational aspira-
tions of the students in this group of schools exists, no
conclusion can be made.

Th0 tests also attempted to determine the relation-
ship, it any, between each of the eight social interaction
factors separately and the occupational aspirations of the
low socioeconomic class students. These tests were made on
each of the factors separately in all of the four different
school groupings. None of the eight factors was down to be
significantly related to the occupational aspirations of the
students in all of the four school groupings. This would
indicate that no one of the social interaction factors
is more related to the occupational aspirations of low
socioeconomic class, male students than any other.

The results do indicate that parents influence upon
the occupational aspirations of students is very important.
Low socioeconomic class students do have higher occupational
aspirations in high schools in which a high percentage of
the parents have college aspirations for the students than
in high schools in which but a low percentage of the parents
have college aspirations for the students.

It can also be concluded from the results that the
general socioeconomic level of the study body in these
thirty-four high schools is related to the occupational

aspirations of the low socioeconomic class, male students.

146

In general, low socioeconomic class, male students have
higher occupational aspirations in high schools in which the
socioeconomic level of the student body is high than in high
schools in which the socioeconomic level of the student

body is low.

The general hypothesis of this study stated that the
attitudes of students of low socioeconomic background will
be more like the attitudes of the middle class in schools
characterized by affect ive, personal, social interaction
patterns than in schools character ized by com it ive , imper-
~sonal social interaction patterns. 0n the basis of the
results obtaining in this study, this hypothesis is rejected.

Implications for Further Study

Future studies in this area will have to reckon with
two factors: (1) the degree and direction of parental
influences, and (2) the general socioeconomic level of the
student peer group. Both of these factors have exhibited
a clear relationship to the occupational aspirations of
students. Future research should not only determine the
level of orientation of these factors, but should be con-
corned with the extent to which the sources of these inf lu-
ences are accepted or rejected. For example, parents may
have high educational aspirations for the students but the
students may be related more closely to the peer group than
to the parents. In this case, the influence of the parental

147

orientation is limited and the influence of the peer group
is enhanced. By accounting for these interrelationships,
the role of the school may be more clearly understood.

The general socioeconomic level of the student body
is not only related to the aspirations of students, but
there is some evidence that differing social interaction
patterns are also related to this aspect. In attempting
to relate social interaction patterns and attitudes, this
dual relationship cannot be overlooked.

Two other approaches are feasible for studies within
this general area. One method might be to approach the
problem by studying each individual student and his inter-
act ion patterns . This procedure would identify the nature
of the individual's relationship with the school social
system and, controlling for pertinent personality variables,
seek to establish the relationships betwun these patterns
and the aspirations of the. individuals. This procedure
4 would lend itself well to statistical analysis, but the
results would not be generalisable to the impact of the
school social system.

A second approach would be experimental in nature.
This approach would use two groups of students that are
matched on relevant personality characteristics. A group
leader of known cultural orientation would then develop
differing social interaction patterns within each of the
two groups . In one group, cognitive, impersonal social

F‘.&

148

interaction patterns would be established, in the second,

affective, personal social interaction patterns would be
established. Following a period of time, the orientations of

the members in both groups could be compared. The results
of such an experiment could have important implications for

educational institutions.

The relationship between occupational aspirations
“educational aspirations has been established in several
studies. Education is a menas by which an individual can
attain his occupational goals. In brief, occupational
aspirations are an "end" attitude with respect to educational
aspirations which are a.”means" attitude. It should be
noted, that the implications of occupational aspirations.
go beyond that of formal education. The importance of this
attitude in terms of certain societal changes was discussed
in Chapter One. with these relationships and considerations
in mind, occupational aspirations appear to be an impor-
tant dimension for further consideration in educational
research.

The social interaction factors of this study were
measured for the most part with self-reporting instrtnenta—
tion. Determining the social interaction patterns by
direct observation has advantages of validity and reliability
not obtainable by the self-reporting method. Although the
direct observation method is difficult to use, the results
of this study indicate that such a precedure may yield

149

significant findings. The results of this study also suggest
that significant results. are most likely to be obtained in
schols characterized by a low socioeconomic student body and
a low percentage of parents having college aspirations for
the students. ‘

Insofar as the social interaction factors as measured
in this study are not all positively related, future research
may find it advisable to distinguish the related groups of
factors for the purpose of working under a unitary construct.

Whether or not schools can influence the students'
occupational aspirations or any other attitudes of similar
nature, is tentatively answered in the negative. It is
hoped that future research may uncover the school social
components which lend themselves to this process. Whether
or not we can cope with some of the problems of our times
may depend on it. The engineering of social change may
prove to be one of man's most important challenges.

150

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165

APPENDIX A
Selection of Schools
Letters and Forms

166

Letter to State Department of Public Instruction

Dear

With a grant from the U. 8. Office of Education, mem-
bers of the Michigan State University staff are conducting a
study of new high school buildings in the United States.
Specifically we are interested in determining the effects
of school buildin design and utilization upon the people
who use the build s. During the year, approximately thirty
high schools will be selected throughout the country for
study. These buildings will have been completed and occupied
during the four year period of 1955-1958. Exanmles will be
selected from among conventional compact buildings and sung
those which are decentralized in a campus arrangement.
Within the cupact and campus types, we will seek those which
are organized along a "School-Within-School" pattern and
those which are organized along more conventional lines.

All buildings should be "outstanding examples" of school
architecture regardless of basic design scheme or pattern
of orgmnization. Comparisons will then be made in the
patterns of interaction of school personnel and students
among the extreme types.

As a person with recognized ability and 5 nt in
the school plant field, you can assist us greatly the
selection of schools to be studied. Would you cupile a
list of not more than six high schools completed and occupied
between 1955 and 1958 which you believe to be among the
best buildings in your state? It would facilitate our efforts
if you could also identify the superintendent of the school
districts involved.

We should like to forward you a copy of the final
report of our study for your files. '

Very cordially yours ,

Ref.:

No.

U! «9‘ U N 7"
s

O

167

RECWDATION OF SCHOOLS

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

U. 8. Office of. Education

Project No. 918

Name of High School

Signature :

Location

March, 1960

Superintendent of
District

168

Letter to Superintendent of Schools
Dear :

The United States Office of Education is supporting a study
to determine the effects, if any, of school building design
and utilization upon the interactions and attitudes of the
staff and students of thirty of the nation's outstanding
high schools. The study will be conducted by a research
team from Michigan State University during the fall of
1960. Many non-building factors obviously affect patterns
of interaction; therefore, schools will be chosen from every
region of the country and from each major type of school-
community in order to obtain the necessary representation
in our sample.

Earlier this year, each state department of public instruction
gave us a list of the six most outstanding new high schools

n its state. The high school of
your district was so recomefiiéd to us as a possible example
for study; hence, our letter to you. The study would involve
approximately two hours of testing mong staff and students
spread over a tw0 day period in the Fall of 1960. In addi-
tion, the study team would conduct acomplete survey of the
building itself. The district will of course share in the
results and attendant publicity associated with the study.

If you would like to discuss the possibilities of partici-
pating in the study, we would like to have a member of our
staff visit with you personally at your convenience in May.
The staff member will be prepared to discuss all details

of the study with you at that time, and to make final selec-
tion of the schools for our sample of thirty.

Meantime, our initial selection of schools to be visited
would be greatly facilitated if you could direct a member of
your staff to complete the following inventory of your
scarce}: district and of the characteristics of the new high
sc oo .

We should appreciate very much your early reply .
Very cordially yours,

D.

F.

11 o
A.

169
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

Study of Effects of Building Design and Utilization
Upon High School Staff and Student Personnel I
Financed Under Public Law 531

U.S. Office of Education, Project No. 918
SCHOOL DISTRICT INFORMATION
‘What grades are taught in the school district? (Check)
x-12 ( ) 7-12 ( ) 9-12. ( ) 10-12 ( ) Other
What is the total enrollment of the school distrig:§_____
What was the approximate per pupil current expenditure
excluding capital outlay of the school district during
1958-59? (Check)

( > 1... than $250 ( ) 3250-299 ( ) 3300-349
( ) 3350-399 ( ) 3400-499 ( ) $500-or more

In.what general type of community or area is the school
district located? (Check) ~

( ) urban center ( ) village ( ) industrial suburb
( ) "bedroom" suburb ( ) non-farm.rural ( ) rural farm.
( ) Other

spec

7
How many public high schools are located in the district?
(Check) .
( ) 1 ( ) 2 ( ) 3 ( ) 4 or more

.Approximately how many square miles are enclosed by the
school district? (Check)

( ) less than five ( ) 5-10 ( ) 11-15 ( ) 16-20
( ) 21-25 ( ) 26-30 ( ) more than thirty

INFORMATION.ABOUT THE HIGH SCHOOL
What grades are included in the high school? (Check)

( ) 7-12 ( ) 8-12 ( ) 9-12 ( ) 10-12 ( ) 10-14
What is the current enrollment per grade?

 

 

C.

III.

C.

D.

170

From approximatel what radius does the school draw its
students? (Check

( ) less than 1 mile ( ) 1-3 miles ( ) 4-6 miles

( ) 7-9 miles ( ) 10-15 miles ( ) ogre than 15
m es

Approximately what proportion of the student body is

transported by school buses? (Check)

( ) none ( ) less than 10% ( ) 10-25% ( ) 26-40‘5
( ) 41-70‘5 ( ) more than 70%

How many full time non-teaching certicated personnel
(e.g. librarian, administrators, counselors) are_
employed in the high schools?
(Include combination teacher-counseIors , etc. under
F be ow

 

How many full time classroom teachers are employed in
the high school?

 

Approximately what number of the professional staff are
males?

moamnm cowcmms 1mm 3011001. (ammo: AND

Approximately what proportion of the high school's
graduates attend college? (Check)

( ) less than 25% ( ) 25.49% ( ) 50-74% ( ) 75% or more

Into how many class periods is the typical school day
divided?

A .M. P .M. Total

How many minutes are alloted to the typical class
period? (Check)

()45 ()50 ()55 ()60 ()70 Other:
specin

How many minutes are typically alloted to period changes?
(Check)

()3 ()4 ()5 ()6 ()7 Other:
specify

F.

G.

 

171

Approximate 1y how many students are currently enrolled
in each of the following types of high school programs?

Type of Program Nmnber Enrolled
1. College Preparatory:

2 . Comerical :

 

3. General:
4. Other (Specify):

 

 

 

Is a copy of the course schedule for the current semes-
ter available? If so, would you please attach a copy to
this questionnaire? IF NOT, would you answer the follow-
ing questions? -

1. How many one semester courses are currently taught?
2. How many two-semester courses are currently taught?

3. Is there a "homeroom" provided each student ?
If go, how frequently does "homeroom" meet one
was ? .

4. Is there a study hall provided?

5. Is there an "activity" or "extra-curricular" period
scheduled at.some time during the regular school
week?

 

Which of the following two statements most closely
describes your high school plan of operation? If neither,
please describe briefly how your plan operates..

'( ) 1. Students move each 45-70 minutes from class to

class in order to pursue a course of 4-6 subjects
with different teachers. Teachers normally
remain in their subject area classrooms.

( ) 2. Students remain in one area of the building f
"blocks of time" (longer than one period) with
the same teacher or team of teachers in order to
pursue their "basic" or "general education"
subjects. . .

( ) 3. Other: (Please describe briefly)

 

172

 

 

 

INFORMATION C(NCERNING THE HIGH SCHOOL BUILDING AND SITE

A.

' E.

Approximately how many acres are contained in the
school site? (Check)

( ) less than 10 ( ) 11-20 ( ) 21-30 ( ) 31-40
( ) 41-60 ( ) more than 60 _

How'many stories are provided in the classroom sec-
tions of the building? (Check)
( ) 1 ( ) 2 ( ) 3 or more

When‘was the building first occupied? (Check)

( ) 1954 ( ) 1955 ( ) 1956 ( ) 1957 ( ) 1958
( ) 1959 . . . .

Is a descriptive brochure (e.g. dedication program)
which contains a rough floor plan of the build ng
available? If so, please attach a copy to the
questionnaire.

Which of the follow statements most closely
describes the manner which.pupils are distri--
buted within your buildings? Please recognize that
some portions of the buildi (e.g., gym or lunch-
room) may be used by all pup ls. ~'

( ) 1. "Grade Level Distribution": Pupils are
grouped on separate floors, in separate
wings, or in separate "little schools"
according to separate grade levels (i.e.
each grade has its own floor, wing, or
"little school.")

( ) 2. "School-Within-School Distribution": pupils
in groups from.ALL GRADE LEVELS (e.g. 100
pupils from each grade 10, ll, 12) are
housed on separate floors, in separate wings,
or in separate "little schools" for sub-
stantial portions of the total school pro-

gram.

( ) 3.

( ) 4.

173

"Subject Area Distribution": each

floor, wing or "little school" houses a
different subject area or combination of
subject areas. Pupils normally move from
area to area throughout the building.

Other: (Please describe briefly)

 

174

APPENDIX B

Characteristics of Schools

 

 

175

School Code Numbers

 

Code
Number Name 3; High School Location
1 Hiram Johnson Sacramento, California
2 Mayfair Bellflower, California
3 Glendora Azusa, California
4 Bellflower Bellflower, California
5 Sunnyside Tucson, Arizona
6 San Angelo San Angelo, Texas
7 Syosset Syosset, Long Island,New York
8 Hanover Park Hanover, New Jersey
9 Northwest Classen Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
10 Hueytown Birmingham, Alabama
11 West Charlotte Charlotte, North Carolina
12 Garinger Charlotte, North Carolina
13 Columbus Columbus, Nebraska
14 Mandan Mandan, North Dakota
15 Kennett Kennett, Missouri
16 Riverview Gardens St. Louis, Missouri
17 Shoreline Seattle, Washington
18 Mt. Rainier Seattle, Washington
19 Mark Morris Longvier, Washington
20 Woodrow Wilson Portland, Ore on
21 Brookf ie ld Brookf ie 1d , W scans in
22 Maine Township West Des Plaines, Illinois
23 Kimball Royal Oak, Michigan
24 A. C. Flora Columbia, South Carolina
25 Hempf ield Greensburg, Pennsylvania
26 North Hagerstown Hagerstown, Maryland
27 Hampton Hampton, Virginia
28 Andrew Warde Fairf ield, Connecticut
29 John Jay Katonah, New York
30 Fairmont Kettering, Ohio
31 Glenwood Canton, Ohio
32 Linton Schenectady, New York
33 Shaker Newtonville, New York
34 Middlebury Middlebury, Vermont

176
CHARACTERISTICS OF SCHOOLS

 

 

GRADES NUMBER TEACHER. AVERAGE
IN OF PUPIL,, ENROLLMENT
CODE ENROLLMENT SCHOOL TEACHERS RATIO PER GRADE.
W T4
1 1,997 10-12 92 21.71 665.67
2 1,160 9-12 45 25.78 290.00
3 1,583 9-12 52 30.44 395.75
4 1,783 9-12 65 27.43 445.75
5 620 9-12 29.5 21.02 155.00
6 1,406 10-12 73 19.26 468.67
8 925 9-12 55 16.82 231.25
9 2,053 9-12 73 28.12 513.25
10 1,150 10-12 43 26.74 383.33
11 854 10-12 34 25.12 284.67
12 1,641 10-12 58 28.29 547.00
13 452 10-12 21.5 21.02 150.67
14 471 10-12 18.5 25.46 157.00
15 564 9-12 20.5 27.51 141.00
16 1,404 9-12 67.5 20.80 351.00
17 1,569 10-12 66 23.77 523.00
18 708 9-12 27 26.22 177.00
19 992 7-12 41 24.20 165.33
20 1,813 9-12 74.5 24.34 453.25
21 1,200 9-12 69 17.39 300.00
22 2,387 9-12 118.5 20.14 596.75
23 1,851 9-12 81.5 22.71 462.75
24 830 9-12 41 20.24 207.50
25 1,500 10-12 66 22.73 500.00
26 1,490 9-12 56.5 26.37 372.50
27 2,254 10-12 85.5 26.36 751.33
28 1,442 9-12 82 17.59 360.50
29 668 7-12 46 14.52 111.33
30 1,826 10-12 90 20.29 608.67
31 1,007 10-12 45 22.38 335.67
32 1,562 10-12 94 16.62 520.67
33 1,369 7-12 78 17.55 228.17
34 599 7-12 31.5 19.02 99.83

 

 

 

177

APPENDIX C
INSTRUMENTATION

 

 

178

STUDENT INSTRUMENTS

 

10.

179

GENERAL INFORMATION

 

fiat first Middle

Number of years in this school (count present year as
one) (check) 1 2 3 4

Age Grade (check) 9 10 ll 12
(ChecE one) ‘Male FemaIe

 

 

 

 

 

 

NUmber of brothers sisters .

What is your father‘ s occupation? (If deceased, what
was it?) 7

a.. Does he get paid by salary? Yes No

 

b. If yes, who does he work for?

c. Does he own a business? Yes. No

 

d. Does he have any people under him? Yes No

 

e. If yes, about how many?

 

Do you plan to go to college? (check) Yes No

 

Do your parents hope you.wi11 go to college? (check)
Yes No

 

Of the following subjects, which do find easiest?
(check one) English” Mathematicsfi HIstory_
Science Art—

Of the following subjects, which do you find hardest?
(check one) English_ Mathematicsfi HisEoryfi
Science Art

Do you have a hobby? Yes No If yes, what is it?

 

If you have more than one, give the one in which you are
most interested.

 

 

180

30111888 9}; HELP INVENTORY

Students, like everyone else, frequently turn to other per-
sons for assistance on problems and personal concerns. In
each of the following imaginary problem situations, would you
indicate the one person to whom you would most likely turn
for assistance. Remember that your responses will not be
seen by any person other than the Michigan State University
research team.

1.

 

h

1

If you were having difficulty with our studies, to
whom would you most likely turm a v e or- assistance.
(check one)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. house or homeroom teacher 6.'a friend from
2. student friend out of school
3. principal 7. student‘
4. vice-principal organization
5. counselor 8. parents
9. other (please
identify)
If you were having difficulty in ettin teacher under-
standin to whom.would you most 1§EEIy turn for advice
or assigtance. (check one)
1. house or homeroom teacher 6. a friend from
2. student friend out of school
3. principal 7. student
4. vice-principal organization
5 . counselor 8 . pare nts
9. other (please
identify)
If you were having difficulty in getting along with other
students, to whom.would you most y turn or advice
or assistance. (check one)
1. house or homeroom.teacher 6. a friend from
2. student friend out of school
3. principal 7. student
4. vice-principal organization

00
o

parents
9. other (please
identify)

 

 

 

181

If you were having difficulty in artici tin in stu-
dent activities, to whom would you turn Eor afivice or
assistance. ‘(Eheck one)

 

 

 

 

1. house or homeroom. 6. a friend from out of
teacher school

2. student friend 7. a student organization

3. principal 8. parents

 

 

9. other (please

4. vice-principal
identify)

 

 

If you were hav1ng difficulty deciding on a high school

course to take, to whom would you or s v co or

assistance. (check one)

1. house or homeroom. 6. a friend from out of

teacher school

2. student friend 7. a student organization

3. principal 8. parents

4. vice-principal 9. other (please
identify)

 

 

 

 

 

If you were having difficulty in selecting a college or
vocation to whom would you turn for advice or ass1s-

tance. (check one)
1. house or homeroom 6. a friend from out of

 

 

 

 

teacher school
2. student friend 7. student organization
3. principal 8. parents
4. vice-principal 9. other (please

 

5. counselor identify)

 

 

 

182

OCCUPATIONAL ASPIRATION SCALE

THIS SET OF QUESTIONS CONCERNS YOUR INTEREST IN DIFFERENT

KINDS OF JOBS.

THERE ARE EIGHT QUESTIONS.

EACH ONE ASKS

YOU TO CHOOSE ONE JOB OUT OF TEN PRESENTED.

READ. EACH quss'rmn CAREFULLY.

ANSWER EACH ONE THE BEST YOU CAN.

1.

Of the jobs listed in this 2.
question, which is the BEST
ONE you are REALBY SURE YOU
CAN GET when your SCHOOLING.
IS OVER?

Lawyer

welfare worker for

a city government
United States
.representative in
Congress

Corporal in the Army
United States Supreme
Court Justice
Night'watchman
Sociologist
Policeman

County agricultural
a ent

Filling station
attendant

Of the jobs listed in this 4.
question, which is the BEST
ONE you are REALLY SURE YOU
CAN GET when your SCHOOLING
IS OVER?

Nuclear physicist

Reporter for a

daily newspaper

County judge

Barber

State governor

Soda fountain clerk

Biologist

Mail carrier

Off icial of an

international labor
Farm hand

0
I" ‘OQQO‘UI&U NH

O

U UUUUUUU UV
0

THEY ARE ALL DIFFERENT.
DON'T OMIT ANY.

Of the jobs listed in this
question, which ONE would
you choose if you were
FREE TO CHOOSE ANY of them
you wished when your
SCHOOLINC IS OVER?
2.1 Member of the board
of directors of a
large corporation
Undertaker
Banker
Machine operator
in a factory
Physician (doctor)
Clothes presser
in a laundry
Accountant for a
large business
Railroad conductor
*Railroad engineer
*Singer in a night
club

O O

ML)” N NM NM”
0
HOW \I GUI bulk)

OI

Of the jobs listed in this
question, which ONE would
you choose if you were
FREE TO CHOOSE ANY of them
you wished when your
SCHOOLING IS OVER?

4.1 Psychologist

4.2 Manager of a small
store in a city

4.3 Head of a department
in state government

4.4 __ Clerk in a store

4.5 Cabinet member in the
federal government

4.6 Janitor

4.7 Musician in a
symphony orchestra

4.8 Carpenter

4.9 Radio announcer

4.10 Coal miner

 

 

5.

Of the jobs listed in this 6.
questions, which is the BEST
ONE you are REALLY SURE YOU
CAN HAVE by the time you are
30 YEARS OLD?

183

Of the jobs listed in this
question, which ONE would
you choose to have when
you are 30 YEARS OLD, if
you were FREE TO HAVE.ANY
of them you wished?

5.1 Civil engineer 6.1 .Airline pilot

5.2 Bookkeeper 6.2 Insurance agent

5.3 ‘Minister or priest 6.3 Architect

5.4 Streetcar motorman or 6.4 Milk route man
a city bus driver 6.5 Mayor of a large

5.5 Diplomat in the United city
Stetes Foreign Service6.6 Garba e collector

5.6 Sharecropper (one who 6.7 Capta in the
owns no livestock or Army
farm.machinery, and 6.8 Garage Mechanic
does not manage the 6.9 Owner-operator
farm) 6.10 Railroad section

5.7 Author of novels hand

5 .8 Plumber

5.9 Newspaper columnist

5.10 Taxi driver

 

0f the jobs listed in this 8.
question, which is the BEST
ONE you are REALLY SURE YOU
CAN HAVE by the time you are
30 YEARS OLD?

7.1 .Artist who paints
pic turd thht are

exhibited in galleries

7.2 Traveling salesman
for a wholesale
concern

7.3 Chemist

7.4 Truck driver

7.5 College professor

7.6 Street sweeper

7.7 Building contractor

7.8 Local official of a
labor union

7.9 Electrician

7.10 Restaurant waiter

Of the jobs listed in this
question, which ONE would
you choose to have when
you are 30 YEARS OLD, if
you were FREE TO HAVE ANY
of them you wished?

8.1 Owner of a factory
that employs about
100 people

8.2 Playground director

8.3 Dent st

8 .4 Lumberjack

8.5 ____ Scientist

8.6 Shoeshiner

8.7 Public School teacher

8.8 Owner-operator of
a lunch stand

8.9 Trained machinist

8.10 Dock worker

Copyright 1957 by Archie O. Heller

 

Principal

Assistant
Principal

Homeroom
Teacher

Guidance
Counselor

Librarian

 

184

SOCIAL SCALE

List the name of your best friend that is of your own
age group. (Please Print)

Where did you get to know
list Name First Name this friend?

(check one) . .
Classes together L1ve 1n my neighborhood Church

Other (name)

 

List the name of the adult you like best. Not a parent
or relative. (Please Print) .

.:‘ _;_: Where did you get to know this
Last Name First Name person?

(check one)
In-school activities Out-of-school activities

 

How frequently do you get to talk with each of the
following persons about your school work or personal
problems? (check one response for each person)

2 or 3 Nearly Frequently Occasionally Rarely

Times Everyday
Each Day

M l H

 

185

TEACHER INSTRUMENTS

 

186

As a simple challenge to your own knowledge of your students,
would you please choose the one (1) student from all of those
you are now teaching in grades 9, 10, 11 or 12 whom.you feel
you know best.

Please try to supply the requested information about this
student from memo . Please do 325 consult your cumulative
records or ot or sources for help. The questions are so
designed that it will be impossible for most teachers to
supply all requested information accurately. Please, there-
fore, do not feel embarrassed if you cannot answer all
questions to your satisfaction from memory.

1. Name of student

 

_fist ‘ First #Hfddle“

 

2. Do you know this student from out-of-school contacts?
Yes No .

 

3. Age of student (check) 14 15 l6 17 18;
Grade of student (check) 9 10 ll 12

4. Occupation of student's father___

5. Number of children in student's family._ Boys Girls

6. Do the parents hope this student will go to college?
Yes No

 

7. Does this student plan to go to college? Yes - No

8. Which of the following subjects does this student find
easiest? (Check one) Engl1sh Mathematics History ,
Science Art _ ' ‘”“'

9. Which of the following subjects does this student find
hardest? (check one)
Englfififl Mathematics____ History____ Science_____ Art____
10. Does this student have a hobby? Yes___ No If yes,
what is it? _-
If there are several, give the one‘in which he or ihe‘ii
most interested.

 

APPENDIX D

SOCIOECONWIC DATA

187

 

-. _—x_— ._r

 

SOCIOECONOMIC DATA

188

 

 

 

School Number
Code of
Number Sum of x Mean Students Variance
1 64437 39.1 1648 501.24
2 38048 38.3 993 451.82
3 72309 44.5 1460' 555.59
4 48874 36.9 1324 425.69
5 20628 35.1 588 467.78
6 54379 42.6 1277 767.08
7 70767 57.5 1230 453.65
8 45608 51.4 887 581.77
9 102316 56.3 1817 447.05
10 23584 31.0 761 390.81
11 12827 25.5 503 416.52
12 54879 46.2 1189 506.49
13 15266 , 36.6 417 587.46
14 13068 31.0 421 500.82
15 16851 39.4 428 528.47
16 56874 44.0 1292 507.23
17 70157 48.5 1447 566.28
18 28029 48.0 584 575.98
19 15622 36.9“ 423 659.91
20 89348 55.5 1611 566.44
21 65222 57.6 1132 468.03
22 104802 50.0 2100 515.09
23 89300 52.3 1706 528.72
24 41243 62.4 661 378.26
25 40792 32.8 1242 499.30
26 48413 40.2 1203 575.06
27 74803 43.4 1723 477.32
28 65925 48.6 1356 554.29
29 17746 56.0 317 534.80
30 82411 53.1 1552 525.55
31 39956 46.5 859 617.07
32 54935 45. 1207 570.02
33 36820 50.2 734 585.74
34 12114 32.3 375 557.71
TOTAL 1688353 46.3 36467 579.17

 

 

189

APPENDIX E

DATA ON PARENT HOPES Fa! COLLEGE

 

 

 

 

 

 

190
PARENT HOPES FOR COLLEGE
School
Code Percentage
Number Yes No Total Yes
1 225 20 245 91.8
2 123 6 129 95.3
3 109 3 112 97.3
4 162 10 172 94.2
5 61 3 64 95.3
6 200 5 205 97.6
7 55 5 60 91.7
8 57 16 73 78.1
9 92 l 93 98.9
10 162 20 182 89.0
11 94 2 96 97.9
12 149 16 165 90.3
13 72 14 86 83.7
14 73 8 81 90.1
15 45 6 51 88.2
16 108 19 127 85.0
17 167 26 193 86.5
18 76 4 80 95.0
19 81 3 84 95.3
20 100 11 111 90.1
21 50 9 59 84.7
22 185 26’ 211 87.7
23 98 24 122 80.3
24 ll 0 11 100.0
25 207 86 293 70.6
26 85 44 129 65.9
27 241 20 261 92.3
28 105 22 217 82.7
29 19 1 20 95.0
30 149 21 170 87.6
31 98 18 116 84.5
32 161 19 180 89.4
33 43 11 53 79.2
34 36 12 48 75.0
Total 3698 511 4209 88.4

 

 

191

u". 1w“

1mm my; w; ._-

APPENDIX F
DATA ON SOCIAL INTERACTION FORMS

SOURCES OF PEER FRIENDSHIPS

192

 

 

 

School
Code Number Percentage
- Number Total In In
1 750 426 56.8
2 475 259 54.5
3 428 251 58.6
4 603 344 57.0
5 270 150 55.6
6 610 336 55.0
7 363 174 47.9
8 410 219 50.1
9 812 417 51.4
10 346 156 45.1
11 211 110 52.1
12 543 293 54.0
13 86 48 55.8
14 200 126 63.0
15 216 111 51.4
16 609 310 50.9
17 673 357 53.0
18 265 140 52.8
19 178 104 58.4
20 681 395 .58.0
21 243 143 58.8
22 1112 574 51.6
23 805 438 54.4
24 304 161 53.0
25 550 282 51.3
26 515 276 53.6
27 826 372 45.0
28 621 296 47.7
29 97 '68 70.1
30 767 423 55.1
31 322 188 58.4
32 548 264 48.2
33 182 90 49.5
34 127 74 58.3
Total 15748 8375 53.18

 

Higthigh Group Average 8 53.7
High-Low Group.Average = 53.1
Low-High Group Average 8 53.3
Low-Low Group Average = 52.4

 

 

SOURCES OF ADULT FRIENDSHIPS

193

 

 

 

School
Code Total Total Percentage
Number In Out In
1 90 266 25.3
2 62 164 27.4
3 47 161 22.6
4 79 213 24.5
5 44 86 33.8
6 113 187 37.7
7 62 100 38.3
8 68 133 33.8
9 89 308 22.4
10 57 115 33.1
11 53 47 53.0
12 85 182 31.8
13 21 20 51.2
14 25 74 25.3
15 42 62 40.4
16 92 203 31.2
17 84 247 25.4
18 37 91 28.9
19 26 63 29.2
20 111 228 32.7
21 44 74 37.3
22 189 350 35.1
23 120 268 30.9
24 20 126 13.7
25 75 197 27.6
26 70 181 27.9
27 89 317 21.9
28 81 212 27.6
29 17 32 34.7
30 98 277 26.1
31 53 105 33.5
32 109 160 40.5
33 38 52 42.2
34 12 49 24.5
Total 2292 5350 30.0

 

High-High Group Average 8 27.5
High-Low Group Average 8 31.1
Low-High Group Average = 29.9
Low-Low Group Average = 30.5

 

 

194

FREQUENCY 0r INTERACTION

 

School
Code
Nmber Actual Frequency Possible Frequency Percentage

 

 

1 3,039 9,345 32.5
2 2,062 5,720 36.0
3 1,819 3,065 35.9
4 2,568 7,465 34.4
5 1,184 3,145 37.6
6 2,537 7,500 33.8
7 1,494 4,280 34.9
8 1,928 5,055 38.1
9 3,373 10,065 33.5
10 1,757 4,265 41.2
11 915 2,125 43.1
12 2,288 6,485 35.3
13 410 1,085 37.8
14 909 2,280 39.9
15 944 2,345 40.3
16 2,365 7,410 31.9
17 2,962 8,295 35.7
18 1,077 3,180 33.9
19 873 2,150 40.6
20 3,124 8,415 37.1
21 1,203 3,060 39.3
22 5,018 13,860 36.2
23 3,282 9,905 35.1
24 1,536 3,775 40.7
25 2,436 6,785 35.9
26 2,341 6,430 _36.4
27 3,511 10,235 34.31
28 2,936 7,735 38.0
29 491 1,155 42.5
30 3,544 9,550 37.1
31 1,488 3,935 37.8
32 2,394 6,755 35.4
33 868 2,235 38.8
34 602 1,540 39.1
Total 69,278 192,630 36.0

 

High-High (h'oup Average = 35.9
High-Low Group Average = 36.5
Low-High Group Average 8 35 .6
Low-Low Group Average 8 35 .5

 

GENERAL SOURCES OF HELP

195

 

 

 

School
Code
Number In Out Total Percentage In
1 1681 560 2241 75.0
2 982 59 1041 94.3
3 872 399 1271 68.6
4 1227 604 1831 67.0
5 569 251 820 69.3
6 1318 499 1817 72.5
7 765 310 1075 71.2
8 950 290 1240 76.6
9 1653 757 2410 68.6
10 821 210 1031 79.6
11 452 165 671 67.4
12 1176 458 1634 72.0
13 223 36 259 82.1
14 472 122 594 79.5
15 495 148 693 77.0
16 1306 506 1812 72.1
17 1475 537 2012 73.3
18 563 222 785 71.7
19 391 139 530 73.8
20 1430 631 2061 69.4
21 531 201 732 72.5
22 2547 817 3364 75.7
23 1649 765 2414 68.3
24 608 283 891 68.2
25 1229 420 1649 74.5
26 1161 398 1559 74.5
27 1876 600 2476 75.8
28 1482 382 1864 79.5
29 220 72 292 75.3
30 1666 609 2275 73.2
31 742 217 959 77.4
32 1268 368 1636 77.5
33 410 127 537 76.4
34 248 91 339 73.2
Total 34458 12307 46765 73.68

 

High-High Group Average 8 69.7

High-Low Group Average 8 74.4
Low-High Group Average 8 74.5
Low-Low Group Average 8 74.5

 

 

FACULTY SOURCES OF HELP

196

 

 

 

School
Code Percent
Number Total Faculty Faculty
1 2241 1180 52.7
2 1041 662 63.6
3 1271 618 48.6
4 1831 820 44.8
5 820 388 47.3
6 1817 835 46.0
7 1075 573 53.3
8 1240 718 57.9
9 2410 1022 42.4
10 1031 588 57.0
11 671 325 48.4
12 1634 776 47.5
13 259 159 61.4
14 594 336 56.6
15 643 349 54.3
16 1812 939 51.8
17 2012 1041 51.7
18 785 410 52.2
19 530 320 60.4
20 2061 1045 . 50.7
21 732 366 50.0
22 3364 1715 51.0
23 2414 1120 46.4
24 891 429 55.2
25 1649 857 52.0
26 1559 847 54.3
27 2476 1264 51.1
28 1864 1164 62.4
29 292 .163 55.8
30 2275 1222 53.7
31 959 515 53.7
32 1636 929 56.8
33 537 291 54.2
34 339 178 52.2
Total 46765 24164 51.7

High-High Group Average 8 48.5
High-Low Group Average
Low-High.Group Average = 51.4
Low-Low'Group.Average = 53.2

 

 

197

TEACHER KNOWLEDGE OF STUDENTS

 

 

 

School Number ,Average
Code of Total Number
Number Teachers Incorrect ‘Wrong
1 102 375 3.68
2 43 135 3.14
3 71 194 2.73
4 70 230 3.28
5 34 111 3.26
6 66 184 2.79
7 70 225 3.21
8 54 147 2.72
9 68 220 3.23
10 42 138 3.29
11 43 100 2.32
12 56 123 2.20
13 24 69 2.88
14 20 76 3.80
15 2O 25 1.25
16 63 215 3.41
17 70 177 2.52
18 30 78 2.60
19 33 82 2.48
20 76 208 2.74
21 63 163 2.59
22 107 334 3.12
23 80 326 4.08
24 35 105 3.00
25 68 178 2.62
26 51 190 3.72
27 82 304 3.71
28 78 194 2.49
29 29 87 3.00
30 87 283 3.25
31 45 132 2.93
32 83 250 3.01
33 61 197 3.23
34 70 225 3.21
Total 1994 6080 3.05

 

Highvuigh Group Average = 3.00

High-Law Group.Average = 3.03

Low-High Group Average = 3.09

Low-Low Group Average 8 3.05

Note: This instrument is scored negatively, e.g. the higher
the number wrong the lower is the teacher knowledge of stu-
dents.

 

 

198

PEER SOURCES OF HELP

 

 

'F-mustrsxxu'. a 1 ~ an. -_

 

School Code ' Peer Percentage
Number Total Sources Peer
1 2241 427 19.1
2 1041 258 24.8
3 1271 229 18.0
4 1831 354 _ 19.3
5 820 160 19.5
6 1817 421 23.2
7 1075 174 16.2
8 1240 196 15.8
9 2410 534 22.2
10 1031 217 21.0
11 671 112 16.7
12 1634 370 22.6
13 259 45 17.6
14 594 125 21.0
15 643 122 19.0
16 1812 334 18.4
17 2012 349 17.3
18 785 136 17.3-
19 530 66 12.4
20 2061 282 13.7
21 732 130 17.8
22 3364 632 18.8
23 2414 449 18.6
24 891 149 16.7
25 1649 328 19.9
26 1559 272 17.4
27 2476 519 21.0
28 1864 253 13.6
29 292 47 16.1
30 2275 361 15.8
31 959 186 19.4
32 1636 270 16.5
33 537 58 17.1
34 337 58 17.1
Total 46765 8716 ' 18.5

 

HigheHigh Group.Averages = 17.5
High-Low Group Averages 8 17.2
Low-High Group Averages 8 20.1
Low-Low Group Averages = 18.5

SOURCES OF BEST KNOWN STUDENTS

199

 

 

 

School
Code Number Number Percentage
Number Out In Out
1 20 80 20.0
2 8 32 20.0
3 2O 50 28.6
4 10 57 14.9
5 13 21 38.2
6 26 37 40.6
7 ll 55 11.7
8 12 42 22.2
9 20 46 30.3
10 13 29 31.0
11 21 22 48.8
12 19 36 34.5
13 10 14 41.7
14 12 8 60.0
15 15 5 75.0
16 17 43 28.3
17 13 57 18.6
18 5 25 16.7
19 13 17 43.3
20 9 51 15.0
21 9 51 15.0
22 17 88 16.2
23 16 59 21.3
24 10 24 29.4
25 23 ~42 35.4
26 24 . 25 49.0
27 32 .50 39.0
28 21 55 ‘ 27.6
29 16 412 57.1
30 25 55 31.3
31 15 30 33.3
32 20 62 24.4
33 19 44 30.2
34 7 12 36.8
Total 555 1334 29.4

 

High-High Group Average 9 28.7
High-Low Group Average = 23.4

Low-High Group.Average = 31.2

Low-Low Group Average = 40.5

 

200

APPENDIX G

OCCUPATIONAL ASP IRATIONS DATA

 

 

 

 

 

201
OCCUPATIONAL.ASPIRATIONS DATA
School Sum. Number
Code of of
Number OAS Scores Students Average
1 9647 247 39.1
2 5366 ' 131 41:0
3 4697 114 41:2
4 7485 178 42:1
5 2544 65 39:1
6 8627 206 41:9
7 2564 61 42:0
8 2881 75 38:4
9 4140 94 44:0
10 7485 184 40:7
11 3831 93 41:2
12 6124 154 40:0
13 3358 86 39:0
14 3073 . 81 37:9
15 2112 51 41:4
16 5091 130 39:2
17 7955 195 40.8
18 3248 81 40(1
19 2249 52 43:2
20 4649 111 41:9
21 2279 . 59 38:6
22 8912 216 41.3
23 5057 129 39:2
24 537 11 . 48:8
25 10704 287 ' 37.3
26 4789 131 36.6
27 11461 264 43.4
28 5144 131 39.3
29 940 20 47:0
30 6869 171 40:2
31 5081 121 42.0
32 7196 184 39:1
33 2023 54 37.4
34 1832 48 38.1
Total - 169950 4215 40.3

 

HighFHigh Group Average = 42.5
High-Low Group Average 8 40.1
Low-High Group Average = 40.9
Low-Low Group.Average = 38.0
Variance 8 122.4

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